[
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed\n                       POISONOUS SNAKES OF KANSAS\n                         Department of Biology\n                Kansas State Teachers College of Emporia\n                     _THE KANSAS SCHOOL NATURALIST_\n              The Kansas State Teachers College of Emporia\n                    The Department of Biology, with\n              the cooperation of the Division of Education\n                       _Editor_: John Breukelman\n                         Department of Biology\n    _Editorial Committee_: Ina M. Borman, Robert F. Clarke, Helen M.\n       Douglass, Gilbert A. Leisman, Carl W. Prophet, Dixon Smith\nBecause of the greatly increased cost, due to the color plates, no free\ncopies of this issue will be available. Extra copies may be obtained for\n25 cents each, postpaid. Send orders to _The Kansas School Naturalist_,\nDepartment of Biology, State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas.\n_The Kansas School Naturalist_ is sent upon request, free of charge, to\nKansas teachers and others interested in nature education.\n_The Kansas School Naturalist_ is published in October, December,\nFebruary, and April of each year by The Kansas State Teachers College,\nTwelfth Avenue and Commercial Street, Emporia, Kansas. Second-class mail\nprivileges authorized at Emporia, Kansas.\n                       Poisonous Snakes of Kansas\nMany persons either do not know anything at all about the poisonous\nsnakes of our state or have a distorted group of misconceptions\nconcerning them. These misconceptions run from plain misknowledge about\nthe range or identification of poisonous snakes to fancifully elaborate\nstories in which there may or may not be the barest thread of fact.\nThe prime reason that every person should know the poisonous snakes of\nhis region by sight and know something about their habits, distribution,\nand abundance is that it will ease the mind of the average individual in\nall of his outdoor pursuits. Most persons have heard so many false\nstories about snakes that they develop a fear of _all_ snakes. _This\nfear is unfounded!_ A person who knows what poisonous snakes he can\nexpect to encounter in a given area need only learn to identify these\nand realize that _all other snakes_, _lizards_, _frogs_, _toads_,\n_salamanders_, and _turtles_ do not have a poisonous bite, and,\ntherefore, he need not fear them. With a knowledge of the poisonous\nsnakes, a person can avoid places where these snakes might be found.\nAnother aspect is the _conservation_ of snakes. Too many people kill\nsnakes just because they happen to be snakes. This is uncalled for\ndestruction\u2014a non-poisonous snake should no more be killed than a song\nbird. In many cases, the harmless snakes are of direct economic value.\nIn general, all snakes are similar in habits. In Kansas, they retire for\nthe winter in places where the temperature will not get below the\nfreezing point. These may be in rocky ledges, beneath the soil, below\nthe roots of trees, or in protected places of human design, such as\ngrain bins, cisterns, cellars, and silos. With the warm days of spring,\nthe snakes emerge from their winter quarters and set about finding food\nand mates. After mating, the sexes separate and each individual snake\ngoes its own way to forage for food for the rest of the year. Some\nsnakes lay eggs and others produce the young alive. There is about an\neven division of these types in Kansas. The king snakes, rat snakes,\nbull snakes, racers, and many smaller snakes lay eggs in early summer.\nThese eggs are deposited in a spot suitable for hatching, generally\nbeneath a rock or in the soil. When they hatch, the young fend for\nthemselves. In Kansas, water snakes, garter snakes, poisonous snakes,\nand some smaller snakes give birth to living young in late summer or\nearly fall. Again, the young are on their own after birth. With the\ncoming of cooler weather the snakes leave their summer feeding grounds\nand travel to places where they will hibernate for the winter.\nMYTHS: Probably no other group of animals has had the variety and\nexpanse of tall tales credited to them as have the snakes. As the\nstories go, there are snakes that can put their tails in their mouths\nand roll downhill hoop-like, snakes that are capable of milking cows\ndry, snakes that fly into pieces when struck and later reassemble into\nwhole snakes again, snakes that charm their prey, and others too\nnumerous to mention here. Some of these tales deal specifically with the\npoisonous power of snakes or with snakes that are venomous. There is the\n\u201cBlow viper,\u201d whose very breath is poisonous! The butt of this fable is\nthe utterly harmless hog-nosed snake, pictured on Page 13. Many persons\nthink that the poisonous \u201cfang\u201d of a snake is the structure which is\nfrequently flicked in and out of the snake\u2019s mouth. This is really its\ntongue, and is present in _all_ snakes. The \u201cfang\u201d is an enlarged tooth\nin the upper jaw (see diagram, page 5). Four of the many untruths about\npoisonous snakes are (1) rattlesnakes cannot cross a horsehair\nrope\u2014_they can_! (2) cottonmouth water moccasins cannot bite under\nwater\u2014_they can_! (3) rattlesnakes always rattle before they strike\u2014_not\nalways_! (4) the rattles present on the tail of a rattlesnake indicate\nthe snake\u2019s age\u2014_no_, a new segment is added each time that the skin is\nshed, which may occur several times during a year.\nFOOD: Most of the adult poisonous snakes of Kansas consume only\nwarm-blooded prey, consisting primarily of small rodents: white-footed\nmice, shrews, voles, and cotton rats in the fields, and house mice and\nrats about human habitations. Small birds and young rabbits may be\ntaken, as well as occasional lizards and insects. The copperhead is more\ninsectivorous than the rattlesnakes, and the cottonmouth feeds upon\nother creatures that inhabit the edges of waterways.\nThe poison of venomous snakes is not only a defensive mechanism, but\nalso a highly efficient food-getting device. Whereas some of the snakes\nstrike and hold the prey within their jaws until the poison has rendered\nit helpless, others only strike and follow the trail to where the victim\nfalls.\nIn feeding, the snake does not chew its food, but swallows it whole. The\njaws are wonderfully adapted for this purpose, having the bones on each\nside of the jaws attached to their mates on the other side by an elastic\nligament, and the upper and lower jaws also joined by such an\nattachment. This allows the jaws to be spread apart and lowered, making\nan opening capable of taking in a food item actually larger in diameter\nthan the snake! The teeth of both the upper and lower jaws are recurved,\npointing inward, and as each section of the jaw can work independently,\none side secures its grip while the other side moves forward. Thus, the\nsnake actually crawls around its food.\nABUNDANCE: The non-poisonous snakes far outnumber the poisonous kinds,\nboth in number of species and individuals. In the United States, there\nare approximately 95 species of non-poisonous snakes and only 19 species\nof poisonous ones, including 15 rattlesnakes, one copperhead, one\ncottonmouth, and two coral snakes. In Kansas, there are six species of\npoisonous snakes (two should hardly be counted) and 34 species of\nnon-poisonous snakes. Many of the non-poisonous species are common and\nwidespread. It is far more probable that any snake seen is non-poisonous\nthan poisonous.\nSNAKE BITE: Venom is secreted from glands within the head, on each side\nbehind the eyes, causing the swollen appearance of the head in this\nregion. The venom travels through ducts to each of the two fangs. The\nfangs are enlarged teeth in the front of the upper jaw. They are hollow,\nwith one end connected to the poison duct and the other end having an\nopening on the front edge near the tip. The fangs are also fastened to a\nmoveable bone, which enables the fangs to be folded back against the\nupper jaw when the mouth is shut and erected and directed forward when\nthe mouth is opened to strike. The power of a strike imbeds the fangs\ninto the skin of the victim, and muscles force venom from the glands\nthrough the duct and hollow fang and out of the opening at the tip. The\nvenom causes a breakdown of the red blood corpuscles and walls of blood\nvessels. It also has an effect upon the nervous system. Some snakes have\nvenom which is much more destructive to the nervous system. The pit\nvipers have venom which is more _hemotoxic_ (destructive to blood),\nwhereas the coral snake, which belongs to the cobra group, has a venom\nwhich is _neurotoxic_ (destructive to nerves).\nThe venom is yellowish and somewhat \u201cthicker\u201d than water. The amount of\npoison ejected at any one strike varies from a part of a drop to 2 cubic\ncentimeters, depending upon size and kind of snake, and time elapsed\nsince last venom ejection. Various factors influence the amount of venom\nwhich is injected into the victim, i.e., smaller snakes have smaller\nfangs and less venom; strikes through clothing or footwear are less\neffective.\nIt has been estimated that there are fewer than 50 deaths due to snake\nbite in the United States in a year; most of these bites result from\nimprudent handling of venomous serpents. There has been no survey of\nsnakebite in Kansas, but few deaths are reported annually. At times\nseveral years have elapsed without any deaths being reported. Most\nvictims are less than 20 years of age and most bites occur on the hands,\nfeet, arms, or legs.\nIt should be stressed that poisonous snakes cannot be made harmless by\nremoving the fangs. The poison glands and ducts remain and other teeth\ncan still scratch the skin, allowing entrance of the venom. Also,\n\u201creserve\u201d fangs are normally present. These are immature fangs lying\nalong the upper jaw bone. At intervals a reserve fang grows down beside\na fang which has been used for some time. The old fang is shed and a new\nsharp \u201chypodermic needle\u201d is in position. Thus, snakes are sometimes\nfound with three or four fangs.\n    [Illustration: Skulls]\n    DUCT\n    POISON GLAND\n    FANG\n    SHEATH\n    TONGUE\n  SKULLS\n    NON-POISONOUS\n    POISONOUS\n      REPLACEMENT FANGS\nSnake venom is used to manufacture _antivenin_, which is injected into\nsnakebite victims to help counteract the effects of the poison. The\nvenom is injected in graduated doses into horses, which build up an\nimmunity to the venom. Blood is withdrawn from the horse and the serum\nis processed to produce antivenin.\n      How To Tell A Poisonous From A Non-Poisonous Snake In Kansas\nThe features given here apply only to Kansas snakes and may not be\napplicable elsewhere. Even in Kansas, there are some non-poisonous\nsnakes which exhibit either the tail or eye characteristics given for\npoisonous snakes, but none have the pit. It probably need not be pointed\nout that these features can be seen only when the snake can be examined\nclosely. Certainly, every snake should not be picked up to look for\nthese characteristics! A warning is necessary at this point\u2014reflex\naction can cause an apparently \u201cdead\u201d snake to bite, so do not handle\n\u201cdead\u201d snakes with the hands; use a stick. The best way to be able to\nidentify a poisonous snake is to know _all_ of the venomous snakes of\nyour region by sight. Color and pattern are distinctive and are easily\nlearned.\n    [Illustration: POISONOUS]\n  1. Pupil of eye elliptical (cat-like)\n  2. Pit between eye and nostril\n  3. Two enlarged teeth (fangs) in front of the upper jaw\n  4. Scales on underside of tail in a single row\n    [Illustration: NON-POISONOUS]\n  1. Pupil of eye round\n  2. No pit between eye and nostril\n  3. All teeth of upper jaw approximately same size\n  4. Scales on underside of tail in a double row\n                     Key To Kansas Poisonous Snakes\n  I. No rattle or button on end of tail.\n    1. Color pink-brown to red-brown with 10-20 light-edged crossbands\n          on body, narrow on top and wider at lower side. Dark spot\n          coinciding with and between each crossband at lower edge of\n          side. Top of head copper-colored\u2014COPPERHEAD, (page 7).\n    2. Always in vicinity of water. Pattern generally obscured by dark\n          grey or black. If pattern is obvious, crossbands not narrow on\n          mid-back and top of head not copper-colored (Note: extremely\n          restricted range in Kansas)\u2014COTTONMOUTH (page 7).\n  II. End of tail provided with a button or rattles.\n    1. Top of head provided with paired plates, (see diagram), dark\n          colored, small size, MASSASAUGA (page 10).\n    2. Top of head covered with numerous small scales; no paired plates.\n      (a) tail pattern alternating black and chalk white bands\u2014WESTERN\n          DIAMOND-BACK RATTLER (page 10).\n      (b) tail pattern same as rest of body\u2014PRAIRIE RATTLER (page 11).\n      (c) tail entirely velvety black\u2014TIMBER RATTLER (page 11).\n    [Illustration: TAIL TIPS]\n  TAIL TIPS\n    NONE\n    BUTTON\n    RATTLE\n  HEAD\n    MASSASAUGA\n    OTHER RATTLERS\n  TAILS OF RATTLERS\n    WESTERN DIAMOND-BACK\n    TIMBER\n    PRAIRIE\nCOPPERHEAD (_Agkistrodon contortrix_). Length usually 2-3 feet. Common\nwhere it occurs, the copperhead is probably the most abundant poisonous\nsnake in eastern Kansas. It is most frequently found in the vicinity of\nrocky ledges in oak-hickory-walnut woods, but it ranges widely, so that\nindividuals may be found in almost any habitat during summer months.\nAlthough generally nocturnal during most of its active season, its habit\nof lying in the open during the daytime among dried leaves in patches of\nsunlight and shadow causes the pattern to blend perfectly with the\nbackground. Any hiker through this habitat should be alert. Because of\nthe rather small size, usually inoffensive disposition, and the low\ntoxicity of its venom this snake should be placed on the non-fatal list\nfor adults. Elderly persons, those in poor health, or small children\ncould find the copperhead bite fatal, however.\n    [Illustration: Map]\nA subspecies of the copperhead occurs along the southern border of\nKansas. In this form, the crossbands are wider along the mid-line than\nthe more northern variety.\nYoung copperheads have a sulfur-yellow tail. This color is lost as the\nsnake matures. It is thought that this contrasting tail color is used as\na lure to bring prey within striking distance of the small snake. The\nyoung are born in August or September. There may be from two to ten in a\nlitter.\nCOTTONMOUTH (_Agkistrodon piscivorus_). Length 3-4 feet. The poisonous\nwater moccasin has been taken only once in Kansas. This was on the\nNeosho River in Labette County at the Cherokee County line. It is on the\nbasis of this single specimen that it is counted as one of the snakes of\nKansas! The many general reports of water moccasins in Kansas refer to\nthe mistaken identification of the harmless water snakes that are common\nthroughout most of the state (see page 12). Young cottonmonths are\npatterned quite like a wide-banded copperhead, but the colors are not so\nreddish. These snakes are always found in the vicinity of water. When\napproached they quite often hold their ground and open their mouths\nwidely, revealing the white lining of the mouth, a habit which gives\nthem their common name. This heavy-bodied snake is dangerously poisonous\nand, contrary to popular belief, can bite underwater.\n    [Illustration: Map]\nWhereas the copperhead is a rather mild-mannered snake, the cottonmouth\nhas a vicious disposition. Although nocturnal, it likes to sun-bathe,\nand it is frequently seen basking along shorelines, stretched out on low\nbranches or upon the bank. Where this snake occurs, it is usually\ncommon.\nGenerally, eight or nine young are born in August or September, although\nthe number of young may range from five to fifteen. Like the copperhead,\nthe young have a yellow tail tip.\n    [Illustration: COPPERHEAD]\n    [Illustration: COTTONMOUTH]\n    [Illustration: MASSASAUGA]\n    [Illustration: WESTERN DIAMOND-BACK]\n    [Illustration: TIMBER RATTLER]\n    [Illustration: PRAIRIE RATTLER]\nMASSASAUGA (_Sistrurus catenatus_). Length 24-27 inches. This snake\nbelongs to a group of small rattlesnakes called \u201cground\u201d or \u201cpygmy\u201d\nrattlers, which are differentiated from the larger rattlers by having\npaired scales on top of the head, as have the copperhead, cottonmouth,\nand non-poisonous snakes. The massasauga occurs in open fields and rocky\noutcroppings. It is particularly common in the Flint Hills. This is the\n\u201cprairie rattler\u201d of eastern Kansas, often found under hay bales in\nfields. Its food consists primarily of small rodents. The small size and\nusually docile disposition of this snake tend to place it upon the\nnon-dangerous list, but its venom is extremely toxic, and _any_ bite\nfrom a poisonous snake is dangerous. When aroused, these small snakes\nstrike with a fury not seen in the larger snakes. The rattling of this\nsmall snake is hardly louder than the buzz of a grasshopper.\n    [Illustration: Map]\nThe name \u201cmassasauga\u201d is an Indian term, meaning \u201cswamp dweller,\u201d a\nhabitat preference which is evidenced more in the states to the\nnortheast of Kansas.\nTwo subspecies occur in Kansas. In the eastern part of the state is the\nform that occurs eastward of Kansas, characterized by the dark belly;\nthe lighter-bellied form extends westward from eastern Kansas into\nstates to the southwest.\nAbout eight or nine young are born, usually in August or September.\nWESTERN DIAMOND-BACKED RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus atrox_). Length 4-5 feet,\nalthough some are larger. In the United States, probably more deaths are\ncaused by this snake than by any other. A combination of large size,\nwide distribution, abundance, and touchy temperament give this\ndistinction to this snake. It is hardly a member of the Kansas snake\nfauna, having been found only twice in the state, both times in the\nsoutheastern corner. It should occur, although presently unrecorded, in\nsouth-central Kansas along the Oklahoma line. It is rather common in\nOklahoma, just south of this region. The diamond-back prefers dry open\nplains and canyons, where it feeds upon small rodents, young rabbits,\nand occasionally, birds. The ground color varies somewhat from buff to\ngray; the snake generally has a faded appearance. The black and white\ntail bands are distinctive.\n    [Illustration: Map]\nAbout ten young are born in late summer or early fall. Larger litters\nhave been recorded. The young are fully capable of inflicting a\ndangerous bite as soon as they are born\u2014and quite willing to do so!\nIn northern Oklahoma, an annual rattlesnake roundup is held, in which\nseveral hundred diamond-backs are captured. These are processed for\ntheir venom, from which antitoxin is made. Some of the rattlesnakes are\ncooked and their steaks used in a banquet. The meat is firm and quite\ntasty!\nTIMBER RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus horridus_). Length 3-4 feet, occasionally\nlonger. The timber rattler occurs only in eastern Kansas and is only\nlocally common, at scattered localities. It prefers the deciduous forest\nwhere limestone rock outcrops as ledges, but may wander into cultivated\nfields and open areas during late spring and summer. The food consists\nprimarily of small rodents and young rabbits. Ordinarily, it is a\nmild-mannered snake, one which will seek to escape direct contact with\nman, but its size and habit of living close to human habitations\nnecessitate considering this rattler dangerous. Ground color may vary\nfrom a light gray to yellow, with the black chevron-shaped blotches of\nthe back uniting with lateral blotches to form crossbands. Another\ncommon name for the timber rattler is _banded rattlesnake_. Some\nindividuals may be almost _all_ black. The tail is characteristically\nvelvet black in adults; banded in young.\n    [Illustration: Map]\nDuring late spring and summer the timber rattler is quite often\nencountered crossing roads, where its large size and slow movement often\nmake it a victim of modern transportation.\nThe timber rattler has a habit of frequently spending daylight time just\nbeneath the edge of overhanging rocks. A hiker should always look\nbeneath any rocks of this sort before using the rock as a resting place.\nPRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus viridis_). Length 3-4 feet. This\nrattlesnake is common in western Kansas, where it frequents rocky open\nregions, grassy prairies, and agricultural areas. In eastern Kansas it\nhas been found only in the Pittsburg vicinity, and any \u201cprairie rattler\u201d\neast of Wichita or Manhattan is usually the massasauga. The habit of\ndenning in large groups is well-known. Several hundred have been found\nin hibernation in a single den. The food of the prairie rattler is\nwarm-blooded, mostly rodents and small rabbits. It appears to be active\nin the daytime, whereas the other poisonous snakes are mainly nocturnal.\nThe ground color varies from a light gray to green, and the pattern of\ndorsal blotches with alternating rows of lateral blotches may cause it\nto be confused with the smaller massasauga, but the scales on top of the\nhead are all small on the prairie rattler, whereas paired plates are\npresent on the massasauga (see diagram, page 6).\n    [Illustration: Map]\nYoung are born in late summer or early fall. Usually nine to twelve\nconstitute a litter. As few as five and as many as seventeen have been\nrecorded, however.\nIt has been found that any one female prairie rattler gives birth to a\nlitter of young every other year. These young are generally about twelve\ninches in length.\nThis snake has a wide range over western United States, where it is\nprobably the most common rattlesnake. It is frequently found in prairie\ndog villages. The burrows of these animals are utilized as shelter and\nthe young are used as food items.\n                      Some Common Harmless Snakes\nThe following six snakes are representative of the harmless snakes\ncommonly and incorrectly thought to be poisonous by the general public.\n1. HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Length 2-2\u00bd feet. This is the \u201cblow viper,\u201d\n\u201cspreadhead viper,\u201d \u201cspreading adder,\u201d or other equally ill-named snake\nusually found in dry sandy areas. It has a threatening defensive bluff\nwhich consists of spreading the fore part of the body cobra-like,\nhissing and striking (but with mouth closed). Failing to intimidate its\nopponent, the snake will contort its body convulsively and roll onto its\nback\u2014apparently dead. It will remain inert unless rolled over onto its\nstomach; then it will roll onto its back again\u2014the only proper attitude\nfor a dead snake!\n2. BLUE RACER. Length 3-4 feet. Many stories are told about this snake\nattacking persons. It is doubted that most are true interpretations of\nfact. These rapid-moving snakes may come at a person who is in line with\nthe snake\u2019s preconceived idea of an escape route. Upon capture, most\nblue racers will bite, but they are definitely non-poisonous. These\nsnakes feed mostly upon small rodents. The color varies in individuals\nfrom blue-green to olive or olive-brown; underside is yellow.\n3. COMMON WATER SNAKE. Length 2-3 feet. This snake and the\nyellow-bellied water snake, of very similar appearance, are the most\noften noted snakes along creeks, rivers, lakes, and ponds. These are\nusually the \u201cmoccasins\u201d that frighten persons near water. Entirely\nharmless, but with a vicious disposition, these snakes feed upon small\nfish, frogs, and other creatures that inhabit their neighborhood.\n4. DIAMOND-BACKED WATER SNAKE. Length 3 feet. Heavy body, dark\nappearance, and mean disposition give this particular snake a bad\nreputation. More than any other Kansas snake, this one gives rise to\nstories of the poisonous cottonmouth being distributed throughout\neastern and southern portions of the state. It is always found in the\nvicinity of water and feeds upon creatures it finds there.\n5. PILOT BLACK SNAKE. Length 5-6 feet. Also more properly called the\nblack rat snake, a descriptive title which is particularly apt.\nOccasionally, this large snake may find where hen eggs are available and\nbecome a nuisance in the hen house, but the wise farmer who allows one\nof these snakes to stay around the barn and corncrib will reap dividends\nfrom the destruction wrought upon the rodent population. This snake is a\nmuch better mouser than any cat!\n6. RED MILK SNAKE. Length 2-3 feet. A beautiful jewel of a snake, this\nsmall creature has been credited with the ability to milk a cow dry!\nSuch a feat is impossible for a number of reasons. This reputation was\nacquired because this snake was frequently found in barns, where it had\ngone in search of mice, a favorite food item. The color pattern might be\nconfused with that of the poisonous coral snake (not found in Kansas).\nIn the coral snake, however, the red and yellow rings are adjacent.\n    [Illustration: HOG-NOSED SNAKE]\n    [Illustration: BLUE RACER]\n    [Illustration: PILOT BLACKSNAKE]\n    [Illustration: COMMON WATER SNAKE]\n    [Illustration: DIAMOND-BACKED WATER SNAKE]\n    [Illustration: RED MILK SNAKE]\n                        Treatment of Snake Bite\nIf possible, determine definitely if the snake is poisonous. If it is\nnot, no treatment is necessary other than application of an antiseptic.\nIf the snake is poisonous, typical symptoms will appear rapidly: bruised\nappearance at bite, noticeable swelling, and intense pain. Later, the\nvictim may become nauseated and may even faint. The important thing to\ndo is to get to a doctor or a hospital as soon as possible. In the\nmeantime, the following measures should be taken to retard the spread of\nthe venom.\n  1. Place tourniquet between bite and body. Use handkerchief, tie, or\n  any other handy cloth. Tie loosely around arm, place stick in slack\n  part and twist. (Fig. A) Tourniquet should not be too tight. Should be\n  able to push finger under it. Loosen for a minute every 15 minutes. If\n  bitten on hand or lower arm, be sure to remove any rings, bracelets,\n  or watches.\n    [Illustration: A]\n  2. Sterilize a knife or razor blade, using a match, and make a cut\n  through each fang puncture \u00bc inch deep and \u00bd inch long, parallel to\n  limb. (Fig. B).\n    [Illustration: B]\n  3. Apply suction to cuts, using either the cup from a snake-bite kit\n  or the mouth, if there are no sores, cracked lips, or bleeding gums.\n  Continue suction for several minutes. (Fig. C).\n    [Illustration: C]\n  4. As swelling progresses up limb, tourniquet should be moved ahead of\n  swelling and additional cuts and suction should be made at edge of\n  swelling. (Fig. D).\n    [Illustration: D]\n  5. A wet compress should be applied over all cuts to encourage\n  bleeding. (Fig. E).\n    [Illustration: E]\nUpon arrival at doctor\u2019s or hospital, antivenom may be injected after\nthe determination for serum sensitivity. Antivenin may be administered\nby a person other than a doctor, but this is recommended only in cases\nwhere a doctor or hospital is not readily accessible.\nSnake bite kits are available at most drug stores and should be carried\nby persons or groups going into areas inhabited by poisonous snakes.\n  1. Don\u2019t step over logs. Step on top and _look_ before stepping down.\n  2. When climbing rocky ledges or turning over logs or rocks, don\u2019t\n          place hands where you can\u2019t see.\n  3. When walking among leaves, rocks, or grass, _look_ before you step.\n  4. Don\u2019t keep poisonous snakes.\n  5. Learn to recognize by sight the poisonous snakes of your region,\n          their habits and habitats.\nConant, Roger. 1958. _A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians._ 366\n      pages. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. $3.95.\nKlauber, Lawrence M. 1956. _Rattlesnakes: their habits, life histories,\n      and influences on mankind._ 2 vols. University of California\n      Press, Berkeley.\nMinton, Sherman A. _Snake-bite in the midwestern region._ Quarterly\n      Bulletin, Indiana University Medical Center, Vol. 14, No. 2.\nMinton, Sherman A. Snakebite. _Scientific American_, January 1957, Vol.\nOliver, James A. 1955. _The Natural History of North American Amphibians\n      and Reptiles._ 359 pages. D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, N. J.\nPope, Clifford H. 1955. _The Reptile World._ 325 pages. Alfred A. Knopf,\nPope, Clifford H. 1952. _Snakes Alive and How They Live._ 238 pages. The\n      Viking Press, N. Y.\nSchmidt, Karl P. and D. Dwight Davis. 1941. _Field Book of Snakes of the\n      United States and Canada._ G. P. Putnam\u2019s Sons, New York.\nSmith, Hobart M. 1956. _Handbook of Amphibians and Reptiles of Kansas._\n      356 pages. University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, $1.50.\nWerler, John E. 1950. The poisonous snakes of Texas and the first aid\n      treatment of their bites. _Texas Fish and Game_, February, 1950.\nWyeth, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa. _Antivenin_ (North American Antisnakebite\n      Serum). 15 pages.\nThe cover picture is a copperhead. This snake was photographed alive,\nbut somewhat anesthetized with ether, by Dr. John Breukelman and the\nauthor, using a single-lens reflex 35 mm. camera, type A Kodachrome film\nand two photofloods. The illustrations on page 14 were taken by these\nsame two, using a Polaroid Land camera, photofloods, and graduate\nstudent George Ratzlafl as victim. The line drawings and color\nillustrations were made by the author. The color plates of non-poisonous\nand poisonous snakes were painted in water colors, using live and\npreserved snakes as models. The original paintings have been reduced\none-half in this publication.\nPoisonous snakes are only one aspect of the study of herpetology, which\nincludes other reptiles, as well as amphibians. These together may be\nreferred to as herptiles. There are 97 species of herptiles in Kansas: 9\nsalamanders, 20 frogs and toads, 15 lizards, 40 snakes, and 13 turtles.\nThe turtles of Kansas have been described in a past issue of The Kansas\nSchool Naturalist (April, 1956), and an issue on the lizards of the\nstate is in preparation.\nOct. 1954, Window Nature Study; Dec. 1954, Wildlife in Winter; Feb.\n1955, Children\u2019s Books for Nature Study (First in a series): April 1955,\nLet\u2019s Go Outdoors; Oct. 1955, Fall Wildflowers; Dec. 1955, Snow; Feb.\n1956, Spring Wildflowers; April 1956, Turtles in Kansas; Oct. 1956,\nHawks in Kansas; Dec. 1956, Children\u2019s Books for Nature Study (Second in\nthe series); Feb. 1957, Life in a Pond; April 1957, Spiders; Oct. 1957,\nAlong the Roadside; Dec. 1957, An Outline for Conservation Teaching in\nKansas; Feb. 1958, Trees; April 1958, Summer Wildflowers; Oct. 1958,\nWatersheds in Kansas; Dec. 1958, Let\u2019s Build Equipment.\nThose printed in boldface type are still available upon request. The\nothers are out of print, but may be found in many school and public\nlibraries in Kansas.\n                       AUDUBON SCREEN TOUR SERIES\nThe Biology Department of the Kansas State Teachers College of Emporia\nis sponsoring its second _Audubon Screen Tour Series_ during the current\nschool year. This series consists of five all-color motion pictures of\nwildlife, scenics, plant science, and conservation, personally narrated\nby leading naturalists. Three of the five programs have been presented;\nthe other two will be given in Albert Taylor Hall at 8:00 p.m. on the\ndates listed below.\n  OLIN SEWALL PETTINGILL, JR., Penguin Summer, Monday, April 13.\n  WILLIAM FERGUSON, This Curious World in Nature, Friday, May 15.\nPlan to attend with some of your students. Family and single admission\ntickets are available. For additional information write to Carl Prophet,\nBiology Department, KSTC, Emporia.\n                        WORKSHOP IN CONSERVATION\nPlan now to attend the 1959 Workshop in Conservation, which will be a\npart of the 1959 Summer Session of the Kansas State Teachers College of\nEmporia, June 2 to 19, and June 22 to July 10, 1959.\nAs in the past several years, the Workshop will cover water, soil,\ngrassland, and wildlife conservation teaching. Such topics as geography\nand climate of Kansas, water resources, soil erosion problems and\ncontrol, grass as a resource, bird banding, wildflowers, conservation\nclubs, and conservation teaching in various grades will be discussed.\nThere will be lectures, demonstrations, discussion groups, films,\nslides, field trips, projects, and individual and group reports. You may\nenroll for undergraduate or graduate credit.\nAny interested person may enroll in the first section, enrollment in the\nsecond section is limited to those who have an established interest in\nconservation and some teaching experience.\nFee for first section (3 hours credit): Residents of Kansas, $22.95;\nnon-resident, $42.45\nFee for second section (1, 2, or 3 hours credit): Residents of Kansas,\n$7.65 per hour; non-resident, $14.15 per hour\nFor other information about the Workshop write Robert F. Clarke,\nDepartment of Biology, KSTC, Emporia, Kansas.\n                      The Kansas School Naturalist\n                   The Kansas State Teachers College\n                  Twelfth Avenue and Commercial Street\n                      Second-class mail privileges\n                     authorized at Emporia, Kansas\n\u2014Silently corrected a few typos.\n\u2014Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n  is public-domain in the country of publication.\n\u2014In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n  _underscores_.\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Poisonous Snakes of Kansas, by Robert F. 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{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Tom Cosmas and\nthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team at\nTeranscriber's Notes\n  To denote superscripts a carat (^) is used.\n  _Text_ - Italics\n  =Text= - Bold\n  UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS\n  MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY\n  Volume 7, No. 4, pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables\n  North American Jumping Mice\n  (Genus Zapus)\n  BY\n  PHILIP H. KRUTZSCH\n  UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS\n  LAWRENCE\n  UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY\n  Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard,\n  Robert W. Wilson\n  Volume 7, No. 4, pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables\n  Published April 21, 1954\n  UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS\n  LAWRENCE, KANSAS\n  PRINTED BY\n  FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER\n  TOPEKA, KANSAS\nNorth American Jumping Mice (Genus Zapus)\nby\nPhilip H. Krutzsch\nCONTENTS\n  Materials, Methods, and Acknowledgments                              352\n  Relationships, Distribution, and Speciation                          356\n  Annotated List of Specific and Subspecific Names                     369\n  Check-List of the Species and Subspecies of the Genus Zapus          382\n  Artificial Key to the Species of the Genus Zapus                     384\n  Systematic Accounts of Species and Subspecies                        385\nINTRODUCTION\nThe jumping mice (Genus _Zapus_) are widely distributed over northern\nNorth America, occurring as far north as the Arctic Circle and as far\nsouth as Georgia, Missouri, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and central\nCalifornia. In some years these small rodents are locally common in\nmoist places that are either grassy or weedy; the jumping mice are\nnotable for the much enlarged hind legs and the exceptionally long tail.\nMembers of the Genus as a whole have received no serious comprehensive\ntaxonomic attention in the 54 years since Preble's (1899) revisionary\nwork. In this time 15 new names have been proposed, mostly for\nsubspecies, and only a few attempts have been made at grouping related\nnamed kinds.\nIn the present account it is aimed to record what is known concerning\ngeographic distribution, taxonomically significant characters, and\ninterrelationships of the known kinds as well as to provide means for\nrecognizing the species and subspecies in the genus. In addition,\nattention is given to the probable center of origin of the subfamily\nZapodinae and to the relationships and taxonomic positions of the genera\n_Zapus_, _Napaeozapus_, and _Eozapus_.\nMATERIALS, METHODS, AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS\nThe present report is based on a study of approximately 3,600 specimens\nthat were assembled at the Museum of Natural History of the University\nof Kansas or that were examined at other institutions. Most of these\nspecimens are stuffed skins with skulls separate. Skulls without skins,\nskins without skulls, entire skeletons, and separately preserved bacula\nare included as a part of the total. Almost every specimen is\naccompanied by an attached label, which bears place and date of capture,\nname of collector, external measurements, and sex.\nSpecimens used in the study of geographic variation were arranged by\nseason of capture and according to geographic location; then they were\nsegregated as to sex, and, under each sex, by age. Next, individual\nvariation was measured in comparable samples of like age, sex, season,\nand geographic origin. Finally, comparable materials were arranged\ngeographically in order to determine variations of systematic\nsignificance.\nThe only external measurements used were total length, length of tail,\nand length of hind foot; these measurements were recorded by the\ncollectors on the labels attached to the skins. Height of the ear was\nnot used since it was not recorded by many of the collectors.\nIn order to determine which cranial structures showed the least\nindividual variation but at the same time showed substantial geographic\nvariation, a statistical analysis was made of the 30 measurements, of\ncranial structures, heretofore used in taxonomic work on _Zapus_. The\nfollowing measurements of the skull showed the least individual\nvariation but showed some geographic variation and therefore, were used\nin this study. See figs. 1-3 which show points between which\nmeasurements were taken:\n     _Occipitonasal length._--From anteriormost projection of nasal\n        bones to posteriormost projection of supraoccipital bone.\n     _Condylobasal length._--Least distance from a line connecting\n        posteriormost parts of exoccipital condyles to a line connecting\n        anteriormost projections of premaxillary bones. _b_ to _n_\n     _Palatal length._--From anterior border of upper incisors to\n        anteriormost point of postpalatal notch. _b_ to _b\u00b4_\n     _Incisive foramina, length._--From anteriormost point to\n        posteriormost point of incisive foramina. _c_ to _c\u00b4_\n     _Incisive foramina, breadth._--Greatest distance across incisive\n        foramina perpendicular to long axis of skull. _f_ to _f\u00b4_\n     _Zygomatic length._--From anteriormost point of zygomatic process\n        of maxillary to posteriormost point of zygomatic process of\n        squamosal. _d_ to _d\u00b4_\n     _Zygomatic breadth._--Greatest distance across zygomatic arches of\n        cranium at right angles to long axis of skull. _j_ to _j\u00b4_\n     _Breadth of inferior ramus of zygomatic process of\n        maxillary._--Greatest distance across inferior ramus of zygomatic\n        process of maxillary taken parallel to long axis of skull.\n     _Palatal breadth at M3._--Greatest distance from inside margin of\n        alveolus of right M3 to its opposite. _g_ to _g\u00b4_\n     _Palatal breadth at P4._--Same as above except taken at P4.\n     _Mastoid breadth._--Greatest distance across mastoid bones\n        perpendicular to long axis of skull. _h_ to _h\u00b4_\n     _Breadth of braincase._--Greatest distance across braincase taken\n        perpendicular to long axis of skull. _i_ to _i\u00b4_\n     _Interorbital breadth._--Least distance across top of skull between\n     _Length of maxillary tooth-row._--From anterior border of P4 to\n        posterior border of M3. _l_ to _l\u00b4_\n     _Breadth of base zygomatic process of squamosal._--Greatest\n        distance across base of zygomatic process of squamosal taken\n        parallel to long axis of skull. _m_ to _m\u00b4_\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 1-3. Three views of the skull to show points\n       between which measurements of the skull were taken. Based on\n       _Z. t. montanus_, adult, female, No. 22165 KU, Cascade Divide,\n       6400 ft., Crater Lake Nat'l Park, Klamath County, Oregon. \u00d7 4.]\nThe baculum has a characteristic size and shape according to the\nspecies, and the following significant measurements of the structure\nwere taken:\n_Greatest length._--From posteriormost border of base to anteriormost\npoint on tip.\n_Greatest breadth at base._--Greatest distance across base taken\nparallel to long axis of bone.\n_Greatest breadth at tip._--Greatest distance across tip taken parallel\nto long axis of bone.\nIn the descriptions of color the capitalized color terms refer to those\nin Ridgway (1912). Any color term that does not have the initial letter\ncapitalized does not refer to any one standard.\nIn the description of the subspecies the two sexes are treated as one\nbecause no significant secondary sexual variation was found. Only fully\nadult specimens of age groups 3 to 5, as defined on pages 377 and 388,\nhave been considered.\nUnless otherwise indicated, specimens are in the University of Kansas\nMuseum of Natural History. Those in other collections are identified by\nthe following abbreviations:\n  AMNH.         American Museum of Natural History.\n  CAS.          California Academy of Science.\n  CM.           Carnegie Museum.\n  Chic. AS.     Chicago Academy of Science.\n  Clev. MNH.    Cleveland Museum of Natural History.\n  LMH.          Collection of Lawrence M. Huey.\n  JKJ.          Collection of J. Knox Jones, Jr.\n  CMNH.         Colorado Museum of Natural History.\n  FM.           Chicago Museum of Natural History.\n  HM.           Hastings Museum, Hastings, Nebraska.\n  ISC.          Iowa State College.\n  MCZ.          Museum of Comparative Zoology.\n  MO.           University of Missouri Museum of Zoology.\n  MVZ.          Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, Calif.\n  NMC.          National Museum of Canada.\n  NGFP.         Nebraska Game, Forestation, and Parks Commission.\n  NCS.          North Carolina State College.\n  OHIO.         Ohio Wildlife Research Unit, Ohio State University.\n  OKLA.         Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College.\n  PM.           Provincial Museum of British Columbia.\n  ROM.          Royal Ontario Museum of Zoology.\n  SDM.          San Diego Natural History Museum.\n  SITC.         Southern Illinois Teachers College.\n  USBS.         United States Biological Surveys Collection.\n  USNM.         United States National Museum.\n  UCM.          University of Colorado Museum.\n  UIM.          University of Illinois Museum of Natural History.\n  UM.           University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.\n  UU.           University of Utah Museum of Zoology.\nThe species are arranged from least to most progressive, and the\nsubspecies are arranged alphabetically.\nThe synonymy for each subspecies includes first a citation to the\nearliest available name then one citation to each name combination that\nhas been applied to the subspecies and, finally, any other especially\nimportant references.\nMarginal records of occurrence for each subspecies are shown on the maps\nby means of hollow circles and these localities are listed in clockwise\norder beginning with the northernmost locality. If more than one of\nthese localities lies on the line of latitude that is northernmost for a\ngiven subspecies the western-most of these is recorded first. Marginal\nlocalities have been cited in a separate paragraph at the end of the\nsection on specimens examined in the account of a subspecies. Localities\nthat are not marginal are shown on the maps by solid black circles.\nLocalities that could not be represented on the distribution map because\nof undue crowding or overlapping of symbols are italicized in the lists\nof specimens examined and in the lists of marginal records.\nThe localities of capture of specimens examined are recorded\nalphabetically by state or province, and then by county in each state or\nprovince. Within a county the specimens are recorded geographically from\nnorth to south. The word \"County\" is written out in full when the name\nof the county is written on the label of each specimen listed for that\ncounty, but the abbreviation \"Co.\" is used when one specimen or more\nhere assigned to a given county lacks the name of the county on the\nlabel.\nThe following account has been made possible only by the kindness and\ncooperation of those persons in charge of the collections listed above.\nFor the privilege of using the specimens in their care I am deeply\ngrateful, as I am also to Prof. A. Byron Leonard for assistance with\nfigures 35-37, to Dr. Rufus Thompson for figures 16-21, and to Mr.\nVictor Hogg who made all of the other illustrations. My wife, Dorothy\nKrutzsch, helped untiringly in assembling data, in typing the\nmanuscript, and gave me continued encouragement. Finally, I am grateful\nto Professor E. Raymond Hall for guidance in the study and critical\nassistance in the preparation of the manuscript and to Professors Rollin\nH. Baker, Robert W. Wilson, and Robert E. Beer for valued suggestions.\nPALEONTOLOGY OF THE GENUS\nThe fossil record of the genus _Zapus_ is scanty. All of the known\nfossils of it are lower jaws of Pleistocene Age. The Recent species _Z.\nhudsonius_ was recorded by Cope (1871:86) in the Port Kennedy Cave fauna\n(pre-Wisconsinian) of Pennsylvania. Gidley and Gazin (1938:67) reported\na single mandibular ramus bearing m1-m3 recovered from the Cumberland\nCave (pre-Wisconsinian) of Maryland. The teeth are not typical of modern\n_Zapus_ in that m1 and m2 are shorter crowned and m1 has a longer\nanterior lobe. Gidley and Gazin, nevertheless, considered their material\ninsufficient for establishing a new species.\nTwo extinct species have been described: _Zapus burti_ Hibbard\n(1941:215) from the Crooked Creek formation (= Meade formation of the\nState Geological Survey of Kansas) mid-Pleistocene of Kansas and _Zapus\nrinkeri_ Hibbard (1951:351) from the Rexroad formation (= Blanco\nformation of the State Geological Survey of Kansas) of Blancan Age of\nKansas. Both species resemble _Zapus hudsonius_, but differ from it in\nbroader crowned more brachydont cheek-teeth. _Z. rinkeri_ differs from\n_Z. burti_ and _Z. hudsonius_ by a more robust ramus, broader molars,\nand three instead of two internal re-entrant valleys posterior to the\nanterior loop on m1. The three species _Z. rinkeri_, _Z. burti_, and _Z.\nhudsonius_ are in a structurally, as well as a geologically, progressive\nseries. The trend in dentition is from broad, brachydont cheek-teeth to\nnarrow, semi-hypsodont cheek-teeth.\nRELATIONSHIPS, DISTRIBUTION, AND SPECIATION\nRelationships in the Subfamily Zapodinae\nThe subfamily Zapodinae is known from Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits\nof North America and now occurs over much of northern North America and\nin Szechuan and Kansu, China. The living species occur among grasses and\nlow herbs in damp or marshy places both in forested areas and in plains\nareas.\nThe early Pliocene _Macrognathomys nanus_ Hall (1930:305), originally\ndescribed as a Cricetid, is actually a Zapodid as shown by the structure\nof the mandibular ramus, shape of the incisors, and occlusal pattern of\nthe cheek-teeth.\nIf _Macrognathomys_ can be considered a member of the subfamily\nZapodinae (possibly it is a sicistine) then it represents the oldest\nknown member of this subfamily. Judging from the published\nillustrations, _Macrognathomys_ seems to be structurally ancestral to\nthe Mid Pliocene _Pliozapus solus_ Wilson; the labial re-entrant folds\nare wider and shorter and on m2 and m3 fewer. The difference in stage of\nwear of the teeth in _Macrognathomys_ and _Pliozapus_ is a handicap in\ncomparing the two genera but they are distinct. Wilson (1936:32) points\nout that _Pliozapus_ clearly falls in the Zapodinae and stands in an\nancestral position with respect to the structurally progressive series\n_Eozapus_, _Zapus_, and _Napaeozapus_. Nevertheless, _Pliozapus_ cannot\nbe considered as directly ancestral to _Eozapus_ because of the\nprogressive features in the dentition of _Pliozapus_. Wilson (1937:52)\nremarked that if _Pliozapus_ is ancestral to _Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_,\nconsiderable evolution must have taken place in the height of crown and\nin the development of the complexity of the tooth pattern. In contrast\nto Wilson's opinion, Stehlin and Schaub (1951:313) placed _Pliozapus_\nand _Eozapus_ in the subfamily Sicistinae because certain elements in\nthe occlusal pattern of the cheek-teeth are similar. I disagree with\nthose authors and hold with Wilson; I consider _Pliozapus_ and _Eozapus_\nin the subfamily Zapodinae. In dental pattern _Pliozapus_, as Wilson\n(1936:32) pointed out, resembles the Recent Eurasiatic sicistid,\n_Sicista_ more than do _Zapus_ or _Napaeozapus_. Nevertheless, from\n_Sicista_ Wilson distinguishes _Pliozapus_ and relates it to the\nsubfamily Zapodinae by: \"more oblique direction of protoconid-hypoconid\nridge, anterior termination of this ridge at buccal portion of\nprotoconid rather than between protoconid and metaconid as in _Sicista_;\ncusps more compressed into lophs; cheek-teeth somewhat broader; greater\ndevelopment of metastylid; greater development of hypoconulid ridge, ...\nabsence of anteroconid....\"\n_Eozapus_ is more closely related to _Pliozapus_ than to either _Zapus_\nor _Napaeozapus_ (Wilson, 1936:32) but all four genera are in the\nsubfamily Zapodinae. Stehlin and Schaub (op. cit.:158 and 311) relate\n_Eozapus_ to the subfamily Sicistinae on the basis of similarity in the\nocclusal pattern of the cheek-teeth of _Eozapus_ and various sicistines.\nStehlin and Schaub do not consider other structures such as the elongate\nhind limbs, the shape of malleus and incus, and the shape of the\nbaculum, in which there is close resemblance to the Zapodinae. It is\nthese structural similarities as well as those, pointed out by Wilson\n(_loc. cit._), in dentition that leads me to place _Eozapus_ in the\nsubfamily Zapodinae. The early Pleistocene _Zapus rinkeri_ Hibbard shows\nthat the _Zapus_ stage of development had already been achieved perhaps\nas early as the late Pliocene. Hibbard (1951:352) thought that _Zapus\nrinkeri_ was not structurally intermediate between _Pliozapus_ and any\nRecent species of _Zapus_; although the teeth of _Z. rinkeri_ have the\nbroader, shallower, re-entrant folds of _Pliozapus_, these teeth are\nhigher crowned and have an occlusal pattern resembling that of the\nRecent species of _Zapus_. The middle Pleistocene species, _Zapus burti_\nHibbard, progressed essentially to the structural level of the Recent\n_Zapus hudsonius_, but the molars were more brachydont, broader crowned,\nand their enamel folds less crowded. Pleistocene material of\npre-Wisconsin age obtained from cave deposits in Pennsylvania and\nMaryland is most nearly like _Zapus hudsonius_. One such cave deposit in\nMaryland contained an example of the Recent genus _Napaeozapus_,\nindicating that its history dates from at least middle Pleistocene time.\nThe Asiatic Recent Genus, _Eozapus_, has not progressed much beyond the\nPliocene stage in zapidine evolution if _Pliozapus_ be taken as a\nstandard; the North American Recent Genus _Zapus_ essentially achieved\nits present form by early Pleistocene times, and the Recent Genus\n_Napaeozapus_ achieved its more progressive structure by middle\nPleistocene times.\nPerhaps _Pliozapus_ and _Eozapus_ represent one phyletic line and\n_Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ a second line, both of which lines evolved\nfrom a pre-zapidine stock in the Miocene. As mentioned earlier, Wilson\n(1936) thinks that _Pliozapus_ is not directly ancestral to _Eozapus_.\nPossibly these two genera diverged at an early date; nevertheless, they\nare closely related primitive forms.\n_Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ closely resemble each other and both are\nstructurally advanced; _Napaeozapus_ seems to have differentiated at a\nmore rapid rate.\nAccording to Simpson (1947), the occurrence of the same group of mammals\non two different land masses is to be taken as prima facie evidence that\nmigration has occurred. Keeping in mind then the present geographic\ndistribution, unspecialized condition of the dentition of _Eozapus_, and\nits resemblance to the extinct _Pliozapus_ known from North America but\nnot from Asia, it may be that _Eozapus_ descended from primitive stock\nof a North American jumping mouse that was forced to the periphery\n(across the Asiatic North American land bridge) by the more specialized\nzapidine stock.\nSubsequently or perhaps during the migration of the pre-_Eozapus_ stock\nthe zapidine stock may have dispersed transcontinentally, occupying most\nof northern North America. The unprogressive _Macrognathomys_ and\n_Pliozapus_ line which remained in North America may have become\nextinct. Any such period of dispersal and climatic equilibrium ended\nwhen glaciers came to cover most of the northern part of the continent\nand the mammals living there were forced southward by the ice or\nremained in ice-free refugia within the glaciated area. Later, with\nmelting and retreat of the ice, the jumping mice could have again spread\nenough to occupy the northern part of the continent. Such glaciation\nisolated segments of the population and aided their evolution into\ndistinct species.\nIf it be assumed, as Matthew (1915) did and as Hooper (1952:200) later\non the generic level did, that the region of origin and center of\ndispersal for a given group of animals is characterized by the presence\nof the most progressive forms, then southeastern Canada and the\nnortheastern United States make up the area of origin and center of\ndispersal in relatively late time of the subfamily Zapodinae. This area\nis inhabited by _Zapus hudsonius_ and _Napaeozapus_, the most\nprogressive members of the subfamily.\nAs I visualize it, the evolution of the Zapodinae occurred in two\nstages: the first stage involved the movement of the primitive\npre-_Eozapus_ stock to Asia and the second stage involved the dispersal,\nisolation, and specialization in North America of the more progressive\nbasic zapidine stock into the present genera _Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_.\nStatus of the genera _Eozapus_, _Zapus_, and _Napaeozapus_\nThe genus _Zapus_ is one of three living genera in the subfamily\nZapodinae. These genera _Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ from North America\nand _Eozapus_ from China have been variously considered as subgenera of\nthe genus _Zapus_ (Preble, 1899) or as three separate genera (Ellerman,\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 4-15. Three views of the skull and a lateral\n       view of the left lower jaw of each of the Recent genera of the\n       subfamily Zapodinae. \u00d7 1.5.\n    FIGS. 4-7. _Eozapus s. vicinus_, adult, male, No. 240762 USNM,\n       Lanchow, Kansu, China.\n    FIGS. 8-11. _Zapus h. pallidus_, adult, male, No. 240762 KU,\n       5-1/2 mi. N, 1-3/4 mi. E Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas.\n    FIGS. 12-15. _Napaeozapus i. insignis_, adult, male, No. 41109 KU,\n       Shutsburg Rd., at Roaring Creek, 600 ft., Franklin County,\n       Massachusetts.]\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 16-21. Occlusal views of upper and lower right\n       cheek-teeth, of the three Recent genera of the subfamily Zapodinae.\n    FIGS. 16 and 19. _Eozapus s. vicinus_, adult (age group 3), male,\n       No. 240762 USNM, Lanchow, Kansu, China.\n    FIGS. 17 and 20. _Zapus h. alascensis_, adult (age group 2), female,\n       No. 29073 KU, E side Chilkat River, 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines,\n       Alaska.\n    FIGS. 18 and 21. _Napaeozapus i. insignis_, adult (age group 3),\n       male, No. 41109 KU, Shutsburg Rd., at Roaring Creek, 600 ft.,\n       Franklin County, Massachusetts.\n    Note especially the variation in complexity of occlusal pattern,\n       width of re-entrant folds, and degree of tubercularity.]\nThe remarkable similarity of the body form, post-cranial skeleton,\nmandibular rami, and general structure of the cranium of _Zapus_,\n_Napaeozapus_, and _Eozapus_ indicate their relationship (see figs.\n4-15); however, dissimilarity between the groups in the dentition (tooth\nnumber and occlusal pattern), bacula, and ear ossicles provides basis\nfor considering them distinct genera. As pointed out earlier, _Zapus_\nand _Napaeozapus_ appear to be more closely related and progressive and\nthe Asiatic _Eozapus_ somewhat removed and less progressive.\n_Teeth._--According to the complexity in dental pattern and in number\nand size of the cheek-teeth, these genera can be arranged in a\nstructurally progressive series with _Eozapus_ showing the least\ncomplexity and _Napaeozapus_ the most (see figs. 16-21). There are three\ndistinct molar patterns; one is simple (_Eozapus_) and the others\n(_Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_) are more complex. The complexity is greatest\nin _Napaeozapus_, which is characterized by numerous additional flexures\nin the enamel and dentine. The simplicity of the molars of _Eozapus_ is\nevident in the tuberculate rather than flat-crowned occlusal surface;\nthe wide, simple, re-entrant bays; the small (or sometimes absent)\nanteroconid; and the essentially quadritubercular nature of the teeth.\nThe molars of _Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ are flat crowned; however,\n_Zapus_ has wider and fewer re-entrant bays, a smaller anteroconid, and\nless complexity in the occlusal pattern. The characteristics of the\nmolar teeth would tend to indicate a close relationship between _Zapus_\nand _Napaeozapus_ and to place _Eozapus_ as primitive.\nThe absence of P4 in _Napaeozapus_ would lead one to suspect that this\ngenus has evolved at a more rapid rate than the historically older\n_Zapus_ and _Eozapus_ which still retain this structure. The small size\nof P4, even in the primitive _Eozapus_, indicates that it has long been\nof little use to the mouse. An even greater reduction of P4 in the more\ncomplex dentition of _Zapus_ argues for complete loss of this tooth as\nthe next step in specialization, such as is seen in the more progressive\n_Napaeozapus_. The following parallel columns show selected differences\nbetween the occlusal patterns of the cheek-teeth of the three genera:\nBACULUM.--The baculum (os penis) of _Eozapus_ is known to me only from\nVinogradov's (1925) figures of the dorsal and lateral aspects. The\nproximal end (base) is laterally expanded, and the shaft tapers\ngradually toward the distal end where it expands abruptly into the\nspade-shaped tip. In lateral aspect the bone is relatively thick; it is\ncurved downward slightly from the proximal end to the base of the tip\nwhere it curves upward to a rounded point.\nThe baculum of _Zapus_ differs from that of _Eozapus_ as follows: base\nless expanded horizontally; shaft slenderer; distal end less\nspade-shaped except in _Z. trinotatus_. The tip is less expanded in _Z.\nprinceps_ and is still less so in _Z. hudsonius_. In _Napaeozapus_ the\ntip is lanceolate, the base is narrow, and in lateral view the shaft is\nslender and curved (see figs. 22-31).\n  M1--Four wide labial   |  Four moderately      |  Three narrow labial\n      re-entrant folds   |  narrow labial        |  re-entrant folds\n      of equal length;   |  re-entrant folds     |  of unequal length,\n      paracone and       |  of unequal length;   |  1st long, 2d and 3d\n      metacone largest   |  1st and 3d longer    |  shorter; paracone\n      cusps; anterior    |  than 2d, 4th         |  and metacone larger\n      cingulum large.    |  shortest; paracone   |  than in _Zapus_ and\n                         |  _Eozapus_; metacone  |  cingulum absent.\n  M2--Four wide labial   |  Four moderately      |  Narrow labial\n      re-entrant folds;  |  narrow labial        |  re-entrant folds,\n      2d short, others   |  re-entrant folds     |  variable in number,\n      of equal length    |  of unequal length,   |  often as many as 6;\n      but longer than    |  1st and 3d long,     |  anterior and\n      2d; anterior and   |  2d and 4th short;    |  posterior cingula\n      posterior cingula  |  anterior and         |  small; occlusal\n      large; occlusal    |  posterior cingula    |  pattern complex.\n      pattern simple.    |  moderately large;    |\n  M3--Three wide labial  |  Two moderately       |  Three narrow labial\n      re-entrant folds   |  narrow labial        |  re-entrant folds\n      of unequal length, |  re-entrant folds     |  of unequal length,\n      1st short, 2d and  |  of equal length;     |  1st long, 2d and\n      3d long; anterior  |  anterior and         |  3d short; anterior\n      and posterior      |  posterior cingula    |  and posterior\n      cingula low,       |  moderately large;    |  cingula large;\n      small; occlusal    |  occlusal pattern     |  occlusal pattern\n      pattern simple.    |  moderately complex.  |  complex.\n  m1--Anterior oblique   |  No anterior          |  No anterior\n      re-entrant fold    |  re-entrant fold; 4   |  re-entrant fold;\n      separating equal   |  moderately narrow    |  narrow lingual\n      sized protoconid   |  lingual re-entrant   |  re-entrant folds\n      and metaconid      |  folds of equal       |  variable in\n      cusps; 3 wide      |  length, 1st joining  |  number, often as\n      lingual re-entrant |  1st labial           |  many as 4;\n      folds of equal     |  re-entrant fold,     |   anteroconid well\n      length;            |  4th joining 2d       |  developed, encloses\n      anteroconid absent;|  labial re-entrant    |  1 or 2 small lakes;\n      occlusal pattern   |  fold; anteroconid    |  occlusal pattern\n      simple; mesoconid  |  well developed,      |  complex; mesoconid\n  m2--Four wide lingual  |  Four moderately      |  Narrow lingual\n      re-entrant folds   |  narrow lingual       |  re-entrant folds,\n      of unequal length, |  re-entrant folds,    |  variable in number,\n      1st short, other   |  1st and 2d long, 3d  |  may be as many as 5;\n      3 equal and long;  |  and 4th short, 1st   |  anteroconid large,\n      anteroconid        |  joins 1st labial     |  encloses\n      moderately large;  |  re-entrant fold      |  complex folds from\n      occlusal pattern   |  and 4th joins 2d     |  1st labial re-entrant\n      simple.            |  labial re-entrant    |  fold; occlusal\n                         |  fold; anteroconid    |  pattern complex.\n  m3--Three wide lingual |  Three moderately     |  Narrow lingual\n      re-entrant folds   |  narrow lingual       |  re-entrant\n      of near equal      |  re-entrant folds     |  folds variable in\n      length; antero-    |  of unequal length,   |  number, as many as 3;\n      conid absent;      |  1st and 2d long, 3d  |  anteroconid present;\n      occlusal pattern   |  short; anteroconid   |  occlusal pattern\n      simple; 1 labial   |  absent; occlusal     |  complex; 2 labial\n      re-entrant fold.   |  pattern moderately   |  re-entrant folds.\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 22-31. Dorsal and lateral views of the bacula\n       of the Recent genera (and species of the genus _Zapus_) of the\n       subfamily Zapodinae. \u00d7 10.\n    FIGS. 22 and 27. _Eozapus setchuanus_ (after Vinogradov, 1925:585).\n    FIGS. 23 and 28. _Zapus t. trinotatus_, adult, No. 94596 MVZ,\n       1-1/4 mi. ENE Amboy, 350 ft., Clark County, Washington.\n    FIGS. 24 and 29. _Zapus p. princeps_, adult, No. 20870 KU, 3 mi. S\n       Ward, Boulder County, Colorado.\n    FIGS. 25 and 30. _Zapus h. pallidus_, adult, No. 22954 KU, 4 mi. N,\n       1-3/4 mi. E Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas.\n    FIGS. 26 and 31. _Napaeozapus i. insignis_, adult, No. 41110 KU,\n       Shutsburg Rd., at Roaring Creek, 600 ft., Franklin County,\n       Massachusetts.]\nEAR OSSICLES.--The auditory ossicles are of three types which differ\nonly slightly. These ossicles possibly are more conservative than some\nother structures because the ossicles are not so much affected by the\nmolding influence of the environment.\nInstances of variation in the auditory region in mammals in general are\nsmall, even at the family level; therefore, these differences in the\nsubfamily Zapodinae are offered as additional support for recognizing\n_Eozapus_, _Zapus_, and _Napaeozapus_ as distinct genera. The\ndistinctive features are chiefly in the malleus and incus; the stapes,\nhowever, differs slightly and, therefore, it too is described (see figs.\nIn _Eozapus_ the head of the malleus is narrow, oblong, and rounded\ndorsally and attaches to the body by a long, slender, abruptly recurved\nneck. The body is weakly pointed ventrally and rounded dorsally. A\nbeaklike manubrium malleus composed of anterior projecting external and\ninternal spines extends from the body to the tympanum. The incus has a\ndorsally rounded body with an anterior downward snoutlike projection\nwith which the malleus articulates. The short limb of the incus is broad\nbasally and narrows somewhat distally. The long limb is narrow and its\narticulating lenticular process is a flat circular structure. The limbs\nof the stapes are wide-spread and heavy. The neck is short and wide with\na large circular articulating surface.\nIn _Zapus_ the head of the malleus is angular with an anterior\nprojecting point and is flattened in dorsal aspect. The neck is slender,\nelongate, and gently curved away from the long limb of the incus. The\nbody is pointed dorsally and rounded ventrally, the reverse of the\ncondition in _Eozapus_. There is a beaklike manubrium malleus composed\nof internal and external anteriorly projecting spines extending from the\nbody to the tympanum as in _Eozapus_. The incus has a rounded body with\na long angular limb articulating via a small lenticular process with the\nstapes. The short limb is narrow but does not taper distally as in\n_Eozapus_. The limbs of the stapes are relatively narrow, weak, and\ngently curved. The neck is longer and more slender than that of\n_Eozapus_.\nIn _Napaeozapus_ the head and neck of the malleus resemble those of\n_Zapus_ but are less robust. The body is more rounded dorsally, having\nthe curved dorsal surface directed anteriorly rather than posteriorly\n(as in _Zapus_) and the lateral surface is nearly flat instead of curved\nas in the other genera. The manubrium resembles that of _Eozapus_ and\n_Zapus_. The body of the incus is flattened dorsally but otherwise\nrounded. The long limb of the incus is angular and longer than that of\n_Zapus_. The short limb of the incus is broad at the base and tapers\ndistally. The limbs of the stapes are narrow, weak, and abruptly curved.\nThe neck is more slender and elongate than in _Zapus_.\nIn summary: Only the head and body of the malleus and the short and long\nlimbs and body of the incus are sufficiently consistent within a given\ngroup to be of taxonomic importance. The similarity in the morphology of\nthese ossicles indicates a close relationship between all three genera.\n_Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ resemble one another more than either\nresembles _Eozapus_. The differences recorded are constant between the\ndescribed groups and, therefore, are considered to be of taxonomic\nsignificance. The differences give basis for dividing the subfamily\nZapodinae into the three genera _Eozapus_, _Zapus_, and _Napaeozapus_.\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 32-34. Lateral views of the left ear ossicles\n       (articulated) of the Recent genera of the subfamily Zapodinae. \u00d7 20.\n    FIG. 32. _Eozapus s. vicinus_, adult, male, No. 240762 USNM,\n       Lanchow, Kansu, China.\n    FIG. 33. _Zapus p. princeps_, adult, male, No. 32858 KU, Medicine\n       Wheel Ranch, 28 mi. E Lovell, Big Horn County, Wyoming.\n    FIG. 34. _Napaeozapus i. insignis_, adult, male, No. 9544 KU, 3 mi.\n       W Base Station, Coos County, New Hampshire.]\nDistribution of and Speciation in the Genus _Zapus_\nMany of the described kinds of the genus _Zapus_ were initially named as\ndistinct species (see Preble, 1899). Subsequently (see Hall, 1931), some\nof the nominal species were reduced to the rank of subspecies. Only\nthree species in the genus _Zapus_ are recognized in the following\naccount. The concept of species adopted here is, in Mayr's (1942:120)\nwords, this: \"Species are groups of actually or potentially\ninterbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated\nfrom other such groups.\" The three species are _Z. trinotatus_, _Z.\nprinceps_, and _Z. hudsonius_. No hybridization is known where two occur\ntogether or where their ranges are adjacent. Each of these species has\nseveral geographically contiguous subspecies.\nThe three species of _Zapus_ are closely related but are not equally\nprogressive. If eastern North America is considered to be the region of\norigin and center of dispersal of _Zapus_ (see pp. 368-369) the\ngeographically distant species would be expected to be the least\nprogressive, and such seems to be the case. _Zapus trinotatus_ is\ngeographically farthest removed and structurally least progressive.\n_Zapus hudsonius_ occurs at the center of dispersal and is the most\nprogressive structurally whereas _Z. princeps_ is geographically and\nstructurally intermediate. Structural progressiveness is postulated for\nthe species that has the simplest (in this instance specialized) baculum\nand smallest fourth upper premolar. The phyletic branches of the genus\n_Zapus_ possibly developed from geographic segments of a population\nradiating from the centrally located progressive group. On continental\nareas where a species with a wide and continuous range gives rise to\nseveral daughter species, geographic isolation is thought to be\nimportant in bringing about the formation of species. The unspecialized\npopulations conceivably occupied an area west of the present Rocky\nMountains and south of latitude 50\u00b0. From later Miocene times on,\nclimatic and geological differentiation occurred in this area, and with\nthe growth of geological barriers and differentiation of habitat these\nunspecialized populations may have been separated into two ecological\ngroups, one inhabiting the more arid area between the present Rocky\nMountains and the present Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada and the other\ngroup inhabiting the Pacific coastal region. Isolation of each of these\ngroups probably was not complete. How far differentiation might have\nproceeded with incomplete isolation can only be guessed, but at least\nincipient differences probably were present and possibly the animals\napproached in character those found in these areas today in that the\necology of the region was much the same as now.\nIn the region between the Rocky Mountains and the present Cascade Range\nand the Sierra Nevada, the flora (in late Pliocene) became semidesert,\nwhich presumably made most of this region uninhabitable for jumping\nmice. The aridity probably induced local concentration into boreal\nmontane islands, thus possibly displacing the populations of the two\nspecies that were in contact.\nIn Pleistocene times continental glaciation must have interrupted the\ncontacts between the coastal, intermontane (the area between the present\nRocky Mountains and the present Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada),\nand northern and eastern groups of _Zapus_ or mammals of any genus that\noccurred over all of this vast region. The advance of the ice southward\nwould have increased opportunity for evolution by interposing barriers\nthat isolated some populations. The populations possibly were\nre-established in interglacial periods and then were isolated again by\nanother descent of glacial ice.\nIf a population occupied the unglaciated coastal region of Oregon and\nWashington it may have been separated from other populations to the\nnorth and east by an ice cap which covered most of the Cascade Range.\nThe population occupying the intermountain region probably was isolated\nfrom the population to the north and west. The formation of glaciers\npresumably reduced the size of areas available to the populations\noccupying eastern North America, Alaska, and Canada with the result that\nthey persisted only in areas south of the ice or in ice-free refugia\n(central and western Alaska) within the glaciated area. According to\nAxelrod (1948), the flora in the eastern United States during the\nPleistocene furnished most of the stock for the revegetation of southern\nand subarctic Canada east of the Rocky Mountains. Eastern populations of\n_Z. hudsonius_ (or its progenitors) probably followed the spread of this\nvegetation and, thus, extended their range into Canada where they\ncrossbred with populations advancing south and east from the refugia in\nAlaska. Western montane floras, which extended north along the Rocky\nMountains and the Cascade and Coast ranges, probably paved the path for\na northward migration of populations of the intermountain _Z. princeps_\n(or its progenitors). Populations of _Z. princeps_ moved eastward from\nthe present Rocky Mountains, inhabiting the high plains of southern\nCanada and the north-central United States. In general, _Zapus\nhudsonius_ occupies the region to the north and to the east of that\ninhabited by _Zapus princeps_; however, the ranges of the two meet and\noverlap in central and northern British Columbia and in the high plains\narea of southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, eastern Manitoba, eastern\nMontana, North Dakota, and northern South Dakota. In these places of\noverlap, owing to range expansion following the retreat of the ice,\nthere is no sign of interbreeding, indicating that the populations have\nattained specific rank.\nPopulations of both _Z. hudsonius_ and _Z. princeps_ occur together at\nIndianpoint Lake, British Columbia. Specimens taken there are readily\nsorted into two groups; none is intermediate. The difference in size\nbetween these species there is especially marked; _Z. p. saltator_ there\nis a large derivative of _Z. princeps_ and _Z. h. tenellus_ is a\nmedium-sized _Z. hudsonius_.\n_Z. princeps_ minor and _Z. hudsonius intermedius_ have been taken at\nseveral neighboring localities in North Dakota. Although these\ngeographic races are more nearly of the same size (_minor_ is a small\nsubspecies of _princeps_ and _intermedius_ is a moderately large\nsubspecies of _hudsonius_) they do not interbreed. Specimens of _Z. p.\nminor_ and _Z. h. intermedius_ have been obtained from an ecologically\nhomogeneous area in the vicinity of Fort Totten and Devils Lake, North\nDakota. Values obtained from several measurements of the skull and\nbaculum allow for ready recognition of the two species. The populations\nfrom North Dakota are, however, not so widely divergent as are those\npopulations from the area of contact in British Columbia. Perhaps the\ndifference in the degree of distinction between the species at the two\nareas of contact is indicative of the length and completeness of\ngeographic isolation between neighboring populations.\nThe ranges of _Z. trinotatus_ and _Z. hudsonius_ are not at present in\ncontact, but the two species differ more strongly than do _hudsonius_\nand _princeps_ or _princeps_ and _trinotatus_. Therefore, _trinotatus_\nand _hudsonius_ are here considered to be two distinct species.\nAs pointed out earlier in this discussion, the separation between the\nprogenitors of _Z. trinotatus_ and _Z. princeps_ probably occurred when\nthe present Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada were being formed. From\nthis time until Pleistocene glaciation an incomplete geographic\nisolation was in effect between the populations of the Pacific coast and\nthe intermountain populations. Perhaps in the region north of the\npresent Cascade Range there was moderate interbreeding between these\npopulations and the transcontinental form. There may have been a similar\nzone of interbreeding along the crest of the present Cascades where the\nintermountain and coastal populations conceivably could have met. At\nleast incipient characters probably were present when in Pleistocene\ntime, continental glaciation further isolated the two populations. Since\nthe retreat of the last ice (Wisconsin) the unprogressive coastal _Z.\ntrinotatus_ has expanded its range only slightly, reaching as far as\nsouthwestern British Columbia. It seems that ecological difference\nrather than the barrier formed by the higher elevations is responsible\nfor the limited expansion of range. The population of _princeps_ has\nextended its range northward to the southern part of the Yukon Territory\nbut does not occur in coastal southern British Columbia because that\narea already was occupied by _Zapus trinotatus_. The ranges of the two\nspecies meet and overlap in southwestern British Columbia. The species\noccur sympatrically in Manning Park where, according to Carl _et al._\n(1952:77), they occupy the same range in the region of Allison Pass,\nPinewoods, and Timberline Valley. These workers remark that no\nintergradation was apparent between individuals of the two species\nobtained in the same trap line.\nI have examined material of both species from Allison Pass. There the\nspecies differ in color, in the shape of the skull, and in the size and\nshape of the baculum. Material from Timberline Valley, an area in which\nCarl _et al._ (_loc. cit._) reported both species, here is assigned to\n_Z. princeps_. Where bacula have been preserved the identity of the\nspecies is instantly possible.\nIn summary: First, a population of jumping mice, possibly a monotypic\ngenus, occurred over most of North America; then this population partly\ndivided into Pacific northwest, intermountain (from the east slopes of\nthe present Rocky Mountains to the east slopes of the present Cascade\nRange and the Sierra Nevada), and transcontinental (eastern and\nnorthern) groups with the least progressive groups peripheral; a further\nreduction or possibly a complete isolation of these populations followed\nowing to Pleistocene glaciation (especially in the Wisconsin period);\nand, finally, the present day contacts were established between these\npopulations which by now have differentiated into species. Conceivably,\n_Z. burti_ (Blancan age) and _Z. rinkeri_ (mid Pleistocene) may\nrepresent stages in the development of _Z. hudsonius_.\nANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIFIC AND SUBSPECIFIC NAMES\n(Applied to the genus _Zapus_ since 1899)\nEdward A. Preble's (1899) early revisionary account of the genus _Zapus_\nprovides an annotated list of the names which had been proposed for\nAmerican jumping mice to that date. The present account supplies in\nchronological order the names proposed (including the new kinds\ndescribed by Preble) in the 54 years since Preble's revision. Detailed\nsynonymies are given for each kind under the accounts of the\nsubspecies.\n  1899 _campestris_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) Preble, N. Amer. Fauna,\n       15:20, August 8, 1899, applies to the jumping mouse of southeastern\n       Montana, and the Black Hills region of Wyoming and South Dakota.\n  1899 _minor_ (_Zapus princeps_) Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:23,\n       August 8, 1899, originally applied to the jumping mouse of the\n       prairies of Saskatchewan, but now includes populations of this\n       species from the plains of Canada (southern Manitoba to Canadian\n       Rockies) and northern United States (Montana, North and South\n       Dakota).\n  1899 _oregonus_ (_Zapus princeps_) Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:24,\n       August 8, 1899, originally applied to the jumping mouse of eastern\n       Oregon, but now applies also to populations from southeastern\n       Idaho, eastern and central Nevada, and extreme northeastern\n       California.\n  1899 _major_ (_Zapus_) Preble [= _Zapus princeps oregonus_], N.\n       Amer. Fauna, 15:25, August 8, 1899, arranged as a subspecies of\n       _Zapus princeps_ by Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:10,\n       April 10, 1931; here considered a synonym of _Zapus princeps\n       oregonus_.\n  1899 _nevadensis_ (_Zapus_) Preble [= _Zapus princeps oregonus_],\n       N. Amer. Fauna, 15:25, August 8, 1899, arranged as a subspecies of\n       _Zapus princeps_ by Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:10,\n       April 10, 1931; here considered a synonym of _Zapus princeps\n       oregonus_.\n  1899 _orarius_ (_Zapus_) Preble [= _Zapus trinotatus orarius_], N.\n       Amer. Fauna, 15:29, August 8, 1899, applies to the animals from\n       southwestern Marin County, California.\n  1911 _luteus_ (_Zapus_) Miller [= _Zapus princeps luteus_], Proc.\n       Biol. Soc. Washington, 24:253, December 23, 1911, applies to the\n       jumping mouse in north-central and southern New Mexico and eastern\n       Arizona.\n  1913 _australis_ (_Zapus luteus_) Bailey [= _Zapus princeps\n       luteus_], Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:129, May 21, 1913, was\n       applied to the jumping mouse of southern New Mexico, but is here\n       regarded as a synonym of _luteus_.\n  1920 _eureka_ (_Zapus trinotatus_) Howell, Univ. California Publ.\n       Zool., 21:229, May 20, 1920, applies to the jumping mouse of the\n       humid coastal district of northern California.\n  1931 _cinereus_ (_Zapus princeps_) Hall, Univ. California Publ.\n       Zool., 37:7, April 10, 1931, applies to the jumping mouse of\n       extreme northwest Utah and south-central Idaho.\n  1931 _curtatus_ (_Zapus princeps_) Hall, Univ. California Publ.\n       Zool., 37:7, April 10, 1931, applies to the jumping mouse of the\n       Pine Forest Mountains, Humboldt County, Nevada.\n  1931 _palatinus_ (_Zapus princeps_) Hall [= _Zapus princeps\n       oregonus_], Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:8, April 10, 1931, was\n       applied to the jumping mouse of Lander and Nye counties, Nevada,\n       but is here regarded as a synonym of _oregonus_.\n  1932 _kootenayensis_ (_Zapus princeps_) Anderson, Ann. Rept. Nat.\n       Mus. Canada for 1931:108, November 24, 1932, applies to the jumping\n       mouse of southeastern and central British Columbia, northern Idaho,\n       and eastern Washington.\n  1934 _idahoensis_ (_Zapus princeps_) Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15:221,\n       August 10, 1931, applies to populations in parts of British\n       Columbia, Alberta, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.\n  1939 _utahensis_ (_Zapus princeps_) Hall, Occas. papers Mus. Zool.\n       Univ. Michigan, 296:3, November 2, 1934, applies to the jumping\n       mouse of southeastern Idaho, western Wyoming, and eastern Utah.\n  1941 _burti_ (_Zapus_) Hibbard, Univ. Kansas Publ., Bull. State\n       Geol. Surv. Kansas, 38:214, July 14, 1941, refers to two\n       fragmentary right rami of Pleistocene age (Borchers fauna) from\n       Loc. No. 9, Meade County, Kansas.\n  1942 _brevipes_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) Bole and Moulthrop [= Zapus\n       hudsonius americanus], Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:168,\n       September 11, 1942, based on specimens from Bettsville, Seneca\n       County, Ohio, which are inseparable from _americanus_ that has\n       priority.\n  1942 _rafinesquei_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) Bole and Moulthrop [= _Zapus\n       hudsonius americanus_], Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist.,\n       5:169, September 11, 1942, was applied to jumping mouse of\n       southeastern Ohio but is here regarded as a synonym of\n       _americanus_.\n  1943 _ontarioensis_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) Anderson [= _Zapus\n       hudsonius canadensis_], Ann. Rept. Provancher Soc. Nat. Hist.,\n       Quebec, 1942:52, September 7, 1943, was applied to animals from\n       eastern Ontario but is here regarded as a synonym of _canadensis_.\n  1950 _pallidus_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) Cockrum and Baker, Proc. Biol.\n       Soc. Washington, 63:1, April 26, 1950, refers to the jumping mouse\n       from Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Nebraska, and south-central South\n       Dakota.\n  1951 _rinkeri_ (_Zapus_) Hibbard, Jour. Mamm., 32:351, August,\n       1951, refers to single incomplete right ramus of upper Pliocene\n       age, Rexroad formation and fauna, from Loc. UM-UK-47, Fox Canyon,\n       sec. 25, T. 34S, R. 30W, XI Ranch, Meade County, Kansas.\n  1953 _intermedius_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) described as new on page 447\n       of this paper.\n  1953 _preblei_ (_Zapus hudsonius_) described as new on page 452 of\n       this paper.\nCHARACTERS OF TAXONOMIC WORTH\nEXTERNAL PARTS.--The total length, the length of the tail, and the\nlength of the hind foot are useful to some extent in distinguishing\nspecies and subspecies. Geographic variation in these measurements is\nclinal in some species. For example, _Zapus trinotatus_, which inhabits\nthe western coast of North America, decreases in size from the northern\nto the southern part of its range. There is considerable overlap in\nexternal measurements, in specimens of the same age, between the species\n_Z. trinotatus_ and _Z. princeps_, but only slight overlap between _Z.\nprinceps_ and _Z. hudsonius_ and between _Z. trinotatus_ and _Z.\nhudsonius_. If all collectors measured external parts in the same way\nthe measurements would be more useful for differentiating one species\nfrom another.\nPELAGE.--The pelage, both in its entirety and as individual hairs,\nprovides taxonomic characters as has been pointed out by Moojen\n(1948:324) for the genus _Proechimys_, by Williams (1938:239) for the\nInsectivora, and by Hausman (1920:496) for several groups of mammals.\nIn addition to the sensory hairs, facial vibrissae, nasal hairs, and\ncarpal vibrissae, there are three kinds of hairs in the normal coat of\n_Zapus_: guard hairs, overhairs, and underfur. The guard hairs and\nunderfur differ in different species (see figs. 35-37).\nThe guard hairs taper at both ends, are elliptical in cross section, and\nare wider and longer than the other two kinds of hair. The bases of the\nguard hairs are grayish, and the amount of pigment gradually increases\ndistally to a dark brownish or blackish shade. The guard hairs vary in\ngreatest diameter from 96 microns to 168 microns, depending upon the\nspecies, and variation in diameter provides characters of taxonomic\nworth. No clinal variation in diameter of the guard hairs was detected.\nIn _Z. hudsonius_ the guard hairs average 115 microns (96-140) and are\nsignificantly narrower than those of _Z. princeps_ and _Z. trinotatus_,\nwhich average 142 microns (130-168) and 141 microns (133-154),\nrespectively. Pigmentation of the guard hairs contributes little\ninformation useful in separating the species of _Zapus_. All of the\nspecies have a prominent compounded medulla in which the pigment cells\nanastomose to form a labyrinthine column.\nThe individual hair of the underfur is cylindrical and tapers abruptly\nat each end; it is short, thin, flexible, and usually is bicolored on\nthe back and sides of the mouse. The apical zone is yellow-brown (for\nexample, Ochraceous-Buff) and the proximal part is whitish or grayish,\nwhich gradually darkens to near black subapically.\nThe width of a hair in the underfur is of no taxonomic significance, in\nthat individual variation exceeds that between species.\nThe pattern of the pigment in the medulla of the hair, however, does\nvary specifically. Comparable samples from _Z. trinotatus_, _Z.\nprinceps_, and _Z. hudsonius_ of the same age, sex, and season reveal a\npattern characteristic for each species (see figs. 35-37).\nAll species of _Zapus_ agree closely in color pattern. A broad\nlongitudinal dorsal band of some shade of yellow-brown flecked with\nblack hairs is bordered by a lateral band of a lighter color usually\ncontaining fewer black hairs than on the dorsum. The underparts are\nusually white but are sometimes suffused with color resembling that on\nthe sides. Between the white underparts and the darker color of the\nsides there is often a narrow, clear ochraceous stripe. Dorsal and\nlateral hairs are uniformly grayish-white at their bases; only the\ndistal parts of the hairs are responsible for the external color of the\nanimal.\nThe pelage of juveniles is usually finer and softer than the pelage of\nadults. The lateral and dorsal bands are not so conspicuously marked in\nyoung animals, and individual hairs are not so long or so wide as in\nadult animals.\n    [Illustration:\n    FIGS. 35-37. Photomicrographs of underhairs (middle third) from each\n       of the species of the genus _Zapus_. \u00d7 500.\n    FIG. 35. _Zapus t. orarius_, adult, female, No. 20293 MVZ, 3 mi. W\n       Inverness, 300 ft., Marin County, California.\n    FIG. 36. _Zapus p. oregonus_, adult, male, No. 47856 KU, Harrison\n       Pass R. S., Ruby Mt's, Elko County, Nevada.\n    FIG. 37. _Zapus h. pallidus_, adult, male, No. 22954 KU, 4 mi. N,\n       1-3/4 mi. E Lawrence, Douglas County, Kansas.]\nPreble (1899:7) and Howell (1920:226) remark as to the noticeable\ndifference between pelages of spring and early fall. The pelage in\nspring is described as bright and fresh whereas that in fall is dull and\nworn. Actually both bright and worn pelages can occur in any one\npopulation at any one time. Some newly molted individuals are in fresh\nunworn pelage; some individuals, which are molting, are in ragged, worn\npelage; and other individuals perhaps could be found to represent\nintermediate stages.\nVariations from the normal color of the pelage are rare. Among more than\n3,000 specimens of _Zapus_ examined there were only 12 individuals (five\n_Z. princeps_, 6 _Z. hudsonius_, and 1 _Z. trinotatus_) that were\nabnormally colored. A single white spot was noted on each of 10 (5 _Z.\nprinceps_, 4 _Z. hudsonius_, and 1 _Z. trinotatus_) of these\nindividuals; the spots were on the dorsal, anterior half of the body.\nThe skin beneath the patch of white hair was in each animal like that\nbeneath the neighboring normally-pigmented hair. One specimen of _Z.\nhudsonius_ (NMC No. 6669) is everywhere black, excepting the dorsal\nsurface of the toes of the forefeet. Most of the individual hairs from\nvarious areas of the body are black for their entire length; some,\nhowever, have non-pigmented silvery tips. One specimen of _Z. hudsonius_\n(KU No. 645) lacks any black; dorsally the pelage is nearest to\nOchraceous-Buff and it is white on the venter. Individual hairs of the\ndorsal area are white for the basal two-thirds of their length (as\ncompared to gray and brown in the animals with normal pigmentation) and\nnear Ochraceous-Buff on the distal third (as compared to hairs which are\ndark brown tipped with Ochraceous-Buff). The feet and tail are white.\nMOLT.--The sequence of molt for _Zapus_ has been ascertained from\nexamination of the study skins. In all species of this genus there seems\nto be only one annual molt in adults. In the young of the year this molt\noccurs after August first and before hibernation. All individuals of a\nsingle population do not molt at any one time; females continue to molt\nlater in the autumn than do the males; some individuals begin the molt\nas early as mid-June and others show molt as late as the end of October;\napproximately three weeks are required for an individual to complete its\nmolt (Quimby, 1951:74); readiness for molt and early stages in molt can\nbe detected (in museum specimens) by the greater thickness of the skin.\nHairs lost accidentally are quickly replaced, regardless of the\ncondition of the molt.\nIn _Zapus hudsonius_, new hair appears simultaneously on the anterior\ndorsal surface of the nose and on the mid-dorsal surface between the\nscapulae. The molt proceeds anteriorly from the shoulders and\nposteriorly from the nose. At the same time that the head is covered,\nnew hair appears on the sides of the body from the forelegs to the\ncheeks. New pelage then appears posteriorly, and molt continues as a\nwave from these points over the sides and back with the rump receiving\nnew hair last (see figs. 42 and 43).\nIn _Zapus princeps_ new hair appears first on the mid-dorsal surface\nbetween the scapulae. From this starting point molt progresses\nanteriorly, laterally, and posteriorly. Progress over the head is rapid;\nthe head receives its new hair sooner than the caudal region. Molt moves\nprogressively nearer to the base of the tail and progressively nearer to\nthe mid-ventral surface. The rump is the last area to complete its molt\n(see figs. 40 and 41).\nThe progress of molt in _Z. princeps_ might be likened to the flow of a\ndrop of paint on the curved surface of a ball where the paint flows in\nall directions but is speeded at one point and slowed at the opposite by\na slight tilting of the ball from the horizontal.\nIn the species _Zapus trinotatus_ new hair appears simultaneously on\nthe anterior, dorsal surface of the nose and on the mid-dorsal surface\nbetween the scapulae. In this respect the progress of molt of _Z.\ntrinotatus_ resembles that of _Z. hudsonius_. From these starting points\nmolt progresses rapidly over the head, the molt moving anteriorly from\nthe shoulders and posteriorly from the nose with the result that it\ncovers the dorsal surface of the head; hair then appears on the cheeks\nand sides of the neck. The progress of molt on the remaining areas of\nthe body is comparable to that of _Z. princeps_; molt progresses toward\nthe tail and toward the mid-ventral line. The rump, as in _Z. princeps_,\nis the last area to complete its molt (see figs. 38 and 39).\n    [Illustration: FIGS. 38-43. Diagrams showing differences in progress\n       of molt in the three species of the genus _Zapus_. All approximately\n       1/2 natural size. Figs. 38, 40 and 42 lateral view. Figs. 39, 41 and\n       43 dorsal view.\n     FIGS. 38 and 39. _Zapus trinotatus._\n     FIGS. 40 and 41. _Zapus princeps._\n     FIGS. 42 and 43. _Zapus hudsonius._]\nBACULUM.--The general shape and dimensions of the baculum (os penis)\nprovide characters of taxonomic value for the species of _Zapus_ (see\nThree measurements--length, transverse diameter at the base, and\ntransverse diameter at the tip--are easily obtained and are diagnostic.\nThe bacula of all species are somewhat curved. The measurement of length\nused by me does not represent the actual length of the bone, but instead\nthe chords of the arcs involved.\nSKULL.--Some of the structures useful for separating taxonomic entities\nmay have little or no biological significance to the animals in nature.\nCharacters mentioned by me are chosen simply for their significance\ntaxonomically. The zygomata vary in degree of lateral bowing, being\nwidely bowed in _Z. princeps_ and _Z. trinotatus_, and less so in _Z.\nhudsonius_. Differences in zygomatic breadth owing to the degree of\nbowing are an aid in differentiating subspecies. The length of the skull\nfrom the occipital condyles to the tip of the longest nasal bone is\nuseful in separating _Z. hudsonius_ from _Z. trinotatus_ and _Z.\nprinceps_. The narrowness of the base of the zygomatic process of the\nsquamosal is useful in distinguishing between _Z. hudsonius_ and _Z.\nprinceps_, but shows no variation of subspecific worth. The shape and\ndimensions of the incisive foramina provide specific and subspecific\ncharacters. The position of the anterior margin of the postpalatal\nnotch, in relation to the last molars, provides subspecific characters\nin _Z. princeps_. In the species _Z. princeps_ the median projection on\nthe inferior ramus of the zygomatic process of the maxillary is absent\nin some subspecies, small in others, and large in some. Shape and\ninflation of the auditory bullae, shape of the pterygoid fossae, and\nshape of the nasals are useful in determining specific and subspecific\nrelationships.\nTEETH.--The alveolar length of the upper maxillary tooth-rows aids in\ndistinguishing _Z. hudsonius_ from _Z. princeps_ and _Z. trinotatus_.\nNearly parallel versus anteriorly divergent upper tooth-rows is a\nsubspecific difference in _Z. princeps_. Variations in the dimensions of\nP4 and M1 aid in estimating the relationships of species. The occlusal\npattern shows little variation and was of no use in separating species.\nNONGEOGRAPHIC VARIATION\nA knowledge of variation resulting from age, individual, or secondary\nsexual differences, as opposed to geographic variation between two or\nmore populations of a single species is important in determining the\nreliability of taxonomic characters.\nThe largest population-sample of _Zapus_ available to me for the study\nof nongeographic variation was 63 individuals from various localities in\nKeweenaw and Menominee counties, Michigan. Thirty-nine were females and\n24 were males. It is on these specimens that this discussion is based.\nAge Variation\nTEETH.--The teeth provide a valuable standard for age determination in\nthat they wear at a measurable rate. The molars erupt in sequence from\nfront to back, and wear shows first on M1 and last on M3. The peglike\npermanent P4, of which I have not seen the deciduous precursor, receives\nwear at the same time that the molars are being worn. Wear proceeds at\napproximately the same rate in the teeth of both the upper jaws and\nlower jaws.\nIn order to be more nearly certain that specimens used in making racial\ncomparisons were comparable as to age, six age-groups were established,\nfrom youngest to oldest. These groups were based on the degree of wear\non the occlusal surface of the upper cheek-teeth, and are as follows:\ngroup 1, in which M1 and M2 have not reached full and equal height and\nshow no occlusal wear, and M3 has not erupted or is just breaking\nthrough the alveolus; group 2, in which M1 and M2 have reached full and\nequal height and show slight wear, and M3 may be almost or quite equal\nin height to M1 and M2 and, when equal, sometimes shows slight wear;\ngroup 3, in which M1 and M2 show wear on all cusps but cusps are\nvisible, and M3 shows slight wear; group 4, in which P4 shows slight\nwear, M1 has cusps and re-entrant folds between cusps mostly gone, M2\nshows considerable wear but re-entrant folds are visible, and M3 has\nmost re-entrant folds and cusps gone; group 5, in which P4 shows\nconsiderable wear, M1 has cusps completely worn away, M2 has re-entrant\nfolds and cusps worn away, and M3 lacks occlusal pattern except for one\nor two lakes; group 6, in which all upper cheek-teeth are without\nocclusal pattern.\nThese groupings are based on continuously variable features, and,\ntherefore, when the teeth are at certain stages of wear a specimen is\ndifficult to place in one of two groups.\nAge group 1 and 2 include juvenal and subadult animals. Animals of age\ngroups 3 through 6 are considered adult. Individuals of age groups 3\nthrough 5, including as they do the great majority of the adult\npopulation, were the only age classes used in measuring geographic\nvariation.\nQuimby's (1951:69) data indicate that some mice produce litters at the\nage of approximately 2 months, when four-fifths grown. Therefore, sexual\nmaturity is not always synonymous with morphological maturity.\nMEASUREMENTS OF EXTERNAL PARTS.--Data presented here on _Z. hudsonius_\nare those recorded by Quimby (1951) on specimens from Anoka County,\nMinnesota, and those obtained by me from museum specimens from Menominee\nand Keweenaw counties, Michigan.\nAccording to Quimby (1951:65-66) the mean length [= body length] for\nthree newly born _Z. hudsonius_ is 24.8 mm (24.0-25.5); at the end of\nthe fourth week of growth the mean length averaged 64.4 mm and at the\n13th week 77.6 mm. Rapid growth occurs during the first four weeks, with\nthe mean length increasing approximately 2.6 times the size at birth.\nAfter the fourth week of development, growth proceeds at a slower rate;\nthe mean length at 13 weeks is only 3.1 times greater than the mean\nlength at birth.\nIn specimens assigned to age groups 1 and 2 the length of the body\naveraged 70 and 74.8 mm, respectively. The individuals of both groups\nare less than 13 weeks old if we assume that growth proceeds at the same\nrate in Michigan as it does in Minnesota.\nIn the specimens from Michigan of age groups 3, 4, 5, and 6 the average\nlength of the body is 80.9, 83.7, 89.0, and 83.6, respectively.\nAccording to Quimby (_loc. cit._), the average length of the tail for\nthree _Z. hudsonius_ at birth was 9.2 mm. (8.5-10.0). During the first\nfour weeks of development the tail grew rapidly and reached an average\nlength of 92.0 mm, which was 10 times the length at birth. By the end of\n13 weeks of development the average length of the tail for these three\nindividuals was 119.6 mm or 12 times the average length at birth. The\nmost rapid growth was early in development: 80 per cent of the growth\nof the tail occurred during the first month, after which growth\nproceeded at a much slower rate.\nQuimby (_loc. cit._) records an average dimension of 4.7 mm (4.5-5.0)\nfor the length of the hind foot in three newly born _Z. hudsonius_. The\nhind foot grew rapidly in length and by the fourth week had increased\n5.6 times in its length and averaged 26.3 mm. Growth was much less rapid\nfrom the fourth to the thirteenth week when the hind foot averaged 27.7\nmm, only five per cent more than in mice four weeks old. Assuming the\naverage length of the hind foot of the adults to be 29.0 mm, the hind\nfoot in individuals 13 weeks old is 96 per cent of the adult size.\nAccording to Quimby (_loc. cit._), the pinna of the ear at birth is\nsmall and folded over the external auditory meatus. The length of the\near increases proportionately more (29 per cent) than any other external\ndimension after the first four weeks of growth.\nIf the average length of the ear (measured from the crown) of adults is\n14.7 mm, the animals from Michigan in age groups 1 and 2 are 91.8 per\ncent and 96.5 per cent as large as adults.\n    TABLE 1.--Average Dimensions (in Millimeters) for Specimens of\n       Z. h. hudsonius of Various Ages (Specimens from Michigan).\nFrom these data, concerning growth of external parts, it seems that:\ngrowth is most rapid during the four weeks following parturition;\nspecimens from Michigan, assigned to age groups 1 and 2 on the basis of\ntooth wear, are less fully developed and probably younger than mice from\nMinnesota, with a known age of 13 weeks; individuals with sufficient\nwear on the teeth to be placed in age group 3, if they were obtained in\nthe late fall, may be young from the first litters of the year or, if\nthey were obtained in early spring, may be at least one year old;\nindividuals in age groups 4, 5, and 6 are at least one year old.\nSKULL.--The post-embryonic development of the skull is rapid. Animals in\nage groups 1 and 2 have skulls which average more than 80 per cent of\nthe size that is here considered adult (an average size obtained from\nage groups 3, 4, and 5). The actual increase in size of certain cranial\nelements for various age groups is given in table 2.\nIn age group 1 the rostrum is relatively short as it is in _Neotoma\nmicropus_ (J. A. Allen, 1894:235) and juveniles of _Peromyscus truei_\n(Hoffmeister, 1951:7). The rostrum lengthens rapidly and there is a\ngeneral increase in actual and relative size of the entire preorbital\nregion; the increase after age group 3 is slower and of lesser\nmagnitude. Changes with age in the size of the braincase are slight. In\nage group 1 the average depth of the braincase is 99.6 per cent of the\nadult size; the average breadth of the braincase is 98 per cent of the\nadult size, and the average width across the mastoid region is 96.4 per\ncent of the adult size. These dimensions indicate that the braincase\nreaches full size early. The zygomatic arch, however, undergoes change\nwith age; there is a gradual increase in breadth owing to lateral bowing\nand a gradual lengthening which is in keeping with a general elongation\nof the skull anterior to the braincase.\nThe incisive foramina in age group 1 are short (4.0 mm), broad (2.2 mm\nin the middle), and taper to a point at each end. In age group 2 the\nforamina have elongated (4.2 mm) and are less pointed posteriorly, but\nthere is no change in breadth. In age groups 3, 4, 5, and 6 the foramina\nbecome progressively longer (4.5 mm in age group 6), have a relatively\nconstant breadth (2.2 mm), and become more nearly truncate anteriorly.\n    TABLE 2.--Average and Extreme Measurements (in Millimeters) of\n       Skulls of Six Age-groups in Specimens of Zapus hudsonius\n       from Michigan.\nIndividual Variation\nMeasurements of external parts in _Zapus_ are more variable than are\nmeasurements of most parts of the skull. As Hoffmeister (1951:16) points\nout for _Peromyscus truei_, this variation in external features results\nin part from \"the difficulties in accurately measuring soft parts of the\nanatomy\" and also from inconsistencies on the part of collectors in\nmaking these measurements.\nA comparison of coefficients of variation (see table 3) for cranial\nmeasurements between populations of like age and sex for the species _Z.\nhudsonius_, _Z. princeps_, and _Z. trinotatus_ shows that variation of\napproximately the same degree is recorded in corresponding elements in\nall species; that is to say, structures which are most variable\nindividually in _Z. princeps_ are also most variable in _Z. trinotatus_\nand _Z. hudsonius_.\nIndividual variation in the occlusal pattern of the molariform teeth is\nslight. In several specimens, however, the re-entrant fold is absent\nfrom the lingual surface of M1. Teeth in addition to the normal number\nwere recorded for five specimens. In all instances they are in the upper\ndentition and usually at the posterior end of the maxillary tooth-row.\nIn each of four specimens (KU No. 34852, KU No. 32852, MVZ No. 52105,\nall _Z. princeps_, and USBS No. 22921, _Z. hudsonius_), there is only a\nsingle additional tooth. One individual (USBS No. 264388, _Z. princeps_)\npossessed two extra molars, one in each maxillary tooth-row. The extra\nteeth vary in size from those which are only slightly smaller than the\nadjacent normal molars to those which are simple, peglike structures. In\nfour of the five animals the extra teeth are posterior to the normal M3;\nin the fifth (MVZ No. 52105) the added tooth is anteriormedial to M3.\n    TABLE 3.--Coefficients of Variation for Dimensions of Corresponding\n       Parts of the Skull of Three Species of Zapus. The Specimens of\n       Zapus hudsonius are from Menominee and Keweenaw counties, Michigan,\n       the Zapus princeps are from the Vicinity of Encampment, Wyoming,\n       and the Zapus trinotatus from Huntingdon, British Columbia.\n              Species           | _hudsonius_ | _princeps_ | _trinotatus_\nThe size and shape of certain cranial elements vary individually even\nbetween right and left sides of the same animal. The paired parietal\nbones in some animals are nearly square and identical. In other animals\nthese bones are approximately equal and straight on three sides with the\nfourth side forming an anterolateral projection; this projection may be\nslightly or greatly produced, and opposite elements in a single\nindividual differ in this respect.\nThe interparietal also is variable; the lateral arms may be blunted and\nnot included in the fusion of the squamosal, parietal, and occipital\nelements, or the interparietals may be elongated and fused with these\nelements. Posterior and anterior borders of the interparietal may be\nstraight, produced anteriorly, produced posteriorly, or produced\nanteriorly and posteriorly.\nThere is frequently variation in the degree of taper of the nasals. They\nmay be parallel sided, narrowed distally, or narrowed proximally. There\nis some variation in the degree of inflation, in the size, and in the\nshape of the frontal bones. The anterior surface of the postpalatal\nnotch varies individually and may be truncate, anteriorly convex, or\nanteriorly concave.\nIndividual variation in the color of the pelage of animals that are in\nthe same stage of molt or non-molt is by my observation slight. The\npresence of oil in the hair results in a false impression of sleekness\nand seemingly darker pigmentation. Abnormal white-spotting dorsally\noccurs as does yellow and melanistic coat color. These mutations are\nconsidered in the discussion concerning pelage.\nSecondary Sexual Variation\nIn specimens of the two sexes from similar age groups of _hudsonius_\nfrom Michigan, the mean values for each measurement for the two sexes\ndiffer only slightly or are essentially the same (see table 4). In no\nspecies has secondary sexual variation been found to be greater than\nindividual variation.\n    TABLE 4.--Mean Measurements for Adult Male and Female Z. hudsonius\n       of Age Group 2 and Per Cent Difference of Females to Males\n       (Specimens from Michigan).\n  Incisors to postpalatal notch |   9.39  |   9.33  |     0.64% smaller\n  Maxillary tooth-row length    |   3.52  |   3.60  |     0.23% larger\nCHECK-LIST OF THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF THE GENUS _ZAPUS_\n    _Zapus trinotatus eureka_ A. B. Howell                           389\n    _Zapus trinotatus montanus_ Merriam                              390\n    _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_ Rhoads                             392\n    _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson                          404\n    _Zapus princeps pacificus_ Merriam                               412\n    _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ Merriam                             435\n    _Zapus hudsonius americanus_ (Barton)                            436\n    _Zapus hudsonius campestris_ Preble                              441\n    _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_ (Davies)                            442\n    _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ (Zimmerman)                          443\n    _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_ Krutzsch                           447\n    _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ Cockrum and Baker                     450\n    _Zapus hudsonius preblei_ Krutzsch                               452\n    _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_ Merriam                               453\nGenus =Zapus= Coues\n_Genotype._--_Dipus hudsonius_ Zimmerman.\nEXTERNAL CHARACTERS.--Muriform in general appearance; forelimbs small,\nshort; hind limbs greatly developed; hind feet long and narrow; tail\ntapering, attenuate, subcylindrical; head long and mouse-shaped; eyes\nsmall and situated midway between nose and ear; external ear somewhat\nlonger than surrounding hair and provided with antitragal flap which can\ncover external auditory meatus, and in company with tragus completely\nclose opening; upper lip without median groove; internal cheek-pouches\nwell developed and opening at corners of mouth; mystacial vibrissae\nconspicuous; supercilliary vibrissae few; genal tuft absent; teats\nnormally eight and arranged in pairs (one pectoral, two abdominal, and\none inguinal); anterior and posterior pairs frequently undeveloped;\ngeneral pelage coarse; color of pelage varies somewhat in different\nspecies but always follows single basic pattern of broad dorsal band of\nsome shade of brown or brownish-yellow darkened with brownish-black,\nsides of a lighter tone and slightly streaked with brownish-black,\nunderparts snow-white, sometimes suffused with color of the sides and\nusually separated from color of sides by sharp line of clear\nbrownish-yellow; backs of forefeet and hind feet grayish-white; tail\ndistinctly bicolor, dark brown above and yellowish-white below; ears\ndark and narrowly edged with light color.\n    [Illustration: FIG. 44. Map showing distribution of the genus\nCRANIAL CHARACTERS.--Skull short in relation to width, deep relative to\nother dimensions, somewhat convex; delicate, papery, without strong\nangularity; braincase relatively unexpanded; antorbital foramen\nobliquely oval and transmits masseter muscle of great size; foramen in\ninferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary for passage of superior\nmaxillary branch of trigeminal nerve small; zygomata not wide-spreading;\nunderside of zygoma nearly horizontal, upper edge anteriorly rises\nprominently owing to extension of jugal upward along maxillary; jugal\nand lachrymal in contact; one ramus of zygomatic process of maxilla\narises directly above other; rostrum thick basally and relatively\nattenuate distally; ends of nasals project noticeably beyond incisors;\npremaxillaries develop strong alveolar plate separating superior\nincisors for half their length; palatal bones shortened posteriorly,\nfree edge often concave; incisive foramina long, broad, and separated by\nbulbose (except at posterior end) bony septum; mastoid bullae absent;\nauditory bullae short and transversely placed; postorbital process never\npresent; parietals nearly square, sometimes emarginate in front; angle\nof mandible flattened and bent inward; coronoid process weak, acute, and\nslopes strongly upward.\nDENTAL CHARACTERS.--Dental formula\nupper incisors short, compressed, curved backward, and strongly grooved;\nlower incisors slender, curved backward, and ungrooved; both upper and\nlower incisors deep orange or yellow; four upper cheek-teeth present;\npremolar small, single rooted and, sometimes, non-functional; upper\nmolars tri-rooted, sub-hypsodont, and with occlusal surface\nnon-cuspidate (flat); enamel pattern, much complicated, consisting of\none main re-entrant fold lingually and four re-entrant folds labially;\nthree lower molars, bi-rooted, sub-hypsodont, flat crowned, with two\nouter and four inner re-entrant folds.\nPOSTCRANIAL CHARACTERS.--Neck short and weak; atlas large; axis separate\nfrom atlas; remaining (5) cervical vertebrae also free; thoracic (12)\nand lumbar (7) vertebrae strongly built; posterior lumbars with enlarged\nneural and anteriorly directed transverse processes; sacral vertebrae\n(7) as in murids; caudal vertebrae variable in number (average 36);\nclavicle long, slender, uniformly curved, convex outwardly; scapula with\nsupraspinous and infraspinous fossae of equal size; forelimbs short,\napproximately half as long as hind limbs; hind limbs elongate, slender;\nfemur with third trochanter; tibia and fibula fused slightly distal to\nmiddle of former; five elongate, separate metatarsals (first and fifth\nsubequal, shorter than others).\nARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS ZAPUS\n  A.     Baculum with tip spade-shaped and tip wider than 0.43 mm;\n         underfur with medullary pattern rectangular, cuticular scales\n         small; coronoid process of mandible long and slender, angle of\n         divergence from condyle broad; angle of mandible turned in and\n         wide; pterygoid fossae wide; skull broad in relation to length;\n         premolars with crescentine fold on occlusal surface.\n  A\u00b4.    Baculum with tip lanceolate (not spade-shaped) and tip less\n         than 0.43 mm wide; underfur with medullary pattern square or\n         rectangular; but, if rectangular, cuticular scales large;\n         coronoid process short and broad, angle of divergence from\n         condyle narrow; angle of mandible turned inward and small to\n         medium; pterygoid fossae usually narrow; skull not broad in\n         relation to length; premolars without crescentine fold on\n         occlusal surface.\n  B(A\u00b4). Baculum less than 5.1 mm in total length; guard hair\n         averaging 115 micra in diameter; underfur with rectangular\n         medullary pattern, cuticular scales large; skull small;\n         incisive foramina shorter than 4.6 mm; condylobasal length\n         averaging less than 20 mm; length of maxillary tooth-row\n         averaging less than 3.7 mm; palatal breadth at M3 less than\n  B\u00b4.    Baculum more than 5.1 mm in total length; guard hair averaging\n         more than 140 micra in diameter; underfur with square medullary\n         pattern, cuticular scales moderately large; skull large;\n         incisive foramina longer than 4.7 mm; condylobasal length more\n         than 21 mm; maxillary tooth-row averaging more than 3.8 mm;\n         palatal breadth at M3 more than 4.4 mm.\nSYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES\n=Zapus trinotatus= Rhoads\n(Synonymy under subspecies)\n_Range._--From southwestern British Columbia southward through western\nWashington and Oregon and in the humid coastal district of California\nalmost to the Golden Gate (see fig. 45).\n_Characters of the species_: _External._--Size medium to large (total\nlength 221 mm to 238 mm); tail longer than head and body (131 mm to 149\nmm) and bicolored, brown above, white to yellowish-white below; hind\nfeet long (31 mm to 34 mm), grayish-white above; back various hues and\ntones of ochraceous and tawny; sides paler than back; lateral line\nseparating sides from ventral surface usually distinct and bright;\nventral coloration white, usually with suffusion of ochraceous; ears\nusually dark, sometimes flecked, and usually narrowly edged with color\nof sides; guard hairs average 141 microns (133u to 155u) in diameter;\nunderhair with medullary pigment in narrow, hollow rectangles; cuticular\nscales of underhair smaller and more numerous than in other species.\n_Baculum._--Size large (total length 6.7 mm to 7.4 mm); base broad (0.7\nmm to 0.9 mm); tip broad (0.44 mm to 0.57 mm); spade-shaped in dorsal\naspect and tilted upward, gradually tapering to thin-edged tip; shaft\nrounded, straight.\n_Skull._--Large, broad and deep in relation to length; pterygoid fossa\nbroad; anterior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary relatively\nnarrow; nasofrontal juncture relatively broad; coronoid process of\nmandible elongate. Upper premolars relatively large (averaging .70 mm in\nlength and .75 mm in width), usually functional, occlusal surface with\nlabial re-entrant fold forming crescentine loop incompletely enclosing\nsingle central cusp; m3 relatively large, elongated; m1 elongated,\nbroadly rounded anteriorly.\nGEOGRAPHIC VARIATION\nThere are four subspecies currently recognized, all of which are\nconfined to the Pacific coastal region of North America (See fig. 45).\nThe features that vary geographically are external size, color of pelage\n(shade and tone of upper parts and tint of lower parts), and dimensions\nof certain cranial structures (zygomata, braincase, incisive foramina,\npalatal bridge, auditory bullae, and pterygoid fossae).\nExternal size is smallest in the southernmost geographic race (_Z. t.\norarius_) and largest in the northernmost geographic race (_Z. t.\ntrinotatus_). This decrease in size from north to south is clinal and is\nin keeping with Bergman's Rule which postulates that within one species\nthe smallest individuals occur in the warmer parts of its geographic\nrange.\n    [Illustration: FIG. 45. Map showing distribution of _Zapus\n       trinotatus_.\n     2. _Z. t. montanus_   4. _Z. t. trinotatus_]\nColoration of pelage is geographically variable. There is a gradual\nchange in the color of the pelage from north to south. Animals obtained\nin the northern part of the geographic range of _Z. trinotatus_ are\ngenerally darker dorsally (more tawny) with the ventral pelage usually\npure white. Those individuals from the southern part of the geographic\nrange of _Z. trinotatus_ have the dorsal pelage lighter (more reddish\nand yellow-brown) and ventrally the pelage is usually heavily suffused\nwith reddish-brown. The crania also vary geographically; they are\nlargest in the northernmost part of the range of the species and\nsmallest in the southernmost part.\nNATURAL HISTORY\n_Habitat._--On the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, in 1931 Svihla and\nSvihla (1933:132) found this species equally abundant in alpine meadows\nnear timberline, in open grassy areas, and in tall meadow grass and low\nblueberry bushes. All of the mice were in wet marshy places. Bailey\n(1936:232) reported that in Oregon, these mice live in meadows, marshes,\nunder ferns and weeds in the woods, or near mountain brooks and streams.\nTaylor (1922:221) found _Zapus_ in moderately moist meadows in the\nHudsonian Life-zone at Mt. Rainier, Washington, and Dice (1932:49) found\nthem in deciduous forest and in open, grassy, or sphagnum bogs. Dice\nrecords it as common also among the alders and willows in high, open,\ngrassy parks. Merriam (1897b:223) found _Z. trinotatus_ abundantly in\nmoist places grown-over with grass or weeds. Grass cuttings two to three\ninches long were left in small heaps at feeding sites and indicate the\npresence of these mice.\n_Behavior._--Svihla and Svihla (1933:131) write that the long tail of\n_Z. trinotatus_ is used as a balancing organ when the mouse is in\nmotion. A tailless mouse, attempting to escape, turned somersaults in\nthe air and invariably landed on its back; the loss of its tail seemed\nto leave the mouse without compensation for the vigorous push of the\nhind legs. Dalquest (1948:371) noted that the jumping mouse sometimes\nwalks on all fours, but ordinarily moves by means of short hops on the\nhind feet alone. When startled, jumping mice travel in bounds of six\nfeet or more at a jump.\n_Zapus trinotatus_, according to Bailey (1936:232) and Elliot\n(1899:261), is mainly nocturnal but occasionally is active in daylight.\nSvihla and Svihla (_op. cit._:132) heard captive animals make squeaking\nnoises when fighting. On several occasions captive animals made a\ndrumming noise by rapidly beating the tail against a resonant body such\nas the bottom of a tin can.\nConcerning hibernation, Bailey (_loc. cit._) remarks that animals of\nthis species in Oregon, become fat in early autumn and lay down excess\nadipose tissue under the skin, over the muscles, and in the abdominal\ncavity. Svihla and Svihla (_op. cit._:133) noted that captives from the\nOlympic Peninsula, Washington, gained weight in September and October\nand became extremely fat. With the additional weight they were more\nlistless and drowsy, often spending days curled up in the hibernating\nposition with the head between the hind legs and the long tail curled\ncompletely over the head and body. Warmth aroused the animals to\nactivity, but when the temperature dropped they again hibernated.\nFlahaut (1939:17) reported the discovery on February 23, 1939, at\nHenderson Inlet, South Bay, Thurston County, Washington, of two nest\ncavities inhabited by jumping mice that were hibernating. The nests,\nfour inches apart and 30 inches below the surface of the ground, were\napproximately five inches in diameter and made of shredded paper. Both\nmice were dormant, covered by nesting materials and curled up in the\naforementioned hibernating posture. Dalquest (1948: 371) writes that in\nthe lowlands of Washington this species disappears by late July but that\nin the mountains it remains active until the middle of September. Edson\n(1932:56) records an individual taken on April 20 from its place of\nhibernation beneath the roots of a decaying stump. This animal quickly\nroused in the warm mid-afternoon sun but became dormant again when the\ntemperature dropped to 45\u00b0 F. It seems that animals near the end of\nhibernation become active on warm days and return to the torpid state on\ncold ones.\n_Enemies._--Little is recorded concerning enemies of _Z. trinotatus_,\nbut Bailey (1936:233) lists owls and other nocturnal birds, weasels,\nskunks, and badgers as preying on this mouse. Smith and Hopkins\n(1937:191) found _Z. t. orarius_ in barn owl pellets obtained in Elk\nValley, Marin County, California.\n_Food._--Bailey (_loc. cit._) remarks that in Oregon, these mice feed\nmainly on small seeds of grasses, small grains (wheat, barley, oats, and\nrye), and other plants. These seeds are obtained by cutting the stems,\ndrawing the stems down and biting off lower sections until the\nseed-laden heads are reached. Bailey (_op. cit._:234) found that\n_trinotatus_ utilized also the seeds of the western skunk cabbage.\nNear Seattle, Washington, according to Dalquest (_loc. cit._), the\nprincipal food of _Z. trinotatus_ was velvet grass (_Holchus lanatus_),\nbroad-leaved dock, and the seeds of other grasses. Dalquest reports also\nthat the fruit of the blackberry (_Rubus macropelatus_) is eaten and\nthat an occasional jumping mouse has its chin stained a deep purple by\njuice from these berries.\n_Reproduction._--There is normally a single litter of from four to eight\nyoung per year according to Bailey (_loc. cit._). Newly born young have\nbeen described by Svihla and Svihla (1933:132) as follows: slightly\nsmaller than newly born harvest mice (_Reithrodontomys m. megalotis_),\naverage weight .8 grams, hairless (without even vibrissae visible),\npink, eyes closed, ears folded, heads short and stubby, tails long\n(longer than those of newly born _Peromyscus_), and bodies surprisingly\nsmall (when compared with newly born _Peromyscus maniculatus_).\n=Zapus trinotatus eureka= A. B. Howell\n    _Zapus trinotatus eureka_ A. B. Howell, Univ. California Publ.,\n    _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:26,\n        August 8, 1899 (part--the part from Crescent City and Carsons\n        Camp, Mad River, California).\n    _Zapus orarius_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:29, August 8, 1899\n        (part--the part from Eureka and Carsons Camp, Mad River,\n        California).\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull, No. 11703, Mus. Vert. Zool.;\nFair Oaks, Humboldt County, California; obtained on August 27, 1910, by\nJoseph S. Dixon, original No. 1743.\n_Range._--Northwestern coastal region of California, from Russian Gulch\nState Park, Mendocino County north to Trinidad, Humboldt County. Zonal\nrange: humid Transition.\n_Description._--Size medium; color dull; back near Ochraceous-Buff with\nheavy admixture of black hairs, forming broad dorsal band; sides from\nnear Ochraceous-Buff to near Ochraceous-Salmon, sometimes with heavy\nadmixture of black hairs; lateral line usually distinct, sometimes\nblending with color of belly and side; ventral surface usually suffused\nwith color of sides; tail bicolored, dark brown above, white to\nyellowish-white below; feet grayish-white above; ears dark, edged with\ncolor of sides; auditory bullae large; pterygoid fossae broad; incisive\nforamina relatively short; palatal bridge short; maxillary tooth-rows\nrelatively short; narrow across zygomata; braincase narrow; interorbital\nregion narrow; zygomatic arch relatively short.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_, _Z. t. eureka_\ndiffers in: Size smaller; ventral surface with much greater suffusion of\nochraceous; auditory bullae larger; pterygoid fossae relatively broader;\nfrontal region less inflated; palatal bridge shorter; braincase\nnarrower; narrow across zygomata; upper tooth-rows shorter.\nFor comparison with _Zapus trinotatus orarius_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--Howell (1920:230), without having examined the material,\nprovisionally referred specimens from Requa and Crescent City, Del Norte\nCounty, California, to _Z. t. eureka_. I have studied this material and\nfind the specimens to be intermediate between _Z. t. trinotatus_ and _Z.\nt. eureka_ in cranial characters (zygomatic breadth, interorbital width,\nand breadth of braincase), but nearer _Z. t. trinotatus_ in coloration\n(absence of ochraceous suffusion ventrally). They are here referred to\n_Z. t. trinotatus_. The zone of intergradation between _Z. t.\ntrinotatus_ and _Z. t. eureka_ seems to extend from Requa, California,\nnorth to Gold Beach, Oregon, where other specimens intermediate between\nthese two subspecies, have been obtained. These individuals are also\nreferred to _Z. t. trinotatus_ on the basis of cranial features and\ncolor.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 42, all from California, distributed as\nfollows: _Humboldt Co._: Trinidad, 4 (SDM); Carsons Camp, Mad River, 3\n(USBS); 3 mi. W Arcata, 5 (MVZ); _7-3/10 mi. E Bayside_, 1 (MVZ); _12\nmi. S Korbel, on Maple Creek_, 2 (MVZ); _Falk_, 1 (MVZ); Carlotta, 1\n(MVZ); _F. B. Summer Redwoods, S Eureka_, 1 (MVZ); _Maple Creek, 1 mi. W\njunction Mad River_, 12 (MVZ). _Mendocino County_: Mendocino City, 1\n(MVZ); Albion River, 1/3 mi. E MacDonalds Ranch, 1 (MVZ); Russian Gulch\nState Park, 10 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--California: Trinidad; Russian Gulch State Park;\nAlbion River, 1/3 mi. E MacDonalds Ranch; Mendocino City; Carlotta.\n=Zapus trinotatus montanus= Merriam\n    _Zapus trinotatus montanus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,\n    _Zapus montanus_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:28, August 8, 1899.\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; No. 79863, U. S. Nat. Mus.,\nBiol. Surv. Coll.; Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon; obtained on\nAugust 19, 1896, by Edward A. Preble, original No. 1388.\n_Range._--From Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon, northward along the\nCascade Range into Hood River County, Oregon. Zonal range: Transition\nand Canadian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back near Ochraceous-Buff with admixture of\nblack hair, resulting in a grizzled, broad, dorsal band; sides lighter\nthan back, from near Ochraceous-Buff to near Pinkish-Cinnamon, and lined\nwith black hair; lateral line distinct; underparts usually pure white,\nsometimes with slight suffusion of ochraceous on lower throat and upper\nchest; tail bicolored, brown above and yellowish-white below; ears dark,\nsometimes flecked with ochraceous, edged with yellowish-white; feet\ngrayish-white above; braincase relatively narrow; zygomata relatively\nshort; condylobasal length short; mastoid region relatively narrow;\npalatal bridge short; auditory bullae large; frontal region inflated;\npterygoid fossae relatively narrow.\n_Comparison._--From _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_, _Z. t. montanus_\ndiffers as follows: Size averaging smaller; sides more ochraceous, fewer\nblack hairs; upper parts duller; skull smaller; zygomatic arch shorter,\nbraincase relatively narrower; frontal region more inflated; pterygoid\nfossae relatively narrower; zygomata narrower.\n_Remarks._--The systematic status of _Z. t. montanus_ has been in doubt.\nSeveral workers, for example, Howell (1920:227) and Preble (1899:28),\nconsidered it to be a species, and others (Merriam, 1897a:104, Bailey,\n1936:234) considered it to be a subspecies of _Z. trinotatus_. _Z.\nmontanus_ is here considered to be a subspecies of _Z. trinotatus_,\nbecause of the agreement of the two in size and shape of the baculum,\ndiameter and pigment pattern of the hair, and the over-all proportions\nof the skull. In addition, animals from intermediate geographic areas\nare available and show actual intergradation.\nIntergradation has been noted in specimens from North Santiam River,\n3400 ft., Oregon. In color, in length of incisive foramina, in breadth\nof braincase, and in width of zygomata these specimens are intermediate\nbetween _Zapus trinotatus montanus_ and _Z. t. trinotatus_, but in the\nsum-total of characters they are referable to the former. Specimens from\nLost Creek R. S., 10 mi. SE McKenzie Bridge, are intermediate in color\nbetween _Z. t. trinotatus_ and _Z. t. montanus_; they are referable to\n_Z. t. montanus_. The animals available from Brooks Meadow, 4300 ft., 9\nmi. ENE Mt. Hood and the one from Mt. Hood, in color, in length of\nincisive foramina, and in mastoid width, closely approach _Z. t.\ntrinotatus_ from Skamania County, Washington, but in the sum-total of\ncharacters are nearest _Z. t. montanus_ and are here referred to\n_montanus_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 35, all from Oregon, distributed as\nfollows: _Deschutes County_: Tumalo Creek, 15 mi. W Bend, 6100 ft., 3\n(MVZ). _Douglas Co._: Diamond Lake, 1 (USBS). _Hood River Co._: Brooks\nMeadow, 4300 ft., 9 mi. ENE Mt. Hood, 10 (MVZ); _Mt. Hood_, 1 (USBS).\n_Klamath Co._: _Crater Lake_, 3 (MVZ); _1/2 mi. N Government Camp, 6700\nft., Munson Valley, Crater Lake Nat'l Park_, 2 (MVZ); east slope Cascade\nDivide, 6400 ft., Crater Lake Nat'l Park, 2; Anna Creek, Mt. Mazama,\n6000 ft., 2 (USBS). _Lane Co._: Lost Creek R. S., 10 mi. SE McKenzie\nBridge, 6 (USBS); _Three Sisters, Alder Springs, 4300 ft._, 2 (USBS).\n_Linn County_: North Santiam River, 3400 ft., 3 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--Oregon: Brooks Meadow, 4300 ft., 9 mi. ENE Mt.\nHood; Tumalo Creek, 15 mi. W Bend, 6100 ft.; Anna Creek, Mt. Mazama,\n6000 ft.; east slope Cascade Divide, 6400 ft., Crater Lake Nat'l Park;\nDiamond Lake; North Santiam River, 3400 ft.\n=Zapus trinotatus orarius= Preble\n    _Zapus orarius_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:29, August 8, 1899.\n    _Zapus pacificus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:104,\n        April 26, 1897 (part--the part from Point Reyes, Marin County,\n        California).\n    _Zapus trinotatus orarius_, Hooper, Miscl. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ.\n_Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull, No. 250, collection of E. A. and\nO. Bangs (now in Mus. Comp. Zool.); Point Reyes, Marin County,\nCalifornia; obtained on May 14, 1893, by C. A. Allen, original No. 618.\n_Range._--Southern and western Marin County, California. Zonal range:\nUpper Sonoran areas that are moist yet safe from continuous inundation.\n_Description._--Size small; back dark ochraceous, usually overlaid with\nblack hairs forming broad dorsal band; side lighter than back with\nadmixture of black hairs; lateral line distinct, usually bright, near\nOchraceous-Buff; under parts strongly suffused with ochraceous; tail\nbicolored, white to yellowish-white below and dark brown above; feet\ngrayish-white above; ears dark, edged with yellowish-white or tan; skull\nsmall; zygomata narrow; braincase narrow; maxillary tooth-rows short;\ninterorbital region narrow; incisive foramina short; palatal bridge\nrelatively long; mastoid region relatively broad; occipitonasal length\nshort.\n_Comparison._--From _Zapus trinotatus eureka_, _Z. t. orarius_ differs\nin: Size smaller; color, dorsally and laterally, brighter, more\nochraceous; skull averaging smaller in all measurements taken except\nlength of palatal bridge, where it averages longer; auditory bullae\nsmaller, less inflated; pterygoid fossae narrower.\n_Remarks._--Preble (1899:30) named this jumping mouse as a full species.\nIncluded in the specimens examined were animals from Eureka and Mad\nRiver, Humboldt County, California. Howell (1920:231) retained _Z.\norarius_ as a full species but restricted its range to Marin County,\nCalifornia, and referred material from northern California, including\nthe animals from Eureka and Mad River, to a new subspecies (_eureka_) of\nthe species _Z. trinotatus_. Howell (_loc. cit._) suggested that _Z.\norarius_ had its closest affinity with _Z. t. eureka_ but remarked that\nintergrading material was not available. Hooper (1944:68) arranged _Z.\norarius_ as a subspecies of _Z. trinotatus_ and suggested that\nintergrades could be expected from geographically intermediate areas,\nfor example, northern Sonoma County, California.\nAlthough animals from intermediate geographic areas still are not\navailable to show actual intergradation, I concur with Hooper (_loc.\ncit._) and arrange _Z. orarius_ as a subspecies of _Z. trinotatus_. The\nclose relationship of _Z. orarius_ to _Z. trinotatus_ is evident;\ncertain diagnostic characters, held in common, are the shape and size of\nthe os penis, the diameter and pigment pattern of the hair, and the\ngeneral configuration of the skull.\nInterbreeding in the wild between _Z. t. orarius_ and _Z. t. eureka_\nprobably does not take place, because these subspecies are separated by\nterrain unsuited to jumping mice.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 29, all from California, distributed as\nfollows: _Marin County_ (MVZ): 3 mi. W Inverness, 300 ft., 14; _5 mi.\nNNE Point Reyes Lighthouse_, 12; _W end Elk Valley, 10 ft._, 1; West\nPortal, Fort Barry, 2.\n_Marginal records._--California: 3 mi. W Inverness, 300 ft.; West\nPortal, Fort Barry.\n=Zapus trinotatus trinotatus= Rhoads\n    _Zapus trinotatus Rhoads_, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Baird, Repts. Expl. and Surv. 111, 8 (pt. 1):\n        433, July 14, 1858 (part--the part from Washington).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the\n        Territories, 2nd ser., No. 5:260, 1877 (part--the part from\n        Steilacoom [Pierce County], Washington).\n    _Zapus imperator_ Elliot, Field Columbian Mus., publ. 30, zool.\n        ser., 1:228, February 1, 1899, type from Siegs Ranch, Elwah River,\n        Clallam County, Washington.\n    _Zapus princeps trinotatus_, Dalquest, Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat.\n_Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull, No. 360, S. N. Rhoads Coll.; Lulu\nIsland, mouth of Frazer River, British Columbia; obtained on May 31,\n1892, by S. N. Rhoads (type in Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci.).\n_Range._--Pacific coastal region from Requa, Del Norte County,\nCalifornia, north in Oregon west of the Cascades, and in Washington\nincluding the Cascades; to southwestern British Columbia.\n_Description._--Size large; back from near Ochraceous-Buff to near Tawny\nwith admixture of black hair forming broad dorsal band; sides lighter\nthan back from near Ochraceous-Buff to near Tawny; lateral line usually\ndistinct; belly white, sometimes with faint suffusion of ochraceous on\nlower throat and upper chest; tail bicolored, brown above, white to\nyellowish-white below; ears dark, sometimes flecked with color of sides,\nedged with ochraceous; feet grayish-white above; palatal bridge\nrelatively short; incisive foramina relatively long; condylobasal region\nlong; zygomatic width great; braincase relatively broad; distance from\nincisors to postpalatal notch relatively great.\n_Comparisons._--For comparisons with _Zapus trinotatus montanus_ and\n_Zapus trinotatus eureka_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--This subspecies retains most of its diagnostic characters\nthroughout nearly all parts of its geographic range. Intergradation\noccurs between _Z. t. eureka_ and _Z. t. trinotatus_ in extreme\nsouthwestern Oregon and northwestern California (see account of _Z. t.\neureka_). Intergrades between _Z. t. montanus_ and _Z. t. trinotatus_\nhave been commented on in the account of _Z. t. montanus_. Specimens\nfrom Eugene, Oregon, according to Bailey (1936:232), show affinity to\n_Z. t. montanus_ but are considered by him to be _Z. t. trinotatus_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 238, distributed as follows:\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: Alta Lake, on Pac. Gt. Eastern Ry., 2600 ft., 5 (MVZ);\nOkanagan, 1 (FM); _Vedder Crossing_, 4 (1 MVZ, 3 PM); _Chilliwack\nValley_, 2 (NMC); 18 mi. S Chilliwack, 1 (MVZ); Cultus Lake, 2 (NMC);\n_Lihumption Park, 4500-4800 ft._, 12 (NMC); _Seymour Mtn., 4000 ft._, 8\n(1 MVZ, 7 PM); _Cariboo_, 2 (FM); _Sumas_, 8 (1 MVZ, 7 FM); Huntingdon,\n40 (NMC); _Parnassus Creek, Black Tusk Meadow, 5200 ft._, 1 (PM); _Howe\nSound, Brackendale_, 2 (NMC); Stanley Park, Vancouver, 1 (PM); _Allison\nPass, Manning Park_, 1 (PM); Manning Park, 2 (PM).\nCALIFORNIA: _Del Norte Co._: Crescent City, 11 (6 FM, 5 USBS); Requa, 4\n(FM).\nOREGON: _Benton County_: _3 mi. N Corvallis_, 2. _Clatsop County_: Old\nFort Clatsop, 100 ft., 11 (MVZ); 7-1/2 mi. S Cannon Beach, 50 ft., 1\n(MVZ). _Columbia County_: 7 mi. SE Rainier, 100 ft., 11 (MVZ). _Curry\nCounty_: Gold Beach, 3 (FM). _Douglas County_: Gardiner, 7 (5 MVZ, 2\nFM). _Lane County_: Sutton Lake, 6 mi. N Florence, 1 (MVZ). _Lincoln\nCounty_: _Delake_, 3 (2 MVZ); Newport, 2 (MVZ). _Multnomah County_:\nPortland, Council Crest, 950 ft., 1 (MVZ). _Tillamook Co._:\n_Tillamook_, 1 (MVZ); _9 mi. S Tillamook_, 1 (MVZ); Netarts, 3 (SDM);\nBlaine, 3 (MVZ). _Washington County_: 18-1/2 mi. NW Portland, 1300 ft.,\nWASHINGTON: _Clallam County_: Deer Lake, 3800 ft., 3. _Clarke County_:\n(MVZ); _1-1/2 mi. W Yacolt, 800 ft._, 11 (MVZ). _Cowlitz County_: _6 mi.\nNE Kelso_, 4 (MVZ); _4 mi. E mouth Kalama River_, 5 (MVZ). _King\nCounty_: Lakeridge Tract, S end Forest Ave., Lake Washington, 2 (MVZ);\nSeattle 2 (MVZ); Snoqualmie Pass, 5 (MVZ). _Mason County_: Potlatch, 2\n(MVZ). _Pacific County_: _1-1/2 mi. N Chinook, 10 ft._, 1 (MVZ); 3-1/2\nmi. SE Chinook, 10 ft., 5 (MVZ). _Pierce Co._: 5 mi. E Tacoma, 4 (MVZ);\nPuyallup, 3 (1 MVZ, 2 FM); Mt. Rainier, 1 (MVZ); 3 mi. E Ashford, 1\n(LMH). _Skamania County_: Ice Caves, 2800 ft., 5 mi. WSW Guler, 1 (MVZ).\n_Thurston County_: Boston Harbor, 5 (CAS). _Wahkiakum County_: 4 mi. E\nSkamokawa, 5 (MVZ). _Whatcom County_: Baker Lake, 2 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--British Columbia: Okanagan; Manning Park.\nWashington: Baker Lake; Snoqualmie Pass; Mt. Rainier; Ice Caves, 2800\nft., 5 mi. WSW Gulch. Oregon: Portland, Council Crest, 950 ft.\nCalifornia: Requa; Crescent City. Oregon: Gold Beach; Gardiner; Sutton\nLake, 6 mi. N Florence; Newport; Netarts; Old Fort Clatsop, 100 ft.\nWashington: 3-1/2 mi. SE Chinook, 10 ft.; Deer Lake, 3800 ft. British\nColumbia: Stanley Park, Vancouver; Alta Lake, 2600 ft.\n=Zapus princeps= Allen\n(Synonymy under subspecies)\n_Range._--The Rocky Mountains region from Yukon south into Arizona and\nNew Mexico; westward through eastern Oregon and through the Cascades and\nSierra Nevada of California; eastward in the northern Great Plains to\nextreme eastern parts of the Dakotas (see fig. 46).\n_Characters of the species_: _External._--Size medium to large (total\nlength 216 mm to 247 mm); tail longer than head and body (129 mm to 148\nmm) and bicolored, pale brown to grayish-brown above, white to\nyellowish-white below; hind feet long (31 mm to 34 mm), grayish-white\nabove; back variable from yellowish-gray to salmon-brown and ochraceous;\nsides paler than back; lateral line usually present but sometimes\nindistinct or entirely absent (when present usually clear\nOchraceous-Buff); ventral coloration white, usually suffused with\nochraceous; ears usually dark, sometimes flecked and usually narrowly\nedged with light color; guard hairs average 142 microns (130u to 168u)\nin diameter; underhair with medullary pigment in form of hollow squares;\ncuticular scales of underhair larger and fewer than in other species.\n_Baculum._--Size medium (total length 5.6 mm to 6.6 mm); base moderately\nbroad (0.7 mm to 0.8 mm); tip narrow (0.26 mm to 0.31 mm) rounded and\ndished out in dorsal aspect, blunted; shaft rounded, slightly\nsinusoidal, recurved at tip.\n_Skull._--Large, not exceptionally broad and deep in relation to length;\nrostrum broad but tapering; pterygoid fossa moderately narrow; anterior\nramus of zygomatic process usually broad; incisive foramina usually\nbroadly rounded and elongate; auditory bullae usually moderately\ninflated; coronoid process of mandible relatively short. Upper premolars\nof medium size (averaging .55 mm in length and .50 mm in breadth),\nsometimes functional, with occlusal surface normally divided by single\nshallow re-entrant fold; m1 relatively short, narrow anteriorly.\n    [Illustration: FIG. 46. Distribution of _Zapus princeps_.\n     Guide to subspecies\n     3. _Z. p. idahoensis_        9. _Z. p. princeps_\n     4. _Z. p. kootenayensis_    10. _Z. p. saltator_\nGEOGRAPHIC VARIATION\nThere are 11 subspecies recognized, most of which are in the mountains\nof the western United States and southwestern Canada. There is\ngeographic variation in color, relative proportions of external parts\n(tail, hind feet, head, and body), and shape and size of the skull.\nThree basic types of coloration occur in _Z. princeps_, as pointed out\nby Hall (1931:9). Yellow-sided dark-backed jumping mice exemplified by\n_kootenayensis_, _idahoensis_, and _utahensis_ are found to the eastward\nin the Rocky Mountains. Reddishbrown-sided, brown-backed jumping mice\ntypified by _luteus_ and _pacificus_ are found to the westward in the\nSierra Nevada and in New Mexico and Arizona; mice with yellowish-buff or\npinkish-buff-sides and light backs are the subspecies, _cinereus_,\n_curtatus_, and _oregonus_, that occur in the intervening Great Basin.\nExternal dimension as a whole decreases from north to south, although\nnot uniformly. For example, the smallest individuals are of the\nsouthernmost geographic subspecies (_Z. p. luteus_), but the largest are\nof the subspecies (_Z. p. utahensis_) that is near the geographic center\nof the range for the species. In the skull there is geographic variation\nin the length and shape of the zygomata, size and shape of the incisive\nforamina, alignment of maxillary tooth-rows, size and shape of auditory\nbullae, position of the postpalatal notch in relation to M3, and the\npresence or absence and size of the medial projection on the inferior\nramus of the zygomatic process of the maxillary.\nNATURAL HISTORY\n_Habitat._--_Zapus princeps_ occurs most commonly adjacent to streams\nwhere grasses and herbs are in lush growth. It frequents mountain\nmeadows neighboring small streams and is often taken from alder, aspen,\nor stands of willow, where the moist ground supports a heavy undergrowth\nof herbs. Davis (1939:330) found these mice in heavy herbage along a\nsmall stream bordered by quaking aspen near Victor, Teton County, Idaho.\nThey were found along streams bordered by willow, rose, alder,\nhuckleberry, sedges, and herbs of various kinds at Alturas Lake, Mill\nCreek, and at the head of the Pahsimeroi River. Linsdale (1938:195)\nfound jumping mice in the Toyabe Mountains, Nevada, near the streamsides\nor in seepy areas close to the streams where associated vegetation\nincluded rose, willow, wild peach, sage, grasses, and herbs. In the\nUinta Mountains, Utah, R. D. Svihla (1931:264) obtained them from\nwillows along streams in mountain parks. Borell and Ellis (1934:37) in\nthe Ruby Mountains, Nevada, found jumping mice to be common in heavy\nvegetation along streams. Louise Kellogg (1916:369) obtained jumping\nmice in northern California; all were near water, in grassy meadows, or\nunder alders where vegetation was dense.\n_Zapus princeps_ is locally abundant, but its numbers seem to vary\nconsiderably from year to year as well as seasonally. Early autumn, when\nyoung of the year are abroad, seems to be the period of greatest\nabundance. Moore (1928:154) remarks that runways were plainly marked and\nwell strewn with four-inch pieces of brome-grass. Davis (1939:334) notes\nthat _Z. princeps_ has runways, and found that sections, four inches\nlong, of cut grass piled in runways was good evidence of the presence of\nthe mouse.\n_Behavior._--In reference to locomotion of _Z. princeps_, Davis (_loc.\ncit._) writes, \"In rapid progression jumping mice move by a series of\nzigzag hops. One young of the year found in tall grass near Victor made\nhorizontal leaps of approximately three feet. The zigzag course was\ndifficult for me to follow, and I was led to wonder if this mode of\nlocomotion were not advantageous to the mice in eluding animals that\nwould do them harm.\" Hollister (1912:26) remarked that _princeps_, when\nstartled, sometimes jumps five to six feet at a bound. Concerning the\nswimming ability of _Z. princeps_, Bailey (1936:233) quotes from\nHollister's notes, \"While I was walking around the grassy border of a\nsmall pond one jumped out at my feet and struck in the water like a\nfrog, which at first it was thought to be, until it was seen swimming\nacross the pond on the surface of the water ... he certainly handled\nhimself as if perfectly at home and swam with little effort and great\nspeed over the still surface of the pond.\" Davis (1939:334) obtained two\nindividuals at Mill Creek, Idaho, in traps placed on artificial islands\nof stones in the middle of the creek where the water was about six\ninches deep. He speculated that the only way the mice could have reached\nthe traps was by swimming. Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930:531)\nrecord an individual which was seen hopping in the inch-deep water of a\nsmall stream at Lake Helen, California.\nAccording to Hollister (1912:26) and Davis (1939:335), jumping mice are\nfor the most part nocturnal, but occasionally they are seen by day in\ntall grass.\nLittle is recorded concerning the hibernation of _Z. princeps_. What\ndata are available suggest that, starting in July, these animals\naccumulate a heavy layer of fat on the inside of the skin with\nespecially large amounts in the inguinal region. By August or early\nSeptember, animals are excessively fat, and the start of hibernation is\ndependent then upon the arrival of a heavy cold snap. Grinnell, Dixon,\nand Linsdale (1930:531), in their study of the vertebrates of the Lassen\nPeak region of California noted that the latest activity by these mice\nwas September 13. As regards the time of onset of hibernation in Idaho,\nDavis (1939:336) states that, \"I know of no records of capture later\nthan September and infer that hibernation begins in that month or the\nnext.\" Bailey (1932:227) writes that in New Mexico, animals obtained on\nSeptember 20 were very fat, probably were ready to hibernate at the\nfirst cold wave, and had winter nests in burrows well underground.\n_Enemies._--Bailey (_loc. cit._) lists hawks, owls, and weasels as\nnatural predators on _Z. princeps_. Stanford (1931:362) records the\ngarter snake (_Thamnophis_) as a predator of jumping mice. A large snake\nof this genus obtained by him regurgitated two jumping mice a few hours\nafter its capture. Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937:232) report that\non Parker Creek, in California, H. C. Bryant frightened a weasel that\ndropped a freshly killed jumping mouse. Crowe (1943:407) reported\n_Cuterebra_ fly larvae in the inguinal region of a _Z. princeps_\nobtained at Invermere, British Columbia. Several mice of this species\ntaken at Moccasin Lake, 19 mi. W and 4 mi. N of Lander, 10,000 ft.,\nFremont County, Wyoming, were heavily infested with mites of the family\nLaelaptidae.\n_Food._--In early September in central Utah, Moore (1928:154) found only\na white, starchy, glutinous paste in stomachs of six _Z. princeps_ and\nonly traces of a brown seed coat in a seventh. The main seeds eaten\nseemed to be from an introduced brome-grass which was abundant in the\nvicinity of capture. Bailey (1932:226) wrote of _Z. princeps_ in New\nMexico, that \"In feeding they cut down the tall grass, beginning at the\nbottom and cutting the stem at intervals as high as they can reach until\nthe seed part of the grass is brought down.\" He (_op. cit._:227)\nremarked that the food was almost entirely seeds of grass and grasslike\nplants and that the stomach contents almost always were perfectly clean\nwhite dough from the shelled kernels of small seeds.\n_Reproduction._--Females with embryos have been collected from late May\nto mid-July and lactating individuals until late August. Possibly there\nis only one litter per season as Davis (1939:336) suggests is the case\nin Idaho.\nEmbryos in 25 pregnant females averaged 5 (2-7). The mammae of the\nfemale are arranged in four pairs (two abdominal, one pectoral, and one\ninguinal).\n_Z. princeps_ builds a grass nest on the ground which is placed under\ncover of vegetation or surface litter. Bailey (1932:227) writes that in\nNew Mexico jumping mice of this species use fibers of grass to construct\na ball-shaped nest. The nest usually has one opening but sometimes there\nare two. In the Ruby Mountains, of Nevada, Borell and Ellis (1934:37)\nfound the globular nests of this mouse on the ground in tall grass.\n=Zapus princeps cinereus= Hall\n    _Zapus princeps cinereus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:7,\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; No. 45422, Mus. Vert. Zool.;\nPine Canyon, 6600 feet altitude, Raft River Mountains, 17 mi. northwest\nKelton, Boxelder County, Utah; obtained on July 14, 1930, by Annie M.\nAlexander; original No. 689.\n_Range._--Raft River Mt's in northwestern Utah and in isolated mountains\nin southern Idaho. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition and Canadian.\n_Description._--Size, medium; back with broad mid-dorsal band, varying\nfrom pale brown mixed with Pinkish-Buff to dark brown mixed with Warm\nBuff or Ochraceous-Buff; sides varying from near Pinkish-Buff to near\nOchraceous-Buff; ventral surface white to base of hairs, not suffused\nwith other color; tail bicolored, pale brown above and white to\nyellowish-white below; ears dark, edged with white or yellowish-white;\nupper teeth divergent anteriorly; auditory bullae small; skull\nrelatively long; zygomata relatively weak and not widely bowed; nasals\nwide posteriorly; pterygoid fossae relatively narrow.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps nevadensis_, _Z. p. cinereus_\ndiffers as follows: Size averaging smaller; entire coloration lighter;\nzygomata not so widely bowed; incisive foramina not so wide posteriorly;\nauditory bullae smaller; nasals wider posteriorly; pterygoid fossae\nnarrower.\nFrom _Zapus princeps idahoensis_, _Z. p. cinereus_ can be distinguished\nby: generally paler color; smaller auditory bullae; broader interorbital\nregion; anteriorly diverging tooth-rows; narrower pterygoid fossae.\nFor comparison with _Zapus princeps utahensis_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--Davis (1939:343) writes that \"since _cinereus_ was described\nfrom nine specimens, only two of which are near adult, one cannot place\nmuch value on the coloration ascribed to it by Hall (1931:7).\" I\nexamined the type series and found, as did Davis (_loc. cit._), that the\ntype is much lighter and grayer than is a near adult paratype, which was\nobtained the same day; however, I do not concur with Davis (_loc. cit._)\nthat specimens from Mt. Harrison, 10 mi. S Albion, Idaho, which are\ndarker and much more ochraceous than the paratype, necessarily are more\nnearly typically colored. These individuals, judged by cranial\ncharacters, are more nearly typical of _cinereus_ but show\nintergradation with _Z. p. idahoensis_ in their darker and more\nochraceous pelage.\nDurrant (1952:387) found that the gray color of _Z. p. cinereus_ was not\ndiagnostic in separating _Z. p. cinereus_ from _Z. p. utahensis_,\nbecause gray animals are also found in _Z. p. utahensis_. Specimens from\nCamp Tendoy, Pocatello, Idaho, are intermediate in color and in cranial\ncharacters as between _Z. p. idahoensis_ and _Z. p. cinereus_, but here\nare referred to _Z. p. cinereus_. Whitlow and Hall (1933:268) compared\nthese individuals with specimens of _Z. p. princeps_ and _Z. p.\ncinereus_, finding them intermediate but in the aggregate of several\ndifferential characters better referred to the latter.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 35, distributed as follows:\nIDAHO: _Bannock County_: Camp Tendoy, Pocatello, 2 (MVZ). _Cassia\nCounty_: Mt. Harrison, 10 mi. S Albion, 16 (MVZ).\nUTAH: _Boxelder Co._: _south fork of George Creek, 5 mi. SE Yost, Raft\nRiver Mts., 6700 ft._, 1 (UU); _George Creek, 7 mi. SE Yost, Raft River\nMts., 6500 ft._, 6 (UU); _Pine Canyon, 6600 ft., 17 mi. NW Kelton, Raft\nRiver Mts._, 8 (MVZ); Pine Creek, 3 mi. N Rosette, Raft River Mts., 6100\n_Marginal records._--Idaho: Camp Tendoy, Pocatello. Utah: Pine Creek, 3\nmi. N Rosette, Raft River Mts., 6100 ft. Idaho: Mt. Harrison, 10 mi. S\nAlbion.\n=Zapus princeps curtatus= Hall\n    _Zapus princeps curtatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:7,\n    _Zapus princeps oregonus_, Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull, No. 7991, Mus. Vert. Zool.; head\nof Big Creek, 8000 feet altitude, Pine Forest Mountains, Humboldt\nCounty, Nevada; obtained on June 30, 1909, by Walter P. Taylor and C. H.\nRichardson, original No. 777 of W. P. T.\n_Range._--Pine Forest Mt's, Humboldt County, Nevada. See fig. 46. Zonal\nrange: Transition and Canadian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back pale near Light Ochraceous-Buff with\nadmixture of black hair forming dark dorsal band; sides lighter than\nback; lateral line faintly indicated; ventral surface white; tail\nbicolored, grayish-white to yellowish-white below and pale brown above;\nears dark, edged with yellowish-white; feet grayish-white above; palatal\nbridge short; tooth-rows almost parallel; mastoid region of skull\nrelatively narrow; incisive foramina wide posteriorly; narrow across\nzygomata; nasals relatively narrow posteriorly.\n_Comparisons._--For comparison with _Zapus princeps oregonus_ see\naccount of that subspecies.\n_Remarks._--This jumping mouse, which was described from the Pine Forest\nMountains, closely resembles _Zapus princeps oregonus_ but differs in\nlighter color, slightly smaller body, less divergent tooth-rows,\nshorter palate, and narrower skull across the mastoid region.\nThe Pine Forest Mountains are isolated from neighboring boreal regions\nby a belt of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone, which is inhospitable to\n_Zapus_; therefore, intergrades between _Z. p. oregonus_ and _Z. p.\ncurtatus_ are not known and probably do not exist. Nevertheless, _Z. p.\ncurtatus_ shows close affinity with _Z. p. oregonus_, as indicated by\nTaylor (1911:281), and I agree with Hall (1931:7) that the relationships\nof _Z. p. curtatus_ are best expressed by arranging it as a subspecies\nof _Zapus princeps_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 18, all from Nevada, distributed as\nfollows: _Humboldt County_: Pine Forest Mts.; Alder Creek, 6000 ft., 2\n(MVZ); head of Big Creek, 8000 ft., 14 (MVZ); _Leonard Creek, 6500 ft._,\n2 (MVZ); Meadow, 1 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--Nevada: Pine Forest Mts., Alder Creek; Meadow.\n=Zapus princeps idahoensis= Davis\n    _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15:221, August 10,\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Allen, Bull. Essex Inst., 6:61, April, 1874\n        (part--the part in Carbon County, Wyoming).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:72-73, July 30, 1891.\n    _Zapus princeps princeps_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:22-23, August\n_Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull; No. 54845, Mus. Vert. Zool.; 5 mi.\nE Warm Lake, 7000 ft., Valley County, Idaho; obtained on July 9, 1932,\nby Robert T. Orr; original No. 660.\n_Range._--From Banff, Alberta, southward through extreme southwestern\nAlberta and extreme southwestern British Columbia, most of the panhandle\nof Idaho, Kamiak Butte in eastern Washington, western Montana, and\nwestern Wyoming (Green, Wind River and Absoroka ranges of the Rocky\nMt's). See fig. 46.\n_Description._--Size, medium; back from near Clay Color to near Warm\nBuff, usually overlaid with black hairs forming broad dorsal band; sides\nlighter than back; lateral line indistinct or wanting; belly pure white,\noccasionally faintly tinged with Ochraceous-Buff; tail indistinctly\nbicolored, tan to grayish-white below and pale brown above; hind feet\ngrayish-white above; ears dark, edged with white or yellowish-white;\npostpalatal notch anterior to posterior border of last molars; proximal\npart of inferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary relatively\nnarrow and usually without enlarged median projection; auditory bullae\nwell inflated; incisive foramina relatively narrow.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_, _Z. p. idahoensis_\ndiffers as follows: Size averaging larger; upper parts with greater\nsuffusion of ochraceous, not grayish or dusty; skull larger; incisive\nforamina longer and relatively wider; zygomatic breadth averaging\ngreater; nasals broader at tips; auditory bullae more inflated.\nFrom _Zapus princeps oregonus_, _Z. p. idahoensis_ differs in: Size\naveraging smaller; upper parts generally more suffused with black hairs,\non the average more yellowish with less ochraceous; skull smaller;\nincisive foramina narrower (breadth less, instead of more, than 52 per\ncent of length); palatal bridge shorter; zygomatic arch shorter;\npterygoid fossae narrower.\nFrom _Zapus princeps utahensis_, _Z. p. idahoensis_ can be distinguished\nby: Size less; color slightly darker; skull averaging smaller in\nzygomatic breadth, least interorbital constriction, and occipitonasal\nlength; palate narrower; upper tooth-rows nearly parallel as opposed to\ndiverging anteriorly.\nFrom _Zapus princeps minor_, _Z. p. idahoensis_ differs in: Size larger;\ncolor of underparts less ochraceous; lateral line indistinct or wanting;\nskull averaging larger in all measurements taken except that the two\nsubspecies are approximately same in least interorbital constriction,\nlength of zygomatic arch, and distance from anterior face of incisors to\npostpalatal notch; nasals, in profile, straight instead of with proximal\nthird depressed; postpalatal notch anterior to posterior face of last\nmolar, instead of even with, or usually posterior to, same.\nFrom _Zapus princeps saltator_, _Z. p. idahoensis_ differs as follows:\nSize averaging slightly larger; color darker, being less ochraceous and\nmore yellow dorsally and laterally; auditory bullae more inflated;\nzygomatic arches less bowed laterally; incisive foramina narrower.\nFor comparison with _Zapus princeps princeps_ and _Zapus princeps\ncinereus_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--Intergradation occurs at almost all of the places where the\nrange of _Z. p. idahoensis_ is known to touch that of any other\ngeographic race. Nevertheless, each of the populations studied has\ncharacters which make this subspecies recognizable as a taxonomic unit,\nalthough its characters are not yet stabilized even in the central part\nof its range.\nAmong named subspecies of _Zapus princeps_, _Zapus p. idahoensis_ most\nclosely resembles _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_, its nearest geographic\nneighbor to the north. Three specimens from 2 mi. NE Weippe, 3000 ft.,\nIdaho, are best referred to _Z. p. idahoensis_ but show relationship to\n_Z. p. kootenayensis_ in size and shape of the tympanic bullae. The\nrelationship of individuals from Idaho, here referred to _Z. p.\nidahoensis_, from Glidden Lakes, Enaville, Cascade Creek, and 13 mi. E\nand 5 mi. N Coeur d'Alene, is discussed in the account of _Z. p.\nkootenayensis_. British Columbian specimens from Newgate and Crows Nest\nPass, 4450 ft., as well as Albertan specimens from Crows Nest Pass and\nvarious places in Waterton Lake Park, resemble _Z. p. kootenayensis_ in\ncolor but cranially are more nearly like _Z. p. idahoensis_.\nIntergradation with _Zapus princeps oregonus_ was noted by Davis\n(1939:340) in a specimen from Cedar Mountain in Idaho. I have not seen\nthis individual which he referred to _Z. p. idahoensis_ but have seen a\nspecimen from the N Fork of Potlatch River (15 mi. SE Cedar Mt.), which,\nin color, closely resembles _Z. p. oregonus_ but cranially (shape of\nincisive foramina, size, and inflation of auditory bullae) is more\nnearly like _Z. p. idahoensis_ to which it is referred. Davis (_loc.\ncit._) indicates that specimens from summit of Smith Mt., from 1 mi. N\nBear Creek R. S., from 1/2 mi. E Black Lake, and from 3 mi. W Payette\nLake, Idaho, are in an area of intergradation between _Z. p. oregonus_\nand _Z. p. idahoensis_, but he referred them to _Z. p. idahoensis_ on\nthe basis of cranial characters and length of hind foot. Seven specimens\nfrom Alturas Lake, 7000 ft., Idaho, were likewise so allocated by Davis\n(_loc. cit._). I concur with him and in addition refer the following\nintermediate individuals from Idaho to _Z. p. idahoensis_: New Meadow,\n1; Warren, 1; Perkins Lake, 7000 ft., Sawtooth Nat'l Forest, 1; Prairie\nCreek, 12 mi. W Ketchum, 2400 ft., 3. All are more nearly like _Z. p.\noregonus_ in color but cranially they show more resemblance to _Z. p.\nidahoensis_.\nIn the eastern part of the range of _Z. p. idahoensis_, intergradation\noccurs with _Zapus princeps minor_, as at 15 mi. S Heath, N Fork Flat\nWillow Creek, Big Snowy Mt's, Montana. Specimens from there have the\nlateral line enlarged and the maximum seen in this species of Ochraceous\ncolor ventrally. The pterygoid fossae are large and the bullae are\nreduced as in _Z. p. minor_, but in the sum total of the characters the\nmice more closely resemble _Z. p. idahoensis_. At Lewistown, 7 mi. NE\nJudith Mt's, Lime Kiln Gulch, Montana, the animals are colored as are\n_Z. p. minor_ but cranially are like _Z. p. idahoensis_ to which they\nare referred. Specimens from the Highwood Mt's, Montana, also are\nintergrades; they have a relatively distinct lateral line as in _Z. p.\nminor_ but show no ventral suffusion of Ochraceous; they have large\nbullae, nasals that are straight in lateral profile and other cranial\ncharacters of _Z. p. idahoensis_ to which they are here referred.\nA single specimen from Kamiak Butte, Whitman County, Washington, has\nbeen referred to _Z. p. idahoensis_ by Dalquest (1948:373). I have not\nseen this individual, but, on geographic grounds, it is likely to be of\nthis subspecies.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 342, distributed as follows:\nALBERTA: Boom Creek, 5600 ft., 27 mi. W Banff, 2 (NMC); _Banff, Cascade\nBasin_, 2 (NMC); _Bryant Creek, Banff Park_, 1 (NMC); _Spray River, 7\nmi. Cabin, Banff Park_, 3 (NMC); Crows Nest Pass, 2 (NMC); Waterton\nLakes Park, 16 (NMC); _Linnets Pond, Waterton Lakes Park_, 4 (NMC);\n_Bertha Creek, Waterton Lakes Park_, 8 (NMC).\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: Vermilion Crossing, Kootenay, 1 (ROM); Paradise Mine,\n3 (PM); Crows Nest Pass, 4450 ft., 3 (NMC); Newgate, 10 (NMC).\nIDAHO: _Adam Co._: 1/2 mi. E Black Lake, 6800 ft., 8; _summit of Smith\nMtn., 7500 ft._, 9 (3 MVZ); 1 mi. N Bear Creek R. S., SW Slope Smith\nMtn., 5400 ft., 13; New Meadows, 1 (USBS); _3 mi. W Payette, 5400 ft._,\n4 (MVZ). _Blaine County_: _Perkins Lake, 7000 ft., Sawtooth Nat'l\nForest_, 1; _Alturas Lake, 7000 ft._, 3 (MVZ); Prairie Creek, 12 mi. NW\nKetchum, 2400 ft., 3. _Clearwater County_: 2 mi. NE Weippe, 3000 ft., 3\n(MVZ). _Custer County_: Loon Creek R. S., 6000 ft., Challis Nat'l\nForest, 2; _Head Pahsimeroi River_, 2 (MVZ); Mill Creek, 14 mi. WSW\nChallis, 8370 ft., 1 (MVZ). _Fremont County_: 7 mi. W West Yellowstone,\n7000 ft., 3; _17 mi. E and 4 mi. N of Ashton, 6275 ft._, 9 (MVZ). _Idaho\nCo._: Packers Meadow, near state line, South Lobo Hot Springs, 5150 ft.,\n7 (USBS); _Warren_, 1 (USBS). _Kootenai Co._: 13 mi. E and 5 mi. N Coeur\nd'Alene, 5; _Cascade Creek, 36 mi. E Coeur d'Alene, Coeur d'Alene Nat'l\nForest_, 1 (USBS). _Latah Co._: N Fork Potlatch River, 1 (USBS). _Lemhi\nCounty_: Salmon River Mts., 3 (USBS). _Shoshone Co._: Enaville 1 (USBS);\n_Glidden Lakes, 5700 ft._, 4 (MVZ). _Valley County_: 5 mi. E Warm Lake,\n7000 ft., 6 (MVZ); _5 mi. W Cape Horn, 7000 ft., Sawtooth Range_, 1\n(MVZ).\nMONTANA: _Beaverhead County_: Birch Creek, 18 mi. NE Dillon, 7100 ft.,\n14 (MVZ). _Carbon Co._: _Pryor Mts._, 1 (USBS); 2 mi. E Shriver, 6500\nft., 6 (MVZ). _Cascade Co._: Neihart, 1 (USBS). _Chouteau Co._: _Upper\nMuddy_, 1 (USBS); Highwood Mts., 2 (USBS). _Fergus Co._: Lime Kiln\nGulch, 7 mi. NE Judith Mts., 3 (USBS); 15 mi. S Heath, N Fork Flat\nWillow Creek, 8 (USBS); _10 mi. W Tyler, N Fork Flat Willow Creek_, 1\n(USBS); _Crystal Lake, 6000 ft., Big Snowy Mts._, 3 (UM). _Flathead\nCo._: Waterton Lake, 1 (USBS); _Crosley Lake, Glacier Nat'l Park_, 1\n(USBS); Paola, 1 (USBS); _Summit_, 2 (USBS); _1 mi. W and 2 mi. S\nSummit, 5000 ft._, 12. _Gallatin Co._: 4 mi S Logan, Camas Creek, Big\nBelt Mts., 5 (USBS); Gallatin Gateway, 5 (SDM); west fork West Gallatin\nRiver, 6500 ft., 6 (USBS). _Glacier Co._: Babb, 1 (LMH); _2-1/2 mi. W\nand 1-1/2 mi. S Babb, 4700 ft._, 1; _Many Glaciers, 4900 ft., Glacier\nNat'l Park_, 5 (MVZ); _6 mi. S St. Marys, 6500 ft._, 1; _St. Marys\nLake_, 7 (USBS); _McDermit Lake_, 1 (USBS); Blackfoot Agency, 1 (USBS).\n_Golden Valley County_: _Swimming Woman Canyon, 3/4 mi. S Fergus County\nline, Big Snowy Mts._, 4 (UM). _Judith Basin Co._: _Little Belt Mts.,\nDry Wolf Creek, 20 mi. SW Stanford_, 4 (USBS); 13 mi. W Buffalo, 1\n(USBS). _Madison Co._: 12 mi. SW Alder, Hinch Creek, Ruby Mts., 2\n(USBS). _Meagher Co._: _16 mi. N White Sulphur Springs, Little Belt\nMts._, 7 (USBS). _Park County_: _West Boulder Creek, 18 mi. SE\nLivingston_, 1 (USBS); Emigrant Gulch, 3 mi. SE Chico, 6500 ft., 4\n(USBS); 2 mi. NE Cooke, 8000 ft., 22 (MVZ). _Ravalli County_: 3 mi. SW\nFlorence, 3700 ft., 1; 6 mi. E Hamilton, 3700 ft., 1. _Sanders Co._:\nProspect Creek, near Thompson, 1 (USBS). _Sweet Grass Co._: _near head\nof Big Timber Creek, 5200 ft., Crazy Mts._, 11 (USBS); Brannin Ranch,\nSweet Grass Creek Canyon, 6 (UM); _Big Timber_, 1 (USBS). _Teton\nWYOMING: _Fremont County_: Moccasin Lake, 19 mi. W and 4 mi. N of\n_Park County_: 31-1/2 mi. N and 36 mi. W Cody, 6900 ft., 7; _28 mi. N\n(LMH); _25 mi. S and 28 mi. W Cody, 6350 ft._, 5. _Sublette County_: E\nend Island Lake, 10,600 ft., 3 mi. S Fremont Park, 1; _N side Halfmoon\nLake, 7900 ft._, 3; _W end Halfmoon Lake, 7900 ft._, 2; _10 mi. NE\nPinedale, 8000 ft._, 1; _5 mi. E and 8 mi. N Pinedale, 7500 ft._, 1; 3\nmi. E and 5 mi. N Pinedale, 7500 ft., 4; 19 mi. W and 2 mi. S Big Piney,\n_Marginal records._--Alberta: Boom Creek, 5600 ft., 27 mi. W Banff;\nCrows Nest Pass; Waterton Lakes Park. Montana: Highwood Mts.; 15 mi. S\nHeath, N Fork Flat Willow Creek; 2 mi. E Shriver, 6500 ft. Wyoming:\n23-1/2 mi. S and 5-1/2 mi. W Lander, 8600 ft.; 10 mi. W and 2 mi. S Big\nPiney, 7700 ft. Idaho: 7 mi. W West Yellowstone, 7000 ft.; Prairie\nCreek, 12 mi. NW Ketchum, 2400 ft.; 5 mi. W Warm Lake, 7000 ft.; 1 mi. N\nBear Creek R. S., SW slope Smith Mtn., 5400 ft.; N Fork Potlatch River;\n13 mi. E and 5 mi. N Coeur d'Alene. British Columbia: Newgate; Vermilion\nCrossing, Kootenay.\n=Zapus princeps kootenayensis= Anderson\n    _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson, Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus.\n    _Zapus princeps princeps_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:23, August 8,\n_Type._--Adult female, skin and skull, No. 10,020, Nat. Mus. Canada;\nnear summit of Green Mountain, head of Murphy Creek, about 10 miles\nnorth of Rossland, West Kootenay district, British Columbia, at about,\n6000 ft.; latitude 49\u00b0 13' north, longitude 117\u00b0 52' west; obtained on\nJuly 18, 1929, by R. M. Anderson, original No. 24.\n_Range._--From Glacier in the Selkirk Range, British Columbia, south to\n5 mi. W Cocolalla, Bonner County, Idaho, west and north to Sullivan\nLake, Pend Oreille County, Washington; and northwestward to Manning Park\non the eastern summit of the Cascade Range in British Columbia. See fig.\n_Description._--Size, medium; color moderately dark; upper parts\nnoticeably dull and dusty; broad dorsal band of dull Ochraceous-Buff to\nnear Warm Buff sprinkled with black hair to a varying degree, resulting\nin two color phases (dark has more black hair; Ochraceous phase or Warm\nBuff phase has more brown hair); sides paler than back owing to fewer\nblack hairs; lateral line, when present, narrow and dull; ventral\nsurface pure white; tail bicolored, pale brown above, yellowish-white to\ndull white below; ears dark with narrow white or yellowish-white\nedgings; feet white above; skull narrow across zygomata; incisive\nforamina narrow; bullae moderately inflated; nasals narrow at tips;\npostpalatal notch anterior to posterior face of last molars; braincase\nmoderately narrow; zygomatic arch short.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps saltator_, _Z. p. kootenayensis_\ndiffers as follows: Upper parts generally dull with less ochraceous;\nsides with more yellow, less ochraceous; lateral line wanting or not\nbright; skull averaging slightly smaller; incisive foramina smaller and\nnarrower posteriorly; small medium projection on inferior ramus of the\nzygomatic process of maxillary frequently present instead of absent;\npterygoid fossae shorter and narrower.\nFor comparison with _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--This subspecies is paler and averages smaller than either of\nthe subspecies with adjoining geographic ranges. There is intergradation\nwith _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ in color, shape and size of incisive\nforamina, and in the shape of the nasals in Idaho-taken specimens from\nGlidden Lakes and Enaville. These individuals are thought to be _Z. p.\nidahoensis_. Specimens from the same state taken at Cascade Creek and 13\nmi. E and 5 mi. N Coeur d'Alene show intergradation in color, size and\ninflation of bullae, configuration of nasals, and shape of the vomer\nbetween _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ and _Z. p. kootenayensis_. The\nmajority of characters studied show these animals to be referable to _Z.\np. idahoensis_.\nSpecimens from Monashee Pass, 4000 ft., British Columbia, show\nrelationship to _Zapus princeps saltator_ in the posteriorly wide\nincisive foramina, in the narrow vomer, and, in some individuals, in the\nincreased amount of ochraceous, dorsally and laterally. The majority of\ncharacters studied show these animals to be referable to _Z. p.\nkootenayensis_.\nThe animals available from Glacier, British Columbia, are in color more\nnearly like _Z. p. saltator_ and cranially combine the characters of _Z.\np. idahoensis_, _Z. p. saltator_, and _Z. p. kootenayensis_. The sum\ntotal of their characters places them with _Z. p. saltator_. Anderson\n(1932:108) remarks on the disparity of size between the two sexes of _Z.\np. kootenayensis_, stating that females are considerably larger than\nmales. I have examined most of the material used in the original\ndescription and find that animals of like age in the two sexes show no\nsignificant size difference. Anderson (_loc. cit._) seems to have\ncompared young males with adult females.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 68, distributed as follows:\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: Manning Park, 3 (PM); _Good Fellow Creek, Manning\nPark_, 1 (PM); _Mt. Beaver Valley, 6300 ft., Manning Park_, 1 (PM);\n_Timberline Valley, 6500 ft._, 3 (PM); _Allison Pass, 1 mi. E Manning\nPark_, 1 (PM); Monashee Pass, 4000 ft., 13 (PM); Hope-Princeton Summit,\n5500 ft., 1 (NMC); _Hedley, Stirling Creek_, 1 (NMC); Anarchist Mts., 1\n(PM); Fairview-Keremeos Summit, 5 (NMC); _Westbridge_, 2 (NMC);\n_Midway_, 2 (NMC); Green Mtn., near Rossland, 6000 ft., 12 (11 NMC, 1\nMVZ); _Mt. Old Glory, 7000 ft., Rossland_, 5 (4 NMC, 1 MVZ); _Rossland,\n5800 ft._, 12 (11 NMC, 1 MVZ); Camp 6, Meadow Creek, 7 mi. SE of Yahk, 1\n(NMC).\nIDAHO: _Bonner County_: 5 mi. W Cocolalla, 3500 ft., 2 (MVZ). _Boundary\nCounty_: 4 mi. W Meadow Creek, 3000 ft., 2 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--British Columbia: Monashee Pass, 4000 ft.; Camp 6,\nMeadow Creek, 7 mi. SE Yahk. Idaho: 4 mi. W Meadow Creek, 3000 ft.; 5\nmi. W Cocolalla, 3500 ft. British Columbia: Hope-Princeton Summit, 5500\nft.; Manning Park.\n=Zapus princeps luteus= Miller\n    _Zapus luteus_, Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 24:253,\n    _Zapus luteus australis_, Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,\n        26:132, May 21, 1913. Type from Socorro, Socorro County,\n        New Mexico.\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull, No. 133601, U. S. Nat. Mus.\nBiol. Surv. Coll., Espanola, 5000 ft., Rio Arriba Co., New Mexico;\nobtained on June 24, 1904, by McClure Surber, original No. 162.\n_Range._--White Mt's of southern Apache County and northern Greenlee\nCounty, Arizona; in New Mexico, from the Sacramento Mt's, Otero County,\nnorthward to the San Juan Mt's, Rio Arriba County. See fig. 46. Zonal\nrange: Lower Sonoran (1 individual), Upper Sonoran, Transition, and\nCanadian.\n_Description._--Size, small; back near Ochraceous-Buff, having black\nhair interspersed; mid-dorsal band not always well marked; sides\nOchraceous-Buff with fine admixture of black hair; lateral line blending\nwith Ochraceous-Buff of sides, not distinct; ventral surface white to\nbase of hairs, in some cases lightly suffused with color of sides; tail\nindistinctly bicolored, tan to grayish-white below and brown above; hind\nfeet grayish-white above; ears brownish, narrowly edged with\nOchraceous-Buff; skull small; antorbital foramina relatively large;\ninterorbital region broad; inferior ramus of the zygomatic process of\nthe maxillary broad, often with medial projection; incisive foramina\nnarrow posteriorly becoming broadly rounded anteriorly; palatal bridge\nrelatively long; pterygoid fossae narrow; zygomatic arches relatively\nrobust; nasals tapering at each end.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps princeps_, _Z, p. luteus_ differs\nas follows: Size, smaller; color lighter, more Ochraceous-Buff; ears\nlighter, edged with Ochraceous-Buff as compared with white or\nyellowish-white; lateral line indistinct or wanting as opposed to\ndistinct; dorsal stripe not well defined; interorbital region broader;\nantorbital foramina relatively larger; zygomatic arches more robust;\nnasals tapering at each end as opposed to parallel sided; auditory\nbullae smaller, less inflated.\n_Remarks._--The characters of this subspecies are relatively stable\nthroughout most of its geographic range. Hall and Davis (1934:56)\nremarked that their material from the White Mountains of Arizona\nanswered precisely to Miller's original description (1911:253) of the\nspecies, and my examination of these and other specimens from that area\nindicates the same thing except that the specimens average slightly\ndarker mid-dorsally than those from New Mexico.\n_Zapus luteus australis_, based on a single individual taken in a\nriparian thicket along the Rio Grande at Socorro, New Mexico, is\nreferable to _Z. p. luteus_. The diagnostic characters, referred to in\nthe original description, are as follows: Small, slender, and very\nnarrow skull; especially narrow braincase; slender rostrum; and light\ndentition. These are expressions of age, rather than of geographic\nvariation, in that the individual is a subadult (young of the year). The\ncolor, which is paler than in adults of _Z. p. luteus_, is almost\nidentical with that of a subadult (No. 205585 USBS) from Alpine,\nArizona. I can see no basis for recognition of _Z. p. australis_ and the\nname, therefore, is placed as a synonym of _Z. p. luteus_.\nFour specimens from 4 mi. NE El Rito, 7000 ft., New Mexico, show\nintergradation, in the shape of the nasals and incisive foramina, in the\nrobustness of the zygomatic arch, and in the breadth of the braincase\nwith a specimen of _Zapus princeps princeps_ from Tierra Amarilla, New\nMexico. In color and in external measurements as well as in other\ncranial characters they closely agree with typical _Z. p. luteus_ and\nare here referred to the latter.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 49, distributed as follows:\nARIZONA: _Apache Co._: North Fork White River, White Mts., 24 (SDM);\nAlpine, 8500 ft., 6 (USBS); West Fork Black River, 7700 ft., 8 (MVZ);\n_Greenlee County_: Hannagan Creek, 8200 ft., 2 (MVZ).\nNEW MEXICO: _Otero Co._: 12 mi. E Cloudcroft, 7500 ft., 2 (USBS). _Rio\nArriba Co._: 4 mi. NE of El Rito, 7000 ft., 4; Espanola, 5000 ft., 2\n(USBS). _Socorro Co._: Socorro, 1 (USBS).\n_Marginal records._--New Mexico: 4 mi. N El Rito, 7000 ft.; Espanola,\n5000 ft.; 12 mi. E Cloudcroft, 7500 ft. Arizona: Hannagan Creek, 8200\nft.; W. Fork Black River, 7700 ft.; N. Fork White River, White Mts. New\nMexico: Socorro.\n=Zapus princeps minor= Preble\n    _Zapus princeps minor_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:23, August 8,\n    _Zapus hudsonius campestris_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 49:117,\n_Type._--Adult female, skin and skull, No. 73673, U. S. Nat. Mus. Biol.\nSurv. Coll., Wingard, near Carlton House, Saskatchewan; obtained on July\n23, 1895, by J. Alden Loring, original No. 3123.\n_Range._--Most of southern half of Saskatchewan and Alberta,\nnortheastern Montana southeastward to Aweme, Manitoba, and Webster,\nSouth Dakota. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition, Hudsonian, and\nCanadian.\n_Description._--Size, small; back dark, usually with a distinct\nmid-dorsal band of black mixed with Warm Buff; sides lighter, more\nyellowish, but always with an admixture of black hairs; lateral line\ndistinct, near Ochraceous-Buff, ventral surface characteristically\nsuffused with Ochraceous-Buff; tail bicolored, grayish-white to\nyellowish-white below and pale brown above; hind feet grayish-white\nabove; ears dark, edged with white or yellowish-white; skull small;\npostpalatal notch often anterior to posterior part of molars; inferior\nramus of zygomatic process of maxillary often with well developed medial\nprojection; auditory bullae flattened; nasals narrower anteriorly and\nproximal third depressed; base of zygomatic process of squamosal broad.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps princeps_, _Z. p. minor_ differs as\nfollows: Size averaging smaller in all measurements taken, except least\ninterorbital constriction which is approximately the same; color\ndorsally and laterally more yellowish, less Ochraceous-Buff; ventrally\ngreater suffusion of Ochraceous-Buff.\nFor comparison with _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--This geographic race is notably stable and retains most of\nits diagnostic characters throughout nearly all parts of its range.\nIntergradation occurs with _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ at various\nlocalities in Montana, as is described in more detail in the account of\n_idahoensis_. Crowe (1943:406) gives evidence of intergradation between\n_Zapus princeps idahoensis_ and _Z. p. minor_ in specimens from Entrance\nin western Alberta. Crowe (_loc. cit._) described these individuals as\nintermediate in color (lateral line present, under parts washed with\nbuff, sides and dorsal stripe rich in ochraceous), and in cranial\ncharacters (smaller skulls, anteriorly narrower nasals, shorter more\ndeflected rostrum, and higher cranium); but he considered them closer to\n_Z. p. minor_.\nA skin without skull from Kananaskis Valley, Alberta, shows\nintergradation between _Z. p. idahoensis_ and _Z. p. minor_. This\nindividual is like _Z. p. idahoensis_ in dorsal and lateral coloring,\nbut is nearer _Z. p. minor_ in ventral coloring and in the presence of a\ndistinct lateral line. External measurements provide basis for\ntentatively assigning the skin to _Z. p. minor_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 118, distributed as follows:\nALBERTA: 4 mi. N Marinville, 2; Blindman River, 1 (USBS); Camrose, 1\n(ROM); Red Deer River, 1 (USBS); Didsbury, Little Red Deer River, 1\n(ROM); Kananaskis Valley, 7000 ft., 1 (ROM); High River, 2 (ROM); Lodge\nCreek, 2 (NMC).\nMANITOBA: Shoal Lake, 6 (NMC); Oak Lake, 4 (NMC); Aweme, 7 (6 ROM; 1\nUSBS).\nMONTANA: _Chouteau County_: Eagle Creek, 25 mi. SE Big Sandy, 3 (UM).\n_Hill Co._: Fort Assiniboine, 1 (USBS); _Bear Paw Mt's, 20 mi. SE Fort\nAssiniboine_, 4 (USBS); _head Eagle Creek, Bear Paw Mt's_, 7 (UM).\n_Valley Co._: Glasgow, 1 (USBS).\nNORTH DAKOTA: _Benson Co._: 4 mi. W Leeds, 1400 ft., 2; _2 mi. W Fort\nTotten, 1400 ft._, 13; Fort Totten, 4 (USBS). _Bottineau Co._: 4-8/10\nmi. N Bottineau, 2100 ft., 2; _3-1/2 mi. N Bottineau, 1920 ft._, 2;\n_2-1/10 mi. N Bottineau, 1800 ft._, 3; _Bottineau_, 1 (USBS). _Dickey\nCo._: Oakes, 3 (USBS). _Grand Forks Co._: Larimore, 3 (USBS). _Montrail\nCo._: 6 mi. N Lostwood, 2 (USBS). _Nelson Co._: Stump Lake, 1 (USBS).\n_Richland Co._: _Lidgerwood_, 1 (USBS); 4 mi. S Blackner, (USBS).\n_Rolette Co._: St. John, 1 (USBS). _Sargent County_: _7-1/5 mi. E and\nCo._: Grafton, 2. _Ward Co._: _Minot_, 3 (CMNH). _Williams Co._:\nGrinnell, 2 (USBS); Buford, 2 (USBS).\nSASKATCHEWAN: Wingard, near Carlton House, 2 (USBS); Fort Carlton, 1\n(MVZ); Indian Head, 2 (USBS); Cypress Hills, N Maple Creek, 18 (NMC);\n_Battle Creek_, 1 (NMC).\nSOUTH DAKOTA: _Day Co._: Webster, 1 (Chic. AS).\n_Marginal records._--Saskatchewan: Wingard, near Carlton House; Fort\nCarlton. Manitoba: Shoal Lake; Aweme. North Dakota: Larimore; 4 mi. S\nBlackner. South Dakota: Webster. North Dakota: Oakes; Grinnell. Montana:\nEagle Creek, 25 mi. SE Big Sandy. Alberta: High River; Kananaskis\nValley, 2000 ft.; Red Deer River; Blindman River; 4 mi. N Marinville.\n=Zapus princeps oregonus= Preble\n    _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:24, August 8,\n    _Zapus major_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:24, August 8, 1899, type\n        from Warner Mt's, Lake County, Oregon.\n    _Zapus princeps major_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool., 37:10,\n    _Zapus nevadensis_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:25, August 8, 1899,\n        type from Ruby Mt's, Elko County, Nevada.\n    _Zapus princeps nevadensis_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n    _Zapus princeps palatinus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n        37:8, April 10, 1931, type from Wisconsin Creek, 7800 ft.,\n        Toyabe Mt's, Nye County, Nevada.\n    _Zapus princeps princeps_, Anthony, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,\n_Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull; No. 78156, U. S. Nat. Mus. Biol.\nSurv. Coll.; Elgin, Blue Mountains, Union Co., Oregon; obtained on May\n29, 1896, by Edward A. Preble, original No. 959.\n_Range._--Southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon east of Cascades,\nnortheastern California, central and northeastern Nevada, and\nsouthwestern Idaho. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition and Canadian.\n_Description._--Size large; back from near Light Ochraceous-Buff to near\nCinnamon-Buff, usually overlaid with black hairs forming broad dorsal\nband, which in some individuals is almost black; sides lighter than\nback, from near Light Pinkish-Cinnamon to near Cinnamon-Buff and\nOchraceous-Buff, often with black hairs interspersed; lateral line\nfaintly marked or wanting; belly pure white; tail bicolored,\ngrayish-brown above and grayish-white to yellowish-white below; ears\ndark, edged with color of sides; palatal bridge long; interorbital\nregion broad; inferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary usually\nwith median projection; auditory bullae relatively small; incisive\nforamina greatly enlarged posteriorly; tooth-rows divergent anteriorly;\nnasals narrow posteriorly.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps curtatus_, _Z. p. oregonus_ differs\nas follows: Size averaging larger; upper parts darker; tooth-rows more\ndivergent anteriorly; palatal bridge longer; mastoid region broader;\nincisive foramina relatively wider posteriorly.\nFor comparisons with _Zapus princeps cinereus_, _Zapus princeps\npacificus_ and _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ see accounts of those\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--The coloration in _Z. p. oregonus_ varies somewhat from\nnorth to south. In the northern part of the range the average coloration\nof the upper parts is darker with more ochraceous on the sides. To the\nsouthward the upper parts are progressively paler and the sides are near\nLight Pinkish-Cinnamon. Because of this variation of color, and because\nof the small samples available to workers in the past, three populations\nof this subspecies have been named as distinct. However, with the large\namount of additional material now available, the supposed diagnostic\ncharacters of these \"forms\" prove to be within the range of individual\nvariations of each of several populations of which large samples are\navailable.\n_Zapus major_ Preble (1899:24) was described as having zygomata short,\npalate broad and long, incisive foramina large and elliptical, and color\ndark. Some specimens of _Z. p. oregonus_, from nearly all parts of its\ngeographic range, show these same characters. Resemblances in anteriorly\ndivergent tooth-rows, broad interorbital region, small auditory bullae,\nand posteriorly narrow nasals, are additional reasons for placing _Z.\nmajor_ as a synonym of _Z. p. oregonus_.\n_Zapus nevadensis_ Preble (1899:25), here considered a synonym of _Z. p.\noregonus_, was described as having: auditory bullae small, posterior\nborder of the palate usually convex anteriorly, palatal bridge long, and\ncolor pale. These characters, however, are within the range of\nindividual variation of _Zapus p. oregonus_. Similarities such as\ntooth-rows diverging anteriorly, nasals narrow posteriorly, interorbital\nregion broad, and incisive foramina enlarged posteriorly are added\nreasons for placing _Z. nevadensis_ as a synonym of _Z. p. oregonus_.\n_Zapus princeps palatinus_ Hall (1931:8) was described as having:\npalatal bridge long, incisive foramina wide posteriorly, posterior\nborder of palate straight or convex posteriorly, and color pale. These\ncharacteristics are to be found in some individuals in most populations\nof _Z. p. oregonus_. Additional well marked cranial similarities, such\nas small auditory bullae, broad interorbital region, and nasals narrow\nposteriorly offer additional evidence as to the close relationship of\n_Z. p. palatinus_ and _Z. p. oregonus_. Hall (_loc. cit._), with a small\nsample available to him for comparative purposes (14 specimens of _Z. p.\npalatinus_ and 12 specimens of _Z. p. nevadensis_), was impressed by\nthe condition of the palate in _Z. p. palatinus_ and wrote: \"the\ngenerally straight, or even posteriorly convex, posterior border of the\npalate seems to be unique among described forms of _Zapus_. The name\n_palatinus_ is given in allusion to this structural feature.\" With more\nthan 300 specimens of _Z. p. oregonus_ available for study I find that a\nstraight or posteriorly convex posterior border of the palate occurs in\nmore than 50 per cent of the individuals examined. Specimens displaying\nthis described palatal condition are known from all parts of the range\nof _Z. p. oregonus_, but do occur in a higher percentage of specimens in\nthe area ascribed by Hall (_loc. cit._) to the range of _Z. p.\npalatinus_.\nIntergradation with _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ and _Zapus princeps\ncinereus_ is discussed in the accounts of those subspecies.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 340, distributed as follows:\nCALIFORNIA: _Modoc Co._: Buck Creek R. S., 1 (CAS); _Willow Ranch_, 4\n(CAS); _Sugar Hill, 5000 ft._, 1 (MVZ); _Goose Lake Meadows, near Sugar\nHill_, 4 (MVZ); _Parker Creek, Warner Mts., 5500 ft._, 18 (MVZ); _Dry\nCreek, Warner Mts., 4800 ft._, 3 (MVZ) _east face Warner Peak, Warner\nLassen Creek, 1 (SDM); _Happy Camp_, 1 (CAS).\nIDAHO: _Boise Co._: Bald Mtn. R. S., Boise Nat'l Forest, 10 mi. S. Idaho\nCity, 7400 ft., 2 (USBS). _Elmore Co._: Trail Creek, Boise Nat'l Forest,\n2 (USBS). _Washington County_: 1 mi. NE Heath, SW Slope Cuddy Mtn., 4000\nNEVADA: _Elko County_: _6 mi. SW Mountain City, Cobb Creek, 6500-6550\nft._, 44 (MVZ); _summit between heads of Copper and Coon creeks,\nJarbidge Mts._, 18 (9 MVZ); _head of Ackler Creek, 6800 ft._, 2: Steel\nCreek, 7000 ft., 11 (4 MVZ); _summit of Secret Pass, 6200 ft._, 8;\n_south fork Long Creek, 7830 ft._, 4; Harrison Pass R. S., Green Mtn.,\nCanyon, 6050 ft., 12. _Eureka County_: 4 mi. S Tonkin, Denay Creek,\nRoberts Mt's, 1 (MVZ). _Humboldt County_: _Martin Creek R. S._, 1 (MVZ);\n13 mi. N Paradise Valley, 6700 ft., 19 (MVZ). _Lander County_: Kingston\nR. S., 7500 ft., 4 (MVZ). _Nye County_: Wisconsin Creek, 7000 ft., 12\n(MVZ). _White Pine County_: Willow Creek, 2 mi. S Elko County line, Ruby\nOREGON: _Baker Co._: East Pine Creek, 2-1/2 mi. NE Cornucopia, 6 (USBS);\nMcEwen, 2 (USBS); _Bourne_, 7 (USBS). _Clackamas County_: _Marks Creek,\n12 mi. N of Howard_, 2 (USBS); Howard, 2 (USBS). _Crook County_: _Ochoco\nR. S., 4000 ft._, 4 (MVZ). _Grant Co._: _Austin_, 2 (USBS); _Cold\nSpring, 4900 ft., 8 mi. E Austin_, 4 (MVZ); Beech Creek, 1 (USBS);\n_Strawberry Mts._, 6 (USBS); _north fork Malheur River, 21 mi. SE\nPrairie City, 5000 ft._, 21 (MVZ). _Harney Co._: 10 mi. N. Harney, 1\n(USBS); _Steen Mts., Keiger Gorge, 6900 ft._, 6 (USBS); Diamond, 4300\nft., 2 (USBS). _Jefferson Co._: Foley Creek, 12 mi. E Hay Creek, 1\n(USBS). _Klamath Co._: Fort Klamath, 1 (USBS). _Lake Co._: Silver Creek,\n7000 ft., Yamsey Mts., 1 (USBS); _2 mi. E Lakeview, 5200 ft._, 3 (MVZ).\n_Malheur Co._: Jordan Valley, 4200 ft., 1 (USBS). _Umatilla Co._:\nMeacham, 1 (USBS). _Union County_: Elgin, 2 (USBS). _Wallowa Co._:\nParadise, 10 mi. N Horse Creek, 7000 ft., 1 (USBS); _Minam Lake_, 1\n(USBS); _16 mi. S and 3 mi. E Lostine, 5500 ft._, 9 (MVZ); _west fork\nWallowa River, 5000 ft., 2-1/2 mi. above Wallowa Lake_, 1 (FM); _near\nWallowa Lake, 4500 ft._, 3 (FM). _Wheeler County_: 11 mi. W and 7 mi. S\nMitchell, 4850 ft., 20 (MVZ).\nWASHINGTON: _Asotin Co._: Anatone, 3300 ft., 1 (USBS). _Columbia\nCounty_: Twin Buttes, 25 mi. SE Dayton, Blue Mts., 2 (MVZ); _Stayawhile\nSpring, 5150 ft._, 4 (MVZ).\n_Marginal records._--Washington: Anatone, 3300 ft. Oregon: East Pine\nCreek, 2-1/2 mi. NE Cornucopia. Idaho: 1 mi. NE Heath, SW slope Cuddy\nMtn., 4000 ft.; Bald Mtn., R. S., Boise Nat'l Forest, 10 mi. S. Idaho\nCity, 7400 ft.; Trail Creek, Boise Nat'l Forest. Nevada: Harrison Pass\nR. S., Ruby Mts.; Steel Creek, 7000 ft.; Wisconsin Creek, 7000 ft.; 13\nmi. N Paradise Valley, 6700 ft. California: Lassen Creek; Buck Creek R.\nS. Oregon: Fort Klamath; Howard; Meacham. Washington: Twin Buttes, 25\nmi. SE Dayton, Blue Mts.\n=Zapus princeps pacificus= Merriam\n    _Zapus pacificus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:104,\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Baird, Repts. Expl. and Surv. 111 8\n        (pt. 1):433, July 14, 1858 (part--the part from Canoe Creek,\n        California).\n    _Zapus alleni_ Elliot, Field Columbian Mus., publ. 27, zool. ser.,\n        1:212, April 19, 1898, type from Pyramid Peak, Lake Tahoe, El\n        Dorado County, California.\n    _Zapus trinotatus alleni_, Elliot, Field Columbian Mus. Publ. 91,\n    _Zapus pacificus alleni_, Howell, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n    _Zapus trinotatus pacificus_, Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:233,\n    _Zapus princeps alleni_, Hall, Mammals of Nevada; Univ. California\n        Press, Berkeley, California, 579, July 1, 1946.\n_Type._--Male, subadult, skin and skull, No. 80445, U. S. Nat. Mus.\nBiol. Surv. Coll.; Prospect, Rogue River Valley, Jackson Co., Oregon;\nobtained on August 29, 1896, by Edward A. Preble, original No. 1454.\n_Range._--Sierra Nevada Mt's, from Kern Peak, Tulare County, California,\nnortheastward to Mt. Rose, Washoe County, Nevada, then northwestward\nthrough the Trinity and Salmon mountains, California, to the upper Rogue\nRiver Valley, Oregon, thence southwestward to South Yolla Bolly Mt'n,\nTehama County, California. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition,\nCanadian, and Hudsonian.\n_Description._--Size medium; color bright; back near Ochraceous-Buff\nwith admixture of black hair forming dark dorsal band; sides bright\nOchraceous-Buff with fine admixture of black hair; lateral line blending\nwith color of sides or wanting or indistinct; ventral surface white;\ntail bicolored, grayish-brown above, yellowish-white below, in some\nspecimens with white tip; feet grayish-white above; ears dark, edged\nwith Ochraceous Buff; braincase relatively narrow; incisive foramina\nrelatively short; pterygoid fossae usually broad; proximal part of\ninferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary broad; postpalatal\nnotch usually broadly rounded; auditory bullae relatively small and\nflattened; nasals parallel sided; maxillary tooth-row short;\ninterorbital region moderately broad.\n_Comparison._--From _Zapus princeps oregonus_, _Z. p. pacificus_ differs\nin being brighter in all pigmented areas; more ochraceous and less\nyellow laterally; dorsally more ochraceous and less black; size\naveraging smaller; maxillary tooth-rows shorter; auditory bullae less\ninflated and smaller; interorbital region averaging narrower; palatal\nbridge averaging shorter; incisive foramina shorter and posteriorly\nnarrower; nasals parallel rather than narrowed posteriorly.\n_Remarks._--Original describers considered both _Z. pacificus_ and _Z.\nalleni_ as specifically distinct from _Z. trinotatus_. Merriam\n(1897a:104) named _Z. pacificus_ and gave the following diagnostic\ncharacters: short rostrum and nasals; small auditory bullae;\nbasioccipital broad between bullae. Elliot (1898:212) named _Z. alleni_\nand ascribed to it the following diagnostic characters: cranium long and\nnarrow; nasals same breadth for entire length; palate wide; pterygoid\nfossae wide posteriorly; auditory bullae small; basisphenoid and\nbasioccipital wide; upper tooth-rows short. Preble (1899:27) considered\n_Z. alleni_ to be a subspecies of the species _Z. trinotatus_, remarking\nthat the skulls are similar to those of _Z. trinotatus_ but smaller with\nmuch smaller bullae; in coloration the animals are lighter above and\nwithout fulvous below. Preble remarked that the skull of _Z. alleni_\ndiffers so greatly from that of _Z. montanus_ that comparison was not\nrequired. Preble (_op. cit._:30) treated _Z. pacificus_ as a full\nspecies. Howell (1920:233) considered _Z. pacificus_ and _Z. alleni_ to\nbe subspecies of _Z. pacificus_. Howell (_loc. cit._) pointed out size,\ncranial, and color similarities between the two, and remarked that\n_pacificus_ is clearly distinct from _Z. montanus_, its nearest\ngeographic neighbor. Hall (1946:578) arranged _Z. alleni_ as a\nsubspecies of _Z. princeps_, although not on grounds wholly satisfactory\nto him because actual intergrades between _alleni_ and neighboring races\nof _princeps_ were not available.\nI here consider _Z. alleni_ to be synonymous with _Z. pacificus_; the\nlatter is a subspecies of _Z. princeps_. Certain diagnostic characters,\nsuch as the shape and size of the os penis, the diameter and pigment\npattern of the hair, the over-all proportions of the skull, and the size\nand shape of the teeth indicate that _alleni_ and _princeps_ belong to\nthe same species, even though animals from intermediate geographic areas\nare not available to show actual intergradation.\nThe diagnostic characters referred to in the original description of _Z.\nalleni_, as given earlier in this account, agree with characters of\nspecimens of _Z. p. pacificus_. Howell (1920:233) remarks that, in\ncoloration and length of foot, typical _alleni_ differs but slightly\nfrom _pacificus_. Howell (_loc. cit._) noted, as I also have, that there\nare slight cranial differences in specimens from various parts of the\nrange of _Z. p. pacificus_; these variations are somewhat clinal in\nnature, cranial dimensions showing a slight increase from south to\nnorth. The largest animals occur in western Tehama, Trinity, and\nSiskiyou counties, California. Samples from various localities in\nJackson County, Oregon, are slightly smaller than these, but are larger\nthan specimens from the southern Sierra Nevada.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 264, distributed as follows:\nCALIFORNIA: _Alpine County_: _Carson River, 1/4 mi. SW Woodfords, 5700\nft._, 3 (MVZ); _Diamond Valley, 5500 ft., 1 mi. SE Woodfords_, 6 (MVZ);\n_Faith Valley_, 1 (MVZ). _El Dorado County_: _Glen Alpine Creek, near\nFallen Leaf Lake, 6600 ft._, 8 (MVZ); _1 mi. W Fyffe_, 1 (MVZ); _Fresno\nCounty_: _Hume_, 1 (MVZ). _Mariposa County_: _Chinquapin, 6700 ft.,\nYosemite Nat'l Park_, 12 (MVZ); _E fork Indian Canyon, 7300 ft._, 8\n(MVZ); _Merced Grove, Big Trees_, 7 (MVZ); _1 mi. E Merced Lake_, 5\n(MVZ); _near Mono Meadow, Yosemite Nat'l Park_, 4 (MVZ); _near Mt.\nHoffman, 8100 ft., Yosemite Nat'l Park_, 5 (MVZ); _Porcupine Flat, 8100\nft., Yosemite Nat'l Park_, 9 (MVZ); _Yosemite Creek, Yosemite Valley_, 7\n(MVZ); foot Yosemite Falls, Yosemite Nat'l Park, 8 (MVZ). _Mono County_:\n_Walker Lake, 8000 ft._, 5 (MVZ); _Swager Canyon, 7800 ft._, 3; Mono\nLake P. O. 6500 ft., 4 (MVZ). _Placer Co._: Truckee River, Squaw Creek,\n1 (SDM); _W bank Truckee River_, 1 (MVZ). _Plumas County_: Rich Gulch,\n3850 ft., 11 mi. W and 8 mi. N Quincy, 2 (MVZ). _Shasta County_: Warner\nCreek, 8000 ft., Lassen Peak, 6 (MVZ). _Siskiyou Co._: _Donomore Meadow,\n5800 ft., 15 mi. W Hilt_, 7 (MVZ); Poker Flat, 5000 ft., 12 mi. NW Happy\nCamp, 7 (MVZ); Little Shasta, 1 (USBS); Siskiyou Mts., 6000 ft., 2\n(USBS); _Sisson_, 1 (SDM); _Mt. Shasta, 6500 ft._, 6 (MVZ). _Salmon\nRiver Divide_, 2 (MVZ); _S fork Salmon River, 5000 ft._, 7 (MVZ).\n_Tehama County_: _2 mi. W Black Butte, on Lassen Rd., 6800 ft._, 5\n(MVZ); _2 mi. E Mineral, 5200 ft._, 2 (MVZ); 2 mi. S Yolla Bolly Mtn.,\n11 (MVZ). _Trinity Co._: _N fork Coffee Creek, 4500 ft._, 34 (MVZ);\nCanyon Creek, 4 (USBS); 8 mi. NE Hyampon, 2900 ft., 1 (MVZ); _3 mi. NNW\nMad River Bridge, 2900 ft., South Fork Mtn._, 5 (MVZ); _1-1/2 mi. N Mad\nRiver Bridge, 3000 ft., South Fork Mtn._, 6 (MVZ); _1 mi. SW North Yolla\nBolly Mtn._, 14 (11 MVZ); _1/2 mi. S South Yolla Bolly Mtn._, 3 (MVZ).\n_Tulare County_: _Jordan Hot Springs, Sierra Nevada Mts., 6700 ft._, 9\n(MVZ); _Sherman Creek, Sequoia Nat'l Park_, 1 (MVZ); _Tokopah Valley,\n7000 ft., Sequoia Nat'l Park_, 1 (MVZ); 2 mi. E Kern Peak, 9300 ft.,\nSierra Nevada Mts., 1 (MVZ). _Tuolumne County_: _head Lyle Canyon,\nYosemite Nat'l Park, 10,000 ft._, 9 (MVZ); _Tuolumne Meadows, 8600 ft.,\nYosemite Nat'l Park_, 1 (MVZ).\nNEVADA: _Douglas County_: 1/2 mi. E Zephyr Cove, Lake Tahoe, 6400 ft., 1\n(MVZ). _Ormsby County_: _S end Marlette Lake, 8000 ft._, 2 (MVZ); _1/2\nmi. S Marlette Lake, 8150 ft._, 3 (MVZ). _Washoe County_: _1/2 mi. S Mt\nOREGON: _Jackson Co._: Prospect, 3 (2 USBS, 1 MVZ); _W slope Grizzly\nPeak, 4600 ft._, 1 (USBS); _Siskiyou_, 1 (USBS); Longs Camp, N base\nAshland Peak, 3300 ft., 1 (USBS).\n_Marginal records._--Oregon: Prospect. Nevada: 3 mi. S Mt. Rose, 8500\nft.; 1/2 mi. E Zephyr Cove, Lake Tahoe, 6400 ft. California: Mono Lake\nP. O., 6500 ft.; 2 mi. E Kern Peak, 9300 ft., Sierra Nevada Mts.; Rich\nGulch, 3850 ft., 11 mi. W and 8 mi. N Quincy; Warner Creek, 8000 ft.,\nLassen Peak; 2 mi. S Yolla Bolly Mtn.; 8 mi. NE Hyampon, 2900 ft.;\nSiskiyou Mts., 6000 ft.; Poker Flat, 5000 ft., 12 mi. NW Happy Camp.\n=Zapus princeps princeps= J. A. Allen\n    _Zapus princeps_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:71-72,\n    _Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; No. 5260/4140, Amer. Mus.\n        Nat. Hist.; Florida, La Plata County, Colorado; obtained on June\n        27, 1892, by Charles P. Rowley.\n_Range._--Sierra Madre, Medicine Bow, Laramie, and Big Horn mountains of\nWyoming southward through Colorado into the Taos and San Juan mountains\nin northern New Mexico. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition, Canadian\nand Hudsonian.\n_Description._--Size, medium; back dark usually with broad mid-dorsal\nband of black mixed with Warm Buff or Ochraceous-Buff; sides light (Warm\nBuff) but varying to Ochraceous-Buff, always with admixture of black\nhair; lateral line distinct and broad, varying from Light\nOchraceous-Buff to Ochraceous-Buff; ventral surface white to base of\nhairs, frequently suffused with Ochraceous-Buff; tail indistinctly\nbicolored, tan to grayish-white below and pale brown above; hind feet\ngrayish-white above; ears edged with white or yellowish-white; skull\nmedium; large medial projection on inferior ramus of zygomatic process\nof maxillary; palate moderately long; postpalatal notch usually broadly\nrounded and posterior to posterior part of last molar; proximal part of\ninferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary broad; pterygoid fossae\nbroad; auditory bullae moderately inflated.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps luteus_, _Z. p. princeps_ differs\nas follows: Total length, tail and hind foot longer; color darker, being\nless ochraceous; ears darker, edged with white or yellowish-white\ninstead of Ochraceous-Buff; lateral line more distinct; skull larger,\nexcept least interorbital breadth which is smaller; auditory bullae\nlarger, more inflated; pterygoid fossae larger; incisive foramina\nbroader, longer, and posteriorly more truncate; nasals broader, tapering\nless distally.\nFrom _Zapus princeps idahoensis_, _Z. p. princeps_ differs in: Size\nlarger; darker with more Ochraceous-Buff; lateral line much more\ndistinct; underparts frequently suffused with Ochraceous-Buff rather\nthan seldom so; skull larger as regards length of palatal bridge, length\nof zygomatic arch, and width of proximal part of inferior ramus of\nzygomatic process of maxillary; pterygoid fossae broader; medial\nprojection on inferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary large\ninstead of reduced or absent; postpalatal notch usually anterior to, or\non a plane with, posterior face of last molars rather than posterior to\nsame.\n_Remarks._--This subspecies retains most of its diagnostic characters in\nall parts of its geographic range. An individual from the type locality,\nFlorida, Colorado, resembles _Zapus princeps luteus_ in color, but\ncranially is most nearly like _Z. p. princeps_. A specimen from Tierra\nAmarilla, New Mexico, a locality 25 miles north of, and in homogeneous\nhabitat with, El Rito, New Mexico, from which specimens of _Z. p.\nluteus_ are known, shows resemblance to the latter in some cranial\ncharacters (see account of _Zapus princeps luteus_) but is most nearly\nlike _Z. p. princeps_ to which it is referred.\nAnimals from Medicine Wheel Ranch, 9000 ft., 28 mi. E Lovell, Wyoming,\nwhich are here referred to _Z. p. princeps_, show intergradation with\n_Zapus princeps idahoensis_, being similar in size of pterygoid fossae,\nbreadth of postpalatal notch, and in size and degree of inflation of the\nauditory bullae, but differ in color and in other cranial characters.\nSpecimens from 2 mi. E Shriver, 6500 ft., Montana, which lack the\ndistinct lateral line and ventral suffusion of Ochraceous-Buff, are here\nreferred to _Z. p. idahoensis_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 344, distributed as follows:\nCOLORADO: _Archuleta County_: _upper Navajo River_, 5 (CMNH); Navajo\nRiver, 6 (CMNH). _Boulder Co._: _12-1/2 mi. S Estes Park_, 2; _3 mi. S\nWard_, 3; Gold Hill, 1 (USBS); _7 mi. NW Nederland's_, 2 (UM); _3 mi. E\nPine Cliff_, 3 (CMNH). _Chaffee County_: _1-1/2 mi. S Monarch, 10,500\nft._, 2 (OKLA). _Conejos Co._: Antonito, 1 (USBS); _5 mi. S and 24 mi. W\nAntonito, 9600 ft._, 2. _Costilla Co._: _7 mi. SE Russell, 9200 ft._, 1\n(MVZ); Fort Garland, 6 (USBS). _El Paso County_: Minnehaha, Half Way, 5\n(UM). _Grand Co._: _Rocky Mtn. Nat'l Park_, 5 (UM). _Gunnison County_:\nGothic, 10 (8 OKLA; 2 USBS); _Major Creek, foot of Monarch Pass_, 1\n(OKLA). _Jackson Co._: Arapahoe Pass, Rabbit Ear Mts., 1 (USBS). _La\nPlata Co._: _7 mi. N Florida, Florida River, 7146 ft._, 8 (MVZ);\nFlorida, 6500 ft., 11 (1 FM; 9 AMNH). _Larimer Co._: Elkhorn, 7000 ft.,\n1 (USBS); _19-1/2 mi. W and 2-1/2 mi. S Loveland, 7300 ft._, 3. _Mineral\nCo._: _Wasson Ranch, Creede_, 1; _3 mi. E Creede_, 1; _23 mi. S and 11\nmi. E Creede, 9300 ft._, 5. _Rio Blanco Co._: _9-1/2 mi. SW Pagoda Peak,\n7700 ft._, 5; Meeker, 1 (USBS). _Rio Grande County_: _Rock Creek Camping\nArea_, 1 (OKLA). _Saguache Co._: Saguache Park, Cochetopa Forest, 1\n(USBS); _22 mi. W Saguache_, 1 (MVZ); _20 mi. S Saguache, Cochetopa\nPass_, 1 (USBS). _San Juan County_: 6-1/2 mi. SW Silverton, 4.\nNEW MEXICO: _Rio Arriba Co._: Tierra Amarilla, 1 (USBS). _Taos Co._:\n_Hondo Canyon, 8200 ft., west slope Taos Mts._, 1 (USBS); east slope\nTaos Mts., 8800 ft., 1 (USBS).\nWYOMING: _Albany County_: 32 mi. N and 12-1/2 mi. E Laramie, 6080 ft.,\nESE Browns Peak, 10,000 ft._, 8; _8 mi. E and 4 mi. S Laramie, 8600\nft._, 2; _8 mi. E and 6 mi. S Laramie, 8500 ft._, 1; _1 mi. ESE Pole\nPole Mtn., 8300 ft._, 3; Centennial, 8120 ft., 1. _Big Horn County_:\nMedicine Wheel Ranch, 9000 ft., 28 mi. E Lovell, 36; _12 mi. E and 2 mi.\n_17-1/2 mi. E and 4-1/2 mi. S Shell, 9100 ft._, 6. _Carbon County_:\nBridgers Pass, 18 mi. SW Rawlins, 7500 ft., 6; _Lake Marie, Medicine Bow\nNat'l Forest, 10,400 ft._, 6; _14 mi. E and 6 mi. S Saratoga_, 5; _10\nmi. N and 10 mi. E Encampment, 8000 ft._, 1; _10 mi. N and 12 mi. E\nEncampment, 7200 ft._, 2; _10 mi. N and 14 mi. E Encampment, 8000 ft._,\n28; _9 mi. N and 3 mi. E Encampment_, 2; _8 mi. N and 8 mi. E\nEncampment, 8900 ft._, 1; _8 mi. N and 14 mi. E Encampment, 8400 ft._,\nmi. E Encampment, 8400 ft._, 6; _8 mi. N and 22 mi. E Encampment, 10,000\nand 18 mi. E Savery, 8400 ft._, 2; _6 mi. N and 13-1/2 mi. E Savery,\nmi. E Savery, 7300 ft., 1. _Converse County_: 21 mi. S and 24 mi. W\nft._, 7. _Johnson County_: _6-1/2 mi. W and 2 mi. S Buffalo, 5700 ft._,\n1 mi. S Buffalo, 4800 ft._, 1; 1 mi. W and 4/5 mi. S Buffalo, 4800 ft.,\n1. _Laramie County_: 5 mi. W and 1 mi. N Horse Creek P. O., 3. _Natrona\nCounty_: _2 mi. W and 7 mi. S Casper, 6370 ft._, 2. _Washakie County_: 9\nmi. E and 5 mi. N Tensleep, 7400 ft., 2; 9 mi. E and 4 mi. N Tensleep,\n_Marginal records._--Wyoming: Medicine Wheel Ranch, 9000 ft., 28 mi. E\nLovell; 21 mi. S and 24 mi. W Douglas, 7400 ft.; 5 mi. W and 1 mi. N\nHorse Creek P. O. Colorado: Gold Hill; Minnehaha. New Mexico: E slope\nTaos Mts.; Tierra Amarilla. Colorado: Florida; 6-1/2 mi. SW Silverton;\nMeeker. Wyoming: Bridgers Pass, 18 mi. W Rawlins, 7500 ft.\n=Zapus princeps saltator= J. A. Allen\n    _Zapus saltator_ J. A. Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 12:3-4,\n    _Zapus princeps_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:23, August 8, 1899\n        (part--the part from Glacier, British Columbia).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Kermode and Anderson, Rep. Prov. Mus. Nat. Hist.\n    _Zapus princeps saltator_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n_Type._--Female, subadult, skin and skull, No. 14408, Amer. Mus. Nat.\nHist.; Telegraph Creek, British Columbia; obtained on August 23, 1897,\nby A. J. Stone.\n_Range._--Southern Yukon and southeastern Alaska south in British\nColumbia, to Bella Coola Inlet and Glacier. See fig. 46. Zonal range:\nCanadian and Hudsonian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back near Ochraceous-Buff, overlaid with\nblack hairs forming dark dorsal band thickly flecked with ochraceous;\nsides lighter than back; lateral line usually distinct; belly pure\nwhite, sometimes faintly suffused with Ochraceous-Buff; tail bicolored,\ndark above and grayish-white below; hind feet grayish-white above; ears\ndark, edged with yellowish-white or Ochraceous-Buff; incisive foramina\nlong, broad posteriorly; palatal bridge relatively short; postpalatal\nnotch anterior to posterior border of last molars; proximal part of\ninferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary without enlarged median\nprojection; zygomatic arch short.\n_Comparisons._--For comparison with _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ and\n_Zapus princeps idahoensis_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--The geographic range of _Z. p. saltator_, as here\nunderstood, includes several localities heretofore considered to be\nwithin the geographic ranges of neighboring subspecies. Specimens from\nIndianpoint Lake, 15 mi. N of Barkerville, British Columbia, for\nexample, which Hall (1934:379) considered nearer _Z. p. princeps_, are\nhere referred to _Z. p. saltator_, with which they closely agree in\ncranial measurements and color of pelage. One individual from Glacier,\nBritish Columbia, thought to be _Z. p. princeps_ by Preble (1899:32), is\nhere considered to show intergradation between _Z. p. kootenayensis_ and\n_Z. p. saltator_ but is more nearly like _Z. p. saltator_ to which it is\nhere referred. Intergradation between _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ and\n_Z. p. saltator_ is noted, in color and in shape and size of the\nincisive foramina, in a specimen from Vermilion Crossing, Kootenay,\nBritish Columbia. The majority of cranial characters show these animals\nto be referable to _Z. p. idahoensis_. Specimens from Mt. Revelstoke,\n3400 ft., British Columbia, show intergradation in shape of auditory\nbullae, in breadth of pterygoid fossae, and in shape and size of\nantorbital foramina between _Z. p. idahoensis_ and _Z. p. saltator_.\nResemblance in pelage and in the majority of cranial characters\nindicates that these specimens are best referred to _Z. p. saltator_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 187, distributed as follows:\nALASKA: Taku River, 1 (MVZ).\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: Atlin, 7 (6 CAS; 1 PM); _Deep Creek, 60 mi. above\nTelegraph Creek_, 1 (USBS); _Sawmill Lake, near Telegraph Creek_, 6\n(MVZ); junction 4 mi. N Telegraph Creek, 1 (ROM); McDame Post, Dease\nRiver, 1 (USBS); _Stikine River, at Glenora_, 28 (MVZ); _Kispiox\nValley, 23 mi. N Hazelton_, 3 (MVZ); _9-mi. Mtn., 4500 ft., NE\nHazelton_, 1 (MVZ); Hazelton, 959 ft., 20 (MVZ); Bear River, 7 mi. N\nBear Lake, 1 (USBS); Charlie Lake, Fort St. John, 1 (PM); _Moose River_,\n2 (PM); Tupper Creek, 7 (PM); _Babine_, 2 (USBS); _Port Simpson_, 3\n(USBS); 12 mi. N Summit Lake, Alaska Highway, 3300 ft., 3 (NMC);\n_Giscome_, 1 (USBS); _Ootsa Lake_, 3 (PM); Inverness, mouth Skeena\nRiver, 1 (USBS); W end Eutsuk Lake, 1 (PM); Wapiti, head of Middle\nBranches River, 1 (USBS); Hagensborg, 15 (NMC); _Stuie, Cariboo Mtn.,\n4700 ft._, 2 (NMC); Rainbow Mts., Mt. Brilliant, 5000 ft., 10 (NMC); N 7\nWistaria P. O., 13 (NMC); _Mt. McLean, Lillooet_, 1 (PM); Mt. Robson P.\nO., Mt. Robson Park, 1 (MVZ); _Indianpoint Lake, 15 mi. NE Barkerville_,\n42 (29 MVZ; 18 PM); Cottonwood P. O., 2 (MVZ); Mt. Revelstoke, 3400 ft.,\n6 (PM); Glacier, 1 (ROM).\nYUKON: Rose River, mile 95 on Canol Road, 1 (NMC).\n_Marginal records._--Yukon: Rose River, mile 95 on Canol Road, British\nColumbia; McDame Post, Dease River; Charlie Lake, Fort St. John; Tupper\nCreek; Wapiti, head of Middle Branches River; Mt. Robson P. O., Mt.\nRobson Park; Mt. Revelstoke, 3400 ft.; Cottonwood P. O.; Rainbow Mts.,\nMt. Brilliant, 5000 ft.; Inverness, mouth Skeena River. Alaska: Taku\nRiver. British Columbia: Atlin.\n=Zapus princeps utahensis= Hall\n    _Zapus princeps utahensis_ Hall, Occ. papers, Mus. Zool., Univ.\n    _Jaculus Hudsonius_, J. A. Allen, Bull. Essex Inst., 6:65, April,\n        1874 (part--the part concerning Great Salt Lake Valley, Utah).\n    _Zapus princeps princeps_, Wolfe, Jour. Mamm., 91:154, May 9, 1928.\n    _Zapus princeps idahoensis_, Davis, Recent Mammals of Idaho, Caxton\n        Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, p. 341, April 5, 1939 (part--the part\n        from southeast Idaho).\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull; No. 59153, Museum of Zoology,\nUniversity of Michigan; Beaver Creek, 19 mi. S Manila, Daggett County,\nUtah; obtained on July 16, 1928, by A. and R. D. Svihla, original No.\n_Range._--Southeastern Idaho and extreme western Wyoming (Teton, Snake,\nand Uinta Mt's) southward through Uinta, Wasatch, Oquirrh, and Beaver\nMt's of Utah. See fig. 46. Zonal range: Transition, Canadian, and\nHudsonian.\n_Description._--Size, large; back from Cinnamon-Buff to Warm Buff\noverlaid with black hairs; sides lighter with less admixture of black\nhairs; lateral line indistinct, sometimes wanting; tail bicolored,\nbrownish-black above, white to yellowish-white beneath; feet\ngrayish-white above; ventral surface white to base of hairs; ears dark,\nedged with white to yellowish-white; skull large; palatal bridge\nrelatively short; upper tooth-rows diverging anteriorly; occipitonasal\nlength great; interorbital region broad; zygomata widely bowed;\npostpalatal notch anterior to posterior face of last molars; mastoid\nwidth great.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus princeps princeps_, _Z. p. utahensis_\ndiffers in: color dorsally and laterally less ochraceous, lacking broad\nlateral line; skull larger in every part measured, excepting length of\npalatal bridge and breadth of palate at M3; zygomata more bowed; upper\ntooth-rows more divergent anteriorly; postpalatal notch anterior to\nposterior border of last molars.\nCompared with _Zapus princeps cinereus_, _Z. p. utahensis_ differs as\nfollows: Size averaging larger; upper parts darker, Cinnamon-Buff not\nPinkish-Buff; incisive foramina wider posteriorly; palate wider;\nzygomata more robust.\nFor comparison with _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--_Zapus princeps utahensis_ most closely resembles the\nseveral subspecies in the Great Basin in its large size, widely bowed\nzygomata, and posteriorly broadened incisive foramina. Intergradation\nbetween _Z. p. utahensis_ and _Zapus princeps cinereus_, geographically\nthe nearest of the Great Basin subspecies, is not known. Intergradation\nin color and cranial characters occurs between _Zapus princeps\nidahoensis_ and _Z. p. utahensis_ in specimens from 17 mi. E and 4 mi. N\nof Ashton, Idaho. All these specimens are, however, referable to _Z. p.\nidahoensis_. Animals from 9 mi. SE Irwin and from 3 mi. SW Victor,\nIdaho, resemble _Z. p. utahensis_ in most differential characters\n(dorsally ochraceous, lateral line more distinct, incisive foramina\nlarge, palate broad anteriorly, auditory bullae less inflated), and are\nhere referred to _Z. p. utahensis_. A series of specimens from the head\nof Crow Creek, Idaho, were considered by Davis (1939:340) to be\nintergrades between _Z. p. idahoensis_ and _Z. p. utahensis_; he thought\nthat the specimens were more nearly like _Z. p. utahensis_ in color, but\ncranially (80 per cent in average ratio of anterior width of palate to\nposterior width of palate), more nearly like _Z. p. idahoensis_, to\nwhich subspecies he referred them. I have examined these specimens and\nfind them to be more nearly like _Z. p. utahensis_ not only in color but\nin cranial characters as well. For example, the average ratio obtained\nby me for anterior width of palate to posterior width of palate is 72\nper cent, rather than 80 per cent as given by Davis (_loc. cit._). Other\ncranial characters, size of the incisive foramina, shape of the foramen\nmagnum, and shape of the auditory bullae, indicate relationship with _Z.\np. utahensis_ to which they are here referred. Two immature individuals\nfrom Strawberry Creek, 20 mi. E Preston, Idaho, considered to be _Z. p.\nidahoensis_ by Davis (_op. cit._:341), also are here referred to _Z. p.\nutahensis_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 178, distributed as follows:\nIDAHO: _Bonnerville County_: _9 mi. SE Irwin, 6400 ft._, 3. _Caribou\nCo._: Head Crow Creek, Preuss Mts., 7500 ft., 6 (USBS). _Franklin\nCounty_: Strawberry Creek, 20 mi. NE Preston, 6700 ft., 2 (MVZ). _Teton\nCounty_: 3 mi. SE Victor, 6 (MVZ).\nUTAH: _Beaver County_: Puffer Lake, 1 (UU). _Daggett County_: junction\nDeep Creek and Carter Creek, 7900 ft., 2 (UU). _Duchesne Co._: _Currant\nCreek, Uinta Forest_, 2 (USBS). _Morgan Co._: _exact locality not\ngiven_, 1 (UU). _Rich County_: 12 mi. SW Woodruff, 1 (MVZ). _Salt Lake\nCounty_: _Lambs Canyon, 2 mi. above Parleys Canyon, 7000 ft._, 1 (UU);\n_head Lambs Canyon, 9000 ft._, 3 (UU); _Salamander Lake and Lambs\nCanyon, 9000 ft._, 11 (UU); _\"The Firs,\" Mill Creek Canyon_, 2 (UU);\n_Brighton, Silver Lake P. O., 8700 ft., Cottonwood Canyon_, 1 (UU);\n_Brighton, Big Cottonwood Canyon, 8000 ft._, 1 (UU); _1 mi. above Alta_,\n4 (UU); Butterfield Canyon, approximately 5 mi. above Butterfield\nTunnel, 3 (UU). _Sanpete Co._: _8 mi. E Fairview and 5 mi. S Mammoth R.\nS., Manti Nat'l Forest, 9000 ft._, 1 (USBS); _Baldy R. S., Manti Nat'l\nForest_, 1 (UU); Ephraim, 8850 ft., 1 (USBS). _Summit County_: _Henrys\nFork, Uinta Mts., 8000 ft._, 4 (UU); 14 mi. S and 2 mi. E Robertson,\n9300 ft., 3. _Uintah County_: 21 mi. W and 15 mi. N Vernal, 10,050 ft.,\n1. _Utah County_: Payson Lake, 8300 ft., 12 mi. SE Payson, Mt. Nebo, 12\n(UU); _1 mi. E Payson Lake, 8300 ft., Mt. Nebo_, 3 (UU). _Wasatch\nCounty_: Provo River, 3 mi. N Soapstone R. S., Wasatch Nat'l Forest, 1\n(UU).\nWYOMING: _Lincoln County_: 3 mi. N and 11 mi. E Alpine, 5650 ft., 37.\n_Teton County_: 1/4 mi. E Moran, 6700 ft., 4; _Bar B. G. Ranch, 6500\nft., 2-1/2 mi. NE Moose_, 11; _Moose, 6225 ft._, 1. _Uinta County_: 2\nmi. E Robertson, 7200 ft., 1; _9 mi. S Robertson, 8000 ft._, 21; _9 mi.\nS and 2-1/2 mi. E Robertson, 8000 ft._, 1; _9-1/2 mi. S and 1 mi. W\nRobertson, 8600 ft._, 2; _10 mi. S and 1 mi. W Robertson, 8700 ft._, 18;\n_10-1/2 mi. S and 2 mi. E Robertson, 8900 ft._, 1; _13 mi. S and 1 mi. E\nRobertson, 9000 ft._, 4; _5 mi. E Lonetree_, 1 (ROM).\n_Marginal records._--Wyoming: 1/4 mi. E Moran, 6700 ft.; 2 mi. E\nRobertson, 7200 ft. Utah: junction Deep Creek and Carter Creek, 7900\nft.; Paradise Park, 21 mi. W and 15 mi. N Vernal, 10,500 ft.; Ephraim,\n8500 ft.; Puffer Lake; Payson Lake, 8300 ft., 12 mi. SE Payson, Mt.\nNebo; Butterfield Canyon, approximately 5 mi. above Butterfield Tunnel.\nIdaho: Strawberry Creek, 20 mi. NE Preston, 6700 ft.; 3 mi. SW Victor.\n=Zapus hudsonius= (Zimmerman)\n(Synonymy under subspecies)\n_Range._--From Pacific Coast of Alaska eastward to Atlantic Coast; from\nnorthern limit of tree-growth south into central Colorado and\nnortheastern parts of Oklahoma and Georgia. See fig. 47.\n    [Illustration: FIG. 47. Distribution of _Zapus hudsonius_.\n     Guide to subspecies\n     1. _Z. h. acadicus_      6. _Z. h. hudsonius_\n     2. _Z. h. alascensis_    7. _Z. h. intermedius_\n     3. _Z. h. americanus_    8. _Z. h. ladas_\n     4. _Z. h. campestris_    9. _Z. h. pallidus_\n     5. _Z. h. canadensis_   10. _Z. h. preblei_\n     6. _Z. h. hudsonius_    11. _Z. h. tenellus_]\n_Externals._--Size small to medium (total length 188 mm to 216 mm); tail\nlonger than head and body (112 mm to 134 mm) and bicolored, pale brown\nto brownish-black above, white to yellowish-white below; hind feet long\n(28 mm to 31 mm), grayish-white above; back ochraceous to dark brown;\nsides paler than back with dark hair interspersed; lateral line usually\npresent but sometimes indistinct or entirely absent (when present\nusually clear Ochraceous-Buff); ventral coloration white, sometimes with\nsuffusion of ochraceous; guard hairs average 115 microns (96u to 140u)\nin diameter; underhair with pigment pattern in form of hollow, narrow\nrectangles; cuticular scales of underhair large and fewer than those of\nthe underfur of _Z. trinotatus_, but underhair of _Z. hudsonius_\notherwise resembles that of _Z. trinotatus_.\n_Baculum._--Size small (total length 4.5 mm to 4.9 mm); base medium in\nwidth (0.64 mm to 0.72 mm); tip narrow (0.24 mm to 0.26 mm) and dished\nout in dorsal aspect, blunted; shaft rounded, curving gently upward at\ntip.\n_Skull._--Small to medium and relatively narrow in relation to length;\nrostrum pointed and short; mastoid region relatively narrow; incisive\nforamina short; base of zygomatic process of squamosal narrow; coronoid\nprocess of mandible short, relatively weak. Upper premolar usually small\n(averaging .30 mm in length and .35 mm in breadth) sometimes functional\n(most often so in old adults), occlusal surface divided by single\nshallow re-entrant fold, which in worn teeth forms centrally located\nlake; tooth-row short as compared to that of other species; individual\ncheek-teeth usually smaller than those of other species; lower\ncheek-teeth shorter and narrower than those of other species; angle of\nmandible strongly inflected.\nGEOGRAPHIC VARIATION\nThe species _Z. hudsonius_ is divisible into 11 subspecies based on\ndifferences in color, relative proportions of the tail, hind feet, body,\nand size and shape of parts of the skull (zygomata, braincase, incisive\nforamina, auditory bullae, pterygoid fossae, rostrum, and interorbital\nbreadth).\nColor of the pelage varies, as a general rule, from dark-backed,\ndull-sided individuals in the northern parts of the geographic range of\nthe species to light-backed, bright-sided individuals in the southern\nparts of the range.\nIndividuals from the southernmost geographic races (_Z. h. americanus_\nand _Z. h. pallidus_) are the smallest for the species and those from\nthe northernmost subspecies (_Z. h. alascensis_) are the largest. One\nsubspecies, _Z. h. campestris_, from the central part of the range of\nthe species, however, seems to be out of the cline. This form inhabits\nthe eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and is a robust animal\napproaching _Z. princeps_ in size.\nSeemingly there is no clinal variation in the several qualitative\nfeatures of the cranium, for instance in the shape of the auditory\nbullae, shape of the incisive foramina, and shape of the postpalatal\nnotch. On the other hand, the dimensions of the entire skull show that\nthe larger crania are of the northernmost subspecies and the smaller of\nthe southernmost subspecies.\nNATURAL HISTORY\n_Habitat._--_Zapus hudsonius_ occurs in low undergrowth usually of\ngrasses or forbs or both, in open coniferous forests, deciduous hardwood\ngroves, or in stands of tall shrubs and low trees, but most frequently\nin open, moist areas.\nQuimby (1951:75) notes that jumping mice were more common in the moist\nlowlands than in the drier uplands. More were in the open type lowlands\nthan in the forested type, and these mice favored habitats normally\nbordered by small streams affording moist to semi-aquatic living\nconditions. The reports of Goodwin (1924:255), Christian (1936:416), G.\n(1918:123), and others, although concerning widely different parts of\nNorth America, indicate that _Z. hudsonius_ selects habitats in\nvegetation of like form, even though different assemblages of plant\nspecies may be involved.\nAn average of 11.91 mice per acre was recorded by Quimby (1951:91) from\na study plot at Itasca Park, Clearwater County, Minnesota. He gives the\nmonthly population densities per acre for _Z. hudsonius_ at Centerville,\nAnoka County, Minnesota, as follows: June 2.78, July 3.57, August 3.10,\nand September 1.81. Blair's (1940:248) data on bi-monthly population\ndensity per acre for _Z. hudsonius_ on the Edwin S. George Reserve,\nLivingston County, Michigan, are remarkably similar, when adjusted on a\nmonthly basis, to those obtained by Quimby (_loc. cit._). Blair's (_loc.\ncit._) monthly population densities per acre are as follows: June 3.90,\nJuly 3.85, August 3.10, and September 2.00. Townsend (1935:90) estimated\npopulation densities per acre for _Z. hudsonius_ in central New York\nstate, at 11 to 72 individuals. As Quimby (1951:92) points out,\nTownsend's figures are probably too high, as commonly is the case when\nthe moving quadrat technique is used because animals from neighboring\nareas enter the trapped area to take over the niches made available by\ntheir predecessors' removal.\nThe population of _Z. hudsonius_ may vary considerably from year to year\nas well as seasonally. Blair (1940:249) found notably fewer jumping mice\non the George Reserve in 1938 than in 1939. Quimby (1951:94) found the\nnumbers of _Zapus_ to be highly variable and thought that there was a\nrapid turnover. Young animals were not caught until July when 25 per\ncent were either juveniles, young, or subadults; from this time on these\nage classes increased to a high of sixty-one per cent in September.\nQuimby (_loc. cit._) found that separating the individuals into their\nproper age classes was more difficult in September, since the young\nfrom early litters are adultlike in appearance. His data indicate as he\nremarked, \"That the over-wintering adults are, for the most part,\ngradually replaced by the young of the year as the summer progresses.\"\nThe sexes in _Z. hudsonius_ vary only slightly from a one to one ratio.\nQuimby (1951:63) found a sex ratio of 110 females to 100 males and Blair\n(1940:245) records a sex ratio of 113 males to 100 females. Townsend\n(1935:42) records a sex ratio in central New York of 155 males to 100\nfemales. Such a wide variation from a one to one ratio suggest that the\nmoving quadrat technique, which Townsend (1935:90) employed in obtaining\nhis data, may be, in some way unknown to me, more selective for the\nmales.\n_Behavior._--The saltatorial powers of _Z. hudsonius_ are well developed\nand often have been described in the literature. Stoner (1918:123)\nremarks that, \"When disturbed _hudsonius_ moves away by a series of\nleaps ... the distance traversed in one of these leaps is from six to\neight feet.\"; Cory (1912:249) observed these mice to make surprisingly\nlong leaps, and, according to him, a distance of 10 feet is by no means\nunusual; Handley and Patton (1947:49) credit these animals with jumping\neight to ten feet at a single bound; Hamilton (1935:190) remarked that\nhe noted an average of not more than four to six feet per jump; Townsend\n(1935:91) observed one individual make jumps of about two feet; and\nHarper (1932:29) records a jumping mouse leaping for distances of two to\nthree feet. Quimby (1951:72) notes that he had never seen one jump\nfarther than three feet. He found that the greatest jumps occurred\ninitially and normally covered a distance of two to three feet;\nsubsequent leaps were shorter but more rapid. A jumping mouse in full\nretreat progressed by jumps of about one foot.\nStatements concerning the gait of _Z. hudsonius_ are not in agreement\nbut the consensus of opinion is that these animals when unfrightened\nprogress by a series of hops of one to six inches, or, occasionally,\nwith a slow creeping motion while the animal is on all fours. When\nfrightened, however, their progress is by long bounds; the mice make a\nseries of two or three such leaps to the nearest protective cover, and\nthen sit motionless until pursued.\nConcerning the use of the tail as a balancing organ, G. S. Miller\n(1899:330) describes the behavior of a jumping mouse from which the tail\nhad been severed by the sickle of a mowing machine. \"When I approached,\nit made violent efforts to escape, but the moment it was launched in the\nair, its body, deprived of its balancing power, turned end over end so\nthat it was as likely as not to strike the ground facing the direction\nfrom which it had come.\"\nRiparian animals such as _Z. hudsonius_ need enter the water to escape\nfrom enemies or perhaps in search of food. _Zapus hudsonius_ can and\ndoes swim. Hamilton (1935:190) found it to be a strong swimmer capable\nof remaining in the water for from four to five minutes. According to\nHamilton (_loc. cit._), when the mouse is swimming the head is held\nhigh, the tail is arched near its middle, and only the hind limbs are\nemployed in propulsion. According to Sheldon (1938:327), Philip Allan,\nin northern Minnesota, saw many _Z. hudsonius_ swimming three or four\ninches under the surface of the water. The mice swam upstream and only\nthe hind legs were employed in the swimming movements. N. A. Preble\n(1944:200), at Archer's Pond, 3 miles southeast of Center, Ossipee\nCounty, New Hampshire, observed a jumping mouse swimming rapidly under\nwater toward another portion of the shore 30 or 40 feet away. The mouse,\nswimming less than a foot beneath the surface, was vigorously using both\nforefeet and hind feet, but the long tail trailing limply behind,\ncontributed in no way to the animal's movements. Quimby (1951:72)\nreleased five of the mice, one at a time, in the open water of a lake.\nHe followed alongside in a boat and observed that, \"In all instances the\nanimals proved to be excellent swimmers both on and underneath the\nsurface. The methods of progression were similar to land movements; i.\ne., the limbs were employed differently at various times depending upon\nthe speed. When first placed in water they moved rapidly by lunges\nproduced by sweeping strokes of the hind limbs employed simultaneously.\nThis movement was accomplished similarly to the long jumps made on\nland ... Following the first excited lunges, they settled down to a\nsteadier and slower gait using all four limbs one at a time. The\nanterior part of the body was held high in the water ... When approached\ntoo closely, they attempted to escape by diving. The maximum distance\nnoted was about four feet ... One was able to swim vigorously for\napproximately three minutes after which it tired greatly and was in\ndanger of drowning.\"\nAs concerns digging ability, Goodwin (1935:148) reports that _Z.\nhudsonius_ makes its own burrows; these are short and close to the\nsurface in the summer but longer, deeper, and below the frost-line in\nwinter. Two captives used their forefeet and nails in digging a tunnel\nin the foot of soil that Goodwin (_loc. cit._) had placed in their cage.\nQuimby (1951:72) remarks that captives excavate soil by means of the\nfront feet and throw the soil out behind; as the burrow deepened the\nhind feet were also utilized to throw the loose soil out of the burrow.\n_Zapus hudsonius_ climbs; Sheldon (1934:293) observed captive animals to\nclimb over small evergreen trees in their cages. They moved with\nsurprising sureness and agility, chasing each other among the branches\nor sitting for several minutes at a time on one of the limbs. Hamilton\n(1935:190) found that the mice ran over limbs and brush which were\nplaced in their outdoor enclosure.\nOrdinarily _Z. hudsonius_ is nocturnal, appearing in the early dusk and\nremaining active until pre-dawn. Occasional individuals are abroad in\ndaylight hours. Sheldon (1934:293) found in Nova Scotia that _Z.\nhudsonius_ is most active from early dusk through the night, but that it\nmay be abroad in daylight as well. Her statements are based on trapping\nresults, field observations, and observations made on captive\nindividuals. Quimby (1951:73) found that _Z. hudsonius_ in Michigan is\nmostly nocturnal; however, he saw mice on a few occasions in the\ndaytime. Diurnal activity seems to be increased in cloudy or damp\nweather; Quimby (_loc. cit._) almost invariably trapped more of these\nmice on cloudy, damp days than on other days.\nThis jumping mouse usually is silent but does utter various sounds.\nSheldon (1934:295) records squeaking and clucking noises. Quimby\n(1951:73) records the clucking noise described by Sheldon (_loc. cit._)\nand mentions also the squeaking and suckling sounds produced by the\nsmall young. This mouse is most vociferous when young or when about to\ngo into hibernation. Sheldon (1938:327) writes that _Z. hudsonius_ makes\na drumming noise by vibrating the tail against dry leaves.\nMany data are available concerning the hibernation of _Z. hudsonius_. In\ngeneral it seems necessary for the mice to put on a certain amount of\nfat preparatory to hibernation. This fat is deposited in a thin layer\nover the inside of the skin, over the back, and in the body cavities.\nThe thickest deposits are in and about the inguinal region.\nQuimby (1951:83) noted that gain in weight was accelerated in a brief\nperiod prior to entrance into hibernation. This relationship of rapid\ngain in weight to hibernation allows a person to estimate the date of\nhibernation. Cold weather seems to hasten hibernation, but less so than\nthe correct physiologic condition which is foreshadowed by a rapid gain\nin weight. For example, Quimby's (1951:84) data reveal that mice that\nwere moved to a heated room gained weight and hibernated in a fashion\nsimilar to those in unheated surroundings. Hamilton (1935:193) states\nthat, \"It seems necessary for the mouse to lay on a certain amount of\nfat before it is capable of hibernation.\" Hamilton (_loc. cit._)\nreported that 18 specimens of _Z. hudsonius_ taken [presumably in an\nactive state] near Ithaca, New York, on November 13, were without a\ntrace of fat.\nData that are available concerning the hibernation sites of _Z.\nhudsonius_ show that almost invariably these mice seek shelter in\nburrows beneath the surface of the ground and there construct nests of\ngrass, leaves, or some other vegetation. Nicholson (1937:103) found a\nhibernating _Z. hudsonius_ on the George Reserve, Livingston County,\nMichigan, on October 20. The mouse was in a nest, composed of 10 to 12\ndamp elm leaves, in a sand bank two feet three inches vertically and\nthree feet nine inches horizontally from the surface. On April 11, 1948,\nSchwartz (1951:228) found five nests (three with occupants) of _Z.\nhudsonius_ at Jefferson City, Cole County, Missouri. All nests were one\nfoot beneath the surface of a pile of coal-ash, which was about three\nand one-half feet high and five feet in diameter. The nests were\nspherical, approximately four inches in diameter and consisted of dried\noak leaves and bits of dried grass. Grizzell (1949:74) found two\nhibernating jumping mice at the Patuxent Research Refuge, Laurel,\nMaryland, in January, 1948. The mice were in separate woodchuck dens;\none mouse was 40 inches below the surface and the other was 26 inches\nbelow the surface. The mice were curled up in the center of masses of\ndead leaves, and thus, were well insulated against the cold. On April\n29, 1944, at Ithaca, New York, Eadie (1949:307) uncovered a hibernating\njumping mouse. The nest, about the size of a baseball, was compactly\nmade of fine grasses and was 10 inches below the surface of the ground\nin a mound of earth that was approximately six by four feet at the base\nand three feet high.\nFrom the foregoing reports on hibernation sites it is evident that well\ndrained areas are utilized. Sheldon (1934:300) remarks that the burrows\nused for hibernating are dug in a bank or some place from which the rain\nwater and melted snow probably drains off.\nEadie (1949:307), Grizzell (1949:75), Sheldon (1934:299), Schwartz\n(1951:228), and Sheldon (1938:331) all agree that the hibernating mouse\nrolls up into a ball-like shape (resting on its head and pelvis) with\nthe head between the hind legs, the nose against the lower belly, the\nforefeet curled on the chest, and the tail curled around the head and\nbody.\nA marked loss of weight occurs immediately after hibernation begins,\nand then reduction in weight is slow and regular. (See Hamilton,\nSheldon (1934:297) cites a letter from Vernon Bailey in which he remarks\non the necessity of abundant moisture and saturate air for hibernating\njumping mice. Bailey writes \"... they will awaken at times famished for\nwater and will drink and drink before going back to sleep.\"\nHamilton (1935:195) thinks that in the Ithaca area of New York these\nmice probably leave their winter quarters in the second half of April\nand that in southern New York and Long Island they emerge considerably\nearlier. Quimby (1951:82) and Bernard Bailey (1929:163) report that\nmales appear earlier in the spring than do the females. Quimby (_loc.\ncit._), by recording the sequence and dates of phenological events and\nappearance of _Zapus_ in several years, was able to predict fairly\naccurately the time of emergence of _Zapus_ in a succeeding year. In\nMinnesota, jumping mice emerged late compared to other hibernating\nrodents.\n_Enemies._--V. Bailey (1927:119) reports that A. K. Fisher found 50\nskulls of _Zapus_ in barn owl pellets taken from the towers of the\nSmithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Dearborn (1932:32) reported\nmink as having fed on jumping mice. Surface (1906:197) records taking a\n_Zapus_ from the stomach of a rattlesnake. Pearson and Pearson\n(1947:138) found remains of _Z. hudsonius_ in pellets of barn owls.\nQuimby (1951:74) reports two cases of predation on _Z. hudsonius_; one\nwas by a northern pike, _Esox lucius_ Linnaeus and the other was by a\nweasel, _Mustela_ sp. Vergeer (1948:91) collected a green frog, _Rana\nclamitans_ Latreille, which had eaten a jumping mouse.\nQuimby (1951:74) frequently found the fleas, _Megabothris quirini_\nRothschild, and _Megabothris wagneri_ (Baker), and occasionally a larval\ntick, _Dermocenter variabilis_ (Say), on _Z. hudsonius_. Sheldon\n(1934:296) remarks that captive animals are burdened with numerous\nfleas. Hamilton (1935:191) removed a louse from a jumping mouse. One\nmouse had a hole in the throat and three others had holes in the\ninguinal region; presumably bot-flies had emerged from these holes. Test\n(1943:507) found a single _Cuterebra_ larva in the inguinal region of a\n_Z. hudsonius_, and Sheldon (1938:328) found _Z. hudsonius_ infested by\nlarvae of _Cuterebra fontinella_ Clark. Here, as in other cases, these\nlarvae were found immediately below the skin. Erickson (1938:252)\nexamined 18 _Z. hudsonius_ obtained in Minnesota, and found that three\nwere parasitized. He found a bot-fly larva, _Cuterebra_ sp., nematodes\nof the genera _Subulura_ and _Spirocerca_, and a fluke of the genus\n_Notocotylus_.\n_Food._--Quimby (1951:85-86) studied the food preferences, by presenting\nto caged _Z. hudsonius_ the plants and invertebrate animals normally\navailable to these mice in nature, and indicates that in general, the\nstarchy fruits of the Gramineae and the less fleshy fruits of various\ngroups of plants are more heavily utilized than other plant materials.\nHis observations indicate that these rodents are highly insectivorous\nand that they consume many insects under natural conditions. Goodwin\n(1935:148) reports that the stomach contents of several individuals\nobtained at South Woodstock, Connecticut, consisted exclusively of\nblackberries, and that others had subsisted principally on cranberries.\nHamilton (1935:197) remarks that seeds are the favored food but that\nberries, nuts, fruits of various kinds, roots, and insects are also\nutilized. Stoner (1918:123) writes that the food in cultivated areas of\nIowa is various grains as well as grass and weed seeds; in wooded places\nthe mice feed on seeds and nuts of trees. Vernon Bailey (1927:118)\nstates that the examination of a great many stomachs of these jumping\nmice [in North Dakota] revealed nothing \"but the fine white pulp of\ncarefully shelled, well-masticated seeds. Generally these are from\ngrasses, although grain and a variety of other plant seeds are eaten.\"\nSchmidt (1931:116) examined the stomach contents of several _Z.\nhudsonius_ taken in Clark County, Wisconsin, and in most stomachs found\nthe remains of finely chewed roots; however, two from Hewett had eaten\nseveral geometrid caterpillars.\ninformation which indicates that _Z. hudsonius_ stores food in its nests\nor burrows. Possibly these mice awaken at intervals from hibernation and\neat.\n\"These rodents characteristically seize the material to be eaten with\nthe front feet and devour it while reclining on their haunches. The\nfollowing observation of a caged animal is typical of their feeding\nhabits. The mouse selected a head of yellow foxtail, _Setaria glauca_\n(Weig.) Stuntz, from several in the cage, separated it by gnawing\nthrough the supporting stem, seized it with the front feet, held it up\nto the mouth and began to gnaw at one end, stripping all parts from the\nrachis. The grass head was slowly rotated and shifted sideways until\nnothing remained but the rachis which was discarded. Actually the seeds\nwere the only parts eaten ...\" (Quimby, 1951:73). Sheldon (1934:294)\nremarks that _Z. hudsonius_ eats from a squatting position and holds the\npiece of food in the forepaws. The mouse seems to bite off a seed, and\nthen, holding it in the forepaws, transfers it to the mouth.\nAccording to Sheldon (_op. cit._:295) and Quimby (_loc. cit._), caged\njumping mice drink water. When drinking, the mouths of the mice are in\ncontact with the water, but neither observer determined whether the mice\nlapped or sucked the water. Sheldon (_loc. cit._) observed these mice\npassing stems of long grass through their mouths as though to squeeze\nout moisture, and thought that the mice obtain most of their required\nmoisture from green plants.\n_Reproduction._--The breeding season begins shortly after the jumping\nmice emerge from hibernation in the spring, and reproduction continues\nuntil a few weeks before they hibernate in the autumn. The extent of the\nbreeding period probably varies geographically and possibly seasonally.\nFor example, Quimby's (_op. cit._:70) information suggests that the 1947\nperiod of parturition occurred between June 15 and August 30 in the area\nof Centerville, Minnesota. In Michigan, Blair (1940:246) found a peak of\nbreeding activity in spring and another in late summer with little\nactivity in the intervening midsummer. Brimley (1923:263) records a\nfemale in North Carolina, with eight embryos on June 13, 1895, and\nanother with seven embryos on September 17, 1891, indicating a strong\npossibility of two litters per year there. Vernon Bailey (1927:118)\nrecords young born in May or June in North Dakota and thinks that there\nis time for only one litter per year. Petrides (1948:76) captured a\nfemale on September 22, 1944, at Athens, Georgia, that gave birth to six\nyoung on September 29. This late parturition date indicates a longer\nbreeding season in the southeastern part of the range of _Z. hudsonius_.\nThe gestation period of nonlactating, caged _Z. hudsonius_, Quimby\n(1951:63) thinks, \"is approximately 18 days ... [but] gestation is\nprolonged in lactating females.\"\nData from museum labels indicate that embryos in 62 pregnant females\naveraged 5.4 (2-8) per female. Quimby (1951:67) found the average number\nof embryos per female for 14 females taken in Minnesota, to be 5.3 and\nthat litters of young found in nests averaged 5.8. Sheldon (1938:330)\nreports two litters of seven young each and one of four young for _Z.\nhudsonius_ in Vermont. Petrides (1948:76) records a litter of six young\nfor _Z. hudsonius_ in Georgia. Brimley (1923:263) records one lot of\nseven and one lot of eight embryos for _Z. hudsonius_ in North\nCarolina. Vernon Bailey (1923:120) reports six embryos for a female of\n_Z. hudsonius_ taken in Washington, D. C. Ivor (1934:8) obtained a\nlitter of five young _Z. hudsonius_ from Erindale, Peel County, Ontario.\nHamilton (1935:195) records litters of two, four, and five young and\nembryo counts of four, two, four, and four for _Z. hudsonius_ in New\nYork.\nThere seems to be two litters per year. According to Quimby (1951:69),\n\"most adult females breed soon after emergence from hibernation and\nproduce the first litters within a month. The remaining females do not\nbreed immediately but produce the first litter,\" he says, \"in the second\nmonth after emergence.\" Both early-breeding females and late-breeding\nfemales produce at least 2 litters per year. Those that breed early may\nhave 3 litters.\nThe appearance and development of growing young of _Z. hudsonius_ in\nsuccessive weeks is described by Quimby (1951:65). Newborn young are\npink and hairless except for microscopic vibrissae. The eyes and\nexternal auditory meatus are closed, and the pinnae are folded. The toes\nare fleshy and clawless; the tail is short in relation to the length of\nthe body. The average weight was .78 grams. The average measurements of\nthree from different litters are: total length, 34 mm; tail, 9.2 mm;\nhind foot, 4.7 mm. The young are helpless but capable of emitting a high\npitched squeaking sound which is audible for several feet.\nIn the first week of growth the vibrissae become visible to the naked\neye, the body changes to flesh color, the dorsal parts become dark gray,\nthe pinna unfolds and is black tipped, and the claws appear. The young\nnow are able to crawl and make a suckling noise, but they are not yet\nable to support themselves on their legs.\nIn the second week of development, tawny yellow hair appears on the back\nand spreads onto the sides. Sparse hair of a lighter color appears on\nthe belly, backs of the feet, and outer surfaces of the legs. Vibrissae\nare now prominent. The eyes are still closed, but a crack down the\ncenter of each is visible by the 13th day. Claws have grown, the longest\nmeasuring 1.5 mm. The incisors erupt on approximately the 13th day,\nthose in the lower jaw appearing slightly before those in the upper jaw,\nand all are white. Activity is increased; nevertheless the young still\ncrawl, make suckling notes, and squeak.\nIn the third week of development the mice are covered with hair; darker\nhair appears dorsally; and vibrissae continue rapid growth. The external\nauditory meatus begins to open on about the 19th day and young react to\nsound on the 20th. The incisors now are 1 mm long and the claws 1.5 mm\nlong. Young are able to support themselves on their legs, walk, and make\none inch hops.\nIn the fourth week the juvenal pelage is replaced by adult pelage. The\neyes open between the 22nd and 25th days. The color of the incisors\nchanges from white to yellowish-orange as in the adults. P^4, M^1, M^2,\nm1 and m2 have emerged from the maxillary and dentary bones; M^3 and m3\nhave not yet erupted. A mouse 33 days old had all teeth well developed.\nBy the end of the 4th week the young, except for size, are adultlike and\ncapable of independent existence.\nThe greatest increase in dimensions of the body is in the first four\nweeks. A slowing down of growth is simultaneous with weaning.\nOther workers, Sheldon (1938:330), Petrides (1948:76), and Ivor (1934:8)\nalso describe the appearance of the young.\nSummer nesting sites are usually on the surface of the ground. Jumping\nmice characteristically construct a globular nest of grass but will\nutilize other vegetation if grasses are not available. Nests are usually\nconcealed under rocks, logs, bushes, or grass and can be entered by a\nhole at one side.\nSheldon (1938:328) described a nest of _Z. hudsonius_ found on the\nground near the edge of a small hay field. The nest was globular, not\nmore than four inches in outside diameter and two inches in inside\ndiameter; it was closely woven of fine, dry grass and bits of moss.\nAnother nest found in the same field measured 11.5 inches in\ncircumference at the base and six inches in circumference over the top.\nThe inside width and length each was three inches, and the inside height\nwas 3.5 inches. Vernon Bailey (1927:118) remarks that summer nests are\nplaced on the surface of the ground well concealed under grass or other\nvegetation. He describes the nest as \"neat little balls of fine grass\nwith a tiny opening at one side and a soft lining in the central\nchamber.\" Cory (1912:249) reports that summer nests are concealed behind\nrocks or under bushes and thick grass. The nests are round and four or\nfive inches in diameter with an entrance hole at one side. Goodwin\n(1935:148) examined a nest made entirely of straight, narrow leaves of\ngrass. Ivor (1934:8) found one made of finely shredded jute sacking.\nQuimby (1951:80) describes several nests: one in the center of a rotten\nwillow log was lined with small pieces of pulpy wood; another was in the\nrotted wood and debris, at ground level, inside a large, red oak (this\nglobular nest composed of grasses, plant fibers, and rootlets measured\nsix inches in diameter). Another nest was composed of a pile of wood\npulp, leaves of oaks, and grasses; this nest was in a hollow root\ndetached from a willow tree.\nThe mean home range of males, of _Z. hudsonius_ in Minnesota, according\nto Quimby (1951:86), was 2.70 plus or minus .50 acres; this was\nsignificantly larger than the mean home range of females, 1.57 plus or\nminus .27 acres. According to Quimby (_loc. cit._), the size and shape\nof the home range is influenced by the general features of the terrain,\ndensity and type of cover, and land use in the immediate area. Quimby\n(1951:94) remarked that the home range of the jumping mouse is\nrelatively unstable and Blair (1940:247) stated that the home ranges of\nboth sexes generally overlapped the ranges of other members of the same\nspecies and sex. The average size of the home range for _Z. hudsonius_\nin Michigan was .89 plus or minus .11 acres for males and .92 plus or\nminus .11 acres for females.\n=Zapus hudsonius acadicus= (Dawson)\n    _Meriones acadicus_ Dawson, Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., new ser.,\n    _Meriones labradorius_, Dawson, Edinburgh New Philos. Jour., new\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Baird, Rept. Expl. and Surv...., 8\n        (pt. 1):433, July 14, 1858 (part--the part from Nova Scotia,\n        Vermont, and New York).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. surv. of the\n        territories, 2nd ser., No. 5:260, 1877 (part--the part from Nova\n        Scotia, Vermont, and New York); Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:17,\n        August 8, 1899 (part--the part from New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,\n        Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, and northeastern\n    _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, Batchelder, Proc. New England Zool.\n        Club, 1:5, February 8, 1899 (part--the part from Keene Valley in\n        Essex County of New York, and Orivell in Vermont); Anderson, Ann.\n        Rept. Provancher Soc. Nat. Hist., Quebec, 1941:35-37, July 14, 1942\n        (part--the part from the tip of the Gasp\u00e9 Peninsula in Quebec, New\n        Brunswick, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York).\n    _Zapus hudsonius hardyi_, Batchelder, Proc. New England Zool. Club,\n        1:6, February 8, 1899, type from Mt. Desert Island, Hancock County,\n        Maine; Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist.,\n        5:165, September 11, 1947 (part--but excluding Pennsylvania and\n    _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_, Anderson, Ann. Rept. Provancher Soc.\n_Type._--No type specimen designated. Subspecies characterized from\nspecimens obtained in Nova Scotia.\n_Range._--Gasp\u00e9 Peninsula of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince\nEdward Island, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, northern\nConnecticut and northeastern New York. See fig. 47. Zonal range:\nTransition and Canadian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back from near Ochraceous-Tawny to near\nYellow-Ocher with heavy admixture of black-tipped hair, the dorsal band\ndistinct against color of sides; sides lighter than back and from near\nCinnamon-Buff to near Ochraceous-Buff lined with black-tipped hair;\nlateral line usually faintly marked but sometimes distinct and clear\nWarm-Buff; underparts white, sometimes suffused with color of sides;\ntail distinctly bicolored, brownish-black above and yellowish-white to\ngrayish-white below; ears dark, edged with color of sides; feet\ngrayish-white above; pterygoid fossae relatively narrow; zygomata\nrelatively long and broad; auditory bullae relatively narrow, usually\nwith depression on anterior surface; mastoid region relatively narrow;\ninferior arm of zygomatic process of maxillary relatively narrow.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, _Z. h. acadicus_\ndiffers in: Size averaging larger; upper parts usually less brownish and\nmore ochraceous, sides and flanks being more ochraceous and less\nyellowish; zygomata relatively longer; pterygoid fossae relatively\nnarrower; auditory bullae relatively narrower and usually with\ndepression on anterior surface.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius americanus_, _Z. h. acadicus_ differs as follows:\nSize larger; color darker on upper parts, flanks duller (less\nochraceous); underparts white, much less frequently suffused with color\nof sides; ears dark, usually without flecks of ochraceous; general\nappearance of pelage not so brightly colored; zygomata longer;\ncondylobasal length greater; mastoid region relatively broader; bullae\nlarger, more inflated and usually with depression on anterior surface;\nmaxillary tooth-row relatively longer.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius ladas_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--Specimens from various localities in Nova Scotia, Prince\nEdward Island and New Brunswick are essentially similar. Anderson\n(1942:38) revived the name _Z. h. acadicus_ for jumping mice from these\nareas, correctly considering them to be distinct from _Z. h.\ncanadensis_, the geographic race immediately to the west.\nIn the size and shape of the auditory bullae, length of the zygomata,\nbreadth of the pterygoid fossae, and general color of the pelage the\npopulations from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are essentially\nindistinguishable from material of _Zapus hudsonius hardyi_ from Maine.\nThus, _Z. h. hardyi_ must fall as a synonym of the earlier proposed name\n_Z. h. acadicus_.\nBole and Moulthrop (1942:165) applied the name _Z. h. hardyi_ (=\n_acadicus_) to the mice inhabiting a large area from coastal Maine and\ncentral New Hampshire through southern New England, New York,\nnorthwestern Pennsylvania, and northeastern Ohio. I agree with Bole and\nMoulthrop (_loc. cit._) that the population of _Zapus hudsonius_ from\nMaine, New Hampshire, west-central and northern New England are\ndifferent from neighboring subspecies and are referable to _Z. h.\nacadicus_, but find that material from extreme southern Massachusetts,\nConnecticut, southern New York, northwestern Pennsylvania, and\nnortheastern Ohio is best referred to _Zapus hudsonius americanus_ (see\naccount of that subspecies).\nIntergradation between _Z. h. americanus_ and _Z. h. acadicus_ is\nindicated by specimens from Berlin, Rensselaer County, New York. In\ncolor of ears, length of zygomata, and size and shape of the incisive\nforamina these specimens are more nearly like _Z. h. americanus_ but in\nsize and shape of the auditory bullae, breadth of the mastoid region,\nand general appearance of the pelage they are more nearly like _Z. h.\nacadicus_ and are here referred to _acadicus_. Specimens from Glenville,\nSchenectady County, New York, are intermediate in cranial characters\nbetween _Z. h. americanus_ and _Z. h. acadicus_ but in color are best\nreferred to the latter. Specimens from 1 mi. S Ayer, Worchester County,\nMassachusetts, are like _Z. h. americanus_ in their short zygomata,\nnarrow mastoid region and suffusion of the underparts; nevertheless, in\nthe shape of the auditory bullae, breadth of the pterygoid fossae, and\ngreater condylobasal length the specimens are more nearly like _Z. h.\nacadicus_ which they are here considered to be. Animals from Essex and\nWilmington, Essex County, Massachusetts, are like _Z. h. americanus_ in\nexternal size and in the size and shape of the auditory bullae; but they\nare more nearly like _Z. h. acadicus_ in most cranial characters and in\nthe general color of the pelage and are here assigned to _Z. h.\nacadicus_.\nSpecimens from Keene Valley, Essex County, New York, considered by\nBatchelder (1899:4) to be _Z. h. canadensis_, are in color, length of\nthe zygomata, and size and shape of the auditory bullae more nearly like\n_Z. h. acadicus_ to which subspecies they are here assigned. A specimen\nfrom Orwell, Addison County, Vermont, that Batchelder (_op. cit._:5)\nreferred to _Z. h. canadensis_ is more nearly like _Z. h. acadicus_ in\nthe shape of the auditory bullae, length of the zygomata, and color of\nthe pelage, and is here referred to _Z. h. acadicus_. Specimens from\nwestern New Brunswick, referred to _Z. h. canadensis_ by Anderson\n(1942:37), are more nearly like _Z. h. acadicus_. Specimens from Ste.\nAnne des Monts, Gasp\u00e9 Peninsula, Quebec, are intermediate between _Z. h.\ncanadensis_ and _Z. h. acadicus_ in color and size and also in the shape\nof the auditory bullae but are best referred to _Z. h. acadicus_.\n_Zapus hudsonius acadicus_ as here understood is a relatively\nwide-ranging subspecies. Populations at the southern periphery of its\nrange are difficult to separate from populations at the northern\nperiphery of the range of _Z. h. americanus_. These two geographic races\nrepresent opposite extremes of a clinal gradient and, as would be\nexpected, geographic intermediates are morphologically similar.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 156, distributed as follows:\nMAINE: _Aroostock County_: _Madawaska_, 6 (MCZ). _Hancock County_:\n_Mount Desert Island_, 9 (6 MCZ, 3 UM). _Piscataquis County_: _Mount\nKatahdin_, 1 (USNM); Sebec Lake, 4 (USBS); _Katahdin Lake_, 1 (USBS).\n_Sagadahoc Co._: Small Point Beach, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Somerset County_:\neast branch Penobscot River, 2 (USBS). _Washington County_: Columbia\nFalls, 1 (USBS).\nMASSACHUSETTS: _Essex County_: _Essex_, 4 (Clev. MNH); Wilmington, 4 (3\nUSBS, 1 USNM). _Worchester County_: _Lunenberg_, 2 (USBS); _1 mi. S\nAyer_, 2 (MVZ); 2 mi. N Gilbertville, 1.\nNEW BRUNSWICK: _Charlotte County_: _6 mi. N St. Andrews_, 2 (NMC); 5 mi.\nN St. Andrews, 4 (NMC). _Carleton County_: _Debec_, 1 (MVZ). _Gloucester\nCounty_: Dalhousie, 2 (MVZ); _Miramichi Road, 15 mi. from Bathurst_, 4\n(NMC); _Youghall_, 3 (NMC). _Madawaska County_: Baker Lake, 2 (NMC); _9\nmi. NE Edmundston_, 4 (NMC); 5 mi. N St. Leonard, 5 (NMC). _Victoria\nCo._: _Tobique Point_, 1 (AMNH). _York County_: _Queensbury_, 1 (USBS).\nNEW HAMPSHIRE: _Carroll County_: _Intervale_, 1 (UM); _Ossipee_, 4 (3\nUSBS); _2 mi. S Ossipee_, 12 (2 USNM). _Coos County_: _Nathan Pond_, 1\n(UM); Fabyans-Bretton Woods, Dartmouth Brook, 2 (UM); _Fabyans_, 1\n(USNM); _3 mi. W Base Station_, 1; _Mt. Washington_, 1 (MVZ); _Pinkham\nNotch, 1900 ft._, 1 (USNM). _Grafton County_: _Franconia Notch, Profile\nLake_, 1 (UM); Lebanon, 3 (UM). _Strafford Co._: _1 mi. E Durham_, 1\n(UM).\nNEW YORK: _Essex Co._: Keene Valley, 5 (MCZ); _Keene Heights_, 5 (MCZ);\n_Minerva, 1700 ft._, 1 (AMNH). _Herkimer County_: Northwood, 7 (AMNH).\n_Rensselaer Co._: Berlin, 8 (AMNH). _Schenectady County_: _Glenville_, 1\n(USBS). _Warren County_: _Lake George_, 5 (USBS). _Washington County_:\n_Patterns Mills_, 1 (USBS).\nNOVA SCOTIA: _Annapolis Co._: Bear River, 7 (NMC); _Lake Kedgemakooge_,\n5 (UM); 2 mi. S Milford, 1 (AMNH). _Kings Co._: Black River Dist., 1\n(NMC); _no exact locality_, 1 (NMC). _Shelburne County_: Doctors Cove, N\nBarrington Passage, 1 (NMC); _Barrington Passage_, 4 (NMC).\nPRINCE EDWARD ISLAND: no exact locality, 1 (USBS).\nQUEBEC: Ste. Anne des Monts, 1 (AMNH).\nVERMONT: _Addison County_: Orwell, 1 (MCZ); _Lamville County_: Mt.\nMansfield, 2 (USBS). _Windham County_: _Whitingham_, 2 (AMNH).\n_Marginal records._--Quebec: Ste. Anne des Monts. New Brunswick:\nDalhousie. Prince Edward Island. Nova Scotia: Black River District;\nDoctors Cove, N Barrington Passage. Maine: Columbia Falls; Small Point\nBeach. Massachusetts: Wilmington; 2 mi. N Gilbertville. New York:\nBerlin; North Wood; Keene Valley. Maine: E branch Penobscot River. New\nBrunswick: Baker Lake.\n=Zapus hudsonius alascensis= Merriam\n    _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,\n    _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 24:37,\n_Type._--Male, adult, skin and skull, No. 73584, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol.\nSurv. Coll.; Yakutat Bay, Alaska; obtained on July 5, 1895, by Clark P.\nStreator, original No. 4660.\n_Range._--Alaska Peninsula, coastal section of mainland of southern and\nsoutheastern Alaska including Revillagigedo Island; also southwestern\nYukon. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Canadian and Hudsonian.\n_Description._--Size large; back from near Ochraceous-Tawny to near\nDresden Brown, sometimes darkened with black tipped hair usually with\ndarker mid-dorsal area forming a band; sides lighter than back and from\nnear Ochraceous-Tawny to near Clay Color; lateral line usually distinct,\nof clear Ochraceous-Buff; belly white, frequently with a slight\nsuffusion of Ochraceous-Buff; tail bicolored, brownish to brownish-black\nabove, white to yellowish-white below; ears dark, edged and flecked on\nthe inner surface with color of sides; feet grayish-white above;\nauditory bullae broad and moderately inflated; pterygoid fossae\nrelatively broad; incisive foramina relatively long, zygomata relatively\nlong and broadly bowed; mastoid region relatively broad; distance from\nincisors to postpalatal notch relatively great; occipitonasal length\nrelatively great.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_, _Z. h. alascensis_\ndiffers as follows: Size larger; upper parts darker, less ochraceous;\nsides duller, less ochraceous more tawny; incisive foramina averaging\nlonger; mastoid region broader; occipitonasal length greater; zygomata\nwider-spreading and longer; condylobasal length averaging greater;\nauditory bullae less broadly rounded; and distance from incisors to\npostpalatal notch averaging greater.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--_Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ is a fairly well marked\nsubspecies retaining most of its characters throughout its range.\nVariation is noted in specimens from the southwest end of Dezadeash\nLake, 2400 ft., Yukon Territory, and seems to be the result of\nintergradation between _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ and _Z. h.\nalascensis_. These animals are like _Z. h. hudsonius_ in the shape of\nthe auditory bullae but are otherwise more nearly like _Z. h.\nalascensis_ to which they are here assigned. Alaskan specimens from 7\nmi. SSE Haines, and from a point 9 mi. W and 4 mi. N Haines average\nslightly larger than _Z. h. alascensis_ in most measurements taken;\nhowever, in coloration they more nearly agree with _Z. h. alascensis_\nthan with _Z. h. hudsonius_ or _Z. h. tenellus_ the geographic ranges of\nwhich adjoin that of _Z. h. alascensis_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 56, distributed as follows:\nALASKA: Cook Inlet, Tyonek, 1 (USBS); head Chalitna River, 2 (USBS);\nLake Clark, 4 (USBS); east side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9 mi. W and 4\nmi. N Haines, 8; Yakutat, 3 (USBS); Lake Iliamma, 1 (USBS); Lake\nAleknagik, 1 (USBS); _Kokwok_, 1 (USBS); _Nushagak River_, 3 (USBS);\n_Chilkat Peninsula, 10 ft., 7 mi. SSE Haines_, 18; Nushagak, 3 (USBS);\nChignik Bay, 1 (USBS); Portage Cove, Revillagigedo, 1 (MVZ); _Izembek\nBay_, 1 (USBS); Frosty Peak, 1 (USBS).\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: _west end Kelsall Lake, 2900 ft._, 1; Stonehouse\nCreek, 5-1/2 mi. W junction Stonehouse Creek and Kelsall River, 4.\nYUKON: SW end Dezadeash Lake, 2400 ft., 2.\n_Marginal records._--Alaska: Lake Aleknagik; head Chalitna River. Yukon:\nSW end Dezadeash Lake, 2400 ft. Alaska: E side Chilkat River, 100 ft., 9\nmi. W and 4 mi. N Haines; Portage Cove, Revillagigedo Island; Yakutat;\nCook Inlet, Tyonek; Chignik Bay; Frosty Peak.\n=Zapus hudsonius americanus= (Barton)\n    _Dipus americanus_ Barton, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 4:115, 1799.\n    _Jaculus americanus_ Wagler, Nat. Syst. Amphibien, 23, 1830.\n    _Meriones microcephalus_ Harlan, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 1,\n        1839, based on two specimens from \"the farm of Mr. Beck, in\n        Philadelphia County, a few miles northeast of the city [=\n        Philadelphia, Pennsylvania].\"\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Baird, Repts. Expl. and Surv. 111, 8 (pt. 1):\n        433, July 14, 1858 (part--the part from Massachusetts, Connecticut,\n        New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the\n        territories, 2nd ser. No. 5:260, 1877 (part--the part from\n        Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Pennsylvania); Preble,\n        N. Amer. Fauna, 15:17, August 8, 1899 (part--the part from\n        Peterboro and Waterville, New York, southeastern Massachusetts,\n        Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland,\n        North Carolina, and Ohio).\n    _Zapus hudsonius americanus_, Batchelder, Proc. New England Zool.\n        Club, 1:6, February 8, 1899; Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:19,\n    _Zapus hudsonius hardyi_, Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publ. Cleveland\n        Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:165, September 11, 1942 (part--the part from\n        New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania).\n    _Zapus hudsonius brevipes_ Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publ. Cleveland\n        Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:168, September 11, 1942, type from Bettsville,\n        Seneca County, Ohio.\n    _Zapus hudsonius rafinesquei_ Bole and Moulthrop, Sci. Publ.\n        Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:169, September 11, 1942 (part--the\n        part from southeastern Ohio), type from Cat Run, extreme\n        southeastern Belmont County, Ohio.\n_Type._--No type specimen designated. _Dipus americanus_ was\ncharacterized from jumping mice obtained by Barton near the Schuylkill\nRiver, a few miles from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n_Range._--Southeastern United States and lower peninsula of Michigan;\neast of central Indiana; from central New York and Massachusetts\nsouthward to northern Georgia. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Austroriparian\n(Lower Austral), Carolinian (Upper Austral), Alleghanian (Transition),\nand Canadian.\n_Description._--Size small; back from near Light Ochraceous-Buff to near\nOchraceous-Buff with admixture of black-tipped hair forming distinct\ndorsal band; sides bright, lighter than back from near Light\nOchraceous-Buff to near Ochraceous-Buff; lateral line usually distinct\nand of color of sides; underparts white, sometimes with slight suffusion\nof color of sides; tail bicolored, brown to brownish-black above,\nyellowish-white to grayish-white below; ears narrowly edged and heavily\nflecked with color of sides; feet white to grayish-white above; skull\nshort; braincase relatively narrow; incisive foramina relatively broad;\nskull relatively narrow across zygomata; interorbital region relatively\nbroad; distance from incisors to postpalatal notch relatively short;\nauditory bullae relatively small.\n_Comparisons._--Compared with _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, _Z. h.\namericanus_ differs as follows: Smaller; paler (in a sense brighter\nbecause more ochraceous and less tawny); skull smaller; auditory bullae\nnarrower, less inflated; incisive foramina relatively more bowed;\ncondylobasal length averaging less.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_, _Z. h. americanus_ differs as\nfollows: Smaller; color brighter, more ochraceous, less yellow;\nbraincase relatively narrower; auditory bullae usually smaller; incisive\nforamina broader; inferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary\nusually with median projection; interorbital region averaging broader.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--Intergradation with _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_ occurs in\nsoutheastern New York as indicated by a series of 25 specimens from\nPeterboro. They resemble _Z. h. acadicus_ in width of the mastoid\nregion and relatively longer tooth-row, but in the size and shape of the\nauditory bullae, width of the pterygoid fossae, and lighter, brighter,\ncolor of the sides they are more nearly like _Z. h. americanus_ to which\nthey are here referred.\nIntergradation between _Z. h. americanus_ and _Z. h. acadicus_ is\nindicated also by specimens from Lawyersville and Schoharie, New York.\nIn animals from both localities the length of the zygomata and the\nbreadth of the mastoid region are more nearly as in _Z. h. acadicus_,\nbut in size and shape of the auditory bullae, over-all length of the\nskull, color of the ears, and general color of the pelage they are more\nnearly like _Z. h. americanus_ to which they are here referred.\nSpecimens from western Pennsylvania, judged to be _Z. h. hudsonius_ by\nPreble (1899:17), and those from northwestern Pennsylvania and\nnortheastern Ohio, allocated to _Z. h. hardyi_ (= _acadicus_) by Bole\nand Moulthrop (1942:165), are more nearly like _Z. h. americanus_ in\nsize and shape of the auditory bullae, short zygomata, relatively narrow\nmastoid region, and color of pelage.\nSpecimens from the lower peninsula of Michigan, northeastern Indiana,\nand northwestern Ohio, described by Bole and Moulthrop (_op. cit._:168)\nas belonging to a new subspecies (_Zapus hudsonius brevipes_), are to me\nindistinguishable from most specimens of _Z. h. americanus_. The\ncharacters which Bole and Moulthrop (_loc. cit._) ascribe to _Z. h.\nbrevipes_--color bright Ochraceous-Buff, tail and hind feet short, and\nskull narrow--are also those of _Z. h. americanus_.\nSpecimens from various localities in southeastern Ohio, all within the\nrange ascribed by Bole and Moulthrop (_op. cit._:169) to _Zapus\nhudsonius rafinesquei_, are indistinguishable from specimens of _Z. h.\namericanus_ from eastern Tennessee, West Virginia, North Carolina, and\nMaryland. _Zapus hudsonius rafinesquei_ (at least that part from\nsoutheastern Ohio) is indistinguishable from _Z. h. americanus_ and\ntherefore is synonymized under _Z. h. americanus_.\nSpecimens from Lagrange County, Indiana, show intergradation between\n_Zapus hudsonius intermedius_ and _Z. h. americanus_ in the color of the\npelage but are more nearly like _Z. h. americanus_ to which they are\nhere referred. One from Porter County, Indiana, is more nearly like _Z.\nh. intermedius_ in size and shape of the bullae and in breadth of the\npterygoid fossae but in color and degree of lateral bowing of the\nzygomata is better placed with _Z. h. americanus_.\n_Z. h. americanus_ is a wide ranging subspecies. Animals at the northern\nperiphery of the range (lower peninsula of Michigan to the west and\nsoutheastern Massachusetts to the east) are largest and darkest; to the\nsouthward there is a progressive reduction in size and a change to a\nlighter, brighter color. Animals from Maryland, Virginia, and North\nCarolina are more nearly average representatives of the subspecies than\nare those from the region of the type locality.\nA jumping mouse allegedly of this subspecies has been recorded by\nColeman (1941:91) from Caesars Head, 300 ft., South Carolina. This\nspecimen and one from Athens, Georgia, provide the southeasternmost\nrecord-stations of occurrence for the species _Z. hudsonius_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 318, distributed as follows:\nCONNECTICUT: _Hartford County_: _Windsor_, 1 (USBS); _East Hartford_, 2\n(MCZ). _Litchfield County_: Sharon, 3 (AMNH); _Macedonia Park_, 2\n(AMNH). _Middlesex County_: _Clinton_, 1 (AMNH). _Windham County_: South\nWoodstock, 10 (AMNH); _Pomfret, near Hampton line_, 1.\nGEORGIA: _Clarke Co._: Athens, 1 (USBS).\nINDIANA: _Lagrange Co._: no exact locality, 2 (UM). _Porter Co._:\nMineral Springs, 1 (FM); _no exact locality_, 1 (FM).\nMARYLAND: _Anne Arundel County_: _Patuxent Research Refuge_, 1 (USBS).\n_Charles County_: _no exact locality_, 1 (USBS). _Garrett Co._: Finzel,\n6 mi. N Frostburg, 1 (USBS). _Montgomery County_: _Sandy Springs_, 2\n(USBS); _Kensington_, 1 (USNM); _Cabin John Bridge_, 2 (1 USBS; 1 USNM).\n_Prince Georges County_: _Laurel_, 8 (USNM); _Branchville_, 1 (USBS);\n_College Park_, 1. _Worchester County_: Assateague, 5 mi. S Ocean City,\n1 (USBS).\nMASSACHUSETTS: _Barnstable County_: _West Falmouth_, 1 (USBS). _Bristol\nCounty_: _Raynham_, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Dukes County_: _Martha's Vineyard_,\n1 (USBS); _West Chop, Martha's Vineyard_, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Nantucket\nCounty_: _Nantucket Island_, 1 (USNM). _Plymouth County_: Middleboro, 1\n(USNM); _Plymouth_, 1 (UM); _Marshfield_, 6 (USBS); _Wareham_, 3 (1\nClev. MNH; 2 UM).\nMICHIGAN: _Alcona Co._: _2 mi. S Harrisville_, 2 (UM). _Allegan Co._:\n_near junction Swan Creek and Kalamazoo River_, 3 (UM). _Berrien Co._:\n_Warren Woods_, 2 (UM); _Three Oaks_, 1 (UM). _Charlevoix Co._: _Thumb\nLake_, 1 (UM); _Section 1 Norwood Township_, 1 (UM); _Boyne Falls_, 12\n(UM); _2 mi. S Boyne Falls_, 2 (UM). _Cheboygan Co._: Douglas Lake, 2\n(UM). _Clinton Co._: _2 mi. SE DeWitt_, 1 (UM). _Emmet Co._: _Maple\nRiver, near Douglas Lake_, 1 (UM). _Huron Co._: _Rush Lake_, 1 (UM).\n_Kalamazoo Co._: _no exact locality_, 1 (UM). _Lake Co._: _1 mi. NW\nChase_, 1 (UM). _Livingston Co._: _George Reserve, Pinckney_, 2 (UM);\n_Upper Whitewood Lake_, 1 (UM); _Whitmore Lake_, 1 (UM); _Portage Lake_,\n3 (UM). _Mason Co._: 9 mi. N Ludington, 1 (UM). _Midland Co._: Sanford,\n1 (UM). _Montmorency Co._: _T. 32N, R. 1E, Sec. 30_, 1 (UM). _Muskegon\nCo._: _4 mi. NW North Muskegon_, 2 (UM). _Oakland Co._: Bloomfield, 1\n(UM); _no exact locality_, 1 (UM). _Otsego Co._: _Pigeon River_, 1 (UM);\nR. 2W, Sec. 2_, 1 (UM). _Shiawassee Co._: _1/2 mi. NE Byron_, 5 (UM);\n_1/4 mi. S Byron_, 2 (UM); _2 mi. SE Byron_, 1 (UM); _3 mi. SW Byron_, 1\n(UM). _Van Buren Co._: _Van Auken Lake_, 1 (UM). _Washtenaw County_:\n_Whitmore Lake_, 1 (UM); _2 mi. W Cherry Hill_, 1 (UM); _Ann Arbor_, 7\n(UM); _2 mi. E Ann Arbor_, 2 (UM); _Willow Run Village_, 1 (UM).\nNEW JERSEY: _Bergen County_: Harrington Park, 1 (AMNH); _Englewood_, 1\n(USNM). _Cape May County_: _Mays Landing_, 3 (Clev. MNH). _Morris\nCounty_: _Mendham_, 1 (AMNH). _Ocean County_: Tuckerton, 3 (USBS).\nNEW YORK: _Broome Co._: _5 mi. N Binghamton_, 2 (USNM). _Cayuga County_:\nE Aurora, 1 (USBS). _Greene County_: Catskills, 4 (USNM); _Kaaterskill\nJunction_, 1 (USNM). _Madison County_: Peterboro, 25 (2 MCZ; 19 USNM; 4\nClev. MNH). _Nassau County_: Locust Grove, 3 (USNM). _Orange Co._:\n_Cranberry Pond, 840 ft., Highland_, 2 (USNM). _Otsego County_: _Lake\nCharlotte_, 1 (AMNH). _Queens County_: _Woodside, Long Island_, 1\n(USNM); _near Forest Hills, Long Island_, 1 (AMNH); _Ray Nu Beach, Long\nIsland_, 1 (USNM). _Rockland County_: _Tappan_, 1 (AMNH). _Schoharie\nCounty_: _Lawyersville_, 1 (AMNH); _Schoharie_, 1 (AMNH). _Suffolk\nCounty_: _Montauk Point, Long Island_, 8 (USBS). _Tioga County_:\n_Owego_, 1 (USBS). _Westchester Co._: _Bedford_, 1 (AMNH).\nNORTH CAROLINA: _Buncombe County_: _Weaverville_, 1 (AMNH). _Cherokee\nCo._: Martin Creek, 2 (UM). _Mitchell County_: Roan Mountain, 2 (USBS).\n_Wake County_: Raleigh, 5 (3 USNM; 1 UM; 1 NCS).\nOHIO: _Carroll Co._: Carrollton, 2 (UM). _Cuyahoga County_: _Big Creek,\nBrookside Park_, 1 (Clev. MNH); _Dover_, 1 (Clev. MNH); _Rocky River\nMetr. Park_, 3 (Clev. MNH); _North Olmstead_, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Erie Co._:\n_Milan_, 1 (Clev. MNH); _Mill Hollow, Vermilion River_, 1 (Clev. MNH).\n_Lake Co._: Holden Arboretum, 3 (Clev. MNH). _Meigs Co._: Portland\nStation, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Seneca Co._: _Bettsville_, 4 (Clev. MNH); Old\nFort Seneca, 4 (Clev. MNH); _Corners_, 1 (Clev. MNH). _Wayne Co._:\n_Wooster_, 1 (UM); _Craighton_, 1 (UM).\nPENNSYLVANIA: _Beaver Co._: _1 mi. NE Darlington_, 1 (CM); _2 mi. E\nIndustry_, 1 (CM); _4 mi. E Frankfort_, 2 (CM). _Bedford Co._: _1 mi. NE\nOsterburg_, 1 (CM). _Berks Co._: _2 mi. W Strausstown_, 1 (USNM).\n_Bradford Co._: _2-1/2 mi. NNW Wyalusing_, 2 (CM). _Bucks Co._: 2 mi. N\nNew Britain, 1 (CM). _Butler Co._: _Thorn Creek, 4 mi. S Butler_, 4\n(CM); _2 mi. E Middle Lancaster_, 1 (CM); _Orphans Home, 2 mi. E Mars_,\nmi. NE Ebensburg_, 1 (CM). _Centre Co._: 2, mi. E Snowshoe, 2 (CM).\n_Chester Co._: _2 mi. S West Chester_, 1 (CM). _Clinton Co._: _Tamarack,\n9 mi. NNW Renovo_, 1 (CM). _Crawford Co._: _Pymatuning Lake_, 3 (Clev.\nMNH). _Erie Co._: _4-1/2 mi. SW_ [town of] _North East_; 2 (CM); _East\nSpringfield_, 1 (CM). _Fulton Co._: _1-1/2 mi. NE Warfordsburg, 580\nft._, 1 (CM). _Huntington Co._: _6-1/2 mi. S Shade Gap_, 2 (CM).\n_Indiana Co._: _1/2 mi. E Indiana, 1320 ft._, 2 (CM). _Lebanon Co._:\nMercer_, 2 (CM); _5 mi. S Mercer_, 1 (CM). _Monroe Co._: _Pocene Lake_,\n1(CM). _Pike Co._: _Bruce Lake_, 1 (CM). _Potter Co._: _Woodcock Run,\n7-1/2 mi. WSW Ulysses_, 2 (CM). _Sommerset County_: _4 mi. SW Somerset,\n2100 ft._, 2 (CM); _New Lexington_, 1 (USBS). _Susquehanna Co._: 10 mi.\nNNW Montrose, 1 (CM). _Union Co._: _Glen Iron_, 2 (CM). _Warren Co._:\nBensons Swamp, 5 mi. E Columbus, 1 (USNM); _Miles Run, 5 mi. NW\nPittsfield_, 1 (CM); _1-1/2 mi. N Pittsfield_, 1 (CM); _2-1/2 mi. N\nKinzua_, 2 (CM); _2 mi. N Kinzua_, 1 (CM).\nTENNESSEE: _Carter Co._: 3 mi. SSW Roan Mountain (town), 2900 ft., 1\n(UM).\nVIRGINIA: _Amelia Co._: Amelia, 1 (UM). _Elizabeth City County_: Near\nHampton, 2 (UM). _Fairfax County_: Fall Church, 4 (2 USNM; 2 USBS);\n_opposite Plummers Island, Maryland_, 1 (USNM). _Highland Co._: Laurel\nPark, 9 mi. NNW Monterey, 3100 ft., 4 (UM). _Nelson Co._: _no exact\nlocality_, 5 (USNM). _Norfolk County_: _Deep Creek_, 1 (USBS). _Page\nCo._: _no exact locality_, 1 (USNM). _Smyth Co._: _Sugar Grove_, 1 (UM);\n_1/2 mi. E Konnarock, 2800 ft._, 1 (UM). _Washington Co._: Konnarock,\nWASHINGTON D. C.: _Chevy Chase_, 1 (USBS); _no exact locality_, 4 (3\nUSNM; 1 USBS).\nWEST VIRGINIA: _Monongalia Co._: Morgantown, 6.\n_Marginal records._--Michigan: Douglas Lake; Bloomfield. New York: E\nAurora; Peterboro; Catskills. Connecticut: Sharon; South Woodstock.\nMassachusetts: Middleboro. New Jersey: Tuckerton. Maryland: Assateague,\n5 mi. S Ocean City. North Carolina: Raleigh. Georgia: Athens. Indiana:\nMineral Springs. Michigan: 9 mi. N Ludington.\n=Zapus hudsonius campestris= Preble\n    _Zapus hudsonius campestris_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:20, August\n_Type._--Male, adult, No. 65872 U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.; Bear\nLodge Mt's [Crook County], Wyoming; obtained on June 21, 1894, by B. H.\nDutcher, original No. 600.\n_Range._--Southeastern Montana, southwestern South Dakota, and\nnortheastern Wyoming. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Transition.\n_Description._--Size large; back from near Ochraceous-Tawny to near\nOchraceous-Buff with admixture of black tipped hair forming distinct\ndorsal band; sides lighter than back, from near Ochraceous-Buff to near\nYellow Ocher with black hair interspersed; lateral line usually\ndistinct, of clear Ochraceous-Buff; belly white, usually with moderate\nsuffusion of Ochraceous-Buff; tail bicolored, brownish to brownish-black\nabove, grayish-white to yellowish-white below; ears dark, edged with\nOchraceous-Buff; feet grayish-white above; auditory bullae large, well\ninflated; incisive foramina long and usually truncate at posterior\nborder; pterygoid fossae broad; zygomata relatively wide-spread and\nlong; large medial projection on inferior ramus of zygomatic process of\nmaxillary; condylobasal length and occipitonasal length relatively\ngreat; mastoid region and palatal region relatively broad; interparietal\nbone usually broad.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_, _Z. h. campestris_\ndiffers as follows: Coloration darker (more black and yellow but less\norange); averaging larger in all measurements taken except in least\ninterorbital constriction and distance from incisors to postpalatal\nnotch which are slightly larger and breadth across zygomatic arches\nwhich is same; zygomatic arch heavier; incisive foramina larger;\ninterparietal bone broader.\nCompared with _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_, _Z. h. campestris_ differs\nas follows: Coloration more tawny and ochraceous, less yellow; auditory\nbullae averaging larger, more inflated; condylobasal length averaging\ngreater; zygomata averaging more wide-spread and longer; distance from\nincisors to postpalatal notch averaging longer; mastoid region broader;\nincisive foramina longer and more truncate posteriorly.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, _Z. h. campestris_ differs as follows:\nSize larger; color lighter, more ochraceous, less tawny; occipitonasal\nlength averaging greater; mastoid region broader; zygomata averaging\nlonger; zygomatic arch more widely bowed; distance from incisors to\npostpalatal notch averaging longer; incisive foramina longer; auditory\nbullae broader, more inflated.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius preblei_ see account of that\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--Animals from the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming are\nthought of as most characteristic of this geographic race.\nIntergradation is noted with _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ and is discussed\nin the account of that subspecies.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 66, distributed as follows:\nMONTANA: _Big Horn County_: Rotten Grass Creek, north base Big Horn\nMts., 2 (USBS); _Little Big Horn River, 2 mi. from Wyoming line_, 1\n(USBS).\nSOUTH DAKOTA: _Custer County_: _Custer_, 3 (USNM); Bull Springs, 6\n(Clev. MNH); _Beaver Creek, Wind Cave Nat'l Park_, 1 (UM); Wind Cave\nNat'l Park Game Ranch, Cold Spring Creek, Wind Cave Nat'l Park, 2 (UM);\n_Pennington County_: _Rapid Creek, 2 mi. W Pactola, 4800 ft._, 3 (UM);\nCastle Creek, R. 2E, T. 1N, 6500 ft., 3 (UM); Nelsons Place, 3 mi. SE\nHill City, 6 (UM); _Palmer Gulch, 4 mi. SE Hill City_, 3 (UM); _Palmer\nGulch_, 9 (FM); _no definite locality_, 4 (UM).\nWYOMING: _Crook County_: Devils Tower, flood plain Belle Fourche River,\n3350 ft., 1 (USBS); Bear Lodge Mts., 4 (USBS); _15 mi. N Sundance, Black\nHills Nat'l Forest, 5500 ft._, 2; _3 mi. NW Sundance, 5900 ft._, 17;\n_Sundance_, 2 (USBS). _Weston Co._: 1-1/2 mi. E Buckhorn, 6150 ft., 5.\n_Marginal records._--Montana: Rotten Grass Creek, N base Big Horn Mts.\nSouth Dakota: Nelsons Place, 3 mi. SE Hill City; Wind Cave Nat'l Park\nGame Ranch, Cold Spring Creek. Wyoming: 1-1/2 mi. E Buckhorn, 6150 ft.\n=Zapus hudsonius canadensis= (Davies)\n    _Dipus canadensis_ Davies, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 4:157, 1798.\n    _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:17, August\n        8, 1899 (part--the part from Ontario).\n    _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, Batchelder, Proc. New England Zool.\n        Club, 1:5, February 8, 1899 (part--the part from Quebec); Anderson,\n        Rept. Provancher Soc. Nat. Hist., Quebec, 1941:35-37, July 14, 1942\n        (part--the part from Quebec excepting the Gasp\u00e9 Peninsula).\n    _Zapus hudsonius ontarioensis_ Anderson, Ann. Rept. Provancher Soc.\n        Nat. Hist., Quebec, 1942:59, September 7, 1943, type from Pancake\n        Bay (Batchawana Bay) southeast end of Lake Superior, Algoma\n        District, about 40 miles northeast of Sault Ste-Marie, Ontario.\n_Type._--No type specimen designated, subspecies characterized on the\nbasis of two specimens obtained by Major General Thomas Davies within a\nfew miles of the city of Quebec.\n_Range._--Eastern Ontario and western Quebec from Hudson Bay southward\nto the Great Lakes and into northwestern New York. See fig. 47. Zonal\nrange: Transition and Canadian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back from near Clay Color to near\nCinnamon-Buff with admixture of black hair usually forming a dorsal\nband; sides from near Clay Color to near Cinnamon-Buff and lighter than\nback; lateral line usually distinct, and clear Cinnamon-Buff; belly\nwhite, sometimes with slight suffusion of Cinnamon-Buff mid-ventrally;\ntail bicolored, brownish to brownish-black above, grayish-white to\nyellowish-white below; ears dark, sometimes flecked with color of the\nsides, edged with Cinnamon-Buff; feet grayish-white above; auditory\nbullae large, relatively broad and flat; incisive foramina relatively\nshort and narrow, widest posteriorly; zygomata not widely bowed outward;\nmastoid region relatively wide; frontal region well inflated; nasals\nrelatively narrow, short, and parallel sided.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, _Z. h. canadensis_\ndiffers as follows: Upper parts generally dull averaging lighter, less\nblack tipped hair; sides also lighter with less suffusion of dark hair;\nfrontal region more inflated; mastoid region averaging broader; auditory\nbullae broader; distance from incisors to postpalatal notch averaging\nslightly longer.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_, _Zapus hudsonius ladas_,\nand _Zapus hudsonius americanus_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--Bole and Moulthrop (1942:165) refer 2 specimens from Elba,\nNew York, to _Z. h. hardyi_ (= _acadicus_); they are more nearly like\n_Z. h. canadensis_ in size and shape of the auditory bullae and general\ncolor of the pelage. A specimen from Spectacle Pond, New York, has the\nnarrow pterygoid fossae and relatively narrow auditory bullae of _Z. h.\nacadicus_ and the relatively short, narrow incisive foramina, inflated\nfrontal region, and color of _Z. h. canadensis_ to which the specimen is\nhere referred. Intergradation is noted also in animals from Schreiber,\nOntario. They resemble _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ in their darker\ncoloration and shape of auditory bullae but in the remainder of the\ncharacters studied resemble _Z. h. canadensis_ to which they are\nreferred. Specimens from Notre Dame de la Dore and 1/2 mi. N Mistassini\nPost, Quebec, in size and shape of the auditory bullae and in width of\nthe pterygoid fossae, closely approach _Z. h. ladas_ but in color,\ndistinct dorsal band, and in narrower zygomata are all nearest _Z. h.\ncanadensis_ to which subspecies they are here referred.\n_Zapus hudsonius ontarioensis_ Anderson (1942:59) from eastern Ontario\nwas based chiefly, in comparison with _Z. h. canadensis_, upon, \"dorsal\nstripe less distinct and sides somewhat duller yellowish with more\nadmixture of blackish hairs.\" Examination of 68 of the 69 specimens from\nthe type locality shows that 58 are subadult and in subadult pelage.\nIndividuals which are adult are indistinguishable in color of pelage and\nin cranial features from comparable material from southern Quebec. _Z.\nh. ontarioensis_ is, therefore, considered to be a synonym of _Z. h.\ncanadensis_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 123, distributed as follows:\nNEW YORK: _Franklin Co._: Spectacle Pond, Brighton Township, 2 (AMNH).\n_Genesee Co._: Elba, 2 (Clev. MNH).\nONTARIO: Schreiber, 2 (NMC); Franz, 5 (MVZ); Pancake Bay, Algoma\nDistrict, 68 (NMC); Maclennan, Algoma District, 3 (ROM); Cache Lake,\nAlgonquin Park, 1 (MVZ); _Experimental Farm, Ottawa_, 1 (NMC); _Dows\nSwamp, Ottawa_, 1 (NMC); Apple Hill, 1 (NMC); Clear Lake, Arden, 1\n(NMC); _Athens_, 1 (NMC); _Aurora_, 4 (Clev. MNH); Pattageville,\nToronto, 1; _Lorne Park, Toronto_, 1 (NMC); _Credit_, 2 (NMC);\nPickering, 1 (MVZ); _Preston_, 1 (NMC); St. Thomas, 1 (NMC).\nQUEBEC: _Notre Dame de la Dore_, 3 (NMC); 1/2 mi. N Mistassini Post, 1\n(NMC); Lake Albanel, 1 (NMC); St. Felicien, 3 (NMC); Valcartier, 8\n(NMC); Kiamika Lake, 4 (NMC); _Ste. Veronique_, 2 (NMC); _Val Jalbert_,\n2 (NMC); _St. Methode_, 1 (NMC).\n_Marginal records._--Quebec: 1/2 mi. N Mistassini Post; Valcartier. New\nYork: Spectacle Pond, Brighton Township; Elba. Ontario: St. Thomas;\nPancake Bay, Algoma Dist.; Franz; Schreiber. Quebec: Kiamika Lake.\n=Zapus hudsonius hudsonius= (Zimmerman)\n    _Dipus hudsonius_ Zimmerman, Geog. Geschichte d Menschen u.\n        vierfussigen Thiere, 2:358, 1780.\n    _Dipus labradorius_ Kerr, Animal Kingdom:276 (based on the Labrador\n        Jerboid Rat of Pennant, 1781--but Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:11,\n        August 8, 1899, states that the specimen came from Hudson Bay),\n    _Gerbillus canadensis_, Desmarest, Mammalogie, 2:321, 1822.\n    _Gerbillus labradorius_, Harlan, Fauna Amer., p. 157, 1825.\n    _Meriones labradorius_, Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:144,\n    _Jaculus labradorius_ Wagner, Suppl. Schreber's Saugthiere, 3:294,\n    _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:15, August\n        8, 1899 (part--the part from Northwest Territory, Ontario,\n        Michigan, northern Wisconsin and northern Minnesota).\n    _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 19:38,\n_Type._--Type specimen not known to be in existence; from Hudson Bay,\nlocality now considered to be Fort Severn, Ontario (see Anderson,\n_Range._--Central Alaska southeastward to central Ontario, northern\nMinnesota, northern Wisconsin, and upper peninsula of Michigan. See fig.\n47. Zonal range: Hudsonian, Canadian, and into Transition.\n_Description._--Size medium; back dark, from near Tawny-Olive to near\nCinnamon with heavy admixture of black hair forming dorsal band; sides\nlighter than back and from near Tawny-Olive to near Cinnamon, sometimes\nwith admixture of black hair giving sides streaked appearance; lateral\nline usually distinct, clear Ochraceous-Buff; underparts white,\nsometimes with slight suffusion of Ochraceous-Buff; tail bicolored,\nbrown to brownish-black above, grayish-white to yellowish-white below;\nears dark, usually edged with ochraceous; feet grayish-white above;\nincisive foramina relatively short and broadly rounded; zygomata\nrelatively short; braincase relatively broad; auditory bullae flat,\nlong, and relatively broad; pterygoid fossae relatively narrow; nasals\nrelatively broad and short.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_, _Z. h. hudsonius_\ndiffers as follows: upper parts generally darker, more black tipped\nhair; sides darker with greater suffusion of dark hair; lateral line\nbrighter, more distinct; size averaging smaller; zygomatic arches less\nbowed outward; distance from incisors to postpalatal notch shorter;\nzygomata shorter; occipitonasal length less; mastoid region narrower.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_, _Z. h. hudsonius_ differs in: color\ndarker, more tawny dorsally; sides averaging darker, more black-tipped\nhairs; size averaging larger; braincase averaging broader; distance from\nincisors to postpalatal notch averaging slightly shorter; zygomata\naveraging longer; mastoid region averaging broader; incisive foramina\naveraging shorter.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_, _Z. h. hudsonius_ differs as follows:\nupper parts averaging darker; tail averaging shorter; condylobasal\nlength averaging more; braincase averaging broader; auditory bullae\nbroader and less inflated; interparietal averaging broader; incisive\nforamina more broadly rounded and averaging longer.\nFor comparison with _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_ and _Zapus hudsonius\ncampestris_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--Preble (1899:16) had available for study five specimens of\n_Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ from Hudson Bay. Four were preserved in\nalcohol and one as an incomplete skin (prepared from an alcoholic\nspecimen). All were unreliable for comparative purposes owing to the\neffects of the preservative. Preble, therefore, (_loc. cit._) selected\nas a fairly typical sample a series of specimens from Tower, St. Louis\nCounty, Minnesota; these formed the basis of comparison between _Z. h.\nhudsonius_ and other subspecies of _Zapus hudsonius_. Now that\nadditional material (well prepared skins and skulls) is available from\nthe Hudson Bay region and from other localities in northern and western\nCanada it is evident that the specimens from Tower, although here\nconsidered to be _Z. h. hudsonius_, are not typical _Z. h. hudsonius_\nbut are intergrades between _hudsonius_ and specimens of _Zapus\nhudsonius intermedius_. Comparisons made in the present account are\nbased on specimens from the vicinity of Hudson Bay (Fort Severen,\nOntario, York Factory, Shamatawa River, and Robinson Portage, Manitoba).\nThese individuals are considered typical of this subspecies. With these\nnew data available the range of _Z. h. hudsonius_ is now understood to\ninclude all of the region from eastern Alaska to the northern parts of\nMinnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.\nIntergradation between _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_ and _Z. h.\nhudsonius_ is noted in specimens from 30 mi. NE Port Arthur and also in\nthose from Silver Islet, Thunder Cape, Ontario. These individuals\nresemble _Z. h. canadensis_ in size and shape of the auditory bullae and\nin the shape of the nasals, but in their darker coloration, broadly\nrounded incisive foramina, and relatively narrow pterygoid fossae they\nare more nearly like _Z. h. hudsonius_ to which they are here referred.\nSpecimens from Minaki, Ontario, are tending toward _Zapus hudsonius\nintermedius_ in lighter coloration but in the size and shape of the\nauditory bulla, size and shape of the incisive foramina, and in the\nwidth of the pterygoid fossae they are more nearly like _Z. h.\nhudsonius_ to which they are here referred. Specimens from various\nlocalities in Menominee County, Michigan, are like _Z. h. intermedius_\nin shape of the incisive foramina and shape of the postpalatal notch,\nbut in color of pelage, size and shape of the auditory bullae, and\nbreadth of the pterygoid fossae they closely resemble _Z. h. hudsonius_.\nIn Wisconsin, intergradation occurs in color and in cranial characters\nin specimens from Mercer, Solon Spring, and in a single individual from\nBasswood Lake. All these specimens, however, are best referable to _Z.\nh. hudsonius_.\nSpecimens from one mile southwest of Fairbanks and from Fairbanks,\nAlaska, show intergradation with _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ in\ncoloration (more brown, less black), but in small size, short, broadly\nrounded incisive foramina, and in size and shape of the auditory bullae\nare nearest to _Z. h. hudsonius_ to which they are here assigned.\nIntergradation with _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ is noted also in\nspecimens from McIntyre Creek, Yukon. They are like _Z. h. alascensis_\nin the size and shape of the auditory bullae and in the more elongate\nincisive foramina, but in the coloration, size of the pterygoid fossae,\nand breadth of the braincase are more nearly like _Z. h. hudsonius_ and\nare here referred to this geographic race.\nIn British Columbia, in specimens from 1 mi. NW junction of Irons Creek\nand Laird River as well as in those from Hot Springs, 3 mi. WNW junction\nof Trout River and Laird River, and in those from 1/4 mi. S of the\njunction of the same rivers, three way intergradation occurs. These\nanimals are like _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ in color and in length of\ntail. They agree with _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_ in shape of nasals. In\ndegree of inflation of auditory bullae, in length and width of incisive\nforamina, and in shape of pterygoid fossae they are as in _Z. h.\nhudsonius_ to which they are here assigned.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 230, distributed as follows:\nALASKA: Fairbanks, 1 (USNM); _1 mi. SW Fairbanks, 440 ft._, 1.\nALBERTA: Conibear Lake, Wood Buffalo Park, 1 (NMC); Assineau River, 1920\nft., 10 mi. E and 1 mi. N Kinuso, 1; Mountain Rapid, Athabasca River, 1\n(USBS); _Brule Rapid, Athabasca River_, 1 (USBS); _25 mi. above Pelican\nRapid, Athabasca River_, 1 (USBS); Lac la Nonne, 7 (NMC); _Swift\nCurrent, Athabasca River_, 1 (USBS); _junction Lac la Biche River and\nAthabasca River_, 1 (USBS); 30 mi. above Athabasca Landing, Athabasca\nRiver, 1 (USBS).\nBRITISH COLUMBIA: 1 mi. NW junction Irons Creek and Laird River, 3; Hot\nSprings, 3 mi. WNW junction Trout River and Laird River, 1; _1/4 mi. S\njunction Trout River and Laird River_, 1.\nMANITOBA: York Factory, 2 (USBS); Shamatawa River, 1 (USBS); Oxford\nHouse, 15 (USBS); _Robinson Portage_, 4 (USBS); _Echamamish_, 1 (USBS);\nNorway House, 1 (USBS); _Swan River_, 1 (NMC); Bird, 1 (NMC); _Aimie\nLake_, 2 (NMC); Albert's Lake, Flin Flon, 2 (NMC); Portage La Prairie\nProv., Delta, 1 (UM).\nMACKENZIE DISTRICT: Fort Resolution, 3 (USBS); Fort Smith, 3 (USBS).\nMICHIGAN: _Chippewa Co._: Marquette Nat'l Forest, 4; _no exact\nlocality_, 2. _Gogebic Co._: Mud Lake, 1/4 mi. SE Thousand Island Lake,\n2. _Keweenaw Co._: Lake Manganese, 1 mi. SSE Copper Harbor, 5 (UM);\n_2-1/5 mi. SE Copper Harbor_, 8 (UM); _5 mi. E Eagle Harbor_, 6 (UM); _E\nend Lake Upson_, 3 (UM); _Bete Grise_, 5 (UM). _Marquette County_:\nMichigamme, 3 (2 USBS). _Menominee Co._: _8 mi. N Hermansville_, 6 (UM);\n_6 mi. NW Banat_, 8 (UM); _5 mi. SW Banat_, 8 (UM); _8 mi. SW Banat_, 2\n(UM); _7 mi. E Stephenson_, 3 (UM); _8 mi. WSW Stephenson_, 2 (UM); _10\nmi. W Stephenson_, 2 (UM); _13 mi. WSW Stephenson_, 2 (UM); 5 mi. N\nMenominee, 2 (UM).\nMINNESOTA: _Lake Co._: Splitrock River, 2 (UM); _St. Louis County_:\nTower, 27 (USBS).\nONTARIO: Fort Severn, Kenora District, 6 (ROM); Minaki, 7 (MVZ); _30 mi.\nNE Port Arthur_, 6 (UM); Silver Islet, Thunder Bay District, 4 (NMC);\n_20 mi. SW Fort Williams_, 3 (UM); _20 mi. SE Fort Williams_, 1 (UM).\nSASKATCHEWAN: Emma Lake, 3 (ROM).\nWISCONSIN: _Bayfield County_: _Herbster_, 4 (USBS); Brinks Camp,\nWashburn, 1 (AMNH); _Basswood Lake, 10 mi. SE Iron River_, 1 (USBS).\n_Douglas County_: Solon Springs, 9 (USBS). _Forest County_: Crandon, 1\n(USBS). _Iron County_: Mercer, 2 (USBS). _Oneida County_: _Crescent\nLake_, 2 (USBS). _Vilas County_: _Mamie Lake_, 2 (USBS); _Lake St.\nGermain_, 9 (USBS).\nYUKON: Lake Lebarge, 3 (USBS); Forks of MacMillian River, 1 (USBS);\nMcIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse, 4.\n_Marginal records._--Alaska: Fairbanks. MacKenzie: Ft. Resolution.\nManitoba: York Factory. Ontario: Fort Severn, Kenora District; Silver\nIslet, Thunder Bay Dist. Michigan: Marquette Nat'l Forest; 5 mi. N\nMenominee. Wisconsin: Crandon; Solon Springs. Minnesota: Tower.\nManitoba: Portage la Prairie Prov., Delta. Saskatchewan: Emma Lake.\nAlberta: 30 mi. above Athabasca Landing, Athabasca River; Lac la Nonne.\nBritish Columbia: 1 mi. NW junction Irons Creek and Laird River. Yukon:\nMcIntyre Creek, 2250 ft., 3 mi. NW Whitehorse; Lake Lebarge.\n=Zapus hudsonius intermedius= new subspecies\n_Type._--Male, adult, No. 83400, Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool.; Ridgeway,\nWinneshiek County, Iowa; obtained on July 22, 1939, by S. A. Hoslett,\noriginal No. 517.\n_Range._--Eastern Montana, North Dakota, probably northern South Dakota,\nall but northern parts of Minnesota and Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois,\nsouthwestern Indiana, and western Kentucky. See fig. 47. Zonal range:\nUpper Austral (Upper Sonoran and Carolinian) and Transition (Alleghanian\nand Transition).\n_Description._--Size medium; back from near Warm Buff to near\nOchraceous-Buff with admixture of hair tipped with black or dark brown\nusually forming distinct, broad, dorsal band; sides lighter, from near\nWarm Buff to near Ochraceous-Buff with sparse mixture of dark-tipped\nhairs; lateral line often poorly marked but when present of clear\nOchraceous-Buff; belly white, sometimes with slight suffusion of color\nof sides; tail bicolored, grayish-brown to brownish-black above, white\nto grayish-white or yellowish-white below; ears dark, narrowly edged\nwith color of sides; feet white to grayish-white above; tail relatively\nshort; lateral margins of nasals parallel; auditory bullae relatively\nshort, broadly rounded, and moderately inflated; incisive foramina\nrelatively long and narrow; pterygoid fossae relatively narrow; zygomata\nrelatively long; inferior ramus of zygomatic process of maxillary\nfrequently lacking a median projection.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_, _Z. h. intermedius_\ndiffers as follows: Coloration duller, not so bright, more yellow or\nbuff and less bright Ochraceous-Buff; interorbital region averaging\nnarrower; incisive foramina averaging longer and narrower; condylobasal\nlength averaging greater; braincase averaging broader; mastoid region\naveraging broader.\nFor comparisons with _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, _Zapus hudsonius\ncampestris_, and _Zapus hudsonius americanus_ see accounts of those\nsubspecies.\n_Remarks._--_Zapus hudsonius intermedius_ has a large geographic range.\nThere is some variation detectable when individuals from widely separate\nlocalities are compared, but where there is much variation it is\nobviously the result of intergradation. All characters differentiating\n_Z. h. intermedius_ from any contiguous subspecies are not present in\nevery specimen even in the type series. Nevertheless, a certain series\nof cranial characters (narrow incisive foramina, short rounded auditory\nbullae, parallel lateral margins of nasals and narrow pterygoid fossae)\nis diagnostic.\nAnimals obtained from extreme southwestern Indiana and from eastern\nIllinois approach _Z. h. americanus_ in color and in shape of the\nincisive foramina, but in the shape of the nasals, width of the\npterygoid fossae and breadth of the zygomata are most nearly like _Z. h.\nintermedius_ to which they are here referred. Specimens from Lake and\nKane counties, Illinois, also show affinity with _Z. h. americanus_ in\ncolor, but cranially are most nearly like _Z. h. intermedius_ and are\nassigned to that subspecies.\nTwo specimens from southern Illinois (Perry County) are intergrades\nbetween _Z. h. pallidus_ and _Z. h. intermedius_. Cockrum and Baker\n(1950:3) mentioned that these individuals showed evidence of\nintergradation with _Z. h. pallidus_ in color of the pelage and the\nbreadth of the least interorbital constriction. In other characters the\nspecimens are most nearly like _Z. h. intermedius_ to which they are\nhere referred. Animals from Lyon County, Iowa, also show intergradation\nbetween _Z. h. pallidus_ and _Z. h. intermedius_. These individuals are\nmost nearly like _Z. h. pallidus_ in interorbital breadth of the skull\nbut in other characters agree with _Z. h. intermedius_ and, therefore,\nare referred to that subspecies.\nIntergradation between _Z. h. campestris_ and _Z. h. intermedius_ is\nnoted in a specimen from 7 mi. NE Glendive, Montana. This individual has\nthe larger, broader, auditory bullae and more widely bowed incisive\nforamina of _Z. h. campestris_, but in color, in smaller external size,\nand in the majority of cranial characters it is best referred to _Z. h.\nintermedius_.\nSpecimens from the north-central periphery of the geographic range of\n_Z. h. intermedius_ (northern Minnesota and Wisconsin) on the average\nare darker, have longer auditory bullae, wider bowed incisive foramina,\nand (some specimens) a slightly wider pterygoid fossa than is normal in\nmore southern populations. This deviation from the norm is interpreted\nas intergradation between _Z. h. hudsonius_ and _Z. h. intermedius_.\nIndividuals from Burnett, Price, and Oconto counties, Wisconsin, and\nthose from Cass and southern Clearwater counties, Minnesota, show such\nintergradation but are here considered to be _Z. h. intermedius_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 199, distributed as follows:\nILLINOIS: _Coles Co._: Fox Ridge State Park, 1 (UIM). _Fulton Co._: _1/2\nmi. N Norris_, 2 (UIM); _3 mi. N Canton_, 1 (UIM); _2-1/2 mi. N Canton_,\n2 (UIM); _2 mi. NW Canton_, 3 (UIM); 2 mi. W Canton, 1 (UIM); _3 mi. SW\nMonterey_, 1 (UIM). _Jo Daviess Co._: _near Galen_, 3 (FM). _Kane Co._:\nSugar Grove, 1 (Chic. AS). _Lake Co._: Fox Lake, 4 (FM); _Pistake Bay_,\n1 (FM). _Perry Co._: 6 mi. S Pinckneyville (near Pyatt), 2 (SITC).\n_Vermilion Co._: _Kickapoo State Park_, 2 (UIM); Jordan Creek, 3 mi. NE\nFairmont, 5 (UIM).\nINDIANA: _Owen Co._: La Fayette, 1 (USNM). _Parks Co._: Turkey Run State\nPark, 2 (1 UM; 1 UIM). _Posey Co._: Hovey Lake, 1 (UM); New Harmony, 2\n(Clev. MNH); no exact locality, 2 (UM). _Sullivan Co._: no exact\nlocality, 1 (UM).\nIOWA: _Dickinson Co._: _Camp Forester, E Okeboji Lake_, 3 (ISC). _Emmet\nCo._: Fort Defiance State Park, 1 (ISC). _Hamilton Co._: _Little Wall\nLake, Jewell_, 6 (ISC). _Ida Co._: Arthur, 1 (ISC). _Lyon Co._: Elgin\nTownship, Sec. 35, 2 (ISC); _Riverside Township, Sec. 28_, 1 (ISC).\n_Palo Alto Co._: _Ruthven_, 1 (ISC). _Sioux Co._: Ireton, 1 (UM). _Story\nCo._: Ames, 1 (ISC). _Winneshiek Co._: Decorah, 3 (UM); _Ridgeway_, 11\n(UM); Conover, 3 (UM).\nKENTUCKY: _Lyon Co._: no exact locality, 1 (USNM).\nMONTANA: _Dawson Co._: Yellowstone River, 7 mi. NE Glendive, 2000 ft., 1\n(MVZ).\nMINNESOTA: _Cass County_: _Cass Lake_, 7 (USBS). _Clearwater Co._:\nItasca Park, Biological Station, 5 (UM). _Grant Co._: 3 mi. NW Barrett,\n1 (UM). _Jackson Co._: 4 mi. E Heron Lake, 1 (UM). _Ottertail Co._: _5\nmi. NW Vergas_, 8 (UM); _4 mi. NW Ashley, 1430 ft._, 2. _Ramsey Co._:\nSt. Paul, 1 (UM). _Sherburne County_: Elk River, 23 (2 UM; 6 MVZ; 3\nUSBS). _Winona County_: La Crescent, 3 (USBS).\nNORTH DAKOTA: _Cass County_: Fargo, 1 (USBS). _Dickey County_: _Ludden_,\n1 (USBS); Ellendale, 1 (USBS). _Kidder County_: _Pettibone_, 3 (Chic.\nAS). _La Moure County_: _La Moure_, 1 (USBS). _Oliver County_: Fort\nClark, 3 (USBS). _Pembina County_: Pembina, 2 (USNM). _Ramsey County_:\nDevils Lake, 3 (USBS). _Ramson County_: _Lisbon_, 1 (USBS). _Richland\nCounty_: _Wahpeton_, 2 (USBS); _5 mi. NE Fairmont, Sioux River_, 5\n(USBS); Blackner, 2 (USBS). _Rolette County_: Fish Lake, 2 (USBS).\n_Sioux County_: Cannon Ball, 4 (USBS). _Williams Co._: Grinnell, 2\n(USBS).\nWISCONSIN: _Burnett County_: Danbury, 1 (USBS). _Chippewa County_:\n_Holcombe_, 3 (USBS). _Clark County_: _Withee_, 4 (USBS); _Worden\nTownship_, 2 (USBS). _Crawford County_: Lynxville, 1 (USBS). _Dane Co._:\n_Madison_, 2 (OHIO). _Dodge Co._: _Horicorn Refuge_, 2 (USBS). _Juneau\nCounty_: _Mather_, 1 (USBS). _Marathon Co._: _Rib Hill_, 8 (USBS).\n_Oconto County_: Lakewood, 1 (USBS). _Portage County_: Stevens Point, 3\n(USBS). _Price County_: Ogema, 2 (USBS). _Rock County_: Milton, 1\n(USBS). _Sauk County_: _Devils Lake_, 1 (USBS). _Sheboygan County_: 8\nmi. SW Mellen, 1 (USBS); _Elkhart Lake_, 1 (USBS). _Walworth County_:\n_Delavan, Fosters Bridge_, 1 (USBS); _Turtle Lake_, 1 (USBS). _Wood\nCo._: _Thorp Township_, 2 (AMNH); _Hewett Township_, 4 (AMNH).\n_Marginal records._--North Dakota: Fish Lake; Pembina. Wisconsin:\nDanbury; Ogema; Lakewood. Illinois: Fox Lake. Indiana: La Fayette; New\nHarmony. Illinois: 6 mi. S Pinckneyville (near Pyatt). Iowa: Ames;\nArthur; Ireton. Montana: Yellowstone River, 7 mi. NE Glendive, 2000 ft.\nNorth Dakota: Grinnell.\n=Zapus hudsonius ladas= Bangs\n    _Zapus hudsonius ladas_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zool. Club, 1:10,\n_Type._--Female, adult, skin and skull, No. 4169, E. A. and O. Bangs\nColl. (now in Mus. Comp. Zool.); Rigoulette, Hamilton Inlet, Labrador;\nobtained on July 18, 1895, by C. H. Goldthwaite.\n_Range._--Eastern Quebec north of Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, and\nNewfoundland. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Canadian and Hudsonian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back relatively dark, near Ochraceous-Tawny\nwith admixture of black-tipped hair; dorsal band relatively wide but not\nsharply defined against color of sides; side lighter than back, from\nnear Ochraceous-Tawny to near Cinnamon and lined with black-tipped hair;\nlateral line distinct of clear Cinnamon-Buff or Light Ochraceous-Buff;\nunderparts white, often suffused with Ochraceous-Buff; tail distinctly\nbicolored, dark brown to black above and yellowish-white to\ngrayish-white below; ears dark, usually flecked with Tawny Ochraceous\nand edged with ochraceous; feet grayish-white above; incisive foramina\nrelatively short and broad; pterygoid fossae relatively broad; auditory\nbullae broad and well inflated; mastoid region relatively broad;\nzygomata relatively short; inferior arm of zygomatic process of\nmaxillary relatively broad.\n_Comparison._--From _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_, which _Z. h. ladas_\nclosely resembles, it differs in: Color darker, dorsal band much less\ndistinct, underparts more frequently suffused with Ochraceous-Buff;\nauditory bullae relatively broader and more inflated; pterygoid fossae\nbroader; zygomata averaging shorter; incisive foramina relatively\nshorter; inferior arm of zygomatic process of maxillary relatively\nbroader.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, _Z. h. ladas_ differs as follows:\nColor darker, more richly tawny, dorsal band less distinct; auditory\nbullae relatively shorter, more inflated; pterygoid fossae averaging\nbroader; zygomata averaging broader; incisive foramina averaging longer.\n_Remarks._--This subspecies retains all of its diagnostic characters\nthroughout nearly all parts of its geographic range. Specimens from Nova\nScotia are like _Z. h. ladas_ in their darker color and less distinct\ndorsal band, but in the remainder of their characters they are distinct\nand best referable to _Z. h. acadicus_.\n_Zapus h. ladas_, with its relatively large size, poorly defined dorsal\nband, and broad, well inflated auditory bullae, is one of the better\nmarked subspecies of the species _Zapus hudsonius_.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 41, distributed as follows:\nLABRADOR: Mahkovik, 1 (USNM); Etagaulet Bay, Lake Melvikl, 2 (USNM); 3\nmi. above mouth of Naskaupi River, 1 (USNM); _Northwest River_, 6,\n(USNM); Cartwright, 1 (USBS); Muskrat Falls, Hamilton River, 1 (USNM);\nHamilton River, Flour Lake, 3 (USNM); Hawke Harbor, 4 (USNM); Goose Bay,\n3 (USNM); _Niger Sound, Islet Bay_, 1 (USNM); Red Bay, 5 (USNM);\n_Mecklenburg Harbor_, 2 (USNM); _Mary Harbor_, 1 (USNM).\nNEWFOUNDLAND: Hare Harbor, 3 (USNM).\n_Quebec_: northwest Ungava, 1 (NMC); Moise Bay, 5 (NMC); Trout Lake,\nnear Moise Bay, 1 (NMC).\n_Marginal records._--Labrador: Mahkovik; Red Bay. Newfoundland: Hare\nHarbor. Quebec: Trout Lake, near Moise Bay; northwest Ungava.\n=Zapus hudsonius pallidus= Cockrum and Baker\n    _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ Cockrum and Baker, Proc. Biol. Soc.\n    _Jaculus hudsonius_, Baird, Repts. Expl. and Surv. 111, 8\n        (pt. 1):433, July 14, 1858 (part--the part from Platte River,\n        Nebraska, and Cass County, Missouri).\n    _Zapus hudsonius_, Coues, Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the\n        Territories, 2nd ser. No. 5:260, 1877 (part--the part from Platte\n        River, Nebraska).\n    _Zapus hudsonius campestris_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna, 15:20, August\n        8, 1899 (part--the part from Columbus in Nebraska and Jackson\n        County in Missouri).\n_Type._--Male, adult, No. 22953, Univ. Kansas Mus. Nat. Hist.; NW corner\nsec. 4, T. 12S, R. 20E, 5-1/2 mi. N, 1-3/4 mi. E Lawrence, Douglas\nCounty, Kansas; obtained on May 4, 1948, by E. Lendell Cockrum and\nRollin H. Baker, original No. 916 of Cockrum.\n_Range._--Southern South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and\nnortheastern Oklahoma. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Upper Austral (Upper\nSonoran and Carolinian).\n_Description._--Size small; back near Cinnamon-Buff with admixture of\ndark-tipped hair forming distinct, broad, dorsal band; sides bright\nCinnamon-Buff with sparse mixture of dark-tipped hair; lateral line\nusually distinct, of clear Cinnamon-Buff; belly white, sometimes with\nsuffusion of color of sides, tail bicolored, brownish to brownish-black\nabove, grayish-white to yellowish-white below; ears dark, narrowly edged\nwith color of sides; feet white to grayish-white above; mastoid region\nrelatively narrow; maxillary tooth-row relatively short; zygomata\nrelatively short; zygomatic arch relatively broad; interorbital region\nrelatively broad; auditory bullae relatively small and narrow; lateral\nmargins of nasals not constricted posteriorly.\n_Comparisons._--From _Zapus hudsonius preblei_, _Z. h. pallidus_ differs\nas follows: Coloration brighter and richer, more buff, less black;\nzygomatic arch more broadly bowed; condylobasal length averaging less;\nbraincase narrower; interorbital region broader; incisive foramina\nshorter.\nFor comparisons with _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ and _Zapus hudsonius\nintermedius_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--The characters that distinguish this jumping mouse from\nneighboring kinds are relatively stable throughout most of its\ngeographic range. _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ is one of the best defined\nsubspecies of _Z. hudsonius_.\nOne specimen from Batesland, South Dakota, is referred to _Z. h.\npallidus_ but shows evidence of intergradation with _Zapus hudsonius\ncampestris_ in the shape of the nasals, incisive foramina, and in\nbreadth of the zygomatic arch. An animal from 3 mi. NE Ponca, Nebraska,\nis intermediate between _Z. h. pallidus_ and _Zapus hudsonius\nintermedius_ in size and shape of the auditory bullae and in the breadth\nof the pterygoid fossae, but since this individual shows more\nresemblance to _Z. h. pallidus_ in coloration and in the majority of\ncranial characters it is here referred to _Z. h. pallidus_. Specimens\nfrom Beemer, Nebraska, show an intergrading tendency toward _Zapus\nhudsonius intermedius_ in the reduced lateral bowing of the zygomatic\narch and in shorter zygomata. Since these individuals resemble _Z. h.\npallidus_ in the majority of characters they are referred to that race.\nAn individual of _Z. h. pallidus_ from Pevely, Missouri, is to some\nextent an intergrade with _Z. h. intermedius_ of neighboring southern\nIllinois. Two individuals of _Z. h. pallidus_ from Mohawk Park,\nOklahoma, are darker dorsally than, but otherwise similar to, specimens\nfrom the type locality.\n_Zapus hudsonius pallidus_ seems to be the terminus of a cline; this is\na southward trend toward smaller size and lighter, brighter color. There\nis a similar clinal tendency in the jumping mice in eastern North\nAmerica, and _Z. h. americanus_ from North Carolina, pronouncedly\nresembles _Z. h. pallidus_ from Kansas.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 44, distributed as follows:\nKANSAS: _Brown Co._: Horton, 1. _Douglas Co._: Sec. 8, T. 123, R. 20E,\nLawrence_, 3; _Robinson Farm, 5 mi. N and 3 mi. E Lawrence_, 2; _4 mi.\nN, 2-1/2 mi. E Lawrence_, 1; Lakeview, 2; _7-1/2 mi. SW Lawrence_, 1.\n_Greenwood Co._: 1/2 mi. S Hamilton, 1.\nMISSOURI: _Cole Co._: Jefferson City, 2 (MO). _Jackson Co._: _no exact\nlocality_, 1 (USBS). _Jefferson County_: Pevely, 1 (USBS).\nNEBRASKA: _Blaine Co._: _Dismal River, at Thomas-Blaine County line_, 1\n(NGFP). _Boyd Co._: 2 mi. E and 15 mi. S Spencer, 1. _Buffalo Co._:\nPlatte Meadows, Kearney, 1 (HM). _Butler Co._: 5 mi E Rising City, 1.\n_Cherry Co._: Niobrara River, 18 mi. NW Kennedy, 1; Ballard Marsh, 20\nmi. S Valentine, 1 (JKJ); _Pony Lake Headquarters, Valentine Nat'l\nWildlife Refuge_, 1 (JKJ). _Colfax Co._: _2 mi. S Schuyler_, 1 (JKJ).\n_Cuming County_: Beemer, 4 (USBS). _Dixon Co._: 3 mi. NE Ponca, 1.\n_Platte County_: _Columbus_, 1 (USBS). _Richardson Co._: 5 mi. SE Rulo,\n1 (NGFP).\nOKLAHOMA: _Tulsa Co._: Mohawk Park, 2 (UM).\nSOUTH DAKOTA: _Bennett Co._: Batesland, 1 (FM).\n_Marginal records._--South Dakota: Batesland. Nebraska: 3 mi. NE Ponca;\nBeemer; 5 mi. SE Rulo. Missouri: Pevely. Oklahoma: Mohawk Park. Kansas:\n1/2 mi. S Hamilton. Nebraska: Platte Meadows, Kearney; Ballard Marsh, 20\nmi. S Valentine; Niobrara River, 18 mi. NW Kennedy.\n=Zapus hudsonius preblei= new subspecies\n_Type._--Male, adult, No. 73085, U. S. Nat. Mus., Biol. Surv. Coll.;\nLoveland, Larimer County, Colorado; obtained on July 23, 1895, by E. A.\nPreble, original No. 435.\n_Range._--Southeastern Wyoming and north-central Colorado. See fig. 47.\nZonal range: Transition.\n_Description._--Size medium; color dull, back from near Clay Color to\nnear Tawny-Olive with admixture of black hair forming poorly defined\ndorsal band; sides lighter than back from near Clay Color to near\nCinnamon-Buff; lateral line distinct and clear Ochraceous-Buff; belly\nwhite, sometimes with faint wash of clear Ochraceous-Buff; tail\nbicolored, brownish to light brownish-black above, grayish-white to\nyellowish-white below; ears dark, narrowly edged with color of sides;\nfeet grayish-white above; incisive foramina relatively narrow and\nelongate; auditory bullae moderately inflated; pterygoid fossae\nrelatively broad; postpalatal notch broadly rounded; interorbital region\nrelatively narrow; zygomatic arch not widely bowed; frontal region well\ninflated; distance from incisors to postpalatal notch relatively short.\n_Comparisons._--Among named subspecies, _Zapus hudsonius preblei_ most\nclosely resembles _Z. h. campestris_. From topotypes of _Z. h.\ncampestris_, _Z. h. preblei_ differs as follows: Upper parts generally\ndull, averaging lighter, less black-tipped hair; dorsal band less\ndistinct; sides duller; averaging smaller in most cranial measurements\ntaken; least interorbital constriction narrower; auditory bullae\nsmaller, less well inflated; incisive foramina narrower, not truncate\nposteriorly; frontal region usually more inflated.\nFrom _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_, _Z. h. preblei_ differs as follows:\nUpper parts generally duller (less ochraceous); dorsal band less\ndistinct; sides paler (not bright Ochraceous-Buff); zygomatic arch less\nwidely bowed; least interorbital constriction narrower; occipitonasal\nlength averaging greater; distance from incisors to postpalatal notch\naveraging less; incisive foramina longer, proportionally less widely\nbowed; auditory bullae longer; pterygoid fossae averaging broader.\n_Remarks._--No evidence of intergradation with any other geographic race\nwas noted. To the east the range of _Z. h. preblei_ is separated from\nthat of _Z. h. pallidus_ (western Kansas and southwestern Nebraska), by\nseveral hundred miles of mixed and short grass prairie. Much of this\narea is unsuitable to jumping mice but local marshy places might be\ninhabited. Much territory inhospitable to _Zapus_ intervenes also\nbetween the ranges of _Z. h. preblei_ and _Z. h. campestris_. This area\n(northern Platte, Goshen, eastern Converse, Niobrara, and southern\nWeston counties, Wyoming) is chiefly rolling hills and short grass\nprairie and, like that to the east, is only locally suitable for\n_Zapus_. If jumping mice do occur in suitable places in these\nintervening areas it is to be expected that they will show\nintergradation between the subspecies concerned.\n_Zapus hudsonius preblei_, on the basis of 11 specimens, agrees most\nclosely in size and color with _Z. h. campestris_; there is much less\nresemblance between _Z. h. preblei_ and _Z. h. pallidus_.\nAn adult from Springhill, 12 mi. N Laramie Peak, is typically _Z. h.\npreblei_ as is one from Cheyenne.\nAlthough specimens of _Z. h. preblei_ are few (4 adult, 7 non-adults),\nthe differences between this and neighboring named kinds is\nconsiderable.\n_Specimens examined_: Total, 11, distributed as follows:\nCOLORADO: _Boulder County_: 3 mi. E Boulder, 1 (UCM); _5 mi. E Boulder_,\n1 (UCM); _south of Boulder_ (no exact locality), 1 (UCM). _Jefferson\nCounty_: Semper, 1. _Larimer County_: Loveland, 2 (USBS).\nWYOMING: _Albany County_: Springhill, 12 mi. N Laramie Peak, 6300 ft., 3\n(USBS). _Laramie County_: Cheyenne, 1 (USNM). _Platte County_:\nChugwater, 1 (Clev. MNH).\n_Marginal records._--Wyoming: Springhill, 12 mi. N Laramie Peak, 6300\nft.; Chugwater; Cheyenne. Colorado: Loveland; Semper.\n=Zapus hudsonius tenellus= Merriam\n    _Zapus tenellus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:103,\n    _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_, Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zool.,\n    _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Baker, Univ. Kansas Publ., Mus. Nat.\n        Hist., 5:111, November 28, 1951 (part--the part from E side\n        Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch and 3 mi. N Fort St. John,\n        British Columbia).\n_Type._--Female, young adult, skin and skull, No. 66932 U. S. Nat. Mus.,\nBiol. Surv. Coll.; Kamloops, British Columbia; obtained on August 25,\n1894, by Clark P. Streator, original No. 4196.\n_Range._--British Columbia. See fig. 47. Zonal range: Canadian and\nHudsonian.\n_Description._--Size medium; back from near Clay Color (brighter) to\nnear Cinnamon-Buff with admixture of black tipped hairs forming a weakly\ndefined dorsal band; sides lighter than back from near dull\nOchraceous-Buff to near Cinnamon-Buff frequently with admixture of\ndark-tipped hairs; lateral line usually distinct, of clear\nOchraceous-Buff; belly white sometimes with slight suffusion of\nOchraceous-Buff; tail bicolored, brownish to brownish-black above, white\nor grayish-white to yellowish-white below; ears dark, edged and flecked\non inner surface with color of sides; feet grayish-white above; auditory\nbullae relatively narrow, moderately inflated, elongate when viewed from\nbelow, anterior edge slightly concave; incisive foramina relatively\nshort; braincase relatively narrow; vertical depth of skull at junction\nof frontals and nasals relatively great; nasals relatively narrow;\npterygoid fossae moderately broad; zygomata relatively short.\n_Comparisons._--For comparisons with _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_ and\n_Zapus hudsonius alascensis_ see accounts of those subspecies.\n_Remarks._--Merriam (1897a:103) named this jumping mouse as a full\nspecies, mentioning that the skull is similar in size and characters to\nthat of _Zapus hudsonius_ but that externally these animals differed in\ncoloration and length of the tail. Hall (1934:377) treated _Z. tenellus_\nas a subspecies of _Z. hudsonius_. He observed that the difference\nbetween _Z. tenellus_, _Z. h. alascensis_, and _Z. h. hudsonius_ was of\nthe same degree, and, even though intergrading material was not known to\nhim, he considered _tenellus_ only subspecifically distinct from _Z.\nhudsonius_. Hall (_loc. cit._) tentatively referred to _Z. h. tenellus_\nspecimens from Indianpoint Lake, 15 mi. NE Barkerville, Cottonwood P.\nO., and Hazelton, British Columbia. I have seen and compared with the\ntype of _Z. tenellus_ all specimens examined by Hall and agree with him\nthat they are best referred to _Z. h. tenellus_. Since 1934, several\nadditional localities in British Columbia have yielded specimens. Those\nfrom Minaker River and Fort St. John are intermediate in dorsal\ncoloration and in size and shape of the auditory bullae between _Zapus\nhudsonius hudsonius_ and _Z. h. tenellus_ but in all other characters\nare most nearly like _Z. h. tenellus_ to which they are here assigned.\nThese intergrades constitute additional evidence that _Z. tenellus_ and\n_Z. hudsonius_ are only subspecies of a single species.\n_Specimens examined._--Total, 17, all from British Columbia, distributed\nas follows: east side Minaker River, 1 mi. W Trutch, 1; Hazelton, 959\nft., 2 (MVZ); 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John, 1; _Indianpoint Lake,\n15 mi. NE Barkerville_, 5 (MVZ); Cottonwood P. O., 3 (MVZ); S end Swan\nLake, Vernon, 1200 ft., 2 (MVZ); Kamloops, 3 (USBS).\n_Marginal records._--British Columbia.--E side Minaker River, 1 mi. W\nTrutch; 5 mi. W and 3 mi. N Fort St. John; S end Swan Lake, Vernon, 1200\nft.; Kamloops; Hazelton, 959 ft.\n    TABLE 5.--Cranial Measurements (in Millimeters) of Zapus.\n  Column headings:\n  Col. A: Number examined, [M][M] plus [F][F]\n  Col. B: Breadth of braincase\n  Col. C: Condylobasal length\n  Col. D: Interorbital breadth\n  Col. E: Mastoidal breadth\n  Col. F: Length of maxillary tooth-row\n  Col. G: Occipitonasal length\n  Col. H: Palatal length\n  Col. I: Zygomatic breadth\n  Col. J: Zygomatic length\n          |  _Zapus trinotatus eureka_, Big Lagoon, California.\n          |  _Zapus trinotatus montanus_, Crater Lake, Oregon.\n          |  Lost Cr. R. S., 10 mi. SE McKenzie Bridge, Oregon.\n          |  _Zapus trinotatus orarius_,\n          |  3 mi. W Inverness, 800 ft., California.\n          |  _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_,\n          |  Old Fort Clatsop, 100 ft., Oregon.\n          |  Cayuse Meadow, 3800 ft., 3-1/2 mi. SW Steamboat Mt'n, Wash.\n          |  Snoqualmie Pass, Washington.\n          |  Alta Lake, 2200 ft., British Columbia.\n          |  _Zapus princeps cinereus_, Raft River Mt's, Utah.\n          |  Mt. Harrison, 10 mi. S Albion, Idaho.\n          |  _Zapus princeps curtatus_, Pine Forest Mt's, Nevada.\n          |  _Zapus princeps idahoensis_,\n          |  several localities near Cody, Wyoming.\n          |  Summit Smith Mt'n, 7500 ft., Idaho.\n          |  Birch Cr., 18 mi. NE Dillon, 7100 ft., Montana.\n          |  _Zapus princeps idahoensis_, Waterton Lakes Park, Alberta.\n          |  _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_,\n          |  near Rossland, British Columbia.\n          |  _Zapus princeps luteus_, White Mt's, Arizona.\n          |  Espanola, 5000 ft., New Mexico.\n          |  _Zapus princeps minor_,\n          |  2 mi. W Fort Totten, 1400 ft., No. Dakota.\n          |  Near Bottineau, North Dakota.\n          |  Head Eagle Cr., Bear Paw Mt's, Montana.\n          |  N Maple Cr., Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan.\n          |  _Zapus princeps oregonus_,\n          |  Parker Cr., Warner Mt's, 5500 ft., Cal.\n          |  Cobb Cr., 6 mi. SW Mt'n City, Nevada.\n          |  Wisconsin Cr., 8000 ft., Nevada.\n          |  North Fork Malheur River,\n          |  _Zapus princeps pacificus_,\n          |  North Fork Coffee Cr., 4500 ft., Calif.\n          |  Jackson Lake, 5900 ft., California.\n          |  Head of Lyle Canyon, 9700 ft., California.\n          |  _Zapus princeps princeps_, Florida, Colorado.\n          |  _Zapus princeps princeps_, Half Way, Colorado.\n          |  Medicine Wheel Ranch, 28 mi. E Lovell, 9000 ft., Wyoming.\n          |  _Zapus princeps saltator_,\n          |  Stikine River at Glenora, British Columbia.\n          |  Hazelton, 959 ft., British Columbia.\n          |  _Zapus princeps utahensis_,\n          |  near Robertson, 8700 ft., Wyoming.\n          |  3 mi. N and 11 mi. E Alpine, 5650 ft., Wyoming.\n          |  _Zapus princeps utahensis_,\n          |  Salamander Lake and Lambs Canyon, 9000 ft., Utah.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius acadicus_,\n          |  vicinity of St. Andrews, New Brunswick.\n          |  Sebec Lake, Maine.\n          |  2 mi. S Center Ossipee, New Hampshire.\n          |  Berlin, New York.\n          |  Lake Kedgemakooge, Nova Scotia.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_, Lake Clark, Alaska.\n          |  Frosty Peak, Yakutat Bay, Alaska.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius alascensis_,\n          |  7 mi. SSE Haines, 10 ft., Alaska.\n          |  SW end Dezadeash Lake, Yukon.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius americanus_, Boyne Falls, Michigan.\n          |  Ann Arbor, Michigan.\n          |  Montauk Point, L. I., New York.\n          |  Mays Landing, New Jersey.\n          |  Laurel, Maryland.\n          |  Hampton, Virginia.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius americanus_, Raleigh, North Carolina.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius campestris_,\n          |  Palmer Gulch, Black Hills, South Dakota.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius canadensis_, St. Methode, Quebec.\n          |  Pancake Bay, Algoma District, Ontario.\n          |  Franz, Ontario.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Fort Severn, Ontario.\n          |  Oxford House, Manitoba.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius hudsonius_, Emma Lake, Saskatchewan.\n          |  Lac la Nonne, Alberta.\n          |  1 mi. NW Junct. Irons Cr. and Laird River,\n          |  British Columbia.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_, Blackner, North Dakota.\n          |  Cannon Ball, North Dakota.\n          |  Elk River, Minnesota.\n          |  E Okeboji Lake, Iowa.\n          |  Turkey Run State Park, Indiana.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius intermedius_,\n          |  Jordan Cr., 3 mi. NE Fairmont, Ill.\n          |  Rib Hill, Wisconsin.\n          |  Lake St. Germain, Wisconsin.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius ladas_, Northwest River, Labrador.\n          |  Moisie Bay, Labrador.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_, Mohawk Park, Oklahoma.\n          |  vicinity of Lawrence, Kansas.\n          |  2 mi. S Schuyler, Nebraska.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius pallidus_,\n          | Valentine National Wildlife Refuge, Nebraska.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius preblei_, Loveland, Colorado.\n          |  Spring Hill, 12 mi. N Laramie Peak, 6300 ft., Wyoming.\n          |  _Zapus hudsonius tenellus_,\n          |  Hazelton, 959 ft., British Columbia.\n          |  Cottonwood P. O., British Columbia.\n          |  S end Swan Lake, British Columbia.\n          |  Indianpoint Lake, 15 mi. NE Barkerville, British Columbia.\nLITERATURE CITED\nALLEN, J. A.\n  1894.  Cranial variation in _Neotoma micropus_ due to growth and\n         individual differentiation. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,\nANDERSON, R. M.\n  1932.  Five new mammals from British Columbia. Ann. Rept. 1931, Nat.\n  1942.  Six additions to the list of Quebec mammals with descriptions of\n         four new forms. Ann. Rept. Prov. Soc. Nat. Hist. for 1941:31-42,\nAXELROD, D. I.\n  1948.  Climate and evolution in western North America during Middle\nBAILEY, B.\n  1929.  Mammals of Sherburne County, Minnesota. Jour. Mamm., 10:153-164,\nBAILEY, J. W.\n  1946.  The mammals of Virginia. 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Zool., 21:225-238, 1 fig. in text, May 20, 1920.\nIVOR, H. R.\n  1934.  Notes on the rearing of captive young meadow jumping mice.\n         Canadian Field-Nat., 48:8-10, January 15, 1934.\nKELLOGG, L.\n  1916.  Report upon mammals and birds found in portions of Trinity,\n         Siskiyou and Shasta counties, California. Univ. California Publ.\nLINSDALE, J. M.\n  1938.  Environmental responses of vertebrates in the Great Basin. Amer.\n         Midland Nat., 19:1-206, 12 figs. in text, January, 1938.\nLYON, M. W., JR.\n  1938.  Mammals of Indiana. Amer. Midland Nat., 17:1-384, 125 figs. in\nMATTHEW, W. D.\n  1915.  Climate and evolution. New York Acad. Sci., 24:171-318, 33 figs.,\nMAYR, E.\n  1942.  Systematics and the origin of species from the viewpoint of a.\n         zoologist Columbia Univ. Press, New York, xiv + 334 pp.,\nMERRIAM, C. H.\n  1897a. Three new jumping mice (_Zapus_) from the Northwest. Proc. Biol.\n  1897b. Mammals of Mount Mazama, Oregon. Mazama, 1:204-230, 10\nMILLER, G. S., JR.\n  1899.  Preliminary list of New York mammals. Bull. New York State\n  1911.  A new jumping mouse from New Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,\nMOOJEN, J.\n  1948.  Speciation in the Brazilian spiny rats (genus _Proechimys_,\n         family Echimyidae). Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.,\nMOORE, A. W.\n  1928.  _Zapus princeps princeps_ in Utah. Jour. Mamm., 9:154-155,\nNICHOLSON, A. J.\n  1937.  A hibernating jumping mouse. Jour. Mamm., 18:103, February\nPEARSON, O. P., and PEARSON, A. K.\n  1947.  Owl predation in Pennsylvania, with notes on the small mammals\n         of Delaware County. Jour. Mamm., 28:137-147, 1 fig., 3 tables,\nPETRIDES, G. A.\n  1948.  The jumping mouse in Georgia. Jour. Mamm., 29:75-76, February\nPREBLE, E. A.\n  1899.  Revision of the jumping mice of the genus _Zapus_. N. Amer.\nPREBLE, N. A.\n  1944.  A swimming jumping mouse. Jour. Mamm., 25:200-201, May\nQUIMBY, D. C.\n  1951.  The life history and ecology of the jumping mouse, _Zapus\n         hudsonius_. Ecol. Monog., 21:61-95, 14 figs. in text, 7 tables,\nRIDGWAY, R.\n  1912.  Color standards and color nomenclature. Washington, D. C.,\n         privately printed, iv + 44 pp., 53 pls., 1912.\nSCHMIDT, F. J. W.\n  1931.  Mammals of western Clark County, Wisconsin. Jour. Mamm.,\nSCHWARTZ, C. W.\n  1951.  A new record of _Zapus hudsonius_ in Missouri and notes on its\nSHELDON, C.\n  1934.  Studies of the life histories of _Zapus_ and _Napaeozapus_ in Nova\n  1938.  Vermont jumping mice of the genus _Zapus._ Jour. Mamm.,\nSIMPSON, G. G.\n  1947.  Holarctic mammalian faunas and continental relationships during\n         the Cenozoic. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 58:613-688, 6 figs. in\nSMITH, C. F., and HOPKINS, C. L.\n  1937.  Notes on the barn owls of the San Francisco Bay Region. Condor,\nSTANFORD, J. S.\n  1931.  Notes on small mammals of Utah. Jour. Mamm., 12:356-363,\nSTEHLIN, H. G., and SCHAUB, S.\n  1951.  Die Trigondontie der simplicidentaten Nager. Schweizerischen\n         Paleont. Abhandl., Basel, 67:1-385, 620 text figuren.\nSTONER, D.\n  1918.  The rodents of Iowa. Iowa Geol. Surv., Bull., 5:1-172, 37 figs.\nSURFACE, H. A.\n  1906.  The serpents of Pennsylvania. Monthly Bull. Div. Zool.,\n         Pennsylvania State Dept. Agric., 4:113-208, pls. 15-42, 23 figs.\n         in text, August and September, 1906.\nSVIHLA, A., and SVIHLA, R. D.\n  1933.  Notes on the jumping mouse _Zapus trinotatus trinotatus_ Rhoads.\nSVIHLA, R. D.\n  1931.  Mammals of the Uinta Mountain Region. Jour. Mamm., 12:256-266,\nTAYLOR, W. P.\n  1911.  Mammals of the Alexander Nevada Expedition of 1909. Univ.\n         California Publ. Zool., 7:205-307, 2 figs. in text, June 24, 1911.\n  1922.  A distributional and ecological study of Mount Rainier,\n         Washington. Ecol., 3:213-236, 4 figs. in text, July, 1922.\nTEST, F. H., and TEST, A.\n  1943.  Incidence of dipteran parasitosis in populations of small mammals.\nTOWNSEND, M. T.\n  1935.  Studies on some of the small mammals of central New York.\n         Roosevelt Wildlife Annals, 4(No. 1):1-120, 8 pls., 22 figs.\n         in text, 35 tables, 4 maps, December, 1935.\nVERGEER, T.\n  1948.  Frog catches mouse in natural environment. Turtox News, 26:91,\nVINOGRADOV, B. S.\n  1925.  On the structure of the external genitalia in Dipodidae and\n         Zapodidae (Rodentia) as a classificatory character. Proc. Zool.\nWHITLOW, W. B., and HALL, E. R.\n  1933.  Mammals of the Pocatello Region of southeastern Idaho. Univ.\n         California Publ. Zool., 40:235-276, 3 figs. in text,\nWILLIAMS, C. S.\n  1938.  Aids to the identification of mole and shrew hairs with general\n         comments on hair structure and hair determination. Jour. Wildl.\nWILSON, R. W.\n  1936.  A Pliocene rodent fauna from Smiths Valley, Nevada. Carnegie\n  1937.  Pliocene rodents of western North America. Carnegie Inst. Publ.,\n_Transmitted October 9, 1953._\nUNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY\nInstitutional libraries interested in publications exchange may obtain\nthis series by addressing the Exchange Librarian, University of Kansas\nLibrary, Lawrence, Kansas. Copies for individuals, persons working in a\nparticular field of study, may be obtained by addressing instead the\nMuseum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. There\nis no provision for sale or this series by the University Library which\nmeets institutional requests, or by the Museum of Natural History which\nmeets the requests of individuals. However, when individuals request\ncopies from the Museum, 25 cents should be included, for each separate\nnumber that is 100 pages or more in length, for the purpose of defraying\nthe costs of wrapping and mailing.\n* An asterisk designates those numbers of which the Museum's supply (not\nthe Library's supply) is exhausted. Numbers published to date, in this\nseries, are as follows:\n   Vol. 1.  1. The pocket gophers (Genus Thomomys) of Utah. By Stephen\n            2. The systematic status of Eumeces pluvialis Cope, and\n               noteworthy records of other amphibians and reptiles from\n               Kansas and Oklahoma. By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 85-89.\n            3. The tadpoles of Bufo cognatus Say. By Hobart M. Smith.\n            4. Hybridization between two species of garter snakes.\n            5. Selected records of reptiles and amphibians from Kansas.\n               By John Breukelman and Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 101-112.\n            6. Kyphosis and other variations in soft-shelled turtles.\n               By Hobart M. Smith. Pp. 117-124, 3 figures in text.\n            7. Natural history of the prairie vole (Mammalian Genus\n               Microtus). By E. W. Jameson, Jr. Pp. 125-151, 4 figures\n            8. The postnatal development of two broods of great horned owls\n               (Bubo virginianus). By Donald F. Hoffmeister and Henry W.\n            9. Additions to the list of the birds of Louisiana. By George\n           10. A check-list of the birds of Idaho. By M. Dale Arvey.\n           11. Subspeciation in pocket gophers of Kansas. By Bernardo\n               Villa-R. and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 217-236, 2 figures in\n           12. A new bat (Genus Myotis) from Mexico. By Walter W. Dalquest\n               and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 237-244, 6 figures in text.\n           13. Tadarida femorosacca (Merriam) in Tamaulipas, Mexico. By\n               Walter W. Dalquest and E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 245-248,\n           14. A new pocket gopher (Thomomys) and a new spiny pocket mouse\n               (Liomys) from Michoac\u00e1n, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and\n               Bernardo Villa-R. Pp. 249-256, 6 figures in text.\n           15. A new hylid frog from eastern Mexico. By Edward H. Taylor.\n           16. A new extinct emydid turtle from the Lower Pliocene of\n               Oklahoma. By Edwin C. Galbreath. Pp. 265-280, 1 plate.\n           17. Pliocene and Pleistocene records of fossil turtles from\n               western Kansas and Oklahoma. By Edwin C. Galbreath.\n           18. A new species of heteromyid rodent from the Middle Oligocene\n               of northeastern Colorado with remarks on the skull. By Edwin\n           19. Speciation in the Brazilian spiny rats (Genus Proechimys,.\n               Family Echimyidae) By Jo\u00e3o Moojen. Pp. 301-406, 140 figures\n           20. Three new beavers from Utah. By Stephen D. Durrant and\n               Harold S. Crane. Pp. 407-417, 7 figures in text.\n           21. Two new meadow mice from Michoac\u00e1n, Mexico. By E. Raymond\n           22. An annotated check list of the mammals of Michoac\u00e1n, Mexico.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and Bernardo Villa-R. Pp. 431-472,\n               2 plates, 1 figure in text. December 27, 1949.\n           23. Subspeciation in the kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii. By Henry\n               W. Setzer. Pp. 473-573, 27 figures in text, 7 tables.\n           24. Geographic range of the hooded skunk, Mephitis macroura,\n               of a new subspecies from Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall and\n               Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 575-580, 1 figure in text.\n           25. Pipistrellus cinnamomeus Miller 1902 referred to the Genus\n               Myotis. By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest.\n           26. A synopsis of the American bats of the Genus Pipistrellus.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 591-602,\n  *Vol. 2. (Complete) Mammals of Washington. By Walter W. Dalquest.\n   Vol. 3. *1. The avifauna of Micronesia, its origin, evolution, and\n               distribution. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 1-359, 16 figures\n           *2. A quantitative study of the nocturnal migration of birds.\n               By George H. Lowery, Jr. Pp. 361-472, 47 figures in text.\n            3. Phylogeny of the waxwings and allied birds. By M. Dale\n               Arvey. Pp. 473-530, 49 figures in text, 13 tables.\n            4. Birds from the state of Veracruz, Mexico. By George H.\n               Lowery, Jr. and Walter W. Dalquest. Pp. 531-649,\n               7 figures in text, 2 tables. October 10, 1951.\n  *Vol. 4. (Complete) American weasels. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 1-466,\n               41 plates, 31 figures in text. December 27, 1951.\n   Vol. 5.  1. Preliminary survey of a Paleocene faunule from the Angels\n               Peak area, New Mexico. By Robert W. Wilson. Pp. 1-11,\n            2. Two new moles (Genus Scalopus) from Mexico and Texas.\n            3. Two new pocket gophers from Wyoming and Colorado.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and H. Gordon Montague. Pp. 25-32.\n            4. Mammals obtained by Dr. Curt von Wedel from the barrier\n               beach of Tamaulipas, Mexico. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 33-47,\n            5. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of\n               some North American rabbits. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith\n            6. Two new subspecies of Thomomys bottae from New Mexico and\n               Colorado. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 59-71, 1 figure in text.\n            7. A new subspecies of Microtus montanus from Montana and\n               comments on Microtus canicaudus Miller. By E. Raymond Hall\n            8. A new pocket gopher (Genus Thomomys) from eastern Colorado.\n            9. Mammals taken along the Alaskan Highway. By Rollin H. Baker.\n          *10. A synopsis of the North American Lagomorpha. By E. Raymond\n           11. A new pocket mouse (Genus Perognathus) from Kansas.\n           12. Mammals from Tamaulipas, Mexico. By Rollin H. Baker.\n           13. A new pocket gopher (Genus Thomomys) from Wyoming and\n               Colorado. By E. Raymond Hall. Pp. 219-222.\n           14. A new name for the Mexican red bat. By E. Raymond Hall.\n           15. Taxonomic notes on Mexican bats of the Genus Rhoge\u00ebssa.\n           16. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some\n               North American woodrats (Genus Neotoma). By Keith R. Kelson.\n           17. The subspecies of the Mexican red-bellied squirrel, Sciurus\n               aureogaster. By Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 243-250, 1 figure in\n           18. Geographic range of Peromyscus melanophrys, with description\n               of new subspecies. By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 251-258,\n           19. A new chipmunk (Genus Eutamias) from the Black Hills.\n           20. A new pi\u00f1on mouse (Peromyscus truei) from Durango, Mexico.\n           21. An annotated check-list of Nebraskan bats. By Olin L. Webb\n           22. Geographic variation in red-backed mice (Genus\n               Clethrionomys) of the southern Rocky Mountain region.\n               By E. Lendell Cockrum and Kenneth L. Fitch. Pp. 281-292,\n           23. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of\n               North American microtines. By E. Raymond Hall and E. Lendell\n           24. The subspecific status of two Central American sloths.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 313-337.\n           25. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some\n               North American marsupials, insectivores, and carnivores.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R. Kelson. Pp. 319-341.\n           26. Comments on the taxonomy and geographic distribution of some\n               North American rodents. By E. Raymond Hall and Keith R.\n           27. A synopsis of the North American microtine rodents.\n               By E. Raymond Hall and E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 373-498,\n           28. The pocket gophers (Genus Thomomys) of Coahuila, Mexico.\n               By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 499-514, 1 figure in text.\n           29. Geographic distribution of the pocket mouse, Perognathus\n               fasciatus. By J. Knox Jones, Jr. Pp. 515-526, 7 figures in\n           30. A new subspecies of wood rat (Neotoma mexicana) from\n               Colorado. By Robert B. Finley, Jr. Pp. 527-534, 2 figures\n           31. Four new pocket gophers of the genus Cratogeomys from\n               Jalisco, Mexico. By Robert J. Russell. Pp. 535-542.\n           32. Genera and subgenera of chipmunks. By John A. White.\n           33. Taxonomy of the chipmunks, Eutamias quadrivittatus and\n               Eutamias umbrinus By John A. White. Pp. 563-582, 6 figures\n           34. Geographic distribution and taxonomy of the chipmunks of\n               Wyoming. By John A. White. Pp. 584-610, 3 figures in text.\n           35. The baculum of the chipmunks of western North America.\n               By John A. White. Pp. 611-631, 19 figures in text.\n           36. Pleistocene Soricidae from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon,\n               Mexico. By James S. Findley. Pp. 633-639. December 1, 1953.\n           37. Seventeen species of bats recorded from Barro Colorado\n               Island, Panama Canal Zone. By E. Raymond Hall and William\n  *Vol. 6. (Complete) Mammals of Utah, _taxonomy and distribution._\n               By Stephen D. Durrant. Pp. 1-549, 91 figures in text,\n   Vol. 7. *1. Mammals of Kansas. By E. Lendell Cockrum. Pp. 1-303,\n               73 figures in text, 37 tables. August 25, 1952.\n            2. Ecology of the opossum on a natural area in northeastern\n               Kansas. By Henry S. Fitch and Lewis L. Sandidge.\n            3. The silky pocket mice (Perognathus flavus) of Mexico.\n               By Rollin H. Baker. Pp. 339-347, 1 figure in text.\n            4. North American jumping mice (Genus Zapus). By Philip H.\n               Krutzsch. Pp. 349-472, 47 figures in text, 4 tables.\n           More numbers will appear in Volume 7.\nTranscriber's Notes\nAll obvious typos corrected. In Table 5 on the Swan Lake row, the Mean\nvalue for the Palatal length was corrected to 10.1 mm as there were only\ntwo values averaged (10.0 and 10.2). Abbreviation inconsistencies for\nmountain(s) were retained. Where a publication name contains an\nalternate spelling of a word, it was retained (example, Athabaska). The\nauthor Bernardo Villa-Ramirez is sometimes listed with the hyphen and\nsometimes without. For consistancy, they were standardized with a\nhyphen.\nTypographical Corrections\n  Page(s)   Correction\n  380       dention => dentition\n  412, 414  Eldorado => El Dorado\n  417       Sitkine River, at Glenoria => Stikine River, at Glenora", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  North American Jumping Mice (Genus Zapus)\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online\n[Illustration: _Many buildings in Charleston, South Carolina, were\ndamaged or destroyed by the large earthquake that occurred August 31,\n        U.S. Department of the Interior / U.S. Geological Survey\n            For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office\n                      Superintendent of Documents\n               Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328\nOne of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a\nsevere earthquake and its terrible aftereffects. An earthquake is a\nsudden movement of the Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain\nthat has accumulated over a long time. For hundreds of millions of\nyears, the forces of plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the huge\nplates that form the Earth\u2019s surface slowly move over, under, and past\neach other. Sometimes the movement is gradual. At other times, the\nplates are locked together, unable to release the accumulating energy.\nWhen the accumulated energy grows strong enough, the plates break free.\nIf the earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause many deaths\nand injuries and extensive property damage.\nToday we are challenging the assumption that earthquakes must present an\nuncontrollable and unpredictable hazard to life and property. Scientists\nhave begun to estimate the locations and likelihoods of future damaging\nearthquakes. Sites of greatest hazard are being identified, and definite\nprogress is being made in designing structures that will withstand the\neffects of earthquakes.\n[Illustration: _USGS scientist uses portable seismic recording equipment\nnear Mount St. Helens, Washington._]\n                         Earthquakes in History\nThe scientific study of earthquakes is comparatively new. Until the 18th\ncentury, few factual descriptions of earthquakes were recorded, and the\nnatural cause of earthquakes was little understood. Those who did look\nfor natural causes often reached conclusions that seem fanciful today;\none popular theory was that earthquakes were caused by air rushing out\nof caverns deep in the Earth\u2019s interior.\nThe earliest earthquake for which we have descriptive information\noccurred in China in 1177 B.C. The Chinese earthquake catalog describes\nseveral dozen large earthquakes in China during the next few thousand\nyears. Earthquakes in Europe are mentioned as early as 580 B.C., but the\nearliest for which we have some descriptive information occurred in the\nmid-16th century. The earliest known earthquakes in the Americas were in\nMexico in the late 14th century and in Peru in 1471, but descriptions of\nthe effects were not well documented. By the 17th century, descriptions\nof the effects of earthquakes were being published around the\nworld\u2014although these accounts were often exaggerated or distorted.\nThe most widely felt earthquakes in the recorded history of North\nAmerica were a series that occurred in 1811-12 near New Madrid, Mo. A\ngreat earthquake, whose magnitude is estimated to be about 8, occurred\non the morning of December 16, 1811. Another great earthquake occurred\non January 23, 1812, and a third, the strongest yet, on February 7,\n1812. Aftershocks were nearly continuous between these great earthquakes\nand continued for months afterwards. These earthquakes were felt by\npeople as far away as Boston and Denver. Because the most intense\neffects were in a sparsely populated region, the destruction of human\nlife and property was slight. If just one of these enormous earthquakes\noccurred in the same area today, millions of people and buildings and\nother structures worth billions of dollars would be affected.\n[Illustration: _The great 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire\ndestroyed most of the city and left 250,000 people homeless._]\nThe San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was one of the most destructive in\nthe recorded history of North America\u2014the earthquake and the fire that\nfollowed killed nearly 700 people and left the city in ruins. The Alaska\nearthquake of March 27, 1964, was of greater magnitude than the San\nFrancisco earthquake; it released perhaps twice as much energy and was\nfelt over an area of almost 500,000 square miles. The ground motion near\nthe epicenter was so violent that the tops of some trees were snapped\noff. One hundred and fourteen people (some as far away as California)\ndied as a result of this earthquake, but loss of life and property would\nhave been far greater had Alaska been more densely populated.\n                        Where Earthquakes Occur\nThe Earth is formed of several layers that have very different physical\nand chemical properties. The outer layer, which averages about 70\nkilometers in thickness, consists of about a dozen large, irregularly\nshaped plates that slide over, under, and past each other on top of the\npartly molten inner layer. Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries\nwhere the plates meet. In fact, the locations of earthquakes and the\nkinds of ruptures they produce help scientists define the plate\nboundaries.\n[Illustration: Diagram of plate boundaries and earthquake locations.]\nThere are three types of plate boundaries: spreading zones, transform\nfaults, and subduction zones. At _spreading zones_, molten rock rises,\npushing two plates apart and adding new material at their edges. Most\nspreading zones are found in oceans; for example, the North American and\nEurasian plates are spreading apart along the mid-Atlantic ridge.\nSpreading zones usually have earthquakes at shallow depths (within 30\nkilometers of the surface).\n_Transform faults_ are found where plates slide past one another. An\nexample of a transform-fault plate boundary is the San Andreas fault,\nalong the coast of California and northwestern Mexico. Earthquakes at\ntransform faults tend to occur at shallow depths and form fairly\nstraight linear patterns.\n[Illustration: Map explanation: yellow lines, plate Boundary.]\n_Subduction zones_ are found where one plate overrides, or subducts,\nanother, pushing it downward into the mantle where it melts. An example\nof a subduction-zone plate boundary is found along the northwest coast\nof the United States, western Canada, and southern Alaska and the\nAleutian Islands. Subduction zones are characterized by deep-ocean\ntrenches, shallow to deep earthquakes, and mountain ranges containing\nactive volcanoes.\nEarthquakes can also occur within plates, although plate-boundary\nearthquakes are much more common. Less than 10 percent of all\nearthquakes occur within plate interiors. As plates continue to move and\nplate boundaries change over geologic time, weakened boundary regions\nbecome part of the interiors of the plates. These zones of weakness\nwithin the continents can cause earthquakes in response to stresses that\noriginate at the edges of the plate or in the deeper crust. The New\nMadrid earthquakes of 1811-12 and the 1886 Charleston earthquake\noccurred within the North American plate.\n[Illustration: Damaged house.]\n                         How Earthquakes Happen\nAn earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent, of the Earth\u2019s\nsurface that follows a release of energy in the Earth\u2019s crust. This\nenergy can be generated by a sudden dislocation of segments of the\ncrust, by a volcanic eruption, or even by manmade explosions. Most\ndestructive quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust.\nThe crust may first bend and then, when the stress exceeds the strength\nof the rocks, break and \u201csnap\u201d to a new position. In the process of\nbreaking, vibrations called \u201cseismic waves\u201d are generated. These waves\ntravel outward from the source of the earthquake along the surface and\nthrough the Earth at varying speeds depending on the material through\nwhich they move. Some of the vibrations are of high enough frequency to\nbe audible, while others are of very low frequency. These vibrations\ncause the entire planet to quiver or ring like a bell or a tuning fork.\nA _fault_ is a fracture in the Earth\u2019s crust along which two blocks of\nthe crust have slipped with respect to each other. Faults are divided\ninto three main groups, depending on how they move. _Normal faults_\noccur in response to pulling or tension; the overlying block moves down\nthe dip of the fault plane. _Thrust (reverse) faults_ occur in response\nto squeezing or compression; the overlying block moves up the dip of the\nfault plane. _Strike-slip (lateral) faults_ occur in response to either\ntype of stress; the blocks move horizontally past one another. Most\nfaulting along spreading zones is normal, along subduction zones is\nthrust, and along transform faults is strike-slip.\n[Illustration: _Normal Fault. Blocks are pulled apart_]\n[Illustration: _Thrust Fault. Blocks are pushed together_]\n[Illustration: _Strike-Slip Fault. Blocks slide past each other_]\nGeologists have found that earthquakes tend to reoccur along faults,\nwhich reflect zones of weakness in the Earth\u2019s crust. Even if a fault\nzone has recently experienced an earthquake, however, there is no\nguarantee that all the stress has been relieved. Another earthquake\ncould still occur. In New Madrid, a great earthquake was followed by a\nlarge aftershock within 6 hours on December 16, 1811. Furthermore,\nrelieving stress along one part of the fault may increase stress in\nanother part; the New Madrid earthquakes in January and February 1812\nmay have resulted from this phenomenon.\n[Illustration: Diagram of Earth\u2019s layers and seismic wave propagation.]\nThe _focal depth_ of an earthquake is the depth from the Earth\u2019s surface\nto the region where an earthquake\u2019s energy originates (the _focus_).\nEarthquakes with focal depths from the surface to about 70 kilometers\n(43.5 miles) are classified as shallow. Earthquakes with focal depths\nfrom 70 to 300 kilometers (43.5 to 186 miles) are classified as\nintermediate. The focus of deep earthquakes may reach depths of more\nthan 700 kilometers (435 miles). The focuses of most earthquakes are\nconcentrated in the crust and upper mantle. The depth to the center of\nthe Earth\u2019s core is about 6,370 kilometers (3,960 miles), so even the\ndeepest earthquakes originate in relatively shallow parts of the Earth\u2019s\ninterior.\nThe _epicenter_ of an earthquake is the point on the Earth\u2019s surface\ndirectly above the focus. The location of an earthquake is commonly\ndescribed by the geographic position of its epicenter and by its focal\ndepth.\nEarthquakes beneath the ocean floor sometimes generate immense sea waves\nor tsunamis (Japan\u2019s dread \u201chuge wave\u201d). These waves travel across the\nocean at speeds as great as 960 kilometers per hour (597 miles per hour)\nand may be 15 meters (49 feet) high or higher by the time they reach the\nshore. During the 1964 Alaska earthquake, tsunamis engulfing coastal\nareas caused most of the destruction at Kodiak, Cordova, and Seward and\ncaused severe damage along the west coast of North America, particularly\nat Crescent City, Calif. Some waves raced across the ocean to the coasts\nof Japan.\n[Illustration: _Tsunami destruction on Kamehameha Avenue on Hilo\u2019s\nwaterfront, 1946._ (Photograph provided by the U.S. Army Corps of\nEngineers.)]\n_Liquefaction_, which happens when loosely packed, water-logged\nsediments lose their strength in response to strong shaking, causes\nmajor damage during earthquakes. During the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake,\nliquefaction of the soils and debris used to fill in a lagoon caused\nmajor subsidence, fracturing, and horizontal sliding of the ground\nsurface in the Marina district in San Francisco.\n[Illustration: _Liquefaction of sands and debris caused major damage\nthroughout the Marina district in San Francisco during the Loma Prieta\nearthquake._]\nLandslides triggered by earthquakes often cause more destruction than\nthe earthquakes themselves. During the 1964 Alaska quake, shock-induced\nlandslides devastated the Turnagain Heights residential development and\nmany downtown areas in Anchorage. An observer gave a vivid report of the\nbreakup of the unstable earth materials in the Turnagain Heights region:\n_I got out of my car, ran northward toward my driveway, and then saw\nthat the bluff had broken back approximately 300 feet southward from its\noriginal edge. Additional slumping of the bluff caused me to return to\nmy car and back southward approximately 180 feet to the corner of\nMcCollie and Turnagain Parkway. The bluff slowly broke until the corner\nof Turnagain Parkway and McCollie had slumped northward._\n[Illustration: _Many homes were damaged by landslides triggered by the\n1964 Alaska earthquake (above) and the 1989 Loma Prieta shock (below)._]\n[Illustration: Home damaged by landslide triggered by the 1989 Loma\nPrieta shock.]\n[Illustration: Scientist examining seismographic equipment.]\n                         Measuring Earthquakes\nThe vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and\nmeasured by instruments called seismographs. The zig-zag line made by a\nseismograph, called a \u201cseismogram,\u201d reflects the changing intensity of\nthe vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath\nthe instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can\ndetermine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the type of\nfaulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released.\nThe two general types of vibrations produced by earthquakes are _surface\nwaves_, which travel along the Earth\u2019s surface, and _body waves_, which\ntravel through the Earth. Surface waves usually have the strongest\nvibrations and probably cause most of the damage done by earthquakes.\nBody waves are of two types, _compressional_ and _shear_. Both types\npass through the Earth\u2019s interior from the focus of an earthquake to\ndistant points on the surface, but only compressional waves travel\nthrough the Earth\u2019s molten core. Because compressional waves travel at\ngreat speeds and ordinarily reach the surface first, they are often\ncalled \u201cprimary waves\u201d or simply \u201cP\u201d waves. P waves push tiny particles\nof Earth material directly ahead of them or displace the particles\ndirectly behind their line of travel.\nShear waves do not travel as rapidly through the Earth\u2019s crust and\nmantle as do compressional waves, and because they ordinarily reach the\nsurface later they are called \u201csecondary\u201d or \u201cS\u201d waves. Instead of\naffecting material directly behind or ahead of their line of travel,\nshear waves displace material at right angles to their path and are\ntherefore sometimes called \u201ctransverse\u201d waves.\n[Illustration: Diagram of propagation of seismic waves.]\nThe first indication of an earthquake is often a sharp thud, signaling\nthe arrival of compressional waves. This is followed by the shear waves\nand then the \u201cground roll\u201d caused by the surface waves. A geologist who\nwas at Valdez, Alaska, during the 1964 earthquake described this\nsequence: _The first tremors were hard enough to stop a moving person,\nand shock waves were immediately noticeable on the surface of the\nground. These shock waves continued with a rather long frequency, which\ngave the observer an impression of a rolling feeling rather than abrupt\nhard jolts. After about 1 minute the amplitude or strength of the shock\nwaves increased in intensity and failures in buildings as well as the\nfrozen ground surface began to occur.... After about 3\u00bd minutes the\nsevere shock waves ended and people began to react as could be\nexpected._\n[Illustration: _Large earthquakes cause more damage east of the Rocky\nMountains; this map shows areas that suffered major architectural damage\n(striped areas) and minor damage (dotted areas) during the magnitude-8\nearthquakes in New Madrid and San Francisco and the smaller but still\ndamaging quakes in Charleston and San Fernando._]\nThe severity of an earthquake can be expressed in several ways. The\n_magnitude_ of an earthquake, usually expressed by the _Richter Scale_,\nis a measure of the amplitude of the seismic waves. The _moment\nmagnitude_ of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy\nreleased\u2014an amount that can be estimated from seismograph recordings.\nThe _intensity_, as expressed by the _Modified Mercalli Scale_, is a\nsubjective measure that describes how strong a shock was felt at a\nparticular location.\nThe Richter Scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter of the California\nInstitute of Technology, is the best known scale for measuring the\nmagnitude of earthquakes. The scale is logarithmic so that a recording\nof 7, for example, indicates a disturbance with ground motion 10 times\nas large as a recording of 6. A quake of magnitude 2 is the smallest\nquake normally felt by people. Earthquakes with a Richter value of 6 or\nmore are commonly considered major; great earthquakes have magnitudes of\n8 or more on the Richter scale.\nThe Modified Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake\u2019s\neffects in a given locality in values ranging from I to XII. The most\ncommonly used adaptation covers the range of intensity from the\ncondition of \u201cI\u2014Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable\nconditions,\u201d to \u201cXII\u2014Damage total. Lines of sight and level are\ndistorted. Objects thrown upward into the air.\u201d Evaluation of earthquake\nintensity can be made only after eyewitness reports and results of field\ninvestigations are studied and interpreted. The maximum intensity\nexperienced in the Alaska earthquake of 1964 was X; damage from the San\nFrancisco and New Madrid earthquakes reached a maximum intensity of XI.\n[Illustration: _The January 17, 1994, earthquake at Northridge,\nCalifornia, caused this collapse of a major highway interchange._\n(Photograph by James W. Dewey, USGS.)]\nEarthquakes of large magnitude do not necessarily cause the most intense\nsurface effects. The effect in a given region depends to a large degree\non local surface and subsurface geologic conditions. An area underlain\nby unstable ground (sand, clay, or other unconsolidated materials), for\nexample, is likely to experience much more noticeable effects than an\narea equally distant from an earthquake\u2019s epicenter but underlain by\nfirm ground such as granite. In general, earthquakes east of the Rocky\nMountains affect a much larger area than earthquakes west of the\nRockies.\nAn earthquake\u2019s destructiveness depends on many factors. In addition to\nmagnitude and the local geologic conditions, these factors include the\nfocal depth, the distance from the epicenter, and the design of\nbuildings and other structures. The extent of damage also depends on the\ndensity of population and construction in the area shaken by the quake.\nThe Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 demonstrated a wide range of effects.\nThe Santa Cruz mountains suffered little damage from the seismic waves,\neven though they were close to the epicenter. The central core of the\ncity of Santa Cruz, about 24 kilometers (15 miles) away from the\nepicenter, was almost completely destroyed. More than 80 kilometers (50\nmiles) away, the cities of San Francisco and Oakland suffered selective\nbut severe damage, including the loss of more than 40 lives. The\ngreatest destruction occurred in areas where roads and elevated\nstructures were built on unstable ground underlain by loose,\nunconsolidated soils.\nThe Northridge, California, earthquake of 1994 also produced a wide\nvariety of effects, even over distances of just a few hundred meters.\nSome buildings collapsed, while adjacent buildings of similar age and\nconstruction remained standing. Similarly, some highway spans collapsed,\nwhile others nearby did not.\n[Illustration: _A sudden increase in earthquake tremors signaled the\nbeginning of a series of eruptions at Redoubt Volcano in 1989-90._]\n                       Volcanoes and Earthquakes\nEarthquakes are associated with volcanic eruptions. Abrupt increases in\nearthquake activity heralded eruptions at Mount St. Helens, Washington;\nMount Spurr and Redoubt Volcano, Alaska; and Kilauea and Mauna Loa,\nHawaii. The location and movement of swarms of tremors indicate the\nmovement of magma through the volcano. Continuous records of seismic and\ntiltmeter (a device that measures ground tilting) data are maintained at\nU.S. Geological Survey volcano observatories in Hawaii, Alaska,\nCalifornia, and the Cascades, where study of these records enables\nspecialists to make short-range predictions of volcanic eruptions. These\nwarnings have been especially effective in Alaska, where the imminent\neruption of a volcano requires the rerouting of international air\ntraffic to enable airplanes to avoid volcanic clouds. Since 1982, at\nleast seven jumbo jets, carrying more than 1,500 passengers, have lost\npower in the air after flying into clouds of volcanic ash. Though all\nflights were able to restart their engines eventually and no lives were\nlost, the aircraft suffered damages of tens of millions of dollars. As a\nresult of these close calls, an international team of volcanologists,\nmeteorologists, dispatchers, pilots, and controllers have begun to work\ntogether to alert each other to imminent volcanic eruptions and to\ndetect and track volcanic ash clouds.\n                         Predicting Earthquakes\nThe goal of earthquake prediction is to give warning of potentially\ndamaging earthquakes early enough to allow appropriate response to the\ndisaster, enabling people to minimize loss of life and property. The\nU.S. Geological Survey conducts and supports research on the likelihood\nof future earthquakes. This research includes field, laboratory, and\ntheoretical investigations of earthquake mechanisms and fault zones. A\nprimary goal of earthquake research is to increase the reliability of\nearthquake probability estimates. Ultimately, scientists would like to\nbe able to specify a high probability for a specific earthquake on a\nparticular fault within a particular year. Scientists estimate\nearthquake probabilities in two ways: by studying the history of large\nearthquakes in a specific area and the rate at which strain accumulates\nin the rock.\nScientists study the past frequency of large earthquakes in order to\ndetermine the future likelihood of similar large shocks. For example, if\na region has experienced four magnitude 7 or larger earthquakes during\n200 years of recorded history, and if these shocks occurred randomly in\ntime, then scientists would assign a 50 percent probability (that is,\njust as likely to happen as not to happen) to the occurrence of another\nmagnitude 7 or larger quake in the region during the next 50 years.\nBut in many places, the assumption of random occurrence with time may\nnot be true, because when the strain is released along one part of the\nfault system, it may actually increase on another part. Four magnitude\n6.8 or larger earthquakes and many magnitude 6-6.5 shocks occurred in\nthe San Francisco Bay region during the 75 years between 1836 and 1911.\nFor the next 68 years (until 1979), no earthquakes of magnitude 6 or\nlarger occurred in the region. Beginning with a magnitude 6.0 shock in\n1979, the earthquake activity in the region increased dramatically;\nbetween 1979 and 1989, there were four magnitude 6 or greater\nearthquakes, including the magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake. This\nclustering of earthquakes leads scientists to estimate that the\nprobability of a magnitude 6.8 or larger earthquake occurring during the\nnext 30 years in the San Francisco Bay region is about 67 percent (twice\nas likely as not).\nAnother way to estimate the likelihood of future earthquakes is to study\nhow fast strain accumulates. When plate movements build the strain in\nrocks to a critical level, like pulling a rubber band too tight, the\nrocks will suddenly break and slip to a new position. Scientists measure\nhow much strain accumulates along a fault segment each year, how much\ntime has passed since the last earthquake along the segment, and how\nmuch strain was released in the last earthquake. This information is\nthen used to calculate the time required for the accumulating strain to\nbuild to the level that results in an earthquake. This simple model is\ncomplicated by the fact that such detailed information about faults is\nrare. In the United States, only the San Andreas fault system has\nadequate records for using this prediction method.\n[Illustration: _Using a two-color laser to detect movement along a fault\nnear Parkfield, California._]\nBoth of these methods, and a wide array of monitoring techniques, are\nbeing tested along part of the San Andreas fault. For the past 150\nyears, earthquakes of about magnitude 6 have occurred an average of\nevery 22 years on the San Andreas fault near Parkfield, California. The\nlast shock was in 1966. Because of the consistency and similarity of\nthese earthquakes, scientists have started an experiment to \u201ccapture\u201d\nthe next Parkfield earthquake. A dense web of monitoring instruments was\ndeployed in the region during the late 1980s. The main goals of the\nongoing Parkfield Earthquake Prediction Experiment are to record the\ngeophysical signals before and after the expected earthquake; to issue a\nshort-term prediction; and to develop effective methods of communication\nbetween earthquake scientists and community officials responsible for\ndisaster response and mitigation. This project has already made\nimportant contributions to both earth science and public policy.\n[Illustration: _San Andreas fault in the Carrizo Plain, central\nCalifornia._]\nScientific understanding of earthquakes is of vital importance to the\nNation. As the population increases, expanding urban development and\nconstruction works encroach upon areas susceptible to earthquakes. With\na greater understanding of the causes and effects of earthquakes, we may\nbe able to reduce damage and loss of life from this destructive\nphenomenon.\n[Illustration: _A statue of Christ at Cemetery Hill overlooks the ruined\ntown of Yungay, Peru. It and a few palm trees were all that remained\nstanding after the May 31, 1970, earthquake._]\n  U.S. Geological Survey\n  Information Services\n  Denver, CO 80225\n\u2605 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1996\u2014421-205\n[Illustration: US DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR; MARCH 3, 1849]\nAs the Nation\u2019s principal conservation agency, the Department of the\nInterior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public\nlands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering sound\nuse of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and\nbiological diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural values\nof our national parks and historical places; and providing for the\nenjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses\nour energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their\ndevelopment is in the best interests of all our people by encouraging\nstewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also\nhas a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities\nand for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.\n[Illustration: (_Cover photographs, clockwise from top left_): _Mexico\nCity, Mexico, 1985_; _Coalinga, Calif., 1983_; _Northridge, Calif.,\n1994_; _Anchorage, Alaska, 1964_; _San Francisco, Calif., 1906_; _Loma\nPrieta, Calif., 1989_.]\n--Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n  is public-domain in the country of publication.\n--In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n  _underscores_.\n--In the ASCII version only, subscripted numbers are preceded by\n  underscore and delimited by brackets.\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Earthquakes, by Kaye M. 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{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online\n                       BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY\n                   The University of Texas at Austin\n                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon\n                        William H. Matthews III\n    [Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN]\n      The geologic column and geologic time scale                     12\n      Geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon                 16\n      The geologic work of running water                              29\n      Weathering and gravity add the final touch                      30\n  What to do and see at Palo Duro Canyon State Park                   33\n      Coronado Lodge and Observation Point                            33\n      Colonel Charles Goodnight\u2019s Dugout                              39\n  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                                  45\n  1. Aerial View of Palo Duro Canyon                        Frontispiece\n  3. Indian carving on sandstone boulder                               6\n  4. War dress of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker                         7\n  5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas Panhandle                   9\n  7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon State Park       14-15\n  8. Joints and gypsum veins in Quartermaster Formation               17\n  9. Syncline in Quartermaster red beds                               18\n  10. Reduction halos in Quartermaster shale                          20\n  11. Cross-bedded boulder of Trujillo sandstone                      20\n  12. Panoramic view of canyon showing major rock units exposed in\n  16. Rock pedestal near the Lighthouse                               25\n  18. Life-sized model of shovel-jawed mastodon                       27\n  19. Fossilized carapaces of Pliocene tortoises                      27\n  20. Talus slopes and \u201choodoo\u201d on Capitol Peak                       31\n  21. Entrance to Palo Duro Canyon State Park                         34\n  24. Train on Sad Monkey Railroad track                              36\n  29. Picnic area at first water crossing                             39\n  30. Colonel Charles Goodnight\u2019s Dugout                              40\n  37. Entrance to Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum                  45\n    [Illustration: Fig. 1. Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon showing\n    location of major points of interest: (1) Coronado Lodge; (2)\n    Triassic Peak; (3) Timber Mesa; (4) Capitol Peak; (5) Fortress\n    Cliff; (6) Prairie Dog Town Fork of Red River; (7) The Turnaround\n    (termination of Park Road 5). (Courtesy of Charles A. Wolfin;\n    photograph by W. A. Hester.)]\n                 The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon\nLike the early Spanish explorers who first saw Palo Duro Canyon, today\u2019s\nvisitor is likely to view the impressive canyon with surprise and awe.\nThis great depression\u2014it is more than 2 miles wide and as much as 800\nfeet deep within park boundaries\u2014contains a fascinating assortment of\nmulticolored geologic formations and erosion-produced rock sculptures of\nmany shapes, colors, and size. The geographic setting of the canyon\nfurther heightens its impact on the visitor, for it is surrounded by the\nlevel, virtually treeless plains of the Texas Panhandle. (_See_ upper\nbackground area in fig. 1, frontispiece).\nIt is not surprising that this scenic area has been set aside as a State\npark, for Palo Duro Canyon has long been of interest to man. First, as\nthe hunting grounds of prehistoric Indians who stalked the now-extinct\nIce Age mammoths and bison that roamed the valley floor. Later, the\ncanyon was frequented by the Comanches, Apaches, Kiowas, and other\nIndians of historic time. These tribes, like those before them, found\nboth food and refuge within the canyon. However, it was not until 1876\nthat Palo Duro Canyon was inhabited by the white man. It was during this\nyear that pioneer cattleman Charles Goodnight herded some 1,600 head of\ncattle into the canyon and established a camp there (p. 6).\nToday\u2019s visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can re-live some of the fascinating\nhistory of this interesting area. One can still see a replica of Colonel\nGoodnight\u2019s primitive dugout, follow the faint trace of the Comanche\nTrail, or perhaps find the fossil bones of prehistoric creatures that\nlived hundreds of thousands\u2014even millions\u2014of years ago. But most\nvisitors to Texas\u2019 most colorful canyon are not attracted by its\ninteresting history. They come instead to enjoy the scenery and\nrecreational opportunities that are present. These are readily\naccessible, for a carefully engineered, hard-surface road leads from the\nrim of the canyon to the canyon floor. There are campgrounds, picnic\nareas, concessions, and even an outdoor theatre (fig. 23). The location\nof these facilities and some of the canyon\u2019s more interesting geologic\nfeatures are shown on the generalized place map of the canyon (fig. 2).\nThis publication does not attempt to describe the scenic beauty of Palo\nDuro Canyon, for this must be seen to be appreciated. Rather, it\ndiscusses the geologic setting and origin of the canyon, the methods by\nwhich some of the more interesting geologic features were formed, and\nbriefly reviews the history of the area. Hopefully, it will enable the\nvisitor to understand better the meaning behind the canyon scenery,\nthereby enhancing his visit.\nMany people have assisted in the preparation of _The Geologic Story of\nPalo Duro Canyon_, and their help is gratefully acknowledged: Professor\nJack T. Hughes, Dr. Frank W. Daugherty, Dr. Robert C. Burton, Meade\nHumphries, and Jim Hughes of the West Texas State University Geology\nDepartment provided much information about the area and assisted in the\nfield; help was also provided by Mr. Pete Cowart, Mr. Earl Burtz, Mr.\nJerry Tschauner, Mr. Bob Watson, Mr. King, and other park personnel; Mr.\nC. Boone McClure, of the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum, furnished\nsome of the photographs; Mr. J. Dan Scurlock, Mr. Bill Collins, and Mr.\nHarold Allums, of the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, made\navailable certain maps and statistical data; Mrs. Ples Harper of Canyon\nassisted in assembling information and photographs for the Pioneer\nAmphitheatre; and the aerial photograph of Palo Duro Canyon was taken by\nMr. W. A. Hester and made available through the courtesy of Mr. Charles\nA. Wolflin of Amarillo.\nDrs. Peter T. Flawn, Peter U. Rodda, and Ross A. Maxwell of the Bureau\nof Economic Geology read much of the manuscript and offered many helpful\nsuggestions, and Mr. A. Richard Smith provided special information on\ncaves in the Palo Duro area. Special thanks are due to Miss Josephine\nCasey who edited the manuscript and to Mr. J. W. Macon, cartographer,\nwho assumed responsibility for preparing the maps. Thanks are due also\nto my wife, Jennie, who critically read the manuscript and took a number\nof the photographs. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. J. Daniel Powell\nof The University of Texas at Arlington for invaluable assistance in the\nfield and his enthusiastic co-operation throughout the project.\nPalo Duro Canyon\u2019s long and colorful past has created considerable\ninterest among historians, archeologists, and geologists. Historians\nhave traced the written history of man and his effect on the Palo Duro\narea, but archeologists have delved much further into the past. They\nhave sought out and studied the more enduring records of the canyon\u2019s\nearly inhabitants\u2014their tools, utensils, and weapons. The geologist,\nhowever, is interested in history that far antedates even the most\nprimitive human inhabitant of the canyon. The earth scientist has probed\nthe geologic record of the Palo Duro area, using rocks, minerals, and\nfossils as clues to the geologic history and development of the canyon.\nPalo Duro Canyon is unique among Texas\u2019 State parks because of its many\ncontributions to history, archeology, and geology. Here the written\nrecord, the artifacts of prehistoric man, and the geologic formations\noverlap and complement each other in many respects. Although this\nguidebook is primarily concerned with the geologic history of the\ncanyon, a brief review of its human history is also included.\n                    ANCIENT MAN IN PALO DURO CANYON\nArcheological studies indicate that the earliest known inhabitants of\nPalo Duro Canyon lived in the canyon from about 10,000 to 5,000 B.C.\nThese early men apparently hunted the bison and now-extinct\nelephant-like mammoths that roamed the Palo Duro area during the Ice Age\nof Pleistocene time (_see_ geologic time scale, fig. 6). Their stone\nweapons and other artifacts have been found in and around the canyon. It\nis assumed that these primitive people\u2014like those who came later\u2014were\nattracted by the streams and springs that are found in the canyon and by\ngame that came there to feed. There is also evidence that the Indians\ntook advantage of certain of the canyon\u2019s geologic features. They\nfashioned tools, weapons, and utensils from the rocks exposed in the\ncanyon and used certain of the shallow caves and rock shelters as their\nhomes.\nVarious tribes of Plains Indians of historic times also used Palo Duro\nCanyon as a camping ground. The presence of these Indians is known from\nmany campsites and burials. In addition, flint chips and stone\nartifacts, potsherds, ornaments of shell and bone, grinding slabs, stone\nmortars (fig. 15), and a few pictographs (fig. 3) have provided\nconsiderable information about the culture of these people. Among the\ntribes believed to have frequented the canyon at various times are the\nApaches, Cheyennes, Arapahos, Kiowas, and Comanches. However, it is the\nComanches who are most closely associated with the Palo Duro area, for\nthe canyon is located near the center of their last homeland. Indeed it\nwas here that the Comanches were finally defeated and driven from this\npart of the Plains. The battlefield where Colonel Ranald Mackenzie\u2019s\ntroops fought the Comanches is located near the southeast corner of the\npark (_see_ fig. 7). This skirmish, which took place in 1874, is\nbelieved to have been the last major Indian battle in Texas.\nAlthough most of the canyon\u2019s archeological sites have been picked over\nand many of the artifacts removed, important finds are still\noccasionally reported. Park visitors who make discoveries of this type\nare urged to report them to a park ranger in order that they might be\ncalled to the attention of the proper authorities.\n                        ADVENT OF THE WHITE MAN\nAlthough the history of Palo Duro Canyon is rich in Indian lore, it was\nthe coming of the white man that heralded the development of the area.\nToday it is generally believed that Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was\nthe first white man to view the canyon. Coronado and his men are thought\nto have camped here during the winter of 1541, as they crossed the High\nPlains in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 2. Place map of Palo Duro Canyon.]\nLater, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the canyon was a favorite\nresting place of the buffalo hunters and Indian traders who frequented\nthe Plains. The canyon was also popular during the first half of the\n19th century, for it was then that it was occupied by the Comanches and\nserved as a trade center for the Spaniards and Indians who came from New\nMexico. These traders, called _comancheros_, bartered for loot taken by\nthe Comanches on their raids of early settlements and wagon trains that\npassed through the Panhandle-Plains region.\nThis same era marked the beginning of American interest in the Palo Duro\ncountry. During this period the area was visited by several expeditions\nincluding those of Long and Pike and the Texas-Santa Fe Expedition of\n1841. However, the canyon was not fully explored or mapped until 1852.\nThis important survey was carried out by a party which was under the\nsupervision of Captain R. B. Marcy.\nBut it was not until 1876 that the first white man established permanent\nresidence in Palo Duro Canyon. In 1876\u2014just two years after McKenzie\u2019s\nrout of the Comanches\u2014Colonel Charles Goodnight herded more than 1,600\nhead of cattle into the canyon. Here he laid out his first permanent\nranch and lived in a primitive earthen dugout. Not only was Goodnight\u2019s\nPalo Duro Ranch the first in the canyon, it is also thought to have been\nthe first commercial cattle ranch in the Texas Panhandle. In later years\nColonel Goodnight formed a partnership with John Adair of Ireland, and\ntogether they developed the famous JA Ranch\u2014a vast spread of some\n600,000 acres. Today\u2019s visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can visit a partially\nrestored dugout similar to that occupied by the canyon\u2019s early settlers\n    [Illustration: Fig. 3. The face carved on this boulder can be seen\n    along the track of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p. 35). It is believed\n    to have been carved by Indians.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 4. The war bonnet, war lance, and head feathers\n    of Comanche Chief Quanah Parker can be seen at the Panhandle-Plains\n    Historical Museum in Canyon. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains\n    Historical Museum.)]\nFrom the late 1800s until about 1930, the Palo Duro country remained the\ndomain of the Panhandle-Plains cattleman. It was, nonetheless, a\nfavorite picnic and camping spot of the residents of nearby towns and\ncities. In 1933 the recreational potential of the canyon was finally\nrecognized and land for the Palo Duro Canyon State Park was purchased by\nthe State of Texas with money obtained through a public revenue bond\nissue. Today, most of the park revenue received through gate admissions,\nconcession receipts, and mineral leases goes into a fund that pays off\nthe remaining balance of the revenue bonds. During the initial phase of\nthe park\u2019s development, most of the improvements in the area were made\nby members of the Civilian Conservation Corps who worked under the\nsupervision of the National Park Service.\nCurrently, Palo Duro Canyon State Park is visited by approximately\n300,000 visitors each year and is one of the State\u2019s more popular\nrecreational and scenic areas.\nPalo Duro Canyon State Park is located in the Panhandle of Texas (fig.\n5) approximately 13 miles east of Canyon on State Highway 217 (_see_\nfig. 7). It is about 12 miles south and 8 miles east of Amarillo via\nRanch Road 1541 which intersects State Highway 217. The park includes\nmore than 15,000 acres of Palo Duro Canyon, a complexly dissected area\nwhich spreads into Randall, Armstrong, and Briscoe counties.\nMore specifically, the Palo Duro area is situated on the Llano Estacado\nor High Plains area which comprises approximately 20,000 square miles of\nTexas and New Mexico (_see_ fig. 5). Generally speaking, the Llano\nEstacado is a high isolated plateau or broad mesa, rising above the\nsurrounding rolling plains in a nearly flat, island-like mass. On the\nwest, southwest, and south, the Llano Estacado is bounded by the valley\nof the Pecos River, while its eastern escarpment is drained by the\nheadwaters of the Red, Brazos, and Colorado Rivers.\nThe rim of Palo Duro Canyon is formed by the Eastern Caprock Escarpment.\nCaprock is the term used to describe a massive layer of calcareous rock\nwhich supports the High Plains surface (_see_ p. 26). Because it is more\nresistant to forces of erosion than the softer, underlying more or less\nhorizontal strata, the caprock forms an abrupt, precipitous escarpment\nat the edge of the High Plains. With the exception of the resistant\ncaprock, however, the surficial deposits on the High Plains are for the\nmost part unconsolidated sediments.\nThe Llano Estacado is essentially devoid of native trees and is\ncharacterized by a sparse, but uniform, covering of grasses. The surface\nrocks are of Tertiary and Quaternary age (_see_ geologic time scale,\nfig. 6) and have a general easterly to southeasterly slope of about 9\u00bd\nfeet per mile. In the vicinity of Palo Duro Canyon, rocks of Late\nCenozoic age are directly underlain by Permian and Triassic formations.\nThese Permian and Triassic rocks, which are discussed elsewhere in this\npublication, are not normally exposed except in deeply eroded areas such\nas the canyon.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 5. Generalized geologic map of the Texas\n    Panhandle showing location of Palo Duro Canyon.]\n  _Showing:_\n    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated\n    Trdo   Dockum Group (Triassic)\n    P   Permian undifferentiated\n                    THE CANYON\u2019S ROCKS AND MINERALS\nPalo Duro visitors\u2014regardless of age\u2014seem to have an innate curiosity\nabout the canyon\u2019s rocks. This is not surprising, for most of the\nfeatures of the park landscape are composed of or have been sculptured\nfrom solid rock. In short, much of the natural beauty of Palo Duro\nCanyon has been derived from the character of its exposed rock\nformations and the effect of geologic agents upon them.\nBecause rocks are the raw materials of geology and the stuff from which\nlandscapes are formed, it will be helpful for the visitor to know\nsomething about the general characteristics of rocks and their role in\nthe development of the landscape. Rock is everywhere around us and is\none of the most common objects in the world, yet few people can actually\ndefine a rock. So, at the outset it should be stated that _a rock is a\nnaturally formed aggregate of minerals_, and _a mineral is a naturally\noccurring substance which has a fairly definite chemical composition,\ndistinctive physical properties, characteristic internal structure, and\nwhich commonly occurs in definite shapes called crystals_. Although not\nan exact scientific or legal definition of a mineral, the above\nexplanation is satisfactory for the purposes of this publication.\nAlthough most visitors show considerable interest in the canyon\u2019s rocks\nand minerals, few of them know the story behind the rocks. They do not\nknow how the rocks were formed, of what they are composed, how they\nchange, and how they differ. More important, they fail to realize the\nhistorical significance of the rocks and how they can be used to\ninterpret events that occurred in the canyon many millions of years ago.\nThus, before one studies the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon, it is\nhelpful to know something about the various kinds of rocks. There are\nthree major classes of rocks in the earth\u2019s crust: _igneous_,\n_sedimentary_, and _metamorphic rocks_.\n_Igneous rocks_ solidified from an original molten state. Common\nexamples of igneous rocks include granite, basalt, and volcanic ash.\nAlthough no igneous rocks are found in Palo Duro Canyon, they are widely\nexposed in parts of West and Central Texas.\n_Metamorphic rocks_ were originally igneous or sedimentary in origin.\nHowever, these rocks have undergone such great physical and chemical\nchange that they have been transformed into a different kind of rock.\nThus, metamorphic changes alter limestone to marble or sandstone to\nquartzite. No metamorphic rocks crop out in the canyon, but, like the\nigneous rocks, they are common in some parts of the State.\nAll of the geologic formations exposed in Palo Duro Canyon are composed\nof _sedimentary rocks_. These are rocks that have been formed by the\ncompaction and cementation of rock and mineral fragments called\n_sediments_, or by the precipitation of material from solution.\nSandstone, conglomerate, shale, and caliche (_see_ p. 26) are examples\nof sedimentary rocks that are exposed in the canyon.\nSedimentary rocks are typically _stratified_, that is, they occur in\nlayers or beds called _strata_. In addition, sedimentary\nrocks\u2014especially those of marine origin\u2014commonly contain _fossils_.\nThese fossils are traces or evidence of prehistoric plants and animals\nthat have been preserved in the rocks, and they may provide clues as to\nthe age of rocks and the manner in which they were formed. Fossil\nremains have been found at a number of places in the park and these are\ndiscussed later.\n                        UNRAVELING EARTH HISTORY\nIn order to understand better the geologic history and development of\nthe canyon, one should also have some knowledge of the basic principles\nof earth history and should be familiar with the geologic time scale\n    [Illustration: Fig. 6. Geologic time scale. Reproduced from\n    _FOSSILS: An Introduction to Prehistoric Life_, William H. Matthews\n    III, Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1962.]\n  GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE\n  ERA\n    PERIOD\n      EPOCH\n        SUCCESSION OF LIFE\n  CENOZOIC   \u201cRECENT LIFE\u201d\n    QUATERNARY   0-1 MILLION YEARS\n      Recent\n      Pleistocene\n    TERTIARY   62 MILLION YEARS\n      Pliocene\n      Miocene\n      Oligocene\n      Eocene\n      Paleocene\n  MESOZOIC   \u201cMIDDLE LIFE\u201d\n    CRETACEOUS   72 MILLION YEARS\n    JURASSIC   46 MILLION YEARS\n    TRIASSIC   49 MILLION YEARS\n  PALEOZOIC   \u201cANCIENT LIFE\u201d\n    PERMIAN   50 MILLION YEARS\n    CARBONIFEROUS\n      PENNSYLVANIAN   30 MILLION YEARS\n      MISSISSIPPIAN   35 MILLION YEARS\n    DEVONIAN   60 MILLION YEARS\n    SILURIAN   20 MILLION YEARS\n    ORDOVICIAN   75 MILLION YEARS\n    CAMBRIAN   100 MILLION YEARS\n  PRECAMBRIAN ERAS\n    PROTEROZOIC ERA\n    ARCHEOZOIC ERA\n      APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 4 BILLION 550 MILLION YEARS\nThe geologist has learned that the earth\u2019s physical features have not\nalways been as they are today. It is known, for example, that mountains\nnow occupy the sites of ancient seas. Coal is now being mined where\nswamps existed many millions of years ago. Furthermore, the earth\u2019s\nplants and animals have also been subject to great change. The trend of\nthis organic change is, in general, toward more complex and advanced\nforms of life. However, some forms have remained virtually unaltered\nwhile others have become extinct at different points in geologic time.\nIn order to interpret earth history, the earth scientist gathers\nevidence of the great changes in climate, geography, and life that took\nplace in the geologic past. He does this by studying the rock\nformations, the structural relationships of these formations, and the\nlandforms of the area. The record of ancient events is pieced together\nby studying the stony layers of the earth as one might study a giant\nhistory book. Indeed, the sedimentary rocks are the rocky \u201cpages\u201d of\nearth history, for in them we find the tracks and trails, and bones and\nstones, which reveal the intriguing story of life long ago.\nMuch of the basic information which the geologist uses to reconstruct\nthe geologic history of a region comes from his examination and\ninterpretation of _bedrock outcrops_. _Bedrock_ is the solid unweathered\nrock which underlies loose earth material such as soil, sand, and\ngravel. An _outcrop_, or _exposure_, is a place where bedrock is exposed\nat the surface.\nThe first chapter of earth history begins with the most ancient rocks\nknown. Because they were formed early in geologic time, these rocks are\nnormally found deeply buried beneath younger rocks which have been\ndeposited on top of them. It is for this reason that earth history is\nread from the bottom up, for the earliest formed rock layers correspond\nto the opening chapter in our earthen history book. The later chapters\nare found in the upper younger rocks which are located nearer the\nsurface. Thus, in \u201creading\u201d the geologic history of Palo Duro Canyon we\nstart with the oldest \u201cchapter\u201d which is recorded in the Quartermaster\nFormation (p. 17) of Permian age, for these are the oldest rocks exposed\nin the canyon.\nBut deciphering earth history is not as simple as it might appear. In\nmany areas the rock layers are not always found in the sequence in which\nthey were originally deposited. In places, great structural disturbances\nhave caused some of the rocky \u201cpages\u201d to become shuffled and out of\nplace; others may be missing completely. Many rocks have been destroyed\nby weathering and erosion or greatly altered by metamorphism. As a\nresult, the story recorded in these particular rocks is lost forever.\nThese missing \u201cpages\u201d make the ancient story even more difficult to\ninterpret so the geologist must then depend on other evidence that will\npermit him to \u201cfill in the blanks.\u201d\nThe record revealed in the rocks indicates that our planet is at least\n4\u00bd billion years old and that life has been present for more than 3\nbillion years. During this vast span of time the earth and its\ninhabitants have undergone many changes.\n              THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE\nThe _geologic column_ refers to the total succession of rocks, from the\noldest to the most recent, that are found in the entire earth or in a\ngiven area. For example, the geologic column of Texas includes all rock\ndivisions known to be present in the State. By the same token, the\ngeologic column of Palo Duro Canyon consists of the geologic formations\nexposed there. Thus, by referring to the geologic column previously\ndetermined for a specific area, the geologist can determine what type of\nrock he might expect to find in that particular region.\nThe _geologic time scale_ (fig. 6) is composed of named intervals of\ngeologic time during which were deposited the rocks of the geologic\ncolumn. These time intervals bear the same names that are used to\ndistinguish the various units of the geologic column. For example, one\ncan speak of Permian _time_ (referring to the geologic time scale) or of\nPermian _rocks_ (referring to rock units of Permian age in the geologic\ncolumn).\nBoth the geologic column and the geologic time scale are based upon the\n_principle of superposition_. This basic geologic concept states that\nunless a series of sedimentary rock has been overturned, a given rock\nlayer is older than the strata above it, and younger than all of the\nlayers below it. Thus, the field relationship of the rocks plus the type\nof fossils (if present) give the geologist some indication of the\n_relative_ age of the rocks. Relative age does not imply age in years;\nrather, it fixes age in relation to other events that are recorded in\nthe rocks.\nWithin recent years, however, it has become possible to assign ages in\nyears to certain rock units. This is accomplished by a system of rock\ndating based on very precise measurements of amounts of radioactive\nelements (such as uranium). When present in the rocks, radioactive\nminerals change or decay at a known rate so that they are natural\n\u201cclocks.\u201d This method of dating has made it possible to devise a time\nscale in years which gives some idea of the tremendous amount of time\nthat has passed since the oldest known rocks were formed. It has also\nbeen used to verify the previously determined relative ages of the\nvarious rock units.\nThe largest unit of geologic time is an _era_, and each era is divided\ninto smaller time units called _periods_. A period of geologic time is\ndivided into _epochs_, which, in turn, may be subdivided into still\nsmaller units. The geologic time scale might be roughly compared to the\ncalendar in which the year is divided into months, months into weeks,\nand weeks into days. Unlike years, however, geologic time units are\narbitrary and of unequal duration, and the geologist cannot be positive\nabout the exact length of time involved in each unit. The time scale\ndoes, however, provide a standard by which he can discuss the age of\nfossils and their surrounding rocks. By referring to the time scale it\nmay be possible, for instance, to state that a certain event occurred\nduring the Paleozoic Era in the same sense that one might say that\nsomething happened during the American Revolution.\nThere are five eras of geologic time, and each has been given a name\nthat is descriptive of the degree of life development that characterizes\nthat era. Hence, Paleozoic means \u201cancient-life\u201d and the era was so named\nbecause of the relatively simple and ancient stage of life development.\nThe eras, a guide to their pronunciation, and the literal translation of\neach name is shown below.\n    Cenozoic (SEE-no-zo-ic)\u2014\u201crecent-life\u201d\n    Mesozoic (MES-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cmiddle-life\u201d\n    Paleozoic (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cancient-life\u201d\n    Proterozoic (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cearlier-life\u201d\n    Archeozoic (AR-kee-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cbeginning-life\u201d\nArcheozoic and Proterozoic rocks are commonly grouped together and\nreferred to as Precambrian in age. In most places Precambrian rocks have\nbeen greatly contorted and metamorphosed, and the record of this portion\nof earth history is most difficult to interpret. Precambrian time\nrepresents that portion of geologic time from the beginning of earth\nhistory until the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous Cambrian\nstrata. Precambrian time probably represents as much as 85 percent of\nall geologic time.\nThe _oldest_ era is at the _bottom_ of the time scale because this part\nof geologic time transpired first and was then followed by the\nsuccessively younger eras which are placed above it. This is, of course,\nthe order in which the various portions of geologic time occurred and\nduring which the corresponding rocks were formed.\nAs mentioned above, each of the eras has been divided into periods, and\nmost of these periods derive their names from the regions in which the\nrocks of each were first studied. For example, the Pennsylvanian rocks\nof North America were first studied in the State of Pennsylvania.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 7. Generalized geologic map of Palo Duro Canyon\n    State Park.]\n  EXPLANATION\n    Q & T   Pleistocene and Pliocene undifferentiated\n    Rdo   Dockum Group\n    P   Permian undifferentiated\nThe Paleozoic Era has been divided into seven periods of geologic time.\nWith the oldest at the bottom of the list, these periods and the source\nof their names are:\n    Permian (PUR-me-un)\u2014from the Province of Perm in Russia\n    Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)\u2014from the State of Pennsylvania\n    Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un)\u2014from the Upper Mississippi Valley\n    Devonian (de-VO-ni-un)\u2014from Devonshire, England\n    Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un)\u2014for the Silures, an ancient tribe of Britain\n    Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)\u2014for the Ordovices, an ancient tribe of\n          Britain\n    Cambrian (KAM-bri-un)\u2014from the Latin word _Cambria_, meaning Wales\nThe Carboniferous Period in Europe includes the Mississippian and\nPennsylvanian Periods of North America. Although this classification is\nno longer used in the United States, the term Carboniferous is found in\nmany of the earlier geological publications and on many of the earlier\ngeologic maps.\nThe periods of the Mesozoic Era and the source of their names are:\n    Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus)\u2014from the Latin word _creta_, meaning\n    Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)\u2014from the Jura Mountains of Europe\n    Triassic (try-ASS-ik)\u2014from the Latin word _triad_, meaning three\nThe Cenozoic periods derived their names from an old outdated system of\nclassification which divided all of the earth\u2019s rocks into four groups.\nThe two divisions listed below are the only names of this system which\nare still in use:\n    Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)\n    Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)\nAlthough the units named above are the major divisions of geologic time\nand of the geologic column, the geologist generally works with smaller\nunits of the column called _geologic formations_. A geologic formation\nis a unit of rock that is recognized by certain physical and chemical\ncharacteristics. A formation is generally given a double name which\nindicates both where it is exposed and the type of rock that makes up\nthe bulk of the formation. For example, the Beaumont Clay is a formation\nconsisting of clay deposits that are found in and around Beaumont,\nTexas. For convenience in study, two or more successive and adjoining\nformations may be placed together in a group. Thus, the Tecovas and\nTrujillo Formations have been placed in the Dockum Group. Likewise, a\nformation may be subdivided into smaller units such as members, which\nmay also be given geographic or lithologic (rock type) names.\n            GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS EXPOSED IN PALO DURO CANYON\nAs noted above, all of the rocks which crop out in Palo Duro Canyon are\nsedimentary in origin. They represent four different geological periods:\nthe Permian, Triassic, Tertiary, and Quaternary (fig. 12).\nAlthough these rock formations differ considerably in composition and\nage, they do not tell the whole geologic story of the area. Long spans\nof geologic time are not represented by rock units because the region\nwas undergoing erosion or no sediments were being deposited during\ncertain portions of geologic time. Rocks that had formed during one\ngeologic period were removed by erosion during a later period. Thus,\nsegments of the geologic record were destroyed or never recorded. For\nthis reason, much of the geologic history of the Palo Duro area is\nunrecorded and must be inferred from fragmentary evidence borrowed and\npieced together from adjacent areas. Even so, an interesting story can\nbe assembled from the rocks that remain in the canyon today.\nIn general, the following descriptions of the formations exposed in Palo\nDuro Canyon State Park follow the procedure that most geologists use in\npresenting the results of their geologic investigations. The more\ndistinctive characteristics of the rock units are described in order\nthat they may be more easily recognized, and the ways in which the rocks\nwere formed are also considered. With this background it is then\npossible to review the geologic history recorded in the bedrock of the\ncanyon. A simplified geologic map is presented in figure 7; this shows\nthe distribution of the major rock types in the canyon. The reader will\nfind it helpful to refer to this map when reading the descriptions of\nthe various formations.\nQuartermaster Formation.\u2014\nThe oldest formation exposed in the canyon is the Quartermaster\nFormation of Permian age (_see_ fig. 6) which is named from exposures\nalong the banks of Quartermaster Creek in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma.\nOne of the more colorful formations in the park, the Quartermaster is\ncomposed primarily of brick-red to vermilion shales which are\ninterbedded with lenses of gray shales, clays, mudstones, and\nsandstones. Averaging about 60 feet thick where exposed in the park, the\nQuartermaster forms the floor and lower walls of the canyon.\nThe rocks of this formation are easily examined at many places\nthroughout the canyon and in them can be seen a number of interesting\ngeologic phenomena. Probably the most noticeable of these features are\nthe shining white veins of _gypsum_ that lace the face of the red shale\noutcrops (fig. 8). A soft, transparent to translucent mineral that can\nbe scratched by a fingernail, gypsum is hydrous calcium sulfate\n(CaSO\u2084\u00b72H\u2082O). Three varieties of gypsum are found in the canyon: (1)\n_satin spar_, a fibrous variety with a silky sheen; (2) _selenite_, a\ncolorless, transparent variety which commonly occurs in sheet-like\nmasses; and (3) a fine-grained massive variety called _alabaster_. Satin\nspar is the most common variety of gypsum present and it commonly occurs\nin thin bands interbedded with the mudstones and sandstones. It is much\nmore noticeable in the shales, however, for it is typically seen in\nnarrow veins which criss-cross the surface of the outcrop and intersect\nthe bedding planes at various angles. Although normally white, some of\nthe satin spar has a soft pink or bluish hue due to the presence of\nimpurities in the mineral.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 8. Veins of selenite gypsum (top arrow) in\n    Quartermaster Formation. Notice diagonal joint to left of\n    geologist\u2019s hand (lower arrow).]\nThe presence of gypsum in the Quartermaster red beds is of special\nsignificance to the geologist, for it provides valuable information\nabout the geologic history of the Palo Duro area. It is known, for\nexample, that when a landlocked body of sea water in an arid climate\nbecomes separated from the ocean, one of the most common salts to\nprecipitate is hydrous calcium sulfate, or gypsum. Gypsum may also be\nprecipitated when a lake without an outlet evaporates in an arid\nclimate. Geologic evidence suggests that the sediments which gave rise\nto the rocks of the Quartermaster Formation were deposited in a\nlandlocked arm of the sea during the latter part of the Permian Period.\nAs evaporation continued and the sea water was reduced to approximately\none-third of its original volume, gypsum was precipitated. There must\nhave been periodic influxes of silt- and mud-bearing waters entering the\nancient Permian sea, for layers of shale and mudstone are interbedded\nwith the gypsum.\nIt is believed that much of the satin spar and selenite gypsum was\noriginally _anhydrite_ (CaSO\u2084). Unlike gypsum, anhydrite does not\ncontain water, but it can be changed to gypsum in the presence of\nmoisture. There are two lines of evidence that indicate an anhydrite\norigin for the Quartermaster gypsum. First, microscopic examination of\ngypsum samples reveals the presence of residual anhydrite crystals\nembedded in the gypsum. Second, many of the gypsum beds have been\nsqueezed into rather gentle _folds_. These consist of small\n_anticlines_, upfolds or arches, and _synclines_, downfolds or troughs\n(fig. 9). It has been suggested that this folding took place as the\nanhydrite underwent _hydration_, or took on water. As hydration occurred\nand the anhydrite was converted to gypsum, the gypsum expanded, thereby\nexerting both lateral and vertical pressure on the beds around it. This\nproduced the crumpled, wave-like folding so characteristic of certain of\nthe gypsum beds. However, there is not complete agreement that the\nfolding in the gypsum is due to the hydration of anhydrite. Certain\ngeologists attribute this deformation to slumping caused by solution\ncavities, for gypsum is relatively easily dissolved in water. As the\ngypsum was dissolved and carried away in solution, the removal of the\nsupporting layers of gypsum permitted slumping and consequent\ndeformation in the overlying shales and mudstones. Although some\ngeologists believe that the folds were caused by expansion due to the\nhydration of anhydrite and others support deformation related to the\nremoval of soluble gypsum, there is general agreement that the folding\nis local and not related to regional or widespread deformation.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 9. Sagging beds of Quartermaster Formation have\n    produced this gentle syncline, or downfolding, in the rocks. The\n    \u201cdome\u201d on Capitol Peak can be seen in the background.]\nNot all of the red Quartermaster shales are uniformly colored. Some of\nthem contain gray-green, circular spots called _reduction halos_ (fig.\n10). These spots, which in places give the red shales a distinctive\npolka-dot appearance, have been produced as the result of chemical\nchange of certain minerals within the shale.\nAs noted earlier, sediments are usually laid down in horizontal layers.\nHowever, in certain environments, sediments may be deposited in such a\nway that the layers are inclined at angle to horizontal (fig. 11). This\nstructure, called _cross-bedding_ or _cross-stratification_, is found in\ncertain sandstones and other coarse-grained or fragmental sedimentary\nrocks. Cross-bedding typically consists of rather distinct inclined\nlayers separated by _bedding planes_ (the surface of demarcation between\ntwo individual rock layers). Bedding of this type commonly occurs in\nsedimentary rocks formed in rivers, deltas, and along the margins of\nlakes or oceans. The cross-bedding in the Quartermaster and certain of\nthe Triassic formations is believed to have been developed under similar\nconditions. Although cross-bedding is also common in certain rocks of\n_eolian_ origin (deposited by wind) none of the cross-bedding in the\ncanyon\u2019s rocks is due to the action of wind.\nIn addition, some of the Quartermaster strata have _ripple marks_ on\ntheir surfaces. These features are common in certain sedimentary rocks\nand were formed when the surface of a bed of sediment was agitated by\nwaves or currents. The size, shape, and cross section of the ripple\nmarks can be used to tell whether the marks were produced by waves or\ncurrents. The ripple marks in the Quartermaster appear to have been\nformed by the action of waves on a shallow sea floor.\nA number of interesting geologic features in the canyon have been formed\nin part in the Quartermaster Formation. These include the multi-hued\nSpanish Skirts (fig. 26), the Devil\u2019s Slide (fig. 35), Capitol Peak\n(fig. 32), and Catarina Cave (fig. 27). The latter is a rather unusual\ncave in that it has developed in a large mass of landslide debris\ndivided by projecting bedrock of the Spanish Skirts. The cave has been\nformed by _suffosian_, a process whereby water enters the landslide\ndebris on the upper slopes and follows buried channels in the landslide\nremoving rock debris as it passes through. The flood water exits at the\nbase of the landslide by means of Catarina Cave. The plan of the cave\nclosely resembles the drainage patterns of surface gullies.\nTecovas Formation.\u2014\nRocks of the Triassic System (fig. 6) are well represented in Palo Duro\nCanyon and consist of the _Tecovas_ and _Trujillo_ Formations. These\nformations are part of the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age.\nHaving a total thickness of about 200 feet, the Tecovas (which is named\nfrom exposures found on Tecovas Creek in Potter County, Texas) consists\nlargely of multicolored shales. Also present are thin layers of soft\nsandstone, which are disseminated throughout the shales, and a more\nprominent bed of white sandstone, which marks the middle of the\nformation. The Tecovas shales overlie the Quartermaster Formation, and\nthe lower zone of lavender, gray, and white shales forms a relatively\nsmooth slope that is easily distinguished from the steeper slopes of\ngullied red-and-white-banded shales beneath them (fig. 12).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 10. Chemical reactions in certain of the red\n    Quartermaster shales have produced reduction halos (p. 19) which\n    give the rocks a polka-dot appearance.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 11. This boulder, located near the foot of\n    Triassic Peak along the Sad Monkey Railroad track, exhibits the\n    cross-bedding typical of the Trujillo sandstones.]\nBut the contact zone between the Tecovas and Quartermaster shales\ninvolves more than a mere change in color. Here is one of the missing\n\u201cchapters\u201d in the geologic history of the canyon, for part of the Late\nPermian record and all of the record of Early and Middle Triassic time\nare missing from the geologic column. Such gaps in the column are\nrepresented by _unconformities_ in the rocks. Here the unconformity is\nan ancient erosional surface between the Tecovas Formation of Late\nTriassic age and the Late Permian Quartermaster Formation, and there are\nmany millions of years of earth history represented in this missing\n\u201cchapter\u201d in the geologic story of Palo Duro Canyon. During this vast\nspan of time, thousands of feet of sediments were probably deposited,\nconverted into rock, and then later removed by erosion.\nNear the middle of the Tecovas Formation there is a bed of white,\ncrumbly (friable) sandstone. Averaging about 15 feet in thickness, this\nsandstone contains many _joints_ (small crack-like fractures) along\nwhich no appreciable movement has taken place (fig. 8). There are two\ndistinct sets of these joints which intersect each other at right\nangles. The distinctive joint patterns, the color, and the friability of\nthis sandstone clearly differentiate it from the harder, darker, and\nmore coarse-grained sandstones of the overlying Trujillo Formation (p.\nThe upper part of the Tecovas consists of a layer of orange shale which\noverlies the middle sandstone unit and is in contact with the lower part\nof the Trujillo Formation.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 12. Taken from the northwest rim near Coronado\n    Lodge, this photograph shows the four major rock units exposed in\n    the park: (1) The Quartermaster Formation which forms the lower wall\n    and canyon floor; (2) Tecovas Formation; (3) Trujillo Formation\n    which caps the mesas; and (4) Ogallala Formation.]\nThe fossils which have been found in the Tecovas Formation suggest that\nthese rocks were derived from sediments deposited in swamps and streams.\nUnlike the _marine_ deposits of the Quartermaster, the rocks of the\nTecovas were formed from _continental_ deposits laid down on the land.\nFossils found in the canyon include the bones and teeth of the extinct\nsemi-aquatic reptiles known as _phytosaurs_ (fig. 13) and bone and skull\nfragments of a primitive amphibian called _Buettneria_ (fig. 14).\n_Coprolites_ (the fossilized excrement of animals), pieces of petrified\nwood, and the teeth and bones of lungfish have also been reported from\nthe Tecovas.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 13. The skull of this crocodile-like creature\n    called a phytosaur is typical of the reptiles that inhabited the\n    Palo Duro area during the Triassic Period. (Photograph courtesy\n    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]\nA number of minerals including _hematite_, an iron mineral, and\n_psilomelane_, a barium-magnesium oxide, occur in the Tecovas. Hematite\nis an ore of iron and psilomelane a manganese ore, though neither of\nthese is present in commercial quantities in the canyon.\nThe Tecovas also contains a number of _concretions_ which range from a\nfraction of an inch to as much as 6 inches in diameter. These spherical\nmasses are generally harder than the fine-grained shaly sands in which\nthey are found and were thus left behind when the surrounding rock was\neroded away. Some of these concretions are marked by cracks or veins\nfilled with the mineral _calcite_. Concretions bearing this type of\nstructure are called _septaria_, or _septarian concretions_.\n_Geodes_ are also found in the Tecovas Formation. These are rounded\nconcretionary rocks with a hollow interior that is frequently lined with\nmineral crystals. Well-formed crystals of clear calcite have been found\nin many of the geodes from the Tecovas.\nAmong park landmarks that are characterized by the multi-hued Tecovas\nstrata are the middle portion of Triassic Peak (fig. 25), the upper part\nof the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), Capitol Peak (fig. 32), and the Devil\u2019s\nSlide (fig. 35).\nTrujillo Formation.\u2014\nNamed from rock exposures on Trujillo Creek in Oldham County, Texas, the\nTrujillo is easy to distinguish from the underlying Tecovas Formation.\nThe contact is quite distinct and lies between the top of the orange\nTecovas shale and the base of the massive-bedded, cliff-forming Trujillo\nsandstone (fig. 25). Although generally fine grained and thickly bedded,\nthere are local concentrations of pebble-sized rock fragments in the\nTrujillo. The weathered surface of the lower sandstone is stained red or\ndark brown by iron oxides. However, a fresh, unweathered surface is\ntypically gray or greenish gray in color, and careful examination of the\nunweathered rock reveals the presence of tiny flakes of mica.\nThe basal Trujillo sandstone is one of the most conspicuous rock units\nin the canyon and forms many of the prominent benches and mesas so\ntypical of the Palo Duro landscape. In places the sandstone is\ncross-bedded (p. 20) and contains channel deposits of coarse sand which\nsuggest that the sediments from which it was derived were deposited in\nancient stream beds.\nRed, maroon, and gray shales overlie the basal sandstone member of the\nTrujillo, and these shales are overlain by cross-bedded, coarse-grained\nsandstone. Another interval of varicolored shales separates the middle\nsandstone bed from the upper sandstone member. The middle sandstone unit\nis a conspicuous ledge- or cliff-forming rock and is medium to coarse\ngrained and commonly cross-bedded. In most localities, the upper\nsandstone is overlain by a section of red and green shales which mark\nthe uppermost limits of the Trujillo Formation. In places, however, this\nshale section has been removed by erosion and rocks of Tertiary age\ndirectly overlie the sandstone.\nAlthough fossils are not common, the remains of _Buettneria_ (fig. 14),\nleaf imprints, pieces of mineralized wood, and the scattered teeth and\nbone fragments of reptiles and amphibians have been found. Phytosaur\nremains, especially teeth, have also been collected from the Trujillo\nsandstones.\nThe Indians who formerly inhabited the Palo Duro area (p. 3) put the\nrocks of the canyon to a number of uses. This appears to be especially\ntrue of the rather coarse-grained Trujillo sandstones, which were\ncommonly used for constructing primitive rock shelters. The abrasive\nsurface of the sandstone was especially well suited for grinding grain,\nand mortar holes have been found in a number of places. One of these\n(fig. 15) can be seen along the tracks of the Sad Monkey Railroad (p.\n35) near the foot of Triassic Peak. The Indians also used the clays of\nthe Quartermaster, Tecovas, and Trujillo Formations to make pottery, and\niron and copper minerals such as hematite and malachite were used to\nmake red and green pigments for decoration and war paint.\nThe Trujillo shales and sandstones can be seen in a number of Palo\nDuro\u2019s more spectacular geological oddities. These erosional remnants\nare best developed where blocks of erosion-resistant sandstone protect\nunderlying pedestals of softer shale (fig. 15). This type of\ndifferential weathering (p. 31) has produced a number of interesting and\nunusually shaped pedestal rocks or \u201choodoos\u201d (figs. 16 and 20). The most\nspectacular erosional remnant\u2014and one that has come to be the\n\u201ctrademark\u201d of Palo Duro Canyon\u2014is the Lighthouse (fig. 31). The great\njumble of boulders called the Rock Garden (fig. 34) is also composed\nlargely of massive blocks of dislodged Trujillo sandstone. These\nboulders accumulated on the canyon floor as a result of landslides. In\naddition, the rock profile known as Santana\u2019s Face (fig. 28) is a\nnaturally sculptured profile in the Trujillo sandstone that forms the\ncap of Timber Mesa.\nOgallala Formation.\u2014\nThe Ogallala Formation is named from exposures around Ogallala in Keith\nCounty, Nebraska. There is a major unconformity between the Trujillo\nFormation of the Triassic and the overlying Ogallala Formation of\nPliocene (Late Tertiary) age. Missing here is the geologic evidence for\nwhat may have been some of the more exciting chapters in the canyon\u2019s\nhistory. There is no record, for example, of the Jurassic and Cretaceous\nPeriods which together encompass almost 120 million years of earth\nhistory. Also missing is any evidence of what transpired during more\nthan 90 percent of the Tertiary Period, for no rocks of Paleocene,\nEocene, Oligocene, or Miocene age are exposed in the canyon. Together\nthese four epochs comprise approximately 47 million years of earth\nhistory. It is impossible, of course, to determine how many geologic\nformations may have been formed and later eroded during the 167 million\nyears represented by this unconformity. However, our knowledge of\npresent-day deposition and erosion suggests that the missing geologic\nrecord undoubtedly represents many thousands of feet of rock.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 14. The skeleton of _Buettneria_, a large\n    amphibian, found in Upper Triassic strata in the canyon. (Photograph\n    courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]\nThe lower portion of the Ogallala Formation is composed of a\nreddish-brown, fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contrasts sharply\nwith the underlying red and green shales that are exposed in the top of\nthe Trujillo Formation. Much of this sandy rock is characterized by\npebbles consisting of a variety of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic\nrocks. Because it consists of rock and mineral fragments of varied\ncomposition and size, this kind of sedimentary rock is called a\n_conglomerate_. The type of rock fragments found in basal Ogallala\nconglomerates suggests that they were transported to the\nPanhandle-Plains area by streams flowing southeastward from the Rocky\nMountains. As these streams deposited their loads, they left behind a\nwide spread blanket of sand, gravel, and mud which formed an extensive\nalluvial plain that extended from western Nebraska to northwest Texas.\nAlthough it is less than 100 feet thick in Palo Duro Canyon, in places\nthis great mantle of _fluvial_ (stream-deposited) sediments is as much\nas 900 feet thick.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 15. The depression in this boulder is a mortar\n    hole believed to have been used by the Indians for grinding corn.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 16. This pedestal rock, located near the\n    Lighthouse, is capped by a slab of weather-resistant Trujillo\n    sandstone.]\nMost of the Ogallala Formation consists of a mixture of diverse rock\ntypes such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, clay and marl. But the\nupper part of the formation is characterized by thick _caliche_\ndeposits. A dull, earthy calcite deposit, caliche typically forms in\nareas of scant rainfall. It is believed to originate when ground\nmoisture, containing dissolved calcium bicarbonate, moves to the surface\nwhere the moisture steadily evaporates leaving a calcium carbonate crust\non or near the surface (fig. 17).\nCaliche, which derives its name from the Latin _calix_, meaning \u201clime,\u201d\nmay be firm and compact or loose and powdery. It is also commonly found\nmixed with other materials such as clay, sand, or gravel. Caliche\ncommonly occurs in the Trans-Pecos, southwestern Gulf Coastal Plain, and\nthe High Plains area of Texas (_see_ fig. 5, p. 8). In the latter area\nit typically makes up the \u201ccaprock.\u201d Caliche is commonly quarried in\nthese parts of Texas where it is used as road material and as an\naggregate.\nGood exposures of Ogallala caliche can be seen on the surface around the\noverlook at Coronado Lodge on the northwest rim of the canyon (fig. 17).\nOgallala strata also crop out along the upper reaches of Park Road 5 as\nit starts to descend into the canyon. But probably the most spectacular\nexposures of the Ogallala are exposed in the precipitous face of the\nFortress Cliff (fig. 33) which forms part of the eastern rim of the\ncanyon.\nAlso located within the Ogallala Formation is a very important\n_aquifer_\u2014a porous, water-bearing rock formation. This fine-to\ncoarse-grained sandstone is very porous and permeable and is the most\nimportant single water-producing formation in the Panhandle-Plains area.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 17. The white surface in the right foreground\n    consists of caliche (p. 26) in the Ogallala Formation. Coronado\n    Lodge can be seen in the right background.]\nOpal and chert are locally abundant in the Ogallala conglomerates. The\nopal, which is found in small cavities in the conglomerate is not of the\ngem variety but it does _fluoresce_. Minerals that exhibit\n_fluorescence_ emit visible colors when exposed to ultraviolet light.\nFor this reason, the Ogallala opal is sought after by rock and mineral\ncollectors. The chert, a flint-like variety of quartz, occurs as nodules\nin the conglomerate and in a well-developed layer near the base of the\nformation. Both of these _siliceous_ (silica-bearing) rocks were\napparently prized by the Indians, who used them to fashion knives,\nscrapers, projectile points, and other artifacts. The Indians also\nlearned that flat slabs of caliche were ideal for lining fireplaces and\nto construct primitive rock shelters.\nA number of Pliocene vertebrates have been found in the Palo Duro area.\nKnown as the \u201cAge of Mammals,\u201d the Tertiary Period was characterized by\nmammals as diverse as were the reptiles of the Mesozoic Era. Among these\nunusual creatures were such now-extinct species as the saber-tooth cat\nand the elephant-like shovel-jawed mastodon (fig. 18). The remains of\nthese as well as bones of giraffe-like camels, pony-sized horses, and\nsloths have been found in the vicinity of the canyon. The grassy plains\nof Pliocene time were also inhabited by large tortoises which reached\nlengths of up to 3 feet (fig. 19). Dioramas showing how these animals\nmight have looked, as well as their actual remains, are on display in\nthe Hall of Pre-History in the lower floor of the Panhandle-Plains\nHistorical Museum in Canyon, 13 miles west of the park (p. 35).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 18. This life-size model of a shovel-jawed\n    mastodon is typical of the now-extinct, elephant-like creatures that\n    lived in this area during the Pliocene Epoch. (Photograph courtesy\n    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 19. The carapaces of giant tortoises as much as\n    3 feet long have been collected from Pliocene rocks in the Palo Duro\n    area. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]\nRocks of the Pleistocene.\u2014\nThe youngest rocks in Palo Duro Canyon State Park were formed during the\nPleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era (_see_\ngeologic time scale, p. 11). Pleistocene rocks are rather widespread in\nmuch of the Panhandle-Plains area and they are mostly composed of\nsediments which were deposited in stream valleys, in lakes or ponds, or\nby the wind. Most of the Pleistocene strata in the park area consist of\nloose deposits of silt and sand which were deposited by wind action.\nKnown locally as \u201cblow sand,\u201d this reddish-brown, silty sand overlies\nthe Ogallala caliche at most points along the canyon\u2019s rim.\n                       HOW THE CANYON WAS CARVED\nThe visitor seeing Palo Duro Canyon for the first time may find it\ndifficult to believe that this yawning chasm began as a simple gully.\nBut to the _geomorphologist_\u2014the geologist who studies the origin and\ndevelopment of landscapes\u2014Palo Duro Canyon is but a gully magnified many\ntimes over. This is evident because the shape of the canyon, the nature\nof its tributaries, and the character of its walls indicate that it has\nbeen deepened and lengthened by the downcutting of a stream and widened\nby other geologic processes.\n                   THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF RUNNING WATER\nPalo Duro Canyon is a classic example of a land-form that has been\ncreated by the geologic work of _running water_. Undoubtedly the most\nimportant single agent of erosion, running water probably does more to\nwear away the land than all the other geologic agents combined. This is\nnot surprising considering the fact that the earth\u2019s annual\nprecipitation (such as rain and snow) equals about four billion tons of\nwater. Although the amount of precipitation varies greatly from place to\nplace, the average annual precipitation on land is about 40 inches of\nwater. Of this, roughly 25 percent runs off from the land to form\nstreams.\nWhen one drives through the park and fords the normally gently flowing\nwaters of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River he may well wonder\nif this unimposing stream actually is the geologic agent that is\nresponsible for this deep gorge. But the visitor who happens to be\npresent during a severe rainstorm will soon be convinced, for during\nheavy rains this gentle stream becomes a raging torrent. As the river\nincreases in size it also becomes a more effective land-shaping tool,\nfor the larger and swifter the stream, the more rock material it can\ncarry. Thus, when flowing at peak capacity, this branch of the Red River\nbecomes a moving ribbon of sandpaper whose load of sand, silt, and\ngravel has cut and scoured the canyon walls and floor for hundreds of\nthousands of years. How long has it taken the river to carve this\nremarkable chasm? Although there is no way of knowing for sure, geologic\nevidence indicates that the canyon has formed during the last one\nmillion years\u2014a relatively short time, geologically speaking.\nThe work of the river is made still more effective by water and sediment\nwhich it receives from its tributaries; this added water substantially\nincreases the volume and velocity of the river. Although many of the\ntributary streams are dry throughout much of the year, they carry large\nquantities of water during heavy rains. Moreover, because most of these\nstreams flow over rock surfaces which are not protected by thick soil or\nvegetation, their waters are quickly transported to the master stream.\nThus, the volume and velocity of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red\nRiver make it possible\u2014especially during flood periods\u2014for the river to\ncarry a large load of rock particles which effectively erodes the stream\nchannel. Where does this rock debris come from? Most of it is eroded\nfrom the sides and bottom of the river\u2019s channel.\nThe river carries its load in a number of ways. Material such as salt\nand other soluble matter is transported in a dissolved state or in\n_solution_. Still more, for example, silt and fine sand, is carried in\n_suspension_. These sediments are suspended between the surface of the\nwater and the bottom of the stream channel. Those particles that will\nnot dissolve in water and are too heavy to be carried in suspension,\nconstitute the _bottom load_ of the stream. These larger sediments, such\nas gravel, cobbles, and boulders, roll, bounce, or slide along the\nstream bed.\nAs flash floods course through Palo Duro Canyon, the river uses its load\nto erode further the rocks over which it passes. Each moving rock\nfragment literally becomes a cutting tool for _abrasion_ as the loose\nrock particles slowly wear away the banks and bed of the stream.\nEventually the abraded rock fragments become smooth and rounded and the\nstream channel is gradually worn down to a lower level; it is also\nwidened.\nThe river also erodes by _hydraulic action_ as loose rock fragments are\nlifted and moved by the force of the stream\u2019s current. This process is\nsimilar to the effect produced when soil is churned up and washed away\nwhen water from a garden hose is sprayed on loose earth. The effects of\nhydraulic action have played an important role in widening the canyon,\nfor recession of the cliffs away from the middle of the canyons has been\ncaused in part by undercutting. Thus, as the soft shale and gypsum beds\nwere removed by the stream, the overlying sandstone formations gradually\nbroke off and fell into the canyon. Once on the canyon floor, most of\nthe slabs and blocks of sandstone were eventually broken up and carried\naway by the streams as sand and mud. Not all of the boulders have been\ndestroyed in this manner; in places (for example, the Rock Garden)\nsimilar boulders are seen today (fig. 34).\n               WEATHERING AND GRAVITY ADD THE FINAL TOUCH\nMost of the energy of the river has been expended in downcutting, for\nthe canyon has apparently been deepened more rapidly than it has been\nwidened. But as the stream gouged its channel deeper into the bedrock,\nan ever-increasing expanse of canyon wall was exposed to other agents of\nerosion. Slowly\u2014almost imperceptibly\u2014the walls of the canyon have been\neroded by the processes of weathering and mass-wasting.\nWeathering.\u2014\nWherever rocks are exposed on the earth\u2019s surface, they are attacked by\nthe agents of _weathering_. They are dissolved by rainwater, pried apart\nby frost and ice, and blasted by windblown sand. Some of the changes\nproduced by weathering are purely mechanical, that is, the rock is\nsimply reduced to smaller fragments without being broken down chemically\nor undergoing any change in its mineral composition. This _mechanical\nweathering_, or _disintegration_, takes place in a number of ways.\nChanges are especially noticeable in rocks that are subjected to large\ndaily temperature variations. If a crack in these rocks becomes filled\nwith water and the temperature drops below freezing, ice forms. When\nwater freezes it expands by about 10 percent of its volume\u2014this is the\nreason why water pipes often split open during the winter. Just as in a\nwater pipe, the pressure of the expanding ice is commonly great enough\nto widen and deepen the crack in the rock. This process, called _frost\nwedging_, may ultimately cause the rock to split and fall apart. The\ncumulative effects of frost wedging have probably played a significant\nrole in prying off large blocks of rocks from the walls and rim of the\ncanyon.\nAnimals and plants may also hasten rock disintegration. Plant roots\ncommonly grow in rock crevices and as the roots become larger they wedge\nthe rock apart. Burrowing animals such as rabbits, gophers, and ground\nsquirrels also promote rock disintegration. Although they do not attack\nthe rocks directly, their digging exposes new rock surfaces to\nweathering processes. The holes these creatures make also permit water\nand air to enter the earth more easily, thereby hastening rock\ndestruction.\nMan, of course, promotes more rock disintegration than all other animals\ncombined. Thus, as one explores the canyon\u2019s trails and climbs its\nwalls, he will not only see evidence of the various types of mechanical\nweathering, he will also be contributing to the further wearing away of\nthe rocks.\n_Decomposition_, or _chemical weathering_, works hand in hand with\nmechanical weathering. But unlike disintegration, decomposition produces\nrock materials that are basically different from the original\nunweathered rock. These changes are brought about as the result of\nchemical reactions between minerals in the rocks and water, carbon\ndioxide, and oxygen. Although the arid climate and severe winters of the\nPanhandle generally facilitate mechanical weathering, some of the red\nshales and gypsum deposits show the effect of oxidation, hydration, and\nother forms of chemical weathering (fig. 10).\nMass-wasting.\u2014\n_Mass-wasting_, the erosional process by which rock and soil move\ndownslope in response to the force of gravity, has also been\ninstrumental in shaping Palo Duro Canyon. This type of erosion has been\nespecially active on the walls of the canyon, for here the slopes are\nsteep enough to promote downward movement of earth materials. In a few\nplaces there have been landslides which have moved large quantities of\nrock in a short span of time. But most mass movements have been\nimperceptibly slow as masses of _talus_ (accumulations of rock debris)\non steeper slopes have inched slowly downhill because of their own\nweight. Talus deposits produced in this way can be seen at the foot of\nmost of the cliffs and erosional remnants throughout the canyon (fig.\nDifferential erosion.\u2014\nEven the most casual observer will soon note that not all of the\ncanyon\u2019s rocks have been equally affected by erosion. Indeed, it is the\nnature of this _differential erosion_ that gives Palo Duro Canyon the\nrugged sculptured appearance that accounts for much of its beauty.\nVisitors to Palo Duro Canyon commonly ask why the rock formations are so\ndiversely shaped. The answer to this question lies in the rocks\nthemselves. Because the various rock strata are of unequal hardness,\nthey erode at different rates of speed. Hence, the harder, more\nresistant rocks, such as the sandstones and conglomerates of the\nTrujillo Formation, form the shelves, ledges, and \u201ccaps\u201d of the rock\nsculptures. The Lighthouse (fig. 31) and other pedestal rocks (fig. 16)\nare good examples of land-forms produced by differential erosion. The\n\u201choodoos\u201d mentioned earlier are also the products of this type of\nerosion (figs. 16 and 20).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 20. Talus slopes (arrow) are well developed on\n    the east side of Capitol Peak and in places obscure the\n    Quartermaster red beds. Note the \u201choodoo\u201d at the south (left) end of\n    the structure.]\nSofter rocks like shales and clay are more readily eroded and they\nnormally form slopes rather than cliffs or ledges (fig. 12). Grooves,\nrecesses, and caves have also developed in some of the less resistant\nrocks such as the shales and gypsum beds of the Quartermaster Formation.\nCatarina Cave (fig. 27) which has formed in the red and white shales of\nthe Spanish Skirts (fig. 26) is a good example of this type of feature.\nCaves of this type afforded protection to both man and wild animals\nsince the dawn of history, for their remains have been found in a number\nof similar caves.\nThus, within a relatively short time\u2014geologically speaking\u2014the familiar\nland-shaping processes described above have joined forces to provide\nTexas with one of its most remarkable natural attractions. But\ninterestingly enough, the same geologic processes that created these\nunusual formations are busily at work destroying them. As time passes\nand erosion progresses, the caps of the pedestals are worn away and the\nunderlying shales crumble and are washed into the valley below. Yet even\nas the old land-forms are being destroyed, wind, water, ice, and man are\nattacking the canyon walls to produce still more of these interesting\nerosional remnants.\n           WHAT TO DO AND SEE AT PALO DURO CANYON STATE PARK\nThe visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can choose from a number of recreational\nand educational activities. Moreover, regardless of whether one visits\nfor a few hours to picnic along the banks of the river, or spends a week\nat one of the well-kept campgrounds, the visit will probably be both\npleasant and rewarding. In the pages that follow there is a brief\ndescription of certain of the park landmarks and some of the more\npopular attractions within the canyon. The numbers in parentheses refer\nto numbers which designate these places on the map of Palo Duro Canyon\n(fig. 2, pp. 4-5). Hopefully, this information will help one to plan his\nvisit to the canyon and thereby make his stay more enjoyable and\nworthwhile.\n_Park Entrance_ (1).\u2014\nThe first stop in the park is the gate at the ranger station (fig. 21).\nHere one pays a modest admission fee and receives literature and\ninformation about the park. The park is open every day of the year, but\nthe entrance gates close at sundown.\n_Coronado Lodge and Observation Point_ (2).\u2014\nThe overlook at Coronado Lodge (fig. 22), located about half a mile from\nthe Park Entrance, is a good place to start one\u2019s visit. Situated on a\nledge of Ogallala caliche (p. 26), the Lodge is an attractive, rustic\nstructure constructed of blocks of Trujillo sandstone (p. 22). Its\npicture windows and outdoor overlook provide a matchless view of the\ncanyon and make it possible to become oriented for the descent to the\ncanyon floor. Large, coin-operated telescopes permit close-up views of\ndistant parts of the canyon, and there are museum cases containing\nobjects of historical and geological interest from the Palo Duro area.\nIf possible one should visit the Coronado Observation Point more than\nonce during the visit, preferably at different times of the day. Because\nof shifting clouds and changing lighting conditions, the canyon presents\na continually changing panorama from sunrise to sunset. Open year-round,\nthe Lodge offers a complete line of souvenirs, film, and camping\nsupplies. There is also a snack bar where coffee, sandwiches, and cold\ndrinks can be purchased.\n_The Scenic Drive_ (1-16).\u2014\nAfter viewing the canyon from Coronado Lodge, one should take the scenic\ndrive on Park Road 5. This paved, all-weather road descends the\nnorthwest rim of the canyon and continues on to the turnaround at Cow\nCamp, a distance of about 8 miles. Although the present scenic drive was\ncompleted in 1951, the path that it follows is essentially that which\nwas laid out by Colonel Charles Goodnight when he established Palo Duro\nranch in 1876. The road descends to the canyon floor in a series of\nwell-engineered turns, but because it drops some 800 feet in little more\nthan a mile it is wise to use second or low gear on the descent. One\nshould also observe the posted speed limits (10 to 20 miles per hour)\nand keep to the right side of the road at all times.\nIn the 800-foot drop from rim to floor, the complete geologic section of\nthe canyon is traversed, as one passes from the Pleistocene sands\nthrough the Ogallala, Trujillo, and Tecovas Formations, before reaching\nthe Quartermaster Formation which is exposed in the canyon floor. Each\nof these geologic formations is discussed elsewhere in this publication\n_Pioneer Amphitheatre_ (3).\u2014\nUpon reaching the canyon floor, Park Road 5 flattens out and from this\npoint it is but a short distance to the Pioneer Amphitheatre, one of the\ncanyon\u2019s newest and most popular attractions. Here, located at the foot\nof a colorful 600-foot cliff, is a remarkable 1500-seat outdoor theatre\nof latest design (fig. 23). Each evening during a ten-week summer\nseason, a symphonic drama portraying the history of the Texas Panhandle\nis presented in the amphitheatre. Information about these productions\ncan be obtained at the Park Entrance, Coronado Lodge, and other points\nwithin the park.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 21. The entrance gate to Palo Duro Canyon State\n    Park.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 22. Coronado Lodge on the canyon\u2019s northwest rim\n    affords panoramic views of the canyon.]\n_Sad Monkey Train Ride_ (4).\u2014\nThe Sad Monkey Railroad begins\u2014and ends\u2014at Sad Monkey, Texas, a small\n\u201ccommunity\u201d that lies at the foot of Triassic Peak (fig. 24). Unlike\nmost miniature railroads, the Sad Monkey Special is not a \u201ckiddie\u201d ride.\nInstead, this 2-mile journey provides an opportunity to get away from\nthe road for a closer look at the geologic formations exposed along the\ntrack. There are especially good views of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26),\nCatarina Cave (fig. 27), and Triassic Peak (fig. 25). These, and other\nfeatures of geologic interest, are pointed out by an experienced\nlecturer who also presents a brief review of the geologic history of the\narea.\n_Triassic Peak_ (5).\u2014\nLong used by Indians and ranchers as a Palo Duro landmark, the canyon\nvisitor will find Triassic Peak to be equally useful as a geologic\nlandmark. When viewed from the Sad Monkey Railroad Terminal, the south\nface of Triassic Peak clearly reveals three of the four major geologic\nformations of the canyon (fig. 25).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 23. Located on the canyon floor, Pioneer\n    Amphitheatre is a modern outdoor theatre where symphonic dramas are\n    presented each summer. (Courtesy Mrs. Ples Harper, Texas Panhandle\n    Heritage Foundation, Inc.; photograph by Ron Horn.)]\nThe lower one-third of the peak consists of deeply furrowed, red and\nwhite banded shales of the Quartermaster Formation (p. 17). Overlying\nthe Permian red beds are the brightly colored, multi-hued Tecovas shales\nof Triassic age (p. 19). The composition of the Tecovas is such that the\nlower shales tend to weather into relatively gentle slopes with rather\nsmooth surfaces. Triassic Peak is capped by a weather-resistant layer of\nTrujillo sandstone, and this durable cliff-forming sandstone has served\nas a protective covering to impede the erosion of the softer rocks of\nthe Tecovas and Quartermaster Formations. Although it has withstood the\nravages of time exceedingly well, the large blocks of Trujillo sandstone\nwhich litter the flanks and foot of Triassic Peak clearly indicate that\nweathering and mass-wasting have exacted their toll in the geologic\npast.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 24. A trip on the Sad Monkey Railroad is a good\n    place to learn more about the canyon\u2019s geology and get a closer look\n    at the rocks.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 25. Excellent exposures of the Quartermaster\n    Formation of Permian age (1) and the Triassic Tecovas (2) and\n    Trujillo (3) Formations can be seen in the south face of Triassic\n    Peak. The feature known as the Sad Monkey is indicated by the\n    arrow.]\nSad Monkey, Texas derives its name from the prominent mass of Trujillo\nsandstone at the southern extremity of Triassic Peak. When viewed in the\nproper perspective\u2014and with the proper amount of imagination\u2014this\nmassive block of sandstone bears a striking resemblance to an aged and\nsaddened monkey.\n_Spanish Skirts_ (6).\u2014\nFew of the canyon\u2019s features are as well-named as the gaudy Spanish\nSkirts (fig. 26). The lower part of this multi-colored bluff consists of\nalternating layers of red and white Quartermaster shale, capped by the\ncolorful maroon and lavender Tecovas shales. Located on the north flank\nof Timber Mesa, the Spanish Skirts and nearby Catarina Cave can be\nreached by an easy half-mile path. The trail begins on the west side of\nPark Road 5, just beyond the Timber Creek bridge located several hundred\nfeet from the Sad Monkey Station.\n_Catarina Cave_ (7).\u2014\nA short distance west of the Spanish Skirts lies Catarina Cave. This\ndepression has been washed out of the relatively soluble Permian shales\n_Santana\u2019s Face_ (8).\u2014\nLike Triassic Peak, Timber Mesa is capped by a thick layer of massively\nbedded Trujillo sandstone. On the eastern tip of the mesa the sandstone\nhas been eroded in such a fashion that it resembles the profile of an\nIndian (fig. 28). This feature, called Santana\u2019s Face, is best seen from\nthe park road shortly after leaving Sad Monkey Station.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 26. The gaudy Spanish Skirts are a colorful\n    expanse of Quartermaster and Tecovas strata exposed on the north\n    flank of Timber Mesa. Note the contrast in weathering in the lower,\n    gullied Quartermaster Formation and the smooth slopes of the Tecovas\n    shales above it. Catarina Cave (arrow) is at the right.]\n_The Sky Ride_ (9).\u2014\nThe Sky Ride, located near the first water crossing on Park Road 5,\ntransports visitors from the canyon floor to the top of Timber Mesa\n(fig. 28). The 300-foot ascent is made in ski-lift chairs that are\ncomfortable and safe. The observation area atop the mesa offers an\nunusually fine view of most parts of the canyon.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 27. Catarina Cave (arrow) is easily reached by a\n    half-mile trail from Park Road 5.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 28. Santana\u2019s Face (left arrow) has been\n    sculptured from the Trujillo sandstone cap of Timber Mesa. The cable\n    for the Sky Ride (p. 37) passes through the notch indicated by arrow\n    at right.]\n_The First Water Crossing_ (10).\u2014\nAs it winds through the canyon, the park road crosses the Prairie Dog\nTown Fork of the Red River seven times in a distance of about 4 miles.\nThese fords, or water crossings as they are called locally, are paved\nand are normally safe to pass through. They should, however, be avoided\nduring times of heavy rains and flash flooding. Because of stream\nerosion, especially fine exposures of the Quartermaster Formation are\nrevealed in the stream banks near several of the crossings.\nThe first of these crossings (fig. 29) is about 1 mile from the Sad\nMonkey Station and is one of the more popular picnic areas in the park.\nThis area was also popular with earlier residents of the park, for it is\nbelieved to have been the campgrounds of both the Kiowa and Comanche\nIndians.\n_Colonel Charles Goodnight\u2019s Dugout_ (11).\u2014\nAs mentioned earlier (p. 6) Colonel Charles Goodnight entered the canyon\nin 1876 with more than 16,000 head of cattle. Although he later\nestablished more comfortable quarters, Col. Goodnight first lived in a\nprimitive dugout similar to the one shown in figure 30. A replica of\nthis early shelter has been constructed of mud, stone, and logs and can\nbe seen on the west side of the park road just beyond the first water\ncrossing (_see_ fig. 29).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 29. Now a popular picnic spot, the wooded area\n    near the first water crossing through the Prairie Dog Town Fork of\n    the Red River was a favorite Indian campground.]\n_The Lighthouse_ (12).\u2014\nThe unpaved road to the Lighthouse enters Park Road 5 about two-tenths\nof a mile beyond the first water crossing. Although considered by many\nto be the canyon\u2019s best-known landmark, the Lighthouse is actually not\nwithin park boundaries. It is located in Little Sunday Canyon about 3\nmiles west of the road and is not easily accessible to the average\nvisitor. Like many of the park\u2019s natural attractions, the Lighthouse is\nan erosional remnant of colorful Trujillo shales and sandstones (fig.\n31). A similar pedestal rock, the Devil\u2019s Tombstone, can be reached by\nmeans of a trail which leaves the Lighthouse road and enters Sunday\nCanyon.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 30. When Colonel Charles Goodnight settled in\n    the canyon in 1876 he lived in a primitive dugout similar to the one\n    shown here.]\n_Capitol Peak_ (13).\u2014\nCapitol Peak (figs. 20 and 32) is a rather imposing geologic feature\nthat can be seen from a number of points along Park Road 5. There are\nespecially good views in the vicinity of the second water crossing if\none will look to the west of the road. Just beyond the crossing an\nunimproved road leads to the foot of Capitol Peak. The lower part of\nthis feature is composed of Quartermaster shales of Permian age and the\nupper section consists largely of Triassic Tecovas shales. When viewed\nfrom the proper angle, the silhouette of Capitol Peak is thought to\nresemble the prostrate form of a human (fig. 32). For this reason it has\nalso been called the Sleeping Indian.\n_Fortress Cliff_ (14).\u2014\nThe Ogallala Formation of Pliocene age (p. 23) forms the upper rim of\nthe canyon and is well exposed in impressive Fortress Cliff (fig. 33).\nAlthough this precipitous cliff dominates the eastern rim of the canyon\nalong most of the scenic drive, especially good views are afforded\nbetween the second and third water crossings.\n_The Rock Garden_ (15).\u2014\nShortly after fording the river at the fifth water crossing, there is a\njumbled pile of boulders on the west side of the road (fig. 34). This\naccumulation of Trujillo sandstone blocks has been named the Rock\nGarden. Many boulders such as these have accumulated on the floor of the\ncanyon in ages past. However, most of these have been destroyed by\nweathering and their fragments removed by the canyon\u2019s streams.\n_The Devil\u2019s Slide_ (16).\u2014\nThe Devil\u2019s Slide can be reached by an unimproved road that leads\nsouthwest from the scenic drive for a distance of about half a mile.\nComposed of upper Quartermaster and lower Tecovas shales, the surface of\nthis eroded spur is laced with many trails and \u201cslides\u201d that have been\nmade by previous visitors (fig. 35).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 31. The Lighthouse, an erosional remnant and the\n    \u201ctrademark\u201d of Palo Duro Canyon, exhibits well the geologic\n    phenomenon of differential erosion (p. 31).]\n_The Turnaround_ (17).\u2014\nA loop marks the end of Park Road 5 and the conclusion of the scenic\ndrive. Located in this area are a number of fine camping areas, picnic\ngrounds, the old stone cottages called the \u201cCow Cabins,\u201d and rest rooms\nwith shower facilities (fig. 36).\n    [Illustration: Fig. 32. The \u201cdome\u201d on Capitol Peak is a well-known\n    canyon landmark. Composed of the Tecovas and Quartermaster\n    Formations, the profile of Capitol Peak is referred to as the\n    Sleeping Indian. (The \u201cIndian\u2019s\u201d head can be seen in the right\n    background.)]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 33. Fortress Cliff is a prominent feature on the\n    eastern rim of the canyon. Seen here are the precipitous cliffs\n    developed in the Ogallala caliche (p. 26) and the sandstones and\n    shales of the Trujillo Formation.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 34. The Rock Garden is a jumbled mass of\n    Trujillo sandstone boulders that mark the site of an ancient\n    landslide.]\n_Hiking._\u2014\nThere are a number of established trails for the visitor who is\ninterested in hiking. The more popular trails include those to the\nSpanish Skirts and Catarina Cave (p. 37), the Devil\u2019s Tombstone, the\nLighthouse (p. 39), and the Devil\u2019s Slide (p. 40). Park rangers will be\nglad to provide more complete information about these and other trails\nwithin the canyon.\n_Horseback riding._\u2014\nSaddle horses can be rented at the stables located east of the road near\nthe Pioneer Amphitheatre. There are a number of trail rides that can be\ntaken on well-trained horses accustomed to the rugged terrain of the\ncanyon. Additional information may be obtained from the attendants at\nthe stable.\n_Camping and picnicking._\u2014\nAn ample number of well-developed camping and picnic areas are scattered\nthroughout the canyon. Most are located adjacent to or a short distance\nfrom Park Road 5; they are equipped with outdoor fireplaces and tables.\nRunning water, rest rooms, and showers are provided in certain areas.\nCampsites are available on a first-come first-served basis, and there is\na 10-day limit on overnight camping. Detailed information on camping\nregulations and camping areas is available from a park ranger or at the\nEntrance Station.\n_Photography._\u2014\nPalo Duro Canyon offers many opportunities for both amateur and\nprofessional photography. The multi-colored rock formations, erosional\nland-forms, and plants and animals offer limitless possibilities to the\ncreative and imaginative photographer. Color shots are especially\neffective, but a haze filter will be helpful when photographing distant\nobjects. Morning and afternoon are the best times for picture taking as\nthe mid-day sun is \u201cflat\u201d and lends little perspective to the canyon\nscene.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 35. The Devil\u2019s Slide in the south end of the\n    park is an eroded spur of Tecovas shales. Some of the \u201cslides\u201d made\n    by visitors are indicated by the arrow.]\n    [Illustration: Fig. 36. Outcrops of the Quartermaster (1) and\n    Tecovas (2) Formations provide a geological backdrop for this\n    campsite near the turnaround at the end of Park Road 5.]\n                   PANHANDLE-PLAINS HISTORICAL MUSEUM\n    [Illustration: Fig. 37. Located on the campus of West Texas State\n    University in Canyon, the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum has\n    many exhibits of historical and geological interest that will\n    enhance one\u2019s visit to Palo Duro Canyon State Park. (Courtesy\n    Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)]\nThe visitor to Palo Duro Canyon State Park would do well to start his\nvisit at the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum located on the campus of\nWest Texas State University in Canyon (fig. 37). Here all phases of\nhistory\u2014recent, archeologic, and geologic\u2014are depicted in the various\nhalls. In the Hall of Pre-History are the fossilized remains and\nreconstructions of ancient animals that were entombed in the canyon\nwalls as long as 200 million years ago. Elsewhere there are exhibits and\ndioramas that portray human history in the Palo Duro area. Beginning\nwith the oldest known evidence of human occupation about 12,000 years\nago, there is a succession of displays that tell the story of man in the\nPalo Duro\u2014High Plains region. These exhibits follow man from the early\nIndians living in stone shelters, to the horse-using nomadic plains\nIndians who relied heavily on the great herds of bison and who fought a\ndesperate but losing battle to save their homeland from invasion by the\nwhite man. Here, too, is the story of the coming of the Spanish\nconquistadores, the _comancheros_ (_see_ p. 6), and the advent of the\nanglican settler. All are portrayed by means of artifacts that represent\nthe different cultures of the region\u2019s colorful past.\nThe major theme of the Museum is the history of the High Plains during\nthe period of the cattle industry of the open range. One entire hall is\ndevoted to the display of saddles, spurs, lariats, barbed wire, branding\nirons, a chuck wagon, and a life size model of a typical cowboy of the\nOld West. The Museum also houses one of the nation\u2019s finest collections\nof guns of the Old West, the Old World, and guns of today. Other\nhighlights include scale models depicting scenes of the Old West,\nexhibits of typical rooms from pioneer homes furnished with furniture of\nthat era, a fine assortment of antique vehicles, and famous collections\nof Western art.\nThe Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum is easily reached from any of the\nmajor highways that pass through Canyon. It is open from 9:00 a.m. to\n5:00 p.m. weekdays and from 2:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. Sundays.\nBrand, J. P. (1956) Triassic System, _in_ Eastern Llano Estacado and\n    adjoining Osage Plains: West Texas Geol. Soc. and Lubbock Geol.\n    Soc., Guidebook, Spring Field Trip, April 6-7, 1956, pp. 8-9.\nCummins, W. F. (1890) The Permian of Texas and its overlying beds: Texas\n    Geol. Survey 1st Ann. Rept. (1889), pp. 183-197.\n\u2014\u2014 (1893) Notes on the geology of northwestern Texas: Texas Geol. Survey\nDrake, N. F. (1892) Stratigraphy of the Triassic formations of northeast\n    Texas: Texas Geol. Survey 3rd Ann. Rept. (1891), pp. 225-247.\nEvans, G. L. (1949) Upper Cenozoic of the High Plains: West Texas Geol.\n    Soc. and New Mexico Geol. Soc., Guidebook for Field Trip No. 2,\n*\u2014\u2014, and Meade, G. E. (1945) Quaternary of the Texas High Plains, _in_\n    Contributions to Geology, 1944: Univ. Texas Pub. 4401, pp. 485-507.\n*Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B. (1957) Studies of Cenozoic geology\n    along eastern margin of Texas High Plains, Armstrong to Howard\n    counties: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 32, 62 pp.\n*\u2014\u2014, and \u2014\u2014 (1959) Correlation of the Ogallala Formation (Neogene) in\n    western Texas with type localities in Nebraska: Univ. Texas, Bur.\n    Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 39, 46 pp.\n*\u2014\u2014, and \u2014\u2014 (1964) Relation of Ogallala Formation to the southern High\n    Plains in Texas: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 51,\n*Girard, R. M. (1959) Bibliography and index of Texas geology: Univ.\n*\u2014\u2014 (1964) Texas rocks and minerals: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol.\n    Guidebook No. 6, 109 pp.\nGould, C. N. (1902) The geology and water resources of the eastern\n    portion of the Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply\n\u2014\u2014 (1907) The geology and water resources of the western portion of the\n    Panhandle of Texas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 191, 70\n*Matthews, W. H., III (1960) Texas fossils: An amateur collector\u2019s\n    handbook: Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook No. 2, 123 pp.\n*Patton, L. T. (1923) The geology of Potter County [Texas]: Univ. Texas\n*Reed, L. C., and Longnecker, O. M. (1932) The geology of Hemphill\n    County, Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 3231, 98 pp.\n*Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer, F. B. (1933) The geology\n    of Texas, Vol. I, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August 22,\nWest Texas State University Geological Society (1964) Palo Duro Field\n    Trip Guidebook: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Canyon, 18 pp.\n\u2014\u2014 (1960) Geology of Palo Duro Canyon State Park and the Panhandle of\n    Texas: West Texas State Univ. Geol. Soc., Guidebook for 1966 SASGS\n    Annual Field Trip, April 15-17, 1966, 58 pp.\nSmith, A. R. (1967) Caves of Palo Duro Canyon: The Texas Caver, Abilene,\nAbrasion\u2014erosion of rock material by friction of solid particles moved\n    by water, ice, wind, or gravity.\nAbsolute time\u2014geologic time measured in years. Compare with relative\n    time.\nAmphibians\u2014cold-blooded four-footed animals which have gills in youth\n    and lungs in maturity (e.g., frog).\nAnhydrite\u2014the mineral calcium sulfate, CaSO\u2084. _See_ Gypsum.\nAnticline\u2014an arch-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping in\n    opposite directions on the two sides.\nAquifer\u2014a water-bearing layer of porous and permeable rock.\nAragonite\u2014a form of calcium carbonate (CaCO\u2083).\nArcheozoic\u2014the oldest known geological era; early Precambrian.\nBedding plane\u2014the plane of demarcation between two individual rock\n    layers or strata.\nCalcite\u2014a mineral composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO\u2083.\nCaliche\u2014an accumulation of calcium carbonate, commonly white in color,\n    in the soil profile.\nCenozoic\u2014the latest era of geologic time, containing the Tertiary and\n    Quaternary Periods and continuing to the present time.\nChert\u2014dense, hard rock of very fine-grained silica, usually in nodular\n    form. This material is also called flint.\nConcretion\u2014a concentration, usually spherical, of mineral matter in\n    sedimentary rocks, produced by deposits from solution; it is harder\n    than the surrounding rock.\nConglomerate\u2014a sedimentary rock composed of rounded, water-worn gravel,\n    usually mixed with sand, and cemented together by another mineral\n    substance.\nCoprolite\u2014the fossilized excrement of animals.\nEolian\u2014pertaining to the erosion and the deposits resulting from wind\n    action and to sedimentary rocks composed of wind-transported\n    material.\nEpoch\u2014a subdivision of a geologic period, such as the Pliocene Epoch of\n    the Tertiary Period.\nEra\u2014a major division of geologic time. All geologic time is divided into\n    five eras: the Archeozoic, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and\n    Cenozoic Eras.\nFluorescence\u2014luminescence of a mineral during exposure to radiation\n    (such as from ultraviolet or X-rays).\nFluvial deposit\u2014sediment deposited by streams.\nFormation\u2014a rock unit useful for mapping and distinguished primarily on\n    the basis of lithologic character.\nFossil\u2014any remains or traces of plants or animals preserved in deposits\n    of a past geologic age.\nGeode\u2014a hollow stone, usually lined or filled with mineral matter.\nGeologic age\u2014the age of an object as stated in terms of geologic time\n    (e.g., a Pennsylvanian fern, Cretaceous dinosaur).\nGeologic time\u2014all time which has elapsed since the first known rocks\n    were formed and continuing until recent, or modern, times.\nGeologic time scale\u2014record of the divisions of earth history.\nGypsum\u2014a mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO\u2084\u00b72H\u2082O). _See_\n    Anhydrite.\nHoodoo\u2014a form produced by erosion of rock.\nIce age\u2014the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period, Cenozoic Era; a\n    time of extensive glaciation.\nIgneous rock\u2014rocks which have solidified from lava or molten rock called\n    magma.\nJoint\u2014a fracture in a rock along which there has been no displacement on\n    opposite sides of the break.\nJoint System\u2014a series of two or more sets of joints passing through a\n    rock mass and separating it into blocks of more or less regular\n    pattern.\nMass-wasting\u2014erosion caused chiefly by gravity.\nMesozoic\u2014the geologic era between the Paleozoic and Cenozoic Eras; the\n    \u201cAge of Reptiles.\u201d\nMetamorphic rock\u2014rock formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks that have\n    been subjected to great changes in temperature, pressure, or\n    chemical environment.\nMetamorphism\u2014the process whereby rocks are changed physically by heat,\n    pressure, or chemical environment into different kinds.\nMineral\u2014a naturally occurring inorganic substance possessing definite\n    chemical and physical properties.\nNodule\u2014rounded lump of rock or mineral.\nOutcrop\u2014the area where a particular rock formation comes to the surface.\nPaleontology\u2014the science which deals with the study of fossils.\nPaleozoic\u2014that era of geologic time following the Proterozoic and\n    preceding the Mesozoic.\nPeriod\u2014a basic unit of the geologic time scale into which the eras are\n    divided, such as the Pennsylvanian Period of the Paleozoic Era.\nPermian\u2014the seventh and last period of the Paleozoic Era.\nPleistocene\u2014the first of the two epochs of the Quaternary Period, and\n    that which precedes modern time, known as the Great Ice Age.\nPliocene\u2014last and youngest epoch of the Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic\nProterozoic\u2014youngest era of the Precambrian; follows the Archeozoic Era\n    and precedes the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era.\nRed beds\u2014a general term for red sandstone, shales, etc., which appear to\n    characterize arid periods in the past.\nRipple marks\u2014wave-like corrugations produced in unconsolidated materials\n    by wind or water.\nRock\u2014any natural aggregate of mineral matter, usually consisting of a\n    mixture of two or more minerals.\nSandstone\u2014sedimentary rock composed of cemented sand grains, usually\n    quartz.\nSediment\u2014material that has been deposited by settling from a\n    transportation agent such as water or air.\nSedimentary rock\u2014rocks formed by the accumulation of sediments.\nShale\u2014a sedimentary rock formed by the hardening of mud and clay and\n    usually tending to split into thin sheets or layers.\nSilica\u2014an oxide of silicon (SiO\u2082).\nSiliceous\u2014containing or pertaining to silica.\nSilt\u2014fine muddy sediment consisting of particles intermediate in size\n    between clay particles and sand grains.\nSiltstone\u2014a very fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of silt grains,\n    and intermediate between shale and sandstone.\nStratified rocks\u2014sedimentary rocks; those formed in beds, layers, or\n    strata.\nStratum\u2014an individual layer of rock formation. (Plural, _strata_.)\nSuperposition, law of\u2014in an undisturbed sequence of rocks younger beds\n    overlie older beds.\nSyncline\u2014a trough-like fold in the rocks, with the beds dipping inward\n    on either side. _See_ Anticline.\nTalus\u2014a mass of rock debris commonly on slopes or at the base of a steep\n    mountain or cliff.\nTopography\u2014the configuration of a land surface.\nUnconformity\u2014a break in the sequence of rock formations which separates\n    younger strata from older ones; caused primarily by removal of older\n    rocks by erosion before those of a later sequence were laid down.\nWeathering\u2014any natural process, mechanical or chemical, whereby rocks\n    are disintegrated or decomposed into smaller particles and\n    ultimately into clay and soil.\n  abrasion: 30\n  Adair, John: 6\n  \u201cAge of Mammals\u201d: 27\n  alabaster: 17\n  ancient man in Palo Duro Canyon: 3\n  anhydrite: 18\n  anticlines: 18\n  Apaches: 1, 3\n  aquifer: 26\n  Arapahos: 3\n  Archeozoic rocks: 13\n  \u201cblow sand\u201d: 28\n  bottom load: 29\n  Brazos River: 8\n  calcite: 22\n  caliche: 26\n  camels: 27\n  camping and picnicking: 43\n  Canyon, Texas: 45\n  Carboniferous Period: 16\n  Catarina Cave: 19, 37, 38\n  chemical weathering: 30\n  chert: 26\n  Cheyennes: 3\n  Civilian Conservation Corps: 8\n  Colorado River: 8\n  _comancheros_: 6, 46\n  Comanches: 1, 3\n  concretions: 22\n  conglomerate: 24\n  coprolites: 22\n  Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de: 3\n  \u201cCow Cabins\u201d: 41\n  cross-bedding: 19, 20\n  cross-stratification: 19\n  decomposition: 30\n  Devil\u2019s Slide: 19, 40, 44\n  Devil\u2019s Tombstone: 40\n  differential erosion: 31, 41\n  disintegration: 30\n  dugout, Col. Charles Goodnight\u2019s: 39, 40\n  earth history: 10-12\n  Eastern Caprock Escarpment: 8\n  erosion, differential: 31, 41\n  flash floods: 29\n  fluorescence: 26\n  fluvial sediments: 24\n  Fortress Cliff: 1, 40, 42\n  fossils: 10\n  frost wedging: 30\n  geodes: 22\n  geologic column: 12\n  geologic time scale: 11, 12\n  geomorphologist: 29\n  Goodnight, Colonel Charles: 1, 39, 40\n  gypsum: 17\n  Harper, Mrs. Ples: 35\n  hematite: 22\n  Hester, W. A.: 1\n  High Plains: 8\n  hiking: 43\n  history of park: 3-8\n  Horn, Ron: 35\n  horseback riding: 43\n  horses: 27\n  hydration: 18, 31\n  hydraulic action: 30\n  Ice Age: 3\n  igneous rocks: 10\n  Indian campground: 39\n  Indians of the Plains: 3\n  JA Ranch: 6\n  Kiowas: 1, 3\n  Little Sunday Canyon: 39\n  Llano Estacado: 8\n  Mackenzie, Colonel Ranald: 3\n  mammals: 27\n  Marcy, Captain R. B.: 6\n  mass-wasting: 31\n  mastodon, shovel-jawed: 27\n  mechanical weathering: 30\n  metamorphic rocks: 10\n  mortar hole: 25\n  Observation Point: 33\n  Ogallala Formation: 21, 23-27, 42\n  opal: 26\n  oxidation: 31\n  Paleozoic Era: 13\n  Palo Duro Canyon State Park: 7, 14, 45\n  Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum: 2, 27, 45-46\n  Park Entrance: 33\n  park history: 3-8\n  Parker, Chief Quanah: 7\n  Pecos River: 8\n  pedestal rock: 25\n  petrified wood: 22\n  photography: 43\n  phytosaurs: 22\n  picnicking and camping: 43\n  Pioneer Amphitheatre: 33-34\n  Plains Indians: 3\n  Pleistocene rocks: 28\n  Pliocene Epoch: 27\n  Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River: 1, 29, 39\n  Precambrian rocks: 13\n  principle of superposition: 13\n  Proterozoic rocks: 13\n  psilomelane: 22\n  Red River: 8, 29\n  reduction halos: 19, 20\n  ripple marks: 19\n  Rock Garden, The: 23, 40, 43\n  Rocky Mountains: 24\n  saber-tooth cat: 27\n  Sad Monkey, Texas: 36\n  Santana\u2019s Face: 23, 37, 38\n  satin spar: 17\n  Scenic Drive, The: 33\n  sedimentary rocks: 10\n  sediments: 10\n  selenite: 17\n  septaria: 22\n  septarian concretions: 22\n  shovel-jawed mastodon: 27\n  Sky Ride, The: 37\n  Sleeping Indian: 40, 42\n  sloths: 27\n  siliceous rocks: 27\n  solution: 29\n  Spanish Skirts: 19, 37\n  suffosian: 19\n  Sunday Canyon: 40\n  superposition, principle of: 13\n  suspension: 29\n  synclines: 18\n  talus: 31\n  talus slopes: 31\n  Texas Panhandle: 9\n  Texas Panhandle Heritage Foundation, Inc.: 35\n  Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: 2\n  Texas-Santa Fe Expedition: 6\n  time scale, geologic: 11, 12\n  tortoises: 27\n  Triassic Peak: 1, 35\n  Turnaround, The: 1, 41, 44\n  unconformities: 21\n  water crossings: 39\n  weathering: 30\n  West Texas State University: 45\n  Wolfin, Charles A.: 1\n[1]Professor of Geology, Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont,\n    Texas.\n[2]Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau of Economic\n    Geology, The University of Texas at Austin. Those not out of print\n    are distributed at nominal sale price; list sent on request.\n    [Illustration: Cover image, Aerial view of Palo Duro Canyon]\n--This book, published without copyright notice, is in the public\n  domain.\n--Silently corrected a few palpable typos.\n--Added links to glossary entries.\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Geologic Story of Palo Duro Canyon, by \nWilliam A. 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{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online\n                       BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY\n                   The University of Texas at Austin\n                       John T. Lonsdale, Director\n                   _An Amateur Collector\u2019s Handbook_\n                        William H. Matthews III\n                    _Fifth Printing, November 1973_\n                   _Seventh Printing, November 1978_\n                   _Eighth Printing, September 1981_\n  Different kinds of fossil preservation                           7\n      Original soft parts of organisms                             7\n      Original hard parts of organisms                             7\n          Petrifaction or permineralization                       10\n              Replacement by calcareous material                  11\n              Replacement by siliceous material                   11\n  Cleaning and preparation of fossils                             21\n      Identification key to main types of invertebrate fossils    26\n  List of Texas colleges offering geology courses                 27\n          Classification of the plant kingdom                     44\n      Selected references on Texas fossils                       109\n  1. Sketch of a coprolite\u2014fossilized animal excrement            14\n  2. Sketch of a gastrolith\u2014the gizzard stone of an ancient\n  3. Dendrites\u2014a typical pseudofossil                             14\n  4. Types of symmetry in a fossil coral                          24\n  5. Bilateral symmetry in fossil brachiopod                      24\n  6. A brachiopod showing specimen number and accompanying label  31\n  7. Two types of micropaleontological slides                     32\n  8. Typical Pennsylvanian crinoidal limestone                    41\n  11. Morphology and principal parts of corals                    50\n  13. Morphology and principal parts of articulate brachiopods    54\n  14. _Lingula_, a typical inarticulate brachiopod                56\n  15. _Kingena wacoensis_, a common Cretaceous brachiopod         56\n  16. Morphology and principal parts of gastropod shells          60\n  17. Morphology and principal parts of a typical pelecypod shell 65\n  18. Morphology and principal parts of the pearly nautilus       75\n  19. Characteristic features of the various types of cephalopod\n  20. Types of typical fossil annelid worms                       78\n  21. Morphology and principal parts of trilobites                80\n  22. Two extinct attached echinoderms, _Pentremites_ and\n  23. Typical modern crinoid, or \u201csea lily,\u201d showing principal\n  25. Sketches of mastodon and mammoth teeth                     104\n  26. Two views of a typical fossil horse tooth                  104\n  1. Geologic time scale                                Frontispiece\n  3. Silicified brachiopods dissolved from Permian limestones of the\n          Glass Mountains, Brewster County, Texas                 12\n  4. Dinosaur tracks in limestone in bed of Paluxy Creek near Glen\n  11. Geologic range of the major groups of plants and animals    45\n  12. Fossil plants\u2014thallophytes and tracheophytes                46\n  14. Paleozoic sponges and sponge spicules                       51\n  17. Pennsylvanian bryozoans and Cambrian and Mississippian\n  21. Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous gastropods                     62\n  32. Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous cephalopods                    76\n  35. Fossil starfishes, crinoids, and holothurian sclerites      83\n  37. Primitive armored fish, shark teeth, and conodonts          88\n  39. Comparison of Mesozoic flying and swimming reptiles         91\n  40. Pelycosaur, cotylosaur, and a primitive amphibian           92\n  43. Skull of _Phobosuchus_, from Cretaceous of Trans-Pecos Texas\n  ERA\n      PERIOD\n              CHARACTERISTIC LIFE\n  CENOZOIC    \u201cRecent Life\u201d\n      QUATERNARY    1 MILLION YEARS\n          Pleistocene\n      TERTIARY    64 MILLION YEARS\n          Pliocene\n          Miocene\n          Oligocene\n          Paleocene\n  MESOZOIC    \u201cMiddle Life\u201d\n      CRETACEOUS    70 MILLION YEARS\n      JURASSIC    45 MILLION YEARS\n      TRIASSIC    50 MILLION YEARS\n  PALEOZOIC    \u201cAncient Life\u201d\n      PERMIAN    55 MILLION YEARS\n      CARBONIFEROUS\n        PENNSYLVANIAN    30 MILLION YEARS\n        MISSISSIPPIAN    35 MILLION YEARS\n      DEVONIAN    55 MILLION YEARS\n      SILURIAN    20 MILLION YEARS\n      ORDOVICIAN    75 MILLION YEARS\n      CAMBRIAN    100 MILLION YEARS\n  PRECAMBRIAN ERAS\n    PROTEROZOIC ERA\n    ARCHEOZOIC ERA\n  APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE EARTH MORE THAN 3 BILLION 300 MILLION YEARS\n                    An Amateur Collector\u2019s Handbook\nAlmost everyone has seen the fossilized remains of prehistoric plants or\nanimals. These might have been the skeleton of a gigantic dinosaur, the\npetrified trunk of an ancient tree, or the shells of snails or oysters\nthat lived in the great seas that covered Texas millions of years ago.\nEach year more and more people are learning that these fossils are more\nthan mere curiosities. Instead, they are realizing that a good\ncollection of fossils provides much information about the early history\nof our earth, and that fossil collecting can be a most enjoyable,\nfascinating, and rewarding hobby. It is for these people that _Texas\nFossils_ was written.\nThis publication is primarily an amateur collector\u2019s handbook and as\nsuch offers many suggestions and aids to those who would pursue the\nhobby of fossil collecting. It tells, for example, what fossils are,\nwhere and how to collect them, and how they are used. Suggestions are\nmade as to how the specimens may be identified and catalogued, and there\nare discussions and illustrations of the main types of plant and animal\nfossils. Included also is a simplified geologic map of Texas and a brief\nreview of the geology of the State.\n_Texas Fossils_ is not a comprehensive study of the paleontology of\nTexas. Rather, it deals primarily with the more common species that the\naverage collector is likely to find. These fossils are illustrated in\nthe plates and figures, and these illustrations should be of some help\nin identifying the specimens in one\u2019s collection. Included for\ncompleteness, however, are sketches and descriptions of some of the more\nrare and unusual fossils, and, for general interest, there are\nillustrations and descriptions of many of the extinct reptiles and\nmammals that once inhabited this State.\nIn addition, a group of selected references has been included for the\nreader who wishes to know more about earth history and paleontology.\nMany of these publications provide references of a more technical nature\nfor the more advanced or serious collector, and some of them list\nexcellent collecting localities.\nA minimum of technical terminology has been used, but terms not commonly\nfound in dictionaries, or which have not been explained in the text, are\ndefined in the glossary (pp. 111-114).\nMany people have helped in the planning, preparation, and completion of\n_Texas Fossils_, and their help is gratefully acknowledged: Dr. Keith\nYoung, The University of Texas; Dr. Harold Beaver, Baylor University;\nand Professor Jack Boon, Arlington State College, offered helpful\nsuggestions and information on Cretaceous fossils; Professors Richmond\nL. Bronaugh, Baylor University, and Jack T. Hughes, West Texas State\nCollege, provided information on vertebrate collecting localities;\nProfessor Fred Smith, Texas A&M College, supplied data on Tertiary\ncollecting localities and fossils which were used in illustrations; Dr.\nSaul Aronow and Professor Darrell Davis, Lamar State College of\nTechnology; Dr. Jules DuBar, University of Houston; and Dr. Samuel P.\nEllison, The University of Texas, made valuable suggestions which have\nbeen incorporated into the manuscript.\nSpecial thanks are due Drs. John T. Lonsdale, L. F. Brown, Jr., and\nPeter U. Rodda, Bureau of Economic Geology, who critically read the\nmanuscript and contributed greatly to the presentation of the material;\nDr. John A. Wilson, The University of Texas, who read the section on\nvertebrate fossils and made invaluable suggestions and criticisms; Miss\nJosephine Casey, who edited the manuscript; and Mr. J. W. Macon, who\nprepared the maps and charts.\nThanks are due also to Dr. G. A. Cooper, United States National Museum,\nwho prepared Plate 3 especially for this publication, and to R. T. Bird\nand the American Museum of Natural History for photographs used in\nPlates 4 and 43. Plates 38 and 39 were provided through the courtesy of\nDr. J. W. Dixon, Jr., and the Geology Department of Baylor University.\nThe other photographs were prepared by the writer. To Sarah Louise\nWilson, Lamar State College of Technology, the writer gratefully\nacknowledges her tireless and painstaking efforts in preparing the many\nfine drawings which make up the balance of the illustrations.\n_Fossils are the remains or evidence of ancient plants or animals that\nhave been preserved in the rocks of the earth\u2019s crust._ Most fossils\nrepresent the preservable hard parts of some prehistoric organism that\nonce lived in the area in which the remains were collected.\nThe word fossil is derived from the Latin word _fossilis_, meaning \u201cdug\nup,\u201d and for many years any unusual object dug out of the ground was\nconsidered to be a \u201cfossil.\u201d For this reason some of the earlier books\ndealing with fossils include discussions of rocks, minerals, and other\ninorganic objects.\nThere is much evidence to indicate that man has been interested in\nfossils since the very earliest times, and fossil shells, bones, and\nteeth have been found associated with the remains of primitive and\nprehistoric men. It is quite possible that the owners of these objects\nbelieved that they possessed supernatural powers, such as healing\nproperties or the ability to remove curses.\nDuring the earliest periods of recorded history, certain Greek scholars\nfound the remains of fish and sea shells in desert and mountainous\nregions. These men were greatly puzzled by the occurrence of these\nobjects at such great distances from the sea, and some of them devoted\nconsiderable time to an explanation of their presence.\nIn 450 B.C., Herodotus noticed fossils in the Egyptian desert and\ncorrectly concluded that the Mediterranean Sea had once been in that\narea.\nAristotle in 400 B.C. stated that fossils were organic in origin but\nthat they were embedded in the rocks as a result of mysterious plastic\nforces at work within the earth. One of his students, Theophrastus\n(about 350 B.C.), also believed that fossils represented some form of\nlife but thought that they had developed from seeds or eggs that had\nbeen planted in the rocks.\nStrabo (about 63 B.C. to A.D. 20) was another important Greek scholar\nwho attempted to explain the presence of fossils. He noted the\noccurrence of marine fossils well above sea level and correctly inferred\nthat the rocks containing them had been subjected to considerable\nelevation.\nDuring the \u201cDark Ages\u201d fossils were alternately explained as freaks of\nnature, the remains of attempts at special creation, and devices of the\ndevil which had been placed in the rocks to lead men astray. These\nsuperstitious beliefs and the opposition from religious authorities\nhindered the study of fossils for hundreds of years.\nIn approximately the middle of the fifteenth century the true origin of\nfossils was generally accepted, and they were considered to be the\nremains of prehistoric organisms which had been preserved in the earth\u2019s\ncrust. With the definite recognition of fossils as organic remains, many\nof the more primitive theories were discarded for one just as\nimpractical\u2014these remains were considered remnants of the Great Flood as\nrecorded in the Scriptures. The resulting controversy between scientists\nand theologians lasted for about 300 years.\nDuring the Renaissance several of the early natural scientists concerned\nthemselves with investigations of fossils. Noteworthy among these was\nLeonardo da Vinci, the famous Italian artist, naturalist, and engineer.\nLeonardo insisted that the Flood could not be responsible for all\nfossils nor for their occurrence in the highest mountains. He reaffirmed\nthe belief that fossils were indisputable evidence of ancient life, and\nthat the sea had once covered northern Italy. Leonardo explained that\nthe remains of the animals that had inhabited this ancient body of water\nwere buried in the sediments of the sea floor, and that at some later\ndate in earth history this ocean bottom was elevated well above sea\nlevel to form the Italian peninsula.\nIn the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the study of\nfossils became firmly established as a science, and since that time\nfossils have become increasingly important to the geologist.\nThe study of fossils is called _paleontology_ (Greek _palaios_, ancient;\n_ontos_, a being; _logos_, word or discourse). Information gathered with\nthe help of paleontology has greatly increased the knowledge of ancient\nplants and animals and of the world in which they lived.\nFossils represent the remains of such great numbers and various types of\norganisms that paleontologists have found it helpful to establish four\nmain divisions within their science.\nPaleobotany deals with the study of fossil plants and the record of the\nchanges which they have undergone.\n                       Invertebrate Paleontology\nThis is the study of fossil animals without a backbone or spinal column.\nThese include such forms as fossil protozoans (tiny one-celled animals),\nsnails, clams, starfish, and worms, and usually represent the remains of\nanimals that lived in prehistoric seas.\nBecause invertebrate remains are the most common fossils in Texas, this\nbook is devoted largely to the discussion of invertebrate fossils and\ntheir method of collection.\n                        Vertebrate Paleontology\nThe vertebrate paleontologist studies the fossils of animals which\npossessed a backbone or spinal column. The remains of fish, amphibians,\nreptiles, birds, and mammals are typical vertebrate fossils.\nMicropaleontology is the study of fossils that are so small that they\nare best studied under a microscope. These tiny remains are called\nmicrofossils and usually represent the shells or fragments of minute\nplants or animals. Because of their small size, microfossils can be\nbrought out of wells without being damaged by the mechanics of drilling\nor coring. For this reason microfossils are particularly valuable to the\npetroleum geologist who uses them to identify rock formations thousands\nof feet below the surface.\n                        PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS\nThe majority of fossils are found in marine _sedimentary rocks._ These\nare rocks that were formed when salt-water sediments, such as limy muds,\nsands, or shell beds, were compressed and cemented together to form\nrocks. Only rarely do fossils occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks.\nThe _igneous rocks_ were once hot and molten and had no life in them,\nand _metamorphic rocks_ have been so greatly changed or distorted that\nany fossils that were present in the original rock have usually been\ndestroyed or so altered as to be of little use to the paleontologist.\nBut even in the sedimentary rocks only a minute fraction of prehistoric\nplants and animals have left any record of their existence. This is not\ndifficult to understand in view of the rather rigorous requirements of\nfossilization.\n                     REQUIREMENTS OF FOSSILIZATION\nAlthough a large number of factors ultimately determine whether an\norganism will be fossilized, the three basic requirements are:\n1. _The organism should possess hard parts._ These might be shell, bone,\nteeth, or the woody tissue of plants. However, under very favorable\nconditions of preservation it is possible for even such fragile material\nas an insect or a jellyfish to become fossilized.\n2. _The organic remains must escape immediate destruction after death._\nIf the body parts of an organism are crushed, decayed, or badly\nweathered, this may result in the alteration or complete destruction of\nthe fossil record of that particular organism.\n3. _Rapid burial in a material capable of retarding decomposition._ The\ntype of material burying the remains usually depends upon where the\norganism lived. The remains of marine animals are common as fossils\nbecause they fall to the sea floor after death, and here they are\ncovered by soft muds which will be the shales and limestones of later\ngeologic periods. The finer sediments are less likely to damage the\nremains, and certain fine-grained Jurassic limestones in Germany have\nfaithfully preserved such delicate specimens as birds, insects, and\njellyfishes.\nAsh falling from nearby volcanoes has been known to cover entire\nforests, and some of these fossil forests have been found with the trees\nstill standing and in an excellent state of preservation.\nQuicksand and tar are also commonly responsible for the rapid burial of\nanimals. The tar acts as a trap to capture the beasts and as an\nantiseptic to retard the decomposition of their hard parts. The Rancho\nLa Brea tar pit at Los Angeles, California, is famous for the large\nnumber of fossil bones that have been recovered from it. These include\nsuch forms as the sabre-tooth cat, giant ground sloths, and other\ncreatures that are now extinct. The remains of certain animals that\nlived during the Ice Ages have been incorporated into the ice or frozen\nground, and some of these frozen remains are famous for their remarkable\ndegree of preservation.\n                      MISSING PAGES IN THE RECORD\nAlthough untold numbers of organisms have lived on the earth in past\nages, only a minute fraction of these have left any record of their\nexistence. Even if the basic requirements of fossilization have been\nfulfilled, there are still other reasons why some fossils may never be\nfound.\nFor example, large numbers of fossils have been destroyed by erosion or\ntheir hard parts have been dissolved by underground waters. Others were\nentombed in rocks that were later subjected to great physical change,\nand fossils enclosed in these rocks are usually so damaged as to be\nunrecognizable.\nThen, too, many fossiliferous rocks cannot be studied because they are\ncovered by water or great thicknesses of sediments, and still others are\nsituated in places that are geographically inaccessible. These and many\nother problems confront the paleontologist as he attempts to catalog the\nplants and animals of the past.\nThe missing pages in the fossil record become more obvious and more\nnumerous in the older rocks of the earth\u2019s crust. This is because the\nmore ancient rocks have had more time to be subjected to physical and\nchemical change or to be removed by erosion.\n                 DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOSSIL PRESERVATION\nThere are many different ways in which plants and animals may become\nfossilized. The method of preservation is usually dependent upon (1) the\noriginal composition of the organism, (2) where it lived, and (3) the\nforces that affected it after death.\nMost paleontologists recognize four major types of preservation, each\nbeing based upon the composition of the remains or the changes which\nthey have undergone.\n                    ORIGINAL SOFT PARTS OF ORGANISMS\nThis type of fossil is formed only under very special conditions of\npreservation. To be preserved in this manner, the organism must be\nburied in a medium capable of retarding decomposition of the soft parts.\nMaterials that have been known to produce this type of fossilization are\nfrozen soil or ice, oil-saturated soils, and amber (fossil resin). It is\nalso possible for organic remains to become so desiccated that a natural\nmummy is formed. This usually occurs only in arid or desert regions and\nwhen the remains have been protected from predators and scavengers.\nProbably the best-known examples of preserved soft parts of fossil\nanimals have been discovered in Alaska and Siberia. The frozen tundra of\nthese areas has yielded the remains of large numbers of frozen\nmammoths\u2014a type of extinct elephant (Pl. 49). Many of these huge beasts\nhave been buried for as long as 25,000 years, and their bodies are\nexposed as the frozen earth begins to thaw. Some of these giant\ncarcasses have been so well preserved that their flesh has been eaten by\ndogs and their tusks sold by ivory traders. Many museums display the\noriginal hair and skin of these elephants, and some have parts of the\nflesh and muscle preserved in alcohol.\nOriginal soft parts have also been recovered from oil-saturated soils in\neastern Poland. These deposits yielded the well-preserved nose-horn, a\nforeleg, and part of the skin of an extinct rhinoceros.\nThe natural mummies of ground sloths have been found in caves and\nvolcanic craters in New Mexico and Arizona. The extremely dry desert\natmosphere permitted thorough dehydration of the soft parts before decay\nset in, and specimens with portions of the original skin, hair, tendons,\nand claws have been discovered.\nOne of the more interesting and unusual types of fossilization is\npreservation in amber. This type of preservation was made possible when\nancient insects were trapped in the sticky gum that exuded from certain\nconiferous trees. With the passing of time this resin hardened, leaving\nthe insect encased in a tomb of amber, and some insects and spiders have\nbeen so well preserved that even fine hairs and muscle tissues may be\nstudied under the microscope.\nAlthough the preservation of original soft parts has produced some\ninteresting and spectacular fossils, this type of fossilization is\nrelatively rare, and the paleontologist must usually work with remains\nthat have been preserved in stone.\n                    ORIGINAL HARD PARTS OF ORGANISMS\nAlmost all plants and animals possess some type of hard parts which are\ncapable of becoming fossilized. Such hard parts may consist of the shell\nmaterial of clams, oysters, or snails, the teeth or bones of\nvertebrates, the exoskeletons of crabs, or the woody tissue of plants.\nThese hard parts are composed of various minerals which are capable of\nresisting weathering and chemical action, and fossils of this sort are\nrelatively common.\nMany of the fossil mollusks found in the Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks\nof Texas have been preserved in this manner. In some of the specimens\nthe original shell material is so well preserved that the iridescent\nmother-of-pearl layer of the shell is found virtually intact. This type\nof preservation is less common, however, in the older rocks of the\nState.\n                     Types of Fossil Preservation]\n  Figures\u2014\n    1. Internal mold of a Texas Cretaceous ammonite (\u00d7\u00bd).\n    2. Internal and external molds of gastropods and pelecypods in Cedar\n          Park limestone member of the Walnut clay of Comanchean age\n          (\u00d7\u00bd). Specimen from quarry near Cedar Park, Williamson County,\n    3. Internal mold of a Texas Cretaceous pelecypod (\u00d7\u00bd).\n    4. Fossil worm tubes on mold of a Cretaceous ammonite (\u00d7\u00bd).\n    5. Petrified or permineralized mammal bone of Tertiary age (\u00d7\u00bd).\n    6. Internal mold (steinkern) of a typical Texas Cretaceous gastropod\n    7. Carbon residue of a Tertiary fish (\u00d7\u00bc).\nAt certain localities in north and central Texas the Woodbine sands of\nUpper Cretaceous age (geologic time scale and geologic map, Pls. 1, 10)\ncontain large numbers of shark and fish teeth (Pl. 37), fish scales and\nvertebrae. The remains of these vertebrates are unusually well preserved\nand are prized by both amateur and professional collectors.\nHard parts composed of calcite (calcium carbonate) are very common among\nthe invertebrates. This is particularly true of the shells of clams,\nsnails, and corals. Many of these shells have been preserved with little\nor no evidence of physical change (Pl. 2).\nThe bones and teeth of vertebrates and the exoskeletons of many\ninvertebrates contain large amounts of calcium phosphate. Because this\ncompound is particularly weather resistant, many phosphatic remains\n(such as the fish teeth in the Woodbine sands) are found in an excellent\nstate of preservation.\nMany organisms having skeletal elements composed of silica (silicon\ndioxide) have been preserved with little observable change. The\nsiliceous hard parts of many microfossils and certain types of sponges\nhave become fossilized in this manner (Pl. 14).\nSome organisms have an exoskeleton (outer body covering) composed of\nchitin, a material that is similar to finger nails. The fossilized\nchitinous exoskeletons of arthropods and other organisms are commonly\npreserved as thin films of carbon because of their chemical composition\nand method of burial.\n                    ALTERED HARD PARTS OF ORGANISMS\nThe original hard parts of an organism normally undergo great change\nafter burial. These changes take place in many ways, but the type of\nalteration is usually determined by the composition of the hard parts\nand where the organism lived. Some of the more common processes of\nalteration are discussed below.\nThis process, known also as distillation takes place as organic matter\nslowly decays after burial. During the process of decomposition, the\norganic matter gradually loses its gases and liquids leaving only a thin\nfilm of carbonaceous material (Pl. 2, fig. 7). This is the same process\nby which coal is formed, and large numbers of carbonized plant fossils\nhave been found in many coal deposits.\nIn Texas the carbonized remains of plants, fish, and certain\ninvertebrates have been preserved in this manner, and some of these\ncarbon residues have accurately recorded even the most minute structures\nof these organisms.\n                   Petrifaction or Permineralization\nMany fossils have been permineralized or petrified\u2014literally turned to\nstone. This type of preservation occurs when mineral-bearing ground\nwaters infiltrate porous bone, shell, or plant material. These\nunderground waters deposit their mineral content in the empty spaces of\nthe hard parts making them heavier and more resistant to weathering.\nSome of the more common minerals deposited in this manner are calcite,\nsilica, and various compounds of iron.\n                     Replacement or Mineralization\nThis type of preservation takes place when the original hard parts of\norganisms are removed after being dissolved by underground water. This\nis accompanied by almost simultaneous deposition of other substances in\nthe resulting voids. Some replaced fossils will have the original\nstructure destroyed by the replacing minerals. Others, as in the case of\ncertain silicified tree trunks, may be preserved in minute detail.\nAlthough more than 50 minerals have been known to replace original\norganic structures, the most frequent replacing substances are calcite,\ndolomite (a calcium magnesium carbonate), silica, and certain iron\ncompounds.\n                   Replacement by calcareous material\nCalcareous replacement occurs when the hard parts of an organism are\nreplaced by calcite, dolomite, or aragonite (a mineral which is composed\nof calcium carbonate but which is less stable than calcite). The\nexoskeletons of many corals, echinoderms, brachiopods, and mollusks have\nbeen replaced in this manner.\n                   Replacement by siliceous material\nWhen the original organic hard parts have been replaced by silica the\nfossil is said to have undergone silicification, and this type of\nreplacement often produces a very high degree of preservation. This is\nparticularly true of the silicified Permian (geologic time scale, Pl. 1)\nfossils from the Glass Mountains in Brewster County. These fossils are\nembedded in limestone which must be dissolved in vats of acid, and after\nthe enclosing rock has been dissolved the residue yields an amazing\nvariety of perfectly preserved invertebrate fossils (Pl. 3).\nSilicified Cretaceous fossils have been recovered from the Edwards\nlimestone of central Texas. The silicified fauna is restricted to a few\nscattered localities, each of which may yield many unusually\nwell-preserved fossils.\n                     Replacement by iron compounds\nSeveral different iron compounds have been known to replace organic\nmatter. Many Texas limestones contain fossil snails and clams which have\nhad their original shell material replaced by iron compounds such as\nlimonite, hematite, marcasite, or pyrite. Certain of the fossiliferous\nTertiary sandstones of the Texas Gulf Coast area contain large amounts\nof glauconite which commonly replaced organic material.\nIn some areas entire faunas have been replaced by iron compounds. Such\nis the case in the famous \u201cPyrite Fossil Zone\u201d of the Pawpaw formation\n(Lower Cretaceous) in Tarrant County. The fossils in this part of the\nformation are very small or \u201cdwarfed\u201d and have been replaced by\nlimonite, hematite, or pyrite. Ammonites, clams, snails, and corals are\nparticularly abundant at this locality.\nFossils consist not only of plant and animal remains but of any evidence\nof their existence. In this type of fossilization there is no direct\nevidence of the original organism, rather there is some definite\nindication of the former presence of some ancient plant or animal.\nObjects of this sort normally furnish considerable information as to the\nidentity or characteristics of the organism responsible for them.\nMany shells, bones, leaves, and other forms of organic matter are\npreserved as molds and casts. If a shell had been pressed down into the\nocean bottom before the sediment had hardened into rock, it may have\nleft the impression of the exterior of the shell. This impression is\nknown as a _mold_ (Pl. 2). If at some later time this mold was filled\nwith another material, this produced a _cast_. This cast will show the\noriginal external characteristics of the shell. Such objects are called\n_external molds_ if they show the external features of the hard parts\n(Pl. 2, fig. 2) and _internal molds_ (Pl. 2, fig. 3) if the nature of\nthe inner parts is shown.\nMolds and casts are to be found in almost all of the fossil-bearing\nrocks of Texas, and they make up a large part of most fossil\ncollections. It is particularly common to find fossil clams and snails\npreserved by this method. This is primarily because their shells are\ncomposed of minerals that are relatively easy to dissolve, and the\noriginal shell material is often destroyed.\n                         Silicified Brachiopods\nAll specimens from Permian limestones of the Glass Mountains, Brewster\nCounty, Texas]\n  Figures\u2014\n    1, 2. _Avonia_ sp., \u00d72. Ventral and side view of two pedicle valves\n          showing long slender spines.\n    3. _Avonia_ sp., \u00d76. Young specimen showing attachment ring at apex.\n    4-6. _Muirwoodia multistriatus_ Meek, \u00d74. Respectively, side and\n          ventral view of pedicle valve and dorsal view of brachial\n    7-9. _\u201cMarginifera\u201d opima_ Girty. Respectively, ventral and side\n          view of pedicle valve showing long stout spines (\u00d74) and\n          interior of brachial valve showing muscle scars and brachial\n    10-13. _Aulosteges tuberculatus_ R. E. King, \u00d74. Respectively, side\n          and interior view of brachial valve showing muscle scars;\n          ventral view of pedicle valve showing brush of attachment\n          spines on ears; and ventral view of a young pedicle valve.\n    14. _Avonia_ sp., \u00d74. Ventral view of a specimen with long spines.\n    15, 16. _Avonia subhorrida_ (Meek), \u00d72. Ventral view of a pedicle\n          valve and dorsal view of a brachial valve showing spines on\n    17. _Avonia signata_ (Girty), \u00d72. Dorsal view of a large specimen\n          showing hairlike spines on brachial valve.\n    18-20. _Prorichthofenia permiana_ (Shumard). Respectively, side and\n          posterior view of pedicle valve (\u00d74) and interior of dorsal\n          valve (\u00d72) showing anchor spines and interior spines of the\n          brachial valve.\n    21. _Heteralosia hystricula_ (Girty), \u00d72. Cluster of individuals\n          attached to a large _Marginifera_.\n      Photograph courtesy of Dr. G. A. Cooper, U. S. National Museum.\n                      Tracks, Trails, and Burrows\nMany animals have left records of their movements over dry land or the\nsea bottom. Some of these, such as footprints (Pl. 4), indicate not only\nthe type of animal that left them but often provide valuable information\nabout the animal\u2019s environment.\nThus, the study of a series of dinosaur tracks would not only indicate\nthe size and shape of the foot but also provide some information as to\nthe weight and length of the animal. In addition, the type of rock\ncontaining the track would help determine the conditions under which the\ndinosaur lived.\nSome of the world\u2019s most famous dinosaur tracks are to be found in the\nLower Cretaceous limestones in Somervell County, Texas. These\nfootprints, which are about 110,000,000 years old (Pl. 4), were\ndiscovered in the bed of Paluxy Creek near the town of Glen Rose. Large\nsegments of the rock containing these tracks were collected by\npaleontologists of the American Museum of Natural History in New York\nCity and the Texas Memorial Museum at Austin. Great slabs of limestone\nwere transported to the museums, replaced in their original position,\nand are now on display as mute evidence of the gigantic size of these\ntremendous reptiles.\nInvertebrates also leave tracks and trails of their activities, and\nthese markings may be seen on the surfaces of many sandstone and\nlimestone deposits. These may be simple tracks, left as the animal moved\nover the surface, or the burrows of crabs or other burrowing animals.\nMarkings of this sort provide some evidence of the manner of locomotion\nof these organisms and of the type of environment that they inhabited.\nCoprolites are fossil dung or body waste (fig. 1). These objects can\nprovide valuable information as to the food habits or anatomical\nstructure of the animal that made them.\n     [Illustration: Fig. 1. Sketch of a coprolite\u2014fossilized animal\nThese highly polished well-rounded stones (fig. 2) are believed to have\nbeen used in the stomachs of reptiles for grinding the food into smaller\npieces. Large numbers of these \u201cstomach stones\u201d have been found with the\nremains of certain types of dinosaurs.\n [Illustration: Fig. 2. Sketch of a gastrolith\u2014the gizzard stone of an\nAmong the many inorganic objects formed by nature there are some that\nbear superficial resemblance to plants or animals. Because they are\noften mistaken for organic remains, these objects have been called\n_pseudofossils_, or \u201cfalse fossils.\u201d\n[Illustration: Fig. 3. Dendrites. These thin branching mineral deposits\n       bear a marked resemblance to plants, hence they are called\nAlthough these closely resemble the remains of ferns or other plant\nmaterial (fig. 3), dendrites are actually thin incrustations of\nmanganese dioxide. They are often found along the bedding planes of\nCretaceous and Paleozoic (geologic time scale, Pl. 1) limestones in many\nparts of Texas.\n  Dinosaur tracks in limestone in bed of Paluxy Creek near Glen Rose,\n                        Somervell County, Texas.\n     Photograph courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.\n                Permission to reproduce by R. T. Bird.]\nThese are striations that are produced when rock surfaces move past each\nother while being fractured. Slickensides may superficially resemble\ncertain of the Pennsylvanian coal plants of Texas.\nSince slickensides are commonly at an angle to the bedding plane and\nplant remains lie parallel to the bedding plane, the two are usually\neasily distinguished.\nMany shales and sandstones contain hardened masses of minerals and rock\nthat are often mistaken for fossils. These masses, called concretions,\nare usually found weathered out of the surrounding rock and may assume\nthe shape of bones, flowers, vegetables, turtles, etc. Although these\nconcretions do not represent organic remains, it is sometimes possible\nto find true fossils inside them.\n                    WHERE AND HOW TO COLLECT FOSSILS\nIn fossil collecting, as in most \u201ccollecting\u201d hobbies, the key to\nsuccess lies in knowing where to look, what equipment to use, and the\nmost effective methods of collecting.\n                          COLLECTING EQUIPMENT\nFossil collecting is a relatively inexpensive hobby because it requires\na minimum of supplies and equipment. However, as in almost any hobby,\nthere are certain basic items of equipment that must be acquired.\nThe hammer is the basic tool in the collector\u2019s kit. Almost any type of\nhammer is satisfactory, but as collecting experience is gained it may be\ndesirable to get a geologist\u2019s hammer. These hammers, also called\nmineralogist\u2019s or prospector\u2019s picks, are of two types. One type has a\nsquare head on one end and a pick on the other (Pl. 5): the other type\nis similar to a stonemason\u2019s or bricklayer\u2019s hammer and has a chisel end\ninstead of the pointed pick end. The square head of the hammer is useful\nin breaking or chipping harder rocks, and the chisel or pick end is good\nfor digging, prying, and splitting soft rocks.\nIt will be necessary to have some type of bag in which to carry\nequipment, fossils, and other supplies. A Boy Scout knapsack, musette\nbag (Pl. 5), hunting bag, or similar canvas or leather bag is suitable.\nA pair of chisels is useful when fossils must be chipped out of the\nsurrounding rock. Two sizes, preferably \u00bd and 1 inch, will usually\nsuffice. A small sharp punch or awl is effective in removing smaller\nspecimens from the softer rocks.\nSome specimens are more fragile than others, and these should be handled\nwith special care. Several sheets of newspaper should always be kept in\nthe collecting bag, and each specimen should be wrapped individually as\nit is collected. Such precautions taken in the field will usually\nprevent prized specimens from being broken or otherwise damaged. In\naddition to newspaper, it is wise to carry a supply of tissue paper in\nwhich to wrap more fragile specimens.\n                       Map, Notebook, and Pencil\nIt is most important to have some method of recording where the fossils\nwere found. It is very easy to forget where the material was collected,\nand one should _never_ rely on memory. A small pocket-sized notebook is\ninexpensive and just the right size to carry in the field.\nA highway or county map should be used to find the geographic location\nof each collecting locality. Maps of Texas counties can be obtained from\nthe Texas Highway Department, File D-10, Austin 14, Texas. These maps\ncome in three different sizes, but for most purposes the 18\u00d725-inch\nsheets, with a scale of \u00bd inch = 1 mile, will be satisfactory. These are\navailable for all counties and may be purchased at a nominal price.\nA magnifying glass or hand lens (Pl. 5) is useful for looking at small\nspecimens and will also prove helpful in examining the finer details of\nlarger fossils. A 10-power magnification is satisfactory for most\npurposes, and several inexpensive models are available.\nSmall bags are useful in separating specimens from different localities.\nHeavy-duty hardware bags for large rough material and medium-weight\ngrocery bags for smaller specimens may be used. Locality data may be\nwritten directly on the bag or on a label placed inside with the\nfossils. As an added precaution some collectors do both. The more\nserious collector may want to use a cloth geological sample bag (Pl. 5).\n                      FOSSIL COLLECTING EQUIPMENT]\n  GEOLOGIC HAMMER (Chisel end)\n  MAGNIFYING GLASS\n  GEOLOGIC HAMMER (Pick end)\n  COLLECTING BAG\n  SAMPLE SACK\nThe items described above are those that are most needed and constitute\nthe basic equipment of the fossil hunter. The serious amateur may wish\nto include certain additional items which will place his collecting on a\nmore professional basis. Some of these accessory items are:\n1. A _topographic map_ of the collecting area. These are available for\nmany parts of the State and are published and distributed at nominal\ncost by the United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C., and/or\nDenver, Colorado. The Survey can supply an index sheet showing all such\nmaps available for Texas.\n2. A _geologic map_ of the collecting area if one is available. The list\nof publications of the Bureau of Economic Geology should be consulted to\nsee if a geologic report or map of the area has been published. This\nlist may be obtained without charge from the Bureau of Economic Geology,\nThe University of Texas, Austin 12, Texas.\n3. The _geologic map of Texas_. Although a geologic map of Texas is\nincluded in this publication (Pl. 10), the scale is so small that its\nuse is somewhat limited. For more detailed work a larger geologic map in\ncolor (scale: 1 inch = 31.56 miles) may be ordered from the Bureau. The\nsale price is 25 cents.\n4. A _compass_ for more accurate location of collecting localities.\n5. _Adhesive_ or _masking tape_. The locality information can be written\non the tape and applied directly to the specimen.\n6. _Paper labels_ (about 3\u00d75 inches). A properly completed label should\nbe placed inside each bag of material.\nKnowing where to look for fossils is a very important part of fossil\ncollecting. It has already been pointed out that igneous and metamorphic\nrocks are not likely to be fossiliferous, but that most fossils are\nfound in marine sedimentary rocks. These sediments were deposited under\nconditions that were favorable for organisms during life and which\nfacilitated preservation after death. Limestones, limy shales, and\ncertain types of sandstones are typically deposited under such\nconditions.\nOne should look particularly for areas where rocks formed from marine\nsediments lie relatively flat and have not been greatly disturbed by\nheat, pressure, and other physical or chemical changes. If the rocks\nappear to have undergone considerable folding and fracturing, there is\ngreat likelihood that any fossils that were present have been destroyed\nor damaged by this action.\nQuarries are good places to look but one should be sure to obtain\npermission before entering. Rock exposures in quarries are rather fresh\nbut have undergone some weathering. Quarries have been opened in many of\nthe limestone formations of Texas, and large numbers of fine specimens\nhave been collected in some of these excavations. Certain Lower\nCretaceous limestones are useful for road metal, building stone, or in\nthe manufacture of portland cement, and extensive quarrying has been\nundertaken in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas (Pl. 9). Bones and\npetrified wood are frequently found in sand and gravel quarries in many\nparts of the State.\nParticular attention should be given to all railroad and highway cuts as\nrocks exposed in this way are usually still in their original position\nand are fairly well weathered. Cuts made by recent construction are\nusually more productive after they have undergone a period of weathering\nas this helps to separate the fossils from their enclosing rocks.\nGullies, canyons, and stream beds are also good places to examine. These\nareas are continually subjected to the processes of erosion or stream\naction, and new material is uncovered year after year.\nIf there are abandoned coal mines nearby, the dumps of waste rock around\nthe mine shafts could be checked. A careful examination of such waste\nmay reveal fine specimens of well-preserved plant fossils.\nCoal has been mined in several parts of Texas, and abandoned shafts or\ndumps are still present in some counties. The bituminous coals of Texas\nare predominantly Pennsylvanian in age, and mining has been carried on\nin the following counties: Eastland, Erath, Jack, Palo Pinto, Parker,\nWise, Young.\nWhen a likely collecting spot has been located, the ground should be\nexamined very carefully to see if there are any rock fragments which\ncontain pieces of shell or the imprints of leaves or other organisms.\nIf the fossils have been freed by weathering, they can be easily picked\nup and placed in the bag. Many times, however, it will be necessary to\ntake the hammer and very carefully remove the surrounding rock. Smaller\nspecimens may be more safely freed with the careful use of the proper\nsize chisel by gently tapping the chisel and gradually chipping away the\n_matrix_\u2014the rock that is holding the specimen. After most of the matrix\nhas been removed, the fossil should be carefully wrapped and placed in\nthe collecting bag.\nBefore leaving a collecting locality, one should be sure to record its\ngeographic location and the geologic age of the rock in which the\nfossils were found. The place should be located on the map and the\nlocality entered in the notebook in such a manner that it could easily\nbe located again for additional collecting. If a county or topographic\nmap is available, it is wise to mark the locality on the map. The\ngeographic and geologic data should be written on a label placed in the\nbag of fossils collected at that particular locality. In addition, many\ncollectors find it helpful to write the locality on the outside of each\nbag of fossils.\nMaterial from separate localities should be kept in individual cloth or\npaper bags, and the collector should take every precaution to keep the\nlabels with their respective fossils. Remember that _a fossil without a\nlocality is hardly worth the paper it is wrapped in_.\nThe collector should _always_ ask the land owner\u2019s permission before\nentering or collecting on private property. One should respect all\nproperty, especially livestock and fences, and leave the area cleaner\nthan when entered. If these precautions are observed, future collectors\nwill probably be welcome to return for additional collecting.\n                  CLEANING AND PREPARATION OF FOSSILS\nIt is usually necessary to do the final cleaning and preparation of\nfossils at home or in the laboratory, for most fossils brought in from\nthe field require considerable preparation before they are ready for\ndisplay.\nExcess matrix should be carefully removed with hammer and chisel; blows\nshould always be directed away from the fossil. Smaller tools (needles,\ntweezers, and awls) should be used in the final preparation stage, and\none should work carefully to avoid damaging the specimen. Before\nstarting the final cleaning, it will be helpful to place the fossils in\nwater and let them soak overnight. This will loosen much of the excess\nrock, and most of the softer material can then be removed with a small\nscrub brush or tooth brush. Mounted needles can be used to clean more\ndelicate specimens or around the smaller structures of larger fossils.\nIt may be advisable to use the magnifying glass when working with small\nfossils or with delicate surface structures of larger specimens.\nBroken fossils can be repaired with clear plastic household cement, and\nspecimens that are crumbling may be coated with pure white shellac,\nthinned collodion, or clear nail polish. The latter is preferred as it\nis not as likely to crack. Fragments of bone are particularly apt to\ncrumble upon exposure to the air. This type of fossil is normally quite\nfragile and should be excavated with great care and shellaced as soon as\ndry.\nDilute hydrochloric acid may be used in removing silicified fossils from\na calcareous matrix. The material to be etched should be placed in a\npottery or glass container and covered with water. Acid should then be\nadded to the water very slowly and until large numbers of bubbles are\ngiven off. Each time the bubbling ceases, more acid should be added and\nthis process should be repeated until the fossil is free of matrix. This\nprocedure should be carried on in a well-ventilated place, and the acid\nshould be handled with extreme caution. Hydrochloric acid can cause\ndamage or serious injury and the fumes are extremely corrosive.\nIn order to get the maximum pleasure out of fossil collecting, most\namateur paleontologists want to identify and classify the fossils that\nthey have collected. This requires some knowledge of how fossils are\nclassified and how they receive their scientific names.\n                     THE SCIENCE OF CLASSIFICATION\nThe number of organisms, both living and extinct, is so great that some\nsystem of classification is needed to link them all together. Many\nfossils bear distinct similarities to plants and animals that are living\ntoday, and for this reason paleontological classification is similar to\nthat used to classify modern organisms. This system, known as the system\nof _binomial nomenclature_, was first used consistently in 1758 by Linn\u00e9\n(or Linnaeus), an early Swedish naturalist.\nScientific names established in accordance with the principles of\nbinomial nomenclature consist of two parts: the _generic_ (or _genus_)\nname and the _trivial_ name. These names are commonly derived from Greek\nor Latin words which are usually descriptive of the organism or fossil\nbeing named. They may, however, be derived from the names of people or\nplaces, and in such instances the names are always Latinized. Greek or\nLatin is used because they are \u201cdead\u201d languages and not subject to\nchange. They are also \u201cinternational\u201d languages in that scientists all\nover the world can use the same names regardless of what language they\nwrite in. The system of binomial nomenclature has led to the development\nof the science of _taxonomy_, the systematic classification and naming\nof plants and animals according to their relationships.\n                      THE UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION\nThe world of organic life has been divided into the plant and animal\nkingdoms. These kingdoms have been further divided into larger divisions\ncalled _phyla_ (from the Greek word _phylon_, a race). Each phylum is\ncomposed of organisms with certain characteristics in common. For\nexample, all animals with a spinal cord (or notochord) are assigned to\nthe phylum Chordata.\nThe phylum is reduced to smaller divisions called _classes_, classes are\ndivided into _orders_, orders into _families_, families into _genera_,\nand each genus is divided into still smaller units called _species_. A\nspecies may be further reduced to subspecies, varieties, or other\nsubspecific categories, but these need not concern us in a publication\nof this nature.\nThe following table illustrates the use of binomial nomenclature in the\nclassification of man, a clam, and a dog.\n  Kingdom     Animalia    Animalia      Animalia\n  Phylum      Chordata    Chordata      Mollusca\n  Class       Mammalia    Mammalia      Pelecypoda\n  Order       Primates    Carnivora     Eulamellibranchia\n  Family      Hominidae   Canidae       Veneridae\n  Genus       _Homo_      _Canis_       _Venus_\n  Species     _sapiens_   _familiaris_  _mercenaria_\nThe generic name and the trivial name constitute the _scientific name_\nof a species and according to this system of classification the\nscientific name of all living men is _Homo sapiens_. It is obvious that\nthere are many variations among individual men, but all men have certain\ngeneral characteristics in common and are therefore placed in the same\nspecies.\nIn a scientific name, the generic name is always started with a capital\nletter and the trivial name with a small letter. Both names must be\nitalicized or underlined.\nThe name of the author (the person who first described the fossil)\nusually appears following the scientific name. The date of the\nscientific publication containing the original description of the fossil\nis often placed after the author. For example:\n             _Turrilites worthensis_ Adkins and Winton 1920\nWith the large numbers of plants and animals that are living today, plus\nthose of the past, random naming would result in much confusion. For\nthis reason scientists have established strict rules that must be\nfollowed when a specimen is named. The strict application of these rules\nenables scientists in all parts of the world to assign scientific names\nwithout fear of duplication.\n                       IDENTIFICATION OF FOSSILS\nThe beginning collector is usually content to know if his specimen is a\nclam or a snail or a fern or a palm leaf. But as the collection grows,\nit becomes increasingly desirable to know the scientific name of each\nfossil.\nWhen he starts to identify fossils it may be helpful to show them to a\ngeology teacher if a college or university is nearby. Most teachers are\nglad to be of help and will probably have similar specimens in their own\ncollections. As all colleges do not have geology departments, a list of\ninstitutions with geologists on their faculties is included at the end\nof this section of the handbook (p. 27). In addition, many of the\nscience teachers in the public schools are familiar with fossils and can\ngive helpful suggestions as to how to classify material.\nMuseums are also good places from which to get help. If the museum has a\ngeological collection, it will be most helpful to compare specimens with\nthe fossils in their collections and to ask the museum personnel for\nadvice. In addition to the above sources of information, local\nprofessional geologists are usually familiar with the geology of the\nlocal area and the paleontological literature of the region.\nPossibly local librarians can recommend books, encyclopedias, or other\npublications that will be of help. Members of a local rock and mineral\nclub, if one is available, are another source of information. Many times\nthese collectors can pass along good ideas and tell exactly which books\nto consult.\nAfter books or journals describing the fossils of the area have been\nlocated, the collected specimens should be closely compared with any\nillustrations that are shown. Each fossil should be examined carefully,\nits more characteristic features noted, and it should again be compared\nwith the illustrations and descriptions in the book. The phylum or class\nto which the specimen belongs should be determined first. For example,\nthe genus and species of a certain fossil may not be known, but it looks\nlike a snail and accordingly it is named a gastropod (for class\nGastropoda, the snail class), and this is, at least, a start in\ndetermining the scientific name of that particular fossil. The\ndescriptive material in the text of each reference will usually point\nout the more detailed features which will be diagnostic of the genus or\nspecies.\nThe illustrations and descriptive material in this publication will also\nbe of considerable help in identification. Many illustrations of the\nmore common invertebrate fossils have been included, but the publication\nwas not designed primarily for use in fossil identification. Rather, it\nis intended to guide the amateur or student who is interested in fossil\ncollecting, and to furnish suggestions as to how collecting may be more\neffectively pursued.\n                       USE OF IDENTIFICATION KEYS\nFossil identification keys may be useful in helping the beginning\ncollector identify specimens. The collector compares a fossil with the\nkey description and eliminates those characters that do not fit the\nspecimen.\nThe key used in this handbook is based primarily on _symmetry_\u2014the\norderly arrangement of the parts of an object with reference to lines,\nplanes, or points. The shape of the shell or body, presence or absence\nof coiling, and presence or absence of body partitions are also useful\ncriteria in identifying fossils. To use the key the beginner should know\nsomething about symmetry. Two major types of symmetry are used in this\nkey.\n  1. _Radial symmetry_\u2014the symmetrical repetition of parts around an\n  axis. This is the symmetry of a wheel, and any vertical section\n  through the center of the object divides it into symmetrical halves\n  2. _Bilateral symmetry_\u2014the symmetrical duplication of parts on each\n  side of a plane (fig. 5). The plane divides the object into two halves\n  that are mirror images of each other. This is the symmetry of a plank.\nIt should be noted that many objects may have both kinds of symmetry.\nFor example: A cone when viewed from the top has radial symmetry and\nwhen viewed from the side shows bilateral symmetry (fig. 4a, b).\n [Illustration: Fig. 4. Types of symmetry in a fossil coral. (a) Radial\n                   symmetry. (b) Bilateral symmetry.]\n  [Illustration: Fig. 5. Bilateral symmetry as displayed by a typical\nAn illustration of the use of the key on pages 26-27 follows. Assuming\nthat a specimen displays radial symmetry, this means that it belongs\nunder Part I on the key. If the fossil has a tapering, cylindrical,\ncone-shaped shell (\u201cA\u201d on the key), the subheadings under the \u201cA\u201d part\nof the key are examined. Should the specimen have a shell which is\nround, tapering at one end, with transverse septa or sutures (number 2\nunder \u201cA\u201d), it is probably a cephalopod. This is indicated on the right\nhand side of the page. Number 1 under \u201cA\u201d is eliminated because the\nfossil did not have longitudinal radial partitions within the shell.\nSome fossils display no apparent symmetry and such a fossil would be\nreferred to Part III of the key. If this fossil had internal transverse\npartitions \u201cA\u201d would be eliminated. If the fossil was not a coiled\nfossil \u201cB\u201d would also be eliminated and we would proceed directly to\n\u201cC\u201d\u2014uncoiled fossils. If the specimen is a branching twig-like fossil,\nnumbers 1, 2, and 3 would be eliminated and the specimen referred to\nnumber 4 (Branching twig-like fossils). Should the specimen have evenly\ndistributed relatively large openings with radial longitudinal\npartitions or septa, the specimen is probably a colonial coral (\u201cb\u201d\nunder number 4 on the key). The \u201ca\u201d part of number 4 would be eliminated\nbecause the coral had large openings and radial longitudinal septa.\nOnce a tentative identification has been made from the key, pictures and\ndescriptions of this fossil group are examined to establish a more\nprecise identification. It should be remembered that keys are not\nperfect, and the collector should not expect to be able to identify\nevery specimen with this key.\n        IDENTIFICATION KEY TO MAIN TYPES OF INVERTEBRATE FOSSILS\n(Instructions on pages 23-25 for use of key)\n  I. Fossils displaying radial symmetry\u2014symmetrical repetition of parts\n          around a central axis\n    A. Fossil tapering, cylindrical, cone-shaped:\n      1. Fossil with longitudinal radial partitions or septa;\n          cone-shaped\n      2. Shell with transverse septa or sutures; tapering at one end\n      3. Shell without internal septa or partitions:\n        a. Shell large, heavy; usually with external longitudinal ribs.\n            Occur only in Cretaceous rocks\n        b. Shell small (usually less than 2 inches long), tusk-shaped,\n            open at both ends. Rare in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks\n    B. Fossil disk-shaped or flattened dome-shaped:\n      1. Fossil with radiating star pattern on top\n      2. Fossil subconical to hemispherical, dome-shaped; base concave\n          or flat; minute pits or pores covering surface; typically\n          small (less than 3 inches across)\n      3. Fossil small (less than \u00bd inch); generally disk-shaped\n      4. Fossil disk-shaped or button-like; with longitudinal, radial\n          partitions or septa\n    C. Fossil composed of segments or plates:\n      1. Fossil composed of circular segments, disks, or chambers; when\n          united form cylinder:\n        a. Tapered shell\n        b. Non-tapered, segments small and of relatively uniform\n            thickness with hole in center; individual columnals\n            disk-shaped\n      2. Fossil composed of many-sided plates:\n        a. Bud-shaped fossil of 13 wedge-shaped plates\n        b. Cup-shaped fossil of many curved plates surrounded by\n            branching arms\n  II. Fossils displaying bilateral symmetry\u2014symmetrical duplication of\n          parts on each side of a plane\n    A. Fossil coiled in a single plane:\n      1. Shell divided by internal transverse partitions or sutures\n      2. Shell without internal partitions or sutures\n      3. Shell small; spindle-shaped; resembles wheat grain. Common in\n          Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks\n    B. Fossil not coiled:\n      1. Shells or valves similar to clams:\n        a. Plane of symmetry parallel to hinge; equivalved\n        b. Plane of symmetry (almost bilaterally symmetrical) at right\n            angles to hinge line; mostly inequivalved; strongly ribbed.\n            \u201cScallop-like\u201d with \u201cears.\u201d Rare in Paleozoic rocks\n        c. Plane of symmetry at right angles to hinge line;\n            inequivalved; not \u201cscallop-like\u201d and without \u201cears.\u201d Larger\n            valve commonly has an opening in beak. Common in Paleozoic\n      2. Fossil tapering, cylindrical, cone-shaped:\n        a. Fossil with internal longitudinal, radial septa or\n            partitions; cone-shaped\n        b. Shell with internal transverse partitions or sutures;\n            tapering at one end\n        c. Shell without internal septa or partitions.\n          (1) Shell large, heavy; usually with external longitudinal\n              ribs. Occur only in Cretaceous rocks\n          (2) Shell small (usually less than 2 inches), tusk-shaped,\n              open at both ends. Rare in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks\n      3. Fossil heart-shaped, domed or flattened; radial star pattern on\n      4. Fossil segmented:\n        a. Fossil divided into 3 lobes; may be curled up. Not found in\n            Mesozoic or Cenozoic rocks\n        b. Fossil flattened or elongate; resembles shrimp, crab, or\n            crayfish\n  III. Fossils displaying no apparent symmetry\n    A. Shell without transverse internal partitions or sutures:\n      1. Shell coiled like ram\u2019s horn, low spired, opening of shell very\n          large; surface has concentric ridges. Shell has two valves;\n          smaller, flattened valve not often found. In Texas found only\n          in Cretaceous rocks\n      (Note: Some Paleozoic gastropods, \u201c2,\u201d closely resemble larger\n          valve of these pelecypods)\n      2. Shell tightly coiled; most have higher spire than \u201c1.\u201d Opening\n          of shell smaller than \u201c1\u201d; shell not as rough as \u201c1\u201d and has\n          only one valve\n    B. Coiled fossils; coiling not in one plane:\n      1. Shell with transverse internal partitions or sutures:\n        a. Partitions always smooth; thick shelled; loosely and\n            irregularly coiled, usually in large compact masses of many\n            individual shells. Occur only in Cretaceous rocks\n        b. Partitions (sutures) usually wrinkled; relatively thin\n            shelled; mostly regularly and tightly coiled; occur as\n            separate individual specimens\n      2. Shell without transverse internal partitions or sutures\n      3. Solid spiral ridge around central axis; resembles a corkscrew\n    C. Uncoiled fossils:\n      1. Fossil resembles a narrow saw blade; typically found as thin\n          film of carbon. Not found in Mesozoic or Cenozoic rocks\n      2. Fossil irregularly cone-shaped; longitudinal radial partitions\n      3. Shell resembles a clam or oyster shell but valve or shell not\n          symmetrical\n      4. Branching twig-like fossils:\n        a. Fossils covered with minute pores or openings\n        b. Fossils with evenly distributed, relatively large openings\n            with longitudinal radial partitions or septa\n      5. Lace-like fossils; occur as thin sheets or films\n      6. Fossils composed of radiating masses of polygonal or circular\n          tubes containing radial septa\n      7. Irregular fossils; typically cylindrical with rough surface:\n        a. Fossil has large axial opening and thick wall; usually has\n            external longitudinal ribs. Occurs only in Cretaceous rocks\n        b. Fossil solid with no large axial opening; surface with small\n            pits or pores (fewer than in Bryozoa). In Texas, occurs most\n            commonly in Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks\n            LIST OF TEXAS COLLEGES OFFERING GEOLOGY COURSES\n  A.&M. College of Texas, College Station\n  Amarillo College, Amarillo\n  Arlington State College, Arlington\n  Austin College, Sherman\n  Baylor University, Waco\n  Blinn College, Brenham\n  Corpus Christi, University of, Corpus Christi\n  Del Mar College, Corpus Christi\n  East Texas State College, Commerce\n  Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene\n  Henderson County Junior College, Athens\n  Houston, University of, Houston\n  Howard County Junior College, Big Spring\n  Kilgore College, Kilgore\n  Lamar State College of Technology, Beaumont\n  Lee College, Baytown\n  McMurry College, Abilene\n  Midwestern University, Wichita Falls\n  North Texas State College, Denton\n  Odessa College, Odessa\n  Pan American College, Edinburg\n  Rice University, Houston\n  St. Mary\u2019s University, San Antonio\n  San Angelo College, San Angelo\n  San Antonio College, San Antonio\n  Southern Methodist University, Dallas\n  South Texas College, Houston\n  Southwestern University, Georgetown\n  Stephen F. Austin State College, Nacogdoches\n  Sul Ross State College, Alpine\n  Tarleton State College, Stephenville\n  Texarkana College, Texarkana\n  Texas Christian University, Fort Worth\n  Texas College, Tyler\n  Texas College of Arts and Industries, Kingsville\n  Texas Technological College, Lubbock\n  Texas Western College, El Paso\n  The University of Texas, Austin\n  Trinity University, San Antonio\n  Tyler Junior College, Tyler\n  West Texas State College, Canyon\n                      Fossil Identification Chart\n  A. Tapering, cylindrical cone-shaped fossils\n    1. Cone-shaped with longitudinal partitions or septa\n    2. Fossils with septa or sutures; tapering at one end\n    3. Shell without internal partitions or sutures\n      a. Shell large heavy, external longitudinal ribs. Cretaceous only\n      b. Shell small, tusk-shaped open at both ends. Rare in Paleozoic\n          and Mesozoic\n  B. Disc or dome-shaped fossils\n    1. Star pattern on top\n    2. Subconical small pits or pores on top\n    3. Small disc-shaped (less than \u00bd inch)\n    4. Disc-shaped or button-like, with longitudinal partitions or septa\n  C. Fossils composed of segments or plates\n    1. Circular discs or chambers; when united form cylinder\n      a. Tapered shell\n      b. Not tapered, segments small of uniform thickness, hole in\n    2. Fossil composed of many-sided plates\n      a. Bud-shaped, 13 wedge-shaped plates\n      b. Cup-shaped, many curved plates branching arms\n                      Fossil Identification Chart\n                         II BILATERAL SYMMETRY]\n  A. Fossil coiled in a single plane\n    1. Shell divided by internal transverse partitions or sutures\n    2. Shell without internal partitions or sutures\n    3. Shell small, spindle-shaped; resembles wheat grain. Pennsylvanian\n          and Permian\n  B. Fossil not coiled\n    1. Shells or valves similar to clams\n      a. Plane of symmetry parallel to hinge; equivalved\n      b. Plane of symmetry almost at right angles to hinge; strongly\n          ribbed; \u201cScallop-like\u201d with \u201cears\u201d, inequivalved\n      c. Plane of symmetry at right angles to hinge-line; without\n          \u201cears\u201d, not \u201cScallop-like\u201d; commonly with opening in beak,\n          inequivalved\n    2. Fossil tapering, cylindrical or cone-shaped\n      a. Cone-shaped, internal longitudinal partitions or septa\n      b. Tapered, internal transverse partitions\n      c. Shell without internal septa or partitions\n        (1.) Shell large heavy, longitudinal ribs. Cretaceous only\n        (2.) Shell small, tusk-shaped, open at both ends, rare in\n            Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks\n    3. Fossil heart-shaped, domed or flattened; star pattern on top\n    4. Fossil segmented\n      a. Divided into 3 lobes, may be curled up. Paleozoic only\n      b. Flattened or elongate, resembles shrimp\n                      Fossil Identification Chart\n                       III NO APPARENT SYMMETRY]\n  A. Shell without transverse partitions or sutures\n    1. Shell coiled like ram\u2019s horn, low spired; shell has two valves,\n          smaller flattened valve often missing. In Texas exclusively\n          Cretaceous\n    2. Shell tightly coiled, most have higher spire than 1, shell\n          smaller and not as rough as 1, has only one valve\n  B. Coiled fossils, coiling not in one plane\n    1. Shell with transverse internal partitions or sutures\n      a. Partitions always smooth, thick shelled, loosely and\n          irregularly coiled, in Texas exclusively Cretaceous\n      b. Partitions (sutures) generally wrinkled, regularly and tightly\n    2. Shell without transverse internal partitions or sutures\n    3. Solid spiral ridge around central axis, resembles corkscrew\n  C. Uncoiled fossils\n    1. Fossil resembles narrow saw blade. Paleozoic only\n    2. Fossil irregularly cone-shaped, longitudinal partitions or septa\n    3. Shell resembles clam or oyster, nonsymmetrical\n    4. Branching twig-like fossils\n      a. Covered with minute pores or openings\n      b. With evenly distributed larger openings with septa\n    5. Lace-like fossils, occur as thin sheets or films\n    6. Masses of circular or polygonal tubes with septa\n    7. Irregular fossils, cylindrical with rough surface\n      a. Large axial opening with thick wall, external longitudinal\n          ribs. Cretaceous only\n      b. Solid, no opening, small pits or pores. Pennsylvanian or\n          Permian\n                       CATALOGING THE COLLECTION\nAfter the fossils have been cleaned and tentatively identified, they\nshould be cataloged. This is necessary to enable the collector to have a\nrecord of his collection and to furnish as much information as possible\nabout each individual fossil.\nThe collecting data can be taken from the labels that were placed in\neach bag of fossils as they were collected, or from the field notebook.\nActually, it is wise to check one against the other. This information\nshould then be entered in some type of record book and also placed on a\nmore permanent label which is put in the tray or box with the fossil.\nThe catalog and label should contain such pertinent data as (1) the\nscientific name of the fossil, (2) the geologic formation from which the\nspecimen was collected, (3) the exact geographic location of the\ncollecting locality, (4) the name of the collector, (5) the date the\nfossil was collected, and (6) the catalog number of the specimen. The\nlatter is usually placed in the upper right hand corner of the label\n(fig. 6) and corresponds with a like number in the record book.\n  Specimen No. P-185\n  NAME Spirifer rockymontanus\n  FORMATION Big Saline (Penn.)\n  LOCALITY Little Brady Creek, McCulloch Co., Tex.\n          (1000\u2032 NE of Smith ranch House)\n  COLLECTOR F. B. Plummer\n  DATE July 1937\n [Illustration: Fig. 6. A brachiopod showing the catalog number on it,\n       and the accompanying label that pertains to the specimen.]\nThe entries in the catalog should be numbered consecutively, and all\nspecimens from the same locality should bear the same number. This\nnumber should be written on the fossil with India ink, preferably on any\nremaining matrix or on some inconspicuous part of the specimen (fig. 6).\nIf the surface of the fossil is too coarse or porous for ink, the\ncatalog number can be written on a small patch of white enamel or clear\nnail polish painted on the specimen. After the ink has dried it should\nbe coated with a dab of clear shellac or clear nail polish to help\npreserve the number. If each specimen is numbered, it can easily be\nidentified even if it should become separated from its label.\nFossils are useful in a number of different ways, for each specimen\nprovides some information about when it lived, where it lived, and how\nit lived.\nFossils are very important, for example, in tracing the development of\nthe plants and animals of our earth. This is possible because the\nfossils in the older rocks are usually primitive and relatively simple;\nbut a study of similar specimens that lived in later geologic time shows\nthat the fossils become progressively more complex and more advanced in\nthe younger rocks.\nSome fossils, for example, the reef-building corals, appear to have\nalways lived under much the same conditions as they live today. Hence,\nit is reasonably certain that the rocks containing fossil reef corals\nfound in place (that is, where they were originally buried), were\ndeposited in warm, fairly shallow, salt water. By studying the\noccurrence and distribution of such marine fossils, it is possible to\noutline the location and extent of prehistoric seas. Moreover, the type\nof fossils present will frequently give some indication as to the bottom\nconditions, depth, temperature, and salinity of these ancient bodies of\nwater.\nProbably the most important use of fossils is for purposes of\n_correlation_\u2014the process of demonstrating that certain rock layers are\nclosely related to each other. By correlating or \u201cmatching\u201d the beds\ncontaining specific fossils, it is possible to determine the\ndistribution of geologic units of similar age. Some fossils have a very\nlimited vertical or geologic range and a wide horizontal or geographic\nrange. In other words, they lived but a relatively short period in\ngeologic time but were rather widely distributed during their relatively\nshort life. Such fossils are known as _index fossils_ or _guide fossils_\nand are especially useful in correlation because they are normally only\nassociated with rocks of one certain age.\n  [Illustration: Fig. 7. Sketches of two types of micropaleontological\n    slides. (a) Multiple space faunal slide. (b) Single-hole slide.]\nMicrofossils are often very valuable as guide fossils for the petroleum\ngeologist. The micropaleontologist washes the well cuttings from the\ndrill hole and separates the tiny fossils from the surrounding rocks.\nThe specimens are then mounted on special slides (fig. 7) and studied\nunder the microscope. Information derived from these fossils often\nprovides valuable data on the age of the subsurface formation and the\npossibilities of oil production. Microfossils are particularly valuable\nin the oil fields of the Gulf Coast region of Texas. In fact, some of\nthe oil-producing zones in this area have even been named for certain\nkey genera of microfossils. For example, the \u201chet\u201d zone of Oligocene age\n(geologic time scale, Pl. 1) is named for the genus _Heterostegina_,\nwhich is a tiny one-celled animal. Other microfossils, such as\nfusulinids, ostracodes, spores, and pollens, are also used to identify\nsubsurface formations in many other parts of the State.\nPlant fossils are very useful as climatic indicators but are not too\nreliable for purposes of age determination. They do, however, provide\nmuch information about the development of plants throughout geologic\ntime.\nThe geologic history of our earth has been recorded primarily in marine\nsedimentary rocks, and this record indicates that our earth is very old\nand that life has been present for many millions of years. The earth is\nnot only extremely old (more than 3\u00bd billion years of age), but it has\nalso undergone many changes which have taken place slowly but steadily\nand have greatly affected both the earth and its inhabitants. The\nearth\u2019s physical features have not always been as they are seen today.\nGeologic research has shown that mountains now occupy the sites of\nancient seas, and that coal is being mined where swamps existed millions\nof years ago. Furthermore, there is much evidence to indicate that\nplants and animals have also undergone great change. The trend of this\norganic change is, in general, toward more complex and advanced forms of\nlife, but some forms have remained virtually unchanged and others have\nbecome extinct.\nIn order to interpret geologic history, the earth scientist must attempt\nto gather evidence of the great changes in climate, geography, and life\nthat took place in the geologic past. The record of these changes can be\nfound in the rocks, and here is found the story of the various events in\nearth history.\n                     GEOLOGIC COLUMN AND TIME SCALE\nIn order to discuss fossils and the age of the rocks containing them, it\nis necessary to become familiar with the _geologic column_ and the\n_geologic time scale_ (Pl. 1).\nThe _geologic column_ refers to the total succession of rocks, from the\noldest to most recent, that are found either locally or in the entire\nearth. Thus, the geologic column of Texas includes all rock divisions\nknown to be present in this State. By referring to the geologic column\npreviously worked out for any given area, the geologist can determine\nwhat type of rocks he might expect to find in that particular region.\nThe _geologic time scale_ is composed of units which represent intervals\nof geologic time, during which were deposited the rocks represented in\nthe geologic column. These time units are used by the geologist to date\nthe events that have taken place in the geologic past.\nThe largest unit of geologic time is an era, and each era is divided\ninto smaller time units called _periods_. A period of geologic time is\ndivided into _epochs_, which, in turn, may be subdivided into still\nsmaller units. The geologic time scale might be roughly compared to the\ncalendar in which the year is divided into months, months into weeks,\nand weeks into days. Unlike years, however, geologic time units are\narbitrary and of unequal duration, and the geologist cannot be positive\nabout the exact length of time involved in each unit. The time scale\ndoes, however, provide a standard by which he can discuss the age of\nfossils and their surrounding rocks. By referring to the time scale it\nmay be possible, for instance, to state that a certain event occurred\nduring the Paleozoic era in the same sense that one might say that\nsomething happened during the American Revolution.\nThere are five eras of geologic time, and each has been given a name\nthat is descriptive of the degree of life development that characterizes\nthat era. Hence, Paleozoic means \u201cancient-life,\u201d and the era was so\nnamed because of the relatively simple and ancient stage of life\ndevelopment.\nThe eras, a guide to their pronunciation, and the literal translation of\neach name is shown below.\n  Cenozoic (SEE-no-zo-ic)\u2014\u201crecent-life\u201d\n  Mesozoic (MES-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cmiddle-life\u201d\n  Paleozoic (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cancient-life\u201d\n  Proterozoic (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cprimitive-life\u201d\n  Archeozoic (AR-kee-o-zo-ic)\u2014\u201cbeginning-life\u201d\nArcheozoic and Proterozoic rocks are commonly grouped together and\nreferred to as Precambrian in age. The Precambrian rocks have been\ngreatly contorted and metamorphosed, and the record of this portion of\nearth history is most difficult to interpret. Precambrian time\nrepresents that portion of geologic time from the beginning of earth\nhistory until the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous Cambrian\nstrata. If the earth is as old as is believed, Precambrian time may\nrepresent as much as 85 percent of all geologic time.\nThe _oldest_ era is at the _bottom_ of the list because this part of\ngeologic time transpired first and was then followed by the successively\nyounger eras which are placed above it. Therefore, the geologic time\nscale is always read _from the bottom of the chart upward_. This is, of\ncourse, the order in which the various portions of geologic time\noccurred and during which the corresponding rocks were formed.\nAs mentioned above, each of the eras has been divided into periods, and\nmost of these periods derive their names from the regions in which the\nrocks of each were first studied. For example, the Pennsylvanian rocks\nof North America were first studied in the State of Pennsylvania.\nThe Paleozoic era has been divided into seven periods of geologic time.\nWith the oldest at the bottom of the list, these periods and the source\nof their names are:\n  Permian (PUR-me-un)\u2014from the Province of Perm in Russia\n  Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)\u2014from the State of Pennsylvania\n  Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un)\u2014from the Upper Mississippi Valley\n  Devonian (de-VO-ni-un)\u2014from Devonshire, England\n  Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un)\u2014for the Silures, an ancient tribe of Britain\n  Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)\u2014for the Ordovices, an ancient tribe of\n          Britain\n  Cambrian (KAM-bri-un)\u2014from the Latin word _Cambria_, meaning Wales\nThe Carboniferous period in Europe includes the Mississippian and\nPennsylvanian periods of North America. Although this classification is\nno longer used in the United States, the term Carboniferous will be\nfound in many of the earlier geological publications and on many of the\nearlier geologic maps.\nThe periods of the Mesozoic era and the source of their names are:\n  Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus)\u2014from the Latin word _creta_, meaning chalky\n  Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)\u2014from the Jura Mountains of Europe\n  Triassic (try-ASS-ik)\u2014from the Latin word _triad_, meaning three\nIn Texas, the Cretaceous has two divisions, known as either Lower\nCretaceous and Upper Cretaceous or as Comanche series and Gulf series,\nrespectively. These designations are for rocks of nearly equivalent age,\nand both sets of terms have been used by geologists and in publications.\nIn this handbook, both sets of terms are used interchangeably, that is,\nLower Cretaceous and/or Comanche series and Upper Cretaceous and/or Gulf\nseries.\nThe Cenozoic periods derived their names from an old outdated system of\nclassification which divided all of the earth\u2019s rocks into four groups.\nThe two divisions listed below are the only names of this system which\nare still in use:\n  Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)\n  Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)\nWhile the units discussed above are the major divisions of geologic\n_time_, the geologist usually works with smaller units of _rocks_ called\n_formations_. A geologic formation is identified and established on the\nbasis of definite physical and chemical characteristics of the rocks.\nFormations are usually given geographic names which are combined with\nthe type of rock that makes up the bulk of the formation. For example,\nthe Beaumont clay was named from clay deposits that are found in and\naround Beaumont, Texas.\nThe geologic history of Texas, like the geologic history of the rest of\nthe earth, is recorded primarily in marine sedimentary rocks. These\nrocks provide some knowledge of the early geography and the first\ninhabitants of what is now the State of Texas. Most of these rocks were\nformed from sediments deposited in shallow seas which covered parts of\nthe State at various times in earth history.\nBy studying these rocks and their relations to each other, geologists\nhave established a geologic column for Texas.\nIn order to discuss the distribution and exposures of the rocks of\nTexas, it is helpful to be familiar with the _physiography_ of the\nState. Physiography deals with the study of the origin and description\nof land forms, such as mountains, valleys, and plains. Plate 9 is a map\nof Texas which shows the major physiographic provinces within the State.\nThe majority of the land forms in Texas have been produced by the\nprocesses of erosion attacking the structural features of an area.\nCertain other land forms may be related to the effects of igneous\nactivity which resulted in the accumulation of large masses of igneous\nrocks. The Davis Mountains are an example of surface features produced\nin this manner.\nIn discussing the physiography of Texas, three major physiographic\nprovinces will be recognized. These are (1) the Trans-Pecos region, (2)\nthe Texas Plains, and (3) the Gulf Coastal Plain (Pl. 9).\nThe Trans-Pecos region, located in the westernmost part of the State, is\nan area of mountains and plateaus with broad basins between the major\nmountain ranges. Many different types of rocks are exposed in\nTrans-Pecos Texas and these include marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial\ndeposits. In many areas igneous rocks flowed out on the surface and now\noverlie sedimentary rocks. There are also many places where igneous\nrocks have been injected into the surrounding rocks, and these igneous\nrocks have been exposed by later erosion.\nIncluded within this area is the Van Horn uplift of southern Hudspeth\nand Culberson counties, the Solitario uplift of southern Presidio and\nBrewster counties, and the Marathon uplift of northeast Brewster County.\nThis region also includes the Big Bend area of Texas, a part of which\nhas been set aside as a National Park where many interesting and\nimportant geological features may be seen.\nThe Trans-Pecos region is one of rugged topography with elevations as\nhigh as 8,700 feet, at Guadalupe Peak in the Guadalupe Mountains of\nnorthern Culberson County, and as low as 1,500 feet, in the Rio Grande\nvalley.\nNumerous invertebrate fossils occur in the Cretaceous limestones and\nshales of the Trans-Pecos region and in the Paleozoic rocks of the\nMarathon uplift. The Gaptank formation of Pennsylvanian age and the\nPermian reef limestones of the Glass Mountains are especially\nfossiliferous. In addition, many vertebrate fossils have been collected\nin Trans-Pecos Texas, particularly in and around Big Bend National Park.\nThe plains of Texas are broad expanses of country with very little\nsurface relief. Most of the plains support grasses and some have wooded\nareas, particularly along stream valleys.\nThe plains of the northwestern part of the State have been subdivided as\nfollows.\nThis area (Pl. 9), often called \u201cthe caprock,\u201d is an elevated plateau\nwhich rises above the rolling plains which surround it. The High Plains\nare bounded by the Pecos River valley on the south, southeast, and west\nand by the North-Central Plains on the east.\nThe surface of the High Plains is very flat and characterized by a\nsparse cover of grasses and few trees. The surface strata consist\nlargely of unconsolidated deposits of sands and gravels of Quaternary\nand Tertiary age, with remnants of Lower Cretaceous limestones along the\nsouthern margin. The rocks of the High Plains are mostly\nunfossiliferous, but mammalian remains have been found at several\nlocalities.\n                      Physiographic map of Texas.]\n  HIGH PLAINS\n  NORTH-CENTRAL PLAINS\n  GRAND PRAIRIE\n  TRANS-PECOS TEXAS\n  VAN HORN UPLIFT\n  THE BIG BEND AREA\n  SOLITARIO UPLIFT\n  MARATHON UPLIFT\n  EDWARDS PLATEAU\n  LLANO UPLIFT\n  BALCONES FAULT ZONE\n  GULF COASTAL PLAIN\nSurface strata of the North-Central Plains (Pl. 9) are westward-dipping\nPennsylvanian, Permian, and Triassic rocks. Present also are extensive\nexposures of Quaternary sands and gravels which trend north-south across\nthe central portion of the region. The area is bounded on the west by\nthe High Plains, on the east by the Grand Prairie, and on the south by\nthe Edwards Plateau and Llano uplift. Many vertebrate fossils have been\ncollected from the Permian and Triassic rocks of this area. There are\nalso many excellent outcrops of fossiliferous Pennsylvanian formations\nin the North-Central Plains region.\nThe Edwards Plateau (Pl. 9) is located in south-central Texas and is\nbounded on the south by the Balcones fault zone and on the north by the\nNorth-Central Plains. The surface of the area is typically flat with a\ngentle slope to the south. The rocks of the Edwards Plateau consist\nprimarily of Lower Cretaceous limestones and shales, many of which are\nvery fossiliferous.\nThis area (Pl. 9) has a relatively flat surface but there are areas of\ngently rolling hills. The eastern boundary of the Grand Prairie is\nmarked partly by the Balcones fault zone. North of McLennan County,\nhowever, the Balcones fault zone is not expressed at the surface and in\nthis area the eastern boundary is defined by the western edge of the\nWoodbine exposures. Upper and Lower Cretaceous rocks occur at the\nsurface and dip to the southeast; many of these rocks contain a large\nnumber of invertebrate fossils.\nThe Llano uplift (Pl. 9) is located in the central part of the State\nwhere Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks of\nearly Paleozoic age occur on the surface. The area, which now appears as\na basin-shaped depression, was at one time covered by Lower Cretaceous\nrocks and perhaps also by Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian\nstrata. These have since been removed by erosion. The east, south, and\nwest sides of the uplift are surrounded by Lower Cretaceous rocks, and\nthe northern margin is marked by the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian\nformations of the North-Central Plains. The area is, in general,\ncomposed of unfossiliferous rocks, but some invertebrate fossils\n(primarily trilobites and brachiopods) have been collected.\nThe Gulf Coastal Plain (Pl. 9) is composed of Cretaceous, Tertiary, and\nQuaternary rocks and includes the eastern, southeastern, and southern\nportions of the State. The rocks of the area consist of sands, clays,\nshales, and limestones. The Texas Gulf Coastal Plain is bounded on the\nnorth and west by the Balcones fault zone, on the south and southwest by\nthe Gulf of Mexico, and extends eastward into Arkansas and Louisiana.\nThe region has broad river valleys and uplands of low relief, but there\nis an increase in relief toward the interior of the State. The surface\nof the area slopes gradually toward the Gulf and successively younger\nformations are encountered gulfward.\nThe rocks of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain are relatively\nunfossiliferous, but many of the Upper Cretaceous rocks contain fossils.\nIn the central portion of the region some marine formations of Tertiary\nage locally contain well-preserved invertebrate fossils.\nGeologic studies of the State of Texas have indicated the presence of\nrocks formed during every era and period of geologic time. These range\nfrom the Precambrian granites of the Llano uplift to the Quaternary\ngravels of the High Plains.\n                   GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC MAP OF TEXAS\n               Modified from Geologic Map of Texas, 1933]\nOne of the best ways to become acquainted with the geology of Texas is\nto study the _geologic map_ of the State (Pl. 10). A geologic map shows\nthe distribution and age of surface rocks and may also indicate what\nkind of geologic structures are present. The types of rocks that crop\nout at the surface may be shown by means of symbols, colors, or\npatterns, and these are explained by a legend which accompanies the map.\nOn Plate 10, colors are used to show the distribution and geologic age\nof the surface rocks of Texas. Reference to this map will give the\ncollector some idea of the age of the fossils that might be found in a\ngiven area. Some special geologic maps may have the location of geologic\nstructures and formation contacts indicated by means of symbols, such as\ndashed lines, arrows, and similar special markings. However, the map\nincluded in this publication does not show any of these special\nmarkings.\nThe Precambrian rocks of Texas are composed of igneous and metamorphic\nrocks and some sedimentary rocks. Most of the Precambrian outcrops are\nin the Llano uplift and El Paso and Van Horn regions.\nAlterations produced by vast amounts of time, heat, and pressure have\nobliterated any trace of fossils that may have been present in these\nrocks. With the exception of some questionable primitive plants\ncollected in the Van Horn region, no Precambrian fossils have been\nreported from Texas.\nRocks of Paleozoic age are widespread in Texas, and rocks of each period\nare well exposed. Outcrops are found in the Llano uplift, North-Central\nPlains, and Trans-Pecos region. The most extensive exposures are of\nPennsylvanian and Permian age, and the former are highly fossiliferous\nin parts of the North-Central Plains.\nRocks of late Cambrian age are exposed in the Llano, Marathon, and\nSolitario uplifts, and the Franklin Mountains near El Paso. These are\nsedimentary rocks consisting of conglomerates, sandstones, shales,\nlimestones, and some dolomites.\nSome of these formations are relatively fossiliferous, but the specimens\nare commonly fragmental and very poorly preserved. Fossils that are apt\nto be found in the Cambrian rocks of the Llano uplift include\nbrachiopods, gastropods, trilobites, and small rounded objects believed\nto have been formed by algae (primitive one-celled plants). In other\nparts of the State, Cambrian rocks are sparsely fossiliferous and the\nfossils consist primarily of fragmental brachiopods, trilobites, and\nalgae.\nOrdovician outcrops are present in the Llano uplift of central Texas and\nin the Marathon, Solitario, El Paso, and Van Horn regions of Trans-Pecos\nTexas. These are sedimentary rocks and consist largely of sandstones,\ncherts, limestones, and dolomites.\nAlthough some of the Ordovician formations are fossiliferous, they are\nseldom collected by amateur paleontologists because they are exposed in\nrelatively inaccessible places and the fossils are usually poorly\npreserved. Ordovician fossils reported from Texas include sponges,\ncorals, brachiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, and trilobites. In\naddition, the Marathon formation of the Marathon uplift contains large\nnumbers of well-preserved graptolites (fig. 24, p. 86).\nThe Silurian of Texas is poorly represented in surface exposures, and\nonly one formation, the Fusselman, has been described. The Fusselman\ncrops out in the El Paso and Van Horn regions where it is a white\ndolomitic limestone. Fossils are not abundant in this formation, but\nbrachiopods and corals have been collected at a few localities.\nDevonian rocks are best developed in Trans-Pecos Texas, especially in\nthe Marathon, El Paso, and Van Horn regions. In addition to the\nTrans-Pecos exposures, there are minor outcrops of Devonian rocks in the\nLlano uplift of central Texas.\nFossils are rare and fragmental in the Trans-Pecos exposures and consist\nprimarily of radiolarians and brachiopods. The Devonian rocks of central\nTexas are predominantly calcareous and, although the material is usually\npoorly preserved, many fossils have been collected from them. These\ninclude bryozoans, corals, brachiopods, gastropods, and trilobites.\nConodonts and fragments of primitive armored fishes (Pl. 37) have also\nbeen reported.\nMississippian rocks are exposed in the Llano region and in the Hueco\nMountains of the Trans-Pecos area. The Trans-Pecos rocks primarily\ncontain brachiopods with some bryozoans and gastropods.\nThe central Texas Mississippian rocks are much more fossiliferous and\nsome of the material is well preserved. Fossils reported from this area\ninclude brachiopods (Pl. 17), crinoids, gastropods, cephalopods,\ntrilobites, and ostracodes.\nPennsylvanian rocks are well represented in Texas and are exposed in the\nLlano uplift, north-central Texas, and Trans-Pecos Texas.\nIn Trans-Pecos Texas fossiliferous rocks crop out in the Hueco and\nDiablo Mountains. Fossils found in this area are algae, fusulinids,\ncorals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, and crinoids.\nThere is also a thick section of Pennsylvanian rocks in the Marathon\nuplift, but only one formation, the Gaptank, is very fossiliferous. It\ncontains many fossils including fusulinids, sponges, corals, bryozoans,\nbrachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods, cephalopods, and crinoids.\nCertain Pennsylvanian strata in the Llano region are very fossiliferous,\nand the material is well preserved. The more abundant forms are\nfusulinids, corals, brachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods, cephalopods,\nand crinoids.\nProbably the best Pennsylvanian collecting areas are to be found in\nnorth-central Texas. Here the thick marine limestones and shales contain\nlarge numbers of well-preserved invertebrate fossils, and the\nterrestrial or shallow marine strata have yielded an abundance of plant\nfossils. Invertebrate fossils are apt to be found along the banks of\nstreams and gullies and in railroad and highway cuts. Many of the\nlimestones bear large numbers of fusulinids or crinoid stems, and the\nshales may contain many corals, brachiopods, and mollusks. The best\ncollecting will, of course, be found where the rocks have been\nsufficiently weathered.\n [Illustration: Fig. 8. Sketch of typical crinoidal limestone from the\n                     Pennsylvanian of north Texas.]\nTypical invertebrate fossils are foraminifera (principally fusulinids),\ncorals (especially the solitary or \u201chorn\u201d corals), brachiopods,\nbryozoans (the lacy and branching types are most common), pelecypods,\ngastropods (exhibiting a variety of coiling), cephalopods (nautiloids\nand goniatites predominate), and crinoids, which in many areas are found\nin thick crinoidal limestones (fig. 8). Some typical Pennsylvanian\nfossils are illustrated in Plates 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 32,\nand 35.\nPermian rocks are found in widely separated areas in Texas. The best\nexposed section of marine Permian rocks is found in the Glass Mountains\nof Brewester County, and many of these rocks are very fossiliferous. The\noriginal shell material of some of the Permian fossils of this area has\nbeen replaced by siliceous material which is very well preserved. These\nsilicified fossils are removed from the limestone by solution in acid,\nand some most remarkable specimens have been recovered in this manner\n(Pl. 3). Brachiopods are the most common fossils, but corals, bryozoans,\nand mollusks have also been recovered.\nExtensive Permian exposures occur also in the central part of the\nNorth-Central Plains region. These rocks were formed from sediments of\nboth marine and continental origin and some of them are fossiliferous.\nThe marine rocks contain a variety of invertebrate fossils including\nbrachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, and ammonoids. Those rocks\nrepresenting terrestrial deposits contain vertebrate remains at many\nlocalities, and numerous amphibians and primitive reptiles (Pl. 40) have\nbeen collected from them.\nMesozoic rocks occur over a wide area of Texas and include exposures of\nTriassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous age. Many of the Upper and Lower\nCretaceous outcrops are quite fossiliferous and easily accessible and\nthus of considerable interest to many amateur collectors.\nTriassic rocks crop out in parts of the High Plains, the Glass Mountains\nof Trans-Pecos Texas, and parts of Pecos, Crockett, Upton, Reagan, and\nGlasscock and other west Texas counties. These are predominantly\nnonmarine rocks consisting of conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and\nsome gypsum beds.\nTriassic fossils are almost exclusively vertebrates, although some\npoorly preserved plant and invertebrate remains have been reported.\nFossil vertebrates of the Texas Triassic include phytosaurs (Pl. 42),\ncrocodiles, amphibians, and fish.\nIn Texas, surface exposures of Jurassic rocks are known only from Malone\nMountain in southwestern Hudspeth County. The rocks there are\nlimestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. Fossils reported from\nthat locality include marine and fresh-water pelecypods, fresh-water\ngastropods, and ammonites.\nRocks of Cretaceous age are widely distributed in Texas and represent\none of the more important rock systems of the State. Cretaceous outcrops\noccur in central Texas, north Texas, the Edwards Plateau, parts of the\nHigh Plains, the Gulf Coastal Plain, and Trans-Pecos Texas.\nAs mentioned earlier, the Texas Cretaceous has been divided into the\nLower Cretaceous (Comanche series) and Upper Cretaceous (Gulf series).\nThese rocks consist primarily of marls (a type of calcareous clay),\nshales, chalks, and limestones, but sands and conglomerates also occur.\nCretaceous rocks occur on the surface of about 28 percent of Texas, and\nmany of the larger cities of the State are situated on Cretaceous\nstrata.\nMany of the Gulf and Comanche formations contain fossils which are of\ninterest both to amateur and professional paleontologists. Because of\ntheir wide distribution in and near large population centers, Cretaceous\noutcrops can be conveniently visited by many amateur fossil collectors.\nThe fossils are usually abundant and varied, and some are well\npreserved. Although numerous kinds of fossils may be collected, the more\ncommon forms are cephalopods, pelecypods, gastropods, and echinoids.\nSome of the more typical Cretaceous fossils are shown in Plates 16, 21,\nCretaceous fossils are more commonly found in shales and chalky\nlimestones. Fossiliferous outcrops of these rocks can be found along\nmany streams, roads, and highways of central Texas, north Texas, and the\nEdwards Plateau. Outcrops which have been weathered are more likely to\nprovide good collecting. In general, collecting is poor in areas covered\nwith heavy vegetation or recent stream deposits. Good collecting\nlocalities are outcrops which have a fairly steep slope with a covering\nof weathered rock material and a minimum of vegetation. One should move\nslowly from the base of the slope upward while searching the ground for\nany evidence of fossils, and particular attention should be given to any\nsmall gullies since these often contain fossils that have been washed\nout of upper beds in the exposure.\nCenozoic rocks are widespread in Texas but occur primarily in a broad\nbelt along the Gulf Coastal Plain. In addition, there are exposures of\nnonmarine Cenozoic strata in the High Plains, North-Central Plains, and\nTrans-Pecos region. There are also many exposures of Cenozoic igneous\nrocks in Trans-Pecos Texas.\nRocks of Cenozoic age occur in more than one-third of Texas and consist\nof conglomerates, sands, clays, and some limestone and lignite beds.\nExtensive exposures of Tertiary rocks trend northeast-southwest in a\nbroad band across the Gulf Coastal Plain area. These strata, consisting\nof sands, clays, and poorly consolidated limestones, are underlain by\nCretaceous rocks.\nInvertebrate fossils are common in certain Tertiary formations and\npelecypods, gastropods, and corals are the predominant forms. In\ngeneral, however, fossiliferous exposures are of local occurrence and\nmost of the Tertiary formations are unfossiliferous. Those Tertiary\ninvertebrates that are present, however, are often well preserved and\nrepresent many interesting types (Pls. 16, 22, 23, 29, 30, 31).\nTertiary invertebrate fossils are commonly found in sands, clays, and\nmarls. Many of these sands and marls have a green color which is due to\nthe presence of glauconite (a green mineral containing iron and closely\nrelated to the micas). At certain localities on the Gulf Coastal Plain\nthe glauconite marls and sands of the Weches and Crockett formations\ncontain large numbers of well-preserved clams, snails, and corals.\nFossiliferous exposures of Tertiary rocks are sometimes found in road\ncuts, but better exposures may be found along the banks of rivers and\ncreeks. Certain bluffs along the Brazos, Sabine, and Trinity rivers are\nwell-known Tertiary fossil collecting localities. Many of these better\nlocalities are listed in some of the Bureau of Economic Geology\nbulletins included in the bibliography of this publication (pp.\nQuaternary deposits of Pleistocene age (geologic time scale, Pl. 1) are\nfound in many parts of Texas and consist of sands, clays, and gravels.\nThese rocks are distributed along the Gulf Coast in a belt from 50 to\n100 miles wide. They occur also as stream terraces in the Edwards\nPlateau and North-Central Plains regions. In addition, Quaternary sands\nand gravels are widely distributed over the surface of much of\nTrans-Pecos Texas. There are also fossiliferous Pleistocene strata in\nthe High Plains region.\nInvertebrate fossils are rare in Pleistocene rocks, but some fresh-water\nand terrestrial mollusks occur. Vertebrate remains, however, are\nabundant in many localities, and large numbers of horses, camels,\nmammoths, and other mammals (Pls. 46-49) have been collected. Fossil\nbones and teeth (figs. 25, 26, p. 104) are commonly found in the gravels\nand sands of many of the river terraces of the State.\nThe beginning fossil collector is usually amazed by the many different\nplants and animals that have left some trace of their existence. In\norder to understand these different types of prehistoric life, it is\nnecessary to know something about the organisms that are living today.\nThis handbook discusses the more important groups of plants and animals\nwhich have left some sort of paleontological record, and each major\ngroup begins with a discussion of the more simple organisms and\ncontinues through the more advanced forms. Because scientific workers do\nnot always agree on exactly the same classification, the system adopted\nin this handbook contains the latest ideas of several workers. It is\nsimple enough to understand, yet complete enough to help one know and\nclassify his fossils. It should be noted that this classification may\ndiffer in some respects from that of certain older paleontological\npublications. Therefore, it has seemed advisable to list other names for\nsome of the groups that are discussed.\nIn some instances, the brief descriptions and illustrations of each\ngroup will enable the collector to make a preliminary identification of\nhis fossils. For more detailed information about each group, the reader\nshould refer to \u201cBooks About Fossils\u201d (pp. 108-110).\nThis part of the handbook begins with a brief summary of the major\ngroups of the plant kingdom, followed by a discussion of the\ncharacteristics and relative paleontological importance of the various\ninvertebrate animals. Emphasis is placed on the invertebrates because\nthis type of fossil is most commonly collected by the amateur. Finally,\nthere is a general review of the vertebrates.\nPlant fossils are usually fragmental and poorly preserved, and this\ntends to discourage most amateurs from an active interest in\npaleobotany. However, in spite of these problems, much is known of the\nevolution of plants, and plant fossils provide much information about\nlife of the past. In addition, certain plants are of considerable value\nas indicators of ancient climatic conditions, and their remains have\nplayed a large part in the formation of vast coal deposits.\n                  Classification of the Plant Kingdom\nIn the following classification only the larger taxonomic groups are\ndiscussed. Notice that the term _division_ has been used in place of the\nterm phylum as used in the animal kingdom. This usage is now preferred\nby many botanists and paleobotanists.\n                          DIVISION THALLOPHYTA\nThallophytes are simple plants without roots, stems, or leaves. They\ninclude the fungi, algae, and diatoms (Pl. 12). Diatoms are microscopic\nfossils that are found in many of the rocks of Texas, and they are quite\nabundant in Recent sediments as well. Certain of the Paleozoic\nlimestones of central Texas contain banded spherical masses of algae\ncalled \u201calgal biscuits.\u201d Although not particularly useful fossils,\nthallophytes have a long geologic history and are known in rocks ranging\nfrom Precambrian to Recent in age.\nThe bryophytes are simple rootless plants and include the mosses and\nliverworts. Although more complex, the bryophytes resemble the algae in\nsome respects. They are uncommon fossils, but undoubted bryophytes\n(liverworts) have been reported from rocks as old as Mississippian.\n                         DIVISION TRACHEOPHYTA\nThis division has been divided into four subdivisions, among which are\nmany of the more common living and fossil plants. Such important plants\nas the ferns, evergreens, hardwood trees, and the flowering plants are\nall tracheophytes. Among the more common and abundant fossil\ntracheophytes are the ferns, cycads, and _Gingko_, in addition to such\nimportant \u201ccoal plants\u201d as the scale trees, club mosses, and scouring\nrushes (Pls. 12, 13). The latter commonly occur in many of the world\u2019s\ngreat coal deposits, and their remains make up a large part of the coal.\nPlant fossils of this type may be collected in the dumps around some of\nthe abandoned coal mines in north-central Texas and from other\nPennsylvanian rocks in north and Trans-Pecos Texas.\n        GEOLOGIC RANGE OF THE MAJOR GROUPS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS\n   The bands give some indication of the geologic range and relative\nabundance of the major groups of plants and animals. An increase in the\n width of the range band corresponds to a relative increase in numbers\n          during the corresponding portion of geologic time.]\n  PRECAMBRIAN\n  PALEOZOIC\n    CAMBRIAN\n    ORDOVICIAN\n    SILURIAN\n    DEVONIAN\n    MISSISSIPPIAN\n    PENNSYLVANIAN\n    PERMIAN\n  MESOZOIC\n    JURASSIC\n    CRETACEOUS\n  CENOZOIC\n  Thallophyta\n  Bryophyta\n  Tracheophyta\n  Protozoa\n  Porifera\n  Coelenterata\n  Bryozoa\n  Brachiopada\n  Mollusca\n  Annelida\n  Arthropoda\n  Echinodermata\n  Chordata\n                      [Illustration: THALLOPHYTES]\n    DIATOMS \u00d7 900\n                     [Illustration: TRACHEOPHYTES]\n    LEPIDODENDRON \u00d7 \u00bd\n    SIGILLARIA \u00d7 \u00bd\n    NEUROPTERIS \u00d7 \u00bd\n    PSILOPHYTON \u00d7 \u2153\n    CALAMITES \u00d7 \u00bd\n    AMELANCHIER \u00d7 \u00bd\n    CORDAITES \u00d7 \u00bc\n    GINGKO \u00d7 \u00bd\nFairly well-preserved plant remains may also be collected from the\nWoodbine group of the Upper Cretaceous in north Texas, and fossil wood,\nmost of it silicified, has been reported from rocks of almost all ages\nand in almost every section of the State. In addition, some of the\ncarbonaceous clays and shales of east Texas contain large assemblages of\nplant leaves, which in some places are well preserved.\nIt is also possible to find the fossilized remains of seeds, spores, and\npollen. Because of their small size, these minute remains are not\ndestroyed by the drill bit and can be brought out of deep wells without\nbeing damaged, and for this reason they are a valuable tool for the\nmicropaleontologist.\nThe fossilized remains of animals are very common in many of the\nsedimentary rocks of Texas. These remains are of many different kinds\nand represent the fossils of such diverse organisms as the shell of a\ntiny one-celled animal or the bones or tusk of a huge elephant. The\nfossils most commonly found, however, are the remains of invertebrate\nanimals such as clams, snails, and corals, and it is this type of fossil\nthat attracts the interest of most amateur collectors.\nIt is not always easy to tell whether certain organisms are plants or\nanimals, and because of this some scientists have suggested that these\n\u201cin-betweens\u201d be placed in a separate kingdom\u2014the Protista. The\nprotistans are primarily unicellular organisms and are represented by\nsuch forms as bacteria, algae, diatoms, and the protozoans (see below).\nBut in this publication, only the plant and animal kingdoms are\nrecognized.\nThis phylum is composed of simple one-celled animals many of which have\nno shell or external body covering. Some, however, have external hard\nparts that can become fossilized, and these forms are quite useful\nmicrofossils.\nThis class contains a group of one-celled animals which may secrete an\nexoskeleton (external protective covering) of chitin, silica, or calcium\ncarbonate. Included in this class are foraminiferans (commonly called\nforams) and radiolarians.\nMembers of this order secrete tiny chambered shells which are very\nuseful microfossils. The forams are predominantly marine organisms and\nhave shells composed of chitin, silica, or calcium carbonate. In\naddition, some forms construct a shell of sand grains or some other\nmaterial which is cemented together by a sticky substance that is\nsecreted by the animal.\nForams are very abundant in the rocks of Texas and particularly so in\nrocks of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. The most numerous and easily\nobserved Paleozoic foraminiferans are the fusulinids (fig. 9a), and\ntheir small spindle-shaped remains are very abundant in many of the\nPennsylvanian limestones of north-central and Trans-Pecos Texas. Some\ntypical Texas forams are illustrated in figure 9.\nThe radiolarians (fig. 10) have delicate spine-covered shells composed\nof silica, and their remains are very abundant in certain recent marine\nsediments. They may also be found as fossils and have been reported from\nDevonian and Permian rocks in Trans-Pecos Texas, and probable\nradiolarians have been reported from still younger beds.\n     [Illustration: Fig. 9. Typical Texas Foraminifera (all greatly\n     enlarged). (a) _Fusulina_ (Pennsylvanian). (b) _Robulus._ (c)\n        _Globigerina._ (d) _Frondicularia._ (b-d, Cretaceous).]\n  [Illustration: Fig. 10. Typical radiolarians (greatly enlarged). (a)\n           _Actinomma_ (Recent). (b) _Porodiscus_ (Eocene).]\nThese are sponges and are the simplest of the many-celled animals.\nLiving sponges secrete a skeleton which may be composed of chitin,\nsilica, or calcium carbonate. These substances are commonly found in the\nform of spicules\u2014tiny hard parts that are used to help support the soft\ntissues of the animal. These spicules take on a variety of shapes (Pl.\n14) and are occasionally found as microfossils in some marine sediments.\nAlthough sponges are not particularly common fossils, their remains\noccur in some parts of the State. Sponges have been collected from\nPaleozoic and Mesozoic formations of north and Trans-Pecos Texas, and\ntheir spicules have been reported from well cuttings.\n                          Phylum Coelenterata\nThe coelenterates are multicelled animals which, though more complex\nthan the sponges, are rather primitive animals. The living animal is\ncharacterized by a sac-like body cavity, a definite mouth, and tentacles\nwhich bear stinging cells. Some forms, for example, the jellyfishes,\nhave an umbrella-shaped body and are single free-moving organisms.\nOthers, like the colonial corals, are composed of many individuals\nliving together in a colony.\nMost zoologists and paleontologists recognize three classes of\ncoelenterates: (1) the Hydrozoa, containing the small animals known as\nhydroids, (2) the Scyphozoa, which includes the jellyfish, and (3) the\nAnthozoa, which includes the corals and sea anemones. Because of their\nextreme fragility and lack of hard parts, hydrozoans and scyphozoans are\nnot commonly found as fossils. They do, however, have a long geologic\nhistory and may be preserved when unusual conditions of fossilization\noccur. The anthozoans, especially the corals, are by far the most\nimportant class geologically, and these forms have left a very good\npaleontological record.\nThis class is composed of a group of exclusively marine organisms and\nincludes the corals and sea anemones. The coral animal, or _polyp_,\nsecretes a cup-shaped calcareous (limy) exoskeleton. This skeleton,\ncalled a _corallite_, is usually divided by radial partitions called\n_septa_. The polyp lives in the _calyx_, which is the central\nbowl-shaped depression in the top of the corallite (fig. 11a).\n_Solitary_ corals form an individual corallite for each polyp, and\nbecause of their shape these may be given such names as \u201chorn corals\u201d\n(_Lophophyllidium_, Pl. 15) or \u201cbutton corals\u201d (_Micrabacia_, Pl. 16).\n_Colonial_ or _compound_ corals (Pl. 15) live together in colonies,\nwhich are formed of many individual skeletons attached to each other\n(fig. 11b), and the compound mass of coral skeletons formed in this\nmanner is called a _corallum_. Fossil corals commonly occur in many\nmarine limestones and in places constitute a large portion of the rock.\n [Illustration: Fig. 11. Morphology and principal parts of corals. (a)\n       Solitary or \u201chorn\u201d coral. (b) Colonial or compound coral.]\n    Columella\n    Septum\n    Corallite\n    Calyx\n    Septum\n    Corallum\nThe class Anthozoa has been divided into several subclasses, but only\none, the Zoantharia, is of paleontological importance.\nMost corals and all sea anemones belong to this subclass. Zoantharians\nare either colonial or solitary and, because most of them possess a hard\npreservable exoskeleton, they are the most important group of anthozoans\ngeologically. The various orders of the subclass Zoantharia are\ndiscussed below.\nThese are corals in which the septa are arranged in cycles of four. Both\nsolitary and colonial forms occur, and they are found only in rocks of\nPaleozoic age. Rugose corals are abundant in many of the Paleozoic\nformations of Texas, and two of the more typical forms\n(_Lophophyllidium_ and _Caninia_) are illustrated in Plate 15. Members\nof this order have been placed in the subclass Tetracoralla of older\nclassifications.\nThe scleractinians are solitary or colonial corals in which the septa\ngrow in multiples of six, and they are the most important and abundant\nof the modern corals. These corals were the dominant reef builders of\nMesozoic and Cenozoic seas, and their remains are common in many of the\nmarine formations of the State. Plate 16 illustrates some typical\nscleractinian corals from the rocks of Texas. This order has also been\nreferred to as subclass Hexacoralla, and its members have been called\nhexacorals.\nThese are corals that are now extinct but are known from fossils in both\nPaleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Tabulate corals are characterized by\nhorizontal partitions called _tabulae_, and septa are absent or poorly\ndeveloped. The tabulates were the most abundant reef-building corals\nduring Paleozoic time and are well known as fossils. Because of certain\nsimilarities with other anthozoans, some paleontologists have treated\nthe Tabulata as a distinct subclass rather than as an order of the\nZoantharia.\nTabulate corals are not uncommon in many of the Paleozoic rocks of\nTexas, and two of these (_Cladochonus_ and _Striatopora_) are\nillustrated in Plate 15.\n [Illustration: Fig. 12. Two types of bryozoans or \u201cmoss animals.\u201d (a)\n Section of the lacy type bryozoan. (b) The spiral axis of _Archimedes_\nBryozoans are colonial animals that are often referred to as \u201csea mats.\u201d\nThey have been called this because they are commonly found matted on\nshells, rocks, fossils, and other objects. The living animal is quite\nsmall, has a tentacle-bearing ridge surrounding the mouth, and secretes\na tiny cup-like exoskeleton composed of calcareous or chitinous\nmaterial. These little chambers, known as _zooecia_ (or _autopores_),\nare seen as small pits on the surface of the bryozoan colony\n(_Rhombopora_, Pl. 17). The zooecia grow together to form the bryozoan\ncolony, and some fossil colonies grow to be as much as 2 feet across.\nSuch colonies may be spiral (fig. 12b), branching, or lace-like (fig.\n12a), and the latter two types are very common in many of the\nfossiliferous strata of Texas. Undoubted bryozoan fossils have been\nrecorded in rocks of Lower Ordovician age, but questionable Cambrian\nforms have also been reported. Bryozoans are abundant in the seas of\ntoday, but only a few forms inhabit fresh waters.\n                     [Illustration: SPONGE SPICULES\n                   [Illustration: PALEOZOIC SPONGES]\n    MEANDROSTIA \u00d7 1\n    HELIOSPONGIA \u00d7 1\n    ASTRAEOSPONGIUM \u00d7 \u00bd\n    ASTYLOSPONGIA \u00d7 \u00bd\n    RECEPTACULITES \u00d7 \u00bd\n    GIRTYOCOELIA \u00d7 2\n                         PENNSYLVANIAN CORALS]\n  CLADOCHONUS \u00d7 1\n  STRIATOPORA \u00d7 1\n  LOPHOPHYLLIDIUM PROLIFERUM \u00d7 1\n  MICHELINIA \u00d7 1\n  CANINIA \u00d7 1\n  LOPHOPHYLLIDIUM RADICOSUM \u00d7 1\n                   [Illustration: CRETACEOUS CORALS]\n    CLADOPHYLLIA \u00d7 1\n    PARASMILIA \u00d7 1\n    PLEUROCORA \u00d7 1\n                    [Illustration: TERTIARY CORALS]\n    ENDOPACHYS \u00d7 1\n    ASTRHELIA \u00d7 1\n    FLABELLUM \u00d7 1\n    MICRABACIA \u00d7 2\n    TROCHOSMILIA \u00d7 1\nIn Texas one may expect to find bryozoan remains in the Pennsylvanian\nrocks of north-central and Trans-Pecos Texas where they are abundant in\ncertain of the marine shales and limestones. Bryozoans may also be\ncollected from some Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, but their remains are\nsmall and fragmental and they are easily overlooked. Bryozoans have also\nbeen found matted on the shells of fossil mollusks and other\ninvertebrates.\nThe brachiopods are a large group of exclusively marine organisms with\nshells composed of two pieces called _valves_ (fig. 13). These valves\nare usually composed of calcareous or phosphatic material and enclose\nand protect the soft parts of the brachiopod animal. The soft parts are\ncomposed of muscles, the _mantle_ (which secretes the valves),\ndigestive, respiration, reproductive, and excretory organs, and the\ntentacle-bearing _lophophore_.\nIn adult life the brachiopod is attached to the sea bottom by means of a\nfleshy stalk called the _pedicle_ (fig. 14), and this is usually\nextruded through a hole (the _pedicle foramen_) which is located in the\n_ventral_ or _pedicle_ valve. The upturned area which is usually present\non the pedicle valve is called the _beak_. The other valve, known as the\n_dorsal_ or _brachial_ valve, is usually the smaller of the two (fig.\n13b). The two valves are opened by means of muscles, and since death\nresults in relaxation of these muscles, fossil brachiopods are typically\nfound with valves closed.\nBrachiopods vary greatly in size and shape and exhibit a wide variety of\nornamentation, such as spines, ribs, nodes, and other structures. They\nare abundant fossils in many of the Paleozoic rocks of Texas but are\nrelatively rare in Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations.\nThe phylum has been divided into two subclasses, the Inarticulata and\nthe Articulata. This classification is based upon the nature of the\n_hinge-line_\u2014the edge of the shell where the two valves articulate.\n  [Illustration: Fig. 13. Morphology and principal parts of articulate\n    Pedicle foramen\n    Hinge line\n    Pedicle valve\n    Beak\n    Brachial valve\nThe members of this class are rather primitive and have a long geologic\nhistory. These brachiopods have valves which are not provided with hinge\nteeth, the valves being held together by muscles, and a hinge-line is\nlacking (fig. 14). Most inarticulate brachiopods are circular or\ntongue-like in shape and commonly composed of chitinous and phosphatic\nmaterial. Inarticulate brachiopods range from Lower Cambrian to Recent\nin age but were never as common as the articulate brachiopods, which are\ndescribed below. Brachiopods belonging to this class have been recorded\nfrom several Paleozoic formations in Texas (Pl. 17, _Lingula_,\n_Apsotreta_, _Angulotreta_).\n                [Illustration: PENNSYLVANIAN BRYOZOANS]\n    FISTULIPORA \u00d7 6\n    POLYPORA \u00d7 5\n    RHOMBOPORA \u00d7 8\n                  [Illustration: CAMBRIAN BRACHIOPODS]\n    APSOTRETA \u00d7 10\n    LINGULA \u00d7 4\n    ANGULOTRETA \u00d7 10\n               [Illustration: MISSISSIPPIAN BRACHIOPODS]\n    RHIPODOMELLA \u00d7 1\n    DICTYOCLOSTUS \u00d7 1\n    CAMAROTOECHIA \u00d7 1\n    [Illustration: Fig. 14. _Lingula_, a typical Recent inarticulate\n                 brachiopod showing extended pedicle.]\n    Pedicle\n    Valve\nArticulate brachiopods have a well-defined hinge-line (fig. 13a). One\nvalve has well-developed teeth which articulate with sockets in the\nopposing valve, and there is a well-developed muscle system which aids\nin opening and closing the shell. Articulate brachiopods are\ncharacterized by calcareous shells which are typically of unequal size\nand a wide variety of shapes (Pls. 18, 19). The class has been divided\ninto several orders which have been established primarily on the nature\nof the pedicle foramen and the nature of shell growth.\nArticulate brachiopods range from Lower Cambrian to Recent in age and\nare particularly abundant in certain Pennsylvanian formations of\nnorth-central and Trans-Pecos Texas. They are also present in certain\nother fossiliferous strata of Paleozoic age but are less abundant and\nnot as well preserved. The only Cretaceous brachiopod that is found in\nlarge numbers is _Kingena wacoensis_ (Roemer) (fig. 15), which is\nparticularly abundant in certain formations in the upper part of the\nComanche series.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 15. _Kingena wacoensis_, a common Cretaceous\n   brachiopod. (a) Dorsal view. (b) Lateral view. (c) Ventral view.]\nThe phylum Mollusca encompasses a large group of aquatic\n(water-dwelling) and terrestrial (land-dwelling) invertebrates which\nincludes such familiar forms as the snails, clams, oysters, squids, and\noctopuses. Most mollusks possess a calcareous shell that serves as an\nexoskeleton, and these hard parts are well adapted for preservation as\nfossils. However, some mollusks (the slugs) have no shells, and others\n(the squids) have an internal calcareous shell. Because of their\nrelative abundance and great variety, mollusks are particularly useful\nfossils. Moreover, the remains of certain mollusks, such as the oysters,\nare important rock builders.\nThe phylum Mollusca has been divided into five classes:\n1. _Amphineura_\u2014the chitons or sea-mice; shell composed of eight valves\nor plates; not a common fossil. Ordovician to Recent.\n2. _Scaphopoda_\u2014the tusk-shells; shell composed of a single tusk-like\nvalve; generally not a common fossil but locally abundant in certain\nCenozoic formations. Devonian to Recent.\n3. _Gastropoda_\u2014the snails and slugs; slugs are without shells, snails\nhave a single-valved shell which is typically coiled; common fossils in\nPaleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks. Cambrian to Recent.\n4. _Pelecypoda_\u2014clams, mussels, oysters, scallops; shells composed of\ntwo valves, usually, but not always, of equal size; common fossils,\nespecially in Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks. Cambrian to Recent.\n5. _Cephalopoda_\u2014squids, octopuses, the pearly nautilus, and the\nammonoids (extinct); shell of one valve, usually coiled and partitioned\nby septa; valuable fossils, especially in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks.\n?Cambrian, Ordovician to Recent.\n                       PENNSYLVANIAN BRACHIOPODS]\n  MARGINIFERA \u00d7 1\n  AMBOCOELIA \u00d7 1\n  SQUAMULARIA \u00d7 1\n  DERBYA \u00d7 1\n  MESOLOBUS \u00d7 1\n  CHONETES \u00d7 1\n  LINOPRODUCTUS \u00d7 1\n  PUNCTOSPIRIFER \u00d7 1\n  COMPOSITA SUBTILITA \u00d7 1\n  NEOSPIRIFER \u00d7 1\n                       PENNSYLVANIAN BRACHIOPODS]\n  JURESANIA \u00d7 1\n  SPIRIFER ROCKYMONTANUS \u00d7 1\n  NEOSPIRIFER CAMERATUS \u00d7 1\nOf these five classes, only the Gastropoda, Pelecypoda, and Cephalopoda\nare discussed herein.\nThe typical gastropod has a spirally coiled, single-valved, unchambered\nshell. This shell encloses a soft body possessing a well-defined head\nwith a pair of eyes and one or two pairs of tentacles. Most gastropods\nhave gills and live in shallow marine waters, but some inhabit fresh\nwater. Others are land-dwelling forms and breathe by means of lungs.\nGastropod shells, both Recent and fossil, exhibit a great variety of\nsize, shape, and ornamentation. Such shells may be cone-shaped, spirally\ncoiled, flat, turreted, or cylindrical. The shell is commonly wound in a\nspiral around a central axial pillar (the _columella_). The closed\npointed end of the shell is called the _apex_, and each turn of the\nshell is called a _whorl_ (fig. 16). The last-formed and largest whorl\nis called the _body whorl_, and this whorl contains the _aperture_\u2014the\nopening of the shell. The combined whorls exclusive of the body whorl\nare known as the _spire_. The inner and outer margins of the aperture\nare designated the _inner lip_ and the _outer lip_, respectively. In\nsome snails the aperture is closed by means of the _operculum_\u2014a\ncalcareous or horny plate attached to the foot of the animal. This plate\neffectively seals the aperture when the animal is withdrawn into its\nshell. Some gastropods have shells that are loosely coiled, and in these\nforms the columella is absent. If the whorls of such shells are not in\ncontact on the inner surface, this leaves an open space which is called\nthe _umbilicus_ (fig. 16a). The umbilicus is commonly seen as an opening\nin the base of the gastropod shell, but in some forms the umbilical\nopening may be partially or completely covered by a thick growth of\nshell called the _callus_.\nMany gastropods, particularly those of the Texas Cretaceous, are\ncommonly preserved as internal or external molds. This type of\npreservation occurs after the death of the animal, and the decomposition\nof the soft parts enables the shell to become filled with sediment. This\nfilling later becomes solidified, and the outer shell may eventually be\nremoved by weathering or solution. This type of internal mold is called\na _steinkern_ and normally does not reflect any external shell\ncharacteristics (Pl. 2). In some of the Pennsylvanian and Tertiary\nformations, however, gastropods may be collected with the original shell\nin an excellent state of preservation.\nPlates 20-23 illustrate some typical Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic\ngastropods.\nThe pelecypods possess a shell composed of two calcareous valves (fig.\n17) which enclose the soft parts of the animal. Members of this class\nlive exclusively in an aquatic habitat and are most abundant in marine\nenvironments. Most pelecypods are slow-moving bottom-dwelling forms, but\nsome, like the oysters, are attached. Still others, for example, the\nscallop or _Pecten_, are swimmers. The Pelecypoda include such familiar\nsaltwater forms as the clams and oysters, as well as the common\nfresh-water mussel. Pelecypods range from Cambrian to Recent in age but\nare more abundant in Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks.\nThe living animal is aquatic, with well-developed soft parts and a\nmuscular, commonly hatchet-shaped _foot_. The soft _mantle_ encloses the\nbody and secretes the shell, and in some pelecypods part of the mantle\nis developed into the _incurrent_ and _excurrent_ siphons. The incurrent\nsiphons bring fresh water and food into the _mantle cavity_, and waste\nproducts are passed out through the excurrent siphons. Respiration is by\nmeans of gills within the mantle cavity.\nThe typical pelecypod valves are of equal size and form, but some, such\nas the scallops and oysters, have two valves of unequal size and shape.\nThe valves are hinged and held together by a tough elastic ligament\nwhich runs along the _dorsal_ (top) side of the shell. In addition to\nthe ligament, most forms have _teeth_ and _sockets_ which are located\nalong the _hinge-line_. The teeth in one valve articulate with the\nsockets in the opposite valve, and this arrangement gives strength to\nthe hinge.\n  [Illustration: Fig. 16. Morphology and principal parts of gastropod\n  shells. (a) Low-spired form with umbilicus. (b) Section of spirally\n                    coiled shell showing columella.]\n    Suture\n    Whorl\n    Body whorl\n    Aperture\n    Umbilicus\n    Apex\n    Spire\n    Columella\n    Body whorl\n    Inner lip\n    Outer lip\nMost of the pelecypod shell is of calcium carbonate, but the outer\nlayer, or _periostracum_, of each valve is composed of horny material.\nThe inner surface of the shell is lined with a calcareous layer of\npearly or porcelaneous material.\n                       PENNSYLVANIAN GASTROPODS]\n  STRAPAROLUS \u00d7 1\n  AMPHISCAPHA \u00d7 1\n  WORTHENIA \u00d7 1\n  TREPOSPIRA \u00d7 1\n  BELLEROPHON \u00d7 1\n  EUOMPHALUS \u00d7 1\n                [Illustration: PENNSYLVANIAN GASTROPODS]\n    EUPHEMITES \u00d7 1\n    STROBEUS \u00d7 1\n    PLATYCERAS \u00d7 1\n                  [Illustration: CRETACEOUS GASTROPODS\n    GYRODES \u00d7 1\n    LUNATIA \u00d7 1\n    TURRITELLA \u00d7 1\n    CERITHIUM \u00d7 1\n    TYLOSTOMA \u00d7 1\n    NERINEA \u00d7 1\n  DISTORSIO \u00d7 1\n  MESALIA \u00d7 1\n  FUSUS \u00d7 1\n  COCHLESPIROPSIS \u00d7 1\n  TURRITELLA \u00d7 1\n  LATIRUS \u00d7 1\n  CONUS \u00d7 1\n  VERTAGUS \u00d7 1\n  PSEUDOLIVA \u00d7 1\n  ANCILLA \u00d7 1\n  ARCHETECTONICA \u00d7 1\n  TUBA \u00d7 1\n  CALYPTRAPHORUS \u00d7 1\n  SYCOSTOMA \u00d7 1\n  SURCULA \u00d7 1\n  VOLUTOLITHES \u00d7 1\n  NEVERITA \u00d7 1\n  LEVIFUSUS \u00d7 1\nThe outline of the shell may vary greatly, but most pelecypods are\ntypically clam-like. However, certain forms are round, others are long\nand narrow, and some have wing-like structures. Most pelecypods have a\nbeak which represents the oldest part of the shell. The _beak_ is\ncommonly located on the _anterior_ (front) end of the shell, and the end\nof the shell opposite this is designated _posterior_ (the rear). The\nhinge and ligament are located dorsally (along the top), and the lower\nmargin of the shell where the valves open is called _ventral_ (fig.\n  [Illustration: Fig. 17. Morphology and principal parts of a typical\n        pelecypod shell. (a) Exterior view. (b) Interior view.]\n    Dorsal\n    Beak\n    Anterior\n    Posterior\n    Concentric growth rings\n    Ventral\n    Hinge teeth\n    Cardinal teeth\n    Anterior muscle scar\n    Posterior muscle scar\n    Mantle line\nThe inner surface of the shell has certain markings which, along with\nthe shell form and dentition (the nature and arrangement of the teeth\nand sockets), are important in classification. Muscle scars are present\non the inside of most valves; the _anterior muscle scars_ are located\nnear the front of the shell, and the _posterior muscle scars_ are\nsituated near the rear of the shell. These scars mark the place of\nattachment of muscles which were used to close the shell and aid in\nlocomotion. Along the ventral margin of some shells there is a line or\nscar which extends from the anterior muscle scar to the posterior muscle\nscar. This is known as the _mantle line_ or _pallial line_ and marks the\nplace of attachment of the _mantle_\u2014a soft membranous layer that\nenclosed the body of the animal. In some pelecypods the dorsal margin of\none valve bears a series of _hinge teeth_ which articulate with a\nsimilar set of sockets on the other valve (fig. 17b). In addition to\nhinge teeth, certain species have _cardinal teeth_ which are located\nbelow and in front of the hinge teeth.\nThe exterior of most shells is marked by a series of _concentric growth\nlines_ (fig. 17a) which mark points of periodic addition of shell\nmaterial. The external surface of many shells is also marked by various\ntypes of ornamentation, such as ribs, nodes, spines, and grooves.\nFossil collectors commonly find only one valve of the pelecypod shell.\nThis is because the shell normally opens when the animal dies, and the\nvalves may easily become separated. Fossil pelecypods are also commonly\npreserved as external and internal molds, and these are found in\nfossiliferous strata of almost all ages. Some pelecypods of\nPennsylvanian, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic age are found with original shell\nmaterial that appears to have undergone very little change. Fossil\npelecypods are abundant and varied in Texas and are found in most of the\nfossiliferous formations of the Pennsylvanian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary\nsystems (Pls. 24-31).\nThese are marine mollusks with or without chambered or solid shells\nwhich may be internal or external. The living animal possesses a\nwell-developed head with eyes, horny jaws, and many tentacles fused with\nthe foot. Cephalopods are the most advanced of all mollusks and include\nthe squid, octopus, pearly nautilus, and the extinct ammonoids. Members\nof this class range from Cambrian to Recent in age but were much more\nabundant in ancient seas than they are today. Their remains constitute a\nvery useful group of fossils, particularly in Paleozoic and Mesozoic\nrocks.\nMost paleontologists have divided the Cephalopoda into three subclasses,\nthe Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea, and the Coleoidea (known also as subclass\nDibranchiata and subclass Decapoda); each of these is discussed below.\n                         Subclass Nautiloidea.\u2014\nThe nautiloids are cephalopods with external chambered shells in which\nthe _septa_ (dividing partitions) are simple and have smooth edges. This\nsubclass is represented by a single living genus, _Nautilus_, and a\nlarge number of fossil forms.\nIn the living _Nautilus_ the shell is composed of calcium carbonate and\nis coiled in a flat spiral (fig. 18). The interior of the shell is\ndivided into a series of _chambers_ by calcareous partitions called\n_septa_. The point where each septum joins the inner surface of the\nshell is known as the _suture_. These _suture lines_ (fig. 19a) are not\nvisible from the outside unless the outer shell has been removed, but\nthey are visible on the internal molds of many fossil cephalopods and\nare of great importance in nautiloid and ammonoid classification.\nNautiloids have very simple smoothly curved suture patterns, but\nammonoids are characterized by more complex and wrinkled sutures (fig.\nAlthough the shell of the only type of living nautiloid is coiled, many\nof the early forms had straight cone-shaped shells (_Orthoceras_, Pl.\n32), and these are common in some of the Pennsylvanian formations of\nTexas. Fossil coiled nautiloids may be collected in certain of the\nCretaceous and Tertiary strata of the State, but their remains are not\ncommon. _Cymatoceras_ (Pl. 32) is a coiled fossil nautiloid from the\nCretaceous of north Texas.\n                       PENNSYLVANIAN PELECYPODS]\n  SCHIZODUS \u00d7 1\n  MYALINA \u00d7 \u00bd\n  ASTARTELLA \u00d7 1\n  NUCULOPSIS \u00d7 1\n  ALLORISMA \u00d7 1\n  NUCULANA \u00d7 1\n  YOLDIA \u00d7 1\n  PINNA \u00d7 \u00bd\n                         CRETACEOUS PELECYPODS]\n  PROTOCARDIA \u00d7 1\n  ALECTRYONIA LUGUBRIS \u00d7 1\n  PLICATULA \u00d7 1\n  PECTEN \u00d7 1\n                         CRETACEOUS PELECYPODS]\n  GRYPHAEA WASHITAENSIS \u00d7 1\n  GRYPHAEA GRAYSONANA \u00d7 1\n  INOCERAMUS \u00d7 1\n  TRIGONIA \u00d7 1\n                         CRETACEOUS PELECYPODS]\n  EXOGYRA ARIETINA \u00d7 1\n  EXOGYRA LAEVISCULA \u00d7 1\n  NEITHEA \u00d7 1\n  EXOGYRA PONDEROSA \u00d7 1\n  EXOGYRA TEXANA \u00d7 1\n                         CRETACEOUS PELECYPODS]\n  PACHYMYA \u00d7 \u00bd\n  OSTREA CARINATA \u00d7 1\n  OSTREA QUADRIPLICATA \u00d7 1\n  PHOLADOMYA \u00d7 1\n  LIMA \u00d7 1\n  OSTREA LISBONENSIS \u00d7 1\n  PITAR \u00d7 1\n  VENERICARDIA BULLA \u00d7 1\n  PACHECOA \u00d7 2\n  PHOLADOMYA \u00d7 2\n  OSTREA SELLAEFORMIS \u00d7 1\n  CRASSATELLA \u00d7 1\n  ORTHOYOLDIA \u00d7 1\n  TELLINA \u00d7 1\n  VOKESULA \u00d7 2\n  NUCULA \u00d7 2\n  VENERICARDIA \u00d7 \u00bd\n  PLICATULA \u00d7 1\n  PECTEN \u00d7 1\n  ANOMIA \u00d7 1\n  GLYCYMERIS \u00d7 2\n  CARYOCORBULA \u00d7 2\n  BARBATIA \u00d7 1\n  [Illustration: Fig. 18. Morphology and principal parts of the pearly\nnautilus. (a) Exterior view of a Recent shell. (b) Sectioned view of the\n                same shell to show internal structures.]\n    Living chamber\n    Aperture\n    Septa\n    Siphuncle\n    Protoconch\n    Chamber\n[Illustration: Fig. 19. Characteristic features of the various types of\n    cephalopod sutures. (a) Nautiloid type. (b) Goniatite type. (c)\n                   Ceratite type. (d) Ammonite type.]\nThe ammonoids are a group of extinct cephalopods which are related to\nthe nautiloids but are characterized by more complex suture patterns.\nMembers of this subclass have an external partitioned shell which is\nstraight, curved, or spirally coiled (Pl. 33). This group of cephalopods\nfirst appeared in Devonian time, became extremely abundant and varied\nduring the Mesozoic, and was extinct by the end of the Cretaceous\nperiod.\nMost Paleozoic ammonoids are characterized by a combination curved and\nangular suture pattern, and this type of suture pattern is referred to\nas _goniatitic_ (fig. 19b). Sutures that are curved and crenulated\n(marked in places by a series of tooth-like indentations) are known as\n_ceratitic_ (fig. 19c). Ceratitic sutures first appeared in the\nMississippian, became increasingly abundant during the Triassic but were\nmuch less abundant during the Cretaceous. The _ammonitic_ suture has a\nvery complexly subdivided pattern (fig. 19d). Cephalopods with ammonitic\nsutures range from Pennsylvanian to Cretaceous in age and were the most\nabundant cephalopods of the Mesozoic.\n               [Illustration: PENNSYLVANIAN CEPHALOPODS]\n    PHANEROCERAS \u00d7 1\n    ORTHOCERAS \u00d7 1\n                 [Illustration: CRETACEOUS CEPHALOPODS]\n    METOICOCERAS \u00d7 \u00bd\n    CYMATOCERAS \u00d7 \u00bd\n                        CRETACEOUS CEPHALOPODS]\n  TEXANITES \u00d7 \u00bd\n  ACANTHOCERAS \u00d7 \u00bd\n  TURRILITES \u00d7 \u00bd\n  DUFRENOYIA \u00d7 \u00bd\n  OXYTROPIDOCERAS \u00d7 \u00bd\n  BACULITES \u00d7 \u00bd\n  BELEMNITE \u00d7 \u00bd\nAmmonoids are locally abundant in many of the fossiliferous rocks of\nTexas and are among the more useful Mesozoic guide fossils. Goniatites\nmay be found in the Pennsylvanian of north-central and Trans-Pecos\nTexas, and ammonoids with the ceratitic suture pattern can be collected\nfrom the Lower Cretaceous of many parts of the State. Cephalopods\nexhibiting the typical ammonitic suture pattern are abundant in many of\nthe Cretaceous rocks of Texas, and these fossils have contributed much\ntoward an understanding of the Cretaceous strata of this State.\nThese are squid-like cephalopods characterized by an internal shell or\nno shell at all. Included in this group are the squids, cuttlefish,\noctopuses, and the extinct belemnoids, but of these only the belemnoids\nare useful fossils. Members of this subclass range from Mississippian to\nRecent in age.\nThe belemnoids appear to be the oldest and most primitive of the coleoid\ncephalopods. Their earliest known occurrence is in rocks of\nMississippian age, and they were particularly abundant during the\nMesozoic. They became extinct at the end of Cretaceous time but have\nleft considerable evidence of their existence in the Mesozoic strata of\nmany parts of the world. Certain forms, because of their abundance and\nrelatively short geologic range, are excellent guide fossils. Belemnoids\nhave been found in the Upper Cretaceous of Texas (Pl. 33) but in general\nare rare or unknown in most Texas formations.\nMembers of the phylum Annelida include the segmented worms such as the\ncommon earthworm. Annelids are marine, fresh water, or terrestrial and\nhave apparently been common through much of geologic time. Because of\ntheir lack of hard parts, most of these worms have left little direct\nfossil evidence of their activities in the geologic past. Some annelids\nsecrete straight or coiled calcareous tubes, and fossil worm tubes of\nthis sort (fig. 20) are commonly found attached to brachiopods,\nmollusks, and other objects. Tubes of this nature have been reported\nfrom Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks in Texas.\n [Illustration: Fig. 20. Types of typical annelid worms. (a) _Serpula_\nSome annelids have small chitinous jaws and teeth which also may be\npreserved as fossils. These dental structures are called scolecodonts\nand are microfossils.\nThe arthropods are one of the more advanced groups of invertebrates, and\nthey are known from the Cambrian to the Recent (Pl. 34). Modern\nrepresentatives of this group include the crabs, shrimp, crayfish,\ninsects, and spiders. Arthropods vary greatly in size and shape and are\namong the most abundant of all animals. They have become successfully\nadapted to a wide variety of environments and live on land, in water,\nand in the air. The typical arthropod has a segmented body which is\nusually covered by a chitinous exoskeleton which, in some forms,\ncontains additions of calcium carbonate. They are highly specialized and\nwell-developed animals in which locomotion is by means of paired jointed\nappendages.\nAlthough the arthropods are of great importance in nature today, only a\nfew groups are of importance to the paleontologist. Only two of these,\nthe trilobites and the ostracodes, are discussed herein.\n                       Subphylum Trilobitomorpha\nThe members of this subphylum are extinct arthropods which were most\nabundant during early Paleozoic time.\nThe trilobites are a group of exclusively marine arthropods which derive\ntheir name from the typical three-lobed appearance of their bodies (fig.\n21a). The trilobite body is divided into a _central_ or _axial_ lobe and\ntwo _lateral_ lobes. The body of the animal was encased in a chitinous\nexoskeleton. The top part of this exterior covering, the _carapace_, is\nvery thick, and it is this part of the trilobite that is usually\npreserved.\n  FOSSIL INSECT \u00d7 1\n  FOSSIL CRUSTACEANS\n    ENOPLOCLYTIA \u00d7 1\u2153\n    ASTACODES \u00d7 \u00be\n    NOTOPOCORYSTES \u00d7 2\n    OSTRACODES \u00d7 40\n [Illustration: Fig. 21. Morphology and principal parts of trilobites.]\n  Cephalon\n  Thorax\n  Pygidium\n  Axial lobe\n  Lateral lobes\nThe body is also divided into three parts from front to back. Beginning\nat the front of the animal these divisions are the _cephalon_ or head,\nthe _thorax_ or abdomen, and the _pygidium_ or tail (fig. 21a). The body\nsegments of the thorax were arranged in such a manner as to permit the\nanimal to roll up into a ball, and many trilobites are found in this\nposition (fig. 21b).\nTrilobites first appeared in the Cambrian and were extinct by the end of\nthe Permian. They occur sparingly in certain of the Paleozoic rocks of\nTexas and when found are likely to be fragmental and in a poor state of\npreservation.\n                          Subphylum Crustacea\nThe crustaceans are the crabs, shrimp, crayfish, and ostracodes.\nAlthough not abundant, fossil crabs have been described from certain\nCretaceous and Tertiary formations of the State (_Notopocorystes_, Pl.\n34). However, the most useful and abundant crustacean fossils are the\nmembers of the class Ostracoda.\nThe ostracodes are small, bivalved, aquatic crustaceans which have the\nexternal appearance of small clams (Pl. 34). The remains of these tiny\nanimals are so small that they are best studied under a low-power\nmicroscope, and because of their small size they are particularly useful\nto the micropaleontologist.\nFossil ostracodes range from Ordovician to Recent in age and have been\nrecorded in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks of Texas. Their\nremains are particularly abundant in certain of the Cretaceous and\nTertiary marine formations of the State.\n                          Phylum Echinodermata\nThe echinoderms are a large group of exclusively marine animals, most of\nwhich exhibit a marked five-fold radial symmetry (Pls. 35, 36). Living\nechinoderms have well-developed nervous and digestive systems, a\ndistinct body cavity, and are a relatively complex group of organisms.\nThe typical echinoderm has a skeleton composed of numerous calcareous\nplates which are intricately fitted together and covered by a leathery\nouter skin (the _integument_). The echinoderm body often exhibits a\ntypical star-shaped form, but some types may be heart-shaped,\nbiscuit-shaped, or cucumber-shaped.\nMembers of this phylum range from Cambrian to Recent in age and are\nabundant as fossils in many of the marine formations of Texas.\nThe phylum Echinodermata has been divided into two subphyla, the\nPelmatozoa (those forms that were attached to sea floor by a stem or a\nstalk) and the Eleutherozoa (the stemless unattached echinoderms).\n                          Subphylum Pelmatozoa\nThese are echinoderms which are more or less permanently attached to the\nbottom of the sea by means of a stalk which is composed of slightly\nmovable, calcareous, disk-like segments (fig. 23).\nPelmatozoans range from Cambrian to Recent in age, and their fossilized\nremains are particularly abundant in Paleozoic rocks. The subphylum has\nbeen divided into several classes, but only three of these, the\nCystoidea, Blastoidea, and Crinoidea, are discussed here. With the\nexception of the Crinoidea, all of the attached echinoderms are extinct.\nThese are primitive attached echinoderms which were relatively common in\nearly Paleozoic time. The typical cystoid has a somewhat globular or\nsac-like _calyx_ (the main body skeleton) composed of numerous,\nirregularly arranged, calcareous plates (fig. 22b). The plates composing\nthe calyx are usually perforated by pores or slits which were probably\nused in excretion or respiration. The calyx was attached to the sea\nbottom by a short stem.\nCystoids range from Cambrian to Devonian in age and were especially\nabundant during Ordovician and Silurian time. Their remains are rare or\nabsent in the rocks of Texas.\n     [Illustration: Fig. 22. Two extinct attached echinoderms. (a)\n    _Pentremites_ (Mississippian). (b) _Caryocrinites_ (Silurian).]\nThe blastoids are extinct short-stemmed echinoderms with a small,\nsymmetrical, bud-like calyx. The blastoid calyx is composed of 13\ncalcareous plates arranged in a typical five-sided pattern (fig. 22a).\nThe _mouth_ is located in the center of the calyx and is surrounded by\nfive openings called _spiracles_. Five distinct _ambulacral_ or _food\ngrooves_ radiate outward from the mouth.\nBlastoids range from Ordovician to Permian in age and were especially\nabundant during the Mississippian period. No blastoids have been\nreported from any of the rocks of Texas.\nThe crinoids are commonly called _sea-lilies_ because of their\nflower-like appearance. The _calyx_ is composed of symmetrically\narranged calcareous plates, and most crinoids have a long stem. Other\ncrinoids are free-swimming in the adult stage and are attached only\nduring the earlier phases of their development.\nThe crinoid calyx is typically cup-shaped (fig. 23) and five grooves\nradiate out from its center. These grooves continue outward along the\ncomplexly segmented arms and are used as channels to convey food to the\nmouth.\n [Illustration: Fig. 23. Typical modern crinoid, or \u201csea lily,\u201d showing\n  Calyx\n    Arm\n    Plate\n  Stem\n    Columnal\n    Cirri\n  Holdfast (root)\nThe crinoid stem is attached to the base of the calyx and serves for\npurposes of support and attachment. This stem consists of a relatively\nlong flexible stalk composed of numerous calcareous disk-shaped segments\ncalled _columnals_ (fig. 23; Pl. 35), each of which contains a round or\nstar-shaped opening in its center. Many crinoids have very long stalks\n(some are as much as 50 feet in length), and when the animal dies the\ncolumnals become separated and are scattered about on the ocean floor.\nMany Paleozoic limestones contain such great numbers of crinoid\ncolumnals that they are referred to as _crinoidal limestones_ (fig. 8).\nCrinoidal limestones occur in some of the Mississippian and\nPennsylvanian formations of central Texas and in the Pennsylvanian of\nnorth-central and Trans-Pecos Texas.\nThe stalk is attached to the sea floor or some other object by means of\na root system called the _holdfast_ (fig. 23). This structure commonly\nbranches out into the surrounding sediments, and in this manner the\ncrinoid animal is firmly anchored to the bottom of the sea.\nCrinoids, like most echinoderms, are gregarious animals\u2014that is, they\ncommonly live together in large numbers, and for this reason great\nnumbers of crinoid remains are commonly found concentrated in relatively\nsmall local areas. Most fossil crinoids are found as stem fragments\nbecause the more fragile calyx and root system are less likely to be\npreserved.\nThe earliest known crinoids have been found in rocks of Ordovician age,\nand their remains are particularly abundant in Paleozoic rocks. Crinoids\nare living today but most of them are stemless free-swimming forms\ncalled \u201cfeather stars,\u201d much less abundant than their Paleozoic\nancestors.\n                         Subphylum Eleutherozoa\nThe eleutherozoans are free-swimming, bottom-dwelling, echinoderms which\nhave been divided into two classes. The class Asterozoa (star-shaped\nechinoderms) contains the subclasses Asteroidea (the starfishes) and the\nOphiuroidea (the brittle stars). Although they are known as fossils,\nneither of these groups is of paleontological importance. The class\nEchinozoa (echinoderms without laterally directed arm-like extensions)\ncontains the subclasses Echinoidea (the sea urchins and sand dollars)\nand Holothuroidea (the sea cucumbers). Of these two subclasses, only the\nEchinoidea are useful fossils.\nThese are typical star-shaped free-moving echinoderms in which the body\nis divided into a central disk and radiating arms.\nThis class contains the starfishes which, although not common fossils,\nillustrate well the typical echinoderm characteristics (Pl. 35). Fossil\nstarfishes have been found sparingly in certain formations in Texas, but\nwell-preserved specimens are quite rare. However, excellently preserved\nstarfishes have been found in slabs of Cretaceous limestones from\ncentral and north-central Texas.\n                         Subclass Ophiuroidea.\u2014\nThe ophiuroids are echinoderms with a well-defined central disk and five\nlong, slender, whip-like arms. They have been called brittle stars\nbecause of their ability to shed their arms when they are disturbed.\nTheir long, slender, snake-like arms have also resulted in their being\ncalled serpent stars. Ophiuroids range from Ordovician to Recent in age,\nbut because of the delicate nature of their bodies they are seldom found\nas fossils. Ophiuroid remains have been found in certain Mesozoic and\nCenozoic rocks of Texas, but they consist largely of small segments of\nthe arms or body fragments.\nThe echinozoans are a group of unattached echinoderms whose bodies\nconsist of numerous calcareous plates and spines, but they do not\npossess the radiating arm-like extensions which characterize the\nasterozoans.\nEchinoids are free-moving echinoderms with disk-shaped, heart-shaped,\nbiscuit-shaped, or globular exoskeletons (Pl. 36). Modern\nrepresentatives of this group include the familiar sea urchins, heart\nurchins, and the sand dollars.\n  CRINOIDS\n    CRINOID CALYX \u00d7 \u00bd\n    CRINOID COLUMNALS \u00d7 1\n  HOLOTHURIAN SCLERITES (GREATLY ENLARGED)\n  CRETACEOUS FOSSIL STARFISHES\n    PENTAGONASTER \u00d7 1\n    PENTACEROS \u00d7 1\n                         CRETACEOUS ECHINOIDS]\n  SALENIA \u00d7 1\n  ECHINOID SPINES \u00d7 2\n  ECHINOID PLATE \u00d7 2\n  HEMIASTER \u00d7 1\n  HOLASTER \u00d7 1\n  HOLECTYPUS \u00d7 1\nThe echinoid _test_ (exoskeleton) is composed of many intricately\nfitting calcareous plates (Pl. 36) which enclose the animal\u2019s soft\nparts. The exterior of the test is typically covered with large numbers\nof movable spines (Pl. 36) which vary greatly in size. These spines are\nof some aid in locomotion, support the skeleton of the animal, and\nprovide a measure of protection from enemies.\nThe oldest known echinoids have been recorded from rocks of Ordovician\nage, but it was not until the Mesozoic that the group began to flourish.\nThey were especially abundant during the Cretaceous and have been\nabundant and varied from that time until the present.\nEchinoids are particularly numerous in many of the Lower Cretaceous\nformations of Texas where they are commonly found in an excellent state\nof preservation. Heart urchins and biscuit urchins may be found in large\nnumbers in many areas of the State, and especially in areas where there\nare good exposures of fossiliferous Lower Cretaceous rocks.\n                        Subclass Holothuroidea.\u2014\nMembers of this class, commonly called _sea cucumbers_, have a rather\nelongate, sac-like, cucumber-shaped body and bear little resemblance to\nother members of the phylum Echinodermata. The sea cucumbers do not have\na well-defined skeleton; rather the body is supported by many small,\ndisconnected, calcareous plates or rods called _ossicles_ or _sclerites_\n(Pl. 35). These minute structures are embedded in the leathery skin\nwhich covers the body of the sea cucumber and may be preserved as\nfossils. Such remains are locally abundant in certain formations in\nTexas, but because of their small size, scattered occurrence, and\nproblems in classification, this group is of little use to most\npaleontologists.\nHolothuroid body impressions have been reported from the Middle\nCambrian, and sclerites from rocks as old as Mississippian.\nThe chordates are the most advanced of all animals and are characterized\nby the presence of a well-developed nervous system and a body supported\nby a bony or cartilaginous _notochord_ and/or _spinal column_. In the\nhigher chordates (the vertebrates) the notochord is normally replaced by\nbone, but in the lower chordates (for example, the graptolites) it\nremains in a cartilaginous condition.\nThe phylum Chordata contains only two subphyla of paleontological\nsignificance. These are the subphylum Hemichordata, composed of\nprimitive chordates (including the graptolites which are important\nfossils), and the Vertebrata, which includes all animals with backbones.\n                         Subphylum Hemichordata\nThe hemichordates are characterized by a well-defined notochord which\nruns the length of the body, but they do not possess a true backbone.\nOnly one class, the Graptolithina, is of paleontological importance.\nThe graptolites are a group of extinct colonial animals which were very\nabundant during early Paleozoic time. They are characterized by a\nchitinous exoskeleton consisting of rows of cups or tubes which housed\nthe living animal. These cups are attached to single or branching stalks\n(fig. 24) which in some forms were attached to sea weeds, rocks, or\nother foreign objects where they led a fixed existence. The stalks of\nthe unattached graptolites grew on floats (fig. 24a) and these floating\nforms attained wide geographic distribution. It is also possible that\nsome of the attached forms were fixed to floating objects, such as sea\nweed, and thus were distributed in this manner.\nPrevious classifications have recognized the graptolites as members of\nthe phylum Coelenterata. As coelenterates they were assigned, at various\ntimes, to the classes Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, and Graptozoa. In addition,\nthey were also classified as bryozoans by certain of the early\npaleontologists. This publication, in keeping with recent changes in\ntaxonomy, considers graptolites to be an extinct group of hemichordates.\nThis classification is based upon research in which uncompressed\ngraptolites were etched out of chert and studied in great detail.\nInformation derived from these relatively undistorted specimens\nindicates a much higher degree of body organization than was previously\nsuspected, and as a result of these studies most paleontologists now\nconsider graptolites to be some form of primitive chordate.\n    [Illustration: Fig. 24. Graptolites. (a) Diplograptus (\u00d72). (b)\n              Dendrograptus (\u00d73). (c) Phyllograptus (\u00d72).]\nThe chitinous graptolite exoskeleton is commonly preserved as a\nflattened carbon residue; their remains may be locally abundant along\nthe bedding planes of certain black or dark gray shales.\nGraptolites are known from rocks that range from Cambrian to\nMississippian in age, and they are among the most important guide\nfossils for Ordovician and Silurian rocks.\nGraptolites have been reported from Cambrian rocks in central Texas and\nfrom the Ordovician of west Texas (fig. 24). The most abundant of these\noccur in certain Ordovician rocks in the Trans-Pecos area where they are\ncommon fossils in certain formations.\n                          Subphylum Vertebrata\nThe vertebrates are the most advanced of all chordates. They are\ncharacterized by a skull and a bony or cartilaginous _internal\nskeleton_, with a _vertebral column_ of bone or cartilage. This\nsubphylum is commonly divided into two superclasses, the Pisces (the\nfishes and their relatives) and the Tetrapoda (the four-footed animals).\nAs mentioned earlier, most amateur collectors collect very few\nvertebrate remains, and for this reason this group is not discussed in\ndetail. However, the more important vertebrate classes are briefly\nreviewed to enable the reader to have some understanding of this\nimportant group of animals. This part of the handbook will also serve as\nan introduction to some of the interesting and unusual, but now extinct,\nanimals that have inhabited Texas in the geologic past. Among these\nanimals are giant fishes, primitive amphibians, and many different types\nof dinosaurs. Included also are such unusual mammals as the giant ground\nsloths, saber-tooth cats, mammoths, and mastodons, all of which are now\nextinct. The remains of these, and many other interesting extinct\nvertebrates, may be seen in the geological collections of the Texas\nMemorial Museum at Austin. Many of these displays are accompanied by\ndrawings which depict the scientific restoration of the animal\u2019s soft\nparts and show how the animal may have appeared in life.\nThe members of this superclass are commonly called fishes and are the\nsimplest and most numerous of all vertebrates. They are aquatic,\nfree-moving, cold-blooded (their blood maintains the temperature of the\nsurrounding water), and breathe primarily by means of gills. However,\nsome forms (the lungfishes) breathe by means of a lung developed from\nthe air-bladder.\nThe most recent fish classification recognizes four major classes, the\nAgnatha (primitive jawless fishes), the Placodermi (armored fishes with\nprimitive jaws), the Chondrichthyes (sharks and related forms with\ncartilaginous internal skeletons), and the Osteichthyes (true bony\nfishes).\nFishes belonging to this class are primitive, jawless, and represented\nby the living lampreys and hagfishes. The first agnathans appeared in\nthe Ordovician and were armored by a bony covering on the front part of\ntheir bodies. These primitive fishes, called _ostracoderms_, are the\nearliest recorded fishes and, in addition, appear to be the first known\nvertebrate animals. The ostracoderms first appeared in late Ordovician\ntime, increased in numbers in the Silurian, and were extinct by the end\nof the Devonian.\nThese are primitive jaw-bearing fishes, the majority of which were\nheavily armored (Pl. 37). The _placoderms_ were shark-like in\nappearance, and some of them grew to be as much as 30 feet in length.\nMembers of this class appeared first in the Devonian and lasted into the\nPermian, at which time they became extinct. Placoderms are rare in\nTexas, but the fragmentary remains of these primitive fishes have been\nfound in Devonian rocks in central Texas.\n                         CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES.\u2014\nThis class includes such modern forms as the sharks, rays, and skates.\nThey are characterized by skeletons which are composed of cartilage and\nare very abundant in the marine waters of today. The earliest known\nrepresentatives of this class are reported from rocks of Devonian age,\nand they have been relatively common up to the present time.\nShark teeth (Pl. 37) can be found in Texas in Pennsylvanian, Permian,\nCretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene, and Miocene rocks. These are probably the\nmost common vertebrate fossils to be found in Texas and are usually\nfound in thin-bedded marine limestones or clays.\nThe Osteichthyes includes the true bony fishes, which are the most\nhighly developed and abundant of all fishes. They possess an internal\nbony skeleton, well-developed jaws, an air-bladder, and, typically, an\nexternal covering of overlapping scales.\nIncluded in this class are a primitive group of fishes called\n_crossopterygians_. These were very abundant in the Devonian and are\nbelieved to be the ancestors of the amphibians. The modern lungfishes\nalso belong to the class Osteichthyes, and these primitive fishes, which\nare now found only in Australia, South America, and Africa, breathe by\nmeans of gills and lungs which have been developed from the air-bladder.\nAlthough not abundant as fossils, the remains of these specialized\nfishes have added much to present knowledge concerning the development\nof certain of the higher vertebrates.\nThe remains of bony fishes have been collected at many localities in\nTexas, and fossils of this type have been found primarily in rocks of\nCretaceous age but have been reported from other rocks as well. Fish\nfossils are more commonly found in the form of teeth (Pl. 37),\nvertebrae, scales, and an occasional well-preserved skeleton.\n                    [Illustration: SHARK TEETH \u00d7 1]\n                        [Illustration: CONODONTS\n                 [Illustration: PRIMITIVE ARMORED FISH\n_Conodonts_ (Pl. 37) are small, amber-colored, tooth-like fossils which\nare believed to represent the teeth of some type of extinct fish.\nAlthough geologists do not know a great deal about the origin of these\nstrange fossils they are of value in micropaleontology. Conodonts have\nbeen reported from several Paleozoic formations in Texas and are useful\nguide fossils in some areas.\n                          Superclass Tetrapoda\nThe tetrapods are the most advanced chordates and are typified by the\npresence of lungs, a three- or four-chambered heart, and paired\nappendages. Included here are the classes Amphibia (frogs, toads, and\nsalamanders), Reptilia (lizards, snakes, turtles, and the extinct\ndinosaurs), Aves (birds), and Mammalia (including the mammals, such as\nmen, dogs, whales, etc.).\nThe amphibians were the earliest developed four-legged animals and are\nrepresented by such living forms as the toads, frogs, and salamanders.\nAmphibians are cold-blooded animals that primarily breathe by lungs and\nspend most of their life on land, but during their early stages of\ndevelopment they live in the water where they breathe by means of gills.\nThe amphibians apparently developed from the crossopterygian fishes\nduring late Devonian time and were relatively abundant in the\nPennsylvanian, Permian, and Triassic.\nAmphibian remains in Texas are confined largely to lower Paleozoic and\nupper Mesozoic rocks. Numerous interesting and important discoveries of\nfossil amphibians have been made in north and west Texas where their\nremains (Pl. 40) have been collected in association with early types of\nreptiles. The areas where Permian red beds are exposed in Archer and\nBaylor counties and where Triassic red beds are exposed from Big Spring\nnorth along the edge of the High Plains have furnished most of these\nspecimens.\nThe reptiles have become adapted to permanent life on land and need not\nrely on an aquatic environment. They are cold-blooded and are normally\ncharacterized by a scaly skin. Reptiles have been much more abundant in\nthe past than they are today, and they assumed many different shapes and\nsizes in the geologic past. Modern classifications recognize a large\nnumber of reptilian groups, but only the more important of these are\nbriefly reviewed here.\nThese were a group of primitive reptiles which, although retaining some\namphibian characteristics, became adapted to an exclusively\nland-dwelling existence. The cotylosaurs lived during the Pennsylvanian\nand Permian and apparently became extinct sometime during the late\nPermian. Cotylosaurs (Pl. 40) are well known from the Permian of north\nTexas.\nThese are reptiles in which the body is more or less completely enclosed\nby bony plates. This group is first known as fossils from late Triassic\nrocks of Europe, and modern representatives of the group include the\nturtles and tortoises. Fragmentary remains of turtle shells are among\nthe most common vertebrate fossils found in the Tertiary. Some of the\nlate Tertiary land tortoises were 3 to 4 feet long. The earliest known\nturtles in Texas have been found in Cretaceous rocks.\nThe pelycosaurs were a group of late Paleozoic reptiles some of which\nwere characterized by the presence of a tall fin on their back (Pl. 40).\nThe fossils of these unusual creatures are well known from the Permian\nred beds of north-central Texas.\nThe therapsids were a mammal-like group of reptiles which were well\ndeveloped for a terrestrial existence. Although the remains of these\nprimitive reptiles are not particularly important fossils, study of the\ntherapsids has provided much valuable information about the origin of\nthe mammals. Members of this group appeared first in the middle Permian\nand persisted until the middle Jurassic, but therapsid remains have not\nbeen reported from Texas.\n  Comparison of the dinosaurs. Reproduced with permission of Dr. J. W.\n  Dixon, Jr., and Geology Department, Baylor University, Waco, Texas.]\n     STOCKS\n  DINOSAUR      THEROPOD           SAUROPOD         ORNITHOPOD        STEGOSAUR       CERATOPSIAN      ANKYLOSAUR\n  TYPES\n  POSTURE       BIPEDAL            QUADRUPEDAL      BIPEDAL AND       QUADRUPEDAL     QUADRUPEDAL      QUADRUPEDAL\n  ARMOR         UNARMORED EXCEPT   UNARMORED        UNARMORED (SPEED  BONY PLATES     HORNS, BONY      KNOBS AND SPIKES\n                FOR HUGE SHARP                      WAS CHIEF         ALONG BACK,     PLATE OVER NECK  OVER DORSAL AREA,\n  DIET          CARNIVOROUS        HERBIVOROUS      HERBIVOROUS       HERBIVOROUS     HERBIVOROUS      HERBIVOROUS\n  OTHER         LARGE HEAD WITH    HUGE BODY, LONG  SLENDER-BUILD,    SHORT NECK,     SHORT NECK,      \u201cARMADILLO-LIKE\u201d\n  DESCRIPTIVE   POWERFUL JAW,      NECK AND TAIL,   \u201cDUCK-BILLED\u201d     LONG TAIL,      STOCKY BUILD     APPEARANCE\n  REMARKS       GREATLY REDUCED    SMALL HEAD                         SMALL HEAD\n  EXAMPLES      CERATOSAURUS-J     BRACHIOSAURUS-J  PARASAUROLOPHUS-K _STEGOSAURUS-J_ STYRACOSAURUS-K  PALEOSCINCUS-K\n  (AND AGE)     ALLOSAURUS-J       DIPLODOCUS-J     CORYTHOSAURUS-K                   PROTOCERATOPS-K  _ANKYLOSAURUS-K_\n  J-JURASSIC    _TYRANNOSAURUS-K_  _BRONTOSAURUS-J_ _TRACHODON-K_                     _TRICERATOPS-K_\n  K-CRETACEOUS\n                [Illustration]     [Illustration]   [Illustration]    [Illustration]  [Illustration]   [Illustration]\n  Comparison of Mesozoic flying and swimming reptiles. Reproduced with\n   permission of Dr. J. W. Dixon, Jr., and Geology Department, Baylor\n               [Illustration: FLYING REPTILES\u2014PTEROSAURS]\n  RHAMPHORHYNCHOIDS JURASSIC   WELL          LONG TAIL  WITHOUT     SMALL      [Illustration]\n                               DEVELOPED     WITH       CREST       MAXIMUM    _RHAMPHORHYNCHUS_\n  PTERODACTYLOIDS   JURASSIC   JAW PARTLY    SHORT OR   WITH SMALL  FROM SIZE  [Illustration]\n                    CRETACEOUS COMPLETELY               CREST       SPARROW\n               [Illustration: MESOZOIC SWIMMING REPTILES]\n      GROUP         AGE        DESCRIPTION       SIZE      HABITAT        EXAMPLE\n  ICHTHYOSAUR    TRIASSIC   FISH-LIKE BODY,   AVERAGE    MARINE      [Illustration]\n  MOSASAUR       CRETACEOUS LIZARD-LIKE       AVERAGE    MARINE      [Illustration]\n  PLESIOSAUR     TRIASSIC   LONG NECK AND     MAXIMUM    MARINE      [Illustration]\n                 CRETACEOUS LONG HEAD AND     50\u2032                    _TRINACROMERUM-K_\n  CHELONIA       TRIASSIC   SHAPED LIKE       MAXIMUM    MARINE,     [Illustration]\n  (TURTLES)      TO PRESENT MODERN TURTLES,   SIZE =     STREAMS,    _ARCHELON-K_\n  PHYTOSAUR      TRIASSIC   CROCODILE-LIKE    MAXIMUM    STREAMS     [Illustration]\n                            BODY, NOSTRILS    LENGTH =   AND SWAMPS  _RUTIODON_\n  PELYCOSAUR \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2082\n    DIMETRODON\n  PRIMITIVE AMPHIBIAN \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2080\n    ERYOPS\n  COTYLOSAUR\n    SEYMOURIA \u00d7 \u2155\n  ICHTHYOSAUR \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2082\u2080\n  MOSASAUR \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2086\u2080\n  PLESIOSAUR \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2086\u2080\n                 [Illustration: CROCODILE-LIKE REPTILE\n                    [Illustration: FLYING DINOSAURS]\n    RHAMPHORHYNCHUS \u00d7 \u2159\n    PTERANODON \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2084\u2080\nThese were extinct, short-necked, marine reptiles that were fish-like in\nappearance. Ichthyosaurs resemble the modern dolphins, and some of them\nattained lengths of 25 to 40 feet (Pl. 41), though the average was much\nless. The group is known from rocks ranging from middle Triassic to late\nCretaceous in age.\nThe mosasaurs are another group of extinct marine lizards which lived in\nCretaceous seas. Some of these great reptiles grew to be as much as 50\nfeet long, and their great gaping jaws were filled with many sharp\nrecurved teeth (Pl. 41). Mosasaurs were present in the great Cretaceous\nseas which covered many parts of Texas, and their remains have been\nreported from both north and central Texas. One such skeleton was found\nnear Austin, and its skull is on display in the Texas Memorial Museum.\nThe plesiosaurs were marine reptiles which were characterized by a broad\nturtle-like body, paddle-like flippers, and a long neck and tail (Pl.\n41). These reptiles were not as streamlined or well equipped for\nswimming as the ichthyosaurs or mosasaurs, but the long serpent-like\nneck was probably very useful in helping the reptile catch fish and\nother small animals for food. Plesiosaur remains range from middle\nTriassic to late Cretaceous in age, and they have been found in\nCretaceous rocks in Texas. A short-necked plesiosaur which was collected\nfrom Upper Cretaceous rocks near Waco is on display in the Strecker\nMuseum at Baylor University in Waco.\nThe phytosaurs were a group of crocodile-like reptiles which ranged from\n6 to 25 feet in length (Pl. 42). They resembled the crocodiles both in\nappearance and in their mode of life, but this similarity is only\nsuperficial, and the phytosaurs and crocodiles are two distinct groups\nof reptiles.\nThe phytosaurs are exclusively Triassic in age and their remains have\nbeen collected from Triassic rocks along the eastern margin of the High\nPlains of Texas.\n                      Crocodiles and alligators.\u2014\nThese reptiles adapted themselves to the same type habitat that was\noccupied by the phytosaurs, which preceded them. Crocodiles and\nalligators were much larger and more abundant during Cretaceous and\nCenozoic time than they are today; the crocodiles first appeared in the\nCretaceous and the alligators in the Tertiary. The remains of both\ncrocodiles and alligators have been found in Texas, and one such\ncrocodile (_Phobosuchus_) represents the remains of the largest\ncrocodile yet discovered (Pl. 43). This specimen probably had an overall\nlength of 40 to 50 feet, and its massive skull was 6 feet long and\npossessed exceptionally strong jaws. The remains of this great beast\nwere collected from exposures of Upper Cretaceous rocks along the Rio\nGrande in Trans-Pecos Texas.\nThese were Mesozoic reptiles with bat-like wings supported by arms and\nlong thin \u201cfingers\u201d (Pl. 42). The pterosaurs were well adapted to life\nin the air, and their light-weight bodies and wide skin-covered wings\nenabled them to soar or glide for great distances. The earliest known\npterosaurs were found in lower Triassic rocks, and the group became\nextinct by the end of the Cretaceous. During this time certain of these\ncreatures attained a wingspread of as much as 27 feet, but their bodies\nwere small and light.\nThe collective term \u201cdinosaurs\u201d (meaning terrible lizards) has been\ngiven to that distinctive group of reptiles prominent in Mesozoic life\nfor some 140 million years. In size, the dinosaurs ranged from as little\nas 1 foot to as much as 85 feet in length and from a few pounds to\nperhaps 45 tons in weight. Some were _carnivorous_ (meat-eaters) but the\nmajority were _herbivorous_ (plant-eaters). Some were _bipedal_ (walked\non their hind-legs) while others were _quadrupedal_ (walked on all\nfours), and although most of the dinosaurs were terrestrial in habitat,\naquatic and semi-aquatic forms were also present.\nAccording to the structure of their hip bones, the dinosaurs have been\ndivided into two great orders. These are the Saurischia (forms with\nlizard-like pelvic girdle) and the Ornithischia (dinosaurs with a\nbird-like pelvic girdle).\n       Dr. Brown, R. T. Bird, and Dr. Schaikjer with the skull of\n _Phobosuchus_, an extinct crocodile from the Cretaceous of Trans-Pecos\n    Photograph courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.]\nDinosaurs belonging to this order were particularly abundant during the\nJurassic and are characterized by hip bones that are similar to those of\nmodern lizards. These dinosaurs were first discovered in rocks of\nTriassic age and did not become extinct until the end of the Cretaceous.\nThe lizard-hipped reptiles are divided into two rather specialized\ngroups of dinosaurs: the _theropods_ (carnivorous bipedal dinosaurs that\nvaried greatly in size) and the _sauropods_ (herbivorous, quadrupedal,\nsemi-aquatic, usually gigantic dinosaurs).\nThis type of saurischian dinosaur walked on bird-like hind limbs, and\nthey were exclusively meat-eating forms, such as _Allosaurus_ (Pl. 44)\nof Jurassic age. Some theropods were exceptionally large and were\nundoubtedly vicious beasts of prey. This assumption is borne out by such\nanatomical features as the small front limbs with long sharp claws for\nholding and tearing flesh, and the large strong jaws which were armed\nwith numerous, sharp, dagger-like teeth. The largest of all known\ntheropods was _Tyrannosaurus rex_ which, when standing on his hind\nlimbs, was almost 20 feet tall. Some individuals were as much as 50 feet\nlong, and _Tyrannosaurus_ is believed to have been among the most\nvicious animals to ever inhabit our earth. A cast of the skull of one of\nthese great beasts is on display in the Texas Memorial Museum at Austin,\nand a _Tyrannosaurus_ tooth has been found in the Big Bend National Park\nin Trans-Pecos Texas.\nThe sauropods were the largest of all dinosaurs, and some attained a\nlength of 85 feet and probably weighed 40 to 50 tons (_Brontosaurus_,\nPl. 44). They were primarily herbivorous dinosaurs which had become\nadapted to an aquatic or semi-aquatic type of existence and probably\ninhabited lakes, rivers, and swamps. The tracks of sauropod dinosaurs\nhave been collected from Lower Cretaceous rocks in central Texas (Pl. 4)\nand Upper Cretaceous beds in Big Bend National Park in Trans-Pecos\nTexas.\nThe ornithischian, or bird-hipped dinosaurs, were herbivorous reptiles\nwhich were quite varied in form and size and appear to have been more\nhighly developed than the saurischians. This order includes the\nduck-billed dinosaurs (ornithopods), the plate-bearing dinosaurs\n(stegosaurs), the armored dinosaurs (ankylosaurs), and the horned\ndinosaurs (ceratopsians). Ornithischian tracks are known from Cretaceous\nrocks in central and Trans-Pecos Texas.\n                         SUBORDER ORNITHOPODA.\u2014\nThese unusual dinosaurs were predominantly bipedal, semi-aquatic, and\nsome (like the duck-billed dinosaurs) were highly specialized\n(_Trachodon_, Pl. 45).\n                         SUBORDER STEGOSAURIA.\u2014\nThe stegosaurs were herbivorous, quadrupedal ornithischians with large\nprojecting plates down the back and heavy spikes on their tails. The\nJurassic dinosaur _Stegosaurus_ (Pl. 45) is most typical of the\nplate-bearing forms. This creature weighed about 10 tons, was some 30\nfeet long, and stood about 10 feet tall at the hips. _Stegosaurus_ is\ncharacterized by a double row of large, heavy, pointed plates which run\nalong the animal\u2019s back. These plates begin at the back of the skull and\nstop near the end of the tail. The tail was also equipped with four or\nmore long curved spikes which were probably used as a means of defense.\nThe animal had a very small skull which housed a brain that was about\nthe size of a walnut, and it is assumed that these, and all other\ndinosaurs, were of very limited intelligence.\n_Stegosaurus_ remains have not been discovered in Texas, but these, like\ncertain other of the extinct vertebrates, are mentioned because of their\ninteresting and unusual form.\n                        SUBORDER ANKYLOSAURIA.\u2014\nThe ankylosaurs were four-footed, herbivorous, Cretaceous dinosaurs\nwhich had relatively flat bodies. The skull and back of the animal were\nprotected by bony armor, and the club-like tail was armed with spikes.\n_Paleoscincus_ (Pl. 45), a typical ankylosaur, had large spines\nprojecting from along the sides of the body and tail. The armored spiked\nback and the heavy club-like tail probably provided _Paleoscincus_ with\nmuch-needed protection from the vicious meat-eating dinosaurs of\nCretaceous time.\n                         SAURISCHIAN DINOSAURS]\n  ALLOSAURUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2088\u2080\n  BRONTOSAURUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2085\u2080\n                        ORNITHISCHIAN DINOSAURS]\n  STEGOSAURUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2089\u2080\n  TRACHODON \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2080\u2080\n  PALEOSCINCUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2085\n  TRICERATOPS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2082\u2080\nThe ceratopsians, or horned dinosaurs, are another group of dinosaurs\nthat are known only from rocks of Cretaceous age. These plant-eating\ndinosaurs possessed beak-like jaws, a bony neck frill which extended\nback from the skull, and one or more horns. _Triceratops_ (Pl. 45) is\nthe largest of the horned dinosaurs (some forms were as much as 30 feet\nlong), and the skull measured 8 feet from the tip of the parrot-like\nbeak to the back of the neck shield.\nBecause of the fragile nature of their bodies, birds are seldom found as\nfossils. In spite of this, however, some interesting and important\nfossil bird remains have been discovered.\nThe oldest known bird was found in Upper Jurassic rocks exposed in\nGermany. This primitive bird, named _Archaeopteryx_, is little more than\na reptile with feathers. _Archaeopteryx_ was a pigeon-sized creature\nwhich had scales as well as feathers, a lizard-like tail, a toothed\nbeak, and other definitely reptilian characteristics.\nDuring late Cretaceous time the birds underwent changes that resulted in\nforms similar to those that are living today, and most of the\npresent-day birds had developed by the end of the Tertiary.\nAlthough not commonly found, fossil birds have been recorded from\ncertain of the Cenozoic rocks of Texas.\nThe mammals are animals that are born alive and fed with milk from the\nmother\u2019s breast. They are warm-blooded, air-breathing, have a protective\ncovering of hair, and are the most advanced of all vertebrates. The\nforegoing features are the more typical mammalian characteristics, but\nexceptions to these are found in certain mammals.\nMammals first appeared in the Jurassic and were probably derived from\nsome form of mammal-like reptile. Although rare during the Mesozoic,\nmammals underwent rapid development and expansion during the Cenozoic,\nand during this era certain types of mammals became extremely large and\nassumed many bizarre shapes. The majority of these unusual forms lived\nbut a short time but are well known from their fossils, and the remains\nof some of these animals which inhabited Texas during the Cenozoic may\nbe seen in the Texas Memorial Museum at Austin.\nRecent mammalian classification recognizes several subclasses and\nnumerous orders and suborders, but the treatment of the mammals in a\npublication of this nature must of necessity be somewhat brief and no\nattempt at detailed classification is made.\nThe allotherians first appeared during the Jurassic and underwent\nconsiderable development in the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary.\nIncluded in this subclass are the _multituberculates_ which are a group\nof small rodent-like animals that were probably the earliest of the\nherbivorous mammals. These animals were probably never very numerous,\nand they became extinct during the early part of Eocene time.\nMembers of this subclass are first known from rocks of Jurassic age, and\nthey constitute the largest group of mammals that are living today.\nTherians undergo considerable development before they are born and at\nbirth typically resemble the fully developed animal. This subclass has\nbeen divided into several orders but only the more important ones are\ndiscussed here.\nThe edentates are a rather primitive group of mammals which are\nrepresented by such living forms as the anteaters, tree sloths, and\narmadillos. Members of this group were common in the southern part of\nthe United States in Pleistocene and Pliocene time, and fossil edentates\nhave been reported from rocks of this age in Texas. One such form was\n_Mylodon_ (Pl. 46), one of the extinct giant ground sloths. These huge\nsloths were quite heavy and some of them stood as much as 15 feet tall;\nthese great creatures were the forerunners of the modern tree sloths of\nSouth America. The mounted skeleton of one of these giant ground sloths\nis displayed in the Texas Memorial Museum.\n  ENTELODONT \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2083\u2085\n  GLYPTODON \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2085\u2080\n  MYLODON \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2089\u2080\nAnother interesting representative of this order was the glyptodont.\nThese peculiar mammals, which were ancestral to the present-day\narmadillos, developed at about the same time as the ground sloths.\n_Glyptodon_ (Pl. 46), a typical glyptodont that has been reported from\nthe Pleistocene of Texas, is quite characteristic of this group. This\narmadillo-like beast had a solid turtle-like shell that in some forms\nwas as much as 4 feet high. From the front of the bone capped head to\nthe tip of its tail, a large individual might be as much as 15 feet\nlong. The thick heavy tail was protected by a series of bony rings, and\nin some species the end of the tail was developed into a bony heavily\nspiked club. The _carapace_ (hard outer shell) of a large glyptodont is\nmounted at the Texas Memorial Museum.\nAnimals belonging to this order are called carnivores and are\ncharacterized by clawed feet and by teeth which are adapted for tearing\nand cutting flesh. The carnivores, or meat-eaters, were first\nrepresented by an ancient group of animals called _creodonts_, and this\nshort-lived group first appeared in the Paleocene and were extinct by\nthe end of the Eocene. They ranged from the size of a weazel to that of\na large bear, and their claws were sharp and well developed. Their\nteeth, however, were not as specialized as those of modern carnivores,\nand the creodont brain was relatively small. It is assumed that these\nanimals had a very low order of intelligence when compared to the more\nadvanced carnivores of today.\nThese early meat-eaters were followed by more specialized carnivores\nwhich developed throughout Cenozoic time. Some examples of these are the\nsaber-tooth cat _Dinobastis_ (Pl. 47) and the dire wolf _Canis diris_\n(Pl. 47), both of which have been reported from the Texas Pleistocene.\nSome remains of these unusual forms, representing the cat and dog\nfamilies, are on display at the Texas Memorial Museum.\nPantodonts, known also as _amblypods_, were primitive, hoofed,\nherbivorous animals. They were distinguished by a heavy skeleton, short\nstout limbs, and blunt spreading feet. The pantodonts appeared first\nduring Paleocene time and had become extinct by the end of the\nOligocene.\nThe members of this order are an extinct group of gigantic mammals\ncommonly called _uintatheres_. _Uintatherium_ (Pl. 48), which is typical\nof the group, had three pairs of blunt horns, and the males had\ndagger-like upper tusks. Some of the uintatheres were as large as a\nsmall elephant and stood as much as 7 feet tall at the shoulders. The\nsize of the brain in relation to the size of the body suggests that\nthese animals were not as intelligent as most mammals. Uintatheres are\nknown from rocks ranging from Paleocene to Eocene in age. Uintathere\nremains have been reported from Big Bend National Park in Trans-Pecos\nTexas.\nThe earliest proboscideans, the elephants and their relatives, first\nappeared in the late Eocene of Africa and were about the size of a small\nmodern elephant but had larger heads and shorter trunks. Proboscidean\ndevelopment is marked by an increase in size, change in skull and tooth\nstructure, and elongation of the trunk. Two well-known fossil\nproboscideans are the _mammoth_ and the _mastodon_, both of which\ninhabited Texas during Pleistocene time. The mastodons resembled the\nelephants, but the structure of their teeth was quite different (fig.\n25). Moreover, the mastodon skull was lower than that of the elephant\nand the tusks were exceptionally large\u2014some reaching a length of 9 feet.\n  DINOBASTIS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2080\n  CANIS DIRUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2085\n  HYRACOTHERIUM \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2081\u2080\n  PLIOHIPPUS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2080\nThere were several types of mammoths, and the _woolly mammoth_ is\nprobably the best known. This animal lived until the end of the\nPleistocene and, like the woolly rhinoceros discussed below, is known\nfrom ancient cave paintings and frozen remains. Information gathered\nfrom these sources indicates that this great beast had a long coat of\nblack hair with a woolly undercoat (Pl. 49).\n[Illustration: Fig. 25. Sketches of Pleistocene (a) mastodon tooth (\u00d7\u2159)\nDuring the Pleistocene, mammoths were widespread over the United States,\nand their remains are abundant in many stream deposits of this age.\nProboscidean bones have been reported from Pleistocene rocks in many\nparts of Texas, where they are commonly found in sand and gravel pits.\n                         Order Perissodactyla.\u2014\nThe perissodactyls, or odd-toed animals, are mammals in which the\ncentral toe on each limb is greatly enlarged. Modern representatives\ninclude the horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs. Extinct members of the\nPerissodactyla include the _titanotheres_, _chalicotheres_, and\n_baluchitheres_, all of which grew to tremendous size and took on many\nunusual body forms.\nOne of the first perissodactyls was _Hyracotherium_ (also called\n_Eohippus_), which is the earliest known horse (Pl. 47). This small\nanimal, whose remains have been found in Big Bend National Park, was\nabout 1 foot high and his teeth indicate a diet of soft food. Following\nthe first horse, there is a long series of fossil horses which provide\nmuch valuable information on the history of this important group of\nanimals.\nThe record of the development of the horse is well represented in Texas,\nand the bones and teeth of fossil horses are common in certain parts of\nthe State. Fossils of this type have been reported from the Tertiary of\nthe Trans-Pecos, Gulf Coastal Plain, and High Plains regions of Texas,\nand the teeth of Pleistocene horses have been found in sand and gravel\npits in many parts of the State. Horse teeth (fig. 26) are particularly\nuseful fossils as they may be accurately identified and used to\ndetermine the age of the rocks in which they are found.\n [Illustration: Fig. 26. Typical Pliocene horse tooth. Top view (a) and\n                 lateral view (b) of molar tooth (\u00d7\u00bd).]\nThis group of odd-toed mammals appeared first in the Eocene, at which\ntime they were about the size of a sheep. By Middle Oligocene time they\nhad increased to gigantic proportions but still had a small and\nprimitive brain. _Brontotherium_ (Pl. 48) was slightly rhinoceros-like\nin appearance and is believed to be the largest land animal that ever\ninhabited the North American continent. This animal was about 8 feet\ntall at the shoulders; a large bony growth protruded from the skull and\nthis was extended into a flattened horn, which was divided at the top.\n  UINTATHERIUM \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2084\u2085\n  BRONTOTHERIUM \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2083\u2085\nAlthough the titanotheres underwent rapid development during the early\nTertiary, these huge beasts became extinct during the middle of the\nOligocene epoch. Titanothere remains have been reported from the\nTrans-Pecos region of Texas.\nThe chalicotheres were in some ways like the titanotheres, but they also\nexhibited many peculiarities of their own. The head and neck of\n_Moropus_, a typical chalicothere, were much like that of a horse, but\nthe front legs were longer than the hind legs, and the feet resembled\nthose of a rhinoceros except that they bore long claws instead of hoofs.\nThe chalicotheres lived in North America from Miocene until Pleistocene\ntime but were probably never very numerous, and their remains have not\nyet been discovered in Texas.\nThe rhinoceroses are also odd-toed animals, and there are many\ninteresting and well-known fossils in this group. The _woolly\nrhinoceros_ (Pl. 49) was a Pleistocene two-horned form that ranged from\nsouthern France to northeastern Siberia. The woolly rhinoceros is well\nknown from complete carcasses recovered from the frozen tundra of\nSiberia and from remains that were found preserved in an oil seep in\nPoland. These unusual specimens plus cave paintings made by early man\nhave given a complete and accurate record of this creature. Although the\nwoolly rhinoceros has not been reported from Texas, other fossil\nrhinoceroses have been found in the High Plains and Gulf Coastal Plain\nof Texas. These fossils have been found in rocks ranging from Middle\nOligocene to late Pliocene in age.\n_Baluchitherium_, the largest land mammal known to science, was a\nhornless rhinoceros that lived in late Oligocene and early Miocene time.\nThis immense creature measured approximately 25 feet from head to tail,\nstood almost 18 feet high at the shoulder, and must have weighed many\ntons. Remains of these creatures have not been discovered in North\nAmerica, and they appear to have been restricted to Central Asia.\nThe artiodactyls are the even-toed hoofed mammals and include such\nfamiliar forms as pigs, camels, deer, goats, sheep, and hippopotamuses.\nThis is a large and varied group of animals, but the basic anatomical\nstructure of the limbs and teeth show well the relationship between the\ndifferent forms. Artiodactyls are abundant fossils in rocks ranging from\nEocene to Pleistocene in age and are common in rocks of this age in\nTexas.\nThese giant pig-like artiodactyls lived during Oligocene and early\nMiocene time and were distinguished by a long heavy skull that held a\nrelatively small brain. The face was marked by large knobs which were\nlocated beneath the eyes and on the underside of the lower jaw, and\nalthough these knob-like structures were blunt they had the appearance\nof short horns. Certain of these giant swine attained a height of 6 feet\nat the shoulders and had skulls that measured 3 feet in length (Pl. 46).\nEntelodont remains have been found in the Miocene of the Texas Coastal\nPlain.\nThe first known camels have been reported from rocks of upper Eocene\nage, and these small forms underwent considerable specialization of\nteeth and limbs as they developed in size. Many of the camels that lived\nduring the middle Cenozoic had long legs which were well adapted to\nrunning and long necks which would have allowed the animals to browse on\nthe leaves of tall trees.\nThe earliest known Texas camels were found in rocks of Oligocene age,\nand camels, like horses, must have been abundant in Texas during the\nPleistocene for their fossilized remains are common in many parts of the\nState.\n  WOOLLY RHINOCEROS \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2082\u2080\n  WOOLLY MAMMOTH \u00d7 \u00b9/\u2084\u2080\nThe following books are recommended for the reader who wants to know\nmore about fossils and fossil collecting. The publications listed below\ncover various phases of historical geology and paleontology and range\nfrom children\u2019s books to the more technical publications of the\nprofessional paleontologist. This list, however, is by no means\nall-inclusive and many other interesting and useful publications are\navailable.\nDunbar, C. O. (1959) Historical geology, John Wiley and Sons, New York.\n  College-level text, well written and well illustrated.\nMoore, R. C. (1958) Introduction to historical geology, McGraw-Hill Book\nCo., New York.\n  College-level presentation of earth history. Many illustrations of\n  fossils.\nMoore, Ruth (1953) Man, time, and fossils, Alfred Knopf, New York.\n  A readable account of fossils and their development throughout\n  geologic time.\nPanghorn, M. W., Jr. (1957) Earth for the layman, American Geological\nInstitute, Washington, D. C.\n  Contains many valuable references.\nRaymond, P. E. (1950) Prehistoric life, Harvard University Press,\nCambridge, Mass.\n  College-level text.\nRichards, H. G. (1953) Record of the rocks, Ronald Press, New York.\n  College-level earth history text.\nSimpson, G. G. (1953) Life of the past, Yale University Press, New\nHaven, Conn.\n  Thorough, yet readable, introduction to paleontology.\nStirton, R. A. (1959) Time, life, and man: the fossil record, John Wiley\nand Sons, New York.\n  An introductory college text, most of which is of interest to adult\n  level general readers.\nNote: _See also_ sections on Paleontology and Fossils _in_ Encyclopedia\nAmericana, Encyclopaedia Britannica, and others.\n                       NONTECHNICAL AND JUVENILE\nAndrews, R. C. (1953) All about dinosaurs, Random House, New York.\n  Interesting and readable dinosaur book for junior high and high-school\n  age.\nAndrews, R. C. (1956) All about strange beasts of the past, Random\nHouse, New York.\n  Interesting and easy to read, this book deals largely with extinct and\n  unusual mammals (junior high and high school).\nColbert, E. H. (1945) The dinosaur book, American Museum of Natural\nHistory, New York.\n  A classic among \u201cpopular\u201d dinosaur books. For all age levels.\nColbert, E. H. (1957) Dinosaurs, American Museum of Natural History, New\nYork.\n  This little booklet provides a well-illustrated introduction to the\n  dinosaurs. For high school and adult-level readers.\nDickinson, Alice (1954) First book of prehistoric animals, Franklin\nWatts, Inc., New York.\n  Easy to read, well-illustrated book for grade-school age.\nDunkle, D. H. (1957) The world of the dinosaurs, Smithsonian\nInstitution, Washington, D. C.\n  An easy to understand, amply illustrated introduction to the dinosaurs\n  (high school-adult level).\nFenton, C. L. (1937) Life long ago, The John Day Co., New York.\n  Very good for advanced grade and high-school age.\nHeal, Edith (1930) How the world began, Thomas S. Rockwell Co., Chicago.\n  An account of the beginnings of life. For upper grade through\n  high-school age.\nMarkman, H. C. (1954) Fossils, Denver Museum of Natural History, Denver,\nColo.\n  A well-illustrated general survey of fossils. For adult-level readers.\nMatthews III, W. H. (1962) Fossils: An introduction to prehistoric life,\nBarnes and Noble, Inc., New York, [\u201cIn preparation\u201d at time of first\nprinting of Guidebook No. 2.]\n  This publication contains many collecting aids and much background\n  material for amateur collectors. Contains also a brief review of earth\n  history.\nMatthews III, W. H. (1963) Wonders of the dinosaur world, Dodd, Mead &\nCo., New York.\n  Well illustrated, non-technical presentation of dinosaurs. For\n  junior-high and high-school teachers.\nParker, B. M. (1942) Stories read from the rocks, Basic Science\nEducation Series, Row, Peterson and Co., Evanston, Ill.\n  Well written and colorfully illustrated. For advanced grades and\n  junior high.\nParker, B. M. (1948) Animals of yesterday, Basic Science Education\nSeries, Row, Peterson, and Co., Evanston, Ill.\n  Well written and colorfully illustrated. For advanced grades and\n  junior high.\nShaver, R. H. (1959) Adventures with fossils, Geological Survey, Indiana\nDepartment of Conservation, Bloomington, Ind.\n  Collection hints and general information on fossils. Particularly for\n  the lower grades.\nShuttlesworth, D. E. (1957) Real book of prehistoric life, Garden City\nBooks, Garden City, N. Y.\n  Survey of prehistoric life. For grade and junior-high levels.\nBrown, Vinson (1954) How to make a home nature museum, Little, Brown and\nCo., Boston.\n  Contains suggestions for collecting, mounting, and displaying fossils\n  and other objects of nature.\nCamp, C. L., and Hanna, G. D. (1937) Methods in paleontology, University\nof California Press, Berkeley.\n  Excellent discussion of collecting and preparation techniques.\nCasanova, Richard (1957) An illustrated guide to fossil collecting,\nNatureograph Co., San Martin, Calif.\n  Has collecting hints and fossil localities for most of the States.\nCollinson, C. C. (1959) Guide for beginning fossil hunters, Educational\nSeries 4, Illinois State Geological Survey, Urbana.\n  Clearly written, well illustrated, particularly for the lower grades.\nGoldring, Winifred (1950) Handbook of paleontology for beginners and\namateurs, New York State Museum, Albany, N. Y.\n  A complete summary of paleontology. For the advanced collector.\nLa Rocque, A., and Marple, M. F. (1955) Ohio fossils, Ohio Division of\nGeological Survey, Bulletin 54, Columbus, Ohio.\n  Rather comprehensive treatment of the invertebrates with several\n  useful keys for fossil identification.\nLivingston, V. E., Jr. (1959) Fossils in Washington, Division of Mines\nand Geology, Department of Conservation, Olympia, Wash.\n  An introduction to the geology and fossils of Washington. Contains\n  guide to collecting localities.\nSimpson, B. W. (1958) Gem trails of Texas, Bessie W. Simpson, Granbury,\nTexas.\n  Field guide to Texas mineral, rock, and fossil locations. Contains\n  numerous maps and well-described collecting localities.\nUnklesbay, A. G. (1955) Common fossils of Missouri, University of\nMissouri Bulletin, Handbook 4, Columbia, Mo.\n  Written for the amateur; contains much general information of interest\n  to the beginning collector.\nArnold, C. A. (1947) An introduction to paleobotany, McGraw-Hill Book\nCo., New York.\n  College-level textbook.\nBeerbower, J. R. (1960) Search for the past, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,\nEnglewood Cliffs, N. J.\n  Good background text. Well illustrated. Has section on vertebrates.\nColbert, E. H. (1955) Evolution of the vertebrates, John Wiley and Sons,\nNew York.\n  Comprehensive and technical treatment of vertebrate fossils.\nCushman, J. A. (1948) Foraminifera, their classification and economic\nuse, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.\n  College-level text containing large numbers of descriptions and\n  illustrations of foraminifera.\nEaston, W. H. (1960) Invertebrate paleontology, Harper & Bros., Inc.,\nNew York.\n  College-level text. Good illustrations, useful for identification.\nFenton, C. L., and Fenton, M. A. (1958) The fossil book, Doubleday and\nCo., New York.\n  Comprehensive, easy-to-read, beautifully illustrated treatment of all\n  types of fossils.\nJones, D. J. (1956) Introduction to microfossils, Harper and Brothers,\nNew York.\n  College-level textbook with considerable information on collection,\n  preparation, and the types of microfossils.\nMoore, R. C., et al. (1953-1959) Treatise on invertebrate paleontology,\nGeological Society of America and University of Kansas, Lawrence,\nKansas.\n  A technical reference for the more advanced collector. It is issued in\n  several parts and contains latest classification.\nMoore, R. C., Lalicker, C. G., and Fisher, A. G. (1953) Invertebrate\nfossils, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.\n  College-level reference with fine illustrations. Of value for purposes\n  of identification.\nRomer, A. S. (1945) Vertebrate paleontology, University of Chicago\nPress, Chicago.\n  A college-level textbook with numerous illustrations.\nShimer, H. W. (1933) Introduction to the study of fossils, The Macmillan\nCompany, New York.\n  A relatively simple college-level presentation of plant and animal\n  fossils.\nJohn Wiley and Sons, New York.\n  Comprehensive survey of the more common fossils of North America.\n  Useful to the advanced collector and a most useful aid for fossil\n  identification.\nShrock, R. R., and Twenhofel, W. H. (1953) Principles of invertebrate\npaleontology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.\n  Useful college-level reference for advanced collectors.\n                   SELECTED REFERENCES ON TEXAS FOSSILS[2]\n*Adkins, W. S. (1920) The Weno and Pawpaw formations of the Texas\nComanchean: Univ. Texas Bull. 1856.\n  Descriptions and illustrations of many common Cretaceous fossils.\n*Adkins, W. S. (1928) Handbook of Texas Cretaceous fossils: Univ. Texas\n  Lists all fossils described from the Texas Cretaceous prior to 1928,\n  with many useful illustrations.\n*Adkins, W. S., and Winton, W. M. (1919) Paleontological correlation of\nthe Fredericksburg and Washita formations of north-central Texas: Univ.\nTexas Bull. 1945.\n  Contains descriptions and illustrations of many common Lower\n  Cretaceous fossils of north-central Texas.\nClarke, W. B., and Twitchell, M. W. (1915) The Mesozoic and Cenozoic\nEchinodermata of the United States: U. S. Geological Survey Monograph\n54, Washington, D. C.\n  A valuable guide to the Mesozoic and Cenozoic echinoderms of Texas.\n*Frizzell, D. L. (1954) Handbook of Cretaceous Foraminifera of Texas:\nUniv. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 22.\n  A technical, but invaluable aid in the study of Texas Cretaceous\n  microfossils.\n*Girard, R. M. (1959) Bibliography and index of Texas geology,\n  This valuable reference guide contains many references to Texas\n  fossils. Note especially entries under Paleontology in the index.\nHeuer, Edward (1958) Comments on the nomenclature revision of the Strawn\nand Canyon megafossil plates, _in_ A guide to the Strawn and Canyon\nSeries of the Pennsylvanian System in Palo Pinto County, Texas, An\nOccasional Publication of the North Texas Geological Society, Wichita\nFalls, Texas.\n  Contains illustrations and latest name changes of many of the more\n  common Pennsylvanian fossils of north Texas.\n*King, R. E. (1930) Geology of the Glass Mountains, Part II, Faunal\nsummary and correlation of the Permian formations with description of\nBrachiopoda: Univ. Texas Bull. 3042.\n  Contains descriptions and illustrations of numerous brachiopods from\n  the Glass Mountains of Trans-Pecos Texas.\n*Lee, Wallace, et al. (1939) Stratigraphic and paleontologic studies of\nthe Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks of north-central Texas: Univ. Texas\n  Contains an extensive faunal list and important collecting localities\n  for Pennsylvanian invertebrates.\n*Moore, R. C., and Jeffords, R. M. (1944) Description of lower\nPennsylvanian corals from Texas and adjacent states: Univ. Texas Pub.\n  Describes and illustrates many of the more common Pennsylvanian\n  corals.\n*Plummer, F. B. (1943) The Carboniferous rocks of the Llano region of\ncentral Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4329.\n  Contains geologic map, locality data, and illustrations of many\n  Carboniferous fossils.\n*Plummer, F. B., and Moore, R. C. (1921) Stratigraphy of the\nPennsylvanian formations of north-central Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 2132.\n  Describes and illustrates many of the more common Pennsylvanian\n  fossils of north-central Texas.\n*Plummer, F. B., and Scott, Gayle (1937) Upper Paleozoic ammonites in\nTexas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3701, pt. 1.\n  *Renick, B. C., and Stenzel, H. B. (1931) The lower Claiborne of the\n  Brazos River, Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, pp. 73-108.\nContains discussion and illustrations of many common Tertiary fossils.\n  Sellards, E. H. (1955) Texas through 250 million years: Museum Notes\n  No. 4, Texas Memorial Museum, Austin.\nThis little booklet provides a short geologic history of Texas along\nwith a review of oil in Texas.\n  *Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer, F. B. (1933) The geology\n  of Texas, Vol. I, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August 22,\nThis important publication will give the advanced collector much\nvaluable information on the distribution of the rocks of Texas. Complete\nwith geologic map.\n  Stanton, T. W. (1947) Studies of some Comanche pelecypods and\n  gastropods: U. S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 211, Washington, D. C.\nDescribes and illustrates most of the more common Lower Cretaceous\npelecypods and gastropods of the State.\n  *Stenzel, H. B., Krause, E. K., and Twining, J. T. (1957) Pelecypoda\n  from the type locality of the Stone City beds (Eocene) of Texas: Univ.\n  Texas Pub. 5704.\nDescriptions and illustrations of many of the more common Tertiary clams\nand oysters.\n  *Stephenson, L. W. (1941) The larger invertebrate fossils of the\n  Navarro group of Texas: Univ. Texas Pub. 4101.\nContains descriptions of many common Upper Cretaceous invertebrates\n(exclusive of corals and crustaceans).\n  Stephenson, L. W. (1952) Larger invertebrate fossils of the Woodbine\n  formation (Cenomanian) of Texas: U. S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper\n  242, Washington, D. C.\n*Winton, W. M. (1925) The geology of Denton County: Univ. Texas Bull.\n  Illustrates and discusses the occurrence of many Cretaceous fossils.\n*Winton, W. M., and Adkins, W. S. (1920) The geology of Tarrant County:\nUniv. Texas Bull. 1931.\n  Contains many illustrations of common north Texas Cretaceous fossils.\nAmber\u2014a hard, yellowish, translucent, fossilized plant resin.\nAmmonite\u2014ammonoid cephalopod with complexly wrinkled suture pattern;\n  member of subclass Ammonoidea.\nAnterior\u2014front or fore.\nAnus\u2014the terminal opening of the alimentary canal, through which waste\n  matter is discarded from the body.\nAperture\u2014the opening of shells, cells, etc.\nAragonite\u2014calcium carbonate (CaCO\u2083) crystallizing in a different form\n  than calcite. In shells it is chalky and opaque; is less stable than\n  calcite.\nArcheozoic\u2014the oldest known geological era; early Precambrian time.\nArticulated\u2014joined by interlocking processes or by teeth and sockets.\nAsymmetrical\u2014without or lacking symmetry.\nBilateral\u2014pertaining to the two halves of a body as symmetrical and\n  mirror images of each other.\nBinomial nomenclature\u2014system of scientific nomenclature requiring two\n  names: generic and trivial.\nBlastoid\u2014stalked echinoderm with bud-like calyx usually consisting of 13\n  plates; member of class Blastoidea.\nBrachiopod\u2014bivalved marine invertebrate; member of phylum Brachiopoda.\nBrackish\u2014a mixture of salt and fresh waters.\nBurrow\u2014a hole in the ground, rock, wood, etc., made by certain animals\n  for shelter or while gathering food.\nCalcareous\u2014composed of, or containing, calcium carbonate; limy.\nCalcite\u2014calcium carbonate (CaCO\u2083) crystallizing in a different form than\n  aragonite. In shells it is translucent and more stable than aragonite.\nCambrian\u2014the first (oldest) period of the Paleozoic era.\nCalyx\u2014in corals the bowl-shaped depression in the upper part of the\n  skeleton; in stalked echinoderms that part of the body which contains\n  most of the soft parts.\nCaprinid\u2014a Cretaceous pelecypod that is typically coiled in the form of\n  a ram\u2019s horn.\nCarapace\u2014the hard protective covering that forms the exoskeleton of many\n  invertebrates; in arthropods it is usually chitinous or\n  calcaro-chitinous.\nCarbonization\u2014the process of fossilization whereby organic remains are\n  reduced to carbon or coal.\nCast\u2014the impression taken from a mold.\nCenozoic\u2014the latest era of geologic time, following the Mesozoic era and\n  extending to the present.\nCephalon\u2014the head; in trilobites the anterior body segment forming the\n  head.\nCephalopod\u2014marine invertebrate with well-defined head and eyes and with\n  tentacles around the mouth; member of class Cephalopoda, phylum\n  Mollusca; includes squids, octopuses, pearly nautilus.\nCeratite\u2014an ammonoid cephalopod with suture composed of rounded saddles\n  and jagged lobes; member of subclass Ammonoidea.\nChert\u2014a cryptocrystalline variety of silica; flint is a variety of\n  chert.\nChitin\u2014a horn-like substance, found in the hard parts of many animals,\n  such as beetles, crabs, etc.\nChitinous\u2014composed of chitin.\nCirri\u2014in crinoids, the jointed appendages which branch off the side of\n  the stem or from the base of some crinoid stems.\nCoelenterate\u2014invertebrates characterized by a hollow body cavity, radial\n  symmetry, and stinging cells; a member of phylum Coelenterata;\n  includes jellyfishes, corals, sea anemones.\nColonial\u2014in biology refers to the way in which some invertebrates live\n  in close association with, and are more or less interdependent upon,\n  each other; colonial corals, hydroids, etc.\nColumella\u2014a small column or central axis; in corals the small rod or\n  axial pillar in the center of the corallite; in gastropods the solid\n  or perforate pillar formed by the union of the successive coils of a\n  conispiral shell.\nColumnal\u2014one of the disk-shaped segments of a crinoid stalk.\nConcentric\u2014having a common center, as circles; refers to shell markings\n  that are parallel to shell margin.\nConcretion\u2014nodular or irregular masses in sedimentary rocks and usually\n  formed around a central core, which is often a fossil.\nConical\u2014cone-shaped.\nConodont\u2014minute tooth-like fossils found in certain Paleozoic rocks;\n  their origin is not definitely known, but they may have been part of\n  some type of extinct fish.\nCoral\u2014bottom-dwelling marine invertebrate that secretes calcareous hard\n  parts; member of class Anthozoa, phylum Coelenterata.\nCorallite\u2014the skeleton formed by an individual coral animal; may be\n  solitary or form part of a colony.\nCorallum\u2014the skeleton of a coral colony.\nCorona\u2014crown; in echinoids the main part of the skeleton consisting of\n  symmetrically arranged calcareous plates.\nCoprolite\u2014the fossil excrement of animals.\nCorrelation\u2014the process of demonstrating that certain strata are closely\n  related to each other or that they are stratigraphic equivalents.\nCretaceous\u2014the third and last period of the Mesozoic era.\nCystoid\u2014an extinct stemmed echinoderm with calyx composed of numerous\n  irregularly arranged plates; member of class Cystoidea.\nDendritic\u2014resembling a tree, branching.\nDentition\u2014the system or arrangement of teeth peculiar to any given\n  animal.\nDevonian\u2014the fourth oldest period of the Paleozoic era, follows the\n  Silurian, precedes the Mississippian.\nDip\u2014the angle of inclination which the bedding plane of rocks makes with\n  a real or imaginary horizontal line.\nDistillation\u2014in fossils that process by which volatile organic matter is\n  removed, leaving a carbon residue.\nDolomite\u2014a mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate (CaMg(CO\u2083)\u2082).\nDorsal\u2014pertaining to the back.\nEchinoderm\u2014a marine invertebrate with calcareous exoskeleton and usually\n  exhibiting a five-fold radial symmetry; member of phylum\n  Echinodermata; includes cystoids, blastoids, crinoids, starfishes, and\n  sea urchins.\nEchinoid\u2014bottom-dwelling, unattached marine invertebrate with\n  exoskeleton of calcareous plates covered by movable spines; member of\n  class Echinoidea; sea urchins, heart urchins, biscuit urchins.\nEndoskeleton\u2014the internal supporting structure of an animal.\nEocene\u2014the next to earliest of the Tertiary epochs, follows the\n  Paleocene and precedes the Oligocene.\nEquivalved\u2014right and left valves subequal and (except for hinge\n  structures) comprising mirror images of each other.\nEvolution\u2014a term applied to those methods or processes and to the sum of\n  those processes whereby organisms change through successive\n  generations.\nExoskeleton\u2014an external skeleton, or hard covering for the protection of\n  soft parts, particularly among invertebrates.\nFault\u2014the displacement of rocks along a zone of fracture.\nFauna\u2014an assemblage of animals (living or fossil) living in a given\n  place at a given time.\nFlank\u2014the side or lateral portion of anything.\nFlora\u2014an assemblage of plants (living or fossil) living in a given place\n  at a given time.\nFold\u2014in brachiopods, a major rounded elevation of shell which affects\n  both inner and outer shell surfaces.\nForamen\u2014in brachiopods, the opening in the pedicle valve near the beak\n  where the pedicle extends through the shell.\nForaminifer\u2014a protozoan usually possessing a calcareous, perforated,\n  chambered shell, but shell may be chitinous or agglutinated; a member\n  of the order Foraminifera, phylum Protozoa.\nFormation\u2014a rock unit useful for mapping and distinguished primarily on\n  the basis of lithologic characters.\nFossil\u2014the remains or traces of organisms buried by natural causes and\n  preserved in the earth\u2019s crust.\n_Guide fossil_\u2014a fossil which, because of its limited vertical but wide\n  horizontal distribution, is of value as a guide or index to the age of\n  the rocks in which it is found.\nFossiliferous\u2014containing fossilized organic remains.\nFusulinid\u2014a spindle-shaped foraminifer: test shaped like a grain of\n  wheat.\nGastrolith\u2014highly polished well-rounded pebbles found associated with\n  certain reptilian fossils; \u201cstomach stones.\u201d\nGastropod\u2014a terrestrial or aquatic invertebrate, typically possessing a\n  single-valved, calcareous, coiled shell; member of class Gastropoda,\n  phylum Mollusca: snails and slugs.\nGeologic age\u2014the age of an object as stated in terms of geologic time\n  (e.g., a Pennsylvanian fern, Cretaceous dinosaur).\nGeologic map\u2014map showing distribution of rock outcrops, structural\n  features, mineral deposits, etc.\nGeologic range\u2014the known duration of an organism\u2019s existence throughout\n  geologic time (e.g., Cambrian to Recent for brachiopods).\nGlauconite\u2014a greenish mineral commonly formed in marine environments and\n  essentially a hydrous silicate of iron and potassium.\nGoniatite\u2014an ammonoid cephalopod with suture composed of smooth saddles\n  and simple angular lobes; member of subclass Ammonoidea.\nGraptolite\u2014an extinct, marine, colonial organism with chitinous hard\n  parts; believed to belong to subphylum Hemichordata of phylum\n  Chordata.\nGuide fossil\u2014see Fossil.\nHabitat\u2014the physical environment in which an organism lives.\nHinge-line\u2014in brachiopods, the edge of the shell where the two valves\n  articulate; in pelecypods, the dorsal margin of the valve which is in\n  continual contact with the opposite valve.\nIgneous rock\u2014rocks which have solidified from lava or molten rock called\n  magma.\nInequivalved\u2014opposite valves unlike in shape or size, or both.\nJurassic\u2014second oldest period of the Mesozoic; follows the Triassic,\n  precedes the Cretaceous.\nKeel\u2014a strong continuous ridge along the ventral side of ammonites.\nLarva\u2014the young form of some animals before they assume the mature\n  shape.\nLateral\u2014side or to the side.\nLithology\u2014the study and description of rocks based on the megascopic\n  (with the naked eye) examination of samples. Used also to refer to the\n  texture and composition of any given rock sample.\nLiving chamber\u2014in mollusks, that part of the shell which is occupied by\n  the living animal.\nLobe\u2014in cephalopods, the backward flexure of the suture or septum.\nLongitudinal\u2014in a direction parallel with the length.\nLophophore\u2014in brachiopods, a tentacle-bearing appendage attached to the\n  anterior surface of the mantle cavity.\nMantle\u2014in mollusks and brachiopods, a layer of tissue containing cells\n  that secrete the shell.\nMeso-\u2014a prefix signifying middle.\nMesozoic\u2014that era of geologic time that precedes the Cenozoic and\n  follows the Paleozoic.\nMiocene\u2014fourth oldest epoch of the Tertiary period; follows the\n  Oligocene, precedes the Pliocene.\nMississippian\u2014fifth oldest period of the Paleozoic: follows the\n  Devonian, precedes the Pennsylvanian.\nMulticellular\u2014composed of more than one cell.\nNacreous\u2014pearly.\nNode\u2014a knob.\n-oid\u2014a suffix meaning \u201cin the form of.\u201d\nOligocene\u2014the third oldest epoch of the Tertiary period: precedes the\n  Miocene, follows the Eocene.\nOperculum\u2014the lid or covering of the aperture of certain shells.\nOral\u2014referring to the mouth or aperture.\nOrbitoidids\u2014foraminifers with large typically disk-shaped tests.\nOrdovician\u2014second oldest period of the Paleozoic era; follows the\n  Cambrian, precedes the Silurian.\nOssicle\u2014loosely used as a small plate.\nPaleocene\u2014oldest epoch of the Tertiary period; precedes the Eocene.\nPaleozoic\u2014that era of geologic time that follows Precambrian time and\n  precedes the Mesozoic era.\nPedicle opening (pedicle foramen)\u2014see Foramen.\nPelecypod\u2014a bivalved aquatic invertebrate; member of class Pelecypoda,\n  phylum Mollusca.\nPennsylvanian\u2014the sixth oldest period of the Paleozoic era; follows the\n  Mississippian, precedes the Permian.\nPeriod\u2014a division of geologic time (Pl. 1).\nPeriostracum\u2014the horny outer covering or epidermis on shells.\nPermian\u2014seventh and last period of the Paleozoic.\nPermineralization\u2014that process by which mineral matter has been added to\n  the original shell material by precipitation in the interstices rather\n  than replacing the original shell material.\nPhosphatic\u2014containing or pertaining to phosphate minerals.\nPhylum\u2014one of the primary divisions of the animal or vegetable kingdoms.\nPlanispiral\u2014shell coiled in one plane.\nPleistocene\u2014earliest epoch of Quaternary period, Cenozoic era; follows\n  Pliocene epoch of Tertiary period, precedes Recent epoch of\n  Quaternary.\nPleural\u2014referring to the side or ribs; in trilobites, refers to lateral\n  portions of thorax and pygidium.\nPliocene\u2014latest epoch of Tertiary period of Cenozoic era; follows\n  Miocene epoch and precedes Pleistocene epoch of Quaternary period.\nPolygonal\u2014many sided or having many-sided plates.\nPolyp\u2014a many-tentacled aquatic coelenterate animal, typically\n  cylindrical or cup-shaped, as in corals.\nPorcelaneous\u2014like porcelain.\nPore\u2014a very small opening.\nPosterior\u2014situated behind; to the rear.\nPrecambrian\u2014that portion of geologic time before the Cambrian; divided\n  into Archeozoic era (Early Precambrian) and Proterozoic era (Late\n  Precambrian).\nProtero\u2014combining form meaning fore, former, or anterior in time (Greek\n  _proteros_, fore).\nProterozoic\u2014youngest era of the Precambrian; follows the Archeozoic era\n  and precedes the Cambrian period of the Paleozoic era.\nProtista\u2014the organic kingdom including the simplest of all one-celled\n  organisms which possess various characters of both plants and animals;\n  bacteria, algae, foraminifers, radiolarians.\nProtoconch\u2014in mollusks, the initial chamber of shell.\nPyrite\u2014a hard, brass-yellow mineral composed of iron sulfide; \u201cfool\u2019s\n  gold.\u201d\nQuaternary\u2014the youngest period of the Cenozoic era, follows the Tertiary\n  period.\nRadial symmetry\u2014see Symmetry.\nReef\u2014a mound-like or ridge-like elevation of the sea bottom which almost\n  reaches the surface of the water, composed primarily of organic\n  material and commonly formed by reef-building animals, such as corals\n  and oysters.\nReplacement\u2014type of fossilization whereby hard parts of organisms are\n  removed by solution accompanied by almost simultaneous deposition of\n  other substances in the resulting voids; mineralization.\nRespiration\u2014the process of oxygenation.\nRock\u2014an aggregation of one or more minerals.\nRock-unit\u2014divisions of rocks based on definite physical and lithologic\n  characteristics and not defined on the basis of geologic time alone;\n  groups, formations, members.\nRudistid\u2014a Cretaceous pelecypod that does not exhibit the typical clam\n  or oyster shape; many are cone-shaped, resembling corals.\nSaddle\u2014in cephalopods, the forward flexure (curved toward the aperture)\n  of the suture or septum.\nScaphopod\u2014an exclusively marine mollusk with a single-valved tusk-shaped\n  shell; member of class Scaphopoda, phylum Mollusca.\nScavenger\u2014an animal that feeds on organic refuse.\nSedentary\u2014stationary in life, not moving from place to place.\nSediment\u2014material that has been deposited by settling from a\n  transportation agent such as water or air; typically composed of\n  weathered rock fragments.\nSedimentary rock\u2014rocks formed from the accumulation and lithification of\n  sediments.\nSegment\u2014one of the parts into which a body naturally separates or is\n  divided; for example, segments of arthropods or annelid worms.\nSeptal\u2014pertaining to the septum.\nSeptum (plural, septa)\u2014a dividing wall or partition; in fusulinids, a\n  partition between chambers in the fusulinid shell; in corals, one of\n  the radiating, longitudinal, calcareous plates located within the\n  corallite; in cephalopods, the transverse partitions between the\n  chambers.\nSeries\u2014the rocks formed during an epoch; the time-stratigraphic term\n  next in rank below a system.\nSerrate\u2014notched like a saw.\nSessile\u2014animal attached to the sea floor more or less permanently.\nSilica\u2014an oxide of silicon (SiO\u2082).\nSiliceous\u2014containing or pertaining to silica.\nSilicification\u2014the process of combining or impregnating with silica.\nSilurian\u2014the third oldest period of the Paleozoic era; follows the\n  Ordovician, precedes the Devonian.\nSinus\u2014an elongate depression on brachiopod shells.\nSiphuncle\u2014in cephalopods, the segmented horny or calcareous tube which\n  extends from the protoconch to the living chamber.\nSlickensides\u2014polished and grooved surfaces that are the result of two\n  rock masses sliding past each other as in faulting.\nSolitary\u2014living alone; not part of a colony.\nSpecies\u2014one of the smaller natural divisions in classification.\nSpecific name\u2014see Trivial name.\nSpicule\u2014a minute spike or dart, skeletal element in sponges and\n  holothurians.\nStratum (plural, strata)\u2014a single bed or layer of rock.\nStrike\u2014the direction of a real or imaginary line that is formed by the\n  intersection of a bed or stratum with a horizontal plane; strike is\n  perpendicular to the dip.\nSubconical\u2014less than conical in shape; almost a cone.\nSuture\u2014the line of junction between two parts; in crinoids, the line of\n  junction between two plates; in gastropods, the line of junction of\n  the whorls as seen on the exterior of the shell; in cephalopods, the\n  line of junction between a septum and the shell wall.\nSymmetry\u2014orderly arrangement of parts of an object with reference to\n  lines, planes, or points.\n_Bilateral symmetry_\u2014the symmetrical duplication of parts on each side\n  of a vertical anterior-posterior plane.\n_Radial symmetry_\u2014the symmetrical repetition of parts around a common\n  vertical dorso-ventrally disposed axis.\n_Pentamerous symmetry_\u2014symmetry arranged in a pattern of fives.\nSystem\u2014the rocks formed during a period; the time-stratigraphic term\n  next in rank above a series.\nTaxonomy\u2014that branch of science that deals with classification,\n  especially in relation to plants, animals, or fossils.\nTertiary\u2014the oldest period of the Cenozoic era; follows the Cretaceous\n  period of the Mesozoic and precedes the Quaternary period of the\n  Cenozoic.\nTest\u2014the protective covering of some invertebrate animals.\nTheca\u2014a sheath or case; in coelenterates, the bounding wall at or near\n  the margin of the exoskeleton; in echinoderms, the main body skeleton\n  (or calyx) which houses the animal\u2019s soft parts; in graptolites, any\n  cup or tube of the colony.\nThorax\u2014in trilobites, that part of the body between the cephalon and\n  pygidium.\nTime-unit\u2014a portion of continuous geologic time (e.g., eras, periods,\n  epochs, and ages).\nTime-rock unit\u2014same as time-stratigraphic unit.\nTime-stratigraphic unit\u2014term given to rock units with boundaries\n  established by geologic time; strata deposited during definite\n  portions of geologic time (e.g., systems, series, stages, etc.).\nTopography\u2014the physical features or configuration of a land surface.\nTopographic map\u2014a map showing the physical features of an area,\n  especially the relief and contour of the land.\nTransverse\u2014at right angles to length.\nTriassic\u2014the youngest period of the Mesozoic era; follows the Permian\n  period of the Paleozoic and precedes the Jurassic period of the\n  Mesozoic.\nTrilobite\u2014an extinct marine arthropod having a flattened segmented body\n  covered by a hardened dorsal exoskeleton divided into three lobes.\nTrivial name\u2014the Latinized name added to a generic name to distinguish\n  the species; same as specific name.\nType locality\u2014the geographic location at which a formation was first\n  described and from which it was named; or from which the type specimen\n  of a fossil species comes.\nType specimen\u2014the individual or specimen on which the original\n  designation of a species was established.\nUmbilicus\u2014an external depression or opening at the center of many\n  loosely coiled shells; in gastropods it is usually located at the base\n  of the shell; in cephalopods it is usually located laterally.\nUmbo\u2014the arched part of the valve near the beak in bivalve shells.\nUnicellular\u2014composed of one cell.\nValve\u2014the one or more pieces comprising the shell of animals.\nVariety\u2014a subdivision of a species, designated by a third name when a\n  variety is designated.\nVentral\u2014pertaining to the abdomen; as opposed to dorsal, pertaining to\n  the back.\nVertebrate\u2014an animal having a backbone or spinal column.\nWhorl\u2014a single turn or volution of a coiled shell.\n-zoic\u2014combining form meaning \u201clife\u201d (Greek _zoikos_, life).\nZooecium (plural, zooecia)\u2014tube or chamber occupied by an individual of\n  the bryozoan colony; also called an autopore.\n[1]Associate Professor of Geology, Lamar State College of Technology,\n    Beaumont, Texas.\n[2]Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau of Economic\n    Geology, The University of Texas, Austin. Those not out of print are\n    distributed at nominal sale price; list sent on request. These\n    publications may be consulted at many public libraries and/or\n    Chamber of Commerce offices.\n            Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.\n  _Acanthoceras_: 77\n  _Actinomma_: 49\n  Africa: 87\n  Agnatha: 87\n  Alaska: 7\n  _Alectryonia lugubris_: 68\n  \u201calgal biscuits\u201d: 44\n  alligators: 95\n  _Allorisma_: 67\n  Allotheria: 100\n  allotherians: 100\n  Amarillo College: 27\n  amber: 7\n  amblypods: 102\n  _Ambocoelia_: 57\n  _Amelanchier_: 48\n  American Museum of Natural History: 2, 15, 96\n  Ammonoidea: 66\n  Amphibia: 89\n  amphibians: 87, 92\n  Amphineura: 56\n  _Amphiscapha_: 61\n  _Ancilla_: 64\n  _Angulotreta_: 55, 56\n  ankylosaurs: 90, 97, 99\n  Annelida: 78\n  annelids: 78\n  _Anomia_: 74\n  anteaters: 100\n  Anthozoa: 49, 51\n  _Apsotreta_: 55, 56\n  aragonite: 11\n  _Archelon_: 91\n  _Archetectonica_: 64\n  _Archaeopteryx_: 100\n  Archeozoic, derivation and pronunciation: 33\n  Archer County: 89\n  _Archimedes_: 54\n  _arietina, Exogyra_: 70\n  Aristotle: 3\n  Arizona: 7\n  Arkansas: 37\n  Arlington State College: 1, 27\n  armadillos: 100, 102\n  Aronow, Saul: 1\n  Arthropoda: 78, 79, 80\n      crustaceans: 79, 80\n      ostracodes: 79, 80\n      trilobites: 78, 80\n  Articulata: 56\n  Artiodactyla: 106\n  artiodactyls: 106\n      entelodonts: 101, 106\n  ash, volcanic: 5\n  _Astacodes_: 79\n  _Astartella_: 67\n  Asteroidea: 82\n  asteroids: 82, 83\n  Asterozoa: 82\n  _Astraeospongium_: 50\n  _Astrhelia_: 53\n  _Astylospongia_: 50\n  _Aulosteges tuberculatus_: 12, 13\n  Austin College: 27\n  Australia: 87\n  author, of a fossil: 22\n  autopores: 51\n  bacteria: 47\n  _Baculites_: 77\n  bags, collecting: 17, 18\n  Balcones fault zone: 36, 37\n  baluchitheres: 104, 106\n  _Baluchitherium_: 106\n  _Barbatia_: 74\n  Baylor County: 89\n  Beaumont: 1, 34\n  Beaver, Harold: 1\n  _Belemnites_: 77, 78\n  Belemnoidea: 78\n  belemnoids: 77, 78\n  _Bellerophon_: 61\n  Big Bend area: 35, 36\n  Big Spring: 89\n  binomial nomenclature: 21-22\n  birds, fossil: 5, 100\n  Blastoidea: 81\n  Blinn College: 27\n  bone, permineralized: 9\n  Books About Fossils: 108-110\n  Boon, Jack: 1\n  Brachiopoda: 54, 55, 56\n      Cambrian: 55\n      Cretaceous: 56\n      inarticulate: 55, 56\n      Mississippian: 55\n      Pennsylvanian: 57, 58\n      silicified: 12, 13\n  _Brachiosaurus_: 90\n  Brewster County: 11, 12, 35, 41\n  brittle stars: 82\n  Bronaugh, Richmond L.: 1\n  Brontosaurus: 90, 97, 98\n  _Brontotherium_: 104, 105, 106\n  Brown, L. F., Jr.: 1\n  Bryophyta: 44\n      Mississippian: 54\n      Pennsylvanian: 55\n  _bulla, Venericardia_: 72\n  Bureau of Economic Geology: 2, 19\n  burrows: 14\n  \u201cbutton corals\u201d: 49, 53\n  _Calamites_: 48\n  calcite: 10, 11\n  callus: 59\n  _Calyptraphorus_: 64\n  _Camarotoechia_: 55\n  Cambrian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 40\n          brachiopods: 55\n          graptolites: 86\n      of Franklin Mountains, Llano, Marathon, and Solitario uplifts:\n  camels: 106\n  _cameratus, Neospirifer_: 58\n  _Canis diris_: 102, 103\n      _domestica_: 22\n  caprinid: 27, 30\n  caprock, of High Plains: 35\n  carbon residues: 10, 86\n  Carboniferous: 34\n  _carinata, Ostrea_: 71\n  Carnivora: 102\n  carnivores: 102, 103\n  _Caryocorbula_: 74\n  _Caryocrinites_: 81\n  Casey, Josephine: 2\n  casts: 11\n  catalog, fossil; number: 31\n  cement, portland: 19\n  Cenozoic\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 33\n      periods of: 34\n      rocks in Texas: 43\n  central Asia: 106\n  central Texas: 11, 42\n      belemnoids: 77, 78\n      cuttlefish: 78\n      goniatites: 75, 76\n  ceratites: 75, 78\n  ceratopsians: 90, 99, 100\n  _Ceratosaurus_: 90\n  _Cerithium_: 62\n  chalicotheres: 104, 106\n  Chelonia. _See_ turtles.\n  chisels: 17\n  chitin: 10\n  chitons: 56\n  Chondrichthyes: 87\n  _Chonetes_: 57\n  Chordata: 84-102\n  chordates: 84\n      amphibians: 89, 92\n  _Cladochonus_: 51, 52\n  _Cladophyllia_: 53\n  clams: 11, 56, 59. _See also_ pelecypods.\n  class, taxonomic: 22\n  classification, binomial nomenclature: 21-22\n  club mosses: 47\n  _Cochlespiropsis_: 63\n  Coelenterata: 49, 51, 84\n  coelenterates: 49, 51-_53_\n  Coleoidea: 66\n  coleoids: 77, 78\n  collecting bags: 17, 18\n  columella, corals: 51\n      gastropods: 59, 60\n  columnal, crinoid: 81, 82, 83\n  Comanchean series of Cretaceous: 34. _See also_ Lower Cretaceous.\n  compass: 19\n  _Composita subtilita_: 57\n  compound corals. _See_ corals, colonial.\n  concretions: 16\n  coniferous trees: 7\n  coprolites: 14\n  corallite: 49, 51\n  corallum: 51\n      Cretaceous: 53\n      morphology: 51\n      Pennsylvanian: 52\n      Tertiary: 53\n  _Cordaites_: 48\n  correlation: 32\n  _Corythosaurus_: 90\n  cotylosaurs: 89, 92\n  _Crassatella_: 72\n  crayfish: 78\n  creodonts: 102\n  Cretaceous\u2014\n      _See also_ Comanchean and Gulf series.\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n          arthropods: 79\n          brachiopods: 56\n          foraminifers: 49\n          nautiloids: 76\n          shark teeth: 88\n      of central Texas, Edwards Plateau, Gulf Coastal Plain, High\n          Plains, north Texas, and Trans-Pecos Texas: 42\n      \u201cPyrite Fossil Zone\u201d of: 11\n  crinoidal limestone: 41, 82, 83\n  Crinoidea: 81\n      morphology: 81\n  Crockett County: 42\n  Crockett formation: 43\n  crocodiles: 95, 96\n  crossopterygians: 87\n  crustaceans: 79, 80\n  Culberson County: 35\n  cuttlefish: 78\n  _Cymatoceras_: 75, 76\n  Cystoidea: 81\n  \u201cDark Ages\u201d: 3\n  da Vinci, Leonardo: 3\n  Davis, Darrell: 1\n  Decapoda. _See_ Coleoidea.\n  Del Mar College: 27\n  dendrites: 14\n  _Dendrograptus_: 86\n  Denver, Colorado: 19\n  _Derbya_: 57\n  Devonian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 41\n          _Psilophyton_: 48\n      of El Paso and Van Horn regions, Llano and Marathon uplifts:\n  Diablo Mountains: 41\n  Dibranchiata. _See_ Coleoidea.\n  _Dictyoclostus_: 55\n  _Dimetrodon_: 92\n  _Dinobastis_: 102, 103\n  Dinocerata: 102\n  dinocerates: 102, 105\n  _Diplodocus_: 90\n  _Diplograptus_: 86\n  distillation: 10\n  _Distorsio_: 63\n  division, plant: 44\n  dolomite: 11\n  dolphins: 95\n  _domestica, Canis_: 22\n  DuBar, Jules: 1\n  _Dufrenoyia_: 77\n  Eastland County: 20\n  East Texas State College: 27\n  Echinodermata: 80-84\n  echinoderms: 80-84\n      blastoids: 81\n      holothuroids: 84\n  Echinoidea: 82\n      Cretaceous: 84, 85\n  Echinozoa: 82\n  Edentata: 100\n  Egyptian desert: 3\n  _Elasmosaurus_: 91\n  elephants: 102\n  Eleutherozoa: 82\n  Ellison, Samuel P.: 1\n  El Paso region\u2014\n      Devonian of: 41\n      Ordovician of: 40\n      Precambrian of: 40\n      Silurian of: 40\n  _Endopachys_: 53\n  _Enoploclytia_: 79\n  entelodont: 101, 106\n  _Eohippus._ _See_ _Hyracotherium_.\n  epoch, geologic: 33\n  era, geologic: 33-34\n  Erath County: 20\n  _Eryops_: 92\n  _Euomphalus_: 61\n  _Euphemites_: 62\n  Europe: 89\n  _Exogyra arietina_: 70\n      _laeviscula_: 70\n      _ponderosa_: 70\n  \u201cfalse fossils\u201d: 14\n  family, taxonomic: 22\n  \u201cfeather stars\u201d: 82\n      carbon residue: 9\n      vertebrae: 10\n  _Fistulipora_: 55\n  _Flabellum_: 53\n  foramen, pedicle: 54, 56\n  Foraminifera: 47, 49\n      Cretaceous: 49\n      Pennsylvanian: 49\n  formation, geologic: 34\n  fossil\u2014\n      burrows: 14\n      cataloging: 31\n      collecting: 17\n          how to collect: 20\n          where to look: 19\n      definition: 3\n      footprints: 14\n      gizzard stone: 14\n      identification: 21, 23-30\n      preservation\u2014\n          altered hard parts: 10-11\n              mineralization: 10\n              permineralization: 10\n              petrifaction: 10\n              replacement, calcareous, iron, siliceous: 10, 11, 13\n          original hard and soft parts: 7\n      record, missing pages in: 5\n  fossilization, requirements of: 5\n  fossils\u2014\n      Cambrian: 40\n      carbonized: 10\n      classification of: 21-22\n      cleaning: 21\n      etching in acid: 21\n      guide and/or index: 32\n      in amber: 7\n      in oil saturated soil: 7\n      in quicksand: 5\n      in volcanic ash: 5\n      main types of: 44\n      natural mummies: 7\n      permineralized or petrified: 10\n      Precambrian: 40\n      preparation of: 21\n      replaced or mineralized: 10\n      silicified: 21\n          Cretaceous: 11\n      Tertiary: 43\n      Triassic: 42\n  France: 106\n  Franklin Mountains, Cambrian of: 40\n  frogs: 89\n  _Frondicularia_: 49\n  fungi: 44\n  Fusselman limestone: 40\n  _Fusulina_: 49\n  Gaptank formation: 35, 41\n  gastroliths: 14\n  Gastropoda: 56, 59\n      Cretaceous: 59, 62\n      morphology: 60\n      ornamentation: 59\n      Pennsylvanian: 61, 62\n  generic name: 21-22\n  geologic\u2014\n      history: 33\n      map, definition: 40\n      map of Texas: 38-39\n      time scale: frontispiece, 33\n  geology of Texas: 37-43\n  Germany: 5, 100\n  _Girtyocoelia_: 50\n  Glasscock County: 42\n  glauconite: 11\n  _Globigerina_: 49\n  Glossary: 111-114\n  _Glycymeris_: 74\n  glyptodont: 101, 102\n  goats: 106\n  goniatites: 75, 76\n  Grand Prairie: 36, 37\n  Graptolithina: 84, 86\n      of Marathon uplift: 40, 86\n  Graptozoa. _See_ graptolites.\n  _graysonana, Gryphaea_: 69\n  Great Flood: 3\n  ground sloths: 7, 101, 102\n  _Gryphaea graysonana_: 69\n      _washitaensis_: 69\n  Guadalupe Mountains, Peak: 35\n  Gulf Coast: 32\n  Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas: 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 106\n  Gulf of Mexico: 37\n  Gulf series of Cretaceous: 34. _See also_ Upper Cretaceous.\n  _Gyrodes_: 62\n  hagfish: 87\n  hammer, geologist\u2019s: 17, 18\n  _Hamulus_: 78\n  hand lens: 17, 18\n  hard parts, animal\u2014calcareous, chitinous, phosphatic, siliceous\n  Hardin-Simmons University: 27\n  heart urchins: 82, 83\n  _Heliospongia_: 50\n  hematite: 11\n  _Hemiaster_: 85\n  Hemichordata: 84\n  Henderson County Junior College: 27\n  Herodotus: 3\n  _Heterostegina_: 32\n  _Heteralosia hystricula_: 12, 13\n  \u201chet\u201d zone: 32\n  Hexacoralla: 51\n  hippopotamuses: 106\n  _Holaster_: 85\n  _Holectypus_: 85\n  Holothuroidea: 82\n  holothuroids: 84\n      sclerites: 83\n  _Homo sapiens_: 22\n  Howard County Junior College: 27\n  Hudspeth County: 35, 41, 42\n  Hueco Mountains: 41\n  Hughes, Jack T.: 1\n  hydroids: 49\n  Hydrozoa: 49, 84\n  _Hyracotherium_: 103, 104\n  _hystricula, Heteralosia_: 12, 13\n  ichthyosaurs: 91, 93, 95\n  _Ichthyosaurus_: 91, 93\n  identification keys, fossil: 26-30\n  igneous rocks: 5, 19\n  Inarticulata: 54, 56\n  _Inoceramus_: 69\n      in amber: 7\n  iron, replacement by: 11\n  Italy: 3\n  Jack County: 20\n  jellyfish: 5, 49\n  Jurassic\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 42\n      of Hudspeth County and/or Malone Mountain: 41\n  _Juresania_: 58\n  keys. _See_ identification keys.\n  Kilgore College: 27\n  _Kingena wacoensis_: 56\n  labels, paper: 19\n  _laeviscula, Exogyra_: 70\n  Lamar State College of Technology: 1, 2, 27\n  lampreys: 87\n  _Latirus_: 63\n  Lee College: 27\n  _Lepidodendron_: 46\n  _Levifusus_: 64\n  limonite: 11\n  Linnaeus: 21\n  Linn\u00e9: 21\n  _Linoproductus_: 57\n  _lisbonensis, Ostrea_: 72\n  liverworts: 44\n  lizards: 89\n  Lonsdale, John T.: 1\n  lophophore, brachiopod: 54\n  _Lophophyllidium_: 49, 51, 52\n      _proliferum_: 52\n      _radicosum_: 52\n  Los Angeles, California: 5\n  Louisiana: 37\n  Lower Cretaceous: 34, 42, 56, 97. _See also_ Comanchean.\n  _lugubris, Alectryonia_: 68\n  _Lunatia_: 62\n  lungfishes: 87\n  Macon, J. W.: 2\n  magnifying glass: 17, 18\n  Malone Mountain: 42\n  mantle, brachiopod: 54\n      pelecypod: 59\n  maps\u2014\n      geologic: 19\n      physiographic of Texas: 36\n      topographic: 19, 20\n  Marathon uplift: 35, 36, 40, 41\n  marcasite: 11\n  _Marginifera_: 57\n  mastodon, tooth: 104\n  _Meandrostia_: 50\n  Mediterranean Sea: 3\n  _mercenaria, Venus_: 22\n  _Mesalia_: 63\n  _Mesolobus_: 57\n  Mesozoic\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 33\n      periods of: 34\n      rocks in Texas: 42-43\n  metamorphic rocks: 5, 19\n  _Metoicoceras_: 76\n  _Michelinia_: 52\n  _Micrabacia_: 49, 52\n  micropaleontological slides: 32\n  micropaleontologist: 32, 47, 80\n  micropaleontology: 4, 89\n  Midwestern University: 27\n  mine dumps: 20, 47\n  Mississippian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 41\n          brachiopods: 55\n      of Hueco Mountains: 41\n      of Llano region: 41\n  Mollusca: 56-78\n  mollusks: 7, 56, 59-78. _See also_ Mollusca.\n  _Moropus_: 106\n  \u201cmoss animals\u201d: 54\n  mosses: 44\n  _Muirwoodia multistriatus_: 12, 13\n  multituberculates: 100\n  _multistriatus, Muirwoodia_: 12, 13\n  mussels: 56, 59\n  museums, as aid in identification: 23\n      American, Natural History: 2, 15, 96\n      Strecker: 95\n  _Myalina_: 67\n  Nautiloidea: 66\n  nautiloids: 66\n      Cretaceous: 76\n      morphology: 75\n      Pennsylvanian: 76\n      sutures: 75\n  _Nautilus_: 66\n      morphology: 75\n  _Neithea_: 70\n  _Neospirifer_: 57\n      _cameratus_: 58\n  _Nerinea_: 62\n  _Neuropteris_: 48\n  _Neverita_: 64\n  New Mexico: 7\n  New York City: 14\n  north Texas: 42\n  North Texas State College: 27\n  notebook, field: 17\n  _Notopocorystes_: 79, 80\n  _Nucula_: 73\n  _Nuculana_: 67\n  _Nuculopsis_: 67\n  octopus: 66, 78\n  Odessa College: 27\n  operculum: 59\n  _Ophiuroidea_: 82\n  ophiuroids: 82\n  _opima, \u201cMarginifera\u201d_: 12, 13\n  order, taxonomic: 22\n  Ordovician\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 40\n          graptolites: 86\n      of El Paso region, Llano, Marathon, Solitario, and Van Horn\n  ornamentation, brachiopod: 54\n      gastropod: 59\n      pelecypod: 66\n  Ornithischia: 97\n  ornithischians: 90, 97, 98, 100\n  Ornithopoda: 97\n  ornithopods: 90, 97, 99\n  _Orthoceras_: 66, 76\n  _Orthoyoldia_: 73\n  ossicles. _See_ sclerites.\n  _Osteichthyes_: 87\n  Ostracoda: 80\n  ostracoderms: 87\n  ostracodes: 78, 79, 80\n  _Ostrea carinata_: 71\n      _lisbonensis_: 72\n      _quadriplicata_: 71\n      _sellaeformis_: 72\n  _Oxytropidoceras_: 77\n  oysters: 56, 59\n  _Pachecoa_: 72\n  _Pachymya_: 71\n  paleobotany: 4\n  paleobotanists: 44\n  paleontology\u2014\n      definition: 4\n      divisions of: 4\n      history of: 3\n      invertebrate: 4\n      vertebrate: 4\n  Paleozoic\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 33\n      periods of: 34\n      rocks of Texas: 40-42\n  Palo Pinto County: 20\n  Paluxy Creek: 14, 15\n  Pan American College: 27\n  Pantodonta: 102\n  pantodonts: 102\n  _Parasaurolophus_: 90\n  _Parasmilia_: 53\n  Parker County: 20\n  Pawpaw formation: 11\n  pearly nautilus: 66\n      morphology: 75\n  Pecos County: 42\n  Pecos River valley: 35\n  pedicle: 54, 56\n      valve, brachiopod: 54\n  Pelycosaurs: 89, 92\n      dentition: 66\n      ornamentation: 66\n      Pennsylvanian: 66, 67\n  Pelmatozoa: 80, 81\n  Pennsylvanian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 41\n          nautiloids: 76\n          shark teeth: 87\n      of Diablo and Hueco Mountains, Llano and Marathon uplifts, and\n          north-central Texas: 41\n  _Pentaceros_: 83\n  _Pentagonaster_: 83\n  _Pentremites_: 81\n  period, geologic: 33\n  periostracum: 60\n  Perissodactyla: 104\n  perissodactyls: 103, 104, 105\n  Permian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 41\n      of Glass Mountains: 11, 12, 35\n  _permiana, Prorichthofenia_: 12, 13\n  permineralized bone: 9\n  petroleum geologist: 4\n  _Phaneroceras_: 76\n  _Phobosuchus_: 95, 96\n  _Pholadomya_: 71, 72\n  phyla: 22\n  _Phyllograptus_: 86\n  phylum: 22\n  physiographic provinces, of Texas: 35-37\n  physiography, definition: 35\n  pick, mineralogist\u2019s or prospector\u2019s: 17, 18\n  Pisces: 86-89\n  Placodermi: 87\n  placoderms: 87, 88\n  plant kingdom: 44\n  plants, classification: 44\n      Pennsylvanian: 46, 47, 48\n  _Platyceras_: 62\n  Pleistocene: 43. _See also_ Quaternary.\n  plesiosaurs: 91, 93, 95\n  _Pleurocora_: 53\n  _Plicatula_: 68, 74\n  _Pliohippus_: 103\n  pollen: 47\n  polyp, coral: 49\n  _Polypora_: 55\n  _ponderosa, Exogyra_: 70\n  Porifera: 49\n  _Porodiscus_: 49\n  portland cement: 19\n  Precambrian\u2014\n      definition: 34\n      fossils: 40\n      of El Paso region: 40\n      of Llano uplift: 37, 40\n      of Van Horn uplift: 40\n      rocks of Texas: 40\n  Presidio County: 35\n  Proboscidea: 102\n  proboscideans: 102, 104, 107\n  _proliferum, Lophophyllidium_: 52\n  _Prorichthofenia permiana_: 12, 13\n  Proterozoic, derivation and pronunciation: 33\n  Protista: 47\n  _Protocardia_: 68\n  _Protoceratops_: 90\n  Protozoa: 47, 49\n  protozoans: 47\n  pseudofossils: 14\n  _Pseudoliva_: 63\n  _Psilophyton_: 48\n  _Pteranodon_: 91, 94\n  Pterodactyloids: 91\n  pterosaurs: 91, 94, 95\n  _Punctospirifer_: 57\n  pyrite: 11\n  \u201cPyrite Fossil Zone\u201d of Cretaceous: 11\n  _quadriplicata, Ostrea_: 71\n  quarries: 19\n  Quaternary\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      of Edwards Plateau, Gulf Coast, High Plains, North-Central\n          Plains, and Trans-Pecos Texas: 43\n  quicksand: 5\n  _radicosum, Lophophyllidium_: 53\n  Radiolaria: 47\n  radiolarians: 47, 49\n  Rancho La Brea tar pit: 5\n  rays: 87\n  Reagan County: 42\n  _Receptaculites_: 50\n  Renaissance: 3\n  Reptilia: 89-100\n  reptiles: 89-100\n  rhamphorhynchoids: 91\n  _Rhamphorhynchus_: 91, 94\n  _Rhipodomella_: 55\n  _Rhombopora_: 51, 55\n  Rice University: 27\n  Rio Grande valley, of Trans-Pecos: 35, 95\n  road metal: 19\n  _Robulus_: 49\n  Rock and Mineral Clubs: 23\n  rock units: 34\n  _rockymontanus, Spirifer_: 58\n  Rodda, Peter U.: 1\n  Rugosa: 51\n  saber-tooth cat: 102, 103\n  St. Mary\u2019s University: 27\n  salamanders: 89\n  _Salenia_: 85\n  San Angelo College: 27\n  San Antonio College: 27\n  sand dollars: 82\n  _sapiens, Homo_: 22\n  Sarcodina: 47\n  Saurischia: 97\n  saurischians: 90, 97, 99\n  Sauropoda: 97\n  scale trees: 46, 47\n  scallops: 56, 59\n  Scaphopoda: 56\n  _Schizodus_: 67\n  scientific names: 21-23\n  Scleractinia: 51\n  sclerites, holothurian: 83, 84\n  scolecodont: 78\n  scouring rushes: 47, 48\n  Scyphozoa: 49, 84\n  sea anemones: 49\n  sea cucumbers: 82\n  \u201csea-mice\u201d: 56\n  sea urchins: 82\n  sedimentary rocks: 5, 19\n  _sellaeformis, Ostrea_: 72\n  septa, cephalopods: 66, 75\n  serpent stars: 82\n  _Serpula_: 78\n  _Seymouria_: 92\n  sharks: 87\n  sheep: 106\n  shrimp: 78\n  Siberia: 7, 106\n  _Sigillaria_: 46\n  _signata, Avonia_: 12, 13\n  silicification: 11\n  Silurian\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 40\n      of El Paso and Van Horn regions: 40\n  skates: 87\n  slickensides: 16\n  slugs: 56\n  Smith, Fred: 1\n  snails: 11, 56, 59. _See also_ gastropods.\n  snakes: 89\n  Solitario uplift: 40\n  Somervell County: 14, 15\n  South America: 87, 102\n  Southern Methodist University: 27\n  South Texas College: 27\n  Southwestern University: 27\n  species: 22\n  spicules, sponge: 49, 50\n  spiders: 78\n  spines, echinoid: 84, 85\n  _Spirifer rockymontanus_: 58\n  _Spirorbis_: 78\n  spores: 47\n  _Squamularia_: 57\n  starfish: 82, 83\n  _Stegosaurus_: 90, 97, 99\n  stegosaurs: 90, 97, 99\n  steinkern: 59, 62\n  Stephen F. Austin State College: 27\n  \u201cstomach stones\u201d: 14\n  stone, building: 19\n  Strabo: 3\n  _Straparolus_: 61\n  Strecker Museum: 95\n  _Striatopora_: 51, 52\n  _Strobeus_: 62\n  Styracosaurus: 90\n  _subhorrida, Avonia_: 12, 13\n  _subtilita, Composita_: 57\n  Sul Ross State College: 27\n  _Surcula_: 64\n  sutures, cephalopod: 66, 75, 78\n      nautiloid: 75\n  swine, giant: 106\n  _Sycostoma_: 64\n  symmetry: 23\n  tabulae: 51\n  Tabulata: 51\n  tape, masking: 19\n  tapirs: 104\n  Tarleton State College: 27\n  Tarrant County: 11\n  taxonomy: 21-22\n  teeth, horse: 104\n  _Tellina_: 73\n  Tertiary\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 43\n          microfossils: 32\n          radiolarians: 49\n          rocks of Gulf Coastal Plain, High Plains, North-Central\n          Plains, and Trans-Pecos region: 42\n  Tetracoralla: 51\n  _texana, Exogyra_: 70\n  _Texanites_: 77\n  Texas A. & M. College: 1, 27\n  Texas Christian University: 27\n  Texas College: 27\n  Texas College of Arts and Industries: 27\n  Texas Highway Department: 17\n  Texas Technological College: 27\n  Texas, the geology of: 34, 37-43\n  Texas Western College: 27\n  Thallophyta: 43, 46\n  Theophrastus: 3\n  Therapsids: 89\n  Theria: 100\n  therians: 100-107\n      artiodactyls: 101, 106\n      dinocerates: 102, 105\n      pantodonts: 102\n      perissodactyls: 104\n  Theropoda: 97\n  The University of Texas: 1, 2, 27\n  time, geologic: 34\n  titanotheres: 104, 105, 106\n  toads: 89\n  tortoises: 89\n  traces of organisms: 14\n      burrows: 14\n      coprolites: 14\n      gastroliths: 14\n  Tracheophyta: 44, 46, 48\n  tracks, dinosaur: 14, 15, 97\n  tree sloths: 100, 102\n  trees, coniferous: 7\n  _Trepospira_: 61\n  Triassic\u2014\n      derivation and pronunciation: 34\n      fossils: 42\n      of Crockett, Glasscock, Pecos, Reagan, and Upton counties;\n          Glass Mountains and High Plains: 42\n  _Trigonia_: 69\n  Trilobita: 78\n  trilobites: 78, 80\n      morphology: 80\n  Trilobitomorpha: 78\n  _Trinacromerum_: 91\n  Trinity University: 27\n  trivial name: 21-22\n  _Trochosmilia_: 53\n  _tuberculatus, Aulosteges_: 12, 13\n  _Turrilites_: 77\n      _worthensis_: 22\n  _Turritella_: 62, 63\n  turtles: 89, 91\n  tusk-shells: 56\n  Tyler Junior College: 27\n  _Tylosaurus_: 91, 93\n  _Tylostoma_: 62\n  _Tyrannosaurus_: 90, 97\n  uintatheres: 102, 105\n  _Uintatherium_: 102, 105\n  umbilicus: 59, 60\n  United States Geological Survey: 19\n  United States National Museum: 2, 12\n  University of Corpus Christi: 27\n  University of Houston: 1, 27\n  University of Texas, The: 1, 2, 27\n  Upper Cretaceous: 34, 42, 78. _See also_ Gulf.\n  Upton County: 42\n  valves, brachiopod: 54, 56\n  _Venericardia_: 73\n  ventral valve, brachiopod: 54\n  _Venus mercenaria_: 22\n  _Vertagus_: 63\n  Vertebrata: 84, 86-107\n  vertebrates: 86-107\n      amphibians: 89, 92\n  _Vokesula_: 73\n  volcanic ash: 5\n  _Volutolithes_: 64\n  _wacoensis, Kingena_: 56\n  Washington, D. C.: 19\n  _washitaensis, Gryphaea_: 69\n  Weches formation: 43\n  West Texas State College: 1, 27\n  Wilson, John A.: 2\n  Wilson, Sarah Louise: 2\n  Wise County: 20\n  wood, petrified: 19\n  worms, annelid, fossil, segmented: 78\n  worm tubes, Cretaceous: 9\n  _Worthenia_: 61\n  _worthensis, Turrilites_: 22\n  _Yoldia_: 67\n  Young County: 20\n  Young, Keith: 1\n  Zoantharia: 51\n  zooecia: 51\n--Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n  is public-domain in the country of publication.\n--Corrected a few palpable typos.\n--Included a transcription of the text within some images.\n--In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n  _underscores_.\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Texas Fossils: An Amateur Collector's\nHandbook, by William H. 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{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Mark C. Orton, V. L. Simpson and the Online\nMEN\nCALLED HIM\nMASTER\n_By_ ELWYN ALLEN SMITH\nTHE WESTMINSTER PRESS - PHILADELPHIA\nCOPYRIGHT, MCMXLVIII, BY W. L. JENKINS\n  |  There is no evidence that the U.S. copyright on this    |\n_All rights reserved_--no part of this book may be reproduced\nin any form without permission in writing\nfrom the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes\nto quote brief passages in connection with a review\nin magazine or newspaper.\nPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\nCONTENTS\nHAVE YOU EVER WONDERED?\nWhat kind of men were Jesus' disciples? What was it like to be with\nJesus in Palestine? Why did some of the disciples find it so hard to\nunderstand Jesus? Who were the people who killed Jesus? Why did they do\nit? This book has been written to help you to answer these questions. It\ntakes you right into Jesus' world so that you can hear his conversations\nwith the disciples and watch the things they did.\nThe stories of Jesus and the disciples in this book are told in\ndifferent words from those you will find in your Bible, and background\nhas been built in from other records of the time. For example, the Bible\ngives only the fact that one of the disciples was a Zealot; in this book\nthe disciple is shown speaking and acting as we know Zealots spoke and\nacted. The story of the rich young ruler has been placed early in Jesus'\nministry to show that he would not accept every man who wanted to be his\ndisciple. The parable of the Good Samaritan has also been placed in the\nearly period as an example of the informal way in which Jesus taught.\nThat you may know what is from the Bible and what is added to make a\ncomplete story, Scripture references for each event are given in the\nback of the book. These references will help you to read and understand\nthe Gospels. As you read what it meant to be a disciple of Jesus while\nhe was on earth, you will see more clearly what it means to be one of\nhis disciples today.\n[Illustration]\n1. A VOICE IN THE WILDERNESS\n\"Andrew! The baskets are slipping!\" Two men on foot were driving heavily\nloaded donkeys ahead of them. Across the back of Andrew's tiny beast\nhung two huge baskets. One slanted crazily forward.\n\"It ought to hold until we get to the top,\" answered Andrew. He looked\ncritically at the load and then at the path ahead. They were climbing\nthe bank of a wide gully cut by the floods that rushed down from the\nbarren hills into the valley of the Jordan River every spring. Andrew\nshouted a command and the donkeys climbed slowly upward. At the top the\nmen stopped to catch their breath.\n\"John,\" exclaimed Andrew in disgust, \"I have tightened this thing on\nevery hill between Galilee and Judea!\" He worked impatiently at the\nknotted ropes that bound the baskets on the donkey's back. John was not\nlistening. He was gazing at the scene before them.\nTorrents of muddy water poured through the gully during the season of\nrains. Now the clay in the bottom was dry and cracked. Under the hoofs\nof the animals it was as hard as stone. John pushed his damp hair back\nfrom his forehead. His home province, with its green hillsides\nsurrounding the cool Lake of Galilee, was very different from this\nburnt, rocky land of Judea, which lay southwest of where they stood. The\ngully carried a sluggish stream of heated air up from the valley; he\ncould feel the damp warmth on his skin. Even on the hilltop there was no\ncooling breeze.\nAndrew wiped his face with a dusty sleeve and left a dirty streak above\nhis brows. \"There!\" he exclaimed. \"These baskets ought to stay on now.\"\nThe rope was drawn tightly around the belly of the donkey.\n\"We should be at Bethany soon,\" remarked John.\nAndrew struck the donkey with his whip and said gruffly, \"Come on!\" as\nthough the animal had shaken its load loose on purpose. The little\ncaravan started again, Andrew in the lead.\nThe road was built on the slope of the hills which closed in the plain\nof the Jordan. Stretching far to the west the men could see fields of\nripe grain. The heat of early summer had come quickly this year and now\nthreatened to destroy the crop. Farmers were hard at work cutting the\nwheat and threshing out the grain on platforms of earth pressed smooth\nas stone.\n\"Are you sure that John the Baptizer is still at Bethany?\" called Andrew\nover his shoulder. John did not answer. After a moment, Andrew added,\n\"Perhaps he has gone to some other place to preach.\" Still there was no\nreply. Irritated, Andrew turned. John had dropped behind and was walking\nwith a stranger. Where had this traveler come from? He must have been\nmoving fast to overtake them so swiftly. His robe was hitched high at\nthe waist for easier walking. Andrew slowed and waited for the men.\n\"Could you tell us, friend, where John the Prophet is baptizing?\" John\nwas saying.\nThe traveler smiled. \"I hear he is at Bethany on the Jordan, near\nJericho. Do you want to hear him?\"\n\"We are his disciples,\" responded John proudly; then he bit his lip.\nAndrew was frowning at him. It was dangerous to say a thing like that!\nJohn looked at the stranger narrowly. He was from Galilee; his broad\naccent showed that. John glanced at Andrew. Surely a Galilean was safe!\n\"The Prophet says that Israel will soon be free,\" ventured John. It was\na test question. The stranger smiled as though he agreed, and Andrew\nasked enthusiastically: \"Do you believe him? He says that God will\noverthrow the Romans soon!\"\n\"How does John the Baptizer think all this will happen?\" asked the\nGalilean traveler. Andrew did not reply for a long while. Finally he\nsaid: \"The Prophet tells us that we cannot set ourselves free without\nGod's help. He says that if we had been willing to change our ways, God\nwould have rescued us long ago. Therefore we must get rid of sin and\npride and take our stand on God's side. When we do that, great things\nwill happen!\" He looked directly at his fellow traveler. \"Do you believe\nthis?\"\nThe stranger's answer was clear. \"John speaks the truth.\"\nSuddenly they heard the thunder of galloping hoofs. A band of horsemen\nwas bearing down on them. Helmets and spears glinted in the brilliant\nsunlight. Andrew and John shouted at the donkeys, but one of them moved\nslowly. Desperately John whipped the animal. The donkey leaped. A rope\nsnapped and one of the heavy baskets dropped to the ground.\nThe three men heard a soldier curse them. They could hardly see each\nother for the thick dust. The basket lay trampled in the dirt; salted\nfish were scattered all over the road. Andrew kicked the ruined basket\ninto the ditch. \"May God soon burn Rome and all her soldiers! This land\nbelongs to us!\" He ran a few steps as if to overtake the riders and\nshook his fist. \"God will strike you!\" he shouted. The stranger was\nhelping John put what was left of the fish in the other three baskets.\nAndrew turned to them.\n\"I have seen whole armies of Romans march through fields of ripe wheat!\nI have seen our towns burned by these destroyers! They have killed\nthousands of our people! We have seen even our own friends killed by\nthese murderers!\"\nThe man answered quietly: \"I know what they have done. But hating them\nwill not help.\" Andrew was taken by surprise.\n\"We have been oppressed before,\" continued the stranger. \"God has sent\nJohn to us now, just as he has always sent prophets to tell us what we\nshould do.\"\n\"What should we do?\"\n\"Just as you said yourself, we must repent of our sin,\" replied the\ntraveler. \"God can do very little until he finds men who are willing to\nobey him.\" Andrew had nothing to say.\n\"There is a well not far ahead,\" remarked John. \"We must water the\nanimals.\" Under a dusty palm over the next hill they found the well. The\nstranger drew water for the donkeys and they drank noisily. Then he drew\nwater for the men. They had no sooner finished than Andrew urged: \"Let's\nhurry. We are not far from the place where John is baptizing.\"\nThe road led down the slope and across the plain toward the river, which\nhad cut a deep gorge. At the edge the men paused to look. A hundred feet\nbelow flowed the Jordan. It seemed sluggish now; but in the rainy season\nit was swift and treacherous. The water was yellow and gray and only a\nfew shrubs clung to the banks. A short distance away the river turned\nand disappeared behind the opposite cliff.\n\"The crossing is below that bend,\" explained John to the stranger. \"The\nProphet should be there.\" He gave his donkey a cut with the whip, and\nthe stolid animal moved faster. A few minutes later he cried out:\n\"There! See down there?\" People were gathered at the edge of the river.\nIt did not take the men long to reach the gully through which the road\ndescended to the river. The fishermen tied their donkeys with the other\nanimals that stood tethered to bushes and small trees. In their haste\nthey forgot their companion.\n\"Do you see the Prophet?\" inquired Andrew, looking eagerly about. John\njerked at his sleeve.\n\"There! By that rock on the bank!\" They climbed up the slope where they\ncould see.\nJohn could not tell why he felt the way he did. It might have been the\nappearance of John the Baptizer. He wore a rough camel-hair tunic and a\nleather belt. None of the people who were there for the first time had\never seen such a man before. He was very thin. His skin was tanned brown\nand his hair and beard were long. Like the poorest people in Palestine,\nhe lived on grasshoppers and wild honey. Just then John the Baptizer\nspoke. He looked old, but his voice showed that he was young and strong.\n\"It is time you begin to show some sign that you are God's chosen\npeople,\" he cried out. \"But you are just like your ancestors--you pay no\nattention to God. You don't listen to the prophets. God is not going to\nwait much longer. The time has come to repent! The Kingdom of Heaven is\nnear!\"\nThe crowd stirred. What was this? Could it be true that the end of the\nworld was coming soon?\n\"Isaiah the Prophet said, 'Everyone shall see the saving power of God,'\"\ncontinued the Baptizer. \"God is getting ready to clean off his threshing\nplatform. He will gather his wheat into his storehouse, but he will burn\nthe straw in fire that never dies down! Let every one of you get ready\nfor the coming of the Lord!\"\nNear the front edge of the crowd a priest stood up. \"How do you dare\ntalk this way?\" he demanded. \"Who are you--the Messiah?\"\n\"No, I am not the Messiah,\" replied the Prophet.\n\"Then who are you? The Prophet Elijah?\"\n\"I am not Elijah.\"\n\"Are you Moses come back to us?\"\n\"No.\"\n\"Then who are you? The rulers in Jerusalem have sent me to find out.\nWhat have you to say for yourself?\" Andrew and John glanced at each\nother. The rulers!\nJohn the Baptizer called out boldly to the whole crowd, \"I am a voice\ncrying in the wilderness, 'Clear the way for the Lord!'\"\nThe priest from Jerusalem interrupted again. \"If you are not the Christ,\nnor Elijah, nor Moses, what right have you to baptize people?\" The\npeople stirred; they did not like this man.\n\"I baptize you with water for repentance, but he who is coming after me\nis mightier. I am not fit even to tie his sandal laces. He will baptize\nyou with the Holy Spirit and fire. You must repent!\"\nA man broke away from the crowd and stepped uncertainly toward the\nProphet. Words came from his lips as though it hurt him to speak. \"I\nhave forced money out of people. I am a tax-gatherer. What can I do?\"\nEveryone there had been cheated by tax collectors.\n\"Turn your whole life back toward God. Never again force people to pay\nmore money than is just.\"\nSeveral other people had joined the tax collector. \"What must I do?\"\nasked a soldier.\n\"Never take money from people by force. Never blackmail. Be content with\nyour pay.\" He looked at the group before him and said: \"Let every man of\nyou who owns two garments share with the person who has none at all. If\nyou have food, share it too!\"\nA whisper ran over the crowd. John had turned to some religious\nofficials, Sadducees and Pharisees, who stood watching. \"You nest of\nsnakes! Who told you to flee from God's day of judgment? It is time you\nrepented!\"\n\"How can he talk that way to Pharisees?\" said Andrew. He could tell even\nfrom where he stood that the Pharisees felt the charge was unjust.\n\"Why should we repent?\" asked one of them. \"We are descended from\nAbraham himself. We were born to be God's chosen people!\"\n\"God can make children of Abraham out of these rocks if he wants!\" burst\nout the Prophet. \"Instead of saying over and over again, 'Abraham is our\nancestor,' you ought to live so that people will know that you have\nrepented! The wood chopper is ready to destroy every tree that is not\nproducing good fruit. Every bad tree he will cut down and throw into the\nfire!\" John turned his back on them.\n\"Look!\" whispered Andrew in excitement. \"There is the stranger we met on\nthe road!\"\nThe Prophet had walked down into the water to begin baptizing those who\nwere waiting on the shore, but now he stopped and turned toward the\nplace where the Galilean was standing. He completely forgot the crowd.\nIn the silence Andrew could hear him protesting.\n\"No! No! No!\" The Prophet stepped back in awe. \"I am not worthy to\nbaptize you. You should baptize me!\" The two fishermen could not hear\nthe Galilean's reply, but they saw him walk down into the water, John\nthe Baptizer leading. The people stood as though fascinated. Recalling\nthe incident later on, Andrew and John realized that their tense\nconcentration on the two men at the river had driven every other thought\nfrom their minds.\nJohn was baptizing the stranger. As he came up from the river, the\nGalilean's face bore an expression of joy and praise which the fishermen\nremembered as long as they lived. Some power had come upon him.\n\"What happened, Andrew? What happened?\"\nAndrew did not hear; he was staring at the Galilean.\n\"Andrew!\" John was insistent. \"Something just happened. I don't\nunderstand. What was it?\"\nAndrew murmured. \"He must be a prophet too.\"\nThe people were talking excitedly. Everyone felt as John and Andrew did.\nThe Galilean had gone, and the Prophet was now baptizing the others who\nwaited. Shadows were creeping into the gorge as evening approached.\nGroups started away toward the near-by towns.\n\"Did you hear what the Galilean said to John the Baptizer?\" asked John.\nWithout answering, Andrew started toward the knot of people near the\nProphet, and John followed. Andrew asked a man beside him, \"Did you hear\nwhat the Galilean said to the Prophet?\"\n\"Yes,\" the man answered. \"He said, 'Every man must take his stand on\nGod's side.'\" Before Andrew could say any more the Prophet spoke. He\nknew what the people were thinking.\n\"Upon the head of this man of Galilee I saw the Spirit of God settle\nlike a dove from the sky,\" he declared. \"God has chosen him to do His\nwork!\"\n[Illustration]\n2. FISHERS OF MEN\nThe morning sun was breaking over the hills that closed in the Lake of\nGalilee on the east. Fog was thick over the water, but the fishermen in\nthe two boats that lay a short distance from the shore knew the sun had\nrisen, for the mist was full of white light. Between the boats was a\ngreat net, partly under water. The fishermen, two in each boat, were\npulling the opposite edges over the side into the bottom of their boats.\nTheir breath hung in the chilly air. Andrew had returned to Galilee\nafter his trip to Judea and was working with his brother, Simon.\n\"I wouldn't mind hard work if we could catch fish,\" remarked Simon,\nresting a moment.\n\"We'll soon see what we've caught,\" replied Andrew. The net was almost\ngathered in.\n\"It won't be much,\" grunted Simon, bending to his work again. After a\nfew minutes the boats lay side by side, the nets heaped high in them.\n\"I have fished in this lake all my life,\" remarked James, the brother of\nJohn, \"and so has my father, Zebedee, but I have never seen so few fish\nfor a night's work!\"\nAndrew felt as disgusted as Simon and James, but all he said was, \"Let's\ngo ashore.\"\nJames and Andrew guided the boats toward the spot where Zebedee had\nbuilt a fire of thorn twigs. The men jumped out and crowded around the\ncrackling flames. Zebedee had chosen several fish for their breakfast.\nHe raked some hot coals from the fire and laid the fish among them. They\nsmelled good to the hungry men. This was the best time of the\nfishermen's day. Hard work was done. The fire was warm. The thought of\nfood gave them a good feeling.\n\"Father, why is fishing so poor this year?\" asked John.\n\"I don't know, son,\" replied Zebedee. \"Some years there are enough fish\nfor all Galilee and Judea. But in years like this, the people of the\nfive cities on our lake go hungry.\" He was thinking of times past. \"If\nthe wheat crop is poor in Galilee, there may be riots.\"\n\"That would only make matters worse,\" commented Simon.\n\"Yes, unless King Herod has improved lately.\" Zebedee smiled sourly. \"I\nthink that foreigner actually enjoys killing. How he loves our money! If\nriots come, we are sure to be taxed even more.\" He took two of the fish\noff the coals and laid them on a smooth rock. When they were cool\nenough, he picked them up. \"Breakfast is ready,\" he said. The men rose\nand bowed their heads, while the older man prayed.\n    \"Praise ye the Lord.\n    I will give thanks unto the Lord with my whole heart,\n    In the council of the upright, and in the congregation.\n    He hath given food unto them that fear him:\n    He will ever be mindful of his promise.\n    Holy and reverend is his name. Amen.\"\nWhile they ate, James asked, \"Father, who is in the other boat this\nmorning?\" Zebedee hired men to work for him.\n\"Old Gideon the farmer, with our new man, a gentile from Sidon.\"\n\"Why in the world did you hire a gentile, father?\" asked John sharply.\n\"Well, son, he is young and strong. He is willing to work for us.\" He\npaused. \"But I couldn't help wondering where he came from.\"\n\"Did you ask him?\"\n\"No. He wouldn't answer questions about himself. But he knew fishing.\"\nJohn shook his head.\n\"I don't like it, father. Jews have no business working with gentiles.\nAnd besides, if he is a runaway slave, we might get into trouble.\"\n\"Now look, son. Half the people in Galilee are gentiles. Every day we\nsee them. What harm is there in working with them?\"\n\"Here comes the other boat,\" said Simon. The sun was driving away the\nmist; Simon pointed to a fishing boat drawing closer to the shore.\n\"Did you do any better than we did, Gideon?\" called Zebedee.\nAs the old farmer came toward them, the men could tell that his body was\nrugged in spite of stooped shoulders. \"No better; maybe worse. It's\ngetting as hard to make a living on the lake as by plowing the land.\"\nThe newcomers sat down and hungrily ate the fish that Simon handed them.\n\"Zebedee says there may be riots if the wheat is poor,\" said Simon.\n\"What do you think of the crop, Gideon?\"\nGideon squinted toward the hills as though looking at the fields that\nlay beyond them. \"My guess is that there will be enough.\" He frowned.\n\"Enough, that is, if the landlords don't grab it all.\"\nJames glanced at Simon, concealing a smile. Old Gideon never got tired\nof scolding the big landowners.\n\"Before I was forced off my farm we had plenty to eat, even in dry\nweather.\" He shook his finger. \"And mind you, I had only five acres!\nNow look what has happened!\" He pounded his knee. \"A man can hardly feed\nhis family with ten acres. Why? Taxes and more taxes!\" He counted on his\nfingers. \"First, Herod takes one fourth of all our grain. That goes into\nthe bellies of the Romans. Then there is the tithe. That takes enough to\nfeed a hired man! Then we pay the Temple tax to feed the priests. They\nget the first-born of all the sheep too. When a man's first son is born,\nhe must make a big gift to the synagogue. Farmers have to give part of\nthe wool at sheep-shearing; part of the wood at woodcutting; and the\nbest of the fruit at harvest.\" He looked around and spat on the ground.\n\"On top of that we pay for the schools and synagogues! Is it any wonder\nwe have hardly enough left to feed ourselves?\"\n\"But religious taxes are paid for the sake of God, Gideon!\" protested\nJames.\n\"Yes, yes ... I know.\" Gideon couldn't argue the point; for a moment he\nwas silent. Then he looked sharply at James and snapped: \"Do the\nlandlords pay religious taxes? No!\" His voice was bitter. \"That\ntax-gatherer who bought me out knew ways to get out of paying the Temple\ntax!\"\n\"Was it when you sold your farm that you became a fisherman, Gideon?\"\nasked James.\n\"Yes. I almost had to serve a term of bondage.\"\nThe gentile jerked up his head and said, \"Were you a slave?\"\n\"No, but my brother bound himself for twelve years,\" answered Gideon,\nlooking at the gentile curiously.\n\"Do the bondslaves make much trouble here?\" he asked.\nZebedee looked at him very closely. \"In Galilee the slaves do not cause\nriots. The Jews do.\"\nJames explained. \"In Palestine there are more free men than slaves.\nHunger causes most riots. But in a way, our whole nation is a slave to\nRome.\" His eyes challenged the gentile and no one missed his meaning\nwhen he spoke again. \"A nation can't run away from its master the way a\nslave can.\"\nThe gentile started. He glanced swiftly around the group. The men were\nlooking at him suspiciously.\n\"Are you a runaway slave?\" demanded Zebedee point-blank.\nThe man flushed and spoke shamefacedly. \"Yes,\" he admitted.\nAfter a moment's silence, Andrew said: \"The Romans treat us all the same\nway. No one here will betray you.\" The man's face showed his relief.\n\"Perhaps you will tell us where you are from,\" suggested Simon.\n\"I am a Greek; a fisherman from Corinth. I was taken captive and made\nthe slave of a Roman soldier. We were sent to Sidon.\" He waved his hand\ntoward the west. \"I watched my chance and ran away. Here I want to work\nand remain unknown.\"\nJohn said: \"Will you come with us to the synagogue? If you are going to\nwork with us, you should become one of us.\"\n\"I will worship any god who will give me a happy life.\"\n\"I can't promise that God will do that,\" answered John. \"Our nation has\nalways suffered greatly.\" He looked at Andrew. \"But we believe what John\nthe Baptizer tells us: God is soon coming to save us.\"\nThe gentile shook his head. \"I don't understand.\"\n\"Perhaps he has not heard of the Prophet,\" Andrew said to Simon. He\nturned to the slave and said, \"God has sent a Prophet to warn us to turn\nback to God.\"\n\"What will your god do for you?\" asked the other.\nAndrew spoke sternly to him. \"God is not our servant! We are his\nservants! We obey him.\"\n\"John the Baptizer says God will soon set up his Kingdom,\" added John.\n\"I must say the Zealots make better sense to me,\" interrupted Simon.\n\"After all, you have to make some effort yourself. You can't just sit\nand wait.\"\n\"Who are the Zealots?\" asked the gentile.\n\"They are warlike patriots who are always staging riots against the\nRomans,\" explained Simon.\n\"While I was at Sidon, the Romans were busy hunting down bands of these\npeople,\" observed the gentile.\n\"Many brave men have been killed by Rome. We seem to be defeated in\nevery rebellion.\" Simon turned to his brother. \"Do you remember Judah\nthe Galilean?\" Andrew nodded.\n\"Judah was a Zealot,\" continued Simon. \"He gathered a group of brave\nyoung Jews and raided one of Herod's forts. They took swords, spears,\nand money to buy food. At the Feast of the Passover, they came out of\ntheir hiding places in the northern hills.\" He pointed toward the\nmountains where the snowy crest of Mount Hermon shone in the morning\nlight. \"They hid swords under their robes and joined the crowds going to\nJerusalem. I was only a child but my parents took me to Jerusalem that\nyear.\n\"The Zealots knew the Temple would be guarded by Roman soldiers, so they\nsurrounded it. The Roman commander saw men with swords in the crowd of\npilgrims filling the Temple and thought they were going to attack his\nmen, so he ordered his soldiers to attack first.\n\"The Zealots were taken by surprise and the Romans gained the upper\nhand. Then Judah saw his chance. He rallied his men, and they climbed on\nthe roof of the wooden buildings which surround the Temple courtyard.\nFrom there they threw spears down on the Romans. It looked then as\nthough they had a chance to win.\n\"To drive the Jews off these buildings, the Romans set them afire. They\nwere dry as tinder and burned fiercely. The Zealots had to get down.\nSome killed themselves rather than surrender. Others leaped among the\nRomans and died fighting. Those that escaped to the country hid in the\nhills around Jerusalem. There Judah gathered together as many of his men\nas were still alive.\n\"The Roman general sent bands of his men into the hills to hunt down the\nsurvivors. One morning there was a blare of trumpets and a group of\nRoman soldiers came marching down the street. From the roof of the house\nwhere I stayed with my parents we saw Judah of Galilee being prodded\nalong by guards in armor. He was hurt but he walked proudly.\n\"I began to cry. Even my father had tears in his eyes. Although I was\nonly a young boy, I knew that Judah would be killed for fighting the\nRomans. But I did not know how terrible it would be.\n\"The Romans made all Jews who did not live in Jerusalem leave within two\ndays. It was a sad time. We had come in joy, remembering how at the\nfirst Passover Feast God had protected us from the Egyptians. We left\nsorrowing. We saw a dreadful sight when we went out of the city gate.\"\nThe fishermen had finished their food and sat with their eyes fixed on\nSimon. James and Andrew had heard bits of this story before, but\nlistened eagerly for details as Simon talked. John's eyes seemed to be\nsaying: \"Go on! Go on!\" Zebedee was older and knew the story well.\nAlready his face showed pain and sorrow.\n\"Judah had been condemned to die as a criminal. All criminals were\ncrucified. He was thrown to the ground and his body was spread on a\nwooden cross. His hands were nailed to the crossbeam. His feet were\nnailed also. The cross was set upright beside the road from Jerusalem to\nGalilee. All the Zealots who had been hiding in the hills of Judea were\ncrucified with him.\n\"When my father and mother took me out through the city gate, I saw\nhundreds of crosses on both sides of the road. On each cross hung a\nbrave Galilean. When I saw that Judah was dead, my boyhood dream\ncrumbled. I have never forgotten.\"\nThe fire had burned out while Simon talked. The morning sun glared on\nthe gray ashes. Lost in thought, the men gazed at the dead fire. Finally\nSimon said: \"It seems that every time we fight for the Kingdom of God we\nsuffer all the more. How does John the Baptizer explain that, Andrew?\"\n\"He didn't say anything about it that I remember,\" Andrew admitted.\nPeople were hurrying along the road back of the beach.\n\"Come along, men,\" said Zebedee briskly. \"We must clean the nets.\"\n\"I think I'll try my luck in the shallow water,\" said Andrew. He picked\nup a circular net with weights around the edges. He waded to his knees\nand threw the net. It fell flat on the water and sank, trapping a small\nfish under it.\nThe others began to wash the nets, patiently picking out the seaweed and\npebbles caught in them.\n\"Say! What's going on?\" John pointed to a knot of people following a man\nwho was walking along the beach.\n\"Probably some trader,\" remarked Simon.\n\"He looks more like a teacher to me,\" said John.\n\"Why not go over and see?\" suggested Simon.\nIn a moment John came running back. \"It is Jesus, the Galilean whom\nAndrew and I saw with John the Baptizer! Andrew! Andrew!\" he called.\n\"Come and see him, Simon. Come on!\"\n\"I think I had better finish cleaning this net, John.\"\n\"But this man is a Prophet!\"\n\"You go ahead if you want to.\" John gave Simon a disgusted look. When he\nturned toward the crowd of people, he noticed that they were moving\ntoward him.\n_I wish they would come over here_, thought John. As if he had read\nJohn's mind, Jesus walked nearer the fisherman. Everyone was listening\nto a scribe who was asking questions. Scribes knew the religious laws\nand the sacred books thoroughly.\n\"How can I get into this Kingdom you are telling us about, Rabbi?\"\n\"What is written in the Law? What do you read there?\" asked Jesus. The\nscribe answered: \"You must love the Lord your God with your whole heart,\nyour whole soul, your whole strength, and your whole mind. Also, love\nyour neighbor as yourself.\"\n\"Correct,\" said Jesus. \"Do that and you will live.\" Simon's hands were\nbusy, but he smiled to hear Jesus answer the educated man so easily.\nThe scribe felt foolish because Jesus had made him answer his own\nquestion. Hoping to escape embarrassment, he asked, \"Just who is my\nneighbor, Master?\"\n\"There was once a man traveling from Jerusalem to Jericho,\" answered\nJesus. \"He was attacked by some robbers who took everything he had and\nleft him badly hurt. After a while a priest came by, but when he caught\nsight of the man lying in the ditch bleeding, he went on without even\nlooking a second time. A Levite came along a little later and he too\npassed by on the other side of the road. Then a Samaritan came along.\"\nSimon was listening intently. Like most of the people there, he looked\ndown on Samaritans, and wondered why Jesus had brought this one into the\nstory.\n\"The two Jews had done nothing to help their fellow countryman, but the\nSamaritan stopped,\" continued Jesus. \"He put salve on his wounds and\ntied them up. He put him on his own donkey and took him to an inn by the\nroad. He paid his bill so that he could stay as long as it would take to\nget well. When the Samaritan left, he said to the manager: 'Take care of\nhim. If you have to do more for him, I will pay you back when I come\nthis way again.'\" Jesus looked at the scribe. \"Which of these three men\nwas a true neighbor to the man who was beaten?\"\n\"The man who was kind to him,\" admitted the scribe grudgingly.\n\"Then go and be like that yourself!\" said Jesus.\nSimon looked at Jesus amazed, the net in his hand completely forgotten.\n_Not even John the Baptizer would say the Samaritan was better than the\nothers_, he thought to himself. _No wonder Andrew and John had talked so\nmuch about this Rabbi whom they had first met in Judea!_\nAttracted by the crowd, many more people had come down from the road.\nThey were pressing in on Jesus so much that he turned to Simon and asked\nabruptly, \"May I use your boat?\"\nSimon was taken by surprise but he quickly recovered himself and said,\n\"Certainly, Rabbi.\"\nJesus asked him to push out a little way. Then he turned around and\nspoke to the people on the shore. \"The Kingdom of God does not come like\na flash of lightning so that you can say, 'Here it is!' The Kingdom of\nGod is right now in your midst.\"\n\"Does that mean that our enemies will be destroyed soon, Rabbi?\" asked\nSimon eagerly.\n\"The Kingdom of God does not come by violence and bloodshed,\" answered\nJesus, \"but by the power of God. It is not his will that you should kill\npersons whom you hate. You should love your enemies! Do good to those\nwho hate you! Pray for those who abuse you. If a man slaps your cheek,\nlet him slap the other one too. If he steals your coat, give him your\nshirt too.\n\"If you love only people who love you, what does that amount to? Even\nbad men do that! It is your enemies that you must love and help. You\nmust give without expecting to be paid back.\"\n\"That is impossible!\" exclaimed Simon in dismay.\n\"God's Kingdom has power to change all kinds of men,\" said Jesus,\nlooking straight at Simon. \"His power is like a piece of yeast in a bowl\nof dough--the tiny bit of yeast quickly works its way through all the\ndough until every bit is changed. The Kingdom of God is also like a tiny\nmustard seed. It is so small that a farmer can hardly see it mixed with\nhis wheat. But this tiny seed is so powerful that when it is planted it\ngrows larger than most trees.\"\nSimon shook his head. He did not say anything, but he doubted if any\nsuch power existed.\n\"Will you push the boat out into deep water?\" asked Jesus. \"I want you\nto lower the net for a catch of fish.\"\n\"Rabbi, we fished all night and took nothing,\" protested Simon. \"But if\nyou wish, I will try again.\" Much puzzled by this sudden request, the\ntwo fishermen pulled toward deep water. The people on the shore watched\nthem put up the oars; the boat drifted slowly in the wind. The two men\nlowered the net. It had hardly sunk below the surface of the water when\nthe fishermen knew that they had dropped it directly in the path of a\ngreat school of fish. Startled into action, they pulled desperately at\nthe net, but it was too heavy. The cords began to break. In great\nexcitement Andrew stood up and shouted to James, \"Come and help us!\"\nWith James and John drawing the opposite edge of the net into their\nboat, the four men succeeded in saving the huge catch. Jesus sat quietly\nwatching from the back of the boat, which was now filled with fish to\nthe point of sinking. Simon looked at Jesus and a strange fear took hold\nof him. There had been no fish all night--and now, at the bidding of\nthis Rabbi, they had caught hundreds! Impulsively he fell on his knees\nat Jesus' feet and said: \"Lord, I do need to be changed! I am a sinful\nman!\"\n\"The Kingdom of Heaven is like a net that catches all kinds of fish,\nSimon,\" replied Jesus. \"You must follow me. From now on you shall fish\nfor men.\" From the other boat, James and John had been listening to\nevery word that Jesus had spoken. He now turned to Andrew and the two\nothers. \"If you will follow me, you too shall become fishers of men.\"\nWhen the boat came to shore, the people looked in amazement at the great\nhaul of fish, but the catch meant nothing to the four fishermen. Without\na single word they left Zebedee and followed Jesus back to Capernaum.\n[Illustration]\n3. A MAN OF AUTHORITY\nIt was not long before reports of the new Rabbi at Capernaum had\ntraveled to all the cities around the Lake of Galilee. At Bethsaida, a\nlittle town three miles across the lake from Capernaum, farmers gossiped\nabout the news as they worked in the green fields on the hills above\ntheir town. The name of Jesus was on the lips of everyone in the noisy\nmarket place; but the fishermen on the beaches knew most about the\nTeacher who said that the Kingdom of God was very near.\nOne Friday afternoon, a fisherman from Bethsaida, named Philip, was\nnetting fish from his small boat at the northern tip of the Lake of\nGalilee. The Jordan River emptied into the lake at this point, and there\nwere often large fish to be caught. Spawned and fattened in the many\ntiny streams that flowed into the upper Jordan, they came down the river\nto feed on the weeds that grew thickly in the swamps at the river mouth.\nPhilip glanced up at the sun. It was well past noon, time to be leaving.\nPhilip drew his net into the boat, set the oars into their crude\nnotches, and rowed steadily toward Bethsaida, about a mile distant. He\nwould have just enough time, he reflected, to clean up, get back to the\nboat, and row across the lake before the Sabbath Day commenced at\nsunset.\nPhilip landed and drew his boat a short distance up on the beach.\n\"Say, Philip! Why don't you pull it up farther?\" Philip looked around\nand saw a friend cleaning a net. Without pausing he replied, \"I am going\nto use it again.\"\n\"Are you going far?\" But the question was not answered; Philip was\nalready hastening up the narrow street toward his home. An hour later,\nhe returned. Anxiously he glanced toward the sun, now nearing the\nhorizon.\n\"Where are you going?\" asked the fisherman. Philip kept his back turned\nto the curious man. After he had launched the rowboat and was pulling\naway, he called out, \"Across the lake.\" He knew the man had asked only\nto find out if he would be back before the Sabbath started.\nNevertheless, Philip rowed hard for Capernaum; he was conscientious and\ndid not want to break the Sabbath if he could help it. The white walls\nand small domed houses of Capernaum were only a quarter of a mile away\nwhen Philip heard a sound that told him he had left Bethsaida too late.\nThe minister of the synagogue at Capernaum had blown his trumpet. Philip\ntwisted around and saw that the mellow note had come just as the red sun\nsank behind the hills west of the lake. There were two more long blasts.\nFrom this moment, the Sabbath rest began.\nThe minister laid the trumpet down on the flat roof of his house. No Jew\nworked after this signal. The women had already brought a full day's\nsupply of water into their houses and were forbidden to carry any more.\nFishermen were not supposed to clean nets or row. The market place was\nsilent, for no buying or selling was permitted. The minister did not\neven carry his trumpet into the house. He would wait until sunset on\nSaturday when the Sabbath ended and then he would put it away.\nHe lighted the great synagogue lamp. This was part of Sabbath worship\nand did not count as work. This shining light, hanging where Philip\ncould plainly see it as he drew his boat up on the beach in front of\nCapernaum, made him feel a little guilty. Hurriedly he stored the oars\nunder the seats and set out for the home of Simon, his friend in the\ncity.\nSimon's house was in a high part of Capernaum, set back against the\nhills. It was not a long walk for Philip through the streets that led up\nfrom the lake front. Leaving the street of hard-packed dirt, Philip went\nunder an arch into a square courtyard, open to the sky. The house was\nbuilt on four sides, and doors led from a narrow porch into the rooms.\nPhilip hesitated a moment and then knocked at one of the doors.\n\"Philip!\" Simon stood in the doorway, smiling at his friend. His broad\nshoulders and short neck made him seem burly. \"Come in, my friend!\"\nSimon called across the courtyard to his wife: \"Bring some food! Philip\nhas come.\"\nInside, oil lamps were lighted and Simon's children were playing on the\nfloor in a corner of the room. Philip was very fond of them. He ran his\nfingers through the hair of the oldest, a black-haired lad of seven. The\nchild gave him a friendly smile.\n\"What brings you to us on the Sabbath, Philip?\" inquired Simon, half\nteasing, half reproving.\n\"I did not leave the river mouth until about three o'clock,\" explained\nPhilip, a bit ashamed. \"I was very eager to come to Capernaum.\"\nSimon was immediately curious. \"What made you come?\"\n\"Everyone in Bethsaida is talking about the new Rabbi who is teaching\nhere,\" answered Philip. \"They say that he talks of a new kingdom.\"\nPhilip was a little surprised to see how intently Simon was listening to\nhis words, but he did not pause. \"I thought you could tell me more about\nhim. I hear that he comes from Nazareth. When did you first find out\nabout him?\"\n\"A couple of months ago John and Andrew went up to Jerusalem and when\nthey came back they told us they had met this man,\" answered Simon.\n\"They saw him baptized by John the Baptizer. The Prophet told them that\nJesus was going to be a mighty servant of God. We didn't take it very\nseriously though--you know how enthusiastic Andrew gets.\n\"We never realized what kind of person Jesus was until we saw him\nourselves,\" continued Simon. \"He isn't like an ordinary teacher. You\nfeel that he is so sure of himself and yet he is so humble.\" Simon was\ndeeply earnest. \"Everything he says goes right to your heart, Philip. I\ncan hardly understand what it is--there is some power in him!\" Simon's\nwife entered.\n\"Here is food for you,\" said Simon, as his wife set a bowl of boiled\nfish on the table. Hungry from his trip across the lake, Philip\ngratefully moved to the rough bench in front of the table and began to\neat.\nAfter a while he asked, \"Then you know this Rabbi well?\"\n\"Yes,\" answered Simon. \"He has been down on the lake shore every day\nthis week. I have been with him most of the time.\"\n\"Doesn't that take a good deal of time away from fishing?\" observed\nPhilip.\n\"Yes, some,\" replied Simon. \"We do some fishing early in the mornings.\nBut it is true that we don't do very much.\"\nPhilip was thoroughly puzzled by now. Simon had always been a hard\nworker. But Philip could not think of a way to ask why his friend had\nchanged. For a while Simon remained silent. Nervously his foot stirred\nthe palm fronds that covered the floor. \"You see, Philip,\" he finally\nsaid very hesitantly, \"I have really stopped fishing. I am now a\nfollower of Jesus.\"\nPhilip was dumfounded. \"You mean you aren't working with Andrew and\nJames and John any more?\"\n\"They have left Zebedee too,\" answered Simon.\n\"What in the world....\" blurted Philip. He stopped short. \"How are you\ngoing to feed your wife and children?\" he asked.\nSimon looked at Philip frankly. \"I do not know, Philip,\" he said, his\nvoice firm. \"But this one thing I am sure of: I cannot turn back from my\ndecision to go with Jesus wherever he goes. I believe in him and am\nwilling to do anything for him.\"\nPhilip knew there was no use protesting further. Simon had told him what\nhe intended to do. What could he say? Finally he asked, \"When can I hear\nyour Rabbi teach?\"\n\"He will be in the synagogue tomorrow,\" replied Simon. \"I am sure you\nwill understand why I feel this way,\" he added very earnestly.\nOn Sabbath morning the streets which Philip had found so silent the\nevening before were filled with people. From every part of Capernaum\nthey climbed to the place where the synagogue stood. It was on the\nhighest hill in the city, because no building was more important to the\npeople than their place of worship.\nSimon and Philip came hurrying with the crowd. At the door of the\nsynagogue they stopped to catch their breath and looked at the lake\nbelow them. The water lay still and smooth in the morning light, but no\none knew better than the fishermen how quickly a wind storm could sweep\ndown the ravines between the hills around the lake and whip up dangerous\nwaves.\n\"Where is the Rabbi?\" asked Philip.\n\"He is probably inside,\" answered Simon, turning to enter the synagogue.\nFrom behind a row of pillars they looked for Jesus among the men who\nfilled the room. In the middle of the room was a low platform with a\ndesk on it. Seats were arranged on all sides. Over their heads was a\nbalcony where the women sat. Simon pointed.\n\"There is Jesus down near the front,\" he whispered to Philip. \"We'll sit\nwith him.\" Philip noticed the tone of reverence in Simon's voice.\nA row of dignified men sat in front of a heavy curtain at the end of the\nroom. One of them came over to Jesus. Simon and Philip were too far away\nto hear what he whispered, but evidently he asked Jesus, as the visiting\nteacher, to take part in the service, because Jesus followed him and sat\ndown with the elders. The synagogue filled quickly. Philip thought that\nmany people must have heard about Jesus and come to Capernaum. Jesus\nwalked to the desk on the platform. Philip was impressed by his strong\nvoice repeating a prayer that was often used in the synagogue:\n    \"Blessed be Thou, O Lord, King of the world,\n    Who formest the light and createst the darkness,\n    Who in mercy givest light to the earth and to those who dwell upon it,\n    And in Thy goodness, day by day and every day, renewest the works of\n      creation.\n    Blessed be the Lord our God for the glory of His handiworks,\n    And for the light-giving lights which He has made for His praise.\nIn the second prayer, Jesus asked God to forgive and help the people.\n    \"With great love hast Thou loved us, O Lord our God,\n    And with much overflowing pity hast Thou pitied us,\n    Our Father and our King.\n    For the sake of our fathers who trusted in Thee,\n    And Thou taughtest them the statutes of life,\n    Have mercy upon us, and teach us.\n    Enlighten our eyes in Thy law;\n    Cause our hearts to cleave to Thy commandments:\n    Unite our hearts to love and fear Thy Name,\n    And we shall not be put to shame, world without end. Amen.\"\nThen all the congregation repeated their Creed in unison.\n    \"'Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one God....\n    Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart,\n    And with all thy soul,\n    And with all thy might.'\n    Remember all the commandments of the Lord and do them.\n    'I am the Lord your God, who brought you ... out of the land of Egypt'\n    To be your God. I am the Lord your God.\"\nPhilip leaned over and whispered to Simon, \"Do you think he will dare\nsay anything about founding a new kingdom?\"\n\"I have never heard him here before,\" answered Simon, \"but he will say\nwhat he thinks.\"\nAfter Jesus had repeated two prayers of thanksgiving, the minister of\nthe synagogue brought a heavy scroll to the desk. A man from the\ncongregation read some verses from Leviticus; then several other men\nread short passages.\nThe people stirred expectantly when Jesus stood up. Again Philip was\nimpressed by the clear and convincing manner of his speech. \"Listen to\nthe words of the Prophet Isaiah,\" Jesus said.\n\"The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has consecrated me to preach\nthe gospel to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release for captives\nand recovery of sight for the blind. He has sent me to set free the\noppressed and to proclaim the year of the Lord's blessing.\" Jesus\nrolled up the scroll. Every person in the synagogue waited to hear what\nhe would say.\n\"This very year,\" declared Jesus quietly but firmly, \"is the year that\nIsaiah is talking about. You do not have to wait any longer for God to\ncome to you. The words of Isaiah are true right now; God is here. The\nprophets tell you about a great day, but that day is not far in the\nfuture! God can be your King now! He can defeat every evil power. He\nwill rule you if only you will open your hearts to him.\"\nPhilip turned to Simon. He was disappointed. \"What can he mean by that?\"\nSimon did not answer. He was waiting attentively for Jesus to go on.\n\"You think you are oppressed and poor,\" continued Jesus. \"But I tell you\nthat you will never win freedom by fighting and by shedding blood. Only\nthe truth of God can make you free. Only his eternal treasures can make\nyou rich! It is useless to depend on earthly things: moths destroy\nclothing; rust destroys iron; thieves steal money. Fire will burn down\nbarns. Do not spend your lives getting things that pass away. Rather,\nstore up treasures in the Kingdom of God. Only God's Kingdom is truly\nreal. Only in his Kingdom are you truly free. Only his treasures make\nyou really rich!\"\n\"But how shall we get this Kingdom? That is what I want to know!\"\nwhispered Philip hoarsely to Simon.\n\"He will tell you,\" answered Simon.\n\"You spend all your time getting ready for a Kingdom that is far away,\"\ncried Jesus. \"You do not have to wait for God's Kingdom. God is here\nnow, working among you.\" His voice became stern. \"The trouble is that\nyou do not really believe in God at all. You do not wish to give\nyourselves to him. You always want to live for yourselves a little\nlonger. You are blind to the rule of God because you are stubborn and\nunwilling to obey his will.\n\"The prophets tell you what God wants you to do! Have you obeyed them?\nNo! Repent your sin! Give yourselves to God! On this very day you shall\nfind his Kingdom!\"\nThe people were looking at Jesus blankly. They had never heard anyone\nspeak like this before. But Philip was able to understand one thing: the\nKingdom of which Jesus had been speaking was very different from\nanything he had expected.\nBehind them Simon and Philip heard a man say, \"He doesn't speak as the\nscribes do!\" Scribes always read or recited from memory the comments\nwhich the great Rabbis had written on the Law and the Prophets.\nSuddenly there was a fearful scream in the rear of the building. A man\nhad jumped from his bench near the back of the synagogue and was rushing\ndown the aisle. Insanely he yelled: \"Ha! Jesus of Nazareth! What\nbusiness have you with me?\"\n\"Let me out of here!\" exclaimed a frightened man on the front benches.\n\"He has a demon!\" In his haste to get out of reach, the man tipped the\nbench over and it struck the stone floor with a bang.\n\"Have you come to destroy us?\" shrieked the madman. \"I know who you are!\nYou are the Holy One from God!\"\n\"Silence! Come out of him!\" In an instant, Jesus had taken complete\ncontrol of the man; as though all his strength suddenly melted away, he\ndropped to the floor and lay still. A single moan broke the tense\nsilence of the synagogue. He seemed to be dying. Jesus motioned to the\nelders and they brought a cup of water.\nIn a moment the man stood up. He was weak but in his right mind. Utter\namazement filled the people.\nThe elders were looking at one another, shaking their heads. \"There is\nno doubt about it. He is free!\" Others asked in wonder: \"Who can this\nRabbi be? He even has power over demons!\"\nPeople pressed toward the front of the room to stare at the man whom\nJesus had healed. After a while, they began to drift away, talking\nexcitedly. Philip did not push forward with the curious crowd but stood\nstaring at Jesus. Even after the people had all gone, he continued to\ngaze wonderingly at Jesus. He could hardly believe his eyes: The man who\nhad been so violent now sat quietly listening to Jesus.\nSimon came over to where Philip was standing. \"Do you now see how\npowerful his word is, Philip?\" he asked. \"Do you see why I follow him?\"\n\"Never in all my life have I known such a man,\" said Philip, almost\nspeaking to himself. He could not understand what was happening within\nhim. He did not feel excited; his mind was clear and cool--but Philip\nknew that some strange power was at work. Everything had somehow\nchanged. Jesus turned to him.\n\"Philip,\" asked the Master simply, \"will you follow me?\"\nJesus' words were like the turning of a key. Philip wanted to speak only\nwords of obedience: \"Master! I will go with you anywhere!\"\n[Illustration]\n4. GOD IS NOW KING!\nBefore nightfall, all Capernaum was talking about the Teacher from\nNazareth who had power to overcome demons. What strange person had\narrived in their midst? He had even dared to break the Sabbath law, for\nhealing on the day of rest was strictly forbidden. Some believed he was\nplanning to start a rebellion to set the nation free from Roman rule;\nbut to the sick and lame of Capernaum, the news meant just one thing:\nsomeone had come to help them.\nCurious eyes had seen Jesus leave the synagogue with Simon. No sooner\nhad the sun set, marking the end of the Sabbath, than hundreds of\ncrippled and diseased persons crowded to the street where Simon lived.\nJesus would not refuse them. In the cool twilight he taught and healed\nall who asked.\nAs it grew darker, the disciples began to marvel that the people kept\ncoming. They knew everyone was very superstitious and hardly anyone ever\nwent out at night for fear of evil spirits. But as the hours passed,\nSimon noticed many people who were not sick or crippled. They came for\nanother kind of help; they knew Jesus could give more than healing for\nthe body.\nIn the babble of voices Simon suddenly heard a man cry out sharply. The\npain in the man's voice cut into Simon's heart like a knife. Simon\nscanned the crowd, but in the darkness could not see him. No one moved\nto let him through.\nJesus looked toward the man. \"Do you cry out to me?\" he asked, raising\nhis voice above the noisy crowd around him. \"Come and I will help you.\"\nUnwillingly, the people made way and the man crawled toward Jesus.\nSomething was wrong with his legs. A hush settled over the crowd when\nJesus spoke. \"Your greatest need is not to be free from pain--it is to\nbe rid of sin. Repent and turn back to God. Believe my word and you\nshall enter the Kingdom of God!\" Jesus stooped and laid his hand on the\nman lying before him.\n\"O Father,\" he prayed, \"heal this man of his suffering, in order that he\nmay know thy truth and enter thy Kingdom.\" Jesus straightened up and\nheld out his arms to all the people. \"Come to me, all of you who labor\nand are heavy-laden, and I will give you rest!\"\nThe disciples felt the power of their Master as they heard him call on\nthe people to repent. They had never known anyone like him; they had\nnever heard a message like his. Again and again they heard Jesus say:\n\"Do you understand why you have been healed? This is a sign that the\npower of God has come among you.\"\nIt was after midnight when the last person left. Jesus was very tired.\nHe looked at the black sky. There was no moon. The stars shed a faint\nlight on the hills above Capernaum. Jesus turned to Simon. \"It is time\nto rest.\" He went into the house.\n\"The people had no fear of evil night spirits,\" remarked James.\n\"They know he has power over them,\" commented Simon.\nIn the morning, long before dawn, Jesus rose in order to pray outside\nthe city. A few yards from Simon's home the street dwindled to a path,\nand Jesus had to push through the stiff, dry grass which grew knee-high\nall over the hillside. As he climbed, he walked around large rocks. When\nhe reached the crest of the hill, Jesus stood for a long while gazing\ndown at Capernaum, barely visible in the starlight. There was a little\nbreeze from the east. It smelled of both lake and desert.\nThe memory of the sick and lame people filled Jesus with sorrow. Some of\nthese people really thought that everything would be all right if their\nbodies could be healed! What a terrible mistake! Had they understood\nwhat he had told them?\nWould they realize that they were thinking only of themselves? Perhaps\ntheir lives were too cluttered with little hopes and ambitions to see\nthe will of God. How dearly they loved worthless things! Jesus found a\nhollow where the bushes sheltered him from the wind and knelt to pray.\nDawn was turning the gray sky to blue when Simon was aroused from sleep\nby the noise of a crowd outside his house. He dressed hastily.\n\"Where is the Healer?\" shouted the people. Simon waved his hand for\nsilence.\n\"He is not here.\" His words were instantly drowned by a hundred voices.\n\"Where is he?\" everyone demanded at once.\n\"I don't know where he is,\" answered Simon.\n\"Will he be back? Where did he go?\"\nSimon knew he would never succeed in sending them away. Andrew came out\nof the house.\n\"Do you think we could find him?\" asked Simon.\n\"We can try,\" answered Andrew, smiling wryly. Without explaining their\nplan to the people, they set out toward the hills. Some of the people\ntried to follow, but Simon gruffly sent them back.\nThe two men followed a faint path toward the top of the hill. For about\na mile they walked, searching the slopes on both sides of them. \"We may\nnot find him at all,\" remarked Simon. At that moment Andrew caught sight\nof a patch of white ahead of them.\n\"Is he up there?\"\nSimon began to run. Jesus was kneeling in prayer. Andrew had seen a\ncorner of his woolen robe against the dark bushes.\n\"Rabbi!\" panted Simon. \"Everyone is looking for you!\"\nHe had interrupted Jesus' prayer, but Jesus was not offended. \"I am not\ngoing back to Capernaum.\"\n\"But, Rabbi,\" protested Simon, \"hundreds of people need you. They are in\npain. What will they do without you?\"\n\"I must go to the other villages of Galilee and preach the news of the\nKingdom there too,\" replied Jesus.\n\"But, Master, your word is the only help these people have ever had.\" He\nrealized that Jesus had fully made up his mind to go. \"Think of the\nblind and the crippled!\" he cried desperately. \"What will become of\nthem?\"\nJesus answered with firm conviction. \"Simon, they have heard the news\nthat God has come to them. I have a greater work than healing the sick\nbodies--my work is to proclaim to everyone the message which gives them\na whole new life! This is why God has sent me! I must go on to the\ncities of Galilee!\"\nSimon and Andrew knew they could not change their Rabbi's mind, so at\nhis command they returned to Capernaum and prepared for a trip through\nGalilee. At noon the disciples left Capernaum, carrying only a small\namount of food, and met Jesus outside the city. Jesus knew it was hard\nfor Simon to leave his wife and children.\nBy late afternoon they had reached Tarichaea, a town smaller than\nCapernaum, about six miles south on the shore of the Lake of Galilee.\nHere lived many rich men who owned the fertile farms on which all\nGalilee depended for wheat. There was also a large fish business,\nbecause in Tarichaea fish were salted and sold to men who came to buy\nfood for the Roman army.\nThe market place was busy when Jesus arrived with the disciples, and a\ngroup of people quickly gathered to hear him teach. A young man in fine\nclothing joined the circle around Jesus. The disciples immediately\nrecognized that he was a member of the party of the Pharisees because he\nwore large tassels on his robe. During a pause in the discussion he\nasked a question which Simon thought must have been troubling him for\nsome time.\n\"Good Teacher,\" he asked, \"you have told these others how to enter the\nKingdom of God. Now what must I do to inherit eternal life?\"\nJesus looked at the young man keenly. \"Why do you call me 'good'?\" he\nasked. \"Only God is good.\" Then his tone softened. \"You know the\ncommandments--do not commit adultery; do not kill; do not steal; do not\nspeak lies--if you obey the law of God you possess eternal life.\"\nThe disciples looked at the young man with the greatest respect. Here\nwas a really religious man! A Pharisee who kept all the Law--what more\ncould God require? And he was rich. Did that not prove he had pleased\nGod?\n\"But, Teacher,\" replied the young man, \"I have obeyed every one of these\nlaws perfectly since I was a child. But somehow ... it is not enough. I\nam not satisfied.\"\nJohn was puzzled. _This man should be happy_, he thought. _I was just a\npoor fisherman, but this man seems to have everything._ The other\ndisciples also wondered what Jesus could say to the young man.\n\"You lack just one thing,\" said Jesus. \"You must get rid of all your\npossessions. Sell your property. Go and give your money to the poor.\nCome and be my disciple.\"\nShock and disappointment came over the young man's face. \"I can't do a\nthing like that!\" he exclaimed. \"Why should I give my money away?\"\n\"You must sell all that you have and give to the poor,\" insisted Jesus.\n\"If you want eternal life, you must put God first. If you go on clinging\nto the things you own, no matter how little you may keep back, you will\nnever find the Kingdom of God.\"\n\"But God gave me my money,\" protested the young Pharisee. \"Is he not the\none who gives all good things? Why should you ask me to get rid of\nthings he himself has given me?\" The disciples felt that his argument\nwas logical. \"I have kept every detail of the religious rules,\"\ncontinued the young man. \"I even keep two fasts instead of one! I never\nbreak the Sabbath. Don't you think I have earned eternal life?\"\nJesus answered simply; he did not argue. \"Any man who wishes to enter\nthe Kingdom must seek the will of God above every other goal. Where a\nman's treasure is, there is his heart also. You have not given yourself\nto Him. You trust in your possessions and in your good deeds.\"\n_This is unreasonable!_ thought the young man. He turned and left. Yet\nthe longing to be sure he had pleased God was strong still. \"That is no\nsolution!\" he insisted, arguing within himself. \"God cannot ask me to\ngive up things he has given me. People turn from sins--not from their\ngood deeds!\" But he could not forget Jesus' demand: \"Repent! You love\nyour own riches more than you love God. Repent!\"\nJesus looked sorrowfully after the young man. \"How difficult it is for a\nrich man to enter the Kingdom!\" he exclaimed regretfully. \"It is easier\nfor a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to\ngive himself to God!\"\nThe disciples listened astonished. Finally Simon blurted out: \"But,\nMaster, if he cannot be saved, who can? He is a good man!\"\nJesus answered with the deepest feeling: \"Simon, with man it is\nimpossible. But with God--all things are possible!\"\n\"Well,\" said Simon, \"if giving up things is the answer, we ought to have\neternal life. We have given up everything!\" There was bitterness in his\nvoice, and everyone knew he was thinking of his children in Capernaum.\nJesus felt great sympathy for Simon, and his answer was very gentle.\n\"Yes, Simon, you have given up much. But you need not fear--a man who\ngives up his home and his property for my sake will never be sorry. He\nwill receive back a hundred times over the eternal gifts which God gives\nthose who love him. Many who now are rich will be the last in God's\nKingdom; but those who are poor for my sake will be the very first in\nhis Kingdom!\"\nThat night the disciples stayed in Tarichaea. They did not argue any\nmore about what Jesus had told the rich Pharisee, but they were more\ntroubled by these words than by anything else Jesus had said. His\nteachings seemed against everything they had ever learned!\nThe next day, as the band of men walked with Jesus toward Nazareth,\nSimon brought up the question. \"Teacher,\" he said earnestly, \"I don't\nunderstand why you talked to that young Pharisee as you did. He was\nvery sincere. The Pharisees do more to obey God than any others and this\nyoung man looked to me as though he tried even harder than most. God had\neven given him riches as a reward for his goodness! And yet you said he\nhad to get rid of all his wealth in order to enter the Kingdom of\nHeaven!\" Simon could hardly find words to express his strong feelings.\n\"I needed to repent, but why should he? He was already a good man!\"\nJames summed up the thoughts of them all: \"Rabbi, if a man as good as\nthat can't enter the Kingdom, how can anyone?\"\nJesus said: \"Simon, I want to tell you a story. Two men went up to the\nTemple to pray. One was a Pharisee--like the young man we talked with\nyesterday. The other was a tax collector, who had been dishonest.\n\"The Pharisee stood by himself, a distance away from the ordinary folk\nwho went in and out of the Temple, and prayed this way: 'God, I thank\nthee that I am not like other men--thieves, rogues, and immoral--like\nthat taxgatherer over there. You know I am a good man. I fast twice a\nweek and pay tithes of all my money.'\n\"But the taxgatherer,\" continued Jesus, \"went off in a corner where he\ncould hide from people. He wouldn't even lift up his eyes as he prayed.\nRather, he hung his head and beat his breast in the deepest shame and\nsaid, 'God, be merciful to me, a sinner!'\"\nThe disciples did not seem to understand, so Jesus said: \"The\ntaxgatherer left the Temple accepted by God. But not the Pharisee! He\ntrusted in his own goodness rather than in God. If he had been humble,\nlike the taxgatherer, God could have forgiven him.\"\n\"But I don't see what that has to do with the young Pharisee,\" protested\nJames. \"He was not dishonest! Why should he be ashamed?\"\n\"This young ruler was like the Pharisee in the Temple,\" replied Jesus.\n\"He was so confident of his own goodness that he could not see how far\nhe was from what God wants him to be.\"\n\"But, Master,\" urged Simon, \"look at the things that the Pharisees do!\nThey educate our children in religion in the synagogue schools. They\nnever have anything to do with the Sadducees or priests who take money\nfrom the Romans. They study the Scriptures more than anyone else; don't\nthese things count for anything?\"\n\"Men may do all these things and yet have no real faith in God,\"\nanswered Jesus. \"The Kingdom of Heaven comes to men who love God above\neverything else. There was something that meant more to that young man\nyesterday than God--and that was his money. Other men depend on other\nthings; whatever they are, they must get rid of them. Even the most\nupright Pharisee must forget his pride in goodness and trust God as\nsimply as a little child.\"\nJohn shook his head doubtfully. \"The people will never understand that,\"\nhe said. \"Even though the Pharisees are often very snobbish, they are\nthe best people in our nation.\"\nJesus suddenly became grim. \"The whole religion of the Pharisees sets\nthem against the Kingdom of Heaven!\"\nThe men looked at him in surprise. \"But Master,\" urged James, \"we need\nthem to help us set up the new Kingdom! They are more loyal to God than\nanyone else. Besides, we can do nothing without their friendship.\"\n\"I know them, James,\" answered Jesus. \"Men who are sure of themselves\nwill never welcome what we have to tell them!\"\nJohn shook his head but said no more. This was not his idea of the way\nthe Kingdom would come. The disciples felt sure Jesus could not mean all\nhe said. But two days later they realized they were wrong. Jesus had\nmeant every word.\nAfter a short trip through lower Galilee, the men arrived in Nazareth\nwhere Jesus had lived until a few months before. His mother and brothers\nwere still there, but Jesus stayed outside the town until Sabbath\nmorning and then went with them to the synagogue.\nThe rumors of Jesus' miracles had spread through all Galilee, and when\nJesus entered the synagogue many people looked at him curiously. He saw\nmany people he knew. There was the woman who had lived next to them for\ntwenty years and who was a special friend of his mother's; there were\nseveral young men whom he knew well. He smiled across the congregation\nat one young man who had helped him in the carpenter shop after his\nfather Joseph had died, when Jesus was forced to support the family.\nThe minister of the synagogue, an old friend of Jesus', invited him to\nlead the service. After the prayers, he sat down at the desk in the\ncenter of the synagogue and opened the scroll to the Prophet Isaiah.\nLooking into the faces of many people who had known him from boyhood,\nJesus knew it would not be easy to tell them about the Kingdom. He read\nthe same passage he had read in Capernaum: \"The Spirit of the Lord is\nupon me, for he has consecrated me to preach the gospel to the poor. He\nhas sent me to proclaim release for captives and recovery of sight for\nthe blind. He has sent me to set free the oppressed and to proclaim the\nyear of the Lord's blessing.\"\nJesus rolled up the scroll. Everyone waited for him to speak. \"Today,\"\nhe declared, \"these words of the Prophet Isaiah have come true right\nhere. God has sent his Holy Spirit upon me to tell you that he is now\namong you. If you truly know that you need God, your ears will be open\nto hear this word from him; but if you are proud, you will be deaf. Put\nyour entire trust in God and seek his will! I declare to you that God's\nKingdom is not far in the future; God has brought it to your door!\"\nHe paused and looked from person to person. \"Who would have thought\nJoseph's son would turn out so well?\" whispered one of the elders to a\nneighbor.\n\"He does speak with ease,\" replied his friend, a grudging note in his\nvoice.\n\"If we could see him do a miracle, we should know for sure whether he is\nall he claims,\" said the elder.\nFrom the very first, Jesus had known that the people of Nazareth would\nfind it hard to believe in him. Looking at the elders, he said: \"No\ndoubt you are ready to say to me, 'Do for us here in your own home town\nthe things you have been doing in Capernaum.' But prophets are never\naccepted by the people of their own country. There were many Jewish\nwidows who needed Elijah's help when the great famine came over all\nIsrael, but God did not send him to any of them--they would not believe\nin him. He sent him to a widow in Sidon, a gentile!\n\"Elisha could have found many Jewish lepers who needed to be healed, but\nnot one of them was made clean. They would not believe in him! Rather,\nhe healed Naaman, a Syrian and a gentile!\"\nA deathly silence settled over the synagogue. They were not as good as\ngentiles! Gentiles, who were unclean outsiders! A carpenter's son\ntelling them that God would pass them by for gentiles! The men began to\nmurmur angrily. Jesus' voice rang out: \"How can I do great deeds among\nyou when you do not really believe God at all?\"\nOpen anger swept through the synagogue. \"How dare he talk like this to\nus?\" demanded one man, leaping to his feet. All over the room men began\nto crowd toward the front where Jesus stood.\n\"Let us have order here!\" The minister could hardly make his voice\nheard. A group of men rushed toward Jesus, who did not even step back.\n\"Over the cliff with him!\" shouted someone. In a moment they were\nshoving and hustling Jesus toward the door, yelling, \"Over the cliff\nwith him!\"\nCarrying Jesus with them, the crowd moved swiftly toward a place outside\nthe town where the hill dropped straight down. Then a peculiar thing\nhappened. The men seemed suddenly to realize what they were doing. This\nwas Mary's son! The son of Joseph, the carpenter who for many years had\nmade yokes for their oxen.\nWrath seemed to melt away. The men let go of Jesus' robe. They seemed\nalmost afraid of him. None laid a hand on him as he walked through the\nmob which only a moment before had wanted to kill him.\nAn instant after Jesus was gone, anger again came over the men like the\nbackwash from an ocean wave. Some shook their fists in the direction\nJesus had gone, but not one had the courage to follow.\nThe disciples did not attempt to follow Jesus. They were glad that no\none in the town knew them, and they wasted no time in leaving. They all\nrealized that men who were afraid of Jesus might take out their anger on\nhis followers. It was late that night before the disciples found one\nanother and started to hunt for their Master.\nJesus had left the city and climbed to a high ridge where he had loved\nto go as a boy. Now he looked down on the broad valley of Esdraelon,\nstretching south to the foothills of Samaria, where so many of the great\nbattles of ancient Israel had been fought. Had he not always felt that\nsomeday he would be rejected by his own home town?\nNevertheless, Jesus was not scorned by everyone in Nazareth. A few\npeople remembered the place he loved and they came to him there. They\nwere not rich people, and there were no elders from the synagogue among\nthem. They were the sick and crippled; they were people for whom life\nwas hard, and they believed the word which Jesus had spoken to them. The\ndisciples found him teaching and healing these few.\n\"These have heard my word,\" said Jesus to the followers. \"To them the\nKingdom is given.\" The disciples listened to Jesus telling the poorest\nfolk of Nazareth the news of the Kingdom. When they left, Jesus spoke\nvery plainly to the disciples.\n\"Why are you so discouraged?\" he asked. \"Have we not preached the gospel\nof the Kingdom here?\"\n\"They turned us out!\" burst out James. \"They laughed at us! They tried\nto kill you!\"\nSimon was bitter. \"We should never come near this miserable village\nagain. We might have been killed!\"\n\"If men are to enter the Kingdom of God, they must repent,\" answered\nJesus. \"It cuts them to the heart to confess that they have forgotten\nGod and his righteousness. They hate us for teaching them the truth\nabout themselves.\"\nThe disciples sat in gloomy silence. Simon gazed out over the plains\nbelow. Here through many defeats in battle the Jews had paid the price\nof their sin--but Israel had not yet learned. Still the nation spurned\nthe prophets whom God sent. Would the Kingdom never come?\n[Illustration]\n5. WHO IS THIS CARPENTER?\nAfter their harsh experience at Nazareth, the disciples were prepared\nfor other disappointments. Before they entered the next town on their\njourney through Galilee the men talked soberly, a little fearfully,\nabout what might happen. But, one after another, the villages of Galilee\nwelcomed Jesus. The common people listened eagerly to the news that he\nproclaimed, and many believed. The disciples began to forget that Jesus\nhad been driven out of Nazareth.\nLate one Friday afternoon just before the Sabbath began, Jesus led the\ndisciples into Chorazin, a town crowded in by the steep walls of a\nvalley north of Capernaum. A full hour before sunset the hills to the\nwest threw deep shadows over the village. It was cooler than Capernaum,\nthought Simon. Soon he would be home with his wife and children! But he\nwas as glad as the others to rest in Chorazin over the Sabbath. They had\ntraveled all week, pausing only to tell the good news in the towns they\nhad passed through, and they were very tired.\nThe men rose the next morning greatly refreshed, ready to worship at the\nsynagogue. They were sure Jesus would be asked to teach. Most of the\ndisciples expected the people to receive Jesus gladly, but Simon could\nnot forget the last time they had been in a synagogue--at Nazareth. It\nwas in the market places and on the streets, Simon remembered, not in\nthe synagogues, that Jesus had been most gladly welcomed.\nAs soon as they entered the synagogue, Simon decided that the whole town\nmust have seen them arrive the night before; everyone was expecting\nthem. Invited by the minister of the synagogue, Jesus took his place\nbehind the desk on the low platform in the center of the room, and read\nfrom the Prophets. Then he told the people very plainly that God was\namong them in great power; that they must immediately give up everything\nthat kept them from understanding God's purpose and devote their lives\nto him. Both the people and the elders listened closely, and Simon was\nnot surprised when many people gathered around Jesus as soon as the\nservice was over. The minister and the elders asked many serious\nquestions, and Simon saw that they were very sincere. The things Jesus\nhad said disturbed them deeply. No one noticed a very short woman\nquietly walking up behind the men who surrounded Jesus.\nWhen at last there were no more questions, Jesus turned to go. The men\nstepped back. For the first time, Jesus saw the woman. Shyly she moved\naway. Instantly he realized why she had come. Her back was terribly\nbent.\n\"Do not be afraid,\" he said to her encouragingly; \"come here!\" She\nhesitated.\n_Does he realize that this is the Sabbath?_ Simon thought in alarm.\nAs though he were alone with the woman, Jesus laid his hand on her\ntwisted back and raised his eyes in prayer: \"Father, I thank thee that\nthou hearest me when I pray. Set this woman free, I beseech thee, from\nthe deformity which has bent her body these many years. This I ask in\norder that she may know that thou hast sent me with thy message of\nlife.\" While Jesus was praying, Simon glanced at the elders of the\nsynagogue.\nThey were utterly amazed at what Jesus was doing. _Doesn't this Nazarene\nknow this is the Sabbath?_ wondered the minister.\nJesus had finished. He said, \"You are freed from your infirmity.\" She\nstood up straight. \"May God be praised!\" she exclaimed. There were tears\nof joy in her eyes.\n\"God's blessing on you. Rabbi!\" The woman's friends had been watching\nfrom the balcony and now they ran down to the main floor of the\nsynagogue and gathered around her.\nAmazed and outraged, the minister looked from the woman to Jesus and\nback again. Angrily he turned to the people. \"The Law says there are six\ndays in each week for work. That means there are six days for getting\nhealed. What more do you need? Why do you come on the Sabbath?\"\nSimon glanced at Jesus and almost shivered. Jesus had seen the distress\nand embarrassment of the woman. \"You hypocrite!\" The man cringed. He had\nnot imagined Jesus would dare speak to him like this. \"Do you scold this\nwoman for coming to be healed on the Sabbath? Every single one of you\nwill lead your ox to water as soon as you get home. If that isn't work,\nwhat is?\" His scorn bit into the elders like a whiplash. \"You say the\nLaw allows you to give your cattle water. Hasn't this woman the right to\nbe healed? For eighteen years her body has been twisted. She is a child\nof Abraham! Isn't she more important than any animal?\" Jesus looked\nright through the men. They felt like fish wriggling on a spear.\nThe friends of the woman stole triumphant glances at the elders. Simon\nknew Jesus was getting into trouble, but it made no difference: his\nMaster was right!\nWithout another word, Jesus strode out of the synagogue. The people left\nin the room felt suddenly cold, and all but the elders hastened away to\ntheir homes.\nHardly wishing to look at one another, the elders sighed and sat down.\nIt was not just that they were angry. They were baffled by what Jesus\nhad said. Their respect for the Sabbath rule was sincere; they believed\nit was the most important regulation in the entire Jewish Law. No one\nwho disobeyed it, they were certain, could possibly love God. \"Never in\nmy life have I seen such a fanatic!\" exclaimed the minister finally.\n\"He is dangerous,\" agreed another. \"What will happen to our religion if\nthe people begin to think that they don't need to keep the Sabbath?\"\n\"We must tell the people how serious a matter this is,\" said the\nminister. \"I am going down to Capernaum tomorrow. I will stop and talk\nto our friend Symeon. He may know about this Jesus. Perhaps he can tell\nus what we ought to do.\"\nAt the inn where they were staying, the disciples were gloomy and\nsilent. They were worried about the dispute with the elders; but they\nwere troubled also about the thing Jesus had done that morning. Jesus\nknew that he had perplexed them, and he was not surprised when the next\nday, on the road down to Capernaum, Simon spoke up.\n\"Master, we would like to ask a question,\" said Simon. The others\ngathered closely around. \"Moses told us at Mount Sinai, 'Remember the\nsabbath day, to keep it holy.' He told us never to work on the Sabbath.\nYet, Rabbi, you healed the woman on the Sabbath. We _do_ believe she is\nmore important than any animal--but still. Rabbi, you did break the\nSabbath rule! Do you want the Sabbath forgotten? Do you intend to cast\nout all the laws and rules?\" Simon's tense voice told Jesus he was\ndeeply disturbed. The other disciples looked at Jesus gravely.\n\"I have not come to destroy the Law,\" he answered. \"Rather, I am showing\nyou what it really means to obey the Law.\"\n\"But you did heal the hunchbacked woman on the Sabbath, didn't you?\"\npersisted Simon.\n\"Unless you obey the Law better than these men who make the Sabbath so\nimportant, you can never enter the Kingdom of Heaven,\" replied Jesus.\n\"We don't think they are right. Master,\" explained Simon. \"We think that\nthe woman was more important than the animals, which they feed and water\non the Sabbath. But....\" Jesus knew Simon was not satisfied.\n\"Even though the Pharisees are very careful about little things,\" said\nJesus, \"that does not mean that they know what God asks of them. They\nobey the Sabbath rule--but inwardly they have forgotten justice and\nmercy. They all know that it is wrong to kill another Jew. But much more\nis required than that: if you even hold a grudge against another person,\nyou have no right to pray to God. The Pharisees give much attention to\nsmall rules and forget the important things.\"\n\"This seems so new,\" said Simon. \"I don't understand very well.\"\n\"I have only told you what Moses and the Prophets taught,\" replied\nJesus. \"The meaning of their words has been forgotten, even though the\nPharisees talk about them a great deal.\"\n\"But don't you think we are likely to get into trouble if we speak out\nlike this in public?\" urged Andrew. \"We can teach the people, but I\ndon't think we need to be so harsh with the Pharisees and the elders of\nthe synagogues. We ought to be careful. The Pharisees are really good\npeople and we must not offend them. How can we preach the good news to\nthe people if we do? When we go to the synagogues, I think it is much\nsafer to keep quiet.\"\nJesus watched the men listening to Andrew and knew why they agreed. He\nknew the inward emptiness of fear--fear of a future they could not know.\nAndrew was right; their peril was increasing every day. But Jesus shook\nhis head. \"My followers,\" he said, \"do not think that I was sent to\nbring peace to this nation. I came to bring strife. It cannot be any\nother way. Men enter the Kingdom of God only through conflict and pain.\"\nWhen the disciples arrived in Capernaum on the day after the Sabbath,\nthey heard a report that dismayed them: John the Baptizer had been\nthrown into prison by King Herod. They found out about it through one of\nhis followers who had come to Capernaum to find Jesus and was waiting\nfor them at Simon's home. The man's name was Jacob. Andrew and John\nremembered him as one of the Baptizer's most loyal disciples.\n\"What made the king do it?\" asked Andrew.\n\"John told the king he was doing wrong in the sight of God,\" replied\nJacob.\n_John is no bolder than Jesus_, thought Andrew.\nJacob added, \"John himself told us just before he was taken prisoner\nthat we should come to you.\"\nAndrew turned to Jesus. \"What will Herod do to him?\"\n\"There is no way to tell. We must be prepared to hear the worst.\"\n\"Why did John send you to us?\" Simon asked Jacob.\n\"Some of us went to him and told him that more people were following\nyour Master than were following him,\" answered the man. \"He just said to\nus: 'Didn't I tell you that I am not the Christ? I am glad that Jesus\nhas many followers. He must grow even stronger, and I must decrease.'\nWhen he was thrown into prison, I came to you.\"\nAndrew looked at Jesus and spoke the thought in the minds of them all:\n\"If we go on proclaiming the gospel, the same thing may happen to us.\"\nJesus' answer was firm: \"Nothing must stand in our way. We speak for\nGod.\"\nNever before had the men felt the strength of Jesus as they did now.\nThere was not a trace of fear in his actions. He knew that their danger\nwas increasing every day! And he acted with such authority! Everything\nhe said or did proved that he knew what he was about. It was his\ncertainty that convinced the people!\nAn event occurred on the second day of their return to Capernaum which\nshowed the disciples that they might soon share the fate of John the\nBaptizer. It did not take many hours for the report to spread through\nall Capernaum that Jesus was back in the city. From every corner of the\ntown came those needing help--not only the sick and lame, but people of\nall kinds who were restless and dissatisfied. So many people crowded\ninto the courtyard of Simon's home that Jesus decided to stand in the\ndoorway of his room where he could see them all. The porch roof shaded\nhim. He was about to raise his hand to quiet the people when Andrew\nhurried to him.\n\"Master,\" he whispered excitedly, \"there are Pharisees and their scribes\noutside.\"\n\"Well, bring them in.\"\nAndrew was amazed. \"But, Master, some of them are from Jerusalem!\"\nJesus knew what that meant. Over the crowd he caught Simon's eye. The\nfisherman was worried. _From Jerusalem!_ Simon was thinking. _They have\ncome to see if what we are teaching is against the Law of Moses._\nJesus realized that news of his preaching must have traveled to\nJerusalem. He knew that officials of the Pharisees would come to hear\nhim personally. He expected no friendliness from them; but he was ready.\nHe glanced behind him. \"There is room for them there. Bring them in.\"\nAndrew looked anxiously at Jesus. \"O Master, don't....\"\nJesus looked at him. \"Courage, Andrew! Make certain that they see and\nhear everything that happens.\"\nPeople stepped back respectfully as the scribes and Pharisees came in.\nJesus paid no special attention. He had turned to the people who stood\nbefore him.\n\"I have been sent by God with news,\" he began. \"If you are poor, you can\nbe rich if you will humble your heart and trust God.\"\nHe saw a man covered with sores. \"Are you unclean?\" he said, looking at\nhim. \"God will accept you. You are clean in his sight if your heart is\nturned toward him.\n\"Are you full of fears and worries? Come unto me, all of you that are\nburdened in spirit, and I will give you rest.\"\nThere were many outside the house who could not get in because there was\nno room. Among them were four men carrying a stretcher. On it lay a man\nwho was helpless from paralysis. His body had wasted away to skin and\nbone. His four friends had heard about Jesus' power, but now they stood\nin front of the house in dismay.\n\"We can never get in,\" said one.\n\"There's no use waiting until they leave,\" said another.\n\"Let's take him back,\" said the first, discouraged.\n\"No indeed!\" The others were determined. \"I am sure he will be healed\nif we can just find some way to get through,\" said one of them.\nThe fourth man was gazing at a staircase that led up to the roof of the\nhouse next to Simon's home.\n\"Look! Why can't we get in that way?\"\nIn a moment the men had climbed the stairs and stepped across the narrow\nspace that separated them from the roof of Simon's house. On the porch\nunder them, they could hear Jesus talking. It took about fifteen minutes\nto lift the tile from the porch roof, tie ropes to the stretcher, and\nlower the man toward Jesus.\nEverybody stared as the paralyzed man slowly came to rest at the feet of\nJesus.\n\"My son!\" Jesus' voice could be clearly heard in the hush of the\ncourtyard. \"Your sins are forgiven.\"\nThe statement took everyone by surprise. Andrew saw a scribe whisper to\na friend.\n\"Did you hear what he said?\" remarked the scribe whom Andrew was\nwatching. His friend nodded.\nA woman who knew the sick man said: \"Is this man paralyzed because he\nsinned? He was born this way, wasn't he?\"\n\"He has been a very good man,\" answered her husband.\nJesus turned to the scribes and Pharisees. \"Why are you wondering about\nwhat I said? Tell me which is easier, to say to this man, 'Your sins are\nforgiven,' or to say, 'Rise, take up your pallet and walk'?\"\nNone tried to speak. Then Jesus said, \"'But that you may know that the\nSon of man has authority on earth to forgive sins'\"--he turned to the\nsick man--\"Get up! Pick up your bed and carry it away!\"\nStrength surged into the wasted frame of the paralytic. He rose and did\nas Jesus told him. A whisper ran over the crowd.\nThe Pharisees and scribes sat silent. Watching them carefully, Simon saw\nthat they were puzzled. An elderly man, who appeared to be a leader,\nwhispered to a friend, \"He actually claims to forgive sin! God alone can\ndo that.\"\nThe Pharisees and scribes rose to leave. They walked through the crowd\nwithout looking at the people. When they were outside, the elderly\nleader shook his head very gravely. \"I had hoped this man would be a\nfriend of the Law, but I am afraid he is not. 'Your sins are forgiven!'\nWhat a blasphemous thing for a man to dare to say!\"\n[Illustration]\n6. THE OLD AND THE NEW\n\"Rabbi, it is a serious mistake for us to mix with outcasts!\" Simon was\ndisturbed. Jesus had summoned a tax collector named Levi to follow him.\nOn this night the tax collector had asked Jesus and his disciples to\ncome to his home for dinner. \"I know that Levi is different now,\"\nprotested Simon, \"but we ought not to get mixed up with his old cronies.\nWe should take him away from that class of people!\"\nJesus came straight to the point. \"Don't you want to eat at Levi's home\nat all?\"\n\"No!\" Simon answered bluntly. \"After all, look who he is! A taxgatherer!\nA traitor to our nation! For my part, I want nothing to do with him.\"\nSimon realized that his tone was not respectful. \"I am thinking of our\nwork, Master. People will not listen to us if we eat with those men. The\nbest people will look down on us!\"\n\"Levi has sinned,\" answered Jesus. \"That is why we called him to join\nus. His friends have sinned. We are going to eat with them because they\nneed help. And do not forget, Simon, you will be judged by the same\nmeasuring stick that you use on Levi's friends.\"\n\"I am far from perfect. Rabbi,\" persisted Simon, \"but I try to obey the\nLaw.\" His tone became bitter. \"Anyway, I never worked for King Herod! I\ncannot stand the idea of sitting down at the same table with tax\ncollectors. It might as well be a gang of robbers!\"\n\"Simon,\" said Jesus sternly, \"before you start looking for the sliver in\nLevi's eye you had better dig the tree trunk out of your own.\" Strongly\nrebuked, Simon consented to eat with Levi and his friends, but he was\nvery unwilling.\nThe next day two close friends of Symeon, the most respected citizen of\nCapernaum, stopped to visit him. The report of what Jesus had done came\nup.\n\"What I cannot understand,\" remarked Symeon, a dignified man of about\nsixty, \"is how a man who wants to teach religion can actually associate\nwith such people.\"\n\"For that matter,\" replied one of his friends, \"look at the men who\nfollow him. They are very common people--fishermen, this tax collector,\nand such like--not a Pharisee among them. Not one of them takes religion\nseriously.\"\n\"And yet I have heard this Nazarene myself,\" continued Symeon. \"He says\nmany things that show he knows the Law very well. He knows he should not\neat with people like that Levi!\"\n\"Did you hear about the healing at the fisherman's house the other day?\"\ninquired the younger of the two visiting Pharisees. \"Some men put a\nparalytic in front of the Nazarene while he was teaching. The first\nthing he said was, 'Your sins are forgiven.'\" The others nodded.\n\"The puzzling thing is that this young teacher seems very sincere,\" said\nSymeon. \"He really knows a great deal--and no one can deny that he has\ngreat power. The people go out to hear him everywhere. I want to find\nout his purpose. I have a suggestion that may help us see what he is\ntrying to do.\" The other men looked up. \"You may think this is going a\nlittle too far, but I should like to ask him to come to my house.\"\n\"But he is not a keeper of the Law!\" protested the young Pharisee. \"We\nshould be as bad as he is, if we were to eat with him.\"\nSymeon nodded. \"I realize that it will not be easy for you, but I think\nwe should do it. If there is something good in this Nazarene, we should\nknow it. If he is up to mischief.... Anyhow, I don't see how we can\nunderstand him unless we talk to him.\" The others said nothing, and\nSymeon took their silence for consent. \"Of course,\" he added, \"we will\nnot invite the others--the fishermen and that tax collector. That would\nbe too much! But I think it would be all right to have the Nazarene here\njust once.\"\nWhen Jesus told the disciples that he was going to the home of Symeon,\nAndrew was pleased. \"I guess we have not offended the Pharisees too\nbadly after all,\" he exclaimed enthusiastically.\nSimon too was relieved. \"I hope. Master,\" he said, \"that you will\nexplain why we ate with Levi.\"\nJesus said very little. It was natural for fishermen and workers to want\nthe approval of the most respected citizens of Capernaum. Yet Jesus knew\nhow little the Pharisees cared for people like his own disciples.\nThere were many guests in Symeon's home, for this was the season of the\nNew Year and every Jew left the door of his home open for any visitor\nwho cared to enter. During the meal, both friends and strangers\ncontinued to come into the room, but Symeon was listening intently to\nJesus as they conversed about religion.\n\"The men who obeyed God in past times were not the rich and the\npowerful,\" Jesus was saying. \"Very often our nation has listened to\nGod's voice only after defeat in war. When men know they are weak, they\nturn to God.\"\n\"Is this your purpose in going about and preaching to the people of\nGalilee?\" asked Symeon. Everyone listened for the answer.\n\"I am sent to tell our people that God is their rightful King. His power\nis present among us,\" answered Jesus plainly. \"But most of you will not\ntake my message seriously. You trust other gods, and your hearts are\nhard.\"\nThe Pharisees looked at one another. Some were puzzled, others offended.\n\"But surely you misunderstand us. We keep the Law very carefully,\" said\nSymeon.\n\"If you are really a teacher sent from God, how can you mix with\noutcasts?\" The young Pharisee's question was blunt.\n\"I am not here to call the righteous to repent,\" answered Jesus, his\neyes accusing the young man. \"I am here to call sinners!\" Irony came\ninto his voice. \"People who are healthy don't need a doctor. It is the\nsick who need help. It is to them that I am sent.\"\nThe room was tense, but before anyone could ask another question,\nSymeon's attention was drawn away. He glanced around the room. It\nsounded as though someone were weeping! He examined the shadowy corners\nwhere the light of the candles did not reach. At that moment a woman\nstepped swiftly toward Jesus and dropped to her knees.\nJesus turned and looked at her. He had not known she was hiding in the\ndarkness behind him. Her tears fell on his feet. She loosed the cord\nthat tied her hair. With its long waves she gently wiped Jesus' feet.\nSymeon, usually dignified, was irritated. \"What kind of nonsense is\nthis?\" he asked as he rose from his couch.\nJesus turned to him. \"Do not rebuke her,\" he requested. _That is the\ntrouble with leaving the door open_, thought Symeon. _Women like this\nare bound to get in_. Everyone there knew her. She had a bad reputation\nin the city. Symeon felt humiliated to have such a person in his house.\n_This Nazarene certainly knows all the worst people_, reflected the\nyoung Pharisee cynically.\nSuddenly a lovely fragrance filled the room. The woman had broken open a\nbottle of precious perfume and recklessly poured every drop on Jesus'\nfeet.\n_Such waste!_ thought Symeon angrily, realizing what she had done. _I\nwonder if the Nazarene has any idea where she got the money to buy this\noil!_ But he said nothing because he was very polite.\nJesus turned to his host. \"Symeon,\" he said, \"I have something to say to\nyou.\"\n\"What is it, Teacher?\" asked the Pharisee.\n\"There was once a man who loaned money,\" said Jesus. \"One of his debtors\nowed him two hundred and fifty dollars; another owed him twenty-five\ndollars.\" The guests were listening closely. \"Neither of these men could\npay back the money, so the lender said to both of them: 'I forgive you\nyour debts. You don't need to pay me back at all.'\" He paused and then\nasked, \"Now which of these two men would be more grateful?\"\n\"Why, naturally, the man who owed more money would be more grateful,\"\nreplied Symeon without hesitating.\n\"Right!\" said Jesus. \"When I came into your house you didn't even offer\nto wash my feet--and everyone does that for his guest! But this woman\nhas washed my feet with her tears and dried them with her hair!\n\"You didn't welcome me with a kiss--and everyone greets his guest that\nway!\" He pointed to the woman. \"But she has been kissing my feet.\n\"You didn't anoint my head with oil--and everyone does that for his\nguest! But this woman has poured precious perfume on my feet!\" Jesus'\nvoice was quiet, but all the Pharisees could sense the force of his\nwords when he said: \"She has committed many sins, but they are all\nforgiven and now her heart is full of love.\" Then Jesus spoke directly\nto Symeon and each word seemed to strike him like a blow. \"But a man\nwhose sins are not forgiven has no love in his heart.\" Then he said very\ngently to the woman, \"Your sins are forgiven.\"\nSymeon's face burned hot. Never had anyone spoken like this to him! He\nwas troubled by the suggestion that he was a sinner. All his life he had\ndone his best to obey the Law. Had he not always prided himself on his\ngood actions?\nHurt and confused, Symeon heard a friend beside him whisper, \"Did you\nhear him say that this woman's sins are forgiven?\" Abruptly Symeon\nlooked up at the man. He was right! It was an outrage for anyone to say\nsuch a thing as this!\n\"You have no reason to be sorrowful,\" Jesus was saying to the woman.\n\"Your faith has saved you.\"\nSymeon stood up, his shame forgotten. Why had he ever let this person\ndisturb him? Anyone who talked this way was a heretic and a blasphemer,\nnothing better! Only God could forgive sin. They all knew the truth\nabout this Jesus now: such a man was dangerous to all true religion. As\na Pharisee who loved the Law, he would have to do all he could to keep\nhim from deceiving the people.\nJesus said nothing to the disciples about the events of the evening in\nSymeon's house. But two days later, while buying food, Andrew and John\nheard a rumor which they discovered later came from Symeon. \"Should we\ntell the Master?\" wondered John.\n\"We must.\" Andrew was positive. They made a quick trip to Simon's home,\nleft their food, and hurried out to the shore of the lake. As usual, a\nlarge group of listeners surrounded Jesus. \"We shall have to wait until\nwe can talk to him alone,\" said Andrew.\nA man whom the disciples had never seen before was questioning Jesus.\n\"Rabbi, why do the Pharisees and the followers of John the Baptizer fast\nwhile your disciples pay no attention to the fasting rule?\" Andrew and\nJohn exchanged startled glances; this was it!\nJesus answered very clearly. \"Tell me,\" he asked, \"do the friends of\npeople who are getting married fast on the wedding day?\"\n\"Of course not. That is a time for rejoicing, not fasting.\"\n\"Right,\" answered Jesus. \"While the bridegroom is with his friends they\nare not sorrowful. But a time comes when he leaves them. There is time\nenough then to fast.\"\n\"But, Rabbi,\" protested the man, \"the Pharisees say it is a serious sin\nnot to fast.\"\n\"Listen to what I say,\" said Jesus. \"If you have an old coat with a hole\nin it, do you patch it with a brand-new piece of cloth?\"\n\"No, of course not.\"\n\"Why not?\" asked Jesus.\n\"As soon as the new piece is wet by the rain,\" answered a woman very\nquickly, \"it shrinks and tears the cloth of the old coat.\"\nJesus said, \"If you try to add something new to the old, the new\ndestroys the old, doesn't it?\"\n\"What do you mean by that?\" asked the first man after a moment's\nthought.\n\"Listen again. When you make new wine, do you pour it right into a dry,\nstiff wineskin that has been used before?\" The people stored wine in\nwhole goatskins, tied up tightly at the legs and neck.\n\"Of course not.\"\n\"Why not?\"\n\"Because as soon as the wine begins to ferment it stretches the skin\ntight. New wine is powerful enough to rip an old bag to pieces!\"\n\"Do you understand now what I am telling you?\" asked Jesus. \"Never try\nto put new wine in old skins. The old cannot hold the new. The gospel of\nthe Kingdom of God asks you to do much more than just keep the fasts.\"\n\"The Pharisees don't say that,\" said the man doubtfully. \"I don't know\nwho is right. It is a serious thing not to keep the Law of Moses.\"\n\"Do you know what you remind me of?\" Jesus said. \"I saw some children in\nthe market this morning who couldn't decide what they wanted to do. Some\nwanted to play that they were at a wedding; others, that they were at a\nfuneral. When they piped wedding music, the ones who wanted a funeral\nwouldn't dance. And when they piped funeral music, the others quit. It\nwas impossible to please them all.\n\"You and your teachers are like children who are never satisfied. John\nthe Baptizer came and fasted often--and you said he had a demon. Now I\ncome eating and drinking like other men and you call me a glutton and a\ndrunkard. You accuse me of being friendly with tax collectors and other\nsinners. But what we do will prove to be right!\"\nWhen the crowd broke up, Andrew and John walked back to Capernaum with\nJesus. \"Someone had been talking to the man who asked that question,\"\ndeclared Andrew.\n\"Yes, I know,\" answered Jesus. \"We must expect the Pharisees to\ncriticize us. How careful they are to keep every little command of the\nrabbis--but justice, mercy, and kindness they forget. They would strain\na gnat out of their soup and swallow a camel whole!\" The disciples had\nto smile at the way Jesus put it. \"They cannot understand what we are\nsaying. We offend them--and when you offend men who take their religion\nvery seriously, you must be ready for real trouble!\"\nThe next Sabbath Day the disciples realized that the Pharisees were not\ngoing to stand by while Jesus taught the people a new way of life. Jesus\nhad traveled to a small town near Capernaum where he had not been before\nand so he was invited to speak in the synagogue. Several Pharisees were\npresent and very much interested in what Jesus said. They seemed\nfriendly, and after the service went walking with Jesus and a few other\npeople who clustered around Jesus. The group passed through a field of\ngrain outside the town. James and Levi were hungry, so they pulled the\ntops off some wheatstalks. They rubbed the heads of wheat in their hands\nand blew away the chaff. The Pharisees seemed offended by this, but at\nfirst they said nothing. Other people saw what the disciples were doing,\nand they plucked wheat too. The Pharisees became more and more disturbed\nand finally could keep back their protests no longer. They came to\nJesus.\n\"Rabbi, we noticed that some of the men here were pulling wheat,\" one of\nthem said tactfully.\nJesus said: \"They are hungry. It is all right for them to pick wheat,\nisn't it?\"\n\"The scribes say it is all right to pick single grains. Rabbi,\" they\nreplied, \"but these men are rubbing out whole stalks, and that is\nagainst the Sabbath rule.\" They were sure that Jesus understood.\n\"Have you not read in the Bible that David and his warriors took bread\noff the sacred table in the Tabernacle when they were hungry?\" asked\nJesus. \"That was against the rule of Moses--but David did it!\"\nThe Pharisees were dumfounded. The first almost stammered as he asked,\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\"I mean that if there was a higher law for David there may also be a\nhigher law for me and my disciples,\" answered Jesus plainly.\n\"But ... but we do not understand,\" faltered the Pharisee. \"You cannot\nset aside a law. No one can. That is impossible. It is part of our\nreligion. Whoever pays no attention to the Law is an outcast and a\nsinner.\"\n\"The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath,\" replied Jesus.\n\"The Son of Man is lord of the Sabbath.\"\nThe older Pharisee frowned and then flushed red. The muscles in his neck\ntightened as he looked at Jesus. \"You dare to say such things!\" he burst\nout. \"You do not belong to us. You are an enemy of God!\"\nAll the way back to Capernaum the disciples talked about what had\nhappened in the wheat field. \"They just keep watching us to see if we do\nanything wrong!\" protested James.\n\"Personally, I don't think they even understand what we are doing,\"\nventured Andrew. \"They never listen to what we say. They act as though\nthey knew everything about religion.\"\n\"Yes, their kind of religion,\" remarked James indignantly. \"They won't\neven speak to a leper! Who is going to go out among the people of our\ntowns and let them know that God cares for them? Their religion is just\nfor themselves!\"\n\"Jesus is the only one who cares about the outcasts,\" said Simon\nearnestly. \"No one else does.\"\nSymeon hoped that Jesus would do something that would prove to everyone\nthat he did not believe in God. The thought that Jesus might win the\npeople over to himself struck panic into Symeon's heart. If that should\nhappen, something desperate might have to be done. Meanwhile, however,\nhe and a few others who knew how dangerous Jesus was had decided to\nwait.\nOn the next Sabbath Day, the whole matter came out into the open. As\nusual, most of the Jews in Capernaum--common people and Pharisees, along\nwith Jesus and the disciples--came to the synagogue at the hour of\nworship. The moment Simon and Andrew entered they saw that there would\nbe trouble: there was a man present with an arm made lame from\ndropsy--and they knew Jesus would surely heal him if he asked. The\nsynagogue was crowded. The people bowed respectfully as Symeon and the\nleading men of the town entered, but they smiled when they had passed:\nJesus was there, and they too had seen the man with the lame arm.\n\"Do you think he would dare to heal him?\" one of the Pharisees whispered\nto Symeon.\n\"I hardly believe he will,\" replied Symeon. \"To break the Sabbath law\nright in the synagogue would be a direct attack on religion.\"\nAt that moment the lame man went to where Jesus sat. Instantly the room\nwas quiet. Everyone knew the charge against Jesus: that he broke the Law\nof God deliberately.\nJesus looked at the man and said, \"Will you come with me?\" He led the\nman to the front of the synagogue where he could speak to the elders and\nPharisees.\n\"I ask you,\" demanded Jesus, \"is it right to help or to hurt on the\nSabbath Day? Should one save a life?\" The men said nothing.\n\"Is there a single one of you that would leave a sheep in a ditch all\nday long if it fell in on Sabbath morning?\" Everyone knew the rule: A\nfarmer was permitted to save a sheep on the Sabbath.\n\"Well, isn't a man worth more than a sheep?\"\nThe question was clear to every listener: Which was more important, the\nSabbath rule or this man's need? Simon smiled, but the Pharisees felt\ndifferently. Symeon could hardly contain himself. He wanted to rise up\nand cry out to everyone that these were trick questions; that this bold\nNazarene was trying to tear down the sacred Law of God himself; that\nreligion itself would be destroyed if he succeeded. But he sat still and\nsaid nothing.\nJesus turned to the man. \"Stretch out your arm,\" he said gently.\nThe instant the man obeyed, his withered arm became as strong as the\nother. A murmur of awe went over the congregation. Symeon rose and\nstrode out of the synagogue, followed by the religious officials of\nCapernaum. Outside, Symeon turned to the others and declared firmly: \"We\nmust save our holy religion at all costs. He has won over the people\nwith his trickery, but God is on our side! We must go to King Herod and\nask him to help us put this man out of the way!\"\n[Illustration]\n7. MISSIONARIES OF THE KINGDOM\nIt took less than a week for the report that Jesus had defied the\nPharisees to spread throughout all Galilee. Those who most welcomed the\nnews were the Zealots. For a long time, they had been plotting to rebel\nagainst the Romans, but so far had found no plan that promised to be\nsuccessful. They believed that Jesus was the leader for whom they had\nbeen waiting so long. He was brave. He stood up to the officials. He was\npopular with the common people. One of their leaders decided to find out\nwhat Jesus intended to do. His name was Simon. Well known in Galilee for\nhis courage, everyone called him \"the Zealot.\" He made a special trip to\nCapernaum that same week and came to Simon's home. Before the week was\npast he became a follower of Jesus. But there were many things he found\nit hard to understand.\n\"Tell me,\" he asked Simon and James privately, \"does the Rabbi intend to\nset up the new kingdom now?\"\nSimon was cautious. \"The Master has said nothing about that.\"\nThe Zealot glanced about to make sure that the door and shutters were\ntightly closed. \"Do you not know that he could easily persuade the\npeople to revolt against Herod?\"\nJames was alarmed. \"But we're not ready for that yet.\"\nSimon gave him a warning glance. He still mistrusted this man. \"We plan\nto tell everyone in this country our message,\" he said guardedly.\n\"If you are going to establish a free Jewish nation, you must do more\nthan talk,\" declared the Zealot. \"You should organize!\"\nThe fishermen looked at each other, doubting how much they should say.\nFinally James said vaguely, \"We think it won't be much longer.\"\n\"Why can't we do something definite about it?\" said the Zealot.\n\"Do you really think he could be king of the Jews?\" asked James.\n\"I'm certain of it!\" replied the Zealot. \"My people would follow him to\na man!\"\nJames looked inquiringly at Simon. \"I think most of the people would be\nfavorable, don't you?\"\nSimon shook his head doubtfully. \"We ought to see what the Master\nthinks. King Herod has many Roman soldiers under his command!\"\n\"Listen, Simon,\" argued James. \"The Master has spent plenty of time\nteaching already. Everyone in Galilee has heard about the kingdom.\"\nSimon didn't reply. \"He intends to fight eventually,\" continued James.\n\"Didn't he say he came to bring conflict and not peace? I think it is\nabout time to stop talking and get to work!\"\nSimon stared at the ground. \"Well, one thing is sure,\" he admitted. \"The\nPharisees are all against us. They will keep us out of the synagogues.\"\n\"That is exactly why I think Jesus should openly declare himself king,\"\naffirmed the Zealot strongly. \"It is time to go forward!\"\nJesus had told the disciples to wait for him in Capernaum and had gone\nto the hills for prayer. He knew his work had reached a turning point.\nFor several days he remained alone, praying and seeking wisdom from God.\nWhen he returned to Capernaum, he called the disciples together.\n\"My followers,\" he said gravely, when they were gathered about him,\n\"many times I have told you that the Kingdom of God cannot come without\nsuffering. Men who hate truth hate anyone who speaks the truth.\" The men\nknew Jesus had made a decision. \"The Kingdom of God has been proclaimed\nonly in Galilee,\" he continued. \"The time has now come to carry the news\nto all Palestine!\"\n_That means Judea!_ thought James and John at the same time. In\nJerusalem the priests and Pharisees were strongest.\n\"Rulers will show us no mercy,\" said Jesus. \"God is our only Source of\nstrength. We must tell the gospel in every village and countryside. We\nmust not miss a single Jew. You are to be my missionaries to this\nnation!\"\nThe men stirred and glanced at one another. The Zealot vigorously nodded\nhis approval. No hiding in the hills for them; they were going forward!\nFear mixed with eagerness sent chills through them.\nJesus rose and stood facing Simon, who went to his knees before him.\nJesus laid his hand on Simon's head and, lifting up his eyes, prayed for\nhim. He asked the Heavenly Father to strengthen him and to give him the\nwisdom and courage he would need for the important task he was about to\nundertake. One by one, Jesus blessed each of the twelve men. He knew\nthem better than they knew themselves and he prayed simply and frankly\nfor each one. Awe filled them as they listened. The work was so great,\nand they were so weak! They were to teach and heal as Jesus himself had\nbeen doing! A new spirit gripped them.\n\"Shall we too be able to drive out demons and raise the dead, Master?\"\nasked Simon.\n\"The power of the Kingdom is yours,\" declared Jesus. \"You have both the\nright and the power to destroy evil wherever you find it--whether\ndemons, sickness, or spiritual blindness.\"\nThen he gave them instructions for the journey that lay before them.\n\"You are to travel two by two. Preach only to Jews, not to Samaritans or\ngentiles, for the time is short. Your work is to seek everywhere the\nlost sheep of the people of Israel. Return when this is done.\n\"Take only a walking stick and one pair of sandals--neither food nor\nmoney nor extra clothes.\"\n\"How shall we live, Master? Where shall we stay?\" asked Simon.\n\"When you come to a strange town, find someone who will open his home to\nyou while you work there,\" answered Jesus. \"Once you have decided with\nwhom you will stay, do not change. Hold fast to your first friend.\"\n\"What if no one will take us in?\" asked Andrew.\n\"If you find no one who will help you, leave that town immediately,\"\nanswered Jesus. \"God will judge any town that will not hear your\nmessage.\n\"This is your gospel: Tell all Jews that God has come among us. Tell\nthem that his power is right now at work. Tell them that he is the ruler\nof all who trust him. Warn them to repent and turn to him now.\" The\ndisciples realized that they would have to face the people without\nJesus.\n\"I am sending you out like sheep among wolves,\" warned Jesus. \"You will\nbe persecuted. Never put your trust in persons in high positions, for\nthey will betray you.\n\"If you are put in prison and brought into court, do not be anxious\nabout what you should say. The spirit of God your Father will help you,\nand everyone who hears you will learn the good news that God's Kingdom\nhas come.\"\n\"Master, how shall we ever have strength to do it?\" burst out Andrew.\n\"Do not be afraid!\" Jesus was standing now, ready to bid them farewell.\n\"God has given you his own power. You carry news of eternal life; you\nare doing the work of God's Kingdom!\"\nA few days later, one of the Twelve visited Nazareth. He saw the mother\nand brothers of Jesus and told them how Jesus was sending missionaries\nof the Kingdom to every village in Palestine. Mary was at once fearful.\n\"That will put him in great danger,\" she said nervously.\n\"He has already made a big enough fool of himself,\" remarked one of her\nsons rudely. He was a strong young fellow about twenty-five. \"The\ntrouble with him is that people make too much of him.\"\n\"Don't speak that way, Jude,\" protested Mary. She had spent many\nsleepless nights wondering if the rumor could be true that Jesus had\nbecome a fanatic and was not in his right mind.\n\"Bah! The only trouble with him is that popularity has gone to his\nhead!\"\n\"What should I do, Jude?\" asked Mary. \"He is bound to get into some kind\nof trouble if he goes on like this.\"\n\"Oh, I don't know.\" Jude wished his mother would stop worrying. \"Perhaps\nwe can make him come home.\"\nMary snatched at the suggestion. \"Let us go to him right away.\" She\nprepared hastily for the trip, greatly relieved to be doing something\nabout her strange son Jesus.\nUpon arriving at Capernaum, Mary and Jude went directly to the home of\nSimon where they knew Jesus stayed. They found the courtyard crowded.\nMary was dismayed.\n\"Don't worry,\" said Jude. \"He will come when I tell him you are here\nwaiting for him.\" He began to shove through the tightly packed people.\nThere were angry murmurs, but Jude paid no attention. As he got farther\ninto the courtyard he could hear a man shouting angrily. _That's not\nJesus' voice_, he thought. Finally he reached a place where he could see\nhis brother.\nBehind Jesus stood some of the disciples who had already returned from\ntheir mission. All around him were sick and lame people, but he was not\nhealing them. He was standing silently before the man whose harsh voice\nJude had heard. The man was completely out of control of himself. Jude\ncouldn't see why he was so angry, but he thought this must have been\ngoing on for some time.\n\"Who is the angry one?\" he asked a bystander.\n\"Some scribe.\"\nThe scribe had almost run out of breath, but Jesus still said nothing.\nIrritated by Jesus' silence, he threw a final accusation at him.\n\"You false prophet! You are a complete fake!\"\nA man in the crowd suddenly cried out: \"He is not false! He tells us the\ntruth as no man ever did.\"\n\"He has brought healing to many,\" added another. \"How could he do that\nif he were not sent from God?\" Others nodded.\nThe angry scribe turned on the man. \"Many magicians can heal and drive\nout demons! I can show you a hundred right here in Galilee who can do\nanything he can! Bah! This prophet of yours is a fake!\"\nThe man did not know what to answer. \"I'll tell you why he can drive out\ndemons,\" snapped the enraged scribe. \"I'll tell you! The prince of all\ndemons has got hold of him! That's why he can do it!\" Scornfully he\ndrove home his point. \"Why shouldn't he be stronger than the demons? He\nis possessed by Satan himself.\"\nSimon flushed. The charge was crude and ridiculous. He opened his mouth\nto deny it, but he realized he could not. How could he prove the scribe\nwrong? Simon's anger turned to shame.\nJesus' voice was calm and controlled, when at last he spoke. \"Would\nSatan cast out his own helpers?\" he asked the man, coolly. There was a\ntouch of sarcasm in his voice. \"A nation divided within itself will\nfall! Has Satan risen up against himself and given me power to destroy\nhis own power over men?\"\nJude was amazed at the power of his brother's words. This did not sound\nas though he were out of his mind!\nJesus did not give the scribe a chance to reply. \"No!\" he declared,\nspeaking now to all the people. \"I have no demon. No one can enter a\nman's house and take his property without first binding the owner with\nropes. I have power to cast out demons because I have overcome the\nprince of all evil!\"\nThe answer could not be denied. Looking sternly at the scribe, Jesus\nsaid: \"I tell you, men will be forgiven all their sins and blasphemies\nexcept one: If you harden yourself against the Holy Spirit, you commit\neternal sin!\" Jesus then raised his voice. \"By the very finger of God I\ncast out demons--and because I have overcome the evil one himself, God\nis now ruling among you!\"\nAn excited woman cried out, \"How fortunate your mother is to have such a\nson!\"\n\"The person who is truly fortunate is the one who hears and believes the\nWord of God,\" answered Jesus quickly.\nJude looked at the woman startled. She had said his mother was\nfortunate--but to Mary Jesus was a great worry! Remembering why he had\ncome, Jude began to push his way toward Jesus. When finally he could\nget no farther, he touched the shoulder of a man ahead of him. \"Would\nyou tell the Rabbi that his mother and brothers want to see him\noutside?\"\nWhen the man delivered the message to Jesus, the disciples stepped\nforward and started to clear a path, but Jesus put out his hand and\nstopped them. He looked around at the faces of the loyal men who had\nleft everything to follow him and at the sick and anxious people sitting\non the hard-packed dirt of the courtyard.\n\"Who is my mother, and who are my brothers?\" The words were gentle, very\ndifferent from his tone a moment before. \"I tell you, you are my mother\nand my brothers! Anyone who does the will of God is my brother, my\nsister, my mother!\n\"A true missionary of the Kingdom must be willing to give up his own\nfamily for my sake and take the people of God's Kingdom for his family.\nAnyone who thinks more of his own mother, wife, or child, than he does\nof the Kingdom cannot be my disciple.\"\n\"Master, we have given up everything to follow you,\" said Simon.\n\"You may have to give even your life, Simon,\" answered Jesus. \"Yet great\nis your reward in heaven.\"\nJude pushed his way out of the courtyard. The first thing he said to his\nmother was, \"Jesus seems like another person.\"\nDespair darkened Mary's expression. \"Do you mean that what the people\nare saying about him is true?\" she asked.\n\"No, no. I didn't mean that,\" Jude said quickly. \"He is different in\nanother way. He is ... he is not like us any more.\" He tried to describe\nJesus but could not.\n\"Well, what happened?\" Mary was relieved but puzzled. \"What did he do?\"\nJude then told her all that he had seen from the moment he had entered\nthe courtyard. She listened, wondering at the son who had left her home\nonly a few months before. When Jude finished she turned to leave.\n\"Wait, mother!\" said Jude. \"Don't you want to see him?\"\n\"There is no reason for us to see him, my son,\" replied Mary quietly.\n\"He doesn't need us to care for him. This is God's work that he is\ndoing.\" That same day Mary returned to Nazareth, filled with wonder at\nthe things that had happened.\nNot only Mary but the disciples too were amazed at Jesus' power. Even\nthe Zealot, the most eager to start spreading the news of the Kingdom,\nsaw how much he needed to learn before attempting to do Jesus' work. At\nthe table that evening, Simon spoke the feeling of them all.\n\"Master, how shall we ever be strong enough to be your missionaries?\"\n\"Whoever knows God, lives by his power, Simon,\" answered Jesus. \"The\nevil one does not rule such men.\"\n\"But I believe in God, Master,\" said Simon. \"Yet I cannot heal anyone.\"\nHe paused and then added in a tone of despair, \"I could never have\nanswered that scribe!\"\n\"Simon, if you had real faith in God--even a tiny grain--you would be\nable to do great things.\"\n\"I have prayed many times and still I do not have the strength,\" said\nSimon humbly.\n\"Listen to me,\" said Jesus. \"Suppose you were to go to a friend's house\nlate at night and say: 'Friend, will you lend me three loaves of bread?\nA visitor has arrived unexpectedly and I am out of food.' Suppose he\nwere to answer: 'Don't bother me. I'm in bed and the door is locked. I\ncan't get up.' What would you do?\"\nAfter a pause, John answered, \"Why, you just keep on knocking until he\n_does_ get up!\" The disciples smiled.\n\"True!\" said Jesus. \"He may not get up because of friendliness, but if\nyou keep on knocking, he'll give you the bread just to get rid of you!\nBut God is your friend! Will he not give you what you ask? But you must\nnot grow weary in asking.\n\"In a certain town,\" he continued, \"there was a very unfair judge. He\ndidn't care about anyone. There was a poor widow in that town who was\nbeing mistreated. Again and again she went to the judge and asked him to\nhelp her--but he never paid any attention. Finally he said to himself:\n'I don't care about this woman, but she is becoming a nuisance. Perhaps\nif I give her what she wants she will stop pestering me.'\" Jesus said\nvery emphatically, \"If this wicked man finally helped a widow because\nshe kept on asking for justice, won't God, who is good and just, answer\nyou if you pray sincerely?\"\nSimon saw how little real faith he had in spite of all his praying. How\noften he had thought to himself. _Now I'll pray and see what happens._\nHe had been testing God, not trusting him!\n\"O Master,\" he urged, \"won't you teach us to pray as John the Baptizer\ntaught his disciples?\"\n\"When you pray, say: 'Our Father in heaven, holy be thy name. Thy\nKingdom come, thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.'\"\nMost of the time, the disciples had to admit, they thought only of\npersuading God to do what they wanted.\n\"Ask your Heavenly Father, 'Give us today the food we will need to do\nour work tomorrow,'\" said Jesus. \"Anyone who serves God trusts him for\nall things he needs day by day.\n\"Then you must ask God to forgive you your sins. But if you are not\nwilling to forgive others, do not think for one moment that God will\nforgive you.\"\n\"Master, how often shall someone sin against me and I go on forgiving\nhim?\" asked Peter. \"Seven times?\"\n\"Not seven times, Peter, but seventy times seven.\" Jesus paused and then\nwent on. \"The Kingdom of Heaven is like a king who decided to settle his\naccounts with his servants. The king ordered one man, with his wife and\nchildren, to be sold into slavery, and all his possessions sold for cash\nso that the debt could be met.\n\"The servant fell on his knees and begged, 'Master have patience with me\nand I will pay you every penny.' Out of pity, the king released him and\nforgave him the whole debt.\n\"On his way home, the servant met a fellow servant who owed him a very\nsmall sum of money. He grabbed the poor fellow by the throat and\ndemanded, 'You pay me what you owe me!' The man fell on his knees and\nbegged, 'Have patience with me and I will pay you.' But he refused.\nInstead, he put him into prison until the debt should be paid. The other\nservants saw how unfair this was and they told the king what had\nhappened.\n\"The king called for the unjust servant and said: 'You wicked servant!\nWhen you asked, I forgave you all that you owed me--should you not have\nbeen merciful to your fellow servant, as I was merciful to you?' Very\nangry, the king threw the unjust man into jail to remain there until his\nwhole debt was paid.\n\"Neither can you be forgiven,\" concluded Jesus, \"unless you forgive\nothers from your heart.\"\nAfter a moment John said: \"Do you really think God pays attention to us.\nMaster? He seems so far away. Oh, I know he watches over the nation--but\nI am not sure he cares what happens to me!\"\nJesus nodded toward Simon. \"Simon loves his children,\" he said. \"Simon,\nif your little son should ask you for a piece of bread, would you give\nhim a rock to eat? Or if he asked for a broiled fish, would you give him\na poisonous snake instead? Or if he asked for an egg, would you give him\na scorpion with a deadly stinger?\"\n\"No, of course not!\" exclaimed Simon.\n\"Well, then, if you can do that much for your children, do you not think\nthat God will do far more for those who trust him?\"\nJesus lifted his arms to pray. It seemed to Simon that Jesus was praying\nspecially for him when he asked the Heavenly Father to send the Holy\nSpirit upon them all. As they left the place of prayer, Simon and Andrew\ndropped behind the others.\n\"What I cannot understand,\" said Andrew, \"is how he knows all these\nthings. Where did he learn it all?\"\n\"It is strange,\" agreed Simon. \"You would almost think he came down from\nheaven, wouldn't you?\"\n[Illustration]\n8. HE IS MORE THAN A TEACHER\nFar away to the south, John the Baptizer was imprisoned in King Herod's\nfortress at Machaerus. Through the bars of his tiny window he could see\nthe green waters of the Dead Sea far below and the rocky hills of Judea\nbeyond. He did not expect to lie in this dungeon long. At any moment the\nDay of Judgment might come; God would send hosts of angels to punish\nwrongdoers and to reward his faithful servants.\nJohn listened intently to the news that his followers brought about\nJesus. They told him all that Jesus did: his demand that all men should\nrepent; the new teaching about the Kingdom of God which was the talk of\nmen everywhere. John was amazed at the power Jesus had to heal many sick\npeople; he was glad when he heard that Jesus was not afraid of the\nPharisees.\nBut as days passed, doubts began to creep into the Baptizer's mind.\nCould God have chosen this man to deliver His people? John could not\nunderstand why the deliverance did not come. Jesus was training only a\nhandful of disciples to preach. It would take more than that to bring\nGod's great day. At last the Prophet sent two messengers to Jesus.\n\"Our Prophet, John the Baptizer, has sent us to ask a question,\" said\nthe leader. \"Are you the One whom God has sent to judge the wicked and\njustify the faithful?\"\nThis very question was stirring in the minds of the disciples. Why did\nJesus not tell them plainly who he was?\n\"Are you the Messiah of God?\" repeated the man. \"Or should we look for\nsomeone else?\"\n\"You know what I teach,\" answered Jesus. \"You have heard about the\nthings that I do. Go back to John and tell him that the eyes of the\nblind are opened; the lame walk; lepers are cleansed--the good news that\nGod is present among men is declared to everyone who will listen.\"\n\"But, Rabbi,\" said the puzzled leader, \"what shall we tell the Prophet?\nAre you truly the Messiah?\"\n\"How do you expect to know the Messiah?\" asked Jesus. \"What will he do\nthat you will recognize him?\" The men did not answer. \"Isaiah the\nProphet said: 'Here is my servant, my Chosen One. He will not be loud\nand noisy: He will not raise a great shout in public. He will not break\na bent sapling or even blow out the tiniest lamp flame!'\"\nThe followers of John murmured to themselves. \"The Messiah--coming\nsilently?... You say he won't even break a twig?\" The ideas seemed to\nescape them, slipping away as soon as they were spoken.\nAndrew was distressed at Jesus' words. \"Master, the Messiah is mighty!\nHe will come from the sky in great glory. How can you say that the\nMessiah will come without people even knowing he is among us?\"\nJesus turned to the followers of John the Baptizer and said: \"Go tell\nJohn what you have heard. He truly knows the will of God if he\nunderstands these things I have said.\"\nImpulsively Andrew reached out his hand to stop the men. But then he\ndrew back: _Jesus had told them to go_. He turned to Jesus the instant\nthey left and demanded, \"How _does_ the Messiah come?\"\n\"Andrew,\" replied Jesus patiently, \"don't you understand yet what I\nmean when I tell you that the Kingdom of God is at hand?\"\nAndrew could not hide his disappointment. Jesus knew how hard it was for\nhis disciple to grasp what he meant. Hopes that he had held for years\nwere not easy to give up quickly.\n\"Then John the Baptizer was wrong?\" Andrew's voice was subdued. \"The\nMessiah will not come with an army of angels to destroy the enemies of\nhis people?\"\nJesus answered gently. \"Among all men, none is greater than John. He was\nsent to prepare the way for me. Just the same, the very least person in\nthe Kingdom is greater than John.\"\nAndrew sighed. He could not believe Jesus was wrong. And yet it was hard\nto be satisfied with a kingdom that did not set the people free from\noppression, even if it was a kingdom of truth and help for the poor.\n\"You will soon be sent out to spread the news of the true Kingdom\nthrough this land,\" said Jesus. \"You must find out for yourselves how\ngreat is the power God has sent among you.\"\nDuring the week that followed, Jesus led the twelve men through the\ncountry on the other side of the Lake of Galilee. The power of his words\nand actions amazed his disciples. Not until the day they returned to\nGalilee, however, did the disciples begin to grasp for themselves the\ntrue meaning of what was happening.\nWhile Jesus was absent from Capernaum with the Twelve, disease struck\ndown the daughter of a man named Jairus, an elder of the synagogue.\nJairus had strongly disapproved when the high priest ordered the elders\nof his synagogue to forbid Jesus to preach there, but he had been unable\nto do anything about it.\nThe doctors in Capernaum could not help the girl. Jairus was terribly\nworried. Then he thought of Jesus. Perhaps this great Teacher could heal\nhis daughter! His heart sank when Simon's wife told him that Jesus and\nthe others were in the country of Gadara, across the lake, and that she\ndid not know when they would be back.\nEvery minute that Jairus did not spend at the bedside of the sick child,\nhe watched the lake for a sign of Jesus' return. Three nights he sat up\nwith his little girl. As he hastened anxiously to the shore of the lake\non the last morning, he said sadly to himself, \"If the Rabbi does not\ncome today, I shall never see my child alive again.\"\nNear the lake he caught sight of a crowd of people on the shore and\nbroke into a run.\nJesus had just stepped out of the boat. Jairus pushed into the crowd,\nthinking only of his dying daughter. He knelt imploringly at Jesus'\nfeet.\n\"O Rabbi! Help me! I am in great trouble!\"\nThe disciples looked at one another in mild surprise. Was not this one\nof the elders of the synagogue?\n\"These fellows are much humbler when they want something,\" remarked\nAndrew to John.\n\"I know what I'd do if I were in the Master's place,\" murmured John.\nJesus instantly sensed the desperate worry that had driven every other\nthought from Jairus' mind. \"What is it you need?\" The disciples felt\nthat the very tone of Jesus' voice was a rebuke to their vengeful\nfeelings.\n\"My little daughter,\" said Jairus, brokenly. \"At this very moment she is\ndying. Please come and pray for her, that she may live, and not die!\"\n\"We must hurry,\" said Jesus and started swiftly toward Capernaum. The\npeople followed closely. The disciples hurried to keep up with Jesus,\nbut he paid no attention to them. The anxious father stayed close beside\nJesus.\nSuddenly Jesus stopped. \"Hurry, Rabbi,\" begged Jairus earnestly. \"She\nmay not live much longer.\" But Jesus seemed not to hear. He looked at\nthe disciples, who were wondering why he had stopped.\n\"Who touched me?\" Jesus turned around where he stood.\nSimon laughed shortly and said: \"What do you mean, Master? In a crowd\nlike this, a dozen people could have touched you!\"\n\"Just the same, I felt someone.\" Jesus searched the crowd behind Simon.\nMost of the people looked at him blankly. Jesus continued to scan the\ncrowd. Even Jairus held back his urgent protest to hasten.\nAt that moment there was a disturbance in the crowd, and a trembling\nwoman came up to Jesus. \"I touched you, Rabbi,\" she confessed tearfully.\nJesus said to her kindly, \"Why did you do it?\"\n\"Rabbi, I have been sick for twelve years. I have spent all my money on\ndoctors and I am worse than ever.\"\n\"Why did you touch me?\" asked Jesus.\n\"I thought, _If I can touch only the edge of his robe, I shall be\nhealed_.\" Then very simply she added. \"So I did, Rabbi--and now I am\nwell!\"\n\"It is your faith in God that has healed you,\" said Jesus to the\nkneeling woman. \"Do not tremble and be afraid. It is faith like yours\nthat God most desires.\"\nWhile Jesus was speaking, a man had hurried down the street toward them.\nJairus recognized one of his own servants. \"Hurry, Master! Oh, hurry!\"\nhe cried. But he knew it was too late.\nThe servant came to him sadly. \"She is dead. There is no use bothering\nthe Rabbi any more.\"\nJesus turned to Jairus. \"Courage, sir! Do not be sorrowful.\"\n\"What a shame!\" Simon remembered his own children and knew how the man\nfelt. \"His little one is dead!\"\nJesus turned to the disciples and said, \"You saw a woman healed through\nfaith.\" They looked at him, wondering what he meant. To Jairus, Jesus\nsaid, \"Come, take me to your home.\" All hope was gone for Jairus, but\nobediently he led the way.\nAlready the hired wailers filled Jairus' house. Their loud cries of\ngrief, the shrill sound of flutes playing funeral music, and the\nhysterical weeping of the friends of the child's mother made such noise\nthat Jesus could hardly be heard.\n\"Why all this wailing?\" Jesus cried. The noise quieted a little. \"The\nchild is not dead! She is only asleep!\"\nThe wailers burst into derisive laughter. \"She sleeps soundly!\"\n\"Clear this crowd out of here,\" Jesus commanded. Jairus was glad to be\nrid of them. Amid angry murmurs, he sent every single one of them out of\nthe house.\nSeveral of the disciples were waiting outside; they watched the hired\nwailers leave. \"What do you suppose is going on?\" asked Andrew. They\nwaited a little longer, but at last the suspense was too much.\n\"Come on,\" said the Zealot, \"let's go in.\" They pressed through the\nfront door into an empty room. \"Where have they gone?\" The sound of soft\nweeping came from the next room. Hesitating now, they went nearer so\nthat they could look through a doorway. The men never forgot what they\nsaw.\nThe little girl was standing beside the bed looking up at Jesus. He held\nher hand in his. Her mother had thrown her arms around Jairus and was\nweeping. Simon, James, and John stood speechless, staring at the child\nwho a moment before had been lying dead.\n\"She is alive!\" gasped Andrew. The child turned toward them, but the\ndisciples shrank back as though fearful of what they saw.\n\"I'm hungry,\" she said.\nJesus gripped Jairus' shoulder gently. \"Give the child something to eat\nnow.\" Neither of the parents replied; but they kneeled before Jesus.\nThe awed disciples turned toward Jesus. Could this man who gave life to\nthe dead be the Master they knew so well?\n\"For your sakes,\" Jesus said, \"I am glad I was not here when this child\ndied.\" His words struck deep into the memories of the disciples. \"I have\ncome to tell you what life really is. This child was dead and lives\nagain. But I warn you: there is a kind of death from which no one can\nreturn. And there is true life: whoever has this life can never die.\"\n_Who is he--who is this One who raises the dead?_ The minds of the\ndisciples raced, trying to grasp the meaning of what had happened.\n\"Fear not the death of the body; he who believes in God can never die.\nJust as I have given life to this little child I give eternal life to\nall who put their trust in God.\"\n_Who can he be--who can he be--to give eternal life?_\nJesus turned to the parents of the child. \"Rise!\" Then he warned them\nand the disciples, saying: \"No one must hear about this. Only you\nunderstand its true meaning.\" Turning to the disciples, he said, \"Let us\ngo now.\" Seething with excitement they could not control, the disciples\nfollowed Jesus.\n[Illustration]\n9. HOW WILL YOU KNOW THE MESSIAH?\nOne week later a messenger arrived at the court of King Herod, in\nTiberias, a city not far from Capernaum on the Lake of Galilee. He\ncarried reports from local officials throughout the provinces that Herod\nruled. As he read them, the king became more and more alarmed. Finally\nhe turned to a slave. \"Tell my officers to come immediately!\"\nWhen the high officials of the court arrived, Herod waved the papers and\nsaid, \"Every single governor reports that there are Jews going through\nour cities and towns talking about some new kingdom!\" He looked at them\nsharply. \"Do you know anything about this?\"\nAfter a moment one of them answered, \"There is a carpenter from Nazareth\npreaching something like that.\"\n\"Do you think he has anything to do with this business?\"\n\"I am not sure,\" answered the man. \"I know a Pharisee in Capernaum who\nsays this fellow wants to do away with the Jewish religion.\" The man\nspeaking was one of the Herodians whom Symeon had stirred up against\nJesus.\n\"What sort of man is he?\" demanded Herod.\n\"He has great influence with the people,\" he said. \"This Pharisee admits\nthat his miracles are not tricks.\"\n\"Miracles!\" Herod became very sober. \"Who is this man?\" he demanded.\n\"Has John the Baptizer risen from the dead?\" Against his better judgment\nhe had executed the Prophet a few weeks before.\n\"That is not possible,\" answered an officer.\n\"We shall have a revolution on our hands if this really is John.\" Herod\nturned to the officer who had spoken last. \"Who is he, if he isn't\nJohn?\"\n\"People say different things. Some say he is Elijah; others say someone\nelse, but they all think he is a prophet.\"\n\"That is exactly what they said about John the Baptizer,\" exclaimed\nHerod.\n\"John never sent out missionaries!\" objected the Herodian.\n\"That only makes it worse!\" The king pointed to the reports in front of\nhim. \"What if these Jews are working for him?\"\n\"They might be,\" admitted the man.\nIf Herod could have heard the conversation of Simon and Andrew at that\nmoment, he would have been even more anxious. They were in high spirits\nas they walked the last mile of their trip back to Capernaum.\n\"How glad everyone has been to hear about the Kingdom!\" remarked Simon.\n\"Do you not think that these people are ready to make the Master their\nking?\"\n\"They are very discontented,\" agreed Andrew. \"Herod has crushed them so\nthat they are ready to do about anything.\"\nFor a distance they walked in silence. Finally Simon said: \"I cannot\nunderstand what it is about the Master. Even evil spirits seem to fear\nhim!\"\n\"Do you suppose this trip has made the others feel the way we do?\"\nwondered Andrew.\nWhen Simon and Andrew arrived in Capernaum, they found that James, John,\nand the Zealot had returned ahead of them. They were telling Jesus about\ntheir experiences.\n\"The evil spirits themselves obeyed us in your name!\" exclaimed John.\n\"You have good reason to rejoice,\" answered Jesus. \"Nevertheless, you\nshould rejoice because you have done the will of God--not because you\nhave conquered evil spirits.\"\n\"Well, Master,\" remarked the Zealot practically, \"not everyone was glad\nto see us. I had trouble with the Pharisees. They just argue and argue.\"\n\"We talked to them too,\" said Andrew. He was troubled. \"Many times we\ntried to tell them the news of the eternal Kingdom, but they would never\nreceive what we said.\"\n\"Do you remember the story of the Sower, Andrew?\" asked Jesus.\n\"I never understood what you meant. Master,\" answered Andrew.\n\"Listen carefully. The farmer who went out to sow was planting the seed\nof eternal life. Some fell on the road at the edge of the field, and the\nbirds ate it up. This is like the person who hears my word but\nimmediately forgets because Satan robs him of it.\n\"Some of the seed fell on stony soil. It grew fast, but when the hot sun\nshone it withered away because it had weak roots. This is like the\nperson who is very enthusiastic at first, but as soon as he has to work\nor suffer, he gives up.\n\"Other seed fell among weeds, which kept it from growing strong. This is\nlike the person who hears the word but is so worried or busy trying to\nget ahead of other people that he forgets all about God.\n\"But then there is the seed that fell on good soil; it grew deep roots\nand produced a fine harvest. This is like the person who hears and\nreally understands my words. He knows what eternal life is, and helps\nother people to find it.\"\n\"Do you know,\" the Zealot broke in, \"I should not be surprised if some\nof the Pharisees would join us when we show our strength!\"\n\"My Kingdom is not of this world,\" answered Jesus. \"No one who is\nseeking political power will join us. Only persons who want to do the\nwill of God belong in my Kingdom.\"\n\"But, Master,\" responded the Zealot, \"almost everyone listened eagerly\nto us! It will not be difficult to start the Kingdom in Galilee!\"\n\"We probably could unite the Jews against Herod,\" replied Jesus, \"but\nthat is not our business. God sent me into the world to proclaim the\nnews of an eternal Kingdom!\"\nSimon turned to the Zealot. \"You seem to think the people listened only\nbecause they hope we will free them from the Romans. I do not doubt that\nthey would be glad to be rid of the Romans; but from what I saw, I think\nthey listened because we told them about the rule of God!\"\n\"Isn't that the same thing?\" retorted the Zealot.\nJesus saw that most of the disciples still did not understand clearly\nwhat he was trying to do. But he had little opportunity to explain\nfurther, because the people of Capernaum were every day crowding to the\nhome of Simon. When all of the Twelve had at last returned from their\nmission, he said to them, \"Let us cross the lake and find a quiet place\nwhere we can rest and talk.\"\nThey hoped to leave unseen, but many people followed them down to the\nlake where Simon's boat was.\n\"Don't you see what I mean?\" exclaimed the Zealot. \"What a wonderful\nchance we have to lead them against Herod!\"\n\"Let us go over toward Bethsaida,\" replied Jesus. \"I know a hill where\nvery few people pass by.\" James and John turned the boat toward the\nhills nearly three miles across the lake.\nThe disappointed people watched Jesus and the disciples push off. A few\nmen left the group and began to walk along the shore. Soon the others\nrealized that they were going to go on foot around the lake. Some\nwalked, but others ran.\n\"I believe the whole crowd is going to follow us,\" remarked Andrew,\nlooking back.\n\"They are like sheep without a shepherd,\" remarked Jesus.\nBy the time the disciples had rowed across the lake, the people were\nbeginning to arrive. \"I think I know a place where we can get away from\nthem,\" said Philip. He had lived in this part of the country.\n\"We cannot send them away, Philip,\" answered Jesus. When the boat landed\nhe led the crowd to a grassy spot on the hillside overlooking the lake\nbelow.\nAll afternoon Jesus taught them. When at last the sun touched the hills\nof Galilee across the lake, the disciples interrupted.\n\"Master,\" they said, \"don't you think we had better send them away\nbefore it gets dark?\"\n\"It is late,\" added Philip, \"and there is no place to buy food here.\nThey will need to go to the villages.\"\n\"That isn't necessary, is it?\" said Jesus. \"You give them something to\neat.\"\nThe disciples looked at him blankly. \"We didn't bring any provisions\nwith us. Master,\" said James. \"And besides, even if we had, it would\nnever be enough to feed this crowd!\"\nJesus turned to Philip. \"What shall we do, Philip?\"\n\"Master, even if there were a town near here, it would take far more\nmoney than we have to buy enough food to give each person a tiny bit!\"\n\"How many loaves have we all together?\" asked Jesus.\nThe disciples found, as they expected, that the people had brought no\nfood. \"This seems foolish to me,\" remarked James. Finally Andrew found a\nboy with some loaves and fish. The boy let Andrew take the lunch to\nJesus.\n\"Tell the people to sit down in groups,\" said Jesus. Before them all he\nheld one of the loaves in his hands and thanked God for it; then he\nbroke it in pieces. \"Distribute this among the people,\" he instructed\nthe disciples.\n\"This boy's loaves and fish will satisfy your hunger now,\" said Jesus to\nthe eager crowd. \"If you eat only this kind of food, you will eventually\ndie. I have another kind to give you: if you will eat the Bread of\neternal life, you will never die!\n\"Come and eat this Bread--you will never hunger again. You must hear and\nbelieve my word, for the Father in heaven has sent me to you.\"\nWhile the people ate, they whispered among themselves in amazement.\nWhere had this food come from? They could hardly believe what the people\nnear Jesus said: that he had broken the loaves and fish again and again,\nuntil everyone had enough.\nThe Zealot turned to James. \"They will do anything for a person who\ngives them food,\" he said.\nJesus knew the people were thinking how good it was to receive the food.\n\"God sent manna to your ancestors while they were in the desert,\" he\ncried out, \"but they died. The true Bread from heaven gives you eternal\nlife. Eat this Bread and you shall never hunger again!\"\n\"Give us this Bread!\" called out a man in the crowd. \"We do not want to\nbe hungry any more.\"\n\"Do not follow me because I give you loaves and fish--that kind of food\nperishes,\" replied Jesus. \"Rather, believe my word, in order that you\nmay have eternal life!\"\nBut the people could think only of the free food Jesus had given them.\nThey paid no attention to his words. \"We will do anything for you!\" they\ncried. Then another shout grew loud.\n\"You shall be our king! You shall be our king!\"\n\"They are going to compel him to be king!\" exclaimed the Zealot.\nJesus turned his back and called his disciples about him.\n\"What is he going to do?\" The Zealot was alarmed. \"Surely he won't miss\nthis opportunity?\"\n\"Let us go,\" said Jesus to the Twelve, starting toward the lake shore.\nThe Zealot caught Jesus' arm. \"But, Master....\" He let go as Simon\ngripped his shoulder.\n\"He will be king all right,\" Simon told him. \"But he is not the kind of\nking these people want. I am sure of that.\"\nThe crowd were dumfounded to see Jesus leave them so quickly. A few\nattempted to follow, but they soon realized that twilight was swiftly\nfading into the darkness of night and they turned back.\n\"You row across to Capernaum by yourselves,\" said Jesus to the\ndisciples. \"I will follow later.\" The wondering men got into the boat\nand rowed away. Jesus stood watching them as they disappeared in the\ndeep twilight. Then he turned and walked alone into the shadowy hills.\n\"Sometimes I wonder if he knows what he is doing!\" burst out the Zealot,\nbitterly disappointed. \"What an opportunity! He just turned his back on\nthem!\"\n\"You know he has no desire for political power,\" said John.\n\"How can we ever establish the government of God if we never do anything\npractical?\" asked the Zealot. \"What will his teachings ever amount to\nunless we put them in the place of the old laws?\"\nSimon could not forget the words of Jesus. \"He did not say, 'I am your\nKing.' He said, 'I am the Bread of Life.'\"\n\"What do you mean?\" asked the Zealot.\n\"Are you sure he intends to start a rebellion?\" asked Simon.\n\"I don't know what else all this talk of a Kingdom could mean!\"\n\"If he were an ordinary political leader--or even a Rabbi--there would\nbe no other way,\" said Simon, reflectively. \"But there is something\nabout him that makes me think he is not going to do what we expect at\nall!\"\nA gust of cold wind struck them, and the men looked up. Even the western\nsky was black. The boat was in the middle of the lake. Out of the dark\nnight the wind blew in ever stronger gusts.\n\"We're in for a squall,\" said James, worried. The boat rolled. It was\nheavily loaded, and water splashed in.\n\"Steer into the waves,\" called Simon. James and John tried to pull the\nboat around, but the wind had caught them. The boat swung broadside and\nlurched dangerously in the trough of the waves. Water poured in. Simon\nstepped swiftly to the center and sat down beside James. Together they\npulled the heavy oar; after a tense moment the boat swung slowly around.\n\"We've got to bail this water out,\" said Simon. More came over the side\nwith each roll.\n\"If we don't get this water out, we'll never get to shore,\" shouted\nSimon.\n\"What can we do?\" cried the Zealot. Waves continued to leap over the\nside into the boat. Desperately the men tried to bail out the water.\n\"We'll never make it!\" they cried, seized by panic.\nAndrew clutched John's shoulder. \"Look! What's that?\" He pointed out\ninto the blackness.\n\"It's a ghost!\" screamed one of the Twelve. The men forgot the waves.\nTerror gripped them. \"O Father in heaven,\" cried Simon, \"save us!\"\n\"Do not be afraid! It is I!\"\nGradually it came to the men that it was the voice of Jesus they were\nhearing. \"Oh, save us. Master!\" Fear began to melt away. Jesus was in\ntheir midst.\n\"Why are you terrified?\" he asked. \"Have you no faith, even after being\nwith me all this time?\"\nThe white crest on the waves disappeared. The boat lay deep in the\nwater, but danger was past. Almost afraid to look, the disciples turned\nto Jesus. Who could he be--that he had power to calm the storm?\n\"Did I not give life to the little child in Capernaum?\" said Jesus. \"Did\nI not give bread to the hungry crowds? Do you not yet understand?\"\n[Illustration]\n10. \"YOU ARE THE CHRIST\"\nThe household of Symeon the Pharisee was stirring with excitement.\nDuring the day the servants had put the house in perfect order, and now\nthe cooks were preparing a banquet for the evening. Symeon himself was\ntrying to make up his mind whether he should wear his highly ornamented\nrobe. Finally he decided against it and chose another with fine cloth\nbut very few trimmings. A sensible Pharisee did not try to dress too\nelegantly when an important official was to be his guest.\nThe banquet table was beautiful. The servants had lighted candles to\ncelebrate the victory of the great Jewish general, Judas Maccabaeus, who\nhad driven foreign tyrants out of Palestine and purified the Temple two\nhundred years before. There was roast lamb, deliciously cooked, and all\nthe best food which Symeon could afford to set before his guest of\nhonor. Nothing could be too good for a scribe sent by the highest\nauthority of the Jewish religion, the high priest himself!\nNot until late in the evening did Symeon's visitor arrive from his long\njourney. At dinner the men ate in dignified silence, but Symeon was\nburning with curiosity. The messenger who had brought news of the\narrival of the scribe had told Symeon only that the high priest desired\nmore information about certain things that were happening in Galilee.\nSymeon was sure that the matter concerned Jesus of Nazareth.\nOnly when he had finished the dinner did the scribe speak to Symeon.\n\"You are a generous host, my friend.\"\nSymeon smiled and bowed his head gratefully. The scribe settled himself\ncomfortably. \"I come on very delicate business. It must remain a\nsecret.\" The servants came in to clear the table, and he stopped\nspeaking. Then Symeon sent them out and closed the door. \"The high\npriest tells me that you know this Jesus of Nazareth. Have you kept a\nclose watch on him during the last few months?\"\n\"Yes,\" replied Symeon, complimented by this confidential question. \"I\nknow all that he has done.\"\n\"As you remember, several months ago we ordered the elders of all the\ncongregations to keep this Nazarene out of our synagogues,\" continued\nthe scribe. \"But of course that did not keep him from preaching to the\npeople in public places.\" He looked keenly at Symeon. \"Not a word of\nthis must come to the common people!\"\n\"Naturally,\" agreed Symeon.\n\"Very well, then,\" said the scribe. \"Do you think that we can convince\nhis followers that their Rabbi is not to be trusted?\"\n\"That will be hard,\" answered Symeon. \"He is more popular than ever.\"\nThen he told the scribe in detail how Jesus had fed the crowd of five\nthousand people.\n\"It sounds as though he might even have it in his power to persuade them\nto revolt,\" observed the scribe when Symeon had finished.\n\"They actually did try to make him their king!\" exclaimed Symeon.\n\"Does Herod know about that?\" asked the man.\n\"We have told some of the people at his court about it,\" replied Symeon.\n\"If you want to know what I think--Herod is afraid to do anything! He\nthinks the Nazarene is John the Baptizer risen from the dead!\"\n\"But this Jesus is as dangerous to Herod as he is to us!\" exclaimed the\nscribe.\n\"That may be true, but just the same Herod knows that the people like\nJesus,\" said Symeon. \"Still, I am sure the king would put a quick end to\nthis small-town prophet if it could be done without stirring up the\npeople.\"\n\"Look, my friend,\" declared the scribe. \"You know as well as I do that\nthese common folk will not follow anyone who goes too far for them. From\nwhat you have told me, we ought not to have much trouble showing these\nsimple Galileans that he is not a loyal Jew at all.\"\nSymeon laughed bitterly. \"Every day he breaks the tradition a hundred\ntimes!\" A frown came over his face. \"The trouble is--the people like\nit!\"\n\"That may be partly true,\" admitted the scribe. \"But I believe these\ncountry people are still real Jews at heart. They may be crude and\nuneducated, but they will never follow anyone who is trying to destroy\nthe Law and break down our religion. The Nazarene can break a regulation\nhere and there, and they like it--yes! But let him say anything against\nMoses, or Abraham, or the great Rabbis--they will desert him by the\nhundreds!\"\n\"If that happened, Herod would throw the whole band of them in prison\nwithout delay,\" replied Symeon enthusiastically. \"I believe you have\nstruck on the way to stop this false Rabbi!\"\nThe scribe lowered his voice. \"When do you think we could find him with\nsome of his followers?\"\n\"He is always at the lake in the morning,\" replied Symeon.\nAbout ten o'clock the next day, the men stepped into the sunlit street\nin front of Symeon's home. Over their shoulders each wore a short cape,\nbeautifully decorated with four blue tassels, one at each corner. Many\nJews wore this cape, but only the Pharisees added extra long blue\ntassels.\nThey descended the cobblestone street from the high part of Capernaum\nwhere Symeon lived and went toward the lake below. People bowed and\nsmiled, but the two men paid no attention. They were used to having\npeople make way for them. They strode into the crowded market place,\nalready hot under the rays of the morning sun. The hoofs of many animals\nhad raised a cloud of dust. Everywhere farmers and fishermen were\nshouting, trying to catch the ear of persons who came to buy. Only the\ndonkeys, laboring under huge baskets of food, refused to budge for the\nofficials.\nAfter a short walk through the narrow streets of Capernaum, Symeon\ncaught sight of the lake, blue and cool, dancing in the sunlight. He\npointed ahead of them. \"The Nazarene is usually on the shore a little\nway beyond those fishing boats.\" They were approaching a group of\nfishermen who had drawn up their boats and spread nets on the beach.\n\"We must show these people that he is not merely meddling with parts of\nthe Law,\" remarked the scribe. \"The fact is that he is not a true Jew at\nall!\"\nA group of people had gathered on the shore, just to the right of the\nroad. \"There they are!\" exclaimed Symeon.\nThe two men stopped briefly at the edge of the circle of people and then\nwalked boldly up to Jesus. Seeing their robes, everyone made way. \"It is\nwidely reported, Rabbi,\" said the scribe, \"that your disciples do not\nkeep all the sacred customs of our religion.\"\nJesus answered them the same way he spoke to the common people that sat\naround him. \"Where do your customs come from?\" he asked directly.\nJust the opening they wanted! The scribe did not miss his chance.\n\"Moses himself gave us these commands,\" he declared. \"Yet I heard that\nyour disciples do not wash their hands before meals as Moses commanded\nus.\"\nWithout a moment's hesitation Jesus retorted: \"Have you forgotten that\nMoses also commanded you to honor your father and your mother? Yet you\nhave made up a rule that allows a rich man to say to his aged parents,\n'I can't support you--I have given all my money to God.' The fact is\nthat he has not given it to God at all; he has only paid a fee to the\npriests!\" Jesus was indignant. \"You talk about Moses, but you yourselves\nbreak his commands!\"\nThe scribe had to defend himself. \"This rule was made by one of our\ngreat rabbis,\" he said.\n\"You have put human rules in the place of the commands of God,\" declared\nJesus. \"Isaiah was talking about you when he said, 'These people give me\nrespect with their mouths, but their hearts are far away from me!'\"\n\"Do you dare attack the great Rabbis?\" demanded the scribe angrily.\n\"Every true Jew at least respects their words. Yet you say that a man\nneed not purify his hands before he eats!\"\n\"It is not what goes into a man's mouth that hurts him,\" replied Jesus,\nquietly. \"It is the things that come out of a man--his words and\ndeeds--that harm him.\"\n\"Are you saying that we should disobey this law?\" retorted the scribe.\n\"Moses himself gave us this command!\"\n\"You cannot find eternal life just by keeping rules,\" replied Jesus. The\nwatching people wondered at his calmness. \"If you are really in search\nof the Kingdom of God, repent!\"\nDramatically the scribe turned to the people. \"Do you see?\" he demanded.\n\"This man is not one of us! He wants to change the laws that Moses has\ngiven us! He is dangerous--do not believe him!\" He stalked through the\nawe-struck crowd and left, followed by Symeon.\nFor a long time, Jesus sat silently before the people. By the time he\nfinally spoke, they were all wondering what he could say.\n\"The door of the Kingdom of Heaven is open to anyone who will put his\ntrust in God,\" said Jesus quietly. \"The scribes and Pharisees claim that\nthey keep the Law of Moses. They say they speak with God's authority. Do\nwhat they tell you if you want to--but do not act the way they do! They\nhave made so many rules for you that no one can obey them all! Do they\nhelp you enter the Kingdom? No! They make life easy for themselves and\nimpossible for all others! They do all they can to attract attention.\nEvery day their tassels get longer! They sit in the most important\nplaces at feasts! They love the front seats at the synagogue! How they\nenjoy having people step out of their way and say, 'Good morning,\nteacher'! Men who belong to God's Kingdom do not want to be called\nRabbi; they are all brothers and have only one Father, God in heaven.\"\nHe stood up. \"Let us leave this place,\" he said.\nSimon fell in step with Jesus as they turned toward Capernaum. The sun\nwas still as bright; the waves on the lake danced as merrily as before,\nbut the disciples took no joy in the beauty of the day.\n\"Master, those men are trying to set the people against us,\" said Simon,\ndeeply concerned.\n\"They can do nothing against God,\" replied Jesus.\n\"But they are deceiving many people,\" warned Simon.\n\"Anyone who will believe them is blind to my gospel,\" said Jesus sadly.\n\"Let them follow these blind leaders, if they insist--they will come to\nthe same bad end!\"\nIt soon became plain that Simon was right: the scribe's attack on Jesus\nwas having a serious effect. The next day each of the twelve disciples\nwent to a different place in Capernaum to preach the news of the Kingdom\nof God. At the end of the afternoon, Andrew stopped to visit a fisherman\nwhom he had known since childhood. \"The men ought to be coming in from\nthe lake soon,\" observed the wife of Andrew's friend. The dogs outside\nbegan to bark. \"There they are now!\"\n\"Andrew!\" An older man entered. \"I am glad to see you. What is this I\nhear about you these days?\" He sat down for a moment before washing.\n\"Have you been getting along all right since you left your fishing? What\nis your Master doing? I hear some very bad rumors!\"\nAndrew was taken back. \"Why, I don't know what you mean.\"\n\"Well, perhaps I should not have mentioned it,\" the old fisherman said.\n\"But I thought you could tell me the truth, if anyone could.\"\n\"What have you heard?\" asked Andrew, puzzled.\n\"Everyone is talking about your Rabbi,\" answered the man. \"Is it true,\nwhat they are saying?\"\n\"I know nothing about it,\" said Andrew.\n\"I thought you would have heard,\" said the man, hesitating. \"One of the\nfishermen who listens to Jesus told us today that he intends to destroy\nthe Jewish religion!\"\n\"That is nonsense!\" cried Andrew. \"Where did he ever....\" Suddenly it\ncame to him: This was what the scribe was telling people! \"Look here,\"\nsaid Andrew with great earnestness. \"Do you really think that Jesus is\ntrying to keep people from believing in God and serving him?\"\n\"Oh, I didn't say that!\" laughed the old fisherman. \"I was only telling\nyou what I heard.\" A questioning tone came into his voice. \"But he\n_does_ say that you do not have to obey Moses, doesn't he?\"\nAndrew did not know what to answer. It was true that Jesus had said\nthere were more important things than purifying the hands before eating!\n\"There is something else I heard,\" continued the older man. \"How could a\nreally great Rabbi come from Nazareth? That town does not amount to\nanything.\"\n\"What difference does it make where he comes from?\" protested Andrew.\nThe old man shrugged and stood up. \"It is a serious matter for your\nJesus to say all the great Rabbis are wrong. I always wondered if you\nknew what you were doing when you gave up fishing.\" He looked keenly at\nAndrew. \"Today I took time off to go to listen to him myself. He talks\nas if he knew more about God's will than Moses did! He goes too far for\nme. After all, I am a Jew!\" Abruptly he changed the subject. \"Will you\nstay for supper, Andrew?\"\n\"No ... no. I think I had better be going,\" murmured Andrew. Hurriedly\nhe left. He was much upset by the words of this trusted friend. Purple\nshadows filled the narrow streets. Most of the people were already\nindoors. Andrew felt terribly alone. In his haste he tripped over a\nbroken cart wheel and he was startled by its loud clatter on the paving.\nHe began to run. He was relieved to get to Simon's home.\nJesus had not yet returned, but Andrew found the other disciples in the\nmidst of a serious conversation. \"Everything the Master does proves that\nGod's power is in him,\" John was saying. \"We need him! Everybody in\nthis city needs him!\"\nAndrew burst out: \"Have you heard what people are saying? That scribe is\ntelling everyone that we are trying to wipe out the whole Jewish\nreligion!\"\n\"That is what we are talking about,\" said Simon. Andrew sat down as\nSimon turned to John. \"Of course, it is true that the Master really does\nput his own teaching above the command of Moses.\"\n\"I know he does,\" answered John passionately, \"and he is right! What\nshould we do without him? We have already given up everything to follow\nhim!\" He jumped to his feet and began to pace back and forth.\n\"Many people are leaving us,\" said James, greatly worried. \"We shall\nsoon have nobody.\"\n\"Can he really be right and all the Rabbis and Pharisees and scribes\nwrong?\" exclaimed Andrew. \"If he were the Messiah, I should feel\ndifferent, but....\" He stopped. The other men were staring at him. The\nMessiah!\nAt that moment Jesus entered the room. He saw James's anxiety. John\nstopped walking. Andrew was flushed with excitement. His last remark had\nstamped an expression of amazement and doubt on the faces of all the\nmen.\n\"My followers,\" said Jesus, grasping their thoughts immediately, \"do not\nbe troubled. You believe in God, believe also in me.\" He sat in the\nmidst of them. \"God has sent me into the world with the light of his\ngospel. I have not come to condemn the world, but to save people from\ndarkness. If they do not believe my word, that is because they love\ndarkness better than the light.\" John went back to his place and slumped\ndown. \"Those who are truly seeking God know that our gospel is true and\ncome to us,\" continued Jesus. \"But those who turn away from us do it for\njust one reason: their lives are evil. It is true that they obey many\nlaws and seem very religious, but their hearts are proud. They do not\nreally depend on God. They do not live close to him. They cannot endure\nthe truth which shows them that they are in darkness.\"\nAfter a long silence, Andrew rose and walked out into the cool night. He\nlooked up at the clear stars and wondered how long it would be before\nthey would look down on a happy nation, ruled by God's Messiah. The\nturmoil in his heart had quieted while Jesus spoke. The new moon, thin\nas a curved sword, gleamed high above. A faint wind rattled the palms on\nthe street in front of the house. Simon came out.\n\"What if everyone leaves us, Simon?\" asked Andrew abruptly.\nSimon's answer was firm. \"He is the only one who has a message of\neternal life. If we leave him, to whom can we go?\"\nJesus had seen how terribly disturbed the disciples were by the\ncriticisms against him. Therefore, very early the next morning before\nthe people began to come to market, he took them to the lake. They had\nno idea where he was leading them as they stepped into Simon's boat.\nWhat a relief it was to be away from the crowds of Capernaum! They were\nglad for the silence of the lake, smooth as a mirror in the calm of the\ndawn, after the noise and bustle of street and market. Through the mist\nthe men could see a few fishermen working hard to gather in their nets\nwith the night's catch of fish. Simon and Andrew recognized them, but\nthe men did not look up and the disciples passed unseen. In the days\nwhen they too had gathered nets in the morning the four fishermen had\nalways been glad to feel the warming rays of the sun breaking through\nthe blanket of fog. The mist began now to tear into ragged pieces,\nclinging here and there to the lake. The disciples caught sight of the\nstately crest of Mount Hermon to the north, white with summer snow,\nstanding guard over all Galilee. A breeze sprang up and blew the\nremaining mist to tatters. Little wisps of fog chased each other over\nthe surface of the water as though ashamed to be caught by the sun.\nJesus turned his gaze from the noble mountain ahead of them and spoke to\nthe disciples. \"I must warn you against the tricks of the Pharisees and\nscribes. Their false arguments sometimes sound reasonable, but the evil\npurpose of these men grows like a nasty mold. It will creep into your\nvery hearts and destroy the Bread of Life.\"\nJames leaned over to Philip. \"That reminds me--did you bring enough food\nfor this trip?\"\n\"The provisions ought to be stored under the stern seat,\" answered\nPhilip.\nJames reached under the seat. \"Nothing here,\" he said.\n\"What! No food?\" The other disciples had heard what he said. They were\nhungry. They forgot that Jesus was speaking. \"Look under the front seat,\nAndrew,\" said Simon. The men searched everywhere; there was but one loaf\nin the boat. James turned to Philip in a temper. \"What in the world are\nwe going to eat?\"\nJesus had watched them without saying a word. Now he spoke. \"My\nfollowers, what have you to worry about?\"\n\"This stupid Philip forgot to bring the food!\" said James, irritated.\n\"Have you ever gone hungry when you were with me?\" asked Jesus\npatiently. \"You have seen me feed crowds--and yet you do not trust me!\nMany times you have heard me say that I am the Bread of Life--and now\nyou are worried about your stomachs!\" Tempers cooled as quickly as they\nhad risen. \"Do you not understand the meaning of the things I do?\" asked\nJesus.\n\"You are right. Master,\" said James, shamefaced. \"We should not worry\nabout food.\"\n\"Is that all I mean to you?\" asked Jesus. \"You do not understand why I\nfed the people, do you?\"\nSimon and John brought the boat to land at a deserted spot near the\nfishing village of Bethsaida, and Jesus led the men north along the\nJordan toward the Lebanon Mountains. For three days they traveled,\nfinally reaching the narrow valleys of the foothills of the Lebanons.\nThe land was hilly but very fertile. Many people lived here: a few Jews\nbut many gentiles. The disciples had never traveled this far north\nbefore. As the mountains grew higher, they turned westward toward the\nMediterranean Sea. Jesus chose this road because he believed he could\nfind privacy in which to teach the disciples.\nHowever, things were not as Jesus hoped. About ten miles from Sidon, a\ngentile city on the seacoast, they passed through a small village. The\ndisciples thought they had not been recognized, but a short distance\nbeyond the town John said, \"There is someone following us!\"\nThe others glanced around. A woman was coming after them. \"Let us hurry\non,\" said Simon. \"Perhaps she will drop back.\" All of them quickened\ntheir pace. After a moment Simon glanced around again. \"She is running\nafter us!\"\nThe woman cried out: \"O thou Son of David! Have pity on me!\"\nJesus paid no attention. \"Have mercy on me, Son of David!\" cried the\nwoman desperately. \"My daughter has an evil spirit!\"\nStill Jesus walked on. \"Send her away, Master,\" said Simon. \"She is just\ngoing to keep on wailing behind us.\"\nJesus stopped. \"God has sent me only to the lost sheep of the flock of\nIsrael.\"\n\"And she is a gentile,\" said James with satisfaction. When the woman\novertook them, he was sure Jesus would send her away.\nKneeling, the woman said, \"Do help me, Lord!\"\nThe disciples were taken back. How did she dare call him \"Lord\"! Who did\nshe think he was?\nWhen Jesus spoke to the woman his voice was kindly, but the words seemed\nharsh: \"Woman, it is not fair to take the children's food and throw it\nto the dogs under the table.\"\n_That will show her she has no right to bother us_, thought James.\nBut James was mistaken. \"No, Master,\" the woman answered smiling, \"but\nthe dogs can wait patiently for the crumbs to fall from the children's\ntable, can't they?\"\nJesus' face lighted up. \"O woman, you have great faith! You have found\nthe Kingdom of God. Go back to your daughter; your prayer is granted.\"\nThe disciples were aghast. James burst out, \"Master, what can this\nmean?\"\n\"How can a gentile be included in our Kingdom?\" demanded Simon.\n\"Do you not yet understand why I have come?\" answered Jesus. \"My Father\nsent me to declare that all who are far away from him may come back if\nthey will repent. The Kingdom of God belongs to anyone who will come.\"\n\"But that cannot mean all the gentiles,\" protested Simon.\n\"You have forgotten what the Prophet Hosea once said,\" replied Jesus.\n\"To certain people it was said at one time, 'You do not belong to\nGod'--but now these very people are the children of God!\" There was\nfinality in Jesus' voice, and the disciples could say nothing more as\nthe woman went home to her daughter.\nJesus knew from their sullen silence that the disciples resented his\nkindness to the gentile woman. He saw Simon, Andrew, and James drop\nbehind the group.\n\"How can he do a thing like that?\" fumed Simon. \"He came to help\noutcasts--but not gentiles!\"\n\"She had the impudence to call him 'Lord'!\" remarked Andrew.\nNevertheless, not one of them dared complain against Jesus even though\nthey went on talking among themselves after they left the country around\nSidon. Jesus made it so hard for them to follow him! Yet they were bound\nto him, and nothing could drive them away.\nJesus did not enter Sidon, but turned back toward the mountain passes\nthat led toward Caesarea Philippi, a city near the foot of Mount Hermon.\nThe disciples had preached the good news of the Kingdom in the villages\nof upper Galilee, and every day they saw people that they recognized.\nBut something seemed to be wrong. When they had preached before, the\npeople had welcomed them with joy. But now people hardly even greeted\nthem! What had happened? Had they forgotten the Rabbi from Nazareth who\nhad healed their sick? Where were the people who had said that Jesus had\nchanged their lives and given them new hope?\n\"Have the rumors about us spread here too?\" asked James in despair.\n\"Do you wonder the people think he goes to extremes?\" asked James\nbitterly. \"If they knew he told a gentile woman she could share in our\nKingdom, everyone would turn away from us!\"\n\"Sometimes it almost seems as though the scribes were right!\" confessed\nAndrew.\nSimon caught him up instantly. \"Do you think that Jesus is trying to\ndestroy the faith of our nation?\" he asked sharply. Andrew did not\nanswer.\n\"Why did we follow him in the first place, brother?\" urged Simon. Still\nAndrew said nothing--but he knew what Simon meant.\n\"Should we go back to our fishing, Andrew?\"\n\"Oh, no!\" answered Andrew, thinking of the hopeless years before Jesus\ncame. \"That could never be.\"\n\"God has sent him to open a new day for us!\" declared Simon firmly.\nJesus had been walking with Philip, but now he dropped back beside the\nother disciples. The road lay between high rock walls. Their footsteps\nrang with a hollow sound. The shadows were deep; no other travelers were\nin sight. James said quietly, \"We were just talking about what people\nare saying, Master.\"\n\"What do they say about me?\" asked Jesus. Simon knew that he sensed the\ndiscouragement and doubt of his followers.\n\"The Pharisees say that you are trying to break down the Law of Moses,\"\nreplied John hesitantly. There was a long silence.\n\"Some people think you are John the Baptizer risen from the dead,\" added\nAndrew.\nThe Zealot said: \"I hear some saying that you are Elijah come down from\nheaven to prepare the way of the Messiah. That is what I thought at\nfirst.\" A tiny stream of water, flowing over a rock, could be heard in\nthe silence that followed the Zealot's remark.\n\"What else do people say about me?\" persisted Jesus.\n\"Many people think that you are a prophet. Master,\" answered Simon.\nJesus looked quietly at the men around him. When he spoke his words came\ndeliberately. His voice was strong and deep. \"But, Simon, who do you\nbelieve I am?\"\nTo Simon, Jesus' question was like a powerful beam of light shining into\nthe darkest corners of his mind, driving away the last black shadows of\ndoubt. With a sigh he raised his head and caught sight of the brilliant\nblue sky high above the dark valley that shut them in. The answer to\nhis Master's question was as clear as that sunny sky--why had he not\nknown it before? Simon's lips moved; then came his answer: \"You are the\nChrist, the Son of the living God.\"\n[Illustration]\n11. A SECRET IS TOLD\n\"You are the Christ--the Son of the living God!\" Against the high rock\nwalls of the narrow ravine, the words echoed in the disciples' ears. For\nmany months not one of them had dared to say that he believed this was\ntrue--but now Simon had confessed it plainly.\n\"Simon,\" declared Jesus, \"unless God had taught you this, you could\nnever have known it. From this time on your name will be Peter, the\nRock. On the solid rock of faith like yours, I will build my Church--and\nnothing shall ever destroy it!\n\"Whoever puts his faith in God is a member of my Kingdom. To you\"--he\nlooked around at all the disciples now--\"I have entrusted the keys to\nthe door of my Kingdom. If you teach men to believe in me, they shall\nenter!\"\n\"We will tell every Jew that you are the Messiah!\" burst out the Zealot\nenthusiastically.\n\"No!\" declared Jesus firmly. \"This must remain a complete secret.\"\nThe disciples were dumfounded. \"But, Master,\" protested Andrew, \"a\nMessiah whom nobody knows can never lead the people!\"\n\"Now is the time for action!\" exclaimed the Zealot.\n\"I have work to do which you do not understand,\" answered Jesus. \"I have\ncome to save the people--but in order to do it, I must first endure much\nsuffering.\"\n\"We are ready to fight for you,\" answered Judas.\n\"It will cost more than that,\" replied Jesus. \"I will be rejected by the\nhigh priest, the Pharisees, the scribes--and every authority in our\nnation.\"\n\"We can overcome them if we have to,\" said the Zealot impatiently.\nThe answer came like an exploding bomb. \"They are going to kill me,\"\ndeclared Jesus plainly.\nThe men looked at him speechless. \"They may try to kill you,\" blurted\nAndrew, \"but they can never do it!\"\n\"I must die,\" repeated Jesus. \"There is no other way for me to finish\nthe work that God sent me to do.\"\nA great force rose within Simon Peter; words flooded his lips. \"No! This\ncannot be! God would never let it happen! He has sent you to lead us!\nYou cannot die!\"\nJesus' stern voice cut him short, \"Get behind me, Satan! You are not on\nthe side of God when you talk like that. You make it harder for me to do\nwhat I was sent to do! If I were to do what you want, I could never do\nmy Father's work!\"\n\"Master, how can you say such a thing!\" protested Andrew, defending his\nbrother.\n\"You do not know God's purpose,\" answered Jesus, turning quickly. \"You\nhave your own idea about what I should do--but you do not know the will\nof God!\" Then Jesus spoke with great force to all the disciples. \"I am\nnot going to lead you to the victory you expect. If you are determined\nto follow me, you will suffer. No one who seeks worldly gain is fit to\nbe my disciple. But if you are willing to lose your life for my\nsake--then you will find eternal life!\"\nPeter was humiliated. To think that the Master could accuse him of\nserving the evil one!\n\"Peter,\" said Jesus, now gentle, \"the people of Israel have many\nneeds--but I am sent to bring them eternal life in his Kingdom.\" Peter\nsat with his eyes cast down. Jesus spoke to all the men.\n\"There was once a time when I was tempted to preach some other message,\"\ncontinued Jesus. \"Soon after I was baptized by John in the Jordan River,\nI went alone into the wilderness to pray and to seek the will of the\nHeavenly Father. For forty days I fasted. The Tempter came to me in a\nvision and said to me, 'If you are really the Son of God, turn this\nstone into bread!' I could have great power over men if I were willing\nto satisfy the desires of these hungry people!\" The disciples remembered\nhow Jesus had refused to listen to the five thousand people who tried to\nmake him their king.\n\"But I could not do that,\" continued Jesus. \"I remembered what the\nScriptures say: 'Man does not live only on bread--but on every word of\ntruth which comes from God.'\" Peter was looking at Jesus attentively.\n\"Then in my vision Satan took me to the highest spire on the roof of the\nTemple in Jerusalem,\" continued Jesus. \"'Leap down!' he said, 'you will\nnot be hurt: Aren't you the Messiah? The angels will protect you! When\nthese people see you do such a marvelous miracle they will all fall down\nand worship you!'\" Jesus paused. \"Do you see why this was wrong? The\nFather does not give me special protection. He did not send me into the\nworld to astonish people with miracles so that they will accept me--he\nhas sent me to tell them his message of life!\" The disciples again\nremembered another thing Jesus had refused to do: he would not perform a\nmiracle for the Pharisees! \"No man submits to the rule of God just\nbecause you amaze him with miracles!\"\nJesus spoke now to Peter. \"Finally Satan took me to the top of a great\nmountain where we could see every nation in the world. In my vision I\nsaw all the people who were oppressed by unjust kings. I saw all the\nwealth and power of the earth. Then Satan whispered in my ear, 'I will\ngive you power to do anything you wish--to help people all you want--if\nyou will give up this plan to proclaim the rule of God and will worship\nme!'\" Worship Satan! The idea sent a chill through the disciples.\n\"I did not come to set up a new empire on earth,\" declared Jesus,\nturning to the Zealot. \"That is not what God sent me to do! We must not\ndo our own will, but the will of the Father in heaven! I am here to\nproclaim an eternal Kingdom!\" There was a long silence. \"So I answered\nSatan, 'You shall worship the Lord your God, and him only shall you\nserve.'\"\nPeter now understood why Jesus had rebuked him. \"But if you die?\" he\nasked. \"How can you give men eternal life if you die?\"\n\"The Kingdom of God will come in great power when the Son of Man has\nrisen from the dead,\" declared Jesus.\nThe disciples were not sure what the Master meant by his last remark.\nThey had more than enough to think about. After a few minutes they\nclimbed out of the deep valley. Before them lay rolling woodland cut\ninto sections by deep ravines which carried swift streams to the Jordan.\nIt was very different from the rocky hills the disciples had traveled\nsince leaving the territory around Sidon.\n\"The Jordan River lies over there,\" said Simon, pointing east. The men\npaused and looked while they caught their breath. Heavy trees hanging\nover the edge of the deep river gorge concealed the stream itself.\n\"Do we have to go through there?\" inquired John. He remembered stories\nthat travelers told about this wild country: lions and wolves lurked in\nthe heavy growth of trees that covered the cliffs and gullies.\n\"If we go to Caesarea Philippi, we will,\" answered the Zealot. He was\nfamiliar with this part of the country, having traveled through it\nbefore as far east as Damascus. John looked inquiringly at Jesus.\n\"We will travel back to Capernaum in a few days,\" said Jesus. \"But first\nwe will go over toward Caesarea Philippi.\" He led them down the slope.\n\"I do not blame him for not wanting to go back to Galilee right away,\"\nremarked Andrew as they walked.\n\"The people certainly do not follow him as they once did,\" agreed Simon.\n\"Things are not as bad as he thinks,\" said Andrew. \"There are many\npeople who would go anywhere with us. These scribes have turned some\npeople against us, but we can win them back!\"\nSimon shook his head. \"Perhaps. But the Master has usually known what to\nexpect. He has not been wrong other times.\"\n\"Oh, I am sure it is just discouragement!\" insisted Andrew. \"He will get\nover it.\"\nPeter, however, was not satisfied. All the way down through the deep\nravines that descended to the Jordan he said nothing. The sun was behind\nthe hills by the time the disciples entered the dense growth of trees.\nThe road was narrow, and they had to pick their way with care because of\nroots and overhanging branches. John looked fearfully from left to right\nas they went farther and farther into the forest.\n\"I don't think it is very safe in here at night,\" he whispered to James.\nSeveral of the men were keeping a sharp watch, peering into the trees\nand turning to look behind. They wondered if Jesus knew that the tangled\nundergrowth might conceal vicious animals.\n\"He must want to cross the river before nightfall,\" answered James.\nPeter and Andrew took no notice of the blackness of the jungle. At last\nPeter said: \"The Master does not get easily discouraged. He means more\nthan we think when he says he is going to die. He will tell us plainly\nif we ask him.\"\n\"Oh, let's not talk to him now!\" replied Andrew quickly. \"I think we\nunderstand.\"\nPeter looked at him narrowly. \"We ought to ask him, Andrew,\" he\ninsisted. \"We must be sure!\"\n\"There is time enough later on.\" Andrew was evasive.\n\"I believe you are afraid of what he might say!\" Andrew would not meet\nhis brother's eyes. \"Come with me!\" Almost by force, Peter pulled his\nbrother along until they had overtaken Jesus.\n\"Master,\" said Peter, \"tell us plainly what you meant by saying that you\nmust die.\"\n\"If I go straight on with the task God has given me to do, I shall be\nkilled. You know what the Prophet says about God's servant: 'He was\ndespised, and rejected of men.'\"\n\"But, Master,\" interrupted Andrew, \"what good can dying do? If you are\nkilled, how can we ever save the Jews?\"\n\"Not even the Son knows the will of the Father in some matters,\" replied\nJesus. \"God's servants cannot always understand him. He asks us only to\nobey and trust him.\"\n\"You take away every hope!\" cried Andrew. \"What is going to become of\nus?\"\nPeter put his arm across his brother's shoulder to restrain him.\n\"Anyone who wants to save his own life will surely lose it,\" said Jesus\ngently. \"But if you are willing to lose your life for my sake, you will\nfind true life.\"\nAndrew's mind was whirling. He could not grasp the meaning of Jesus'\nwords. Only Peter's strong grip on his shoulder kept him from answering\nwith senseless protests.\nThey dropped behind the others and Andrew burst out: \"We are wrong! All\nthis time we have been wrong!\" He looked desperately at Peter and\nwhispered, \"Let us go back to our fishing boats, brother!\" They stood\nfacing each other in a little clearing.\nAndrew's panic shook Peter deeply. \"Then you do believe that the scribes\nand Pharisees are right, Andrew?\" But his brother would not answer.\n\"Do you think that the Master's power comes from Satan?\" Peter asked\nagain.\nAndrew sat down heavily on a rock at the side of the road and buried his\nface in his hands. Peter could hear him breathing hard as he murmured,\n\"Oh, I cannot escape from him--but I cannot understand him!\"\nThe other disciples had disappeared into the woods on the opposite edge\nof the open glade. Their footsteps quickly died away. The silence of the\nmurky forest settled around the two fishermen. Tears came through\nAndrew's fingers, but he made no sound. He did not observe that they\nwere alone.\n\"Come, brother,\" Peter urged anxiously, \"we must hurry. The others are\ngetting ahead of us. This forest is dangerous after dark.\"\nPeter was greatly relieved when he and Andrew finally caught up with the\nothers. A half hour later the men emerged from the forest and climbed\nthe slope that enclosed the basin of the Jordan on the eastern side of\nthe river. Their sandals were wet from fording the river, but they\nhardly noticed it, so relieved were they to be once again in open\ncountry.\nIt was almost totally dark now. Only dimly could they make out the bulk\nof Mount Hermon rising directly ahead of them, hiding the evening star.\nJesus led the tired men to an inn.\n\"He must have intended to lead us here,\" exclaimed John, catching sight\nof the faint glimmer of a lamp in the courtyard of the building. He,\nPeter, and James stayed in a single tiny room.\n\"This has been a hard day,\" remarked James wearily, stretching out on\nthe bed.\n\"I do not believe we shall leave Galilee again until we go to\nJerusalem,\" observed Peter.\n\"I wish we knew what would happen there,\" remarked John. \"Do you think\nhe will really be killed?\"\n\"You know what Andrew says,\" replied Peter, avoiding a direct answer.\n\"I cannot believe that the Master is just discouraged,\" stated James\nflatly. \"That is not like him.\"\nPeter nodded his agreement. He thought of how Andrew was inwardly torn.\n\"I cannot escape from him--but I cannot understand him!\" he had said.\nJames blew out the oil lamp. The men settled themselves for the night.\nPeter spoke. \"If we follow him to Jerusalem, we must be ready to suffer\nwith him. We must not doubt.\"\n\"Tell me, Simon Peter, how can the Messiah of God die?\" asked James.\nThe fishermen heard Peter sigh. \"How it can be ... I do not know. I know\nonly that we must decide whether we shall go on. Now is the time to\ndecide....\" His voice trailed off. Far into the night the fishermen\nstared open-eyed into the darkness. When at last they fell into a\ntroubled sleep, they were no nearer the answer.\nAt dawn there was a knock at the door of their room. The men stirred,\nand Peter rose. Scarcely visible in the faint light stood Jesus. Peter\nstepped back, and Jesus entered.\n\"Will you come to pray with me in the mountain?\" Jesus asked.\nThe men dressed and followed Jesus outside. The road on which the inn\nwas built lay at the foot of Mount Hermon. Its snowy crest rose\nmajestically above them, shining brilliantly in the morning sun. A few\ndays before, the fishermen had seen this peak above the mist that lay\nover the Lake of Galilee.\nThe beauty of the mountain would have lifted the spirits of men whose\nhearts were less heavy, but Peter, James, and John had awakened with the\nsame anxiety that had troubled their rest. They did not talk, but\nclimbed steadily toward the summit of the mountain.\nAt last Jesus stopped. Below them lay the valleys of Galilee. Far to the\nsouth a blanket of fog covered the lake. As Peter looked, he could not\nkeep back his homesickness; on the shore of that misty lake lived his\nwife and children. The flood of sunlight had gradually crept down the\nslope toward them, and now the four men felt its warmth. \"Let us kneel\nhere and pray,\" said Jesus.\nWhile Jesus and the three fishermen were away in the mountain, a strange\nscene occurred at the inn where the other nine disciples had just\nawakened. Early travelers were moving along the road in front of the\ninn. Among them came a man leading a donkey on which a boy was riding.\nHe stopped at the inn.\n\"Has Jesus of Nazareth passed this way?\" he asked the innkeeper, who was\nstanding there.\n\"Haven't heard anything about him,\" answered the man curtly. Suddenly he\nshouted, \"Watch out!\" The boy was falling off the donkey. His father\nleaped to catch him, but the donkey shied away and the boy fell heavily\nto the ground and lay still.\n\"Ah, my son!\" cried the father. He lifted the child gently and carried\nhim toward the inn.\n\"Here, you!\" shouted the owner roughly. \"Get that boy out of here. He\nhas a devil!\"\nThe father hesitated and then started toward a long bench. \"Let me lay\nhim here,\" he begged.\n\"Well, all right,\" grumbled the innkeeper. \"But don't take him inside.\"\nPeople had heard the noise and were looking out of the windows. Philip\nand the Zealot came through the doorway.\n\"What is the matter with your son?\" they asked sympathetically.\n\"He has falling sickness,\" answered the man. \"He often hurts himself\nthis way.\" He was wiping blood from a cut on the boy's pale forehead.\nThe lad opened his eyes and tried to rise.\n\"Stay there, my son,\" urged the father. He turned to Philip and the\nZealot. \"Can you tell me where I can find Jesus of Nazareth? I have\nheard wonderful reports of his power to heal.\"\nThe two disciples glanced at each other. At that moment Judas and Levi\ncame out of the inn.\n\"This man is looking for the Master,\" said Philip.\n\"Are you his followers?\" cried the man. \"I have traveled for five days\nto find you! If only you will heal my son!\"\nTravelers had stopped and clustered around the lad on the bench. Almost\nall the guests at the inn had come outside. The four disciples looked at\none another; none offered to heal the boy.\n\"Some of you visited my own village and healed many who had evil\nspirits,\" said the father hopefully. He could not understand why the men\nhesitated. They still made no move toward the boy. Andrew came out of\nthe inn.\n\"Can you heal my son?\" the man asked Andrew. Andrew glanced at the\nothers. He knew why they hung back. He looked at the boy. The father's\nvoice was urgent. The people watched intently as Andrew stepped up to\nthe boy, lying limp but conscious.\n\"Be gone from him!\" commanded Andrew, as though speaking to an evil\nspirit in the boy. A shiver ran through his body, but then he lay still\nagain.\nScornful smiles curled the lips of the people who watched. A great\nhealer, this man! He tells the devil to leave and the boy is worse off\nthan before!\nAndrew flamed scarlet--but he was not thinking of the bystanders. In his\nheart he knew he was powerless to help the boy. The father bent over his\nson and then suddenly stood up. \"You cannot help him! You have no\npower!\"\nAndrew was stunned. For a moment he stood stock-still. Then he turned\nand walked away.\n\"A fine proof of the power of the Nazarene!\" remarked a man\nsarcastically. The people recognized him as a priest who had stopped a\nfew minutes before to watch. The father of the boy looked around at the\npeople, desperately seeking someone else to help him.\n\"Where is your Master?\" cried the father desperately.\n\"Yes, where is your Master?\" echoed the priest in derision. \"You had\nbetter go and find him!\"\n\"He left a couple hours ago with three others,\" said the innkeeper, in a\nvery matter-of-fact way. \"He went up there.\" He waved toward the great\nmountain. The people looked where he pointed.\n\"There he is!\" cried a man in the crowd. Distant figures were moving\ndown the mountainside.\n\"Now we shall see if this Nazarene can do better than his followers,\"\nremarked the priest bitingly.\nAs Jesus approached, he took in the whole scene at a glance: the sick\nboy, the despairing father, the sneering official, and the beaten\ndisciples.\n\"O sir, my son has a terrible sickness!\" said the father. \"He even falls\ninto the fire and hurts himself.\" He gave a pitiable little gesture\ntoward his son, stretched on the bench. \"Your disciples could not help\nhim at all!\"\nJesus turned to his disciples. They looked at him dully. Andrew stood a\ndistance away; his face clearly showed his humiliation.\nJesus' voice had in it more of weariness and sorrow than sharpness. \"How\nutterly faithless you are! You turn your backs on God himself! How long\nmust I teach you? How much longer must I endure your cold hearts?\" He\nturned to the man.\n\"How long has your son been like this?\"\n\"From the time he was a little child,\" replied the father. \"If you can\ndo anything at all, help us! Do have pity on us!\"\n\"Why do you say, 'If you can'? Do you not believe that I can heal this\nboy? Anything can be done for one who has real faith!\" The disciples\nknew that Jesus might as well have been speaking to them.\n\"O Master,\" the man cried passionately, \"I really do believe! Help me to\nbe rid of my doubt and fear!\"\nAndrew realized that the man was like himself: torn between faith and\ndoubt. \"Master, help me to believe too,\" murmured Andrew.\nJesus turned to the boy and spoke to him. He gave a loud cry and then\nrelaxed.\n\"He is dead!\" the father exclaimed.\nJesus stooped and took the pale hand of the youth. Immediately he sat\nup; then to the astonishment of everyone he stood.\nJesus did not wait for the father's thanks. He did not even glance at\nthe crowd, but turned to his disciples.\n\"You had no power because you had no faith,\" he said directly. \"If you\ntruly believe in God, evil cannot stand against you. Without faith, you\nare helpless. But even the tiniest bit of real trust is mighty enough to\nchange the whole world!\"\n[Illustration]\n12. THE GREATEST AMONG US\nThe next morning the disciples could not help noticing that Peter acted\ndifferently. He had been as downcast and silent yesterday as the\nrest--but now he was talking eagerly with James and John as they walked\nahead of the other men.\n\"If John the Baptizer really was Elijah,\" exclaimed Peter, \"then the\nKingdom ought to be very near!\"\n\"Will John be raised from the dead?\" asked James.\n\"Jesus said that the Messiah would rise,\" remarked Peter.\nJames said, \"I don't see what he could mean by that.\"\n\"Do you remember the voice from the cloud?\" interrupted John. \"Those\nwere the same words that he heard when he was baptized: 'You are my\nbeloved Son!' Only this time we heard the voice too.\"\n\"It said, 'Listen to him!'\" Peter's voice showed the awe he felt. \"I\ndon't know what this vision means, but I am sure he is the Messiah\nhimself!\"\nJames and John did not reply. They needed their breath because they were\nclimbing a steep hill.\nWhen they reached the crest, all the Twelve stopped to rest. The road\nhad gradually turned east, and now the green lowlands of the upper\nJordan Valley lay behind them. But the men did not look back; they had\neyes only for the gleaming city that lay in the shallow valley ahead of\nthem, Caesarea Philippi. Beyond the domes and colonnades of the city\nrose more mountains, ridge after ridge, climbing finally to the snowy\ncrest of the range, over nine thousand feet above. The level valley\nbefore them, however, was green and fertile. Groves of trees and neatly\nplanted fields reached to the very edge of the foothills on all sides of\nthe city. Caesarea Philippi seemed like a diamond set among green\njewels.\nThe columns of several pagan temples reminded the travelers that this\nlovely city was the home of Philip, the son of Herod the Great. He had\nspent much money to make it beautiful. But the disciples found little\npleasure in the sight.\n\"Heathen people building temples to worship idols!\" murmured James. As\nthe men descended the hill they walked along the foot of a high cliff,\nrising to their left.\n\"We will not enter this city,\" said Jesus. The men knew that a road\nbranched to the south toward Lake Huleh, which was not far from the Lake\nof Galilee. John happened to look up at the cliff. \"Where does the water\ncome from that runs down here?\" he asked curiously. Shrubs of all kinds\nclung to crannies in the damp rock wall.\n\"Perhaps there is an underground stream,\" replied James, hopefully. They\nwere all thirsty. A moment later he saw a deep pool almost hidden at the\nvery foot of the cliff. \"There it is!\" he exclaimed. Several of the men\nstarted toward the spring.\n\"Wait!\" called Peter sharply. He pointed up at the face of the cliff.\nJames looked up and saw that a deep hole had been carved in the rock. It\nwas framed by two stone columns and a stone arch. Under the arch stood\na statue of Pan, the pagan god of nature.\n\"Stop!\" cried Peter. \"That water is unholy!\" The other disciples caught\nsight of the idol and shrank back.\n\"This place is defiled!\" exclaimed James in disgust. \"We cannot drink\nthis water!\" The presence of the idol was an offense to the men and they\ndeeply resented it.\n\"Just wait until we get control of this land again!\" burst out the\nZealot. \"We will break these filthy images to pieces!\"\n\"Just to think that the land of God's promise is filled with heathen\nidols!\" Peter was seething. He turned to Jesus. \"How much longer must we\nendure this?\"\nJames interrupted. \"It will not be long, will it, Master?\"\n\"Can we start for Jerusalem soon?\" urged the Zealot. \"Surely the time\nhas come for God to deliver his people!\" Jesus said nothing, but led\nthem over the crest of a ridge till Caesarea Philippi disappeared behind\nthem. The road descended into a flat swamp land which reached as far\nsouth as Lake Huleh, which they could now see. The air was heavy with\nmoist heat, and the people they passed looked unhealthy.\nThe disciples scarcely noticed their discomfort, however, so eager was\ntheir conversation. Again they tried to make Jesus promise that he would\nuse his power soon to conquer the Romans, but Jesus refused to join in\ntheir discussion of how they would rule the land when the Romans were\nbeaten. Not one of them remembered his solemn warnings about the\nsuffering which they faced. Not one mentioned that Jesus had said he\nwould be killed in Jerusalem.\nJudas listened and said little. Finally he could stand their\nconversation no longer. \"How many of you have ever lived in Jerusalem?\"\nhe asked, breaking in.\n\"I stayed there a few weeks once,\" said James, puzzled by his question.\n\"I used to go every year when I was a boy,\" said Levi.\n\"Do you know any people who live in Jerusalem?\" asked Judas.\n\"John and I know some people we sold fish to,\" answered Andrew.\nJudas could hardly keep the scorn out of his voice. \"You don't know the\nfirst thing about Jerusalem! You have no idea what you are getting into!\nYou don't know anyone there except a few low-class people!\"\nThe Zealot interrupted. \"You seem to forget that I have a large number\nof friends in Jerusalem,\" he said hotly. \"The city is full of Zealots!\nThey all know me.\"\n\"Yes, and the police keep track of every one of them,\" retorted Judas.\n\"Just as soon as the Romans see us with Zealots they will think that we\nare trying to start trouble. The best thing for us to do is to keep away\nfrom your friends!\"\n\"I suppose you think we will win the confidence of the Jews by mixing\nwith Pharisees!\" snapped the Zealot.\n\"We will have to be careful, of course,\" said Judas. \"But I know the\nright people. If we are clever, we will work from the inside.\"\n\"Well, I think the Master knows what he is doing,\" cut in Andrew.\nJudas glanced ahead to where Jesus was walking alone and lowered his\nvoice. \"You know I am loyal to him, but he has been in Jerusalem only a\nfew times in his life. He doesn't know any of the important people.\"\n\"I can put him in touch with hundreds of men who will fight beside us,\"\nsaid the Zealot, frowning at Judas. As Andrew listened to the two men\nargue, he had to admit to himself that Jesus might need help when they\ncame to Jerusalem. He did not say any more.\nThe twelve men and their Master came to a ford where a sluggish stream\nflowed across the road toward the Jordan. Single file, the disciples\nwaded through the shallowest place. Andrew was the last to cross, and he\nfound himself with Peter, James, and John. The four fishermen let the\nothers walk ahead. Keeping his voice low, James said to the others:\n\"What is going to happen to the rest of us when we get to Jerusalem?\nThose two men have been there and they know everyone! We might even be\npushed out completely!\" The more they discussed it, the more worried\nthey became.\nJames and John wanted to be alone to talk about the schemes of Judas\nand the Zealot, so when the Twelve stopped for lunch, they went to a\nnear-by farm to buy food. After lunch they again fell in step with\nAndrew and Peter.\n\"You were absolutely right in what you said this morning,\" said Andrew\nemphatically. \"Simon Peter and I have decided that we must settle right\nnow before we get to Jerusalem who should have first place among us.\"\n\"We should talk to the Master about it,\" said James.\n\"No,\" answered John. \"This is our affair. We must settle it among\nourselves. Simon Peter was the first one Jesus asked to give up his\nfishing and follow him; he should be the leader.\"\n\"I think so too,\" agreed Andrew heartily. Peter kept his thoughts to\nhimself. After all, why should Judas be the chief person? He was not\neven a Galilean!\n\"I am going to talk to the others,\" declared James, hastening ahead.\nJudas and the Zealot were walking ahead with Jesus.\n\"Listen!\" said James to the disciples. \"Do you realize that those two\nmen are going to try to push us out when we get to Jerusalem? We shall\nnot have any place in the new Kingdom at all, unless we protect our\nrights!\"\n\"We think the best way is to decide now who should be first,\" said John,\ncontinuing. The others nodded vigorous agreement. \"I think Simon Peter\nis the one who should be our leader! After all, the Master chose him\nfirst.\"\nSilence settled over the men. James could not understand what was the\nmatter. Finally Philip said hesitantly, \"We thought Levi might know how\nto deal with the Romans.\"\n\"Oh, I don't think so!\" exclaimed John. \"He knows only the Romans in\nGalilee.\"\n\"Besides, the best people in Jerusalem might hold it against him that he\nwas a taxgatherer,\" added James, without thinking how his words sounded.\nLevi flared up. \"Well, I am not so sure they will like a fish peddler\nany better,\" he remarked bitingly.\n\"That is beside the point,\" snapped James. \"Simon Peter was the\nfirst--and you have to admit it!\"\nAt that moment the Zealot and Judas joined the group. \"What are you\ntalking about?\" demanded the Zealot. When no one replied, Judas laughed\nand remarked: \"It's not hard to guess! Well, we shall see who is\ngreatest when we get to Jerusalem!\"\nIt was a long and hot trip from Caesarea Philippi to Capernaum, and the\nmen did not stop arguing until they came to the very door of Peter's\nhouse. Their home-coming was spoiled. Everyone was in bad humor. Peter\nremembered how he had longed to see his wife and children when he had\nlooked down on the Lake of Galilee from Mount Hermon. Now this bitter\ndispute had completely taken away the pleasure of it. Peter's wife could\nnot understand why all the men, even her husband, ate supper in silence.\nAfter they had finished eating, James rose and stood in the open\ndoorway, blocking it. He glared angrily at Judas and the Zealot.\nHe could hardly restrain his bitter resentment against these men, and he\nwas determined to make the Master put them in their place.\nBut it was Jesus who spoke first--before James could begin his angry\naccusations. \"What were you wrangling about on the road?\"\nJames felt his anger turn against the Master, who was sitting near the\ndoor. He had not been wrangling! It was a matter of simple fairness!\n\"Why were you wrangling on the road today?\" Not one of the disciples\nventured to answer--the question was put to them a second time.\n\"An evil spirit of envy and dispute has come among us,\" said Jesus. The\nmen sensed how deeply hurt he was.\n\"If any of you wish to be first in the Kingdom of God, you must learn to\nserve rather than to rule.\" While he was speaking, Peter's little\ndaughter peeked around the edge of the doorway. She drew back at the\nsight of the men, but she was so curious that soon she put her head\naround the corner again. Jesus saw the disciples smile and he turned.\n\"Come here, little girl,\" he said gently and held out his hands,\nsmiling. She came to him, and he lifted her to his lap. She leaned\ntrustingly against his shoulder and looked shyly at the men.\nWith his arms around her, Jesus said, \"If you are willing to serve even\nthis little child, then you have discovered what it means to be my\ndisciples. But if you do anything to keep even the most despised person\nfrom believing in me, you would be better off in the bottom of the sea\nwith a great stone tied around your neck!\"\nWhen James finally spoke, his tone was controlled. \"But, Master, who is\nto rule in the new Kingdom when we get to Jerusalem?\"\nThe disciples leaned forward. _Now we shall get this business settled!_\nthought the Zealot.\n\"Among the gentiles, a man is great if he rules over many people,\"\nanswered Jesus. \"But in the Kingdom of Heaven it is the other way\naround: you are great if you serve, not rule.\"\n\"But when we get to Jerusalem, Master, who is going to run the new\ngovernment?\" insisted James boldly.\n\"Do you think of nothing but ruling others? You do not understand my\nKingdom at all.\" Then, slowly and emphatically, Jesus said: \"James, if\nyou want to be great in my Kingdom, you must be a servant! If you want\nto be the chief disciple, you must make yourself the slave of all the\nothers! I myself did not come to rule over many nations--I came to serve\nthe people--yes, even to give my life to buy them from slavery!\"\n\"Master, we know that the new Kingdom will be different,\" interrupted\nPeter. \"But we shall rule the gentiles, shan't we?\" He did not wait for\nan answer. \"You ought to decide which one of us will have the main\nauthority.\"\nThe Zealot looked at Peter suspiciously. _So that's how he thinks he\nwill get his way!_ he thought. \"Now look,\" he said to Jesus in his most\npractical tone. \"I know many people in Jerusalem who can help us....\"\nJames's anger boiled over. \"Master, he is interested only in special\nprivileges!\"\n\"That is a lie!\" snapped the Zealot, looking fiercely at James. \"I want\nonly....\" Peter's little girl was crying. Harsh voices and frowning\nfaces had frightened her. She clutched Jesus' robe with both tiny hands\nand buried her head in his robe.\n\"Here, let me take her,\" said Peter, starting to rise. But the little\ngirl clung all the closer to Jesus.\n\"Except you become as little children,\" said Jesus, \"you cannot enter\nthe Kingdom of Heaven.\" He stood up, holding the child in his arms; he\ndid not intend to listen to the angry debate any longer. \"I have\nappointed you to proclaim the news of the Kingdom of God,\" he declared.\n\"You are the salt which must season the whole earth. Everything depends\non you. But what if the salt loses its taste?\" The men again felt in his\nvoice the deep grief they had caused him. \"It is fit only to be thrown\nout and trampled on! Let there be peace between you!\"\nJesus gently put Peter's daughter in her father's arms and left the\nroom. He walked down to the shore of the lake. The trip from Caesarea\nPhilippi had been tiring, and he longed to be alone. Under the tiny\nwhite stars he was far from the jealousies and selfishness of his\nfollowers. Sometimes they were truly noble and brave. They were loyal\ntoo, and yet ... they seemed never to understand! In the quiet night\nJesus gave thanks to his Father in heaven for the men who had given up\neverything to follow him; he prayed that they might soon understand the\ntrue meaning of the Kingdom of God.\nSuddenly there were running footsteps behind him. Jesus stopped\nabruptly. Had Herod already discovered that he was back in Galilee? Had\nspies followed him here so that they could arrest him secretly? Two\nfigures emerged from the darkness.\n\"Master!\" It was John. James was with him. Relief flooded through Jesus.\n\"We wanted to tell you about something we did.\" There was a note of\npride in John's voice. \"Do you remember when James and I went to buy\nfood today? We found a man casting out evil spirits in your name. We put\na stop to it right away!\"\n\"We will never allow anyone to interfere with us,\" added James. \"He\nmight even persuade some people to follow him. We want nothing like\nthat!\"\nJesus did not answer, but continued to look out over the dark lake. Why\nhad these men followed him all the way out here to tell him this? Were\nthey trying to convince him they were loyal in spite of the day's\ndispute? Or were they trying to persuade him to do what they wanted?\nJesus turned to them. \"What made you do a thing like that?\" he demanded.\n\"Don't you know that we are trying to give the power of God to everyone\nwho will believe--we are not trying to keep it to ourselves!\"\n\"But he was not one of us,\" explained James, amazed.\n\"That makes no difference,\" answered Jesus. \"Are we jealous of his\npower? Do we think always of our own reputation?\"\n\"But doesn't it make any difference who has power in our Kingdom?\" asked\nJames, dumfounded.\n\"We don't even know the man!\" exclaimed John.\n\"Do not forbid him,\" replied Jesus. \"No one who does a mighty work in my\nname will be able soon after to speak evil of me. For he that is not\nagainst us is for us. If a person so much as gives you a cup of water in\nmy name, God remembers him for it!\" His voice was now calm, with the\nnote of sorrow which the men had heard twice before on this day.\n\"Do you still not understand what is going to happen in Jerusalem?\" he\nsaid. \"I have told you already that I shall be killed! I am not going to\nJerusalem to seek the praise of men, but to give up my life for the sake\nof all men. I shall be betrayed into the power of the high priests. They\nwill hand me over to the Romans to be killed!\"\n\"Master!\" cried James desperately. \"Do not say such a thing!\" Fear\nchilled him, and the very night seemed to threaten. James had been\nfighting this thought ever since Jesus had first mentioned his death.\n\"That can never, never happen!\"\n\"In spite of all I have said, you still understand little of my work,\"\nsaid Jesus and left the two men. They did not try to follow, but stood\nlistening to the sound of his footsteps dying away. Then they turned\nback. There could be no mistaking his meaning this time: the Master knew\nhe would die in Jerusalem.\n[Illustration]\n13. THE MESSIAH MUST DIE\nThe next day, Jesus left Capernaum with the Twelve, traveling swiftly on\nthe main highway toward Tiberias, Jericho, and Jerusalem. Early in the\nafternoon, a wind rose from the south. The sky grew dark; clouds scudded\noverhead as the disciples plodded along the dusty road. The Lake of\nGalilee lay to their left. When the sun shone it was refreshing, blue\nand cool. Now the water was gray, whipped into angry waves by the wind.\nOnly a few months before, the men had nearly drowned in a gale like\nthis.\nTo their right were bleak hills, bare of trees. An anxious shepherd was\ndriving his sheep to shelter. The black, windy sky reminded the\ndisciples of all the fears that filled them: fear of their own future\nand distrust of one another.\n\"Where can we stay for the night. Master?\" asked Andrew, raising his\nvoice above a gust that snatched the words from his lips.\nJesus glanced at the sky. \"Perhaps we can find an inn at Tiberias.\"\nThe wind was hot and laden with dust. Its choking heat kept their skin\ndry even though the men perspired freely. They covered their faces with\ntheir robes to avoid breathing dust.\nThe air was thick; they could not see the sun, though it was fully four\nhours before sunset. They could not even see the crest of the ridge\nrising above them to the right.\n\"If the wind changes to the southwest, this is sure to turn to rain,\"\nremarked James, almost shouting. John nodded. A moment later they heard\nAndrew call to them.\n\"Look there!\" he shouted. \"Up the hill.\" He was pointing to a\ntumble-down shed a few yards from the road to their right.\nGreatly relieved, the whole group left the road and in a moment were\ninside the shelter. \"We are lucky to find this,\" said James, throwing\nthe cover off his face. \"It is getting cooler, and the wind is\nchanging.\"\nThe disciples had hardly caught their breath when they heard a familiar\nsound. \"Sheep!\" exclaimed Philip. An instant later a tightly packed\nflock of frightened sheep crowded into the shed. It overflowed in a\nmoment, but the bleating animals kept on pushing in. Suddenly their\nshepherd stood in the midst of the men.\n\"Oh!\" He was completely surprised at finding people in his shed.\n\"We were looking for shelter from the wind and rain,\" explained Peter.\n\"Oh ... why yes!\" replied the man. He was embarrassed in the presence of\nall these strangers. \"This is a very poor old shed,\" he said, smiling\napologetically. Shyly he turned away from the disciples and began to\ncount his sheep.\nThe men watched. He was very slow and started over again three times.\nThey smiled at each other as though to say, \"A simple fellow, isn't he?\"\nThe flimsy little shelter rocked under the gusts of the gale, now at its\nheight. The shepherd was too busy counting to notice. Suddenly he jerked\nup straight. \"There is one missing!\" Before the disciples could stop\nhim, he plunged into the windy darkness.\n\"Come back!\" shouted James.\n\"One is missing!\" A heavy gust almost drowned the shepherd's reply.\n\"You'll get hurt!\" The man was gone. \"How can he ever find his way?\"\nprotested James to the others. \"There are gullies and high rocks! He\nwill be killed in the dark!\"\n\"He has practically all the sheep in,\" declared John. \"He could wait a\nlittle while till this lets up.\"\n\"He would leave his flock here and search all night for a sheep,\"\nremarked Jesus.\n\"He ought not to risk his life like that,\" answered James.\n\"A good shepherd is ready to face death to find just one sheep,\" said\nJesus.\nDeath! The twelve men had been able to think of nothing but fear and\ndeath the whole day through. Why did the Master talk about it so much?\nAt that instant the shepherd came back. Under his arm was a lamb,\nfrightened but not harmed. \"There,\" sighed the man, putting it gently\ndown. \"Now all are safe.\"\n\"You are hurt!\" exclaimed Peter. He knelt and gently touched the man's\nankle. The shepherd flinched, but said, \"Oh, it is nothing!\"\n\"Let me bandage it,\" insisted Peter. The man sat down; he was in pain.\n\"How did this happen?\" asked Peter, tearing a strip of cloth from the\nlong loose shirt he wore.\n\"I heard the little one crying and ran toward him,\" answered the man. \"I\nmust have stumbled on a sharp rock.\"\nJesus was watching the man. \"You are a faithful shepherd,\" he said.\nThe shepherd looked up quickly and smiled. This man understood! But the\ndisciples were quiet. They knew Jesus was thinking about his own work in\nJerusalem.\nThe wind had veered around and now blew from the southwest. Spattering\ndrops turned into a steady, cold, driving rainstorm.\n\"Perhaps it will settle the dust,\" said Andrew hopefully. He was\nthinking how dejected the sheep looked that had not found room in the\nshed when he felt cold water on his back. \"This place leaks!\" he\nexclaimed. Soon all the men were moving uncomfortably about, trying to\nfind places to stand where they could keep dry. But it was hopeless. The\nrain poured through the cracks in the old roof.\n\"We might as well be walking outside as standing here,\" declared the\nZealot in disgust. The suggestion seemed sensible.\n\"Thank you for the shelter,\" said Jesus to the shepherd.\nThe rain had not let up at all, but the men plunged into the night. \"Be\ncareful of that ankle,\" said Peter, the last to go. The shepherd smiled\nin farewell.\nTwo hours later the company of miserable disciples arrived in Tiberias.\nFor an hour and a half they had been soaked to the skin. The wind had\nbecome quite cold, and they were chilled through. Only after they\nentered the city of Tiberias did they find an inn where there was room\nfor them.\n\"This city is crowded with people going to Jerusalem for the feast,\"\nobserved James, as the disciples stripped off their wet clothing.\n\"I wonder how Herod likes to have his home city full of loyal Jews,\"\nreplied John.\n\"I just hope he does not find out we are here.\"\nThe disciples were alarmed when Jesus insisted on teaching the next day\nin the market place, where people gathered to gossip and buy food.\n\"What if the tyrant discovers that we are here?\" inquired Andrew\nfearfully. \"He could throw us into prison before we could escape!\"\n\"This is an important city for us,\" replied Jesus. \"We must tell the\nnews of the Kingdom to all these pilgrims who are traveling to\nJerusalem.\" Nervously the disciples kept watch for the Roman police\nwhile Jesus talked to the people.\nIt was well that they did. \"Here come some Pharisees,\" warned John. The\nmen were stepping around carts piled with food, taking care to avoid the\nheavily burdened donkeys that crowded the street. The people dropped\nback to let them pass. The two Pharisees smiled as they came up to\nJesus.\n\"They seem friendly!\" said John, astonished.\n\"Don't let them deceive you,\" warned the Zealot.\nJesus received the men graciously. The first said: \"Rabbi, we have come\nto warn you. You had better get out of Tiberias as soon as possible. We\nhave private information from Herod's court that he intends to kill\nyou!\"\nThe disciples were alarmed. The Zealot was frowning and looking at the\nPharisees very suspiciously. \"Why do you tell us this?\" he asked\nbluntly. They ignored his question, waiting to see what Jesus would say.\nJesus' answer was stern: \"Go tell that sly fox that he does not have the\npower to stop my work!\" The people were startled. How did he dare speak\nlike this about the king? \"Now I am preaching the good news of the\nKingdom of Heaven and helping people,\" continued Jesus. \"When I finish\nthis work I will leave--but I will go to Jerusalem only when the time\ncomes for me to be delivered up to death!\"\n\"Unless you leave Tiberias at once, you will certainly die here,\" said\nthe second Pharisee.\n\"No.\" There was bitter humor in Jesus' tone. \"It would hardly be right\nfor a prophet to be killed anywhere but in Jerusalem. It is always our\nholy city that kills the messengers whom God sends!\"\nThe Pharisees turned and walked away. \"Well!\" exclaimed John. \"For men\nwho want to save us from Herod they certainly act oddly.\"\n\"They care nothing about our lives,\" said the Zealot sourly. \"They are\njust trying to scare us out of Galilee. Herod knows he cannot put us\ninto prison--there would be a riot!\"\nThe people were indeed very loyal to Jesus. Many who had listened to him\nin their home villages greeted him with great joy when they found him\nteaching in Tiberias and refused to go on without him.\n\"We want you to lead us to Jerusalem,\" declared one man from Capernaum\nwho had often listened to Jesus at the lakeside.\n\"I must stay here several days to teach others who travel through,\"\nanswered Jesus.\n\"Then we shall wait.\" More and more people joined this man in asking\nJesus to lead them to Jerusalem.\nThe disciples were greatly worried by this. \"Herod is sure to hear of\nthis!\" exclaimed Andrew, anxiously watching the people crowd around\nJesus.\n\"He must know we are here by now,\" said John. Any moment the men\nexpected the officers of King Herod to come to arrest them. They were\ngreatly relieved when Jesus led a small group of especially loyal\nfollowers into the hills west of Tiberias.\n\"At least we are safe out here,\" observed John as they climbed the brown\nhill above Herod's capital city. When Jesus stopped, they could see the\nwhole Lake of Galilee spread below them. High above the city rose the\ntowers of Herod's palace. Peter looked northward to where Capernaum lay.\nBeyond the city he could see Mount Hermon, majestic and cool. A few days\nbefore, he had stood on its slopes and gazed at Capernaum, where his\nwife and children lived. Then he had expected to see them soon. But now\nhe knew he might never see them again.\nA ridge concealed the group with Jesus from the road which led west from\nTiberias to the Mediterranean Sea. \"Tonight we shall rest in the hills,\"\nsaid Jesus to them; there were about seventy beside the disciples.\n\"Tomorrow I will send you to prepare my way to Jerusalem.\"\nThe thought of leaving Herod's territory cheered the disciples, but they\nhad not heard all that their Master had to say. \"For a few more days I\nam going to remain here to summon these people to repent and confess\nthat God is King,\" continued Jesus. \"You are to stay with me. I am\nsending these others into the cities that I will visit.\" He turned to\nthe Seventy: \"Declare the good news of the rule of God. Tell them that\nthe Kingdom is here. Return to me on the third day. Then we shall set\nout for Jerusalem!\"\nThe people began to talk excitedly with one another. \"You must go two by\ntwo,\" continued Jesus, raising his voice. \"You have a great work to do,\nand now is the time to do it! Pray, therefore, that you will find many\nwho will believe your message of the Kingdom of God and help you. Do not\nlet anyone stop you, but press on to tell the gospel in every city where\nJews live. You will be in danger; I send you out like sheep among\nwolves. Just the same, have courage, for you carry good news. Preach\nthis message: 'The rule of God is here; give yourselves to him'!\"\nAfter the Seventy had gone, great crowds continued to throng Jesus as he\npreached in the market place of Tiberias. The anxiety that the\ndisciples first felt when Jesus decided to await the return of the\nSeventy gradually gave way to optimism when they saw the great\npopularity of Jesus.\n\"The king knows he cannot arrest us,\" said the Zealot. \"Look at this\ncrowd!\"\n\"It will not be long before we are in Jerusalem!\" said John. Jerusalem!\nThe disciples began to talk eagerly about the new kingdom.\n\"Nothing must stop us!\" declared James and John. When the Seventy\nreturned, they were enthusiastic.\n\"Everyone listened to us!\" declared the first two men to return. \"People\nbrought their sick to us. They believed our teaching! Even the demons\nobeyed us!\"\n\"Here is a man who wants to become a follower,\" said his companion.\nA third person stepped up to Jesus and said very sincerely, \"I will go\nwith you anywhere.\"\nJesus looked at him keenly and said: \"My way is not easy. The foxes in\nthe woods have holes to sleep in. Even the wild birds have nests--but I\nhave no home and no place to give you.\"\n\"I will follow you anywhere,\" said the man again.\nThrough the day others returned. Every hour the disciples heard good\nreports of the success of the Seventy. At sunset all the followers whom\nJesus had sent out gathered in the hills. The bright rays of the sinking\nsun lighted Jesus' face as he raised his hand to quiet the excited men.\n\"Satan is utterly defeated!\" he declared. \"The power of God is yours!\nNothing can stand in the way of God's rule!\" The people could not\nrestrain their excitement. They burst into a babble of conversation. One\nman cried out, \"Master, we even have power over demons!\"\nJesus answered quickly. \"You should rejoice because you know what it is\nto be a part of God's Kingdom--not because you can do miracles!\" He\nraised his arms to pray. Like the silent shadow that had stolen over\nthem as the sun sank from sight, a reverent hush settled over the crowd.\n\"Father in heaven, I thank thee that thou hast concealed thyself from\nmen who think they are wise. I praise thee that thou hast revealed all\nthese things to the humble and the simple. I praise thee that it is thy\npurpose to rule over all who are willing to give their hearts to thee.\"\nWhile the group were returning to their lodging in Tiberias, James and\nJohn made a discovery that shocked and angered them. One of the Seventy\nhad been turned roughly away from a town on the border of Samaria.\nIndignantly the two fishermen came with the man to Jesus.\n\"This man was driven out of a village in Samaria,\" they said angrily.\n\"Let us call down fire from the sky and burn up these people!\"\n\"No!\" commanded Jesus. \"We have not come to destroy men's lives but to\nsave them.\"\n\"Why should these worthless Samaritans be allowed to stand in the way of\nthe Kingdom of God?\" demanded James hotly. \"We should destroy them. They\nare enemies of God!\"\n\"Our own towns in Galilee have rejected us as harshly as any town in\nSamaria,\" answered Jesus. He pointed northward toward the villages on\nthe Lake of Galilee. His voice sent a chill through the fishermen: \"O\nBethsaida, you are doomed--you are doomed! If my miracles had been done\nin Tyre or Sidon, they would have repented long ago. But you have turned\nyour back on me! And you, Capernaum! Will you become great? No! You\nshall be utterly destroyed for your sin!\"\nThese towns--the ones James and John knew and loved the best--Jesus\ncondemned because they had not accepted his gospel! Did he believe\nGalilee had rejected him? Of what mighty destruction was he speaking?\nBy morning the fishermen had forgotten Jesus' somber warning. The little\nwaves on the lake sparkled in the brightness of the sun. As Jesus'\nfollowers walked briskly with him along the road toward Jerusalem, they\ncould talk of nothing but their arrival in the holy city.\n\"We shall be welcomed in Jerusalem,\" said Peter. \"See how well liked the\nMaster is by all the pilgrims!\"\n\"That is true,\" agreed a man from Capernaum. \"But just the same, Pilate\nis a dangerous man. Did you hear what he did at the last festival?\"\n\"No,\" answered James. \"What was that?\"\n\"Some Zealots from Galilee started a riot in the Temple. I did not see\nwhat happened myself, but they say that the Roman soldiers put a stop to\nthe trouble and within a few hours Pilate crucified twelve of the\nZealots.\" He looked at the others. \"There were many Galileans in\nJerusalem--but that did not stop Pilate!\"\n\"But we are not going to start a riot,\" James hastened to say. \"As Judas\nsays, we will work from the inside until the right time.\" Peter glanced\ncuriously at the other men. No doubt of the future seemed to cross their\nminds. Peter restrained a desire to interrupt. Finally James turned to\nhim and asked, \"Do you think Jesus would let himself be trapped by the\nofficials?\"\nVery forcefully Peter answered: \"I do not think he will be trapped. I do\nnot know what will happen. But do not forget what he said; again and\nagain he has told us that he will be killed in Jerusalem!\"\n\"Oh, I am sure he doesn't mean it the way it sounds,\" said James\nhastily. \"He was discouraged when he said that.\"\n\"Just the same, he definitely said his work in Jerusalem would cost his\nlife!\"\n\"There will be no new kingdom for any of us if that happens!\" replied\nJames.\n[Illustration]\n14. A DAY OF VICTORY\nWithin two hours Jesus and his friends had reached the southern end of\nthe Lake of Galilee. They knew that the heavy rain had made the lake\nrise almost to the point of flooding the water front at Tiberias. But\nthey never expected the sight that lay before them.\nUsually the Jordan wound sluggishly between low banks. Now a huge\noverflow was pouring out of the lake, filling the wide river bed with\nmuddy water. The disciples looked with dismay at the uprooted bushes and\nbroken limbs swirling past them. They could hardly believe that this\ndestructive flood had been the narrow Jordan they had forded so many\ntimes before.\n\"Do you think that we can find a place to wade through?\" James and John\nwere walking down the bank.\nJames shook his head. \"It is not deep, but it is terribly swift. Look\nhow wide it is!\" A quarter mile of water lay between them and the other\nside.\n\"I guess we shall have to travel down the road on this side.\" They\nturned back to the others.\n\"I am not going through Samaria!\" exclaimed James.\n\"Perhaps we can find a shallow place to cross before we get that far,\"\nreplied John.\nNone of the other people were willing to risk their lives by attempting\nto ford the rushing river. \"Come!\" called Jesus to the ones who stood\nwondering what to do. He started down the road toward Samaria; some of\nthe people looked doubtful, but no one objected. The road followed the\nhigh hills that shut in the Jordan Valley on the west, but it was well\nabove the flood level of the river. Fully four miles to the east\nstretched the broad lowlands of the Jordan, small hills, an occasional\nsteep bluff, and at the center, the flooded river.\nAs the group traveled south, the flat valley narrowed and the hills came\ncloser on both east and west. Some of the farms near the river were\nunder water. \"We may be able to cross near here,\" observed Andrew. They\nhad walked about five miles. \"Do you remember if there is a bridge on\nthe road across to Gadara?\"\nJames pointed to a white strip below them. \"The road is just ahead.\"\nJesus walked past the crossroad without turning. \"Surely he is not going\nthrough Samaria!\" exclaimed James.\n\"Has he forgotten how these people treated our messengers?\" asked John.\n\"Perhaps he does not want all the travelers on the other road to know he\nis going to the Passover,\" guessed one man. \"He is a complete stranger\nto the people in this part of Samaria. We could go all the way through\nthe province before anyone would discover we are on our way to\nJerusalem.\"\n\"Perhaps we shall find lodging more easily along this road,\" observed\nanother.\n\"I doubt if anyone will even sell us food,\" said James pessimistically.\n\"Samaritans are mean.\"\n\"We shall soon find out,\" remarked Andrew. \"This road leads right to\nScythopolis.\"\nThis town was just over the border from Galilee. It was the largest of\nthe ten cities which together were called \"Decapolis\"; it was part of\nancient Samaria, and Jews usually avoided it. North of the city the\nJordan Valley grew suddenly wide; here the range of high hills along\nwhich they were walking turned almost due west.\n\"Perhaps there will be some here who know the Master is a great\nprophet,\" said one of the men hopefully as the city came into view.\n\"Probably never even heard of him,\" replied another. At that moment a\nsmall group of men came out of a ramshackly house standing just outside\nthe city gate. Some hobbled; one crawled on his knees.\n\"Lepers!\" exclaimed John. \"Don't get near them!\" The ten sick men came\nstraight toward Jesus. Everyone sighed with relief when they stopped\nseveral paces from the band of Galileans.\n\"Unclean! We are unclean!\" they called. The law compelled them to warn\neveryone of their disease with this cry. \"Master, have mercy upon us.\"\nThey were indeed a pitiable sight. With inward pain, Jesus looked at\ntheir wasted bodies, mere skin and bone. Repulsive scars from the\ndisease marked their faces.\n\"These men seem to know the Master,\" murmured Andrew in surprise.\n\"They might be Galileans,\" replied James. \"Perhaps they live here\nbecause they were driven out of their homes.\" The people were afraid\nthat the lepers might come near them, but the twelve disciples knew that\nJesus intended to help them.\n\"Make ready and go immediately to Jerusalem,\" commanded Jesus. \"Go to\nthe priest there and get a certificate showing that you are clean\naccording to the Law of Moses.\" The ten men turned without a word and\nmade for the leper house. In a moment they were out again, taking the\nroad around the outside of the city. On the way to Jerusalem they would\nbeg food.\n\"Let us go into the city,\" said Jesus. He had hardly come into the\nshadow of the high wall when one of the lepers came running back. He\nthrew himself down in front of Jesus and cried out: \"Blessed art thou.\nMaster! God is good! I am clean!\" It was true. The men could see no sign\nof the terrible disease.\n\"Where are the other nine?\" asked Jesus. \"Were they not healed also?\"\n\"This man is not from Galilee!\" exclaimed Andrew under his breath.\n\"Is this Samaritan the only one to come back and thank me?\" Jesus asked\nthe people. He turned to the man. \"Get up and go back to your own home.\nYour faith has made you well.\"\nThe gate into Scythopolis was like a dark tunnel because the wall was so\nthick. Roman guards stationed on the inside examined the travelers as\nthey passed through. If they were surprised to find a large group of\nGalileans in a town on the border of Samaria, they said nothing.\n\"This town seems different from the one that refused us,\" admitted\nJames. Every one of the people who accompanied Jesus found a place to\nstay. They discovered that many of the townsmen knew about Jesus. Some\neven gathered curiously in the courtyard of the inn where Jesus rested.\nBy the time they left Scythopolis the next morning everyone knew they\nwere there.\n\"The Master could make many disciples here,\" observed Andrew\nenthusiastically.\nAll the followers of Jesus were in high spirits. Even though Jesus kept\na fast pace, they did not fall behind. At noon they passed through a\nlarge town, but Jesus paused only long enough for them to draw water to\ndrink. Farther south they entered the narrowest part of the Jordan\nValley. The road followed the brink of low limestone cliffs which\noverhung the Jordan. The swift water was cutting into the banks;\nwhirlpools and rapids swirled below them. Occasionally they had to walk\naround places where the river had undermined a section of the bank and\ncaused a cave-in.\nEven though the river constantly washed away portions of their farms,\nthe people raised heavy crops. The farmers lived in crowded villages\nalong the road. Between the wheat from the rich soil and the sheep that\ngrazed on the hills above, the people were quite prosperous.\nFor two days Jesus pressed forward without a rest. As the group\napproached the borders of Judea, the valley gradually widened until the\nmountains across the river were blue in the haze that hung heavy in the\nair. The damp heat had nearly exhausted the travelers, but some inward\nforce seemed to drive Jesus faster every hour. In the afternoon of the\nsecond day they crossed the first of the streams that flowed from the\nhighlands behind Jericho. Ahead of the disciples, clear to the foot of\nthe distant hills, lay green fields of wheat, fig orchards, and\nvineyards. Beside the road were rows of stately palms.\n\"There is Jericho!\" Everyone looked ahead. The city stood on a low, flat\nhill. Its walls rose high above the trees. The Galileans could see very\nclearly the beautiful theater built thirty years before by Herod the\nGreat, father of Herod Antipas, ruler of Galilee. Beside it stood the\nmassive fortress which he had built to defend Jericho. Dominating both\ncity and plain stood the square stone tower of Cyprus; from this high\nlookout Herod's soldiers could easily see any enemy who might dare\nattack Jericho.\nJewish pilgrims crowded the road. \"They must have waded the Jordan at\nthe ford where we first heard John the Baptizer,\" commented Andrew to\nJohn.\n\"The way we came is shorter,\" answered John, thinking of the many loads\nof salted fish he and Andrew had brought to Jerusalem on the road east\nof the river. The disciples saw the Galilean pilgrims on the road\nstaring at Jesus and murmuring to one another. At length one man came up\nto John.\n\"Wasn't your Rabbi in Tiberias a few days ago?\" he asked. John nodded.\nThe man and his friends joined the group with Jesus. Others followed.\n\"This is not good,\" observed Andrew.\n\"It certainly would be better not to cause any disturbance in Jericho,\"\nagreed Peter.\n\"We shall be in serious trouble if Pilate's local commander sends him\nword that we caused a riot here,\" added Judas. \"I hope these people keep\ntheir heads.\"\nOutside the gate of Jericho sat the usual line of beggars, ragged,\nfilthy, and diseased. Some were silent, but others called out, asking\nalms. Hardly anyone paid any attention. Suddenly there was a loud cry\nfrom the side of the road.\n\"Jesus! Jesus! Thou Son of David! Messiah! Have mercy on me!\"\n\"Shut up!\" snapped someone. Others looked harshly at the beggar who had\nshouted, but he could not see their hard faces. He was blind.\n\"Jesus! Messiah! Have pity on me!\" His voice was louder than before.\n\"In the name of heaven, make that wretch be quiet!\" burst out Judas. \"We\nshall have the whole Roman army on us if anyone hears him talking as\nthough Jesus were going to lead a revolution!\"\nJesus stopped. \"Who is calling to me?\"\n\"Oh, just some beggar,\" answered James.\n\"Bring him to me.\" The man who had scolded the beggar said to him:\n\"Don't worry. The Master himself is calling you.\" The blind man leaped\nto his feet, threw off his tattered coat, and pushed his way through the\ncrowd toward Jesus.\n\"What do you want me to do for you?\" asked Jesus.\nThe beggar dropped to his knees. \"O Master, that I might be able to see\nagain!\"\nA hush had fallen over the crowd. Jesus said: \"Open your eyes. Your\nfaith has made you well again.\" The man looked around him. He saw the\npeople, the city wall above him, the palm trees at the side of the road.\nJesus turned and led the crowd through the gate into Jericho. People\nclustered around the beggar as he walked after Jesus. He talked loudly\nand happily, hardly able to express his joy.\nJudas came up to Jesus. \"Can't we send that man away? Think what will\nhappen if the Romans hear him babbling like this!\"\n\"Let him tell what has happened to him,\" answered Jesus. \"We have come\nto Judea to proclaim the gospel. That man has found the Kingdom of\nHeaven. Let him declare it to everyone!\"\n\"We are losing our chance to win over the high priests in Jerusalem!\"\nburst out Judas. \"Before tomorrow night word will reach them that the\npeople are trying to make Jesus king! They will all be against us!\"\n\"Well, there is nothing to do about it now,\" said the Zealot. The man in\nfront of Judas stopped in his tracks and Judas ran into him. \"What is\nthe matter now?\" he demanded impatiently.\nThe Zealot pointed to a tree over their heads. \"Look!\" A man was\nstanding on a heavy lower limb of one of the sycamore trees that grew at\nthe side of the street. The whole crowd gaped. Jesus spoke with someone\nin the crowd for a moment and then called to the man in the tree:\n\"Zacchaeus, come down here! I want to visit your home.\"\nJudas turned to a man beside him. \"Who is that fellow?\"\n\"He is the chief tax collector in Jericho. He is very rich.\"\n\"A tax collector!\" exploded Judas. He turned to the Zealot. \"Did you\nhear that? He wants to stay with a tax collector! Why does he insist on\nmixing with such people? Everyone will say he is a lover of traitors and\nsinners!\" If Judas had not known it was useless, he would have protested\nto Jesus then and there.\nZacchaeus climbed out of the tree and stood in front of Jesus. \"May I\ncome to your home?\" asked Jesus again.\n\"Oh, yes, Master!\" exclaimed Zacchaeus, and he turned to lead the way.\nThe rumor spread fast. The Galilean Prophet was staying with Zacchaeus!\nThe deliverer of Israel--staying with a tax collector? Impossible!\nPerhaps he was not Messiah at all!\nThe publican knew that people considered him a traitor. He knew how much\nit meant that Jesus had chosen him for a friend. The next morning, just\nbefore Jesus left his home, Zacchaeus declared in the presence of all\nthe disciples: \"I am not the man I was yesterday. I intend to be a\ndifferent person. If I have cheated anyone in collecting taxes, I will\ngive half of all that I possess to the poor; and I will give every man\nwhom I cheated four times what I took from him.\"\nJesus smiled. \"Zacchaeus, this day God has forgiven your sin and\naccepted you in his Kingdom. Because you believe, you are a true son of\nAbraham.\"\nAfter they had left, Judas could contain himself no longer. \"Master,\nthink of our task in Jerusalem!\" he exclaimed. \"What will the best\npeople think of us? They will never believe we come to do God's will if\nwe act as though we approved of lawbreakers!\"\n\"Judas,\" answered Jesus, \"the Son of Man has come to seek and to save\nthose who are lost. Zacchaeus was waiting for someone to summon him to\nrepent and submit himself to God. My Father has sent me into the world\nto tell just such people--outcasts, beggars, sinners, even\ngentiles--that he is ready to receive anyone who will repent.\"\nMany people were waiting at the city gate for Jesus to lead them to\nJerusalem. Going before them, he walked from the fertile lowlands around\nJericho into the bleak hills of Judea. Above the city the travelers\npaused for a last look. Beyond the green plain lay the river, hidden in\na tangle of trees, bushes, and high grass. Wise travelers crossed the\nriver only at the regular fords because this jungle concealed wolves,\njackals, bears, and lions even this far south. The Dead Sea lay\nperfectly still. Mud flats marked the place where the Jordan emptied\ninto it.\nAndrew was glad that they traveled in a large group, for this steep road\nwas a favorite of robbers. In Galilee they often heard reports of\ntravelers being ambushed, beaten, and robbed in these lonely mountains.\nIn small knots the disciples argued about the outcome of the things that\nhad happened in Jericho. By the time they had covered the fifteen rough\nmiles to the outskirts of Jerusalem, the men were more deeply excited\nthan they themselves realized. All their hope and faith in the Master\nwas to be put to the test! Drawing near the holy city, the road crossed\nthe southern shoulder of the Hill of Olives and here the men first\ncaught sight of the capital city of Palestine. There were many beautiful\nbuildings; Pilate had just built a graceful new aqueduct through the\nmountains to Jerusalem. The little town of Bethphage lay outside the\ncity wall. But the disciples had eyes only for Mount Zion and the\nTemple. They never saw Jerusalem without a thrill. The Temple was the\nsymbol of their religious faith, the place where God had established his\nglory. Mount Zion held the eye of every traveler who ascended to the\ngates of the holy city.\nJesus called two of the disciples. \"We will wait here at the Hill of\nOlives,\" he said. \"You go into Bethphage. Just after you enter the town\nyou will see a colt which has never been ridden tied to a post beside\nthe door of a house. Bring it to me. If anyone asks you what right you\nhave to do it, tell him, 'The Lord needs it, and he will send it back\nimmediately.'\"\nOn the way to Bethphage one of the men said, \"Did you know the Master\nhad planned to ride into Jerusalem on a donkey?\"\n\"No,\" answered his companion. Both men were surprised to find that Jesus\nhad prepared for his visit. When they got back to the Hill of Olives,\nseveral men took off their cloaks and placed them on the back of the\ncolt. Jesus seated himself on the animal, and the entire group moved\ntoward the gate of Jerusalem.\nPilgrims who crowded the roads stopped to watch, then recognized Jesus\nand joined the crowd. Excitement became intense. When the gate of the\nholy city came into view, several men ran ahead to clear the way.\nSnatches of song and psalms of praise could be heard on every side. The\ntremendous enthusiasm of the people did not break out, however, until\nthe procession entered the city.\nFor a moment all was quiet as they walked under the cool shadowed gate.\nThen the colt carried Jesus out of the gate into the city. It seemed to\nthe amazed disciples that a thousand people filled the cobblestone\nstreet.\n\"Hosanna! Save us now!\" cried the crowd. \"Blessed is the one who comes\nin the name of the Lord God. Blessed is the messenger whom God has sent\nto deliver his people! Hosanna! Hosanna!\"\n\"Pilate will hear about this within an hour!\" shouted Judas in the ear\nof the Zealot.\n\"Nonsense! There is nothing to fear. Look at this crowd! Pilate would\nnever dare arrest us!\"\nJudas rushed up to Jesus and pulled at his robe. \"Master, make them\nstop! Make them stop!\"\nJesus' answer cut through the tumult. \"If these people did not proclaim\nthe Kingdom, the very stones in the street would have to cry out!\"\nMen were taking off their cloaks and throwing them in the street in\nfront of Jesus. Palm branches which people had brought from Jericho were\nscattered before Jesus as though he were a king advancing to his throne\non a royal carpet.\n\"Blessed is the kingdom of our great King David!\" shouted the people.\n\"Blessed is his Son who comes to deliver us!\" As Jesus rode by, everyone\nfell into step behind him, singing and shouting praises. Jesus led the\ncrowd up the hill of Zion straight to the Temple. He got off the colt\nand entered. Hundreds pushed in after him, still shouting hosannas.\nWhat Jesus saw shocked him. It was early evening, and most of the people\nwho came to sacrifice had left. But the courtyard of the house of God\nwas neither empty nor quiet. A large number of young bulls and sheep\nwere tethered there and made a great disturbance. Jesus had seen these\nanimals here when he had visited Jerusalem before; indignation rose up\ninside him. Priests were carrying water to the bullocks. Others were\nputting away small tables where they counted money as they sold the\nanimals. The whole scene reminded Jesus more of a barnyard or a market\nplace than the Temple of God.\nWith rising anger, Jesus walked slowly around the entire courtyard. He\nexamined everything in it very closely. The people saw his frown, and\ntheir enthusiasm melted away. The shouting stopped.\n\"What is he going to do?\" murmured Andrew. Jesus turned his back on the\nwhole disgusting scene and walked out of the Temple.\n\"Why has he gone?\" everyone asked. Only the disciples followed Jesus.\nThe people scattered to the places where they lodged, wondering what\nwould happen on the morrow.\n\"Why was he angry?\" asked Andrew.\n\"I don't know,\" answered Peter.\n\"There are many things I should like to know,\" observed Judas.\nThere was deep feeling in Peter's voice when he spoke again. \"There is\none thing certain: very soon we shall know when he intends to bring in\nthe new Kingdom. The people are for us. Perhaps tomorrow will tell!\"\n[Illustration]\n15. DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE\nDusk on the Hill of Olives was quiet and restful after the excitement of\nthe day. The gentle wind in the olive trees, which grew thickly in the\nGarden of Gethsemane, was so different from the noise and smell of the\nTemple courtyard!\nWhile the disciples slept, Jesus went deeper into the Garden, where he\ncould pray alone. When he knelt on the rocky ground, the moon, almost\nfull, was just rising in the east. But when Jesus finally returned to\nthe Twelve and wrapped his coat around him to sleep, the moon was high\nabove, cold and white.\nThe sound of travelers on the road through the olive orchard awakened\nPeter the next morning. The morning sunlight threw long shadows on the\nground. Between the trees Peter could see pilgrims passing along the\nroad. Jerusalem would be crowded this Passover season! For a moment\nPeter could not remember why he felt so excited when he awoke. Then the\nevents of the day before flooded into his memory. He stood up stiffly.\nHe had been cold all night; the hard ground was a poor bed for men who\nwould soon be ruling the gentiles! Jesus stood up and stretched.\n\"Come, my followers!\" he called. \"There is work to do in the Temple!\"\nThe men arose and walked down the slope to a small spring that trickled\nfrom under a rock. When they had washed, Jesus led them to the road that\ncrossed the Kidron Valley toward the Golden Gate of the Temple. All the\nmen were hungry.\nAlong the road they found no food for sale. Everyone who lived outside\nthe city walls bought food in the market of Jerusalem. Just above the\nKidron, a leafy tree stood beside the road.\n\"It is too early for figs,\" remarked Andrew. Jesus did not hear: he was\ngazing at the tree. He turned to the twelve men.\n\"This tree is a good picture of the religion of the priests. It has many\nleaves and looks strong. But there is not one bit of fruit on it.\" He\npointed to the Temple above them. The sun shone brilliantly on Mount\nZion. It was a sight to inspire every pilgrim who climbed the Jericho\nroad. \"The Temple is beautiful. There are many priests. Our Law is\nrighteous. Moses and the Prophets were great teachers. But our religion\nis all fine appearance! It is producing nothing! Our priests and rulers\nobey the Romans. The Temple is filled with people who spend their time\nselling bullocks and exchanging money!\"\nThe disciples realized that Jesus had been deeply offended by the things\nhe had seen in the Temple the evening before. Jesus continued in a\nquieter tone: \"There was once a man who had a fig tree like this one\nplanted in his vineyard. He came to see if it was producing fruit, but\nthere was none to be found. There were no figs the next year either.\nWhen he found none the third year, he said to his gardener: 'That tree\nhas not given us any fruit in three years. Cut it down. It is just\ntaking up valuable ground.'\n\"But the gardener said: 'Let me give it one more chance. Let me dig\nround it and put manure on it. If it does not bear fruit next year, we\nwill cut it down.'\" With great force Jesus said: \"Our nation has had\nmore than enough time to show results! God will judge us for failing\nhim! Let this fig tree teach you that God will condemn all religion\nthat does not produce real fruit, no matter how fine it may look!\"\nJesus' voice struck dread into the disciples. He sounded like Jeremiah\npronouncing doom on the city of Jerusalem. And he had said there was\nwork for him at the Temple! What did he intend to do? As the disciples\nfollowed Jesus through the Valley of Kidron, they were uneasy.\nJesus strode through the Golden Gate into the Temple without looking to\nthe right or to the left. He walked through Solomon's Porch into the\ncourtyard. Gentiles were allowed to come this far, but only Jews could\ngo farther. Several gates led through a second wall into another court.\nOver each gate hung a great sign:\n            NO FOREIGNER IS ALLOWED\n                INSIDE THE WALL\n          SURROUNDING THE SANCTUARY.\n    WHOEVER IS CAUGHT WILL BE PUT TO DEATH!\n         HE ALONE WILL BE RESPONSIBLE!\nOne whole side of the outer yard was filled with stamping bulls and\nsheep. The bawling of the cattle, the stirring of the nervous sheep, and\nthe fluttering of pigeons in cages piled high on the ground made great\nconfusion. Even this early in the morning dust filled the air over the\ncourtyard.\nHigh above the Temple area rose four stone towers. Andrew shaded his\neyes and looked up. Steel armor glinted in the sunlight. From this\nlookout, called the Tower of Antonia, Pilate's Roman soldiers kept keen\nwatch over everything that happened in the Temple.\nBut it was not the tethered animals or the bustling crowds that caught\nJesus' attention. Not even the Roman fort interested him after the first\nglance. What grated most disagreeably upon him was the bickering of the\npriests. Even above the noise the disciples could hear the priests\narguing with pilgrims who needed an animal to sacrifice.\nJesus and the Twelve stopped to watch one priest. As they listened,\nPeter saw his Master's anger rising. A Galilean had brought a young bull\nall the way from his home. To the disciples he looked like a farmer who\ndid not have much to live on. Such men usually sacrificed a sheep or a\npigeon. But this man must have wanted to give a better sacrifice. He was\nwatching the priest examine the legs of his bullock. Finally the priest\nstraightened up.\n\"No! This beast will not do.\"\n\"But I brought this bull all the way from Galilee,\" protested the\nfarmer.\n\"I can't help that,\" answered the priest. \"He is not good enough.\"\n\"Not good enough!\" cried the man in dismay. \"That is the best bull I\never raised!\"\n\"All right, then; look!\" The priest pointed to a small cut on the rear\nleg of the bullock.\n\"But that happened on the trip,\" explained the farmer. \"There is nothing\nreally wrong with him.\"\n\"Do you want to offer a sacrifice to God which is not perfect?\" The man\ndid not answer. \"I'll tell you what I will do,\" the disciples heard the\npriest say. \"I will trade you a perfect sheep for this bull.\"\nThe farmer's face reddened angrily. For an instant he seemed about to\nstrike the priest; then he jerked at the tether and led his bullock out\nof the Temple court without replying.\nJesus turned to the disciples, his voice indignant. \"That man brought\nthe best he had--and was turned away!\"\nJesus walked toward the Beautiful Gate, between the outer courtyard and\nthe inner court where the Temple building stood. At the foot of the\nsteps which led through the gate he stopped. On each side of the gate\nwere money-changers. Everyone who wished to give money had to go to the\ntables where these men sat and buy Jewish coins with their Roman and\nGreek money. Because there was a profit on this exchange, the Temple\ntreasury had grown rich. Pilate had forced the high priest to use some\nof this money to pay for the great aqueduct that brought water to\nJerusalem.\nThe men were weighing coins on their scales. Clinking money and noisy\narguing made the scene all the more like a public market. Jesus stood\nbefore the row of tables, looking at the money-changers. Suddenly he\nspoke in a voice that was firm and clear. The arguing stopped; men\nforgot the money and looked up. Silence settled over that part of the\nTemple courtyard; Jesus had taken command. \"It is written in the\nScriptures, 'My house shall be called a house of prayer for all the\nnations!' But you have made it a den of robbers!\"\nJesus stepped swiftly toward the first table and with a sweep of his arm\nthrew the table over into the dust. The scales crashed to the ground;\nmoney rolled everywhere. In an instant Jesus was striding down the whole\nrow. The money-changers were terrified. Jesus did not leave a single\ntable standing. Scales and coins, records on parchment, and chairs lay\nin confusion on the ground. The onlookers could hardly believe what they\nsaw; who could this be, who dared clear this courtyard as though it were\nhis own?\nJudas moved quickly toward Jesus. \"Stop! Stop!\" he cried out.\nBut Jesus paid no attention. He turned to those who were selling animals\nand pigeons and cried out: \"Take these things away! You shall not make\nmy Father's house a house of trade!\" He picked up a piece of rope and,\nknotting a whip of cords, began to drive the bullocks out of the Temple.\nPeople stood as though paralyzed. Heavy swirls of dust hung in the\nmorning air. The empty cages from which the pigeons had escaped lay\nscattered. Judas stood stock-still behind Jesus, not daring to protest\nagain. The Roman guards peered alertly from the Tower of Antonia, but\nnow all had become quiet below them.\n\"Come! Let us leave this place!\" Jesus walked across the broad royal\nporch and down toward the market place of Jerusalem.\nThe disciples finally started after him. \"All Jerusalem saw him do it!\"\nexclaimed Andrew.\nJudas could hold back no longer. \"Why did he have to do a thing like\nthis!\" he cried passionately. \"This will turn everyone against us!\" The\nother eleven men knew that the Romans had seen it all; within a few\nminutes it would be reported to Pilate. \"The priests will be against\nus!\" burst out Judas again. \"What can we do when every important person\nwill say that we are wrong?\" Not even the Zealot could find an answer.\nThe disciples heard rushing footsteps behind them. Fear clutched them as\nthey caught sight of a crowd pouring down the street from the Temple.\nThey gathered around Jesus. \"Hosanna! The Son of David has come to rule\nhis eternal kingdom! Save us now!\" Through the narrow streets on every\nside, people came running.\n\"These people are not against us!\" cried the Zealot. Peter caught sight\nof the man whose bullock had been rejected by the priest. Of course,\nthis man would be on Jesus' side!\nJesus waved his hand, and the crowd gradually became quiet. \"The Kingdom\nof God is present among you!\" he said to them. \"God rules every man who\ntrusts him. Nothing is impossible for a man who has faith!\" For a moment\nan outburst of hosannas drowned his voice. \"God does not desire more\nofferings and sacrifices! He wants you to trust him as your Father! He\nwants you to love his will above everything else and to obey him\nfaithfully. Any man who hears and believes my word shall have eternal\nlife in God's Kingdom!\"\nAlready the crippled, blind, and diseased were pressing forward to the\nplace where Jesus stood. Looking at them with pity, Jesus repeated words\nnow familiar to the disciples: \"The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for\nhe has consecrated me to preach the gospel to the poor. He has sent me\nto proclaim release for captives and recovery of sight for the blind. He\nhas sent me to set free the oppressed and to proclaim this is the year\nof the Lord's blessing!\" It seemed a long time since Peter had heard\nJesus read from Isaiah in the synagogue at Nazareth.\n\"You are the One the Prophets tell about!\" cried a beggar in the crowd.\n\"You are the Son of David!\"\nAll day Jesus remained in Jerusalem, teaching and healing. Roman\nsoldiers came to investigate, but they did not disturb him.\n\"Look at all these people,\" the Zealot said enthusiastically. \"He must\nbe getting ready to declare himself king! He did just the right thing\nthis morning!\"\nJudas turned on him. \"The people cannot make anyone king,\" he said\nbluntly. \"The Romans and the priests are all that count!\" The other\ndisciples wavered between hope and discouragement. Later in the day\nPharisees and priests joined the crowd. \"See?\" said Judas. \"Already they\nare spying on us.\" The hearts of the Twelve sank. Judas must be right.\nThey urged Jesus to leave Jerusalem immediately, but not until evening\ndid Jesus lead them back to the Hill of Olives.\n\"At least he is not going to risk being arrested by staying in the city\nat night,\" sighed Peter in relief. \"The Roman soldiers will never find\nus here unless someone tells them where we are.\"\nNone of the disciples slept soundly that night. Again Jesus spent most\nof the night in prayer. The men rose early, glad to be rid of the\ndiscomfort of the cold ground, but dreading to enter Jerusalem again.\nJesus did not seek the crowds in the market place; he walked straight to\nthe Temple. The money-changers had not come back; no animals stamped\ntheir hoofs in the courtyard. James glanced up at the Tower of Antonia.\nDid the guard know that Jesus was the man who had caused the riot\nyesterday?\nJesus paid no attention to guards or priests. He sat down near the gate\nwhere the Jews entered the inner court to put gifts into the Temple\noffering box. Within an hour the rumor spread through Jerusalem that he\nwas in the Temple. People began to come in great numbers. Scribes,\nPharisees, and Roman soldiers were there too. After Jesus had been\nteaching awhile one of the scribes interrupted. He lived on the Temple\ngrounds.\n\"What I want to know,\" he demanded, \"is what right you have to call the\nTemple of God your Father's house? How do you dare act as you do?\"\n\"I will ask you a question,\" replied Jesus. \"If you answer it, I will\ntell you what right I have to act as I do. Where did John the Baptizer\nget his right to preach? From God in heaven, or was he given it by some\nman, perhaps a priest?\"\n_From God, of course_, thought all the people instantly.\nThe scribe knew what the people believed. He reflected, _If I say, \"From\nheaven,\" then he will ask us why we did not believe John's word. But if\nI say, \"From men\"--no, that will never do! These people all think John\ncame from God!_ After a long pause, the scribe said, \"I do not know.\"\n\"All right, then,\" said Jesus. \"That is why you cannot understand where\nI get the right to act as I do! Listen to a story I shall tell you. A\nman planted a vineyard. He put a fence around it, dug a wine press, and\nbuilt a guard tower to protect it. Then he leased his vineyard to some\nfarmers and went away. At harvest-time he sent a servant to collect the\nrent, but the farmers beat the man and sent him away with nothing. The\nowner sent another servant, but the farmers clubbed him on the head and\ninsulted him. The farmers abused every man the owner sent; they even\nkilled some of them. Finally the owner thought, 'I am sure they will\nrespect my son.' So he sent his only son to collect the rent.\n\"When the wicked farmers saw the young man coming, they said to each\nother: 'This young fellow will inherit the vineyard. If we kill him, we\nwill possess it!' So they beat the young man to death and threw his body\nover the fence of the vineyard.\n\"What will the owner of the vineyard do?\" demanded Jesus. \"He will\nutterly destroy these evil farmers and will give the vineyard to other\npeople whom the farmers hated!\"\nThe scribe backed away and went into the inner court. \"Look at him!\"\nwhispered Judas to Peter. \"Do you know what he is going to do? He is\ngoing to report to the others!\" Judas began to move away.\n\"Where are you going?\" asked Peter.\n\"I don't want to be seen around here.\" Peter followed him to the outer\ngate of the Temple. He was disturbed by what had happened the day\nbefore, but he put on a bold manner with Judas.\n\"I don't think there is any reason to be afraid,\" remarked Peter.\nJudas looked at Peter as though he had no sense at all. \"Anyone can see\nthat we haven't a chance. The priests are plotting against us right this\nminute. Look at that guard,\" he pointed at the tower; \"he sees\neverything we do!\" Peter did not reply. \"Anyhow, did you hear that story\nJesus told? You heard him say that they killed the son too, didn't you?\"\nPeter jerked up his head. \"Do you mean....\"\nJudas nodded. \"All the way from Galilee he has told us that he would be\nkilled here.\"\nPeter looked over at Jesus. \"He acts very deliberately. He seems to know\nwhat he is doing.\"\nJudas laughed bitterly. \"He knows what he is doing, all right!\" He\ncaught sight of some Pharisees coming down the steps of the Beautiful\nGate. \"There are some more!\" He turned his face away from them.\nPeter started toward Jesus, but Judas hung back. \"Don't you want to hear\nwhat they say?\" asked Peter. \"Come on.\"\n\"I'm keeping out of sight from now on. And you had better look out for\nyourself too!\" Peter did not wait to argue.\n\"Rabbi,\" the Pharisee was saying, \"we know you are a sincere and\nfearless man. You have a reputation for never playing politics. You\nalways tell men to do what God wants.\" The people were surprised. This\nPharisee did not speak in a superior tone like the others. \"Tell me,\nRabbi,\" asked the Pharisee, \"is it right to pay taxes to the Romans or\nnot?\"\nPeter knew instantly that it was a trap. If Jesus answered that the Jews\nshould pay the Roman tax, he would be called a traitor to his people. If\nhe said the tax was wrong, he would be reported to Pilate and arrested.\nA clever trick!\n\"Why do you try to trap me?\" demanded Jesus. \"Bring me a Roman coin.\" He\nheld it up and asked the Pharisee, \"Whose picture is stamped on this?\"\n\"Caesar's,\" he answered.\n\"All right, then,\" said Jesus. \"Give to the Romans what belongs to\nthem--but be sure that you give to God what belongs to him!\"\nJesus had escaped the trap, but Peter was puzzled. What could he mean by\nsaying, \"Give to the Romans what belongs to them\"? They were not going\nto live under the Romans much longer!\nThe people were angry with this attempt to trick Jesus. They murmured\nthreats when another scribe spoke up, \"Rabbi, what is the most important\ncommand in the Law?\"\nJesus replied without hesitating. \"The Lord your God is one God and you\nmust love him with your whole heart, your whole soul; your whole mind,\nand your whole strength. And the second is this: You must love your\nneighbor as yourself. No commands are greater than these.\"\n\"I think you are right, Rabbi,\" answered the scribe thoughtfully. \"It is\nmuch more important to love God and one's neighbor sincerely than to\nmake many sacrifices in the Temple.\"\nThe disciples were suspicious; what new trick was this? But Jesus\nanswered the scribe warmly. \"You are not far from the Kingdom of God!\"\nAndrew came through the crowd toward Peter. \"Have you seen Judas?\"\n\"We were talking just a minute ago.\" Both the men searched among the\npeople. \"He must have gone!\" The fishermen were puzzled. \"He did not\nwant the officials to see him with us,\" remarked Peter.\nLater in the afternoon the people began to leave the Temple court. The\ndisciples became anxious. With hardly anyone around, the Romans could\neasily arrest Jesus! In a few more minutes there would be almost no one\nin the Temple. But still Jesus talked to a few persons who needed him.\nWhen they left the men sighed with relief. \"Where is Judas?\" asked\nJesus. Not one of the disciples knew.\nJudas had not left the Temple, as Peter supposed. At that very moment he\nwas only a few yards away from them. After talking to Peter, he had\nwalked through the inner court to the council chamber of the high\npriest. His knock interrupted a secret meeting.\nA priest opened the door. \"What do you want here?\"\n\"I want to talk with the high priest.\" Inside he saw the rulers of the\nTemple.\n\"Let him in,\" ordered Caiaphas, the high priest. \"You are with the\nGalilean!\" he said accusingly the instant he saw Judas.\n\"I was, but I am no longer,\" replied Judas. \"Now I know that he is\nreally very dangerous!\" The men looked at him suspiciously. Judas\nplunged ahead, trying to please the hard-faced men. \"This Jesus does not\nreally love the Law. He disobeys the great Rabbis! He cannot help us\nagainst the Romans. The Kingdom he talks about is a dream! All he does\nis arouse the people, and I am afraid he will bring Pilate's vengeance\nupon us all!\"\nThe priests were surprised. The high priest demanded, \"Well, what do you\nwant?\"\n\"I will help you take him for thirty silver coins.\" The dreadful offer\nwas made. He was pale, and beads of sweat stood out on his forehead.\n\"Will you help us arrest him secretly--so that the people will not find\nout?\" Every eye was on Judas.\n\"I will.\"\n\"Very well, then. It is a bargain.\"\n[Illustration]\n16. THE END OF HOPE\nLate that night Judas crept into the olive orchard. Silently he lay down\namong the disciples; but he did not close his eyes. He listened alertly\nto catch any sound that would tell him that the others were awake. There\nwas only uneasy breathing and restless turning. He lifted his head and\nlooked carefully among the sleepers. Where was Jesus?\nStealthily Judas arose. He knew the ground well; many times he had\nstrolled in this peaceful grove during visits to Jerusalem. He walked\nthrough the olive orchard to the road that led to Bethany. Across the\nValley of Kidron the walls of Jerusalem gleamed white in the moonlight.\nStill he saw no sign of Jesus.\nJudas did not cross the deserted road, but walked carefully toward the\nsection of the orchard that lay farthest from the sleeping disciples. A\nlow wall loomed ahead; here the great press was built which crushed the\noil from the olives. Silently Judas climbed over the wall and stood\nstill for a moment, listening intently. But Judas heard nothing. He\nstarted across the enclosure around the olive press, but stopped\nsuddenly.\nOnly a few steps away from Judas knelt Jesus, his face bowed almost to\nthe ground. The moonlight striking down through the trees shone around\nhim. Judas was shivering in the frosty night; for an instant he wondered\nhow Jesus could endure the cold. Judas breathed softly; he had not been\nheard! Then, so gently that Judas was not even startled, a voice\nsounded. Jesus was praying.\n\"Heavenly Father, I have proclaimed thy gospel to the disciples whom\nthou hast given me. They have believed thy word. They know that my\nmessage comes from thee; they believe that thou didst send me.\n\"Bless them. Heavenly Father. I am going to leave them; they must stay\nin the world. Keep them by thy power, holy Father. I have given them thy\nWord, and the world hates them because they belong to thee. I do not ask\nthee to take them out of the world; protect them from the evil one.\nConsecrate them by thy truth; thy Word is truth. As thou hast sent me\ninto the world, so I have sent them into the world.\"\nJudas stood like a statue; the Master was praying for him! Jesus had not\nfinished.\n\"I do not pray only for my disciples. Heavenly Father. I pray for all\nwho believe in me: make them all one together! Help them to be one as we\nare one--I in them and thou in me. O Father in heaven, just and\nmerciful, the world has not known thee, but I have; and my followers\nknow that I have come from thee. Give them the love which has bound thee\nto me and me to them.\"\nThe prayer ended. How terribly calm Jesus was! He was so sure that God\nwas right there! With an effort Judas controlled a mad desire to flee\nand instead walked quietly away. But when he was out of earshot he broke\ninto a run. Not knowing where he was going, he ran until his breath came\nin gasps. He found himself among houses. It was Bethany, empty and bare\nin the night, but here where people lived he felt secure from the\nterror of the Garden where Jesus was talking with God.\nDreading to go back to the Hill of Olives, Judas slumped down on a bench\nbeside the town well. He remembered the day he had first heard Jesus\npreach in Jerusalem. What mysterious power had compelled him to follow\nthis strange Rabbi? Since then he himself had often preached the gospel\nof the Kingdom which he had learned from Jesus.\nJudas pressed his fists against his temples. Never, never could he\nescape this man from Nazareth! God was in him! Every memory of his life\nwith Jesus rose up and condemned Judas for his bargain with the priests.\nHe could never keep it! He would go back to Jesus and confess his great\nsin! He stood up shivering. It was the cold of the night, he told\nhimself. He took a few faltering steps toward Gethsemane and stopped.\nWhat could he be thinking of? Was he serious about giving up his plan to\nput Jesus in the power of the high priest?\nJudas dropped again to the bench. He had promised to help the high\npriest for good reasons. Jesus _was_ a very dangerous man! If he should\nconfess his bargain to Jesus now, he might be helping to overthrow the\nsacred religion of his nation! No! He must go through with it! Jesus\nmust be stopped!\nThe moon was pale in the dawn when Judas finally forced himself to go\nback to the olive orchard. He could not put Jesus' prayer out of his\nmind. How could he ever face him? Yet Judas found courage and strength\nin the thought that God knew that he was doing this difficult thing for\nthe sake of true religion. Comforted by this, he crept to the place\nwhere the men slept and lay down on the hard ground. Just the same, his\nheart was cold within him as he watched the dawn change the sky.\nA half hour later the sun was still hidden behind the hills of Judea;\ngray light filled the olive grove. The disciples slept, but Judas was\nwide-awake. Suddenly he heard a footfall. Among the trees he saw a\nfigure moving toward them. For an instant panic gripped him. Was someone\nelse guiding the priests to the place where Jesus stayed? Judas shook\nPeter by the shoulder.\n\"Simon Peter! Peter!\" The fisherman did not move. Judas shook him\nharder.\n\"Eh? What is it?\" Peter was heavy with sleep.\n\"There is someone coming.\" Instantly Peter was awake. Judas pointed to\nthe man, now very near them. Peter stood up, and Judas followed him.\nThey recognized a young man whom they had seen often in the Temple.\n\"I am glad to find you awake,\" he said to Peter. \"I have come to warn\nyou of danger.\" Judas' heart leaped. Had this fellow seen him going into\nthe priests' council chamber?\n\"I am a student in the Temple,\" explained the young man. \"I have heard\nyour Rabbi every day.\" Peter looked closely at the face of the youth. He\nseemed sincere. \"Yesterday the priests had a meeting. They are going to\nstop your Rabbi!\" Fear was like a heavy hand on Judas. This fellow was\ngoing to betray him to Peter!\n\"What do you mean?\" asked Peter. The other disciples were aroused by\nPeter's voice. Several sat up and stared at the three men.\n\"I do not know just what they plan to do,\" continued the student. \"But I\nknow that they want to accuse him before Pilate.\" Relief flooded through\nJudas. The man did not know!\nJesus still slept soundly, but the others gathered around. \"This young\nman says that the priests are plotting to arrest us,\" Peter said to\nthem. The dawn light, dimmed by the morning mist, threw an ashy gray\ncolor over the faces of the Twelve. Peter could see that they were\nafraid and very suspicious of the visitor. He turned sharply to him.\n\"Why have you come out here?\"\nThe young man did not hesitate. \"Your Rabbi knows the truth about us. We\nall know he is right; that is why the others hate him so!\" He looked\ndown at Jesus. \"But I believe his word! God has sent him to call us back\nto Him!\"\nJudas turned away. The courage of this young man made the disciples\nashamed. After a moment James said, \"We thank you for coming here.\" The\nyoung man smiled and answered: \"I must go back to the Temple. Let no\nharm come to your Rabbi!\"\nWithout comment the twelve men watched him leave. The warm sunlight\nawakened Jesus when the mist began to drift away. He was surprised to\nfind all the men up. A few were talking quietly; others sat alone.\nJudas' back was turned. Peter came over to Jesus. \"A student from the\nTemple came here while you slept, Master. He told us that the priests\nare plotting against us.\" All but Judas were looking at Jesus. He stood\nup. His cloak was soiled from constant use. Small twigs and dirt clung\nto the coarse cloth. But tangled hair and rumpled clothes could not hide\nthe Master's great dignity. His voice was untroubled when he answered.\n\"Today is the Feast of the Passover. Today the lamb is killed so that\nthe people may be saved. The Father in heaven has sent the Son of Man to\nbe delivered up. In a little while you will see me no more; then after a\nshort time you will see me again.\"\n\"We do not understand what you are saying. Master,\" said Peter.\n\"You will soon be full of sorrow--but the people who hate me will be\nglad that they have overcome me,\" answered Jesus. \"But your sorrow will\nturn to joy. Right now you are full of fear--and you will be even more\nafraid! But do not lose heart: I will return and give you the kind of\njoy that no one can take away from you.\"\nThe disciples could make nothing of Jesus' words. What could he mean by\nsaying, \"I will return\"? Jesus prepared to go into Jerusalem. With\ngrowing dread, the disciples realized what he intended to do. Would he\npay no attention to the warnings of the young man?\nAs they came into the Temple, Jesus found a large crowd that had\ngathered early to meet him. The disciples felt like prisoners giving up\nall hope of freedom.\nAt first not a priest or Pharisee was anywhere to be seen. So eagerly\ndid the disciples keep watch that they hardly heard what Jesus was\nsaying. \"Do not let anyone deceive you,\" he warned the people. \"In the\nlast days many false prophets will come in the name of God--but do not\nfollow them! If you are my true followers, men will hate you and try to\nkill you. But even when you are dragged before kings and priests and put\non trial, tell everyone the gospel of God! Do not worry or try to\nprepare ahead of time--I will give you answers that your enemies cannot\nescape.\"\n\"Look!\" whispered Andrew. \"There they come!\" Judas saw a priest he had\ntalked to the day before walking toward Jesus. But the Master paid no\nattention.\n\"In those days,\" he continued, \"your own friends will betray you. They\nwill put you to death. Everyone will hate you for my sake--but do not be\nafraid! If you are willing to give your life for me, you shall have\neternal life.\" Like darts his words struck into Judas.\n\"The time will come when Jerusalem will be surrounded by enemy armies,\"\ndeclared Jesus. \"Then she will soon be destroyed. Let everyone flee to\nthe hills for his life, for in those days God will punish this wicked\ncity for her sin. Every single building will be leveled to the ground!\"\n\"Our beautiful Temple!\" cried a man in the crowd. \"Look at these great\nstones! Will all this be destroyed?\"\n\"I tell you solemnly,\" declared Jesus, \"the day is coming when not one\nstone in this Temple will be left standing!\"\nThe priest broke in. \"How do you dare say that? This is the house of\nGod. It took the finest workmen in Israel forty-six years to build it.\nGod will not let his Temple be destroyed!\"\n\"You do not know how to save your Temple!\" retorted Jesus. \"You think it\nis holy because you make many sacrifices in it! But I tell you that your\nenemies will tear down your Temple and kill your children, all because\nyou do not know that God has come to you!\"\n\"What do you mean?\" exclaimed the priest. \"Look at the monuments we have\nbuilt in memory of the prophets!\"\n\"You decorate the tombs of the prophets and say to yourselves, 'If we\nhad lived then, we would have treated them better!' But you kill the\nprophets that God sends you, just as your ancestors did!\n\"Your religion is like a filthy cup: bright and shiny on the outside,\nbut dirty inside! Your Temple is beautiful, but your religion is\nrotten!\" The priests shrank back from the sheer force of Jesus' anger.\n\"You are like whitewashed tombs: clean on the outside, but inside they\nstink with rotten bones! You put on a show of goodness--but your hearts\nare filled with hypocrisy and wickedness!\"\nThe disciples were horrified. Jesus was attacking the very priests\nthemselves! Did he realize what would happen?\n\"God will punish you for killing the prophets, just as he condemned your\nwicked fathers for their sins! You snakes! You nest of vipers! There is\nno way for you to escape eternal fire!\"\nThe priests flushed crimson. The people watched them stalk into the\ninner court. Judas saw the hatred on their faces and knew that they\nwould never be satisfied until they had killed Jesus. He was glad now\nthat he had gone over to their side.\n\"We had better leave this place!\" whispered Andrew to Peter. He looked\ntoward the gate where the priests had gone. But Jesus was talking to the\npeople again.\n\"He will never leave!\" answered Peter.\nPanic seized the Zealot. \"Come on! We must get out of here!\" He kept\nlooking at the guards in the tower.\n\"What are you thinking of?\" demanded Peter, turning on him. \"We can't\nleave the Master alone!\"\n\"I'm not going to be caught like a rat in a trap!\" The Zealot looked at\nthe high walls around them.\n\"I will not leave this place until the Master does,\" declared James\nfirmly.\n\"You will never get out,\" warned the Zealot.\n\"Just the same, I'm staying,\" repeated James stubbornly.\nAll day the crowd listened eagerly to every word that Jesus spoke. Even\nin their despair the disciples knew that Jesus would consider the day\nwell spent. \"How I wish he would leave!\" burst out John, late that\nafternoon. \"Where will we eat the Passover meal tonight?\" During a pause\nhe asked Jesus the question.\n\"You and Peter go into the city,\" answered Jesus. \"You will meet a man\ncarrying a water jar. Follow him to his house. Tell the owner that the\nRabbi says, 'Where is the room in which I am to eat the Passover with my\ndisciples?' This man will show you a large room upstairs, with table and\ncouches arranged for us. Prepare the Passover meal there.\"\nThe two disciples were amazed: Jesus had planned the meal ahead of time!\nGlad to get out of the Temple, they did as they were told. At twilight,\nJesus and the others arrived. All except Jesus were completely worn out.\nThey had given up all hope. Who could tell what might happen before\nthis night was over? Like men in a daze, the disciples washed their\nhands in basins which Peter and John had filled with water. Then they\nlay down on the couches around the table.\nBut Jesus did not immediately lie down with the others. Curiously the\nmen watched him take off his robe and tie a towel around his waist. He\nbegan to pour water into a basin. Then Jesus carried the basin to where\nAndrew lay and knelt at his couch. The fisherman hardly knew what to\nsay. Slaves and servants washed the feet of guests! Silently Jesus\nwashed the feet of all the Twelve, coming last to Simon Peter.\n\"Master! You shall not do this for me!\" He drew away from Jesus, who was\nkneeling at the foot of his couch.\n\"Peter, you do not understand why I am doing this--but very soon you\nwill!\"\n\"I will never let you wash my feet!\" protested Peter.\n\"Unless I wash your feet,\" answered Jesus gravely, \"you cannot share in\nmy suffering and my glory.\"\nPeter realized how much this act meant to Jesus. \"O Master, wash my head\nand my hands too!\"\n\"No,\" replied Jesus, drying Peter's feet with the towel, \"since I have\ndone this, you are clean all over. No more is needed.\" Reverence filled\nthe disciples as they listened to his words; but not until he had put on\nhis robe and taken his place at the table did they understand.\n\"Do you know why I have done this?\" he asked. \"You call me your Rabbi\nand your Master--and that is right: I am your Master. If I am willing to\nwash your feet, should you not serve one another? No servant is greater\nthan his Master. You must learn this: if any man wishes to be great in\nthe Kingdom of Heaven, he must be the slave of all men for my sake.\"\nThe disciples began to eat. The supper was simple. A piece of roast lamb\nin a shallow bowl was the chief dish. There was a plate of unleavened\nbread, a vegetable, and a bowl of sauce made of dates, raisins, and\nvinegar. There was nothing else except a single large cup of wine mixed\nwith water. Each man took a piece of meat in his hand and ate it. Some\nfirst dipped it into the vinegar sauce. The men were glad for the food,\nbut it did not drive away their discouragement. Everyone knew it could\nnot be long until they were arrested. Amid these dark thoughts, Jesus\nspoke. \"The hand of him who betrays me is with me on this table!\"\nThe disciples could hardly believe their ears.\n\"One of us--betray you?\" asked Peter. They looked at each other.\n\"One of you at this table will betray me, but woe to him who does this\ndeed!\" declared Jesus.\n\"Is it I?\" asked James. He seemed to doubt even himself.\nJohn leaned back to Jesus. \"Tell us who it is, Master.\"\n\"It is not I, is it, Rabbi?\" urged Judas.\nJesus turned to him. \"Are you sure it is not you?\" He looked accusingly\nat Judas. Then Jesus said sternly, \"Whatever you are planning to do--do\nit quickly!\" Judas left the room immediately.\n\"He must be going out to pay for the food,\" remarked Andrew.\n\"Master, I don't care what the others may do; I will stay with you!\"\ndeclared Peter.\nJesus looked at him sadly: \"Peter, you are going to face a terrible\ntest, but I have asked God to help you. You must help the others.\"\n\"Master,\" repeated Peter, eager to convince himself that he was not\nafraid, \"I swear that I will do anything for you. I am ready even to die\nfor you!\"\nJesus shook his head. \"You have promised more than you can do. Before\nthe cock crows at dawn you will deny three times that you ever knew me!\"\nWhen the men had finished eating the meat, Jesus picked up a piece of\nthe unleavened bread and held it in his hands. \"I have looked forward to\neating this Passover meal with you before my suffering begins.\" He\nraised his eyes. \"Heavenly Father, I thank thee that thou hast shown\nmercy and love to thy children. I thank thee that thou hast hidden these\nthings from the wise and revealed them to babes.\"\nThen Jesus broke the bread and gave the pieces to the disciples, saying:\n\"Take this bread. It is my body; I am the Bread of Life. If you believe\nin me, you already have eternal life. Just as I have broken this bread,\nmy body will be broken when I suffer for you. Every time you break\nbread, therefore, remember what I have done for you.\"\nThe men were not sure that they understood all that Jesus meant, but\nthey knew they were somehow sharing the life of their Master as they\ntook the bread and ate it. Then Jesus took the large cup of wine and\nwater in his hand. \"This cup of wine stands for a promise of salvation:\ntake it and drink the wine, every one of you. This wine is my lifeblood,\nwhich I give that you may have eternal life. Whenever you drink it,\nremember my promise to you.\" Jesus handed the cup to John, who was\nreclining next to him. John sipped from it and passed it on. Reverently\neach man drank from the cup. Jesus put it on the table and arose from\nhis couch. The group stood and chanted together a psalm of thanksgiving:\n    \"I love the Lord, because he heareth\n    My voice and my supplications.\n    Because he hath inclined his ear unto me,\n    Therefore will I call upon him as long as I live.\n    The cords of death entangled me,\n    And the pains of hell laid hold on me:\n    I found trouble and sorrow.\n    Then called I upon the name of the Lord:\n    O Lord, I beseech thee, deliver my soul.\n    Gracious is the Lord, and righteous;\n    Yea, our God is merciful.\n    The Lord saveth the simple;\n    I was discouraged, and he saved me.\n    Return unto thy rest, O my soul;\n    For the Lord hath blessed thee greatly.\"\n\"Come! Follow me!\" Abruptly Jesus walked from the room, down the stairs,\nand into the dark street. The moon had just risen; it hung low over the\nHill of Olives, blood-red in a black sky, giving almost no light. Jesus\nwalked swiftly toward the city gate. The disciples glanced up and down\neach street they crossed, alert for any sign of soldiers.\nIt did not take them long to reach the foot of the Hill of Olives. Jesus\ndid not go to their usual resting place. Instead, he led the eleven men\ntoward his place of prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane. They were\npanting for breath when Jesus entered a narrow gate through the stone\nwall that Judas had climbed over the night before.\nThe Garden was dark. Among the dense trees the moon could not be seen at\nall. During the week, the men had slept under clear skies; but now there\nwas a damp chill that threatened a storm on the morrow. When Jesus\nstopped, his followers sank wearily on the ground.\n\"Wait here for me while I pray,\" said Jesus. A note of distress had\ncrept into his voice. He turned to Peter, James, and John. \"Come with\nme.\" They groped their way through the woods, their hands before them.\nJesus stopped. \"My soul is very sorrowful, even to death. Wait here and\npray for me.\" The men had never known Jesus to be like this before; he\nwas almost appealing to them for help. A short distance away Jesus knelt\non the ground. The hard day, the meal, and the walk up the hill had made\nthe fishermen drowsy, but they heard Jesus praying very earnestly. \"O\nFather, thou canst do all things! If it be possible, spare me this\nsuffering. Nevertheless not my will, but thine, be done.\" They heard his\nvoice no more.\nPeter did not know how long he had slept when he was awakened by Jesus'\nshaking his shoulder. \"Simon Peter! Are you sleeping? Couldn't you stay\nawake and pray with me even one hour?\" James and John roused themselves.\n\"Stay awake, all of you. Pray that you will not fail me now when I need\nyou most! I know you want to be my true friends--but you have not the\nstrength!\"\nHard as the three men tried, they could not stay awake. Twice more Jesus\ncame and aroused them. The last time Peter awoke the moon was high, but\nwas almost hidden behind a cloud. He could make out the faint outline of\nthe figure of Jesus standing beside him. A chilly wind had sprung up and\nrattled the leaves. The night wind carried a warning Peter could not\nunderstand. James and John slept heavily.\n\"Still resting?\" said Jesus. The two men stirred and looked at Jesus,\ngreatly ashamed. \"Come! Get up! The hour has come when the Son of Man is\nto be betrayed into the hands of sinful men!\" Through the black woods\nrang the sound of a sword clanging against a steel shin guard. Peter\nleaped to his feet. \"James! John!\"\nThrough the gnarled trees the men saw a sight that struck terror into\ntheir hearts: led by Roman soldiers, a mob carrying torches was\nadvancing toward them. The yellow flames whipped in the wind and cast\nhideous twisting shadows as they came nearer the Garden.\n\"They must know we are here!\" whispered James. \"Come on! Let's get out\nof here!\" The two fishermen fled into the darkness.\nTorchlight glinted on spears and helmets. There was no sign of the other\neight disciples. Peter stood rooted to the spot from which he had risen.\nJesus watched calmly. Some in the noisy crowd carried clubs. The light\nfrom the flares struck through the trees and fell full on Jesus' face.\n\"There he is!\" The cry echoed in the Garden. A wall of smoking torches\nand gleaming swords and shields closed around Peter and Jesus. There was\nno escape now.\nA Roman soldier stepped forward. \"Hold up that torch!\" he commanded his\naide. In the wavering light he peered into the faces of Peter and Jesus.\nAnother figure stepped from the group.\n\"Judas!\" Peter was stunned.\n\"Hail, Master!\" said Judas. Then very deliberately, as though forcing\nhimself, he kissed Jesus.\n\"Do you betray me with a kiss, Judas?\" asked Jesus, sadly. The traitor\ncould not bear the voice of the man he had once called his Master; he\nturned and rushed out of the circle of Jews and soldiers. Peter never\nsaw him again.\nThe captain gave a sharp command, and several soldiers stepped toward\nJesus. The group of men broke into angry shouts. Jesus' stern voice rang\nthrough the clamor. \"Why do you come to arrest me with swords and clubs\nas though I were a robber? Day after day I was in the Temple\nteaching--you never tried to arrest me there!\"\nFor an instant the torches ceased waving. Then the mob surged all the\nmore angrily upon Peter and Jesus. Peter snatched his short sword from\nhis belt and struck a wild blow. A man cried out sharply. The captain\nshouted a command: soldiers pushed through the rabble and seized Jesus.\nA burly soldier knocked Peter backward; he fell heavily and lay still.\nWhen Peter came to his senses, he was breathing hard. He had no idea how\nlong he had been stretched on the ground half stunned. He lifted himself\non one elbow. Torches were moving down the road. The sound of the mob\nwas faint in his ears.\nFor the first time Peter realized that he was alone. The Master was\ngone! What would he do without him? Loneliness swept over the fisherman.\nHe leaped to his feet and dashed headlong through the trees where the\nsoldiers had led Jesus. He tripped over a root and plunged to his knees;\nbranches lashed his face when he arose, but in his panic he did not feel\nthem. He burst out onto the road. In the distance the tiny lights were\ngoing out, one by one, as the procession entered the gate of Jerusalem.\nWith a cry of helpless despair, Peter ran down the hill toward the\ncity.\n[Illustration]\n17. THE DARKEST HOUR OF ALL\nAs Peter ran he realized that he did not know where the Roman soldiers\nwere taking Jesus. What if he should lose sight of them? He was gasping\nfor breath by the time he reached the city gate.\nThe Temple was closed. Would they lead the Master to Pilate? In the\ndarkness, Peter could barely make out the massive bulk of the fortress\nof Antonia, the Roman prison. No sound broke the silence within its\nwalls. Peter ran a few steps and stood panting at the first street\ncrossing. Desperately he glanced one way and the other. If only there\nwere someone to tell him which way they had gone with Jesus! Would they\ngo to the house of the high priest himself? Peter turned and ran toward\nthe south side of Jerusalem, his sandals clattering on the stone paving.\nAt every turn in the winding street Peter peered into the darkness,\nhoping to see the wavering light of torches ahead of him. He did not\nnotice a dark figure standing against the wall of a house that closed in\nthe narrow street until he ran into him. Startled but glad to see\nsomeone, Peter asked, \"Sir, have you seen soldiers and men with clubs\npassing this way?\" The question was out before he realized his danger.\nWhat if this stranger were an enemy? He could not even see his face.\nThe man's answer was cautious. \"Some men went by here a few minutes\nago.\" The voice seemed familiar to Peter. \"Did they have a prisoner?\" he\nasked.\n\"The torches were too dim for me to see.\" Peter forgot to thank the\nstranger in his haste to overtake Jesus. He rounded the next corner,\nrunning, then stopped short. Flickering straight ahead of him were\ntorches. Soon he was close enough behind the men who carried them to see\nmore clearly. The yellow flames threw weird patterns on the houses:\nshadows of men twisted and dodged on the walls as the torchbearers swung\nthe lights to and fro. Peter followed cautiously, coming no closer than\nnecessary. His heart leaped when he heard a step behind him. He jerked\naround and saw a young priest. Fear clutched at him. He was trapped!\nBefore he could move, the man spoke. \"There they are.\" Peter recognized\nthe voice. It was the person he had run into a moment before! The priest\nlooked at him curiously and exclaimed, \"You were with the Galilean,\nweren't you?\"\nA denial sprang to Peter's lips. Then he recognized the priest: it was\nthe student who had come to the Hill of Olives that very morning! \"What\nare they going to do?\" Peter could keep back his anxiety no longer.\nThe young priest shook his head gravely. \"I fear the worst. Look! They\nhave stopped!\" He pointed. The torches shone on a heavy wooden gate. It\nswung open, and the group started to enter.\n\"Let's follow them in,\" urged the priest.\n\"Oh, no!\" protested Peter. \"They will recognize me. They wouldn't let me\nin anyway.\" But the priest was already hastening ahead. Peter followed.\nHis friend entered with the last of the group, and the gates swung shut.\nA servant woman stood outside to question everyone who wanted to go into\nthe house of the high priest. Torches fastened to the walls on each\nside of the gate threw a pool of yellow light on the street. Peter could\nhear many people inside; torchlight flickered on the high walls of the\npalace of the high priest, rising behind the gate. Driven by curiosity,\nPeter came closer and closer. The woman looked at him but said nothing.\nPeter hid his face; he was glad the torches were smoky and low.\nSuddenly the gate opened, and Peter saw his friend. \"Let this man in,\"\nhe ordered the servant woman. There was nothing for Peter to do but go\nin. As soon as he stepped into the light the woman said loudly: \"Wait a\nminute! Aren't you one of this Galilean's followers?\"\nPeter froze with fear. \"No!\" he snapped, and plunged through the gate to\nget away from her. Sweat stood out on his forehead. A narrow escape!\nPeter was relieved that the large courtyard of the high priest's palace\nwas so crowded. He shrank into a shadowed corner and anxiously searched\nfor Jesus. In this great house met the Sanhedrin, the great council of\nall the rulers of the Jews. Peter saw the rough soldier who had knocked\nhim down standing outside the door. Jesus must be inside! There was\nnothing to do but wait.\nPeter began to feel cold. Near the center of the yard several men had\nbuilt a charcoal fire. Peter was tempted to warm his hands, but\nimmediately gave up the idea: these very men had seen him in the Garden!\nHe walked back and forth in the shadows, but it did not help much: his\nfeet were getting numb. He wished he had never come into the courtyard.\nIf he tried to get out, the woman would see him.\nFifteen minutes passed. What was happening in the priest's dark palace?\nPeter shivered and pulled his coat tight around him. How good that fire\nwould feel! At last he could stand it no longer. Taking care to keep the\nfirelight from shining on his face, he went nearer.\n\"How long will it take to condemn him?\" Peter heard one of the men ask\nimpatiently.\n\"It won't be long,\" answered another. He was in the uniform of the high\npriest's servants.\n\"Too bad his disciples got away!\" growled the first. \"I would like to\nget hold of that one that struck Malchus with his sword!\" A man came out\nof the palace and joined the others around the fire.\n\"He's a stubborn fellow!\" exclaimed the man. \"He won't answer any\nquestions!\"\n\"What about the witnesses?\" inquired a man who had not spoken before.\nThe other laughed. \"They tell different stories! They can't agree on\nwhat the Galilean said!\"\n\"Don't worry,\" said the high priest's servant confidently. \"No matter\nwhat happens, they won't let him get away now.\" The last spark of hope\nin Peter died. The priests were determined to kill Jesus. The end had\ncome. Peter did not notice that the man in front of him had moved so\nthat the firelight shone directly on his face.\n\"Say! Weren't you with that Galilean?\" Like a thunderbolt the question\nstruck Peter. He stiffened with terror and cursed himself for having\ndared to come near the fire. \"Of course not!\" he answered gruffly, and\nbacked away. The man who had seen him strike Malchus with his sword had\nnot heard the question. Peter sighed. His luck could not last much\nlonger.\nA group of people were going through the gate. Perhaps he could slip out\nwithout being noticed. The priest who had got him in here had\ndisappeared. A cry went up at the door of the palace. Guards were coming\nout of the priests' council room!\nSuddenly Jesus stood in the doorway. Peter's throat went dry. What had\nthey done to his Master? His face was swollen from many blows. It\nglistened wet in the firelight--they had spit on him! Jesus stumbled as\nhe came down the short stone staircase. A rough fellow kicked him. \"Get\nalong there!\" He laughed coarsely. Pity flooded through Peter, then rage\nat the man who had hurt Jesus.\n\"What is the verdict?\" A man was speaking to Peter.\n\"The verdict?\" Peter mumbled the words stupidly. Another man answered\nthe question.\n\"He is doomed to die.\"\nPeter looked from one to the other. \"Die?\"\n\"Yes. They are going to ask Pilate to sentence him to death.\"\nThe others looked at Peter curiously. Someone grabbed him roughly by the\nshoulder.\n\"Say, you! Didn't I see you in the olive orchard?\" A guard! He waved to\nthe others. \"Come over here! Here is one of the Galileans. Listen to his\naccent!\"\nLike icy water, fear swept Peter's daze away. Faces full of scorn\nsurrounded him. Panic-stricken, Peter wrenched loose.\n\"In the name of God, I never even heard of this Jesus!\" he swore. \"What\nare you talking about?\" Then a shrill sound caught Peter's ear. The\nwords stopped in his throat. Outside the wall a rooster was crowing.\nPeter's lips were open, but no sound came from them. He was staring at\nthe man who had accused him, but he didn't see him. The flush of anger\nand panic drained from his face. Jesus had heard.\nWith terrible dread, Peter watched his Master turn. Their eyes met. Time\nstood still. Peter forgot everyone else: there were just the two of\nthem. Master and cursing disciple. The sadness in Jesus' eyes burned\nthrough Peter. \"Do you betray me too, Peter?\" the Master seemed to say.\n\"Come on! Get going!\" A guard slapped Jesus heavily. Driven by the rough\nmen, Jesus went out of the gate.\nLike a sleepwalker, Peter followed. The guards did not try to stop him.\nThe servant woman at the gate did not notice him. For an instant he\nstood in the street watching the men take Jesus away. The gate closed\nbehind him. Then the terrible dream broke; scalding tears flooded\nPeter's eyes. They came from his very heart. He walked a little way down\nthe dark street and stopped, leaning against a stone wall. Desperately\nhe pressed his face into his hands. How could he stand this bitter\nremorse? If only he had been faithful to his Master!\nPeter was certain that the end had come; he dreaded seeing his Master\ncondemned to death by the Roman governor, Pilate. All night he walked\nthe deserted streets of Jerusalem. But when morning came he could not\nstay away from the fortress of Antonia, where he knew that Jesus would\nsoon be brought before Pilate.\nIn the cold dawn it was a forbidding sight. Herod the Great, who had\nruled before Pilate's time, had covered the massive rock on which the\nfortress stood with stones too steep and smooth for attackers to climb.\nThe walls rose sixty feet above this and towers were built at each\ncorner. The guards on the highest towers were one hundred and eighty\nfeet above the pavement inside the fortress. From it they could see\neverything in the Temple below as well as the countryside north, east,\nand west of Jerusalem.\nA short stairway led from the Temple porch into the fort. A crowd of men\nwere gathered in the Temple' courtyard, among them not one who had ever\nheard Jesus teach. Peter had lost all fear of being seen. As he waited,\nhis mind was entirely taken up with thoughts of what might be happening\nto his Master behind the closed doors of Pilate's judgment hall.\nPeter was surprised to see Pilate come out of the fort down the steps\ninto the Temple. Where was Jesus? Why did Pilate come here? Then Peter\nremembered: the priests would not enter the Roman building, for fear of\nmaking themselves impure for the Passover.\nAfter a delay Pilate came slowly out of the high priest's council\nchamber. He stopped and looked at the men crowded before him. A few\ncried out, \"Where is the Galilean?\"\nPilate waved his hand for silence. \"I have examined this Jesus. He has\nnot committed any crime.\"\nA priest in the crowd cried out loudly: \"He is stirring up the people!\nHe has made trouble both in Galilee and in Judea.\"\n\"I have examined him, and so has Herod,\" declared Pilate. \"We agree that\nhe does not deserve to die. I am going to order my soldiers to whip him\nand let him go.\" The crowd was still. Then a priest cried out: \"No! Away\nwith him! He is destroying our holy religion!\" The rabble in the court\nburst out with angry shouts: \"To the cross with him!\"\nPilate turned around and went into the fortress. The priests were\nworried lest Jesus be set free. They began to argue with the men in the\ncourtyard. \"Do not let him escape now!\" they urged. \"Make Pilate crucify\nhim!\" A shout arose when a group of Roman soldiers came out of the fort\ninto the Temple; Jesus was with them.\nA cry broke from Peter's lips when he saw his Master before the crowd.\nThorn branches had been twisted into a wreath and pressed on his head.\nHe wore a purple robe. Peter could see he was in pain. \"Behold! Here is\nthe man!\" cried Pilate.\n\"Crucify him! Crucify him!\"\nPilate hesitated. \"If you let him go, you are an enemy of the Roman\nemperor!\" shouted a priest. Peter could tell that Pilate was afraid. He\nwalked to the stone seat where he announced his decisions. Embedded in\nthe pavement before him was the Roman seal and some Latin words. The\nRoman guards led Jesus to another seat. He was very weak from his\nbeating. While the people were shouting, Pilate turned toward the\npriests gathered in a knot near his judgment seat and said bitterly:\n\"You have wanted a Jewish king--well, here he is! Behold the king of the\nJews!\"\nThe high priest looked coldly at Pilate and said, \"We have only one\nking: Caesar.\" Pilate looked down at the ground. There was one more\npossibility. This innocent Galilean might yet go free. Pilate remembered\nthat custom allowed him to set free one prisoner at Passover time--a\nprisoner whom the people chose. Amid the commotion in the courtyard,\nPilate stared at the Latin words on the pavement before him. If only the\npeople would ask that Jesus be released!\n\"I shall let one prisoner go free,\" cried the governor. \"Shall it be\nBar-Abbas or the king of the Jews?\"\nA priest called out, \"Give us Bar-Abbas!\" Then the crowd took up the\ncry, \"We want Bar-Abbas!\"\nBar-Abbas! A murderer? Peter could hardly believe it! The cries grew\nlouder. \"Give us Bar-Abbas!\"\n\"What shall I do with Jesus, called 'the Christ'?\" Pilate asked,\ncornered. The people saw that he feared them, and their hateful screams\nmade Peter shiver.\n\"Crucify him! Crucify him!\" The crowd surged toward Jesus, and the Roman\nguards drew their swords to protect their prisoner. Pilate saw that only\nblood would satisfy the people. Amid the tumult he sat silent, his eyes\nonce again on the Latin words before him. At last he stood up. He was\nbeaten. The crowd was almost out of control. Several times he raised his\nhand and started to speak, but each time he could scarcely hear his own\nvoice. The leader of the palace guard glanced anxiously at Pilate and\nwaved to a group of soldiers waiting inside the fort. They made a tight\ncircle around Jesus.\nPilate dropped his hand limply and turned to the priest. \"Do with him\nwhatever you want.\" The bloodthirsty mob surged toward the guards, but\ncould not break through the line of soldiers, which stood like a steel\nwall until the door of the fort had slammed shut behind Jesus.\nPeter made no attempt to follow. He took little notice of the men around\nhim, who gave him curious stares. Peter walked to the place where Jesus\nhad stood. He looked down and read the words which were written on the\npavement in front of the judgment seat:\nJUSTICE AND MERCY.\nPilate too had betrayed the Christ!\n[Illustration]\n18. THE ROCK OF FAITH\nThe Passover Feast was ended, and the pilgrims from Galilee were leaving\nJerusalem. The friends of Jesus, and especially the eleven disciples,\nwere dazed by the death of their Master. In the blackest discouragement,\nwondering what they should do, they gathered at the house where Jesus\nhad eaten his last meal. They repeated over and over again the story of\nthe things that had happened. Some talked about returning to Galilee.\nTwo followers who lived in Emmaus, a town several miles west of\nJerusalem, decided to go back to their homes.\nThe two men took the road that led over the hill of Calvary where Jesus\nhad died. The cross still stood. Moving in the breeze was the sign which\nPilate had ordered tacked to the very top: THE KING OF THE JEWS. At the\nhour of Jesus' death this hill had trembled as a storm thundered through\nthe sky. But now Calvary was quiet. In the bright morning the two men\ncould hardly believe that here they had heard the death cry of their\nMaster: \"My God, why hast thou forsaken me?\"\nWhen the men came near the cross, they stood silent for many minutes.\nFinally Cleopas, the older of the two remarked, \"They haven't taken the\nsign down yet.\"\n\"Do you think others will be crucified on his cross, Cleopas?\" asked the\nother.\n\"Perhaps.\" After a long silence, Cleopas added: \"Do you remember the\ncenturion who was in charge of the soldiers? Just after Jesus died, I\nheard him say, 'This man truly was a son of God!'\"\n\"Do you think any of the others believed?\" mused the other man.\n\"Most of them scoffed!\" answered Cleopas bitterly. \"One priest said over\nand over, 'You saved others--now save yourself!' and laughed.\" Tears of\nanger sprang into Cleopas' eyes.\n\"That is where his mother stood when he told John to take care of her,\"\nremarked his companion. At that moment the wind tore loose the parchment\nnailed at the top of the cross. It drifted to the ground a few yards\naway. The younger man looked at Cleopas: \"Shall I get it?\"\nAfter a moment Cleopas replied: \"No. Let it lie there. Why keep things\nthat make us remember these days?\" He turned his back on the cross and\nstarted down the hill toward Emmaus. His companion said nothing; he knew\nthe bitterness that made Cleopas speak this way.\nThe road down to Emmaus was rough but heavily traveled. From all Judea,\ncamel caravans carried olive oil and wool to Joppa, the main seaport of\nsouthern Palestine. Up from the sea rode Roman soldiers to guard\nJerusalem, Jericho, and the forts across the Jordan.\nToward sunset the two travelers came in sight of the Valley of Aijalon,\nsloping down to the sea. Here King Saul had fought many bloody battles\nwith the ancient Philistines. The low-hanging sun made a great golden\nblaze on the Mediterranean Sea, twenty miles away.\n\"We are not far from Emmaus now,\" remarked Cleopas. A warning cry\nsounded behind them: \"Caravan!\" The two men moved to the side of the\nroad, and found, when they turned, that another traveler had joined\nthem. He had been very close behind, but the two men had been so deep\nin conversation that they had not noticed him. After the camels had\npassed, kicking up the dust with their wide, padded feet, the stranger\nwalked on with them.\n\"What is all this you are talking about?\" he asked in a friendly way.\nCleopas glanced at his companion. Was it dangerous to answer frankly?\nCertainly they were safe here! \"You must not have stayed in Jerusalem\nvery long if you have not heard about what happened,\" he replied.\n\"What is that?\" asked the man.\n\"It is about Jesus of Nazareth,\" answered Cleopas. \"He was a Galilean.\nThe common people all thought he was a Prophet. God truly had given him\na message for us! He warned us to repent and give our lives to God if we\nwish to have eternal life.\" Cleopas paused and his companion took up the\nstory.\n\"You see, the high priests hated Jesus because he called them hypocrites\nto their faces. He was right: they are cruel to the poor! They make many\nsacrifices, but just the same they do not really love God. Three days\nago the priests took him prisoner and handed him over to Pilate to be\ncrucified. We hoped that he would begin a great new day for our\npeople--but now he is dead.\" The men had reached the foot of the hill.\nGreen grass grew where a tiny brook trickled beside the road.\n\"We did have a surprise though,\" added Cleopas. \"Some women in our group\nwent out to the tomb where we laid him but they could not find his body!\nThey saw a vision of angels who told them he was alive. Some of us went\nand looked for ourselves. His body was gone--but no one saw Jesus.\"\nThe stranger looked keenly at the two travelers. \"You have read the\nProphets, haven't you?\" he asked. \"They say that the Messiah must suffer\nbefore he can be victorious.\"\nCleopas looked at the man curiously. \"What do you mean?\" he asked.\n\"All the things happened just as the Prophets said,\" repeated the\nstranger. \"The books of Moses say: 'The Lord thy God will raise up a\nProphet among you, from among your very brethren, like me. You must\nlisten to his word!' Is not your Rabbi that One? And Isaiah too. He\nsaid: 'Behold, my Servant, whom I have chosen! I will put my Spirit upon\nhim and he shall declare judgment to gentiles. He shall not strive or\ncry out; no one shall hear his voice in the streets!' Your master is\nthis Servant of God! Did he not die on a cross? Isaiah said that he\nwould be treated like a criminal!\"\n\"But if he was the Messiah, why did the priests hate him?\" cried\nCleopas.\n\"They always kill the messengers of God. Isaiah said, 'They hear, but do\nnot understand; they see, but their minds are blind--their hearts are\ncold.' These priests will not let God give them eternal life!\"\nAll the rest of the way to Emmaus the two friends talked earnestly with\nthis stranger who understood the Scriptures so well. They had never\nrealized that the Prophets taught that the Messiah would die. They had\nalways thought he would triumph over everybody! They remembered now that\nJesus had said some of these very things.\nAt last they came to the village. It was dusk. Cleopas stopped in front\nof a small house. \"Come in with us and spend the night, for the day is\nalmost over,\" he said. With a smile, the stranger accepted.\nIt had been a long journey, and the three men were very hungry. After\nwashing, Cleopas brought bread and fish to the table. They lay down on\nthe hard couches. The guest picked up a small loaf and raised his eyes\nto bless it. He broke the bread and handed it to the men. They took it\nfrom him--and suddenly they knew who he was. There was only one who had\never given them bread like that! It must be the Master himself! They\ndropped to their knees. Joy, reverence, and fear filled them. When they\nlooked up, Jesus was gone. \"No wonder our hearts burned within us while\nhe talked to us on the road!\" exclaimed Cleopas.\n\"We must tell the others!\" answered his companion. \"Let us hurry back to\nJerusalem.\"\nBy the time the moon rose, Cleopas and his companion were halfway to\nJerusalem. It made the shadowed ravines between the mountains seem\nblacker than ever, but they were grateful for the faint light on the\nroad. They knew that robbers could very easily hide among the rocks that\nlay along the highway. Yet fear was almost forgotten in their great\neagerness to get to Jerusalem and tell the news: the Master was alive!\nThe two travelers pressed forward at a pace swifter than they would have\nthought possible on this steep road. For lack of breath, they talked\nvery little. Twenty miles was a full day's journey--but it was just\nmidnight when the two men hastened past the guards at the Joppa Gate of\nJerusalem and half ran to the house where they had left their friends\nthat morning.\nThe building was completely dark. Not a trace of light showed through\nthe closed shutters. Cleopas knocked sharply on the wooden door. In the\nsilence they heard only their own heavy breathing and realized that they\nwere very tired. Cleopas knocked again. There was a muffled footstep\ninside; then the bolt scraped and the door opened a crack.\n\"Open up!\" whispered Cleopas impatiently. It seemed to take a long time\nfor the man at the door to recognize them and open the door. Cleopas and\nhis friend rushed up the stairs and burst into the upper room.\nEveryone was there. In the instant before he spoke, Cleopas realized\nthat something had changed since he had left in the morning. The men\nwere not dejected; they were talking excitedly. But Cleopas did not stop\nto find out why.\n\"We have seen him! He is alive!\" The disciples leaped to their feet.\nJames stared as though he had not understood. \"We saw him on the road to\nEmmaus!\"\n\"You too!\" exclaimed Peter.\n\"He ate with us in my home,\" declared Cleopas. He turned to Peter in\namazement. \"Did you say you have seen him?\"\n\"I saw him this morning. After the women told us they had seen a vision\nat the tomb, John and I went to look for ourselves. They were right! The\nMaster's body was gone. I came back here and then set out alone for\nGalilee. I had traveled about an hour when the Master appeared to me,\nstanding in the road. He commanded me to return here.\"\n\"When we first saw him, we did not know who he was,\" said Cleopas. Then\nhe told everything that had happened. At first many wondered if the\nstory could be true, but as they listened, their joy and amazement grew.\nWhen Cleopas finished, they stirred and sighed. Here was one at least\nwho certainly believed Jesus was alive!\nThe air was heavy in the crowded room. An iron pan filled with burning\ncharcoal stood near the wall. Several broiled fish, left over from\nsupper, lay on the coals. Cleopas and his friend looked at them\nhungrily. Peter handed pieces to them. James rose from the rough wooden\nbench on which he sat and opened the shutters. Andrew poured oil from a\nlarge jar into the nearly empty lamps. The men breathed deeply of the\ncool air that swept through the window. The lamplight sprang up. Hope\nand wonder flickered through the disciples' minds, still dulled by the\nsorrow of the Master's violent death.\n\"If I could just see him myself!\" murmured John.\nSuddenly Jesus was there. He did not come in--he just appeared standing\nin the midst of them. John drew in his breath sharply. Was this a ghost?\nDid the others see? The men shrank from the place where Jesus stood.\n\"Do not be afraid. It is I! Look at my hands and my feet. Do you not see\nthe wounds of the cross?\" The men stared. In the palms of his hands\nJames could see the marks of nails. His voice was real too! The men did\nnot trust their eyes. Several reached out timidly and touched the scars.\nThey moved like men in a dream.\n\"Have you any food?\" asked Jesus. Peter took another piece of fish from\nthe charcoal stove and handed it to Jesus. When the disciples saw their\nMaster eat, their doubts vanished. They began to talk, trying to realize\nthat the impossible had really happened; their Leader was really living!\n\"Master,\" burst out James enthusiastically, \"are you going to drive out\nthe Romans now and give the Kingdom back to us?\" The others suddenly\nbecame quiet, listening for his answer.\n\"It is not for you to know when the Father in heaven will do that,\nJames,\" replied Jesus. \"In his own time he will destroy all evil. He has\nalready come among you: all you must do is accept the power he gives you\nto obey his commands.\"\n\"Master, what do you want us to do?\" asked Peter. Hearing his brother's\nstrong voice, Andrew could hardly believe that only that morning Peter\nhad tried to leave Jerusalem because everything reminded him that he had\ndenied his Lord.\nJesus looked around at the circle of his disciples and raised his hands\nover them. \"Just as the Father sent me into the world,\" he said, \"I am\nsending you. May the Holy Spirit fill you with power. Go into every part\nof the world and tell all men that the Christ has suffered and risen\nfrom the dead to give them eternal life. Those who repent and believe\nthis gospel shall be forgiven their sins. But if anyone does not believe\nyour words, the anger of God hangs over him!\"\nAs mysteriously as he had come, Jesus left the men. They remained\nsilent. Each man saw in the face of the others a joy none could express.\nAt last Peter spoke: \"We must let everyone know that Jesus has risen\nfrom the dead!\"\nDay by day the disciples learned that Jesus was doing greater things\namong them than he had ever done before. Faith which had been uncertain\nwas now sure. Every afternoon the disciples went to the Temple to pray\nand tell the story of Jesus' power. Some people were surprised, for they\nthought the work of Jesus would stop when he was crucified. But many\nbelieved the word of the disciples and became followers with them.\nIt was not long before the success of Peter and the others came to the\nattention of the high priest. One day, immediately after the hour of\nprayer, he called his councilors together. \"Did you see that fisherman\nwho used to follow the Galilean we killed?\" he demanded. \"He was\nstanding boldly in the Temple declaring that his Rabbi is alive!\" Purple\nveins stood out on the face and throat of the angry man. \"Have you ever\nheard such an insolent lie? They have invented the whole story from\nbeginning to end!\"\n\"The other men were with him,\" added a councilor. \"They succeeded in\ngetting the people very much stirred up.\"\n\"It must be stopped! If we can silence them with threats--all right. If\nnot....\" He lapsed into silence. Then his anger boiled to the surface\nagain. \"What man in his right mind could believe such a fairy tale? That\nupstart from Galilee--risen from the dead!\"\nA young priest sighed and spoke. \"What can we do? Those men seem to\nbelieve very sincerely that it happened.\"\nThe high priest was instantly suspicious. \"You sound as though you\nagreed with them,\" he observed bitingly. \"I'll tell you what we must do!\nKeep a sharp watch on them. The minute they make trouble--arrest them!\nWe can do whatever we want then.\"\nJust before the hour of prayer the following afternoon, Peter and John\nentered the Temple with the worshipers who were streaming from the city.\nTo the two disciples it seemed a long time since Jesus had been there,\nbut nothing was changed. The row of slender columns which enclosed the\ninner court was majestic in the afternoon sunlight. Words of Moses,\ncarved in the stone of the Beautiful Gate, invited every Jew to enter\nfor prayer. There were no money-changers there. Since Jesus had driven\nthem out, neither they nor the sellers of animals had tried to come\nback.\nTwo men carrying a cripple on a litter passed Peter and John. The\ndisciples had seen him before, begging money from all who walked by. His\nhelpers placed him near the Beautiful Gate as Peter and John climbed up\nthe steps toward him. The beggar looked at them, smiled, and held out\nhis hand. \"Will you give a little money to a lame man?\" he asked.\nPeter and John stopped in front of the man. He was a miserable\nsight--dirty, ragged, and thin from hunger. His bony legs were paralyzed\nand useless.\n\"Look at us!\" commanded Peter. The beggar looked at them expectantly.\n\"We do not have any money,\" said Peter, \"but we will give you what we do\nhave! By the power of Jesus Christ the Nazarene, stand up and walk!\"\nPeter stooped and pulled the man to his feet.\nPeople had turned at the sound of Peter's voice. The beggar was standing\nalone! The man looked at his feet; then, utterly amazed, took a cautious\nstep. The trumpet sounded from the roof of the Temple, calling the\npeople to prayer, but none paid any attention; they rushed toward the\nbeggar to see what had happened. Swiftly Peter led the man toward the\nouter part of the Temple courtyard. The people crowded after Peter.\nAt the trumpet signal the high priest left the council chamber and\nentered the rear gate of the inner court. How strange! The Temple was\ndeserted! Two other priests came into the court. \"What has happened?\"\nthey asked, baffled. \"Where are the people?\"\nThrough the columns, the high priest saw people running. \"Look!\" he\nexclaimed. He turned and waved to several burly guards in the uniform of\nthe high priest's palace. \"We need you here!\" They followed the priests\ntoward the sound of the crowd.\nPeople were pushing forward to catch a glimpse of the beggar clinging to\nthe two disciples. Peter raised his hands and cried out so all could\nhear: \"Men of Israel, why are you so surprised at this? Why are you\nstaring at us as though we had healed this man by our own strength? We\ndid not do it at all!\" Astonished at his words, the people became very\nquiet. Peter saw the high priest, but his voice did not waver.\n\"My friends, this man was not healed by any power of ours. He was healed\nin the name of Jesus of Nazareth, God's Chosen Servant. The God of\nIsrael sent him to tell you the gospel of life, but you refused to\nlisten to him. You handed him over to Pilate to be killed! Even when the\ngovernor wanted to release him, you demanded that this holy and just One\nfrom God should be crucified!\" The high priest turned and spoke to the\nguards, but Peter did not hesitate a moment.\n\"We declare to you that God raised Jesus from the dead--we have seen him\nourselves! His power healed this man! I know that you killed the Lord of\nLife without realizing what you were doing. But the Prophets knew this\nwould happen to the Christ; they said he would suffer! God has chosen\nthis way of saving you!\" There was a disturbance at the edge of the\ncrowd. Guards were thrusting the people roughly aside in their haste to\nget to him. \"Repent now!\" cried Peter boldly. \"Ask God to forgive you\nfor the terrible thing you have done, in order that your sin may be\nblotted out. God sent Jesus to be your Saviour!\"\nThe guards burst through the crowd and seized Peter. Quickly his wrists\nwere tied with rope. A cry of protest rose. Two men stepped in front of\nthe guards as they shoved Peter toward the gate of the Roman fort next\nto the Temple, but they were quickly beaten off by curses and the\nthreat of the clubs.\n\"What must we do?\" cried a man in the crowd, cut to the heart by Peter's\nwords.\nIn spite of the guards Peter bravely called out: \"Repent and give your\nwhole life to God! Believe in the name of Jesus Christ, the Saviour!\"\n\"Silence!\" The chief guard struck Peter with his club. When they came to\nthe priests, the guards stopped. The high priest and the fisherman from\nGalilee stood face to face. Peter's clothes were torn, and his hands\nwere bound behind him. The anger of the high priest had turned to\nscornful triumph. For a moment he stood sneering at Peter; then he\nstepped toward him and slapped him heavily across the face. \"You liar!\nYou will find out that you can't blaspheme the Law of God!\"\nPeter's face showed red marks. His eyes shone with a strange joy, and he\nsmiled. His voice was fearless, its sound filled the whole Temple. \"I\nshall never stop telling what I have seen with my own eyes! I shall obey\nGod, and not man!\" Pain shot through his shoulder as a guard struck him\na heavy blow and shoved him roughly toward the fortress gate. Without\nlooking back, Peter walked courageously into the Roman prison.\nSCRIPTURE REFERENCES\nPAGES      CHAPTER 1\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Men Called Him Master, by Elwyn Allen Smith", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  Men Called Him Master\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1949, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Mark C. Orton, Julia Neufeld and the Online\nTranscriber's note:\nText enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).\n  HALLOWED HERITAGE\n  [Illustration: decorative]\n  Hallowed Heritage:\n  T H E  L I F E  O F  V I R G I N I A\n  [Illustration: publisher's mark]\n  DOROTHY M. TORPEY\n  _Head of Social Studies Department_\n  FRANCIS C. HAMMOND HIGH SCHOOL\n  ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA\n  WHITTET & SHEPPERSON, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA\n  [Illustration: decorative]\n  Copyright 1961 by Dorothy M. Torpey\n  Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 60-53266\n  Printed by Whittet & Shepperson, Richmond, Virginia\n  TO\n  MY MOTHER AND BILL\n  _whose encouragement and understanding\n  were inspirational_\n[Illustration: landing on shore]\nINTRODUCTION\nFrom the founding of the first permanent English settlement in\nAmerica at Jamestown to the present-day launching of the country's\nlargest ships at Hampton Roads, the name \"Virginia\" suggests a\ngeographical area which has formed the background for innumerable\nlocal, state, national and international events. An understanding\nof \"The Life of Virginia\"--geographical, historical, economic,\ncultural and political phases of living--should result in a\nbetter appreciation of the unique role played by Virginia in the\ndevelopment and progress of the United States of America.\nCONTENTS\n    _Location and Topographical Regions_\n    _Unique Features_\n    _Rivers and Lakes_\n    _Climate_\n    _Natural Resources_\n    _Human Resources_\n    _Summary_\n    _Exploration and Colonization_\n    _The Commonwealth and the \"Golden Age\"_\n    _The Pre-Revolutionary War Era_\n    _Summary_\n    _The Revolutionary War Era_\n    _The Adoption of the United States and State Constitutions_\n    _State and National Events (1789-1860)_\n    _Summary_\n  Chapter Four: Historical Life, 1860-Present                  108\n    _The War Between the States_\n    _The Reconstruction Period and Its Aftermath_\n    _Twentieth Century Developments_\n    _Summary_\n    _The Work Force_\n    _Types of Employment_\n    _Importance of Transportation_\n    _Summary_\n    _Literature_\n    _Art and Sculpture_\n    _Architecture_\n    _Music and Drama_\n    _Education_\n    _Summary_\n    _Background of Present State Constitution_\n    _The Virginia Bill of Rights_\n    _Election Requirements, Offices and Procedures_\n    _Legislative, Executive and Judicial Departments_\n    _Local Governmental Units_\n    _Education and Public Instruction_\n    _Miscellaneous Provisions_\n    _The Amendment Process_\n    _State Symbolism_\n    _Summary_\nHALLOWED HERITAGE\nGeographical Life\n_Location and Topographical Regions_\nThe Commonwealth of Virginia is located in the eastern part of the\nUnited States, approximately midway between the North and the South,\nand it is classified geographically as a South Atlantic State. The\nshape of the state suggests an irregular triangle: the base of\nthe triangle, the southern boundary of the state which divides it\nfrom North Carolina and Tennessee; the left side or western side,\ndominated by the Blue Ridge, the Appalachian and the Allegheny\nMountains; and the right side or eastern side, the Coastal Plain.\nVirginia is bounded on the north by West Virginia, Maryland and\nthe Potomac River which forms the boundary between Virginia and\nMaryland and Virginia and the District of Columbia; on the east by\nthe Potomac River, Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay, and the Atlantic\nOcean; on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee; and on the west\nby Kentucky and West Virginia.\nThe area of the state is approximately 40,815 square miles. This\narea places Virginia thirty-sixth in rank in area among the States\nof the Union. Approximately 2,000 square miles of this area consist\nof water. The southern boundary extends approximately 450 miles from\neast to west and the distance from north to south is approximately\n200 miles at its widest point. The geographical center of Virginia\nis at a point eleven miles south of east of the town of Amherst in\nAppomattox County. The highest point is Mount Rogers located in\nSmyth and Grayson Counties with an elevation of 5,719 feet. The\nlowest altitude is sea level along the Atlantic Coast. The average\nelevation of the state is 950 feet.\nTopographically, Virginia may be conveniently divided into five\nmajor regions:\n     (1) the South Atlantic Coastal Plain--As the name suggests,\n     this region extends along the coast from the Atlantic Ocean\n     to the Fall Line Zone. The Fall Line Zone refers to a section\n     where the streams pass from the rocky areas of the mountain\n     region or high land to the level area or low land; at such\n     points, falls or rapids develop. The Great Falls of the Potomac\n     in Maryland and in Virginia, the Falls of the Rappahannock at\n     Fredericksburg, the rapids of the James River at Richmond and\n     the Falls of the Appomattox at Petersburg illustrate the concept\n     of the Fall Line. Consequently, the so-called Fall Line extends\n     from Washington, D. C., through Alexandria, Fredericksburg,\n     Richmond, Petersburg and Emporia in Virginia. Thus, the South\n     Atlantic Coastal Plain region of Virginia is located along\n     the Atlantic seacoast from the Potomac River at Alexandria to\n     the North Carolina boundary line and as far west as the Fall\n     Line Zone. The width of this area varies from 35 miles to 120\n     miles. This region is also called \"Tidewater\" Virginia because\n     the level land here is so low that the ocean tides may often\n     be seen in the inland streams. \"Tidewater\" Virginia includes\n     five peninsulas formed by the Chesapeake Bay, the Potomac,\n     the Rappahannock, the York and the James Rivers. These five\n     peninsulas are:\n     a. the Eastern Shore--Although most of Tidewater Virginia is\n     located on the western side of the Chesapeake Bay, a unique\n     peninsula called the Eastern Shore extends southward from\n     Maryland and is separated from the rest of Virginia by the\n     Chesapeake Bay. Thus, in order to travel by land from the\n     mainland of eastern Virginia to the Eastern Shore, it is\n     necessary to travel via Maryland.\n     b. the Northern Neck--This peninsula lies between the Potomac\n     and the Rappahannock Rivers and is only 22 miles at its widest\n     point.\n     c. the Middle Peninsula--This peninsula lies between the\n     Rappahannock and the York Rivers.\n     d. the Peninsula of the Lower York-James Peninsula or the\n     Williamsburg Peninsula--This peninsula is located between the\n     York and James Rivers.\n     e. the Norfolk Peninsula--This peninsula is located between\n     the James River and the Virginia-North Carolina boundary line.\n     In general, the land in this region is a flat plain. The tidal\n     rivers mentioned previously are actually estuaries of Chesapeake\n     Bay and they flow periodically inland. Therefore, they are an\n     unusual combination of waters from the Bay itself and from the\n     Atlantic Ocean whose pressure pushes the tides inland. The\n     strong influence of geography upon occupations in this region is\n     exemplified by the importance of commercial fishing (especially\n     oysters, scallops, clams and crabs), ocean transportation (the\n     large area of deep water in the Chesapeake Bay encourages\n     ocean-going commercial ships to seek inland ports in this\n     region--especially around Hampton Roads), truck farming (the\n     clay loam soil and the sandy loam soil here provide excellent\n     productivity of potatoes, early vegetables, corn and hay), and\n     the manufacturing of fertilizer (particularly from fish and fish\n     scraps), bricks (an abundance of sand and gravel encourages the\n     making of bricks), pulpwood, railroad ties, barrel staves and\n     other lumber products (60% of the Tidewater area is covered with\n     forests).\n     (2) the Piedmont Plateau--This region extends from the Coastal\n     Plain westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The word\n     \"Piedmont\" literally means \"at the foot of the mountain.\" A\n     plateau is defined as a high lowland; therefore, this section is\n     higher in elevation than the Coastal Plain region. This area is\n     characterized by rolling hills and many swift streams. The width\n     of the plateau varies from forty miles in Northern Virginia\n     to one hundred ninety miles in the southern part, gradually\n     broadening as one travels southward. The plateau rises gradually\n     from an elevation of 200-700 feet at the eastern end of the\n     plateau until, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, it\n     reaches approximately 1500 feet near the Virginia-North Carolina\n     border. The Piedmont area located south of the James River is\n     known as the Southside. Agriculture is the chief occupation\n     because, in general, this land is fertile due to the presence\n     of limestone soils and clay deposits. Large amounts of tobacco\n     are grown here. The Piedmont also has a great variety of rocks,\n     including granite and soapstone which are currently commercially\n     important.\n     (3) the Blue Ridge and Valleys--Although the Blue Ridge\n     Mountains are a part of the Appalachian Range, they are,\n     geographically, sufficiently significant to afford them a\n     separate listing in a topographical description of Virginia.\n     The Blue Ridge Mountains, located between the Potomac and\n     the Roanoke Rivers, cross Virginia in a northeast-southwest\n     direction and are from three to twenty miles wide. The Blue\n     Ridge of Virginia originates at the junction of the Potomac and\n     the Shenandoah Rivers and continues southwestward to the North\n     Carolina line. From a distance the mountain ridges usually\n     appear to be covered with a blue haze; therefore, the term \"Blue\n     Ridge\" is believed to have originated from such an observation\n     in early colonial Virginia days. This region constitutes a\n     distinct contrast to the Piedmont area since the ridges appear\n     abrupt yet lofty in height: in the northern half of Virginia,\n     Stony Man Ridge (4,010 feet) and Hawksbill (4,049 feet); in\n     the central part, Peaks of Otter (Flat Top--4,001 feet and\n     Sharp Top--3,875 feet) and in the southwestern part, White Top\n     Mountain (5,520 feet) and Mount Rogers (5,719 feet), the highest\n     point in Virginia. In the southern part, the Blue Ridge becomes\n     a rugged plateau with stony land and jagged ravines unsuited for\n     commercial agricultural pursuits. This entire area is heavily\n     forested with white pine, white oak, poplar, hemlock, black\n     oak, yellow pine, chestnut, locust and chestnut oak trees. The\n     famous Skyline Drive in the Shenandoah National Park extends one\n     hundred miles along the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains in\n     this area from Front Royal to Waynesboro.\n     (4) the Appalachian Ridge and Valleys--This region is located\n     west of the Blue Ridge and Valleys. The Appalachian Ridge\n     consists primarily of a narrow strip of land thirty-five\n     to one hundred miles wide. The Allegheny Mountains border\n     Virginia along the west and numerous high, narrow ridges are\n     found here. The Appalachian Valley in Virginia, like the Blue\n     Ridge, originates at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah\n     Rivers. This valley extends for approximately three hundred and\n     fifty miles to the borderline of Tennessee. The eastern part\n     of this valley is often referred to as the Great Valley or the\n     Valley of Virginia. This valley is actually a series of valleys\n     separated by crosswise ridges and drained by five rivers: the\n     upper James, Roanoke, New, Holston and Powell. An abundance of\n     limestone makes the soil exceptionally fertile and productive.\n     In the northern part of the Valley of Virginia is the famous\n     Shenandoah Valley, about 150 miles long and ten to twenty miles\n     wide, divided in the north by the Massanutten Mountain, a high\n     ridge approximately forty-five miles long. There is a great\n     variety of soils found here, and most of them have a fair degree\n     of plant fertility. Corn and winter wheat are the agricultural\n     specialties of the Shenandoah Valley. Other valleys included in\n     the Valley of Virginia are the Abingdon Valley, Dublin Valley,\n     Fincastle Valley, Powell Valley, Roanoke Valley, New River\n     Valley, Holston Valley and Clinch Valley.\n     (5) the Appalachian Plateau--This region is located in\n     southwestern Virginia and is often referred to as the\n     Southwestern Plateau or Allegheny Plateau. It extends only a\n     short distance into Virginia and consists mainly of rough,\n     rugged terrain. Water gaps, gorges, sandstone walls, rock\n     formations and dense forested areas make southwestern Virginia's\n     scenery distinctly different and picturesque. The Cumberland\n     Mountains form its western boundary. Coal-mining is the chief\n     occupation in this region, and this is the area where the\n     largest and most productive coal-fields of Virginia are located.\n     Lumbering is also carried on extensively. In addition, some\n     cattle, hogs, corn and vegetables are raised here.\nThe combination of these five regions suggests a one-word\ndescription of Virginia's topography, namely, diversified.\n[Illustration: _Topographical Regions of Virginia_]\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Natural Tunnel_]\n_Unique Features_\nEach state of the United States generally has at least a few\ngeographical oddities or unusual geographical formations. Virginia\nhas been richly endowed with caverns, springs, unusual rock\nformations and a dense, swampy wilderness.\nThe chief caverns are called Endless (near New Market), Grand (at\nGrottoes), Luray (near Luray)--the largest in Virginia, Massanutten\n(near Harrisonburg), Melrose (near Harrisonburg), Shenandoah (near\nNew Market) and Skyline (near Front Royal). These caverns are of\nlimestone formation and contain stalagmites (upward-projecting forms\non a cavern floor) and stalactites (downward-projecting forms from\na cavern ceiling) in diverse shapes and colors. The Blowing Cave in\nBath County received its name from the inhalation of cold air during\nthe winter and the expulsion of cold air during the summer.\nBurning Spring is located in Wise County and is so named because of\nthe liquid flames which seethe through the surface of the earth in\nthis area from unknown sources. Crystal Spring in Roanoke received\nits name from the approximately five million gallons of crystal\nwater per day which likewise appear from some unknown source.\nThe famous Natural Bridge of Virginia is considered one of the seven\nnatural wonders of the new world. It is located near Lexington in\nRockbridge County (the county so-named because of the existence of\nthe bridge of rock) and is a bridge of stone ninety feet long and\ntwo hundred and fifteen feet high spanning a gorge cut by Cedar\nCreek. So unique is this formation that Indian lore relates that\nit was referred to as \"the Bridge of God.\" In this same region, in\nPatrick County, may be seen crystals in the shape of crosses in\ncertain rock strata. So rare is their structure and clarity that\nthey are often called \"Fairy Stones\" or \"Cross Stones.\"\nThe Natural Tunnel located in Purchase Ridge near Big Stone Gap\nand Bristol is a tunnel approximately nine hundred feet long, one\nhundred and fifty feet wide and one hundred feet high, carved by\nflowing water through solid mountain terrain. The tunnel itself\nincludes a reverse curve, and, at the present time, railroad tracks\nand Stock Creek waters run through it.\nCrabtree Falls in Nelson County, Central Virginia, is believed to\nbe one of the highest waterfalls east of the Mississippi River.\nThese falls are formed by a branch of the Tye River, the South Fork,\ndescending two thousand feet below in cascade formation.\nThe Great Falls of the Potomac, located on the boundary between\nVirginia and Maryland, is one of the highest waterfalls east of the\nRockies with an elevation of ninety feet.\nThe Natural Chimneys located at Mt. Solon are seven large towers of\nstone carved by erosion out of a mountain. These rock strata are so\nstraight and so symmetrical that they resemble a series of chimneys\nsuggesting their name. Two of the chimneys have tunnels carved\nthrough the bases, and cedar trees appear to grow out of the rock.\nThe Great Dismal Swamp, approximately fifteen hundred square miles\nin area, is shared by Virginia and by North Carolina. It is noted\nfor its dense tropical growth, its fur-bearing game (particularly,\nblack bear), its massive timber varieties and its disorderly plant\nvegetation. Juniper trees, sometimes called red cedar, and cypress\ntrees are abundant around Lake Drummond in the Great Dismal Swamp.\nThe swamp is more easily accessible from Virginia than from North\nCarolina.\nIn addition to the above natural wonders, there are numerous mineral\nsprings, canyons, mountain peaks and deep gorges. Virginia has nine\nState Parks including Douthat State Park (near Clifton Forge),\nFairystone State Park (near Bassett and Martinsville), Hungry\nMother State Park (near Marion), Seashore State Park (near Cape\nHenry), Staunton River State Park (near South Boston and Halifax),\nWestmoreland State Park (near Montross and Fredericksburg), Claytor\nLake State Park (near Dublin and Radford), Prince Edward Lake State\nPark (near Burkeville) and Pocahontas Memorial State Park (near\nRichmond and Petersburg). The Breaks Interstate Park controlled by\nVirginia and Kentucky has scenery so similar to the Grand Canyon\nthat it is often refered to as \"The Grand Canyon of the South.\"\nThe Virginia area of the Breaks is located in the northern part\nof Dickenson County. Virginia also has a prominent National Park,\nShenandoah National Park, established in 1935, which consists of\napproximately 193,000 acres. This park includes the beautiful\nSkyline Drive. Cumberland Gap National Historical Park is located in\nparts of Kentucky and Tennessee as well as in Virginia.\n_Rivers and Lakes_\nBecause of the varied topography, there are many swift streams\nwhich are available (although not yet completely utilized) for\nwater power. Virginia has parts of eight different river systems\nwithin its boundaries. They are the Potomac River (including its\nchief tributary, the Shenandoah), the Rappahannock River (including\nits chief tributary, the Rapidan), the York River, the James River\n(including its tributaries, the Chickahominy and the Appomattox),\nthe Meherrin, Nottoway and Blackwater Rivers (the chief tributaries\nof the Chowan River in North Carolina), the Roanoke River (including\nits chief tributary, the Dan), the New River and the Holston, Clinch\nand Powell Rivers (the chief tributaries of the Tennessee River\nSystem). These rivers furnish excellent waterpower and drainage.\nIn addition to these important rivers, Virginia has several\nvaluable lakes. Included among these are: Crystal Lake near Cape\nHenry, Lake Drummond (the largest body of fresh water in the state,\napproximately five square miles in area and twenty-two feet in\naltitude) in the heart of the Dismal Swamp and in the highest part\nof the Dismal Swamp, Lake Jackson near Centerville, Mountain Lake\nnear Blacksburg (thirty-five hundred feet above sea level and noted\nfor the clarity of its water), Pedlar Lake in Long Mountain Wayside\nPark, Claytor Lake near Pulaski, Bear Creek Lake near Richmond,\nBedford Lake at Bedford and Prince Edward Lake in Prince Edward\nState Park. Some of these lakes are noted for their fish, especially\nbass and trout, while others contribute primarily to the scenic\ngrandeur of Virginia.\n_Climate_\nThe climate of Virginia is classified as continental--characterized\nby frequent moderate extremes in temperature and a medium length\nsummer growing season. Since elevation generally affects climatic\nconditions, the temperature in the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian\nRidge sections varies according to the altitude. In the Piedmont\nand Appalachian areas, during the winter months the temperatures\nare lower than on the plains; likewise, in the former areas,\ngreater seasonal contrasts occur. In general, the climate of the\nentire state is mild with few extremes in temperature. The average\ntemperature is approximately 40 degrees Fahrenheit, winter; 60\ndegrees Fahrenheit, spring and fall; and 80 degrees Fahrenheit,\nsummer. The greatest ranges of temperature occur in the Piedmont\nand in the Great Valley. Snow falls very infrequently except in the\nmountain areas and usually is of short duration whenever it appears.\nWith respect to annual precipitation, the average rainfall for\nVirginia is approximately forty-five inches, with variations in\ndifferent regions. In some regions it is as high as forty-nine or\nfifty inches and, in others, as low as thirty-six or thirty-seven\ninches. Rainfall typically is abundant and well-distributed\nthroughout the year. The heaviest rainfall usually occurs, however,\nduring the summer. As a result of the climatic conditions of\ntemperature and precipitation, the growing season varies from\napproximately one hundred and fifty to two hundred and ten days.\nConsequently, agricultural products are well diversified.\n_Natural Resources_\nThe economic destiny of a region is greatly influenced by its\nnatural resources as well as by its location. It has already been\npointed out that Virginia has a most desirable location. Virginia\nalso has numerous natural resources.\nOne resource so influential that it often shapes the economic\npattern of a state is soil. Virginia is fortunate in having numerous\ntypes of soil: rich, black loam; light, sandy loam; clay and sand\nloam; limestone and clay soils. Most of these soils are easily\nadaptable to cultivation, and the use of crop rotation and of marl\n(a soil neutralizer) has fostered extensive production.\nForests constitute approximately three-fifths or 60% of Virginia's\ntotal land area. There are many hardwood and softwood varieties\nin Virginia. The term, \"hardwood,\" is sometimes a misleading one\nbecause a few of the so-called \"softwood\" trees are actually hard\nin substance. Hardwood trees shed their leaves annually, and they\nare called deciduous trees. Since softwood trees bear cones, they\nare called coniferous trees. The southern or yellow pine is the\nleading softwood or coniferous tree which thrives in Virginia\nbecause of the sandy soil of the coastal plain. Other softwoods are\nred spruce, hemlock, red cedar and cypress. Hardwoods include oak,\nchestnut, locust, hickory, walnut, gum, white ash, magnolia and\ndogwood. Although the forests are scattered throughout the state,\nthe Tidewater, Piedmont and western portions of the state have the\nlargest forested area.\nFish are plentiful in Virginia because of the Atlantic Ocean,\nthe Chesapeake Bay and the numerous rivers and mountain streams.\nVirginia usually ranks annually among the first ten states in the\nvalue of its fisheries. The principal fish are oysters and clams\nin Chesapeake Bay, blue crabs and shrimp in the Tidewater area,\nscallops in seacoast inlets, bads, bream, perch, pike, carp, catfish\nin inland waters and speckled and rainbow trout in mountain streams.\nMenhaden fish, found near the surface of the water, are inedible but\nare now being used for making fertilizer and oil in Virginia.\nThe amount of waterpower is above average in Virginia due to many\nswift streams and rivers and the high elevation. This resource\ncombined with an ample supply of steam coal has resulted in the\nproduction of electric power in Virginia at a much cheaper rate than\nin many other states. Furthermore, it is estimated that Virginia\nindustry at the present time is using only approximately 10 per cent\nof its available waterpower supply.\nWith respect to minerals, approximately one hundred and fifty kinds\nhave been found in Virginia, and approximately forty have been mined\nand quarried recently. However, Virginia ranks nineteenth in United\nStates mineral production and provides approximately 1.25% of the\ntotal United States mineral value.\nThe most valuable and most abundant mineral resource found in\nVirginia is coal. There are four types: bituminous (soft),\nanthracite (hard), semi-bituminous and semi-anthracite. The\nbituminous coal far surpasses the other types in quantity. The\ncoal supply is found primarily in three areas: (1) the Piedmont\nregion--the Richmond Basin and the Farmville area--bituminous;\n(2) the west side of the Great Valley of Virginia--anthracite and\nsemi-anthracite and (3) the Southwestern Plateau--bituminous and\nsemi-bituminous. The first coal to be mined in the United States was\nlocated near Richmond in 1745. At the present time, Virginia ranks\nsixth in the United States coal production and is believed to have\nmore coal seams now available than any other mining district in the\nUnited States. Coal is mined most frequently in Buchanan, Wise and\nDickenson Counties.\nVarious types of stone resources rank second in financial value of\nminerals. These include:\n     Calcareous marl (an earthy deposit containing usually lime, clay\n     and sand)--in the Tidewater section--used as a soil neutralizer\n     Cement rock--limestone, marl, shale and clay--in the\n     Coastal Plain and in Augusta, Botetourt, Norfolk and Warren\n     Counties--used in forming portland cement and masonry cement\n     Dolomite (a brittle calcium magnesium carbonate)--in the Valley\n     west of the Blue Ridge Mountains--used as a source of magnesium,\n     for the manufacture of refractories, for building and crushed\n     stone\n     Granite--in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge provinces--used for\n     building monumental stone, crushed stone and paving blocks\n     Greenstone (a dark-green crystalline rock)--in Lynchburg and in\n     the Piedmont area--used for crushed stone and one particular\n     type is used for ornamental stone\n     Limestone--west of the Blue Ridge, in the Appalachian Valley and\n     in the far west of the state--used in the production of lime and\n     for manufacturing chemicals, for cement, as a soil conditioner,\n     for crushed stone and rock wool insulation\n     Marble--in Rockingham, Rockbridge, Scott and Giles\n     Counties--used extensively for monumental stone: jet black,\n     green, white, red, reddish-brown, blue, gray, blue-gray, pink\n     and variegated (different colors within one type); the pink\n     marble is similar to the Tennessee marble and is found primarily\n     in Smyth County\n     Shale (a fragile rock resembling slate)--in the Valley--used in\n     the manufacture of bricks, portland cement and rock wool\n     Sandstone--Oriskany sandstone in Frederick and in Rockingham\n     Counties--chief source for the manufacture of all glass\n     Slate--in Piedmont or eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains,\n     in Albemarle and Buckingham Counties--used chiefly for roofs,\n     baseboards, blackboards, switchboards, sidewalks, flagstones and\n     asphalt shingles\nThere are several miscellaneous minerals which, when combined,\nrank third in financial value of minerals in the state. These\nmiscellaneous minerals include:\n     Aplite--among Piedmont crystalline rocks along the Piney\n     River in Amherst County--used in the ceramic and glass\n     industry--Virginia ranks first in quantity and in value\n     Bauxite--in Augusta County--used for manufacturing aluminum,\n     chemicals and abrasives\n     Gypsum--in Smyth and Washington Counties--used primarily for the\n     manufacture of cement, plaster of paris, wallboards, fillers and\n     chalk\n     Iron ore--in central and southwestern parts of the state--used\n     in furnaces for the extraction of the metal itself\n     Kyanite--in Buckingham, Charlotte and Prince Edward\n     Counties--used in the manufacture of high-temperature\n     refractories, used by metallurgical and glass industries, for\n     insulators, for spark plugs, porcelains, boiler furnaces and in\n     the ceramics industry--Virginia ranks first in quantity and in\n     value\n     Manganese--in central and southwestern parts of the state--in\n     Augusta, Bland, Smyth, Giles and Wythe Counties--used in the\n     manufacture of steel, dry batteries, chemicals, ceramics,\n     fertilizer, drier in varnish and printer's ink\n     Petroleum--in Lee and Scott Counties--used primarily for fuel\n     Salt--in southwest--in Smyth and Washington Counties--used\n     in the manufacture of various industrial chemicals and for\n     specialized used in food, clay, dye, glass and paper industries;\n     the brine used in manufacturing chlorine and soda ash\n     Soapstone--in Albemarle, Franklin and Nelson Counties--used\n     for the manufacture of switchboards, electric insulators,\n     insecticides (ground soapstone) and for industrial and research\n     laboratories\n     Talc--in Fairfax and in Franklin Counties--used as paint\n     extender and as pigment, paper and rubber filler, ceramic\n     products, lubricant, dusting material and abrasives\n     Titanium concentrates--in Nelson, Hanover and Amherst\n     Counties--these minerals consist of ilmenite (used chiefly in\n     the manufacture of pigments and to a slight extent in making\n     steel) and rutile (used mainly for coating on electrical welding\n     rods); titanium is used for increasing the hardness, strength\n     and durability of steel and is sometimes used in making pottery,\n     china and stainless steel--Virginia ranks third in titanium\n     concentrates\nSand and gravel, used primarily for roadbuilding and general\nconstruction projects, rank fourth in value. Most of the sand and\ngravel is located along the Coastal Plain, especially in Henrico,\nChesterfield, Prince George and Princess Anne Counties. Sand and\ngravel are also used for \"fill,\" for engine sands, railroad ballast\nand glass. Clay (excluding that type used in the manufacture\nof pottery) ranks fifth in financial value. Clay deposits are\nwidespread throughout Virginia--especially in Botetourt,\nBuckingham, Chesterfield, Henrico and Prince William Counties--and\nvary from red to light-colored to white. They are used chiefly for\nbrick and tile construction.\nWith respect to metals, Virginia mines the following:\n     Barite--widespread deposits--used in the preparation of oil well\n     drilling, muds, chemicals\n     Diatomite--Tidewater section--an earthy material used as an\n     insulator, as a filter medium for oils, in sugar refining\n     Feldspar--widespread deposits--chiefly in Amelia, Bedford and\n     Prince Edward Counties--used chiefly in the ceramics industry\n     for making pottery and in the manufacture of glass, enamelware,\n     enamel brick, and as an abrasive in soaps and cleansers\n     Gold--northeast Piedmont and Blue Ridge Plateau--little gold\n     at present but the best developed gold deposits are located\n     in Fauquier, Buckingham, Culpeper, Goochland, Louisa, Orange,\n     Spotsylvania and Stafford Counties--chief uses of gold include\n     as a bullion for backing of United States currency, in the\n     manufacture of jewelry, in the process of gilding, lettering,\n     plating, and in the chemical industry\n     Lead and Zinc--lead: in Albemarle, Spotsylvania, Louise and\n     Wythe Counties--used in the manufacture of paint, in storage\n     batteries, cable covering and as an alloy; zinc: in Scott,\n     Wythe, Rockingham and Spotsylvania Counties--used for producing\n     metallic zinc, for galvanizing and (when alloyed with copper)\n     for making brass\n     Mica--among the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont\n     Provinces--white mica called muscovite is used chiefly for\n     electric insulation, for coating wallpaper, for roofing paper,\n     in lubricants and in heat-resistant windows; sheet mica is used\n     in electronic equipment--in Amelia, Bedford, and Henrico Counties\n     Natural gas--in Buchanan and Dickenson Counties--used for fuel\n     and power\n     Pyrite--widespread deposits, particularly in Carroll\n     County--used for its sulphur content in the manufacture of\n     sulfuric acid--Virginia ranks second in quantity\n     Tungsten--in Mecklenburg County--used for making high-speed tool\n     steel and munitions\n     Wool-rock--in the Valley of Virginia and the Ridge\n     provinces--used for the manufacture of rock wool for heat and\n     sound insulation\nAs civilization progresses and new inventions are created, the\ndemand for natural resources will increase. As new processing\nmethods are devised, Virginia will undoubtedly increase the\ndevelopment of such resources.\n_Human Resources_\nThe natural resources of a state assume a comparatively minor role\nunless there are human resources to develop and to utilize them. The\npresent population of Virginia is approximately 3,900,000 people.\nThis figure represents a gain of approximately 17% in the last\ndecade. Virginia now ranks sixteenth in population among the fifty\nstates of the United States. Of this total population, approximately\n40% in 1960 lived in incorporated localities having a population\nof 25,000 or more, an increase of approximately 4% over 1950;\napproximately 78% are white and 22% are non-white. Of the non-white\npopulation, approximately 21% are Negroes and the remainder consists\nprimarily of Indians, Chinese and Japanese. Most of the survivors of\nthe Mattaponi and Pamunkey Indians now live on reservations in King\nWilliam County and the Chickahominy Indians in New Kent and Charles\nCity Counties. Of the white population in Virginia, only 1.03% is\nforeign-born.\nDensity of population refers to the average number of people per\nsquare mile in a state. Density is found by dividing the total\npopulation of a state by the total land area of the state. The\ndensity of population in 1960 was 96. The counties of Fairfax\n(southwest of, and adjacent to, Arlington County) and of Henrico\n(adjacent to Richmond) more than doubled their population from 1950\nFrom 1880 to 1930, while the population was increasing rapidly in\nmost states of the United States, it was increasing very slowly\nin Virginia--only a 5% increase. During this period, there was\na large migration from Virginia to other regions of the United\nStates, primarily to seek better employment opportunities. Of\nthis emigration, 65% consisted of non-whites. This emigration\npractically ceased during the 1930's. During the Great Depression,\nagricultural workers who had made up the large proportion of the\nprevious emigration realized the futility of migrating to urban\nareas beyond the state, already overcrowded with unemployed people.\nAlthough manufacturing activities in the nation declined during this\nperiod, in Virginia such activities increased, causing the number\nof employees in manufacturing to increase in Virginia. At the same\ntime, governmental activities within Virginia and in areas adjacent\nto Virginia greatly expanded, thus affording more opportunities for\nadditional employment in Virginia than in many other states of the\nUnion during this time.\nIn the 1940's Virginia had a percentage rate of population growth\nof 23.9%, the highest percentage rate since the first census of\n1790. This growth was partly a result of a high birth rate, a low\ndeath rate and the greatest net immigration of people in Virginia's\nhistory since the colonial period. Approximately 216,900 persons\nbecame residents of Virginia during this decade. At the same time,\nthere was a high rate of development of employment opportunities\nin Virginia as manufacturing, mining, tourist trade, wholesale and\nretail trades and service industries expanded rapidly. The chief\nfactor, however, in the immigration increase was the widespread\nincrease of federal government employment, civilian and military.\nThe total population of the state increased by 18% during the\ndecade 1950-1960. However, during the same decade, Virginia changed\nin population rank from the fifteenth place among the forty-eight\nstates to the sixteenth place among the fifty states. The ten most\npopulated cities in Virginia are Norfolk, Richmond, Newport News,\nPortsmouth, Roanoke, Alexandria, Hampton, Lynchburg, Danville and\nPetersburg. During the past decade, the population of three cities\nhas been materially increased through annexation. In 1952, Hampton,\nPhoebus and Elizabeth City County consolidated into the first class\ncity of Hampton. In the same year, Warwick County became a city\nalso. In 1955, Norfolk became the largest city in population in\nthe state when it annexed the Tanners Creek Magisterial District\nof Norfolk County. In 1958, the cities of Warwick and Newport News\nwere officially consolidated into the one large city of Newport News\nwhich now ranks third in population.\nS U M M A R Y\nSince Virginia borders the Atlantic Ocean and is located almost\nhalfway between the northern and southern boundaries of the United\nStates, it has a very favorable geographical location. An abundance\nof mountain and plain areas, rivers and lakes, a moderate climate\nand the presence of varying altitudes from sea level to 5,719 feet\nfurnishes Virginia with five distinct topographical regions and\nmuch scenic beauty. Several unique geographical features found in\nVirginia such as Burning Spring, Natural Bridge, Natural Tunnel,\nCrabtree Falls, Natural Chimneys, several caverns and the nine state\nparks, in addition to the well-known Shenandoah National Park,\nhelp to make Virginia a most desirable tourist area. A variety of\nnatural resources such as soil, forests, fish, waterpower, coal,\nmiscellaneous minerals and metals promote numerous occupations\nwithin the boundaries of Virginia. Ranking thirty-sixth in area\nand sixteenth in population among the states of the United States,\nVirginia has an attractive environmental location with a large\ndiversity of skills among its inhabitants. Thus, Virginia is\nwell-endowed geographically and has many potential resources for\nfuture progress.\nHistorical Life: 1584-1775\n_Exploration and Colonization_\nThrough the efforts of John Cabot who explored the coast of North\nAmerica in 1497, according to a patent granted to him by King\nHenry VII, England had a substantial claim to New World territory.\nAttempts at founding an English colony in America, however, were\nnot made until 1583 when Sir Humphrey Gilbert received permission\nfrom Queen Elizabeth to settle a colony in the area now known as\nNewfoundland. This attempt was unsuccessful and Sir Humphrey Gilbert\nand his colleagues drowned during a storm at sea on their return\nvoyage. Nevertheless, Gilbert had selected a site for a colony and\nhad claimed the island for England. The proprietary patent which\nGilbert had received from Queen Elizabeth was renewed and passed to\nhis half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh.\nIn 1584, the name \"Virginia\" was given to the area of land claimed\nby John Cabot, an area extending from Roanoke Island 600 miles in\nan arc formation. Some historians state that Raleigh himself named\nthe area \"Virginia\" in honor of Queen Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen,\nwhile others indicate that Queen Elizabeth herself named it in her\nown honor. From 1584 to 1591, Raleigh made numerous attempts with\nthe use of his personal fortune to establish an English colony on\nRoanoke Island--located off what is now known as the North Carolina\ncoast--but his efforts were futile and the so-called \"Lost Colony\"\nresulted. In 1587, after Raleigh's second group of colonists had\narrived at Roanoke Island (the first group having returned to\nEngland after unsurmountable difficulties had beset them), they\nestablished a settlement there. This was the settlement where the\nfirst child of English parents was born in America. Her name was\nVirginia Dare (named in honor of her birthplace) and she was the\ngranddaughter of John White, Governor of the settlement. When the\ncolonists' provisions became low, Governor White returned to England\nfor additional ones. Four years passed before he returned to the\nsettlement because of the War between England and Spain, and upon\nhis return, he found no settlers on the island. Various areas and\nlocations were searched in vain and only one possible clue was ever\nfound: the letters, \"CROATAN,\" carved on a tree. These letters\nspelled the name of an island which had been inhabited by friendly\nIndians of the same name. Thus, the \"Lost Colony\" remains an\nhistorical mystery which has never been solved.\nThe many sincere efforts on the part of Sir Walter Raleigh plus the\nvast sums of money which he spent for these colonization attempts\nconvinced the English people that colonization was too complicated\nan activity for individuals to pursue alone. Since the English\ngovernment did not desire to undertake these settlement projects,\ncharters were issued by King James I to stock and joint-stock\ncompanies. Under this system, each stockholder bought a certain\nnumber of shares. If the company succeeded, each stockholder earned\na profit based upon the number of shares he owned. On April 10,\n1606, the Virginia Charter was granted under which two companies\nwere incorporated: the London Company consisting mainly of men\nfrom London and the Plymouth Company consisting mainly of men from\nPlymouth and neighboring towns. The charter granted them the right\nto settle in the area in that part of the American coast known as\n\"Virginia\" between 30 and 45 degrees north latitude and as far\ninland as 100 miles. The London Company was granted for settlement\nthe coast between 34 and 41 degrees north latitude and fifty miles\nnorth and south of the point of settlement; the Plymouth Company was\ngranted the coast between 38 and 45 degrees north. The overlapping\narea between 38 and 41 degrees could be settled by either company\nas long as the company did not colonize within 100 miles of a\nsettlement established by the other. The charter also guaranteed\nthe colonists and their descendants all rights, privileges and\nfranchises enjoyed by Englishmen living in England at this time.\nThe government of the colony established by the Virginia Charter was\nto consist of a Superior Council of thirteen members in England and\na Resident or Inferior Council in the colony itself, with complete\nadministrative powers and political control reserved for the King.\nEach landholder was required to pay an annual quitrent to the Crown\nand was forbidden to carry on trade with any foreign country without\na license. Before the charter was signed, in order to encourage a\nlarge number of stockholders, the London Company agreed to make each\nsubscriber to its stock who paid twelve pounds and ten shillings the\n\"lord of 200 acres of land\" which would be owned by \"him and his\nheirs forever.\" Consequently, the company raised sufficient money\nto finance a colonizing expedition, and, shortly after the charter\nhad been signed officially by the King, the company sent its first\nemigrants on the way.\nThe settlements of the Plymouth Company were unsuccessful. The\nLondon Company had six hundred fifty-nine members, many of whom\nwere knights, aristocrats and gentlemen of learning as well as the\nusual merchant and middle class citizens. In general, there were two\ngroups of stockholders: the adventurers who purchased the stock but\nremained in England, and the planters who personally established\nthe colony and then lived in it. Although the company was primarily\norganized for profit making, it was also expected to help the mother\ncountry, England, by supplying her with products which she herself\ncould not produce. Some of the colonists sincerely desired to\nacquaint and convert the Indians to Christianity. The leader of the\nLondon Company organization was Bartholomew Gosnold and his chief\nassociates were Edward Maria Wingfield, a rich merchant, Robert\nHunt, a clergyman, George Percy, a poet and scholar, and John Smith,\na versatile individual.\nOn December 6, 1606, the London Company dispatched three ships from\nBlackwell, London, England: the Sarah Constant (or Susan Constant),\ncaptained by Sir Christopher Newport, the Admiral of the fleet; the\nGoodspeed (or Godspeed), captained by Bartholomew Gosnold; and the\nDiscovery (or Discoverer), captained by John Ratcliffe. These ships\ncarried one hundred twenty passengers, men and boys, only sixteen\nof whom died on the long journey to Virginia. This is a very small\nnumber lost when one considers the size and type of ships used, the\nextremely long voyage which lasted approximately four months, over\nthe Atlantic Ocean at its greatest width, the lack of proper food\nand drinking water and the severe storm which the fleet encountered\noff the Florida coast. This storm blew them off their intended\ncourse to two capes which appeared guarding a huge bay. The settlers\nsighted these capes on Sunday, May 6, 1607 and named them Cape Henry\nfor Henry, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I, and Cape Charles\nfor Charles, the Duke of York, another son of James I. The bay was\nChesapeake Bay, so-named by the Indians. They sailed up a river\ntributary, called Powhatan by the Indians, to the bay and then to a\npeninsula located about fifty miles above its mouth. This site is\nbelieved to have been chosen because the water was deep enough to\nallow the ships to dock close to the shore and because a peninsula\ncould be comparatively easily defended against Indian attacks.\nHere the settlers landed on May 24, 1607 and established the first\npermanent English settlement in America. They called the settlement\nJamestown in honor of their King, James I, and called the river on\nwhich they had traveled the James River. There, the minister, Parson\nRobert Hunt, standing under a ship's canvas sail stretched between\nfour trees, led a thanksgiving service to God on behalf of all\nthe passengers for their safe arrival in America. He also had the\nprivilege of celebrating the first Holy Communion in America. Thus,\nthe settlement of Jamestown became the \"Cradle of the Republic\"\nbecause it was the birthplace of the area now known as the United\nStates as well as of the State of Virginia.\nThe colonists had been given sealed written instructions concerning\ntheir local governmental leaders, and these instructions were\nnot to be opened until the ships reached Virginia. The council\nmembers had no power to make laws but were appointed to see that\nthe laws approved by the King were enforced. Since John Smith had\nshown strong leadership qualities, had frequently criticized the\nmanagement of the ships, and had exerted much influence on the\nvoyage to America, he had aroused jealousy on the part of some of\nthe other voyagers. As a result, the accusation was made that he was\ndesirous of becoming the King of Virginia. Fearing that he might\nassume too much political power, his cohorts arrested him upon the\npretense of treason and mutiny and imprisoned him on shipboard until\nthe end of the journey. When the unsealed instructions were read,\nthe first Resident Council consisted of Bartholomew Gosnold, George\nKendall, John Martin, Christopher Newport, John Ratcliffe, John\nSmith and Edward Maria Wingfield, president of the first council.\nJohn Smith was later charged with sedition, acquitted, and finally\nrestored to his rightful council position.\nIn addition to naming the members of the Resident Council, the\nwritten instructions for the colonists provided that all the\ncolonists should work for a \"common store.\" This rule resulted in\na great hardship because some of the physically able and capable\ncolonists left the tasks of planting, building, and performing of\nadditional necessary duties to others. Some of the colonists were\ngentlemen by profession, unaccustomed to hard physical labor, and\ninterested mostly in finding gold or attaining a quick fortune and\nthen returning to England. A majority of the colonists, however,\nworked hard and, after building a fort for protection, continued\nto construct a storehouse, a church and log huts for residences.\nThe morale of the colonists became very low when the food supplies\nbecame scanty; diseases of fever and dysentery appeared due to the\nhumid, marshy, mosquito-laden land area; and Indian attacks became\ncommon. With arrows tipped with deer's horn and with sharp stones,\nthe Indians had shot at the colonists, severely injuring Captain\nGabriel Archer and one of the sailors. However, the first large\norganized Indian attack occurred in the latter part of May when two\nhundred Indians attacked the settlers. They were finally driven back\nthrough the efforts of the colonists under the leadership of Captain\nEdward Maria Wingfield.\nCaptain John Smith, Captain Christopher Newport and twenty other\nsettlers decided to explore the general area of the Jamestown\nregion. From June to September, they journeyed the entire length\nof the Chesapeake Bay and they witnessed the eastern shore of the\nbay, the Potomac River, the Great Falls, the Susquehanna River, the\nRappahannock River, the York River and the Chesapeake River. Smith\ncarefully drew a map of the entire area and called it a \"Map of the\nChesapeake.\" He sent it to England via Captain Newport, and it was\nlater published in London.\nThe courage and persistent hard work of the settlers and the\nleadership of Captain John Smith were invaluable. Captain John Smith\nmaintained harmony in the Council, encouraged friendly relations\nwith the Indians (eventually to the extent of getting corn, an\nabsolute necessity, from them) and changed the \"common store\" policy\nto a \"no work-no eat\" policy which had most effective results on\nthe indolent settlers. In 1608, he wrote a fascinating narration\nabout the founding of the Virginia Colony which he entitled \"A True\nRelation.\" He is sometimes referred to as the \"Father of Virginia\"\nbecause of his participation in so many activities: a governmental\nofficial (president of the Council from September 1608 to September\n1609), a diplomat in his relations with the Indians, a leader in\nattempting to maintain peaceful, cooperative relations among the\nsettlers themselves, an observing prisoner of the Indians (during\nwhich time he learned much of their culture and experienced the\nmiraculous saving of his life by the Indian girl, Pocahontas) and\na writer who tried to picture the happenings of the settlers in an\nenjoyable fashion.\nIn addition to saving Smith's life, Pocahontas helped the Virginia\nsettlers by having corn and venison brought to them and, later, by\nwarning John Smith of a proposed Indian attack. After John Smith\nreturned to England, Pocahontas stopped visiting the colony, and\nthe Indians soon refused to bring any more corn to the colonists.\nPocahontas was eventually captured by a Jamestown settler, Captain\nSamuel Argall, through the trickery of an Indian who betrayed her\nin return for a \"copper Kettle and some trinkets.\" She was held\nas a hostage in Jamestown in an effort to restore peace between\nthe Indians and the English. This strategy was so successful that\nfriendly relations were re-established. Two years later, in April,\n1614, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, an English gentleman, at the\nJamestown Church. Pocahontas had met and had become well acquainted\nwith John Rolfe during her captivity at Jamestown. She had been\nbaptized at the Jamestown Church and had been given the name of\nRebecca. They lived for a while at Jamestown and then at Varina,\nRolfe's plantation. Three years after their marriage, Rebecca\nand John and their baby, Thomas, age one, traveled to England,\naccompanied by approximately a dozen Indians who desired to be\neducated in England. Rebecca was received royally at the court, and\nshe was so well-mannered and charming that this lady who had grown\nup in the wilderness of Virginia was readily accepted by London\nSociety. When Captain John Smith heard of her arrival in England,\nhe informed Queen Anne of the great help furnished to the Virginia\nColony by this Indian maiden during her youth. Pocahontas then\nbecame Lady Rebecca and remained in England for over a year. As they\nwere getting ready to return to Virginia, Lady Rebecca died suddenly\nand was buried in St. George's Church at Gravesend, England. Today,\ntwo beautiful stained-glass windows may be seen in this church, a\ngift of the Colonial Dames of Virginia, as a token of gratitude for\nservices rendered to the Colony of Virginia by Princess Pocahontas.\nJohn Ratcliffe and Captain John Smith succeeded to the presidency\nof the council after Captain Wingfield. While Smith was president\nof the council, King James I granted another charter for Virginia\nin 1609 upon the reorganization of the London Company. This charter\nprovided that: (1) the area of Virginia was henceforth to include\nall the land on its eastern coast 200 miles north and 200 miles\nsouth of Old Point Comfort and extending from the Atlantic Ocean\nwest and northwest to the Pacific Ocean; therefore, Virginia\nincluded at this time land now found in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana,\nMaryland, North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky, Wisconsin and\npart of Minnesota; (2) a Resident Council was to be established\nwhich would have the power to distribute land, make all laws and\nappoint all officers for Virginia's government; membership in the\ncouncil was to result from election by the members of the company in\nEngland, a majority vote being required for the election; and (3)\nthe colonists were to take the Oath of Supremacy making the Church\nof England the only recognized church of the colony.\nIn the same year, Captain John Smith bought a tract of land located\nnear Richmond from the Indian Chief, Powhatan, and there he founded\na settlement which he called \"None Such.\" He named it thus because\nhe believed there was \"none such\" site as scenically beautiful\nanywhere. This site was formerly Emperor Powhatan's summer court\nlocation.\nIn the same year also Thomas West, Lord de la Warr (Delaware),\nbecame the \"Lord Governor and Captaine Generall\" of the Virginia\ncolony. Although he held this office until June 1618, he remained in\nEngland during this time because of ill health with the exception\nof the period June 1610-March 1611. In May 1610, Sir Thomas Gates,\nthe first Governor of the colony of Virginia, arrived at Jamestown.\nCaptain George Percy had succeeded Captain Smith as president of the\nCouncil. Starvation from a lack of food supplies followed, and the\npopulation of the colony was reduced from 500 to 60 people. These\nsixty were approximately fourteen miles away from Jamestown on their\nway back to England when some of Lord de la Warr's ships arrived\nbringing food and fifty additional settlers. Lord de la Warr was\nresponsible also for having a trading post established at Hampton.\nToday, Hampton is the oldest continuous Anglo-Saxon settlement still\nin existence in the United States.\nA short time later, Sir Thomas Dale (better known as \"Marshall\")\narrived from England as Governor of the colony. He was considered\na harsh Governor because his martial law administration was\ncharacterized by severe punishment for wrongdoing. However, he was\nresponsible for having common property divided among the colonists\nand for allowing them to own their shares privately. He ordered that\nthree acres of land be given to every man. In return for this land,\nthe owner was required to give six bushels of corn each year to the\ncolony. The owner then was allowed to keep the rest of his crops,\ntwo acres of which had to be planted in corn before any tobacco\ncould be raised. This action was the first official recognition of\nthe right of owning property in America and such action resulted\nin much more industrious efforts put forth on the part of the new\nowners.\nIn 1611, Sir Thomas Dale founded the third settlement in Virginia:\nHenricopolis or the City of Henricus (named for the eldest son of\nKing James I, Prince Henry). Approximately 350 settlers, mostly\nGerman laborers, soon colonized there. Two years later, Governor\nDale was also responsible for a settlement being established at the\nsite of the junction of the Appomattox and James Rivers. It was\ncalled New Bermuda or Bermuda Hundred because of its similarity to\nthe British Island of Bermuda. For many years this settlement served\nas a convenient shipping point and the present city of Hopewell is\nan outgrowth of this early site.\nIn 1612, a third charter was granted by King James I for the\nVirginia Colony. This was a most liberal charter as it abolished\nthe Superior Council and gave full governing powers of the colony\ndirectly to the London Company members, thus making the company a\nself-governing corporation. The name was changed from the London\nCompany to the Virginia Company. The company was to hold four\nmeetings each year in London, and these meetings were called\nmeetings of the General Court or \"Quarter Courts.\" At such meetings,\nthe officers were to be elected by the stockholders and the laws of\nthe colony were to be passed. The General Court also had the power\nto manage the business of the company and to appoint the Governor\nand councillors for the Virginia colony. The charter extended the\neastern seaboard boundary to include the Bermudas and, in addition,\ngave the company the authority to hold lotteries for its own benefit.\n[Illustration: VA. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\n_Reproductions of Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery_]\nIn the same year, John Rolfe began experimenting at Varina, his\nplantation, with some tobacco seeds brought from the West Indies\nor from South America. Pocahontas helped Rolfe in this task by\nteaching him the necessity of keeping the young, tender leaves\nprotected from the cold and by showing him how gently the young\ntobacco plants must be transplanted. Rolfe became the first white\nman to raise tobacco successfully in Virginia. Then the problem of\ncuring tobacco in such a manner that it could reach England without\nspoilage faced him. After some experimentation, his shipment was the\nfirst one to reach England in good condition. As a result, tobacco\nbecame the first important money crop and export of Virginia. In\naddition to the price the planters received for this product, the\nproduction of tobacco created employment for merchants and shippers.\nAfter Rolfe's success in growing and curing tobacco, it was grown\nby practically everyone in a variety of places: fields, gardens,\nbetween graves and, in some instances, in the streets of Jamestown.\nProsperous times had finally arrived at Jamestown. When the\nEnglishmen at home realized the profit and excellent opportunities\navailable in tobacco growing, many journeyed to Virginia and began\ntobacco raising. Previously, the settlers' occupations had consisted\nprimarily of farming (especially the cultivation of grapes) and\nof the manufacture of potash, soap, glass and tar. The successful\ngrowing of tobacco caused a tremendous increase in the population of\nthe colony and in the amount of tobacco shipped from Virginia. This\ninfant tobacco production was the background for the present day\nhigh rank of Virginia in tobacco production.\nIn 1616, the company allowed each settler to have 100 acres of land\nfor his personal use. A few years later, a 50-acre tract of land\nwas awarded to each settler who paid his own fare to America and an\nadditional 50 acres for every pioneer he brought with him. This land\narrangement, called the \"Head-Right\" system, formed the basis of the\nVirginia land system. This system resulted in the creation of large\nestates, and in the 1650's the average size land grant in Virginia\nwas approximately 500 acres. Such areas were commonly called\nplantations, and the owners of such plantations, known as Virginia\nplanters, ultimately became the dominant influence in the Virginia\ngovernment. Some of these early plantation owners were William Byrd,\nThomas Warren, William Fitzhugh and Abraham Wood.\nAfter the Virginia Company had been given full governmental control\nof its colony, there were some members in the General Court who\nbelieved that Virginia settlers themselves should be given more\nfreedom. When these liberal-minded individuals gained control of\nthe company, their leader, Sir Edwin Sandys, was responsible for\nobtaining ratification of \"The Great Charter of Privileges, Orders\nand Laws\" by the General Court on November 28, 1618. In 1619, Sir\nEdwin Sandys was elected head of the company and he immediately sent\nSir George Yeardley as Governor to Virginia to put the charter into\neffect in order that the settlers would enjoy self-government.\nBecause of the sincere efforts put forth by Sir Edwin Sandys on\nbehalf of this self-government in Virginia, he is often referred to\nas the \"Father of Representative Government in America.\"\nAccording to the Great Charter, the Virginia Colony was to be\ngoverned by two councils: one to consist of the Governor and\nhis advisers chosen in England by the Virginia Company itself\nand the other council to consist of representatives, called\nBurgesses, chosen by the Virginia settlers themselves. Governor\nYeardley carried out his instructions to have the free inhabitants\nof the Virginia Colony choose representatives to help him and\nhis advisers in matters concerning taxation and laws for the\nwelfare of the settlers. The settlements were organized into four\n\"incorporations\" or \"parishes\" with Jamestown, the titular capital\ncity of the colony: City of Henricus, Charles City, James City and\nKiccowtan (later called Elizabeth City). These parishes were then\nfurther divided into eleven districts called boroughs, hundreds\nor plantations. Each of these districts was asked to elect two\nBurgesses as representatives in their local government.\nGovernor Yeardley, therefore, called the first representative\nlegislature in America to meet in the little church at Jamestown,\nJuly 30, 1619. This first General Assembly of Virginia consisted\nof the Council, the upper house, and the House of Burgesses, the\nlower house. This group was the first popular assembly in the New\nWorld. There was a delay in the initial meeting because the local\nelections had to be postponed until after the plowing and sowing of\nseeds had been done. The session lasted six days and then adjourned\nbecause of the severe heat. The session began with a prayer by the\nminister and the Governor and Council members sat in the front pews\nof the church. John Pory was the presiding officer of this first\nGeneral Assembly and he was called the Speaker. Each burgess was\ncalled by name and then given the oath of supremacy in recognition\nof the sovereignty of King James I. After the oath had been taken,\nhe officially entered the Assembly. Two burgesses were refused\nmembership in the Assembly due to an unusual land patent condition.\nOne of these prospective burgesses had been legally excused from\nobeying colonial laws by his land grant terms. The action of refusal\nwas significant because it created the precedent that the Virginia\nAssembly has the right to decide the qualifications of its own\nmembers and to expel members even if they have been sworn in and\nadmitted to the Assembly if conditions so warrant.\nAlthough the session was very brief, much was accomplished,\nincluding the acceptance of the charter by the General Assembly\nmembers. Since this charter was the foundation of the laws used by\nthe General Assembly to rule the Virginia Colony, it was called a\nconstitution and was the first written constitution promulgated in\nour country. Other petitions presented at this time are indications\nof the trend of thought of these political leaders: former grants\nof land should be confirmed and new grants made to the early\nsettlers, shares of land should be given to all male children born\nin Virginia, rents of the ministers' lands should be made payable in\ncommodities instead of money, a sub-treasurer should be appointed\nto live in the colony, and men should be sent to build a college in\nthe colony. Other laws passed by the Assembly itself concerned the\npunishment of idlers, gamblers and drunkards, the payment of church\ndues, the religious duty of the colonists, the regulation of trade,\nthe relations of whites to Indians, the regulation of the duties of\nministers and the conduct of servants. The Assembly also levied a\ntax of one pound of tobacco on every male inhabitant over sixteen\nyears of age, the tax to be used for the payment of services of its\nofficers (speaker, clerk, sergeant and provost marshal of James\nCity). The Governor then adjourned the Assembly until March 1, 1620.\nIn addition to the regular settlers at Jamestown, from time to time\nindentured servants came to America. They were individuals who\nsigned contracts called \"indentures\" whereby they agreed to work as\napprentices or tenant farmers for a stated time in return for their\npaid passage to America. On August 30, 1619, a ship that looked like\na Dutch man-of-war but actually was believed to be a pirate craft\ncame to Jamestown with a cargo of twenty Negroes which it sold to\nthe Governor and the colonists. This was the first recorded selling\nof slaves in the area now called the United States. The Negroes\nseemed to be more easily adaptable to hard, manual labor than the\nIndians or indentured white servants had been. The need for labor\nwhich could endure the intense sun of the tobacco fields made the\nNegroes much more desirable than the whites since they seemed to\nendure these conditions more satisfactorily.\nDuring the same year, another historical milestone occurred in\nVirginia when a ship arrived at Jamestown with sixty young women\nfrom England. Each bachelor who desired a bride had to pay 120\npounds of tobacco for his bride's passage. The young women stayed\nat the married planters' homes until their marriage. These brave\nwomen made happy homes and helped shoulder the responsibilities so\nthat community life in Virginia became more settled. They wrote\nsuch cheerful, courageous accounts of their life in Virginia\nthat a second shipload soon followed and more homes were rapidly\nestablished.\nIn July 1621, the London Company issued to Virginia a code of\nwritten laws and a frame of government patterned after the English\ntype: the Governor of the colony was to be appointed by the company,\na Council was to be appointed by the company, and a House of\nBurgesses was to be elected by the colonists themselves. Whenever\nmaking laws, the councilors and burgesses were to sit together. A\nlaw would be proposed, debated and, if passed, be submitted to the\nGovernor for his approval. The company in England would have the\nfinal ratification or rejection. The right of petition and the right\nof trial by jury were guaranteed. A unique feature was the provision\nthat the burgesses had the power of vetoing any objectionable acts\nof the company. Thus, additional political rights were furnished to\nthe colonists by this so-called Virginia Constitution of 1621.\nAt noon on March 22, 1622, the \"Great Massacre\" occurred. Complete\nannihilation of all the Jamestown inhabitants by the Powhatan\nIndian Confederacy was prevented primarily by the warning of an\nIndian convert, a boy named Chanco. The settlement of Henricopolis\n(now called Dutch Gap) was completely destroyed: 347 men, women\nand children--approximately one-third of the total population\nof the colony--were slain at this time under the strategy of\nOpechancanough, the leader of the Indians. An ironic happening of\nthe Great Massacre was that one of the victims was George Thorpe,\nsuperintendent of the planned college and university of colonial\nVirginia. He had been a member of Parliament who had sold his estate\nin England and had come to Virginia to spend his personal fortune\nand the rest of his life for the conversion and the education of the\nIndians. By 1619 the General Assembly had set apart 10,000 acres of\nland for the construction and support of a college for educating\nIndian youth in \"true religion, moral virtue, and civility.\" The\nCollege of Henrico, the first formal educational institution of\nhigher learning in the English colonies, was also destroyed during\nthis Indian Massacre. So strong was the vengeance of the British\nupon the Indians that no more serious trouble with the Indians\noccurred until 1644.\nSome influential people in England who did not approve of a British\ncolony in America tried to encourage the King to abolish the\nVirginia Company's charter. The Great Massacre gave King James I\nthe opportunity he sought, and, since the company had been unable\nto pay its dividends, he finally annulled the company's charter on\nMay 24, 1624. Virginia thus became the first royal or crown colony\nin England's history. The greatest change under the new governmental\nsetup was that now the King, rather than the Virginia Company,\nappointed the Governor and the councilors, thus making the Governor\na royal Governor rather than a company official. King James I died\nthe following year and his son, Charles I, succeeded to the throne.\nTwo years later, the King authorized the General Assembly to meet,\nprimarily in order that he could obtain the excellent monopoly of\nthe Virginia tobacco trade. Much to his surprise, the colonists\nrefused to grant him such monopoly, and, as a result, he did not\nauthorize another meeting for twelve years.\nFrom 1629 through 1632, two more provinces were carved from Virginia\nby royal grants: the Province of Carolina to Sir Robert Heath and\nthe Province of Maryland to Lord Baltimore. The Virginians had not\nprotested much against the grant to Sir Robert Heath, but they did\nprotest strongly against the grant to Lord Baltimore. The leader of\nthis protest was William Claiborne who had previously organized a\ncolony and a trading post on part of the Maryland grant area.\nIn 1634, the Virginia Colony was politically reorganized from four\nparishes to eight shires or counties: Accawmack (an Indian name\nmeaning \"the-across-the-water-place\"; the name was later changed to\nNorthampton, an English county name and the two present counties of\nAccomack and Northampton occupy the same original site), Charles\nCity (named for King Charles), Charles River (changed to York in\n1642-43 in honor of the Duke of York), Elizabeth City (formerly\nKiccotan--named for Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King James),\nJames City (named for King James), Henrico (named for Prince Henry,\nson of King James), Warrosquyoake (changed to Isle of Wight in\n1637--some of the early patentees had come from the Isle of Wight in\nthe English Channel: the word, \"wight,\" means a passage or channel;\ntherefore, it means \"island of the channel\"), and Warwick River\n(changed to Warwick in 1642-1643, named after the Earl of Warwick\nwho was a prominent Virginia Company member). These counties were\nthe second oldest unit of local government in the United States,\nthe New England town being the first. The long distances between\nplantations and the difficult transportation facilities on land and\non the rivers discouraged the use of the New England Town Meeting\ntype of local government in the Virginia Colony. The counties\nthemselves were patterned after the English counties. At this same\ntime, suffrage was extended to all free male citizens for electing\nmembers of the House of Burgesses and county officials.\nOn February 12, 1634, Benjamin Syms of Elizabeth City County gave\n200 acres of land plus 8 cows for the establishment of a free school\nfor white children. This was the first legacy for the promotion\nof public school education, and Elizabeth City County was the\nbirthplace of the Virginia public school system.\nIn 1642 Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia as a royal\nGovernor. Until this time, there had been much religious tolerance\nin the Virginia Colony although the Church of England was the\nEstablished Church of the Colony. The religious laws were liberal,\nand other religions had existed without interference. Sir Edwin\nSandys had encouraged some Separatists (Puritans) to live in\nVirginia, and by the time of the dissolution of the Virginia Company\ncharter, thirteen parishes had been created and many clergymen had\nbeen active in the colony. Governor Berkeley was an extremely strong\ndefender of the King and of the Church of England and disliked the\nQuakers and the Puritans very much. He was directly responsible for\ndriving most of them from the Virginia Colony by enforcing a statute\nof 1643 which provided that no individual who disbelieved the\ndoctrines of the English Church could teach, publicly or privately,\nor preach the gospel within the limits of Virginia.\nIn 1644 another Indian massacre occurred resulting in the death of\n300-500 Virginians. This massacre was led by the aged, famous Indian\nleader, Opechancanough. It took place on Holy Thursday and the\nPuritans believed that this was a direct act of God as punishment\nfor their previous treatment in Virginia. The settlers finally\ndispersed the Indians, destroyed their villages and destroyed the\nPowhatan Confederacy which had consisted of approximately fifty\ntribes. Opechancanough was later shot and killed.\nIn the following year, the General Assembly allowed the election\nof vestries by the qualified voters of each parish regardless of\ntheir religious faith. As counties were organized in Virginia,\nparishes likewise were established and vestries continued to be\nelected by the qualified voters. The vestry was the governing\nbody of the parish, and although its membership number varied\nbetween the parishes, the number was finally fixed at twelve. They\nwere self-perpetuating, and could only be removed by the General\nAssembly. They had the power to select a rector as well as to carry\non regular parish duties. Under this arrangement, the Established\nChurch was part of the county government with the officers of a\nparish having civil as well as religious duties and authority. Some\nof the civil duties included levying tax rates on parish inhabitants\nto raise revenue for carrying out their objectives, maintaining\nroads to and from the church, keeping the vital statistics (records\nof births, marriages, deaths, et cetera) and aiding the poor.\nDuring this period, the British Parliament began feuding with King\nCharles. The Virginians strongly favored the King, and after he was\nbeheaded, the General Assembly passed a law recognizing Charles\nII, the former King's exiled son, as the lawful King of England.\nIn return for their loyal support upon behalf of his father and\nhimself, Charles II bestowed the title of \"The Old Dominion\" on\nthe Virginia Colony, the only American colony ever to receive such\nan honor. Parliament tried to combat this loyalty to the King by\nappointing two Virginians, William Claiborne and Richard Bennett,\nas commissioners whose duty was to influence Virginia and gradually\nbring it under Parliamentary control. Parliament then provided them\nwith an armed force. Governor Berkeley made military preparations\nalso, but negotiations finally ended in a peaceful settlement\nwithout resorting to open hostilities in Virginia. Individuals who\nhad favored the King during the Civil War in England between the\nParliament and the King were called Cavaliers. Since Virginia had\nremained loyal to the King throughout this period, many Cavaliers\nhad sought refuge in Virginia at this time. This action caused the\nVirginia Colony to receive the nickname of the \"Cavalier State.\"\nIn 1650, Mary, Margaret and Giles Brent erected homes on Aquia\nCreek, Virginia. They were the first English Catholic inhabitants\nof Virginia. In this same area, twenty-six years later, the first\nEnglish-speaking Catholic colony of Virginia was settled. In 1677,\na Catholic Church was erected here. After their nephew, George\nBrent, and others had been successful in obtaining a Proclamation\nfrom James II guaranteeing religious freedom on the 30,000 acres of\nthe Brenton Tract, many settlers came to this area. Today, a large\nbronze Crucifix can be seen near the highway in Stafford County as a\nreminder of the religious efforts of the Brent Family.\n_The Commonwealth and the \"Golden Age\"_\nThe Virginia Colony finally received a charter of self-government\nduring Oliver Cromwell's rule in England and became the Commonwealth\nof Virginia on March 12, 1651. The Treaty of Jamestown provided\nthat Virginians would be guaranteed the freedoms and privileges\nof the English people in return for a recognition of the Puritan\nCommonwealth of Cromwell in England. The colony prospered under\nGovernors Richard Bennett, Edward Digges and Samuel Matthews from\n1652-1660. By 1660, the population of the Virginia Colony was\napproximately 33,000 or over four times as much as in 1640. Many of\nthis number consisted of Cavaliers. The population which first had\ncentered around Jamestown, along the James River to the junction\nof the James and Appomattox Rivers and along the navigable inlets,\nnow had broadened into the Tidewater area. As tobacco production\nand the use of tobacco increased and as soil fertility became\nexhausted, more land was added to the individual farms until large\nplantations appeared almost common. Class society in Virginia\nchanged, generally, from a middle-class one to two distinct classes:\nthe wealthy plantation owner who could afford such personal workers\nas slaves and servants and the tenant farmer who worked for a\nplantation owner. In return for his services, he was usually allowed\nto have a small plot of ground for his own use and a small farm\non which to live. When the Cavaliers, mostly wealthy gentlemen,\nmigrated to Virginia, they brought added aristocracy to the Virginia\nColony.\nIn the meantime, other counties had been formed in Virginia. An\narea which had been settled originally in Upper Norfolk was named\nNansemond County in 1642. \"Nansemond\" is an Indian word meaning\n\"fishing point or angle.\" In 1648, the county of Northumberland was\nformed from a large Indian district formerly known as Chickacoan\nand it was named for Northumberland County, England. From this\nlarge area, one hundred sixteen counties were later formed. Within\na twenty-five year period, seven additional counties were created:\nGloucester County (formed from York and named for the third son\nof Charles I, Henry-Duke of Gloucester), New Kent County (formed\nalso from York and believed to have been named either for the\nEnglish Kent or for Kent Island), Lancaster County (from York and\nNorthumberland), Surry (from James City County), Westmoreland (from\nNorthumberland and later an addition from James City County),\nStafford (from Westmoreland) and Middlesex (from Lancaster)--the\nlatter five named in honor of English counties. The formation of\nmany new counties during this time illustrates the great increase in\npopulation which took place.\nWhen Charles II became King of England in 1660, Britain's colonial\npolicy changed. Previously, the colonies had been more or less\nneglected, and interest in England had been chiefly centered upon\nreligion, intellectual achievement and local issues. After the\nCivil War in England, the importance of the colonies seemed more\napparent, competition in setting up and controlling colonial empires\nwas greater and mercantilism became the key theory accepted by the\nleading countries of Europe. Mercantilism was based upon the idea\nthat the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country and\nthat they had specific obligations or responsibilities to fulfill,\nnamely: (1) to produce the articles which the mother country needs\nand which are impossible for the mother country to produce; (2) to\nsupply the mother country with foodstuffs which she needs, (3) to\nfurnish a market for the mother country's manufactured goods, and\n(4) to export colonial goods in mother country ships only. Earlier\nin 1651, Parliament had passed a law prohibiting foreign vessels\nfrom trading with the American colonists. This law had been aimed\nprimarily at the Dutch. It also stated that all products sent by the\nAmerican colonies to England or sent from one colony to another had\nto be carried in either English or American ships. However, there\nhad not been strict enforcement of this law in Virginia.\nThe Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed providing that\ngoods imported into the colonies had to be carried by English, Irish\nor American ships. The act further stated that certain \"enumerated\narticles\" or exports could be sent only to the British Isles or\nto the English possessions: for example, tobacco, sugar, apples,\nwool, indigo and dyewood. The list was increased as time passed,\nand the ill feeling of the Virginia Colony as well as the other\nEnglish colonies in America toward the mother country can be fully\nunderstood, especially since higher prices for their articles\ncould be obtained from foreign countries. The second Navigation\nAct required that all European goods destined for the American\ncolonies be sent to England and then shipped to America in English\nships. Thus, England tried to maintain a monopoly of her colonial\ntrade. The prosperity of the Virginia Colony was affected greatly by\nthese acts. Virginia's economy at this time was almost completely\ndependent upon its export tobacco trade which was far in excess of\nthe amount of tobacco which England needed. The Navigation Acts\nvirtually closed all the markets except England and its possessions\nto Virginia tobacco. As a result, the English market was suddenly\nflooded with Virginia tobacco. There was much excess tobacco in\nVirginia itself, some tobacco even rotting on the farms. The price\nof tobacco accordingly dropped from fourpence a pound to a halfpenny\nper pound by 1667. Virginia, as well as the other American colonies,\nat times violated the above regulations and sent some of its goods\ndirectly to other European countries in order to survive these\neconomic blows. Thus, the Restoration Period which the Virginians\nhad favored had some unexpected results for them. After the\nVirginians had urged Sir William Berkeley to resume the governorship\nprior to the Restoration, he had gone to England to intercede for\nthe colonists concerning the tobacco trade and the other Navigation\nActs, but his efforts had been futile.\nAnother surprise was received by the Virginians at this time. While\nCharles II was in exile in France in 1649, he granted more than five\nmillion acres of land lying between the Potomac and the Rappahannock\nRivers to four Cavalier friends. This grant was called the \"Northern\nNeck Proprietary\" of Virginia. Twenty years later, he granted a new\ncharter for the same territory to the surviving grantees. These\nactions were unknown to the colonists, and much of this same land\nhad been settled under patents issued by the Colony itself. When\nthe colonists learned of the new charter, there was much protest,\nand some of the colonists tried to buy out the grantees' interests.\nHowever, in most cases, their efforts were in vain. This grant was\nlater referred to as the Fairfax Proprietary or Fairfax Grant. In\n1673, the colonists found out that King Charles II had bestowed the\nrest of the Colony as a gift upon the Earl of Arlington and Lord\nCulpeper for thirty-one years. This eventually had no lasting ill\neffects upon the colonists because Lord Culpeper later purchased the\nEarl of Arlington's interest and King Charles himself bought back\nthe entire area from him for a six hundred pounds per year pension.\nLord Fairfax V became the owner in 1689 and the proprietary itself\nwas abolished by the Virginia General Assembly in 1786.\nIn 1671, two explorers, Thomas Batts and Robert Fallon, traveled by\nhorseback from Fort Henry (present Petersburg area) up the Roanoke\nValley and across the Blue Ridge Mountains until they reached the\ntop of the Allegheny Mountains. They proceeded to the New River\nand to an area in the present town of Narrows in Giles County. In\norder to claim this land for their King, Charles II of England, they\nhad their Indian guides peel the bark off of four trees and then\nburn a symbol--the initials of King Charles, of Governor William\nBerkeley and of Colonel Abraham Wood (who was responsible for this\nexpedition)--on each tree with a pair of marking irons. Thus, they\ntook possession of this land and all the area west of it in the\nKing's name and provided a basic claim of land in Southwest Virginia.\nIn this same year, a unique attitude concerning public education\nwas expressed by royal Governor Berkeley when he stated: \"I thank\nGod, there are no free schools or printing presses and I hope we\nshall not have them these hundred years: for learning has brought\ndisobedience and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has\ndivulged them, and libels against the best government. God keep us\nfrom both.\"\nIn 1672, Parliament passed an act compelling each ship which left\nthe colonies for Europe to post bond that it would deliver its cargo\nin England or otherwise pay the required duty. Colonial customs\ncollectors were to be appointed whose chief duty was to supervise\nthis trade. An export duty was to be paid on certain \"enumerated\"\narticles--tobacco, indigo, sugar, apples, dyewood and later, naval\nstores, molasses, lumber and hides--if such articles were sent from\none colony to another. Strict enforcement of this act would have\ndire results on the Virginia colonists because their ships had been\ncarrying products from the West Indies and from Virginia to northern\nports and then to Europe. The colonists began to be extremely\ndissatisfied with the mother country.\nGovernor Berkeley at this time was aggravating the home situation of\nthe Virginia colonists. He had limited suffrage to freeholders and\nhouseholders only, had strongly influenced the election of Assembly\nmembers to individuals who were personal friends and who favored\nthe King's policies and had been keeping the Assembly technically\nin session for fourteen years without any elections taking place.\nThe grievance about which the colonists felt the most bitter,\nhowever, was the inadequate protection of the frontier from the\nSusquehannock Indian attacks. After these Indians had attacked a\nplantation owned by Nathaniel Bacon and had killed his overseer and\none of his servants, Bacon decided that the colonists themselves\nshould take organized action against the Indians since the Governor\nhad practically ignored the attacks. One possible reason for the\nGovernor's hesitancy in interfering in these Indian affairs was the\nhigh profit which he was receiving from the Indian fur trading.\nMany of Bacon's neighbors agreed with him, and they prepared to be\nthe aggressors against the Indians. Bacon asked the Governor for\npermission to do so and for a military commission for himself as\nthe leader. Both requests were refused, and Bacon and his friends\nwere declared rebels by the Governor. Consequently, Bacon and his\nfollowers decided to take matters into their own hands without the\nGovernor's permission. They proceeded and successfully defeated\nthe Indians. This action aroused Governor Berkeley who immediately\nconsidered Bacon a traitor, and a civil war or rebellion resulted.\nBacon, in the meantime, had been elected as a member of the House of\nBurgesses, and he went to Jamestown to participate in the Assembly.\nUpon his arrival, he was arrested, brought to the State House and\ncharged with being a rebel. Governor Berkeley and the King's Council\ndiscussed Bacon's activities, and Bacon agreed to apologize for\nhis actions if the Governor would grant him his commission. The\nGovernor agreed, but Bacon felt that the Governor had no intention\nof carrying out his promise for a commission. Bacon discussed this\nmeeting with his neighbor friends who decided to accompany him\nto Jamestown where he was to receive his commission. Bacon and\napproximately four hundred planters marched to the State House at\nJamestown and demanded his commission. When none was forthcoming,\nhe ordered his men to aim their guns at the windows of the State\nHouse where the House of Burgesses sat. At this drastic move, the\nBurgesses quickly prepared the commission paper and persuaded\nGovernor Berkeley to sign it and then issued it to Bacon. Bacon\nand his followers then returned home. Governor Berkeley thereupon\ndecided to fight Bacon and his associates. Berkeley then departed\nfrom Jamestown and crossed the York River to Gloucester where he\ncalled upon his friends to help him. Upon hearing that Bacon was\napproaching Gloucester, Berkeley fled across the Chesapeake Bay\nto Accomack. In August 1676, Bacon and his followers signed an\nagreement whereby they all pledged to fight any and all soldiers\nthat Governor Berkeley might order from England to the colony. After\nsome Indians living near Richmond made new attacks upon the settlers\nthere, Bacon and his friends captured the Indian fort and killed or\nimprisoned the remaining Indians.\nWhile Bacon was thus engaged, Governor Berkeley with eight hundred\nsoldiers and eighteen ships in the James River had occupied\nJamestown. Bacon proceeded next to Jamestown and defeated Governor\nBerkeley's forces there. Governor Berkeley and many of his soldiers\nfled to the ships and sailed away. Bacon realized that although he\nhad won on land, he would have no chance of holding out an attack\nfrom the ships. Therefore, he and his friends burned the State House\nand the rest of the capital, Jamestown, to prevent Governor Berkeley\nfrom repossessing it. Bacon had become ill with a fever and died\nshortly afterwards in October at the home of a friend in Gloucester\nCounty. Governor Berkeley had twenty-three of Bacon's followers put\nto death, but the principle for which they fought remained alive:\n\"the people must be heard.\" Bacon's Rebellion is remembered in\nhistory primarily as a revolt of the plain, common man against a\nprivileged few. Governor Berkeley was later recalled to England,\nand, upon his return, instead of being treated as a hero by the\nKing, he was regarded with contempt.\nIn 1682, tobacco had been grown so extensively in Virginia that\nthe price of tobacco on the London market had declined rapidly.\nWhen the British government refused a request from the Virginia\ncolonists to either restrict tobacco acreage or order a temporary\ncessation of its growth, tobacco riots occurred in Virginia. During\nmany nights, thousands of young tobacco plants throughout the colony\nwere destroyed. Finally, after the execution of six tobacco plant\ncutters, the riots ceased. Eventually, the customs duty on tobacco\nwas increased tremendously, and taxes in Virginia were increased at\nthe same time.\nIn 1682, John Buckner established the first printing press in\nVirginia at Jamestown. His printer was William Nuthead who published\nseveral papers and two sheets of the acts of the Assembly of\nNovember 1682, supposedly without a license. The Colonial Council\nissued an order prohibiting anything from being printed until the\nKing had given his permission as there was strong opposition against\n\"the liberty of a press.\" Consequently, in December 1683, when King\nCharles II prohibited all printing in Virginia, William Nuthead\nmoved his printing press to St. Mary's City, Maryland.\nFrom 1691 to 1703, seven additional counties were formed in the\nVirginia Colony: Norfolk County (created from Lower Norfolk which\nhad become extinct and named for Norfolk County in England which\nis also located on the water), King and Queen County (created from\nNew Kent County and named for the joint rulers of England: King\nWilliam III, Prince of Orange, and Queen Mary), Princess Anne County\n(created also from Lower Norfolk and named for Princess--later\nQueen--Anne of England), Essex (created from the then extinct\nRappahannock County and named either for Essex County, England or\nthe Earl of Essex), Richmond (created also from the then extinct\nRappahannock County and either named for territory resemblance to\nRichmond, Surry County, England or in honor of an English Earl\nor Duke of Richmond), King William County (created from King and\nQueen County and named for William of Orange, King of England),\nand Prince George County (created from one of the original eight\nshires--Charles City County--and was named for Prince George of\nDenmark, Queen Anne's husband).\nAs mentioned previously, education in the Virginia Colony was\ngenerally thought of as a family responsibility, not as a community\none. Nevertheless, by 1690, some families decided that there should\nbe an educational institution for higher learning in Virginia in\norder that their sons would not have to travel abroad to obtain such\nan education. A conference was held in Jamestown to consider the\nfounding of a college in the Virginia Colony. Those present led by\nColonel John Page drew up plans for such an institution and asked\nthe Governor and the King's Council to explain to the rulers of\nEngland and to Parliament the purpose and the need of a college in\nVirginia and to make a request for financial contributions for such\nan enterprise. Reverend James Blair, a Scotch minister in Virginia,\nwent to England to ask King William III and Queen Mary for their\nconsent. He stayed in England for two years and, upon his return,\nhad a royal charter and numerous contributions consisting of land,\nspecial tax funds and personal finances which had been encouraged\nand strongly supported by King William and Queen Mary. Donations\nfrom interested colonists themselves increased the building fund\nconsiderably. On February 8, 1693, the official charter for the\ncollege was granted. The college was named William and Mary College\nin honor of the King and Queen who had granted its charter. Out of\nrespect for King William who belonged to the House of Orange, the\nofficial college colors were designated as orange and white. The\nGeneral Assembly selected Middle Plantation as the most suitable\nlocation for the college and the plans for the original building\nwere drawn up by the now-famous architect, Sir Christopher Wren.\nThe Wren Building, named in his honor, was constructed by 1698 and\nit is the oldest academic structure still in existence. William and\nMary College was the second oldest college established in America:\nHarvard College, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, having been\nestablished in 1636. The first regular faculty consisted of six\nprofessors and Reverend Blair, who had personally raised much of the\nfund for the college, became its first president.\nAfter the burning of Jamestown during Bacon's Rebellion, the State\nHouse was rebuilt, but it burned again in October 1698. Since the\nAssembly then had no meeting place, it met in 1699 at the private\nresidence of Mrs. Sarah Lee and in a building of William and Mary\nCollege. At one meeting, Governor Granci Nicholson suggested that\nthe capital be moved to Middle Plantation. After a successful vote,\nthe seat of the Virginia Colony government was officially moved\nfrom Jamestown, the first capital, to Middle Plantation, the name\nof which was changed to Williamsburg in honor of King William\nIII. Plans for the State House were immediately made and the main\nstreet was named Duke of Gloucester Street, in honor of the Duke\nof Gloucester who was Queen Anne's oldest son. The first official\nCapitol building was constructed at one end of the main street and\nthe College of William and Mary had been constructed at the other\nend.\nIn 1698, a Scotsman, Francis Makemie, a Presbyterian missionary,\nmigrated from Pennsylvania to Accomack County, Virginia, where he\nheld services in his home. He was soon arrested for not having\na license to preach, but he was so sincere in his religious\nbeliefs that he was later awarded a license. He is the founder of\nPresbyterianism in Virginia and, near Temperanceville, one may see a\nmonument consisting of a stone figure of Francis Makemie attired in\nhis usual clerical garb.\nShortly before the beginning of the eighteenth century, the General\nAssembly passed an act requiring an import tax of twenty shillings\nupon each Negro imported into the Virginia Colony. England, however,\nopposed such action and, as additional laws were passed by the\nVirginia General Assembly levying high import taxes on slaves,\nshe consistently vetoed them. The number of Negroes in Virginia\nincreased as the production and the value of tobacco increased\nuntil, by 1700, there were approximately 7,000 Negroes out of 72,000\ninhabitants within the colony. The colonists expressed their desire\nto prohibit or at least restrict the importation of Negroes in 1713,\nbut the mother country would not authorize the Virginia Colony to\nforbid slave importation.\nAnother law passed at this time provided that any settler could buy\nan unlimited area of land from the colony itself at the cost of\nfive shillings per fifty acres. This action was referred to as a\n\"Treasury Right.\" Therefore, the \"Head-Right\" system was no longer\nthe most common method of acquiring land settlements in the Virginia\nColony. The population of the Virginia Colony was predominantly\nEnglish and all types of social classes were now represented here:\nfrom the aristocratic nobles to the uncouth convicts. With the\ninflux of the Cavaliers and with the reputation of the prosperity\nof the Virginia Colony, the number of middle class and upper class\nresidents increased considerably during the Eighteenth Century until\nsuch residents soon made up a majority of the inhabitants. By 1700,\nthe population of Virginia was approximately 70,000 including about\n5,500 Negroes.\nBy 1710, the practice had been established of allowing the Governor\nof a British Colony to remain in England and to appoint deputies\nto live in the colony and actually to rule the colony. At this\ntime, Alexander Spotswood arrived in Virginia as a royal Governor,\ntechnically the Deputy to Lord George Hamilton, Earl of Orkney, the\nofficial Lieutenant and Governor-General of the Virginia Colony. He\nwas the first royal Governor to live in the new Governor's Palace\nat Williamsburg. Governor Spotswood remained in this position for\ntwelve years and was responsible for many improvements and much\nprogress in the Virginia Colony. He encouraged and helped carry out\nthe beautifying of Williamsburg, the new capital city. Ravines were\nfilled, streets leveled, some college buildings, a public magazine\n(a storehouse for arms and ammunition) and a church were erected\nprimarily due to his influence. Since he believed in developing the\nnatural resources of Virginia, he had iron foundries established\nalong the Rapidan River, near Fredericksburg. As a result, the first\nmining village in Virginia, Germanna, located near the Blue Ridge\nMountains, came into existence. This village was named in honor of\nthe German miners who came to Virginia to work the iron mines and in\nhonor of the German ruler, Queen Anne.\nIn 1716, the Governor and some friends started out to explore the\nNorthwest. They stopped at Germanna to shoe the horses as protection\nfor them on the rocky, mountain roads. The Governor traveled by\nstagecoach from Williamsburg to Germanna. Here he changed to\nhorseback and accompanied by two groups of rangers and four Indian\nguides, in addition to the original group, he traced the Rapidan\nRiver to its headwaters and then proceeded to climb the east side\nof the Blue Ridge Mountains. They reached the top near Swift Run\nGap and, from this summit, viewed the great Shenandoah Valley and\nthe Allegheny Mountains about twenty miles away. They spent the\nnight there on the summit and then descended the west slope of the\nmountain, finally arriving at a river which they called Euphrates.\nThis same river is known today as the Shenandoah River, an Indian\nname meaning \"Daughter of the Stars.\" As had happened earlier on the\nBatts-Fallon expedition, a volley of gunfire was shot, and Governor\nSpotswood claimed possession of the land in the name of George I,\nthen King of England. The highest mountain peak which they had\nclimbed they called Mount George in his honor, and the next highest\none was called Mount Alexander in honor of the Governor himself.\nThe expedition had been such a pleasant one for the Governor that\nlegend states that he sent to England for small individual golden\nhorseshoe pins with diamonds symbolizing the nailheads and presented\none to each of his companions on this memorable trip, bestowing\nupon them the title of \"Knights of the Golden Horseshoe.\" Governor\nSpotswood also was a most able diplomat with the Indians, and he\ntried conscientiously to help them get better educated. For example,\nhe sent white teachers to help them to develop their handicraft\nand the arts of civilization, and later, he encouraged many of the\nIndian boys to attend William and Mary College where they could\nspecialize in their particular abilities. Spotswood was later\nappointed Postmaster General for the Colonies and was responsible\nfor initiating a postal system extending from Charleston to Boston.\nColonel Hugh Drysdale succeeded him as Governor for the next four\nyears.\nIn 1716, the first theater in America was built by William\nLevingston at Williamsburg. It was constructed for the acting of\n\"Comedies, Drolls and other kind of stage plays ... thought fitt to\nbe acted there.\" Mary Stagg, the wife of Charles Stagg, who was the\nmanager of the theater, is considered the first theatrical leading\nlady in America. Although many British actors and musicians were\nparticipants in this theater, it often suffered from financial\nstress. Thus, twenty-nine years later, this theater was donated to\nWilliamsburg to be used as a town hall.\nIn 1722, Williamsburg, the capital of Colonial Virginia (1699-1780),\nbecame the first incorporated municipality in Virginia. It became\nthe leading political, economic, educational and social center of\nthe colony, especially during legislative sessions. Eight years\nafter Williamsburg had been incorporated, William Parks arrived\nthere as a public printer. He set up the first permanent printing\npress in Virginia and approximately six years later, Virginia's\nfirst colonial newspaper, the \"Virginia Gazette,\" was printed.\nColonel Robert Carter, President of the Council, succeeded Governor\nDrysdale in July 1726. Carter was a very wealthy man whose land\nholdings--300,000 acres total--were second in Virginia only to the\nFairfaxes. Because of his enormous wealth and arrogant manner, he\nwas nicknamed \"King\" Carter.\nIn 1728, William Byrd II was the leader of a survey group\nwhich followed the Virginia-North Carolina borderline from the\nAtlantic Ocean two hundred and forty miles westward. This action\nprovided Virginians with knowledge of the type of terrain and its\npotentiality along this important borderline.\nIt was in the period 1730-1760 that a majority of the beautiful\nbrick and stone plantation mansions were constructed. The wealthy\nfamilies preferred the country-side. Some of the mansions built at\nthis time included Westover (William Byrd family), Stratford Hall\n(Thomas Lee family), Ampthill (Archibald Cary family), Carter's\nGrove (Robert Carter Burwell family) and Mount Airy (John Tayloe\nfamily).\nSir William Gooch was acting chief executive of Virginia for\ntwenty-two years, 1727-1749. His greatest project during this period\nwas the development of settlements in the Shenandoah Valley. At the\nbeginning of the Eighteenth Century, some Scotch-Irish, Germans\nand French Huguenots settled in Virginia. The Scotch-Irish had\nmigrated first to Pennsylvania and to New Jersey. Upon hearing about\nthe beautiful valley seen by Governor Spotswood, they decided to\nsettle there. Their main settlement was located in the area now\nincluded in the Winchester and Staunton areas and in the counties of\nAugusta and Rockbridge. It became so densely populated with people\noriginally from Northern Ireland that it was called the \"Irish\nTract.\" Later, additional Scots direct from Scotland migrated here\nin large numbers. Germans had already migrated in large numbers to\nGermanna, the mining town. The French Huguenot immigrants settled\nmainly along both sides of the James River at Manakintown. Thus,\nthe Shenandoah Valley and the area beyond the Blue Ridge and the\nAllegheny Mountains were colonized primarily by the Scotch-Irish,\nGerman, and French Huguenots.\nTwo years later, the Quakers organized a church at Hopewell which is\nthe oldest church in northern Virginia. Six years later, the oldest\nLutheran church in the South was built in Madison County by some of\nthe Germans from Germanna. Its financial support originally came\nfrom friends in Germany, and it was called Hebron Church.\nIn 1749, Augusta Academy was founded by the Presbyterians in Augusta\nCounty, and it was the first classical school located west of the\nBlue Ridge Mountains. Its name was later changed in 1775 to the\npatriotic title of Liberty Hall. This academy was the forerunner of\nthe Washington and Lee University.\nColonel Thomas Lee was acting Governor from 1749 to 1751. He\nencouraged westward expansion in the Virginia Colony and believed\nthat the French should be expelled from America. He was the father\nof the most famous family in Virginia history: the Lee family. He\nbuilt the now-famous family homestead, Stratford, in Westmoreland\nCounty in 1725-1730. During his governorship, some wealthy\nVirginians formed the Ohio Company whose purpose was to settle a\ncolony west of the Allegheny Mountains on a tract of land 500,000\nacres in size. Four years later, the company constructed a fort\nat the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers where the\npresent city of Pittsburgh is now located. One hundred and twenty\nmiles north of this fort, the French proceeded to construct Fort\nLeBoeuf on the Allegheny River. Since many Virginians and other\nEnglishmen from other colonies had been settling in the Ohio Valley,\nthey became much alarmed at the construction and occupation of this\nFrench fort. Consequently, the British-Americans began to observe\ncarefully the activities of the French in this region. Colonel Lee\nhad the unusual distinction of being the only Virginian to have a\nCrown Commission of Governor awarded to him even though he died\nbefore the commission reached him.\nFrom 1721 to 1750, nineteen new counties were created: Hanover\n(formed from New Kent and named for the Duke of Hanover who later\nbecame King George of England), Spotsylvania (formed from Essex,\nKing William and King and Queen Counties and named for Lieutenant\nGovernor Spotswood), King George (formed from Richmond and later\na part of Westmoreland County and named for George I, King of\nEngland), Goochland (formed from Henrico County and named for\nWilliam Gooch, the Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia at the time),\nCaroline (formed from Essex, King and Queen and King William\nCounties and named for Queen Caroline, George II's wife), Prince\nWilliam (formed from Stafford and King George Counties and named for\nWilliam Augustus, Duke of Cumberland), Brunswick (formed from Prince\nGeorge and parts of Surry and Isle of Wight Counties and named for\nthe Duchy of Brunswick in Germany), Orange (formed from Spotsylvania\nand named for William, Prince of Orange, an English king), Amelia\n(formed from Prince George and Brunswick Counties and named for\nPrincess Amelia, King George II's youngest daughter), Fairfax\n(formed from Prince William County and named for Lord Fairfax),\nFrederick (formed from Orange County and named for Frederick,\nPrince of Wales, George II's son and George III's father), Louisa\n(formed from Hanover County and named for King George II's daughter,\nPrincess Louisa, who was also the wife of King Frederick V of\nDenmark), Albemarle (formed from Goochland County and named for\nWilliam Anne Keppel, the second Earl of Albemarle, Governor-General\nof the Colony who remained in England during the entire time),\nAugusta (formed from Orange and named for Princess Augusta, wife of\nFrederick, Prince of Wales, George III's father), Lunenburg (formed\nfrom Brunswick and named for one of George I's titles: Duke of\nBrunswick-Lunenburg), Chesterfield (formed from Henrico and named\nfor the famous Lord Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope), Culpeper\n(formed from Orange County and named for Lord Thomas Culpeper,\nGovernor of Virginia, 1680-1683), Southampton (formed from Isle\nof Wight County and named for Henry Wriothesley, the third Earl\nof Southampton and a leading member of the Virginia Company) and\nCumberland (formed from Goochland County and part of Buckingham\nCounty and named in honor of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland).\nBy 1750, the Virginia colony was enjoying prosperity. Numerous large\nplantations had come into existence. As more and more soil became\nimpoverished due to a lack of crop rotation, non-use of fertilizer\nand the intensive planting of the tobacco crop which requires a\nrich soil, additional land was purchased and added to the existing\nhomestead. Consequently, plantations of 100,000 to 300,000 acres\nbecame common, especially around the Tidewater area. The larger the\ntobacco plantation, the greater the need for cheap labor became\napparent. Consequently, the number of Negro slaves increased in\nVirginia until by 1750, there were approximately 115,000 Negroes and\napproximately 170,000 free whites. The increase in huge plantations\ncaused the middle class tobacco farmer to migrate westward as he\ncould not successfully compete with the larger tobacco planters.\nThe Virginia plantation owners had become accustomed at this time\nto allowing the London tobacco merchants to act as their bankers:\nthey would order their necessities, supplies and luxuries (glass,\nsilver, china) via their tobacco credits. Such a system furnished\nan immediate advantage for the plantation owners but also created\na situation whereby the Virginia planters became heavily indebted\nfinancially to the London merchants. The plantation owners also\nbecame the influential individuals within the colony--politically,\neconomically and socially. Thus, Virginia at this time was\npractically ruled by an aristocracy. Although the governing power\nof the assembly had increased gradually, the political power of\nthe commoner or average citizen had not increased accordingly.\nMembership in the Virginia Council was considered a position of the\ngreatest prestige and was almost an hereditary position. The two\nrequired qualifications were wealth and social position. The era\nof aristocratic living which predominated in the Virginia Colony\nbetween 1700-1750 is often referred to as the \"Golden Age\" of\nVirginia's colonial history.\n_The Pre-Revolutionary War Era_\nWhile Robert Dinwiddie was the acting Governor of Virginia, the\nEnglish and French rivalry in colonial settlements was becoming\nbitter in America. In 1753, Governor Dinwiddie selected George\nWashington to visit General St. Pierre, the commander in charge of\nthe French fort at Presque Isle on the shore of Lake Erie, and to\ninform him that the Ohio country belonged to the English and that he\nshould withdraw his troops from there at once. Dinwiddie sincerely\nbelieved that the land upon which the French fort had been built was\nEnglish territory. Washington and four comrades rode on horseback\nfrom Williamsburg to Fredericksburg where he hired Jacob Vanbraam as\nan interpreter since Washington could not speak French. They rode to\nAlexandria where Washington purchased food and essential equipment\nbecause there were no towns between Alexandria and Winchester.\nTwo weeks later he reached Winchester, after having made the\ndangerous crossing of the unbridged Shenandoah River. At Winchester,\nWashington hired a well-known guide, Christopher Gist, to assist\nhim on his journey to Fort LeBoeuf where the French General had\narrived to supervise its fortifications. Two Indian traders also\naccompanied him. They traveled to Maryland and to Pennsylvania until\nthey reached the French fort, Fort LeBoeuf. The destination was\napproximately five hundred miles from Williamsburg. Although St.\nPierre was polite and friendly, Washington was informed that the\nFrench had been ordered to eject every Englishman from the Ohio\nValley and that the French had the rightful claim to such territory.\nBefore he departed, Washington noticed a large fleet of birch-bark\ncanoes and boats of pine and was convinced that a war between the\nEnglish and French would be necessary to settle the dispute over the\ncontrol of the Northwest.\nWashington returned to Williamsburg in January 1754, and reported\nto Governor Dinwiddie a detailed account of his journey. Washington\nthen prepared a written report which persuaded the members of the\nGeneral Assembly to realize the seriousness of this matter. Colonel\nJoshua Fry, with Washington second in command, marched with a\ntroop of one hundred and fifty men against the French in the Ohio\nValley. On March 28, near Great Meadows, Washington's group killed\nthe French commander, Coulon de Jumonville, and killed or captured\nall his soldiers except one. On March 31, 1754, Washington was\ngranted a commission as Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Regiment,\nwhich he later received at Gadsby's Tavern in Alexandria. In the\nmeantime, Colonel Fry had died suddenly from an accidental fall, and\nWashington had succeeded to the command.\nFort Necessity, near Farmington, Pennsylvania, a crude structure of\ndefense, was in the process of being constructed by the Virginians\nat the forks of the Ohio River when seven hundred French soldiers\nappeared, outnumbering the Virginian troops by at least four\nhundred men. Washington and his troops were forced to surrender,\nwere allowed to leave with the honors of war and finally trudged\nback to Winchester. The Battle of Great Meadows and the Battle of\nFort Necessity were of historical importance because they marked\nthe beginning of the French and Indian War in America, they were\nactually the first fighting attacks in the Seven Years War in Europe\nbetween the English and the French, and they provided the first\nreal combat fighting experience for George Washington who was only\ntwenty-two years old at the time. The French proceeded to occupy\nFort Necessity and after improving it considerably, they changed its\nname to Fort Duquesne, in honor of Canada's governor.\nThe following summer, in 1755, Washington returned with a larger\narmy to the Ohio area. Two regiments, one thousand, of British\nregulars had been sent from England under the command of General\nEdward Braddock. These soldiers arrived at Alexandria from\nEngland, and Washington, having been assigned as an aide-de-camp\nto General Braddock, joined them there. A conference of five royal\nGovernors--Dinwiddie (Virginia), Morris (Pennsylvania), Sharp\n(Maryland), DeLacey (New York) and Shirley (Massachusetts)--was\nheld at the Carlyle House in Alexandria on April 14 to formulate\nplans for the protection of the western frontier against the French\nand Indian raids along the Ohio River. After much discussion, a\ncampaign plan was adopted whereby General Braddock was to capture\nFort Duquesne and expel the French from the Ohio Valley. At this\nsame conference, the suggestion was made that the British Ministry\ncould levy taxes on the colonies to help pay the expense of the war.\nBraddock and his troops marched westward from Alexandria into\nwestern Pennsylvania near Fort Duquesne through dense wilderness\nfrom April 12 to July 9. General Braddock had been accustomed to\nfighting the European tactics way, but he was wholly unfamiliar with\nIndian and ambush fighting. Washington anxiously warned Braddock\nof ambush possibilities, but Braddock continued to have his army\nmarch in regular step in close order and in full uniform regalia\nthrough the underbrush. Indian scouts daily reported the progress\nof Braddock's army to the French at Fort Duquesne. When the British\ntroops were within eight miles of the fort, they were attacked by\nthe French and the Indians. The Virginia soldiers, many of whom were\nexperienced in wilderness fighting, ran for cover behind the trees.\nBraddock, however, ordered his men to keep their formation and fire\nsimultaneously. Thus, they were easy targets for the French and the\nIndians. Finally, they became so frightened at this unusual type of\nfighting that they broke ranks and tried to flee. Half of Braddock's\n1600 troops were killed or wounded, Braddock himself being fatally\nwounded in action. This defeat occurred on July 9, 1755.\nIn addition to this military slaughter, numerous Cherokee Indian\nraiding parties took place from 1759-1760 in the Shenandoah Valley\nof Virginia where homes were burned and men, women and children were\nkilled unmercifully. Washington was put in charge of this frontier\ncampaign with his headquarters at a fort in Winchester. Eventually,\nthe General Assembly of Virginia raised troops of its own for its\ndefense. The General Assembly then passed a law whereby a \"Scalp\nMarket\" was established, and anyone bringing male scalps of hostile\nIndians above the age of twelve years to the market would receive\nten pounds per scalp in 1755 to forty-five pounds per scalp in 1758\nwhen the law expired. In July, the British General John Forbes with\na large number of English soldiers and some Cherokee allies went to\nFort Duquesne via Philadelphia. They were rejoined in September by\nColonel Washington. Fort Duquesne was finally won by the English and\ncolonial and Indian soldiers, and Washington, himself, raised the\nBritish flag over its ruins on November 25, 1758, ending the Indian\nattacks also on the frontier. Fort Duquesne had its name changed to\nFort Pitt in honor of William Pitt the Elder, a British statesman,\nwho had given ample support to Virginia's colonial policies. Thus,\nthe inhabitants of Virginia played their role in the French and\nIndian War, apparently a misnomer because the war was actually\nfought between the French and the Indians and the British and the\nIndians.\nIn December 1763, Patrick Henry distinguished himself as a young\nlawyer by challenging the authority of Parliament and the King in\na case commonly called the \"Parsons' Cause.\" The Church of England\nwas the established church of Virginia, and the people were taxed\nfor the parsons' salaries. Because coin money was scarce in the\ncolonies, Virginia, like the other colonies, had adopted the custom\nof paying their clergymen in tobacco. One disadvantage of this\nsystem was the fluctuation of the value of the tobacco, based upon\nthe law of supply and demand. Whenever there was a tobacco crop\nfailure, the value of tobacco increased considerably. This occurred\nin 1758 when there was so little tobacco available that the House of\nBurgesses passed a law stating that all debts payable ordinarily in\ntobacco might be paid in money at the rate of two pence per pound\nof tobacco. The parsons' salary was 16,000 pounds of tobacco. When\nthe above law was passed allowing the parsons to be paid in money,\nthey felt that it was unfair because tobacco at that time was more\nvaluable at the rate of six pence per pound of tobacco than the\nmoney value itself. Furthermore, the parsons had had to accept the\nsame amount of tobacco when the prices had previously declined. King\nGeorge agreed with the parsons and requested that they be given\ntheir 16,000 pounds of tobacco or else a sum of money equivalent\nto the amount which 16,000 pounds of tobacco would be worth. Such\nan order was contrary to the law passed by the House of Burgesses\nand was a continuation of a custom which England had been using\nof \"disallowing\" a law passed by the colonial legislature. The\nBurgesses refused to accept the \"disallowing\" of their law; in turn,\nthe parsons, knowing that the King had favored their opinion in\nthe matter, took their problem to the Hanover County Court as they\nbelieved they were entitled to the back pay for the time which the\nHouse of Burgesses' law was in effect. The court had ruled that the\nparsons were entitled to the back pay and was ready to proceed with\nthe problem of deciding upon the amount which it believed was due\neach parson.\nWhen this case was first brought to the court for consideration, the\nindividual citizens of the colony tried to obtain the services of\na lawyer who would fight against the parsons. Since such a lawyer\nwould be fighting not only against the parsons but against the\nKing himself, some of the lawyers, when asked to act as attorney\nagainst the parsons, refused the offer. Patrick Henry, who was only\ntwenty-seven at the time and practically an unknown individual as\nfar as law was concerned, accepted the offer. The self-educated\nHanover County resident surprised the people in the court when he\nbegan to speak, at first hesitatingly and then most confidently. He\nfirst criticized the parsons for trying to take advantage of the\nscarcity of the tobacco which caused its extraordinarily high price.\nHe then dared to speak against the British Parliament and the King\nfor usurping the power of \"disallowing\" a law passed by the Virginia\nlegislature. The following quotation illustrates the strong language\nwhich he used to express his attitudes in these matters: \"The king,\nby ... disallowing acts of this salutary nature, from being the\nFather of his people degenerates into a Tyrant, and forfeits all\nthe rights to his subjects' obedience.\" Thus, he questioned the\nright of the King to veto a colonial law. He followed these words\nwith comments concerning the rights and privileges of the colonists\nand the unjust taxing of the colonists for goods brought to the\nVirginia Colony from England. The jury handed down the verdict that\nthe parsons were entitled to their back pay but awarded damages\nof one penny to each parson. As a direct result of this case,\nPatrick Henry became famous and he became a member of the Virginia\nHouse of Burgesses shortly afterward. He had dramatically, though\nunexpectedly, expressed the attitude of most of the colonists toward\nParliamentary and royal control of their colony.\nIn spite of Patrick Henry's strong protests against the taxes\nimposed upon the colonists, Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765\nwhereby the colonists were required to put stamps of differing value\nupon wills, deeds, mortgages, newspapers, almanacs, advertisements,\ncollege diplomas and all other legal documents. This tax was not\ndirectly levied for protection as the regular duty tax on imports\nhad been but was levied for revenue purposes. The revenue from the\nsale of these stamps was to be used in paying the governmental\ncost in the territory acquired from the French and Indian War and\nfor defending the colonists. Previous acts and taxes had affected\na comparatively small number of colonists and usually only one or\ntwo social classes. The Stamp Act, however, affected practically\nevery class, particularly editors, lawyers and parsons who usually\nexert strong influence upon any group of people. The Stamp Act was\nthe controversial issue at the time Patrick Henry became a member\nof the Virginia House of Burgesses. Some of the members felt that\nParliament had the right to tax the colonists and others felt\nthat it was illegal for them to do so. Patrick Henry offered five\nresolutions against the Stamp Act to the effect that the \"General\nAssembly of the colony have the only sole and exclusive right and\npower to levy taxes.\" A fiery discussion then occurred over these\nresolutions, and, after hearing the heated arguments on both sides\non May 29, 1765, Patrick Henry rose in the House and described\nVirginia as being tethered in chains under the rule of Parliament\nand the King. Then he shouted: \"Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I,\nhis Cromwell, and George III....\" Here he was interrupted by cries\nof \"Treason! Treason!\" Very calmly he finished the sentence by\nsaying \"may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the\nmost of it!\" Patrick Henry's brilliant oratory persuaded public\nopinion again, and his \"Virginia Resolves\" against the Stamp Act\nwere passed by a majority of one vote. Such a small majority seems\ninsignificant, but these Resolves were publicized throughout the\ncolonies and played an important part in creating serious opposition\nto England throughout the British colonies. Soon similar resolutions\nwere adopted in the other colonies.\nThe first Colonial Congress was called to meet in New York City\nin October 1765 to form a plan of resistance to the Stamp Act.\nAlthough delegates from nine colonies attended, Virginia was not\nrepresented because the Virginia legislature had adjourned before\nMassachusetts had sent its invitation circular to her. However,\nVirginia approved a three point program of this \"Stamp Act Congress\"\nat its next legislative session: namely, a Bill of Rights, a\nstatement of grievances and the principle of no taxation without\nactual representation. The colonists believed that, since they had\nno actual representation in Parliament, there could be no taxation\nexcept that authorized by their individual legislatures. Therefore,\nthe members of the Stamp Act Congress adopted petitions to the\nKing, the House of Commons and the House of Lords asking repeal of\nthe Stamp Act. This congress was the first significant step in the\ndirection of unity for the British colonies in America. In addition\nto this orderly method of opposition, in some of the colonies mob\nviolence, rioting and even personal molesting of the stamp officials\ntook place.\nOn February 8, 1766, the Northampton County Court severely opposed\nthe Stamp Act by stating that \"the said act did not bind, affect or\nconcern the inhabitants of this colony, inasmuch as they conceive\nthe same to be unconstitutional, and that the said several officers\nmay proceed to the execution of their respective offices, without\nincurring any penalties by means thereof.\"\nOn February 27, 1766, a group of one hundred and fifteen planters\nmet at Leedstown in the Northern Neck to publicly oppose the Stamp\nAct. A series of resolves or resolutions written by Richard Henry\nLee but presented by Thomas Ludwell Lee, his brother, were passed by\nthose present. These resolves condemned the Stamp Act and defiantly\nacclaimed the rights which they considered essential to civil\nliberty. These resolves are usually referred to as the Leedstown\nor Westmoreland Resolves because they were presented at Leedstown\nwhich is located in Westmoreland County. In March of the same year\na pamphlet, entitled \"An Enquiry into the Rights of the British\nColonies,\" was written and circulated by Richard Henry Bland which\nstrongly opposed the Parliamentary measures and stated that the\ncolonies were bound to England directly by the King and not by\nParliament. Therefore, Bland concluded that Parliament technically\nhad no jurisdiction over the American colonies.\nFinally, on March 18, 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but\nat the same time passed the Declaratory Act stating that Parliament\nhad the authority to pass laws for the colonies \"in all cases\nwhatsoever.\" In their triumph over the repeal of the Stamp Act, many\nof the colonists overlooked the strong, powerful wording of the\nDeclaratory Act.\nSoon after the repeal of the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts were\npassed in 1767. They were called the Townshend Acts because the\nBritish Chancellor of the Exchequer (a position similar to the\npresent-day United States Secretary of the Treasury) who originated\nthem was Charles Townshend. The acts placed a duty (an external\ntax) upon glass, paper, painters' colors, white lead and tea. The\nrevenue collected from these duties was to be used for the payment\nof salaries of judges and other colonial officials in the attempt\nto make such positions less influenced by the colonial legislature.\nThe colonists objected strongly to the Townshend Acts, again stating\nthat the taxes so collected were for the purpose of revenue and not\nfor protection.\nThe merchant class of the large cities in the colonies and the\nVirginia planters in particular were so strongly affected by\nthese acts that they formed a retaliatory organization called the\nNon-Importation Association. Although Lord Botetourt, the royal\nGovernor of Virginia at this time, dissolved the Virginia Assembly,\nand individual members met privately at the Raleigh Tavern in\nWilliamsburg and agreed to enter into such a non-importation\nagreement. This group agreed not to import slaves, wines or goods\nfrom Great Britain unless the objectionable taxes were abolished.\nThis agreement caused a great reduction in the number of imports\nfrom Great Britain to these colonies. Since Virginia had the largest\namount of commerce trade in England at this time, this method\nproved effective. Acts of violence even occured in some of the\ncolonies--for example, the Boston Massacre. Finally, on March 5,\n1770, the Townshend Acts were repealed with the exception of the tax\non tea: three pence per pound. This tax was retained supposedly to\nassert the right of Parliament to tax the colonists whenever it so\ndesired.\nIn spite of this repeal, friction between colonial legislatures and\nroyal Governors continued. Under the leadership of Samuel Adams of\nMassachusetts, Committees of Correspondence were appointed in 1773\nwhose chief objective was to keep the various colonies informed by\ncorrespondence of the events occurring within their colony which\nwere contrary to the rights and privileges of the colonists. The\nVirginia General Assembly appointed a Committee of Correspondence\nunder the leadership of Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick\nHenry and George Mason. The condition which caused this permanent\ncommittee to be organized at this time was the continuous threat\nof England to force Americans to be tried in England for offenses\nagainst the law. These committees within the various colonies became\nvery active and persuasive. The British soon abandoned their idea of\nsending Americans to England to be tried. However, these committees\nincreased rapidly in number as the grievances of the colonists\nincreased, and they gradually created a feeling of unity in the\ncolonies as a result of a better understanding of common problems.\nThe next act which is believed to have led directly to the\nRevolutionary War is the Tea Act. After the three pence per pound\ntax on tea was levied, some of the colonists bought their tea from\nsmugglers who had purchased it from the Dutch East Indies. In\n1773, in an attempt to curb this illegal trade and to help create\na monopoly of the tea trade for the East India Company, Parliament\npassed a law allowing this company to ship tea from Asia directly\nto the American colonies without bringing it to English warehouses\nfirst, as had previously been the regulation. This situation\nresulted in the East India Company selling its tea cheaper than the\nother companies. In spite of this change, Parliament refused to\nrepeal the three pence duty tax on tea which still had to be paid by\nthe colonists.\nThe American colonists realized the scheme of England, and not\nwanting to admit the right of Parliament to tax them even under\nthese conditions, they decided not to submit to the payment of the\nduty tax. When the ships from the East India Company sent cargoes\nof tea to Charleston, Philadelphia, New York and Boston, some of it\nwas stored indefinitely (at Charleston), some was returned (from\nPhiladelphia and from New York City) and the rest was dumped into\nthe Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773. The famous Boston Tea Party\ncaused Parliament to pass the \"Intolerable Acts\" as punishment for\nthe colonists of Massachusetts: (1) the Boston Port Bill closed\nthe port of Boston to all trade until the colonists there had paid\nfor the tea which had been destroyed and had agreed to obey the\nlaws of Parliament and to maintain peace in the future, (2) the\nMassachusetts Government Act changed the charter of Massachusetts so\nthat more governing power was in the hands of the royal officials\nand much less in the hands of the colonists, (3) the Administration\nof Justice Act provided that British officials in Massachusetts who\nhad been charged with serious violations of colonial laws were from\nthat time on to be sent to England for their trial and (4) an act\nprovided that any colonial Governor was empowered from that time on\nto quarter British soldiers in barns or vacant buildings whenever\nthe need arose. The first of these acts was to go into effect on\nJune 1, 1774. Therefore, the colonists realized that something had\nto be done immediately if their resentment and ill feeling was to be\nrecognized by Parliament and acted upon accordingly.\nA description of the Boston Tea Party first reached Virginia from\na visitor to the old Market Square in Alexandria. The Virginia\nHouse of Burgesses was in session when the Virginians learned of\nthe \"Intolerable Acts.\" Led by Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and\nRichard Henry Lee, the members of the House of Burgesses passed a\nresolution designating June 1, the day on which the \"Intolerable\nActs\" were to be enforced, as a day of fasting and prayer to God to\nencourage Parliament to abandon its unwise punitive policy towards\nthe people of Massachusetts. When Governor Lord Dunmore, who had\nsucceeded upon the death of Governor Botetourt, heard of this\nresolution, he dissolved the House of Burgesses. Before all the\nmembers had left Williamsburg, a messenger arrived from Boston with\na circular letter which pleaded with the colonies for united support\nand which suggested the cessation of all trading relations with\nGreat Britain. The twenty-five Burgesses members, who were in the\nApollo Room of the Raleigh Tavern when the letter arrived, discussed\nits contents and decided that it was too important a matter for\nthe Committee of Correspondence to assume complete responsibility.\nConsequently, they asked the counties to appoint deputies to a\nspecial convention to be held on August 1, 1774 at Williamsburg\nfor a two-fold purpose: to consider the possibility of complete\ncessation of trade with Great Britain and to choose delegates to\na proposed Continental Congress. Peyton Randolph, Speaker of the\nHouse of Burgesses, is believed to have been the leader of this\nspecial convention movement. The actual summons was signed by Thomas\nJefferson, George Washington and Henry Lee. The calling of this\nFirst Virginia Convention is most significant in American history as\nwell as in Virginia history because it was a positive action on the\npart of the American colonists to assert the people's sovereignty\nover and against the King's authority.\nThe convention at Williamsburg which began August 1, 1774 lasted\nfor six days and representatives attended from fifty-six counties\nand four boroughs. Each county sent two delegates and each borough,\none. Peyton Randolph was chosen as president of the convention.\nThe convention members agreed to purchase no goods, with the\nexception of medicine, from Great Britain after November 1, 1774 and\nagreed neither to import slaves nor to buy imported slaves after\nNovember 1. Seven members were selected to represent Virginia at a\nContinental or General Congress: Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison,\nPatrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edmund Pendleton, Peyton Randolph\nand George Washington. The convention delegates also stated that\nunless American grievances were diminished by August 10, 1775, all\nexports of Virginia products to Great Britain would be stopped. It\nwas at this convention that a written treatise on American rights\nwas prepared for the convention by Thomas Jefferson. This paper,\nlater entitled \"A Summary View of the Rights of British America,\"\nwas published by the Virginia convention and was responsible for\nmaking Jefferson's great ability as a writer well known. This\npamphlet was a forerunner of the Declaration of Independence.\nWhile the colonists were having political and economic difficulties\nwith Great Britain, other domestic difficulties were occurring\non the frontiers. As mentioned previously, the Piedmont area\nof Virginia, located between the Fall Line and the Appalachian\nMountains, was actually the first American frontier. People who\nsettled there came originally for several purposes: to acquire\nfertile but cheap land, to enjoy new personal freedom (in many\ncases, the settlers were former indentured servants), to carry\non fur trade with the Indians, to obtain fresh pasture land for\ncattle and to establish plantations. After the Piedmont area became\nheavily settled, the westward movement continued. The settlements\nin the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia followed directly after the\ncrossing of the Blue Ridge Mountains. In the late 1760's, William\nBean, a Virginian, constructed the first cabin along the Watauga\nRiver, and later, James Robertson and John Sevier pioneered in the\nWatauga Valley. Settlements were also made at this time along the\nfertile Holston River Valley in eastern Tennessee. During this\nperiod, Daniel Boone explored the Cumberland Gap area and started a\nsettlement in the region now known as Kentucky. While he was taking\na group of approximately eighty settlers to this region, he was\nattacked by a band of Indians. The group decided to return to North\nCarolina with the exception of the Boone family, and they stopped\nnear the Kentucky-Tennessee border.\nIndian uprisings were common until the soldiers of Virginia defeated\nthem in Lord Dunmore's War. As the settlers pushed westward, more\nand more of the Indians' hunting grounds were being seized and\nused for farming. Since the Indians felt that this was most unjust\ntreatment, they resorted to making war upon the settlers. In\n1774, many frontier Indian raids occurred involving the Shawnees,\nCherokees, Mingos, Delaware and Wyandots. One incident which had\ngreat repercussion was the killing of nine members of the family of\nJohn Logan, a friendly Mingo chief, by a group of white settlers.\nThis incident caused the Indians to be extremely revengeful.\nWhen Lord Dunmore became the new royal Governor, the settlers\nappealed to him for protection and asked that he send military\ntroops at once. He decided personally to command one group of troops\nat the Forks of the Ohio River and he ordered Major Andrew Lewis, a\npioneer's son of Augusta County whose father had founded Staunton,\nVirginia, to raise a force of Virginia troops and bring them to a\nmeeting-place located at Camp Union (now known as Lewisburg, West\nVirginia). With approximately 1100 men, General Lewis started on\nhis march to the Ohio River in September 1774 to fight the Indians.\nAfter nineteen days of marching, they arrived at Point Pleasant,\nthe site at which the Kanawha River empties into the Ohio River,\napproximately 160 miles from their starting point. General Lewis\nand his troops waited four days and heard no word from Lord Dunmore\nalthough he had ordered them to this particular position. On October\n10, two of Lewis' men went hunting, strictly against his orders.\nTwo miles from camp they were attacked by the Shawnee Indians, and\none of them was killed. The other escaped, rushed back to the camp\nand reported to General Lewis that he had observed \"four acres of\nground\" of Indians. General Lewis then commanded his men to form\ntwo lines of battle, one to be under the leadership of his brother,\nColonel Charles Lewis, and the other under the leadership of Colonel\nWilliam Fleming. He himself was to be the supreme commander. The\nbattle began immediately, and after the Indians rushed forward\nthe first time, Charles Lewis was killed and Colonel Fleming was\nwounded. The Indian leader was Chief Cornstalk who was a popular\nand powerful Indian warrior. However, after fighting all day, the\nIndians finally retreated across the Ohio River, and the Virginians\nwere considered the victors of the Battle of Point Pleasant or the\nBattle of Great Kanawha because they were not driven back by the\nIndians. Consequently, Lord Dunmore's War was fought without his\npresence, although it is believed that he may have been negotiating\na peace treaty with the Indians simultaneously at some distant\nplace. The winning of this war by the Virginians made the winning of\nthe west much easier for the later settlers.\nOn September 5, 1774, the first Continental Congress was called\nby Virginia, and invitations were issued by Committees of\nCorrespondence. The purpose of this Congress was \"to deliberate\nand determine wise and proper measures, to be by them recommended\nto all the colonies, for the recovery and establishment of their\njust rights and liberties, civil and religious, and the restoration\nof union and harmony between Great Britain and the colonies most\nardently desired by all good men.\" The Continental Congress\nbegan in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, on September 5, 1774\nwith 56 members present. Two-thirds of these were lawyers, and\nthe membership itself consisted of representatives of both the\nliberal and the conservative groups although the majority appeared\nto be in the former group. The Virginian, Peyton Randolph, was\nunanimously elected President of the First Continental Congress.\nDuring the Congress, Patrick Henry expressed the need for unity\nwhen he exclaimed: \"The distinctions between Pennsylvanians, New\nYorkers and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian but an\nAmerican.\" Concerning its chief accomplishments, the Congress (1)\ndrew up a Declaration of Rights (a series of resolutions declaring\nthat the colonists were entitled to certain rights: life, liberty\nand property, the right to vote their own taxes and the right to\ntrial by jury; that these rights had been violated by the King and\nby Parliament since 1673; that unjust taxes and standing armies\nhad been imposed upon them and their local assemblies unfairly\ninterfered with by Parliament; that their repeated petitions for\na redress of their grievances had been practically ignored in\nEngland) and (2) adopted \"a non-importation, non-consumption and\nnon-exportation agreement\" called the Continental Association Plan.\nIt should be noted that complete separation from England was not\ndemanded at this time but rather cooperation from, and peace under,\nEnglish rule. The session lasted approximately seven weeks, and then\non October 26, 1774, after a motion had been passed setting May\n10, 1775 as the date of a second congress meeting, the session was\nadjourned to await a reply from the King of England.\nThe resolutions passed by this Congress were circulated throughout\nthe colonies for their approval. All sections of the Virginia colony\napproved them, even sections as far west as the area now occupied by\nthe State of Kentucky. Two illustrations of such approval are the\nFairfax Resolutions and the Fincastle Resolutions. The freeholders\nof Fairfax County met in Alexandria in July 1774 and passed the\nso-called Fairfax Resolutions, written by George Mason. The Fairfax\nResolutions or Resolves, as they are sometimes called, reflected\nVirginia's attitude toward taxation, Parliament and even the\nKing. In January 1775, at Lead Mines, Fincastle County seat, the\nfreeholders met and prepared a paper congratulating and thanking the\nVirginia delegates for their part in the First Continental Congress.\nThese Fincastle Resolutions also included strong written opposition\nto English tyrannical power.\nIn November 1774, Virginia had a tea party, similar in purpose to\nBoston in that it was an act of defiance against Great Britain's\ntea tax. On November 7, the Virginians discovered that a British\nship, \"Virginia,\" which had docked in the York River at an earlier\ndate, contained tea cargo. The Committee of Safety for York County\nimmediately sent to the House of Burgesses (which was meeting at\nWilliamsburg) a message in the form of a protest against accepting\nthis tea for sale in the colony. The Committee received a reply to\nthe effect that the matter would be discussed in the House and an\nanswer would be forthcoming the next Monday morning. Large groups\nof people gathered at Yorktown where the boat had been docked and\nwaited for the reply. The House of Burgesses failed to send the\nreply, and the captain of the ship declared that he had received no\nmessage. The Committee waited a while longer and then proceeded to\nthrow the tea out of the ship's hold into the York River. By this\ntime, the Yorktown inhabitants had been informed of the \"Intolerable\nActs\" which had been passed to punish the inhabitants of Boston.\nTherefore, they filled the ship with necessary supplies and sent it\nto the Bostonians. This incident was another example of the methods\nby which the colonists were learning to unite and to help each other\nin their common objectives.\nWhen the American colonists began to carry out the non-importation\nagreement, the British merchants were very much affected: for\nexample, the import trade from Great Britain to the American\ncolonies declined about 95% by 1775. The Americans had some great\nBritish leaders on their side, but they were definitely in the\nminority. Edmund Burke and William Pitt urged that the \"Intolerable\nActs\" be repealed and predicted that war was approaching with\nthe American colonies if most of the objectionable laws were not\nrepealed at this time. Burke and Pitt were overruled, however, in\nParliament. Thus, the breach between the American colonies and the\nmother country became wider as time passed.\nContinued growth in the number of counties reflected increases in\npopulation and a trend toward the rising importance of community\nlife. From 1750 to 1775, several additional counties were formed:\nHalifax (formed from Lunenburg and named for George Montagu Dunk,\nSecond Earl of Halifax and the first Lord of the Board of Trade),\nDinwiddie (formed from Prince George County and named for Lord\nDinwiddie, acting Lieutenant Governor of the Virginia Colony\nfrom 1751-1758), Prince Edward (formed from Amelia County and\nnamed for Edward Augustus, Prince of Wales), Bedford (formed from\nLunenburg and part of Albemarle County and named for John Russell,\nFourth Duke of Bedford, Secretary of State in Great Britain from\n1748-1757), Sussex (formed from Surry County and named for Sussex\nCounty, England), Loudoun (formed from Fairfax County and named\nfor John Campbell, Fourth Earl of Loudoun, Commander-in-Chief\nof the British forces during the latter part of the French and\nIndian War and Governor-General of the American Colonies from 1756\nto 1763), Fauquier (formed from Prince William County and named\nafter Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor from 1758 to 1768),\nBuckingham (formed from Albemarle County and named probably for\nthe Duke of Buckingham), Charlotte (formed from Lunenburg and\nnamed for Princess Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg, George III's\nqueen), Mecklenburg (formed from Lunenburg and named in honor of\nthe same queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz), Pittsylvania\n(formed from Halifax County and named for Sir William Pitt, a famous\nEnglish statesman who was pro-American toward the British Colonies\nin America), Botetourt (formed from Augusta County and part of\nRockbridge County and named for Norborne Berkeley, Lord Botetourt,\nGovernor of Virginia from 1768 to 1770) and Amherst County (formed\nfrom Albemarle County \"and certain islands in the Fluvanna River\"\nand named for Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Governor-General of Virginia,\nS U M M A R Y\nThe historical Life of Virginia from 1584 to 1775 illustrates\nthe \"trial and error\" method of learning to live cooperatively,\ncomfortably and profitably in the New World. The inhabitants of\nthe \"Cradle of American Civilization\" were faced with severe\npersonal handicaps, problems of government (many of which had to\nbe solved in an original fashion), explorations into untrodden and\noften uncivilized areas, the task of establishing a land economy,\nrebellions of the common man against the privileged few and the\nestablishment of a culture and way of life adapted to the type of\nenvironment and peoples living in the area. The efforts of such\nleaders as John Smith, John Rolfe, Edwin Sandys, George Yeardley,\nBenjamin Syms, Thomas Eaton, James Blair, Alexander Spotswood,\nThomas Lee, Robert Dinwiddie, George Washington, Patrick Henry,\nRichard Bland, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Peyton Randolph\nand Andrew Lewis helped unite the colonists in Virginia in their\ndevelopment of democratic living.\nDuring this period, the first representative legislative assembly in\nAmerica was held, the first group of Negro slaves were imported to\nAmerica, the first group of unmarried women arrived in the colonies,\nthe first royal colony of England was organized, a county system of\nlocal government was established, the Commonwealth of Virginia was\ncreated, the second oldest college in America was founded, the first\ntheater in America was built, many of the most beautiful plantation\nhouses were constructed, the British became the dominant colonists\nin America, slavery became an accepted characteristic of plantation\nlife, fifty-four counties were formed and strong opposition of the\ncolonists in Virginia to political and economic control by the\nBritish King and Parliament was becoming very apparent. The first\nspecial Virginia Convention held in Williamsburg to determine\nthe extent of Virginia's boycott of British goods and to choose\ndelegates to a Continental Congress and the York River Tea Party\nat Yorktown exemplified mounting opposition. The stage of life in\nVirginia seemed naturally set for specific action against strict\nforeign regulation and control.\nHistorical Life: 1775-1860\n_The Revolutionary War Era_\nA second Virginia Convention was held from March 20 to March 27,\n1775 at St. John's Church, Richmond. Peyton Randolph was again\nchosen president of the convention. The members of this convention\nsoon were divided into distinct groups: (1) the conservative group,\nled by Peyton Randolph, which deplored radical thinking and actions\nand still favored reconciliation with the mother country, England,\nand (2) the aggressive group, led by Patrick Henry, which believed\nconciliation and compromise were no longer possible or feasible and\nadvocated military preparedness within the colony.\nOn the first day, March 20, Patrick Henry delivered his famous\nspeech, the most significant and oft-repeated section stating:\n\"Gentlemen may cry: Peace! Peace! but there is no peace. The war\nis actually begun!... Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be\npurchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty\nGod! I know not what course others may take, but, as for me, give\nme liberty, or give me death!\" This fiery speech combined with\nhis others earned for Patrick Henry the title, \"The Tongue of the\nRevolution\" or \"The Mouthpiece of the Revolution.\" The first three\ndays passed without either group committing itself. On the fourth\nday, however, a resolution was adopted bestowing thanks upon the\nAssembly of Jamaica for its petition to the King on behalf of the\nAmerican colonies and stating an ardent desire for peace. Patrick\nHenry then proposed an unusual resolution to follow the preceding\none, namely: the establishment of \"a well-regulated militia,\ncomposed of gentlemen and yeomen.\" His brilliant oratorical powers\nof persuasion caused the resolution to be carried, and the military\nresources of the colony were immediately directed to be organized\nand made efficient. The convention also appealed to all the people\nfor contributions for the relief of the Bostonians because they\nwere \"suffering in the common cause of American freedom.\" Later at\nthis convention, delegates to the Second Continental Congress were\nelected: Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, Peyton\nRandolph and George Wythe.\nOn April 21, 1775, Governor Dunmore, who had unsuccessfully tried\nto prevent the Richmond convention from taking place in order that\ndelegates could not be elected to attend the Second Continental\nCongress, became very much aroused over the bitter feeling of the\ncolonists toward Great Britain. He decided that he could break down\nsome of the colonial assuredness and resistance against the King\nand against his personal orders if he could remove from the powder\nmagazine at Williamsburg the munition powder which belonged to the\ncolony. Therefore, he ordered twenty sailors from a British ship\nanchored at Williamsburg to obtain this powder. They hid in the\nGovernor's Palace; during the night, they visited the magazine,\nremoved all the powder which they could fit into the Governor's\nwagon and took it to their armed ship, the \"Fowey,\" in the harbor\nfor safekeeping. When the colonists learned the next morning of\nthis activity, a company of Hanover volunteers, led by Patrick\nHenry, marched upon Williamsburg and forced the King's sailors to\ncompensate by giving bills for the value of the powder taken from\nthe magazine. Governor Dunmore was then beseeched to pay for the\ncost of the powder, at least in sterling. He finally paid this\namount because of the persistence of Patrick Henry. Only strenuous\nefforts on the part of Patrick Henry's personal friends kept him and\nthe local militia from imprisoning the Governor himself for such\naction. Patrick Henry was declared an outlaw by Governor Dunmore.\nAnti-British feeling rapidly increased on the part of the colonists\nafter this incident.\nApproximately a week after this unpleasant incident, John Paul\nJones, a Scottish-Virginian who was a resident of Fredericksburg,\nrecommended that the colonies should have an official navy. He was a\nformer British seaman, and he offered his services to the colonies\nat this time in an attempt to raise a naval force. The Second\nContinental Congress later appointed a Naval Committee whose chief\nduty was to organize a naval force. At its invitation, John Paul\nJones explained to the Committee the great strength of the British\nNavy and the futility of the colonists to try to compete with it.\nHe stated, however, that, if the colonists had fifteen ships armed\nwith guns, these could be successfully utilized to annoy British\nships. His suggestion was accepted, and thirteen frigates plus two\nbrigs made up the first American Navy. John Paul Jones received the\nfirst naval commission at Independence Hall on December 22, 1775.\nTherefore, he is often referred to as \"The Father of the American\nNavy.\"\nBefore the Second Continental Congress was due to meet, the Battle\nof Lexington and Concord (near Boston) had taken place on April 19,\n1775. After this \"shot heard 'round the world,\" the Americans were\nmost sympathetic toward their fellow-colonists of Massachusetts. On\nMay 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress began in Independence\nHall, Philadelphia. Although there was a majority of the members\nwho now believed a revolution was inevitable, there were also many\nconservatives who preferred compromise of any type rather than war.\nThis congress proceeded to take necessary steps for organizing and\nequipping an American army. On June 16, 1775, it assumed control\nof the colonial forces already formed in Cambridge, Massachusetts,\nafter the Battle of Lexington and Concord. It appointed George\nWashington as Commander-in-Chief of this American Continental Army\nand assumed complete responsibility for the salaries and supplies of\nthe servicemen.\nOn June 1, 1775 Governor Dunmore called the Virginia House of\nBurgesses together for the purpose of discussing some British\nproposals originated by Lord North. The members did not favor\nthese, however, and proceeded to suggest the levying of a tax\nof five pounds per head on each imported slave as an attempt to\nraise revenue for payment of the recent Lord Dunmore War with the\nIndians. In order to protect the slave trade benefits for England,\nthe Governor vetoed this proposal. This action was his last veto\nin the Colony of Virginia. Later that month, Lord Dunmore, sensing\nthe sincerity of the Americans in this revolution, feared for\nhis royal governorship life. Consequently, on June 8, he fled\nfrom Williamsburg to a British man-of-war ship, the \"Fowey,\" in\nthe Yorktown harbor. His flight practically dissolved the royal\ngovernment in Virginia. The Virginia Assembly asked Governor Dunmore\nto return under its protection but he refused to do so. His refusal\nto return after an official petition had been issued was considered\nby the Virginians as abdication on his part from office. Thus, when\nit adjourned on June 20, 1775, the last Virginia colonial General\nAssembly ended.\nOn July 3, 1775, Washington took official command of the American\nContinental Army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and his first military\nobjective was to drive the British away from Boston. After he had\nbeen there a few weeks, he visited some troops for inspection. Upon\ninquiring about the place of origin of one company, he was surprised\nand delighted to hear the answer, \"General, from the Banks of the\nPotomac.\" The speaker was Daniel Morgan, who had accompanied his\ncorps of riflemen from Winchester, Virginia to Boston, 600 miles\ndistance in twenty-one days without a single death. Morgan had\nfought with Washington during the French and Indian War and had\nparticipated in the war against the Indians in the Ohio Valley\ncampaign. Washington was so happy to see these fellow-Virginians\nthat he took time from his busy schedule to shake hands personally\nwith each member of the corps. After Morgan and his troops had\nparticipated successfully in the Massachusetts Campaign, he\nlater sent them to Canada for the Quebec campaign. This campaign\nunfortunately resulted in a defeat for the Americans, and Morgan\nwas taken prisoner. Although Morgan was offered a commission in the\nBritish army while he was imprisoned, he violently rejected the\noffer. Although he remained a prisoner for a long time, he rejoined\nthe American Army as soon as he was free to do so. The famous\nAmerican victory at the Battle of Saratoga is now accredited to the\nmilitary strategy and tactics of General Daniel Morgan. Another\nimportant later victory for which he was directly responsible was\nthe Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina. He is one of the many great\nmilitary men furnished by the colony and by the state of Virginia.\nFrom July 17 to August 26, 1775, the Third Virginia Convention\nwas held. The meeting place was Richmond, and Peyton Randolph was\nelected president of the convention. George Mason had been appointed\nto succeed George Washington at this convention because Washington\nwas busily engaged as Commander-in-Chief of the American Army.\nSince Governor Dunmore had already fled from the colony, the royal\ngovernment had been theoretically dissolved and Virginia gained\nthe status of an independent state. Therefore, the members of this\nconvention believed that they had to assume responsibility for\ngoverning Virginia under the circumstances. Consequently, the one\nhundred and fifteen delegates present proposed acts and passed them\nas laws called ordinances. Ordinances passed contained the following\nprovisions: (1) the organization of military forces for the defense\nof Virginia into two regiments; (2) the creation of an executive\nbody called the Committee of Safety to act as the government while\nthe convention was in recess; (3) a plan for adequate revenue for\nthe provisional government and for the Army of Virginia; (4) the\nestablishment of executive county committees; (5) the regulation of\nthe election of delegates to future conventions; (6) the election of\nnew representatives to a future Continental Congress, and (7) the\ndivision of Virginia into sixteen military districts.\nOn August 17, 1775, the first Committee of Safety for Virginia was\nappointed by the Virginia Convention of July 1775. It consisted\nof eleven members, namely, Richard Bland, Carter Braxton, William\nCabell, Paul Carrington, Dudley Digges, Thomas Ludwell Lee, George\nMason, James Mercer, John Page, Edmund Pendleton and John Tabb.\nEdmund Pendleton was the chairman of this committee. Various members\nof the Committee of Safety actually ruled Virginia from the time\nit ceased to be a British colony until it officially became an\nindependent state.\nOn December 1, 1775 the Fourth Virginia Convention was held at\nRichmond, but soon after the convention had become organized, it\nmoved to Williamsburg. Edmund Pendleton was elected president\nof the convention. The chief problem of this convention was\nmilitary protection and security for Virginia in the face of war.\nThe army was increased from two regiments to nine regiments with\nan enlistment requiring two years of military service. The chief\nmeasures passed during the Fourth Virginia Convention of December\n1775-January 1776 included the appointment of a commission of five\nmen in each county to try cases of those individuals believed to be\nenemies of America, the creation of an admiralty court to hear cases\ninvolving maritime or naval affairs, the granting of permission\nfor county courts to elect a sheriff for a one-year term and the\nissuing of special instructions to the Virginia delegates to the\nnext Continental Congress to encourage the opening of American ports\nto the commerce of all foreign nations except Great Britain and the\nBritish West Indies. It was also decided at this convention to allow\nthe Virginia troops to be merged or absorbed into the Continental\nArmy and to have future military officers commissioned by the\nContinental Congress rather than by individual state or colonial\nlegislatures. Another Committee of Safety for Virginia was named:\nnine members were re-appointed and two new members were substituted.\nEdmund Pendleton was still the chairman and the other committee\nmembers were Richard Bland, William Cabell, Paul Carrington, Dudley\nDigges, Joseph Jones, Thomas Ludwell Lee, James Mercer, John Page,\nJohn Tabb and Thomas Walker. On January 20, 1776, the convention\nadjourned.\nDuring the convention, another Lord Dunmore episode took place. Lord\nDunmore had become a real threat to the Virginians because, after he\nhad fled from Williamsburg and from Yorktown, he armed many Negroes\nand persuaded them to fight for the King in return for their future\nfreedom. He commanded a force which at this time was in possession\nof Norfolk and its adjacent areas. Eight days after the convention\nbegan, Lord Dunmore dispatched a few of his British regulars to\nattack some of the Virginian troops under Colonel William Woodford.\nThese Virginians had constructed a breastwork along the southern\nbranch of the Elizabeth River, approximately twelve miles from\nNorfolk. Colonel Woodford's Virginia troops killed almost all the\nBritish regulars, much to the surprise of Lord Dunmore, who quickly\nretreated to a part of the British fleet docked in Norfolk harbor.\nLater, while the convention was still in session, on January 1,\n1776, Lord Dunmore with a small land and sea force bombarded and\nburned Norfolk itself which consisted of about 6,000 residents\nat the time. Many houses were completely burned and others badly\ndamaged. St. Paul's Church was the only building to survive this\nbombardment and embedded cannon balls in the south wall of the\nchurch may still be seen which were fired from the ships in the\nharbor. Dunmore and his forces finally sailed up the Chesapeake\nBay and stationed themselves off Gwynn's Island, near the present\nMathews County mainland. From this area, Dunmore and his friends\nmade repeated plunder attacks along the coast of Virginia until\nsummer.\nDuring the same month of January, a dramatic episode occurred at\nWoodstock. John Peter Gabriel M\u00fchlenberg, an ex-German soldier\nwho had migrated to Virginia and had become a minister, was very\nstrongly pro-Virginia and very strongly anti-British King. He had\nreceived a military commission as a colonel from General George\nWashington due to his past military experience. His duty was to\nform a regiment of Germans living in the valley. On this particular\nSunday, he ascended the pulpit and began to preach concerning the\ntheme, \"There is a time to every purpose ... a time to war and a\ntime to peace!\" He proceeded to describe the unjust treatment which\nthe American colonies had received from the British King and the\nParliament. At the conclusion of his sermon, he stated: \"There is\na time for all things--a time to preach and a time to pray; but\nthere is a time to fight, and that time has come now.\" With these\nsurprising words, he threw back his minister's attire and stood\nfully clothed in the blue and buff uniform of a Continental Colonel\nwith the official sword at his side. He immediately descended\nfrom the pulpit and, in a very short time, had enlisted three\nhundred citizens within this small community in the Eighth Virginia\nRegiment. Thus, M\u00fchlenberg earned for himself the title of the\n\"Fighting Parson\" and with his regiment marched directly to help\nthe South Carolina Army. The regiment was later referred to as the\nGerman Regiment because it was made up solely of German Americans.\nIt served with great honor during the Revolutionary War. M\u00fchlenberg\nhimself had the distinction of being with General Washington when\nCornwallis surrendered at Yorktown.\nThe Fifth Virginia Convention, now called the Virginia\nConstitutional Convention, began on May 6, 1776 at Williamsburg. By\nthis time, the British had been driven out of Boston and out of the\nNew England area in general. The American attempt to invade Canada\nhad been unsuccessful, but the British had been defeated in North\nand South Carolina. Public opinion in Virginia which had been only\n\"lukewarm\" to complete separation from England at the early stages\nof the war now became very strongly in favor of it--particularly\nafter the bombardment and burning of Norfolk. Most of the delegates\nhad been instructed before coming to the convention to work toward\ntwo specific objectives: American independence and a representative\ngovernment for Virginia. There were one hundred and thirty-one\ndelegates present at this convention, representing sixty-six\ncounties and corporations. Some of the outstanding members at this\nconvention were James Madison, Edmund Randolph and Archibald Cary.\nThe various sections of Virginia were represented at the Fifth\nConvention. The type of clothing worn at the convention made the\nsections easily recognizable: there was an outstanding contrast\nbetween the homespun, practical clothing of the frontiersmen and the\nfancy British-made clothing of the wealthy traders and plantation\nowners. The convention members elected delegates to the Continental\nCongress and instructed them to propose American independence from\nEngland. The delegates chosen were George Washington, John Blair,\nJames Madison, George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph and\nGeorge Wythe. On May 15, a resolution was introduced by Archibald\nCary and passed which declared the colony of Virginia a free and\nindependent State. Immediately the British flag was lowered from the\nCapitol at Williamsburg and the colonial colors were raised instead.\nAt this same convention, on May 27, Archibald Cary presented to the\nmembers the \"Declaration of Rights\" prepared by George Mason for\nthis convention. This document stated the fundamental rights of\nEnglish colonists as well as of Englishmen.\nOn June 12, 1776 Mason's \"Declaration of Rights\" was unanimously\nadopted. Its principles were considered so important that they\nwere later the basis of the Bill of Rights in the United States\nConstitution and eventually were used as the background for state\nconstitution Bills of Rights. The Virginia Bill of Rights is often\nreferred to as the \"Magna Charta of Virginia.\" George Mason also\nrecommended the original motto of the official seal of the State of\nVirginia at this convention: \"Sic Semper Tyrannis\"--\"Thus Always (or\never) to Tyrants.\"\nIn the same session, James Madison actively participated in a\ndiscussion concerning religious liberty and tolerance. He proposed a\nclause in the Virginia Bill of Rights to allow the \"free exercise of\nreligion\" because he strongly believed that the state should have no\ncoercive power over religious thought. This clause was adopted, and\nJames Madison for the first time attracted state-wide attention to\nhis thinking and philosophy.\nOnce the idea of independence from England was formally expressed\nand a specific objective was established, the Virginians at this\nconvention proceeded to write a state constitution for Virginia.\nThis constitution, the first written state constitution, was\nofficially adopted on June 29, 1776, making this the birth date of\nthe State of Virginia. Since George Mason was primarily responsible\nfor the actual wording of the constitution, he is called the\n\"Father of the Virginia Constitution.\" Virginia was organized as\nthe Commonwealth of Virginia, the name believed patterned after the\nCommonwealth of England, the title acquired by the government of\nEngland after its Civil War. The first constitution for Virginia\nprovided for a bicameral (two-house) legislature: the Senate and\nthe House of Delegates. Membership in these groups was to be by\nelection by the qualified voters. Each county was to choose two\ndelegates annually to represent them and one-fourth of the Senate\nwas to be elected annually. The combined balloting of the House and\nthe Senate was to determine the election of the Governor (whose\nterm was to be one year with a maximum three years possible), an\neight-man Council of State and members of the Congress of the United\nStates. A general system of courts was created. Patrick Henry was\nelected the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia and he\nserved from 1776 to 1779. The Commonwealth of Virginia was now ready\nto function, and the new government went into effect immediately.\nThe Williamsburg Convention which began May 6, 1776 adjourned on\nWhile this convention was in session, the Second Continental\nCongress was meeting at the State House, now called Independence\nHall, in Philadelphia. On June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee, a\nVirginian, introduced a resolution \"that these United Colonies are,\nand of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they\nare absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all\npolitical convention between them and the State of Great Britain is,\nand ought to be, totally dissolved.\" The motion was seconded and\nurged strongly by John Adams of Massachusetts. The usual discussion\nand argumentation period followed, and it became obvious that six\nstates hesitated to vote favorably for the resolution at this time.\nConsequently, the official voting was postponed for three weeks,\nbut Lee's resolution was adopted by the Congress on July 2, 1776.\nHowever, a committee of five was selected on June 10 to draw up a\ndeclaration of independence: Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Benjamin\nFranklin (Pennsylvania), John Adams (Massachusetts), Roger Sherman\n(Connecticut) and Robert H. Livingston (New York). Although Thomas\nJefferson was one of the youngest Continental Congressmen, he\nwas selected as the chairman of this committee. Since only a few\ndeletions in the original plan drawn up by Jefferson were made\nby the other members of the committee, the writing of the formal\nDeclaration of Independence is justly attributable to Thomas\nJefferson, the Virginian. This Declaration of Independence coupled\nwith his \"A Summary View of the Rights of British America\" later\nearned for Thomas Jefferson the title \"The Pen of the Revolution.\"\nThe logical, thorough reasoning behind the content of the\nDeclaration is easily apparent. The first part of this document\ndescribes the nature and the purpose of a government and the\nbelief that a people have the right to change their government\nwhen it no longer fulfills the purpose for which it was created.\nThen Jefferson enumerated the various acts of the King and of the\nBritish Parliament which the American colonists considered most\nunfair and contrary to the purpose of the original founding of the\ncolonies, as justification for their desire to change their type of\ngovernment. The next section reaches a conclusion from the previous\ntwo sections: namely, that the colonists are renouncing their\nallegiance to the King and are declaring that \"these colonies are,\nand of right ought to be, Free and Independent States.\"\nOn July 4, 1776 twelve states had voted for the adoption of the\nDeclaration of Independence. The thirteenth one, New York, accepted\nit on July 9. On July 19, a resolution was adopted by the Second\nContinental Congress to have the July 4 Declaration engrossed on\nparchment entitled \"The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United\nStates of America\" and, upon its completion, to have it signed by\neach member. Fifty of the fifty-six members signed the official\ndocument by August 2, and, of the remaining six signers, two were\nVirginians: George Wythe who signed it later in August and Richard\nHenry Lee who signed it in September. The seven Virginia delegates\nwho signed the Declaration of Independence were Carter Braxton\n(farmer), Benjamin Harrison (farmer), Thomas Jefferson (lawyer),\nRichard Henry Lee (farmer), Francis Lightfoot Lee (farmer), Thomas\nNelson, Jr. (soldier) and George Wythe (lawyer).\nAfter Richard Henry Lee had introduced his independence resolution,\nhe proposed another one suggesting that a permanent central\ngovernment be created for the new United States. A committee was\nappointed to draw up such a plan and, in 1777, it submitted the\nArticles of Confederation to Congress. From 1775 to 1781, the\nContinental Congress acted as the central governing body of the\nUnited States.\nAfter Lord Dunmore had bombarded Norfolk in January 1776, he went up\nthe Chesapeake Bay to Gwynn's Island, near the present-day Mathews\nCounty mainland. With about 500 men he set up a camp there in May\n1776. General Andrew Lewis, whom he had fought previously along\nthe Ohio River, encamped with a small Virginia army on the shore\nopposite the island on July 8. Although it was very difficult to\nplant the cannon on the sandy shores, the next day General Lewis\nand his troops fired upon the camp and the fleet and badly damaged\nmany of the ships. However, when his men invaded the island on the\nnext day, they found it evacuated. Lord Dunmore had sailed away\nfrom Virginia taking with him the last governorship endowed with\nroyal power. Thus, the Battle of Gwynn's Island or Cricket Hill was\nfamous because of its effect of driving the last royal Governor\nfrom Virginia. It was, in a sense, ironic that Patrick Henry, who\nhad been detested by Lord Dunmore while Dunmore was Governor of\nVirginia, became the first elected Governor of the Commonwealth of\nVirginia.\nDuring the governorship of Patrick Henry, population growth was\nagain apparent by the formation of eight new counties in 1777-1778.\nThese counties were: Montgomery (formed from Fincastle County and,\nlater, parts of Botetourt and Pulaski and named for General Richard\nMontgomery--an American Revolutionary officer), Fluvanna (formed\nfrom Albemarle County and named for Queen Ann), Washington (formed\nfrom Fincastle County and, later, parts of Montgomery, named for\nGeorge Washington and having the distinction of being the first\nlocality in the United States so named), Powhatan (formed from\nCumberland County and named for Powhatan, the father of Pocahontas),\nRockbridge (formed from Augusta and Botetourt Counties and named\nin honor of the Natural Bridge--a natural wonder of Virginia),\nRockingham (formed from Augusta County and believed named for\nthe Marquis of Rockingham, England's Prime Minister), Shenandoah\n(originally, Dunmore County and named for the Indian-named\nShenandoah River which translated means \"Beautiful Daughter of the\nStars\") and Henry (formed from Pittsylvania County and named in\nhonor of Patrick Henry).\nGeorge Rogers Clark, an older brother of William Clark of the\nwell-known Lewis and Clark expedition, had explored and had\nsurveyed much of the territory south of the Ohio River in the\narea now called Kentucky: at this time, it was the western part\nof Fincastle County. He believed that this section was ready to\nbecome an independent county and felt that, under such political\nstatus, the settlers could better organize and protect themselves.\nOnly the Virginia Assembly could authorize the formation of this\nnew county in 1776. Clark, therefore, called the settlers together,\nexplained his objective for Kentucky and succeeded in getting\nJohn Gabriel Jones and himself elected as delegates to make a\npersonal visit to the Virginia General Assembly at Williamsburg.\nThe trip was long, difficult and dangerous, and to their dismay,\nthe Assembly had already adjourned before they arrived. Being a\ndetermined individual, however, Clark decided to talk to the newly\nelected Governor, Patrick Henry, at his home. Hence, he traveled\nto Hanover County, discussed his problem with the Governor and\nsought permission to fight the Indians of the Kentucky area and to\nsecure powder for the settlers' muskets. His trip was successful\nand, on December 7, 1776, the western part of Fincastle County was\nauthorized to become the County of Kentucky in Virginia.\nThe British had been helping and encouraging Indian raids at this\ntime in Kentucky, along the border settlements of Virginia and in\nthe Illinois area. Clark believed that the Illinois area rightfully\nbelonged to Virginia and felt that it must be conquered in order\nto attain peace for the Virginia settlers. The reports of official\nobservers convinced him that this land could be invaded and captured\nwith little effort. He returned to Williamsburg to get Governor\nHenry's approval for this objective and was happy to be commissioned\nto raise several companies of soldiers to be used in the invasion\nof the Illinois territory. Clark obtained his troops, and, after\ntraveling north through Virginia and then westward to the Ohio\nRiver, they floated down the Ohio River on rafts and in boats. They\nlanded near Louisville on the northern bank of the Ohio and marched\nwestward approximately two hundred miles to Fort Kaskaskia. On July\n4, 1778, they captured Fort Kaskaskia and its leader, Colonel Henry\nHamilton. Marching another 150 miles northeastward, on February\n25, 1779 they captured Fort Vincennes on the banks of the Wabash\nRiver. The post of Cahokia was also captured. In honor of his great\nbravery and extremely difficult marching, Clark was entitled the\n\"Hannibal of the West.\" This entire area was known as the Northwest\nTerritory, and these conquests of Clark and his troops gave Virginia\ncomplete claim for the control of this area as part of the Virginia\nstate at the end of the American Revolution in 1783. Without such\nconquests, England would undoubtedly have held this territory after\nthe Revolution, and it would probably have been an important part of\nCanada today. Simultaneously, the capture of these forts reduced the\ndanger of Indian attacks considerably.\nWhen the city of Philadelphia was about to be occupied by British\ntroops on September 18, 1777, the famous Liberty Bell was taken from\nthe State House in Pennsylvania for safekeeping. It was camouflaged\nwith the heavy baggage of the American army in a supply train of\n700 wagons and was carefully guarded by two hundred Virginian and\nNorth Carolinian cavalry-mounted troops. It was hidden in the Zion\nChurch in Allen town, Pennsylvania, until June 27, 1778 when it was\nreturned to its tower in Independence Hall.\nDuring the same month and year, Henry Lee, a native of Westmoreland\nCounty, Virginia, who had been a captain in Colonel Thomas\nBland's legion of Virginia cavalry, joined Washington's army in\nPennsylvania. His personal achievements were many in this assignment\nand his excessive courage was noted by Washington. He was soon\npromoted to major and was given special command of three troops of\nhorsemen plus an infantry company. He became a great annoyance to\nthe British while they were on the march as well as in camp. This\ncomparatively small group became so distinguished that they earned\nthe tide of \"Lee's Legion\" and Henry Lee was nicknamed \"Light Horse\nHarry\" Lee. He later captured an important British post at Paulus\nHook, New Jersey, and fought diligently also in South Carolina,\nNorth Carolina and Georgia. He was awarded a gold medal by the\nContinental Congress for his brilliant cavalry exploits during the\nRevolutionary War.\nOn May 9, 1779, a Britisher, General George Collier, arrived at\nHampton Roads with approximately 2,000 troops. They used Portsmouth\nas a base and after making several raids in that area, destroyed not\nonly the American navy yard at Portsmouth (called Gosport at this\ntime) but also large supply deposits stored there. After awaiting\nreinforcements from General Henry Clinton in New York, they decided\nto abandon Virginia because they believed a Virginia blockade had\nprevented these reinforcements from arriving. Upon their departure,\nthe inhabitants of Virginia were once more able to carry on\nnecessary and important trade with the West Indies.\nDuring this same year, a most unusual naval feat occurred in the\nRevolutionary War. John Paul Jones was in command of an American\nship called the \"Bonhomme Richard\" off the coast of England when\nhe spotted a British warship, the \"Serapis.\" After fierce fighting\nbetween the two ships, although his own ship sank, he captured the\n\"Serapis\" and sailed away in it. Virginia had the honor of providing\nthe greatest naval hero of the Revolutionary War, John Paul Jones.\nThomas Jefferson was the second elected Governor of the Commonwealth\nof Virginia. He held this office during most of the Revolutionary\nWar Period. In addition to peace and military warfare, Jefferson\nhad personal interest in religion and in education. In 1779, he\nwrote a proposed \"Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom.\" He\nbelieved that the State Constitution had not included practical\nreligious liberty although the theory of religious freedom had\nbeen guaranteed. Jefferson's proposal was finally passed by the\nGeneral Assembly of Virginia in 1785. It is considered as one of the\ngreatest Virginia documents because it guaranteed religious freedom\nto all.\nWhile serving as Governor, Jefferson proposed a plan for education\ncalled \"A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge.\" He\nbased this plan upon the premise that democracy would be more\nsuccessful if greater numbers of individuals were educated. The plan\nwas an attempt on his part to encourage the establishment of free\npublic schools for the children of the wealthy and the poor alike.\nThis proposal suggested three years of free elementary schooling for\nall children regardless of their social or financial condition, free\nsecondary education for those individuals who were mentally equipped\nto gain from this experience and free higher education for those who\nhad displayed above average scholastic qualifications. The bill was\nnot passed, but it resulted in a consideration of the possibility\nof public education at this time. Another example of Jefferson's\nenthusiastic interest in education was his personal establishment,\nin 1779, of a chair of law at William and Mary College in honor of a\nformer teacher, a great lawyer and a personal friend, George Wythe.\nAs a result, George Wythe had the distinction of being the first\nprofessor of law in the United States in the first law school in\nAmerica.\nWhile Jefferson was still Governor, the capital was moved in 1780\nfrom Williamsburg to Richmond in an effort to escape the invading\nBritish soldiers and to provide a safer place of protection for\nthe future. Lord Cornwallis, at this time, was proceeding with his\nplans to move north through the Carolinas to Virginia. Cornwallis\nhad had a great victory at Camden, South Carolina, and had decided\nto persuade many of the western mountain people to fight on behalf\nof the British. Americans who favored the British in this revolution\nwere called \"Tories\" and those who favored the Americans were called\n\"Patriots.\"\nCornwallis sent Major Patrick Ferguson and approximately a\nthousand Tories to threaten these mountain folk in North Carolina\nand Southwest Virginia to the extent of marching over their\nland, causing destruction and hanging their leaders unless they\ndiscontinued their past resistance to the British army. Two American\nmilitary frontiersmen, Colonel John Sevier and Colonel Isaac Shelby,\ndecided to organize a group of riflemen and attack Ferguson before\nhe had the opportunity to cross the mountains and attack them.\nThey contacted Colonel William Campbell whose duty had been to\nprotect the lead mines in Wythe County whose resources were being\nmined and smelted for equipment for the American soldiers. Colonel\nCampbell was invited to join Colonel Sevier and Colonel Shelby in\ntheir attack against Ferguson. He accepted and later was selected\nby the officers as their commander. Ferguson heard of their plan\nand selected a wooded mountain ridge on the border between North\nCarolina and South Carolina, called King's Mountain, for his\nbattlefield. Ferguson's troops far outnumbered Colonel Campbell's\ntroops and were much better equipped with military supplies. Colonel\nCampbell's troops, however, defeated the British badly on October 7,\n1780. Major Ferguson and two hundred other Britishers were killed in\nbattle. This Battle of King's Mountain is often called the turning\npoint of the Revolutionary War in the South because not only did it\nupset the military strategy of Cornwallis but it also encouraged the\nsouthern patriots at a time when the morale had been low. Colonel\nCampbell was promoted to a Brigadier-General as a direct result of\nthis battle. The British in the meantime had sent General Alexander\nLeslie to Portsmouth with approximately 3,000 troops. After the\nsevere British defeat at King's Mountain, he left Portsmouth and\nheaded his troops south to join Cornwallis.\nMorale in Virginia at this time was very low because there was a\ngreat shortage of clothing, military equipment and supplies, there\nwas a lack of money in the state treasury, Virginia soldiers were\nfighting outside their state and British soldiers in large numbers\nwere stationed in eastern and central Virginia. General William\nPhillips and Cornwallis had seized and destroyed property valued at\nten million dollars in eastern Virginia alone by the spring of 1781.\nMeanwhile, by March 1, 1781, the Articles of Confederation had been\nratified by all the states and thereby became the basis for the\ncentral government of the United States. Since Maryland had refused\nto ratify the Articles until the states which owned large western\nland-holdings would cede them to the central government, Virginia,\nfollowing a pattern of New York State, surrendered most of its large\nholding claims in 1784. By this action, Virginia ceded the Northwest\nTerritory to the new nation, the United States. The entire region\nbeyond the Ohio River (now comprising the states of Ohio, Indiana,\nIllinois, Michigan and Wisconsin) had rightfully been claimed by\nVirginia and cession to the United States for the beginning of its\npublic domain was a most generous gesture on the part of Virginia.\nThis action played an important part in creating a stronger feeling\nof unity on the part of the thirteen original colonies and in giving\nVirginia another nickname, \"Mother of States.\"\nThe Confederation Congress was later faced with the problem of\nraising revenue for the new government under the Articles of\nConfederation and for payment of debts caused by the Revolutionary\nWar. The Northwest Territory which Virginia had ceded to the central\ngovernment had become part of the national domain, public lands of\nthe United States. Congress decided to sell some of this land to\nobtain necessary revenue. It passed the Land Ordinances of 1785\nand 1787, which became practically the written bases for the rest\nof the frontier settlements. The plan which was the forerunner of\nthese ordinances concerning the public domain was proposed by Thomas\nJefferson and enacted on April 23, 1784. In his plan, he outlined\nthe territorial status preceding statehood and originated the idea\nof dividing the public domain into districts before statehood could\nbe achieved. Two years later, the Confederation Congress gave a\ngrant of 150,000 acres of land to George Rogers Clark and his\nfollowers as a reward for their great services in conquering the\nNorthwest Territory and in establishing the only legal claim to this\nland on behalf of the United States. Virginia also reserved the\nownership of 6,000 square miles of land called the Virginia Military\nDistrict (presently located in the southern part of Ohio).\nWhile General William Nelson, commander of the Virginia forces,\nwas recruiting additional militia in the counties near the coast,\ntwenty-seven British ships entered the Chesapeake Bay and headed\nfor the mouth of the James River. Since Governor Jefferson believed\nRichmond was not militarily prepared for such an attack, he had the\nonly five brass cannon of the capital city thrown into the river\nand had the remaining arms and ammunition taken seven miles from\nRichmond to Westham. On July 4, the Governor evacuated from Richmond\nand most of the inhabitants did likewise. On the next afternoon,\nGeneral Benedict Arnold, the American traitor who had joined the\nBritish forces, accompanied by nine hundred British soldiers\ncaptured and burned Richmond unopposed. For two days the British\nburned and destroyed public and private property and later returned\nleisurely to Portsmouth.\nSubsequently, as some of the British vessels attempted to sail up\nthe Appomattox River, General Smallwood accompanied by three hundred\nAmerican soldiers armed only with muskets attacked the British\nfiercely and drove them down the river. A short time later, General\nWilliam Phillips brought additional British troops to combine with\nthose of Arnold and took command over General Arnold. The combined\nforces marched first to Petersburg and then to Manchester (now,\nSouth Richmond). Lafayette had been placed in charge of the defense\nof Virginia at this time and he arrived in Richmond two days after\nPhillips had arrived. When General Phillips heard that Lafayette\nwas in Richmond, he changed his mind and decided not to attack this\ncity. In the meantime, Colonel Simcoe had been sent by General\nArnold to Westham where he destroyed the military stores and the\nfoundry. During this same period, General Phillips had sent General\nArnold to Chesterfield Court House where he destroyed the barracks\nand burned the flour as they had previously burned the tobacco\nat Petersburg. As General Phillips was proceeding down the James\nRiver towards Chesapeake Bay, he received a message from General\nCornwallis ordering him to meet with his forces at Petersburg so\nPhillips returned to Petersburg. Four days after he had arrived,\nGeneral Phillips died of a fever in Petersburg and General Arnold\nsucceeded to the command once more.\nGeneral Arnold, however, realized the hatred of the Virginians\ntoward him for the burning and destruction for which he was\nresponsible in Richmond. Consequently, after his army had united\nwith Cornwallis' troops at Petersburg, he asked for a transfer to\nNew York. Cornwallis, who disliked Arnold himself, granted the\nrequest. When Lafayette was informed of the tremendous number of\nBritish soldiers massed in Petersburg, he realized that it would\nbe futile for his comparatively small force of 3,000 men to try\nto combat them. Consequently, he retreated slowly from Richmond\ntowards Fredericksburg where he was joined by General Anthony Wayne.\nCornwallis who had expected to trap Lafayette and his army was\nsurprised by the orderly retreat and decided not to attack Richmond\nagain as the legislature had already withdrawn to Charlottesville.\nOn May 10, 1781, as the British neared Richmond, Governor Jefferson\nhad ordered the General Assembly, which was then in session, to\nleave Richmond and continue the session at Charlottesville on May\n24. Thus, Charlottesville for a brief time was the official capital\nof Virginia. Governor Jefferson's home, Monticello, was used as a\nguest house for many of Jefferson's legislative friends. Cornwallis\ndecided to capture Jefferson who was at his home at Monticello,\napproximately three miles from Charlottesville, to seize the\nlegislators at Charlottesville and to destroy a large quantity of\nmilitary stores at a place called Point-of-Fork (at the junction of\nthe Rivanna and James Rivers). Cornwallis believed that such a plan,\nif successfully carried out, would result in the complete surrender\nof the State of Virginia. Therefore, Cornwallis divided his cavalry\ninto two groups: one commanded by Colonel John G. Simcoe who was to\nproceed to Point-of-Fork and the other commanded by Colonel Banastre\nTarleton who was to proceed to Charlottesville, approximately\nseventy miles from his headquarters. After accomplishing these\nobjectives, Tarleton was to continue to Point-of-Fork and help\nColonel Simcoe.\nGeneral Baron Von Steuben heard about Simcoe's plan and was able\nto have all the military stores hauled across the river before his\narrival. Simcoe, however, used military strategy in this instance\nwhich worked most successfully: he had his men spread out, cut\ndown trees and build large camp-fires at great distances apart\nthus giving the impression that all of Cornwallis' army was on\nthis campaign. General Steuben observing the large radius of camp\nconcluded that Cornwallis' entire force was across the river.\nConsequently, he had his lighter baggage moved and had his troops\nevacuate the area. Simcoe destroyed all the heavy baggage and\nmilitary stores and returned successfully to Cornwallis the next\nmorning.\nThe British soldiers under Colonel Tarleton stopped for refreshments\nin Louisa County at a place called Cuckoo Tavern. The tavern keeper\nhad an American soldier son, Captain Jack Jouett of the Virginia\nMilitia, who happened to be at the tavern but out of sight of tavern\nvisitors on that particular Sunday afternoon. He observed the two\nhundred and fifty British soldiers, overheard some of their personal\nconversations and their casual references to their military mission.\nHe waited until the British had departed from the tavern and then he\ntraveled on horseback over a different road--forty miles of brush\nand thicket, field and forest, vines and brambles. He rode without\ndelay although the scars of some of the branches which struck him\nin the face as he was riding so rapidly became permanent ones. He\nbelieved that the British would probably make another stop for\nrefreshments at the home of Dr. William Walker, the only one in the\nvicinity. Thus, he took time out to warn them of Tarleton's plans\nand to urge them to delay the British as long as possible. Jouett\nreached Monticello at dawn, roused the inhabitants within and\ninformed them of Tarleton's plan. Jefferson and his guests fled on\nhorseback and Mrs. Jefferson and their three children escaped to a\nneighbor's house by carriage. As the British rode up one side of\nthe steep hill of Monticello, the Governor and his friends reached\nthe bottom of the hill on the other side. Jouett then safely led\nthe Governor's party via a secluded road to Staunton, which became\nanother temporary capital. In the meantime, Tarleton had tarried\nbefore coming to Monticello to burn a wagon train filled with\nContinental Army supplies and had stopped as predicted at Castle\nHill, the home of the Walkers. Mrs. Walker fed the soldiers before\nthe officers, thus causing an added delay in their departure. Jack\nJouett can be truly classified as the \"Paul Revere of the South.\"\nThe Assembly members were so appreciative of the courage and\nperseverance of Jouett that they subsequently presented him with a\nsword and a pair of pistols.\n[Illustration: RICHMOND CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Gunston Hall_\n_Home of George Mason, Author of \"Declaration of Rights\"_]\nOn July 4, 1781, General Cornwallis and his troops left\nWilliamsburg, fought an inconsequential battle at Greenspring (near\nJamestown) and then crossed the James River to Portsmouth where\nhe proceeded to Yorktown. By September 1781, he had approximately\neight thousand soldiers garrisoned on the peninsula at Yorktown. He\nhad selected this site because he thought it was a secure one: the\nChesapeake Bay was on the east, the York River on the north and the\nJames River on the south. Actually, he had placed his soldiers in a\nmost penetrable trap.\nMarquis de Lafayette played an important part in the Revolutionary\nWar. An outstanding example of foreign help received by the\nAmericans, Lafayette had volunteered at the age of nineteen to\nserve in the American Army in 1777. After arriving from France\nin North Carolina, he rode horseback to Philadelphia to appear\npersonally before the Continental Congress to offer his services\nto the American colonies. He had been appointed a Major-General by\nCongress and had been placed on Washington's staff. He had fought\nin the Battle of Brandywine Creek (Pennsylvania) and had been\nseriously wounded. His outstanding bravery had been recognized by\nWashington and they had begun a strong friendship which was to\ncontinue throughout their lives. He had endured with Washington the\nterrible winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (1777-1778) and acted\nas a morale builder to Washington's disheartened forces. He had\nbeen the hero at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey. After France\nhad officially recognized the independence of the United States,\nLafayette had returned to France, and, after encouraging many French\nsoldiers to help the Americans fight, he had rejoined Washington.\nIn 1781, Washington had sent him to defend and protect Virginia\nwhere he had cleverly pursued Cornwallis from near Charlottesville\nto Yorktown. After his role in the final strategy of Yorktown\ndefense and his return to France, one can understand why Virginians\nconsider Lafayette one of their heroes and have a famous bust of him\ncreated by the great sculptor, Jean Antoine Houdon, located in the\nrotunda of the State Capitol Building in Richmond.\nAs soon as Lafayette had noticed Cornwallis gathering his troops at\nYorktown, he realized the possibility of surrounding Cornwallis and\nhis forces since Lafayette was so well acquainted with this terrain.\nHe immediately informed Washington of this situation and Washington\nquickly headed for his home state. In the meantime, General\nLafayette surrounded Cornwallis and his troops on the south and on\nthe west. Simultaneously, a fleet of twenty-five French warships\nfrom the West Indies under command of Admiral de Grasse sailed up\nthe Chesapeake Bay with 3,000 French troops. This movement prevented\nCornwallis from either receiving British enforcements or from\nescaping out to sea. General Washington, after feigning an attack\nagainst General Henry Clinton in New York, rapidly moved his army\nsouthward, joined with the forces of General Count de Rochambeau.\nWashington soon attacked the British on the north and on the west.\nAlthough Cornwallis realized that he was completely surrounded by\nAmerican and French forces, he and his troops fought valiantly for\nweeks.\nThe home of General Thomas Nelson, the Governor of Virginia at\nthis time, was located in Yorktown. General Cornwallis had taken\npossession of this house for his headquarters at Yorktown. Out of\ndeference to the Governor, the American soldiers had refrained from\nfiring upon it. However, General Nelson ordered them to fire upon\nthe house, regardless of its sentimental value, because it housed\nBritish officers. The first shot killed two British officers and a\ncannon ball still embedded in one wall may be observed today in the\nNelson House at Yorktown.\nFinally recognizing the futility of fighting any longer, on October\n17, 1781, General Cornwallis requested a parley, ordered a cease\nfiring, and exchanged messages with Washington. At two o'clock of\nthe next afternoon, Cornwallis selected the Moore House in Yorktown\nfor a discussion of surrender terms: this house was out of range of\nthe firing and conveniently located. The British, the French and the\nAmericans sent representatives for the consultation, John Laurens\nrepresenting the Americans. After long discussion and debate, the\narticles of capitulation were agreed upon and the generals signed\nthem the next day. At twelve o'clock on October 19, 1781, the\nBritish signing was done by General Cornwallis and Thomas Symonds,\nthe American signing by General Washington, and the French signing\nby General Rochambeau and Count de Barras for Count de Grasse. On\nOctober 19, at 2 p.m., as agreed upon by the surrender terms, the\nBritish army of 7,000 troops left Yorktown and laid down their arms\nat Surrender Field, just south of the town. They marched between two\nlong lines of the French on one side and the Americans on the other\nside. General Charles O'Hara, the leader of the British, apologized\nto Washington for the non-appearance of Lord Cornwallis who was\nreported ill. The Battle of Yorktown ended the Revolutionary War\nalthough the peace treaty was not signed until 1783.\nIn this same year, the American army was demobilized. George\nWashington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces' Tavern, New\nYork City, on December 4, resigned on December 23 and returned to\nMt. Vernon to retire. Already he had won the admiration of the\nnew nation for his continued courage, bravery and great military\nstrategy so ably exemplified during the American Revolutionary\nWar. He also had earned the well-deserved title: \"The Sword of the\nRevolution.\"\n_The Adoption of the United States and State Constitutions_\nBy 1785, the Americans began to realize that the Articles of\nConfederation were too weak to become effective. The central\ngovernment did not have sufficient political power to govern,\nthe lack of a single executive resulted in a lack of leadership,\nthe Confederation Congress could make laws but had no power to\nenforce them, the Congress could issue paper money and coins but\nhad no power to buy gold and silver for backing this money and the\nCongress could levy taxes but had no power to collect them. There\nwas no provision for a national court system. In order to pass a\nlaw, nine states had to agree in its favor; in order to amend the\nArticles, all thirteen states had to agree. Under the Articles of\nConfederation, the government was a confederacy in which each state\nretained its own political authority and the central government was\nresponsible to the states. The control of foreign and interstate\ncommerce was left entirely to the individual states. Chaos and\nconfusion resulted. Consequently, in 1785, George Washington invited\nsome representatives from Maryland and from Virginia to meet with\nhim to discuss the problem of a stronger central government and to\nsettle a dispute which had arisen concerning the navigation of the\nPotomac River.\nThe conference started at the City Tavern (later known as Gadsby's\nTavern) in Alexandria and was later continued at Mount Vernon,\nhome of Washington. During the discussion, Washington stated\nthat there should be a common money system for all the states\nas well as a common plan for regulating domestic and foreign\ncommerce. James Madison was one of the Virginians present, and\nhe felt that there must be other problems of common interest to\nall the states. Therefore, when the next General Assembly met in\nJanuary 1786, Madison proposed that representatives from all the\nstates should meet at Annapolis, Maryland on September 11, 1786\nto discuss trade problems and other areas of mutual interest. The\nVirginia legislature, therefore, invited all the states to send\nrepresentatives to Annapolis to attempt to formulate a uniform\ncurrency and commerce system for all the states.\nIn September 1786, only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis\nmeeting: Virginia, Delaware, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.\nThese delegates, nevertheless, suggested that a convention be held\non May 25, 1787 at the State House in Philadelphia for the purpose\nof revising the Articles of Confederation. After this recommendation\nhad been submitted to the Confederation Congress, it hesitatingly\ninvited all the states to meet the next year at Philadelphia.\nVirginia sent seven delegates to this Philadelphia convention:\nGeorge Washington, John Blair, James Madison, George Mason, James\nMcClurg, Edmund Randolph (Governor at this time) and George Wythe.\nSeventy-three individuals had been chosen as delegates from the\ntwelve states, but only fifty-six members were present at the\nconvention. All the states were represented at the convention except\nRhode Island. When the convention began on May 25, 1787, George\nWashington was unanimously chosen President of the convention to\npreside over the meetings and rules of procedure were adopted.\nIt is significant to note the absence of three of the Virginia\nRevolutionary Period leaders: Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson\nand Patrick Henry. Lee declined membership because he believed that,\nsince he was a member of the Confederation Congress and since he\nthought the revised Articles would be submitted to this Congress\nfor approval, he should not become a member of the Convention to\nrevise the same and, subsequently, be a member of the Confederation\nCongress which would be asked to pass upon the revised plan.\nJefferson was the United States Minister to France at this time and\nwas out of the country. Although Patrick Henry had been elected as a\ndelegate to the convention, he had refused to accept the assignment\nbecause he was skeptical about governmental changes which the\nconvention might make. Two Virginians who were present made written\ncomments concerning the type of individuals who represented their\nstates as follows:\n     (1) George Mason (in a letter to his son)--\"America has\n     certainly, upon this occasion, drawn forth her first\n     characters.... The eyes of the U. S. are turned upon this\n     assembly, and their expectations raised to a very anxious\n     degree.\" Mason's personal attitude toward the responsibility of\n     being a state delegate at this convention is summarized in this\n     remark: \"I would not serve upon pecuniary reasons alone in this\n     convention for a thousand pounds a day.\"\n     (2) James Madison--\"It contains in several instances the most\n     respectable characters in the U. S., and in general may be said\n     to be the best contribution of talents the States could make for\n     the occasion.\"\nThe meetings were held secretly behind closed doors because of\nthe grave problems which the convention had to solve. After the\ndelegates began to discuss the necessary changes which had to\nbe made, they realized the impossibility of simply revising the\nArticles of Confederation and the absolute necessity of writing a\nnew constitution which would make the central government a much\nstronger political power. James Madison, a most profound student\nof government, is considered as the most influential member of the\nconvention. He was the most active speaker at the convention and he\nkept careful notes of the entire session. Madison is regarded as the\n\"Father of the United States Constitution.\"\nOne of the first questions to be decided at the convention was the\ntype of organization of the government. Governor Edmund Randolph\npresented Madison's \"Virginia\" Plan recommending a strong, central\ngovernment and one in which each state would be represented in\nproportion to its population. This plan is sometimes referred to as\nthe \"Large State\" Plan because most of the larger states favored\nit: according to this plan, the more population a state had, the\ngreater the representation. The small states had their plan also: it\nwas presented by William Paterson of New Jersey and is known as the\n\"Paterson\" or \"New Jersey\" or \"Small State\" Plan. The small states\nfavored states' rights rather than a strong, central government and\nbelieved that each state should be represented equally regardless of\nits population. The \"Great Compromise\" which was finally adopted was\na combination of both plans: a bicameral legislature called Congress\nwas to be created consisting of (1) the House of Representatives\nwith membership from each state based upon the population of\nthe state and (2) the Senate with membership based upon equal\nrepresentation from each state--two Senators from each state. The\nplan of government finally adopted provided for a strong central\ngovernment but with the state governments retaining essential\nreserve powers.\nAfter the Constitution had been completed on September 17, 1787, it\nwas submitted to the Confederation Congress with the recommendation\nthat Congress inform each state legislature about the Constitution\nand ask for state ratification. The Constitutional requirement for\nmaking the document effective was ratification by nine states.\nWashington was very eager for the Constitution of the United States\nto be adopted. He wrote many personal letters favoring its adoption\nincluding a public letter in which he reminded the states that each\nstate must be willing to make certain concessions for the benefits\nof the country as a whole.\nThirty-nine of the fifty-six delegates signed the Constitution.\nOnly three of the six delegates from Virginia signed it: George\nWashington, John Blair and James Madison. Madison, in fact, was\nconsulted for an opinion on almost every phase of the Constitution.\nDuring the campaign period for and against ratification, Madison\njoined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay of New York and contributed\nto a series of essays called \"The Federalist.\" The essays included\na discussion of the meaning of the various provisions of the\nConstitution and attempted to prove that the federal or central\ngovernment would not misuse the power granted to it. Madison wrote\ntwenty of the eighty-five essays contained in \"The Federalist.\" This\nseries of essays is believed to have influenced more people to favor\nthe adoption of the Constitution than any other written or oral\neffort.\nThe most influential writings against the adoption of the\nConstitution were authored by Richard Henry Lee in his \"Letters of\na Federal Farmer.\" George Mason and Edmund Randolph refused to sign\nthe Constitution of the United States because it contained no bill\nof rights, it did not provide either for the immediate prohibition\nof slave traffic or for the eventual abolition of slavery and,\nin their opinion, gave Congress too much control over navigation\nand tariff policies. Edmund Randolph, Governor of Virginia and a\ndelegate at the Philadelphia Convention, played an unusual role: he\ndid not sign the Constitution himself because he did not approve of\nthe final document but he did urge the State of Virginia to accept\nit because he believed that a union of states was necessary. James\nMcClurg and George Wythe did not sign it because they were absent,\nbut they did encourage the ratification of the Constitution by\nVirginia.\nOn June 2, 1788, a Virginia State Convention was held in Richmond to\ndetermine whether or not Virginia would accept the new Constitution\nof the United States. There were one hundred and sixty-eight\nofficial delegates present, and they elected Edmund Pendleton\npresident of the convention. Sectionalism appeared obvious in\nthe state at this time: the Piedmont area and the southwest area\nwhich did not have many slaves opposed ratification while the\nTidewater area and the northwest area favored the adoption of the\nConstitution. James Madison, John Marshall (who actually explained\nmuch of the Constitution to the members of the convention), Edmund\nRandolph, George Wythe and General \"Light Horse Harry\" Lee spoke on\nbehalf of the Constitution; George Mason, Patrick Henry, Richard\nHenry Lee, James Monroe and William Grayson spoke very strongly\nagainst it. The chief arguments against ratification were that\nthe central government had been given far too much power and the\nindividual states far too little power, that the commerce clause\nwas too powerful and that the continuance of the slave trade was\npermitted. Finally, after Madison had agreed to suggest and to urge\nadoption of many amendments, the Virginia convention ratified the\nConstitution of the United States by the close vote of 89 to 79 on\nJune 26, 1788. It is interesting to note that, at this time, the\nState of Virginia included the present area of Virginia and the\narea now included in the States of Kentucky and of West Virginia.\nThe State of Virginia missed by five days the honor of being the\nnecessary ninth state to ratify the Constitution, New Hampshire\nhaving this honor. As Virginia became the tenth state to ratify\nit, the following declaration was officially recorded: \"We, the\nDelegates of the People of Virginia, ... Do, in the name and in\nbehalf of the People of Virginia, declare and make known, that the\npowers granted under the Constitution, being derived from the People\nof the United States, may be resumed by them whensoever the same\nshall be perverted to their injury or oppression, and that every\npower not granted thereby remains with them and at their Will; that\ntherefore no right of any denomination can be canceled, abridged,\nrestrained, or modified by the Congress ... or any department or\nOfficer of the United States, except in those instances in which\npower is given by the Constitution for those purposes: and that,\namong other essential rights, the liberty of Conscience and of the\npress cannot be canceled, abridged, restrained or modified by any\nAuthority of the United States.\" This declaration expressed fear\non the part of Virginians concerning the new Constitution. At the\nsame time, the members of the Virginia convention proposed forty\namendments which became the bases of the ten amendments of the Bill\nof Rights in the Constitution of the United States: James Madison\nintroduced the first nine amendments and Richard Henry Lee, the\ntenth amendment, to the Constitution of the United States--all\neventually adopted in 1791.\nBetween 1783 and 1789, on the domestic scene, Virginia had gained\nfive new counties: Campbell (formed from Bedford County and named\nfor General William H. Campbell, the hero of the Battle of King's\nMountain), Greensville (formed from Brunswick County and, later,\nparts of Sussex County and named for General Nathaniel Greene or Sir\nRichard Grenville), Franklin (formed from Bedford and Henry Counties\nand, later, parts of Patrick and named for Benjamin Franklin),\nRussell (formed from Washington County and named for General William\nRussell, a military hero also at the Battle of King's Mountain in\nthe Revolutionary War) and Nottoway (formed from Amelia County and\nnamed for an Indian tribe, \"Nottoway\"--the word meaning \"snake or\nenemy\"). Two years later, Patrick County was formed from Henry\nCounty and was named in honor of the patriot, Patrick Henry.\nAnother domestic problem during this period concerned the boundary\ndispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia. When the Penns colonized\nPennsylvania, they claimed the 39th degree parallel as their\nsouthern boundary. Virginia, however, claimed all the territory as\nfar north as the 40th degree parallel including the choice section\nof Fort Pitt (now the site of Pittsburgh). After Pennsylvania\nauthorities had established courts at Hanna's Town (now Greensburg),\nGovernor Dunmore of Virginia sent Dr. John Connelly to establish a\nrival court with competing magistrates in 1773. The struggle for\nownership of this area was temporarily postponed during the American\nRevolution, although the Virginia courts continued to remain\nin session in western Pennsylvania from 1774 to 1780. Finally,\nnegotiations took place, and an agreement was adopted to allow a\nsurvey to be made in the region and to accept a boundary recommended\nby the joint boundary commission. The Mason and Dixon Line was\nextended to the southwest corner of Pennsylvania in 1784; the\nwestern boundary line of Pennsylvania was permanently agreed upon in\nIn the following year, in December, an historical event took\nplace which contributed greatly to science. James Rumsey, a\nnative Marylander who had moved to Bath, Virginia (now Berkeley\nSprings, West Virginia), was interested in boat-building and in the\npossibility of steam propulsion. After the Virginia General Assembly\nhad given him exclusive permission to navigate specific types of\nboats constructed by himself on the state waterways for ten years,\nhe successfully transported six individuals for the first time in a\nsteamboat four miles up the Potomac River near Shepherdstown. Rumsey\ncontinued to experiment with additional steamboats on the Potomac.\nIn order to obtain financial assistance, he traveled subsequently\nto London and ironically died there before his second boat, the\n\"Columbia Maid,\" had been completely constructed. This event\noccurred twenty years before Robert Fulton made his historic trip up\nthe Hudson River in the \"Clermont.\"\nBy 1789 George Washington had retired to Mount Vernon and had\nbecome a gentleman farmer at the time of the adoption of the\nConstitution. He was overseeing his fields on horseback one day when\na messenger arrived from New York City informing him that his name\nhad appeared unanimously on the ballot of every elector, electing\nhim as the first President of the United States--\"The Father of His\nCountry.\" The American people still remembered his great leadership\nqualities during the Revolutionary War and during the Constitutional\nConvention. Thus, Washington was faced with a most difficult task:\nto make a new government work successfully though it was practically\nonly in outline form and even though there was opposition and\ncriticism awaiting the first President. Washington was also informed\nthat the new government was to begin operating on March 4, 1789\nand that Congress desired that he arrive in New York City for his\ninauguration on that date.\nIt took the Congressmen themselves longer to arrive from their\nvarious states, however, than they had expected. John Adams, the\nVice-President, did not arrive until April 22 from Massachusetts\nto take his oath of office. Washington had much farther to travel\nthan did John Adams and had many preparations to make before\nleaving Mount Vernon. He visited Fredericksburg to bid his mother\nfarewell and traveled via stagecoach through Maryland, Delaware\nand Pennsylvania to New York. Roads were in poor condition making\ntraveling very slow and Washington was such a prominent figure that\nhe was stopped along the way by his old friends, especially in New\nJersey. One significant incident was his welcome at Trenton, New\nJersey, part of which consisted of a presentation of flowers by\nthirteen young ladies dressed in white, symbolic of the thirteen\nstars of the flag of the United States and of the thirteen states\nthat had honored him by electing him to the Presidency. When he\narrived at the New York ferry, thirteen sailors in red, white and\nblue uniforms were waiting to row him across the Hudson River to New\nYork City. On April 30, 1789, Washington took his official oath of\noffice in Federal Hall as the first President of the United States.\nA marble statue stands today on the spot on Wall Street where this\nevent took place. New York became the first capital city of the\nUnited States. Since the capital was changed to Philadelphia in the\nfollowing year, Washington was the only President of the United\nStates to be inaugurated in New York City.\n_State and National Events (1789-1860)_\nSince Washington was a strong believer in the Constitution of the\nUnited States and had put forth much effort in getting it ratified,\nhe tried conscientiously to set up a government satisfactory to all\nAmericans. He wisely used his talent of recognizing individuals with\na particular skill when he selected his first cabinet to advise him:\nThomas Jefferson (Virginia), Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Alexander\nHamilton (New York), Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox\n(Massachusetts), Secretary of War. Edmund Randolph, a Virginian, was\nappointed Attorney-General, but this office did not become a cabinet\npost until 1814. The men holding these positions for the first time\nhad a heavy responsibility in deciding specifically the range of\nduties each position should include and in properly carrying out\nthese duties.\nThe practice of \"log-rolling,\" defined as the \"joining together of\npoliticians to mutually further each other's plans of activities,\"\nwas followed at this early time of our new government. The question\nhad arisen in Congress whether or not Congress should assume\nthe state debts, most of which had been accumulated during the\nRevolutionary War. The Congressmen who favored such assumption\nbelieved that such action would not only tend to strengthen security\nand confidence of the American people in their new government but\nwould also make it easier for the United States to borrow money,\neither at home or from a foreign country. Since Virginia and many\nof the Southern States had already assumed and had paid most of\ntheir debts, the Virginia legislature opposed this bill strongly\nin 1790 and believed that it placed an unjust hardship upon the\nState. This state legislative objection was the first official\naction of a state against a federal bill. Since the Northern States\npreferred a location in the north for the national capital, Hamilton\nand Jefferson encouraged their friends to vote for each other's\nproposals. Hamilton's friends in the north voted for locating the\ncapital along the Potomac in return for Jefferson's friends in the\nsouth voting for the assumption of state debts by the national\ngovernment.\nThere had been discussion for a long time about changing the\nlocation of the national capital from New York City to a more\ncentral location along the Atlantic seaboard. When a site along the\nPotomac River was finally agreed upon, Maryland and Virginia agreed\nto cede part of its land for the establishment of a Federal District\nto become the seat of government of the United States. On December\n3, 1789, Virginia ceded thirty and three-quarters square miles of\nland including the town of Alexandria and part of Fairfax County.\nThe stone locating the original southern corner boundary, officially\nlaid by Dr. Elisha Cullen Dick, may still be seen near Jones Point,\nAlexandria.\nEarly efforts to commercialize waterways materialized in 1790.\nOne of the earliest commercial canals built in either Virginia\nor in the United States as a whole was the James River Canal. It\nwas constructed by the James River Company, and, although it was\nonly seven miles in length, it connected Richmond with Westham and\nwas parallel to the James River. This marked the beginning of the\ncanal-building era in the United States.\nAn event which affected the United States and the State of Virginia\noccurred in 1792 when Kentucky was admitted into the Union as the\nfifteenth state (Vermont had entered as the fourteenth one in\n1791). This action deprived the State of Virginia of approximately\n75,000 inhabitants, of 40,395 square miles of territory and of nine\ncounties. Kentucky was originally part of Fincastle County, Virginia\nand later had gained status as an independent county in Virginia,\ncalled Kentucky County. Virginia gave the necessary consent for\nthe independence of Kentucky, required before statehood could be\ngranted. The boundaries of the State of Virginia thereafter remained\nfixed from 1792 until 1861 when West Virginia became a separate\nstate.\nWashington, during his Presidency, showed his ability to lead in\ncivilian affairs as well as in military affairs. His diplomatic\nability predominated in the torn loyalty toward England and toward\nFrance when these nations fought each other in 1793: he issued\nthe Neutrality Proclamation whereby the United States would take\nneither side in this conflict. Throughout his two terms, he created\nprecedents and made decisions of lasting value for the United\nStates. Such a precedent was his refusal to run for a third time as\nPresident of the United States, a precedent which was not broken\nuntil 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted the nomination for\nthe Presidency.\nWhile Washington was President, the population of Virginia continued\nto grow. Six new counties were created during this period: Wythe\n(formed from Montgomery County with later additions from Montgomery\nand Grayson Counties and named in honor of George Wythe, a Virginia\nsigner of the Declaration of Independence, a famous lawyer and\nthe first Professor of Law in the United States), Mathews (formed\nfrom Gloucester County and named for Major Thomas Mathews of the\nRevolutionary War), Bath (formed from Augusta, Botetourt and\nGreenbrier Counties and named because of the medicinal springs\nlocated in the area), Grayson (formed from Wythe County and, later,\nadditions from Patrick County and named for Colonel William Grayson,\na United States Senator from Virginia), Lee (formed from Russell\nCounty and, later, additions from Scott County and named for General\nHenry Lee, Governor of Virginia, as well as an outstanding military\nleader), and Madison (formed from Culpeper County and named for\nJames Madison, a state legislator and member of the United States\nHouse of Representatives during this period).\nAfter John Adams had been elected to the Presidency in 1796, the\nDemocratic-Republican Party began to use the typical political\nmethod of attacking the party in power, namely the Federalists,\nthrough newspaper articles and through written pamphlets. Since\nmany of the foreigners who had come to America at this time were\nDemocratic-Republican in their political beliefs, numerous articles\ncriticizing President John Adams and his administration were written\nby them. In order to combat these political attacks, the Federalist\nleaders were responsible for getting two most unusual laws passed:\nthe Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Act provided that the\nresidence time required of foreigners for naturalization (the\nprocess whereby a foreigner becomes a citizen) was to be fourteen\nyears instead of five years and that the President was henceforth\nauthorized to imprison or deport without trial foreigners whom he\nconsidered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States\nor to allow others to remain. The Sedition Act stated that any\nperson convicted of defaming, either by spoken or by written word,\nthe government of the United States or the President of the United\nStates or the Congress of the United States was subject to a fine of\nnot more than $2,000 and to imprisonment for not more than two years.\nSeveral Federalists considered the passage of these laws unjust.\nThomas Jefferson, the Vice-President of the United States at the\ntime of their passage, decided to attract the attention of voters\nto the passage of such laws. He drew up resolutions in 1789 which\nstated that: (1) the Alien and Sedition Laws were unconstitutional\nbecause the President of the United States had no power to imprison\nor deport any person without a judicial trial and because Congress\ndid not have the right to limit the freedom of speech and of\npress and (2) since the Union was a compact of states and since\nthe federal government had only the particular powers granted\nto it by the states, each state had the right to decide the\nconstitutionality of Congressional laws. Because these resolutions\nwere first introduced into the Kentucky legislature, they were\nlater called the Kentucky Resolutions. At the same time, James\nMadison drew up similar resolutions which were introduced into the\nVirginia Assembly. The Virginia Resolutions are significant since\nthey explain the theory of \"strict construction\" (that the federal\ngovernment has only those powers specifically delegated to it) and\nthey illustrate the strong \"states' rights\" feeling which existed\nin the State of Virginia. Virginia and Kentucky were the only two\nstates to openly protest the Alien and Sedition Acts. Many of the\nnorthern states denied on this occasion the right of a state to\njudge a federal law. They affirmed, on the contrary, the belief\nthat only the federal courts can decide the constitutionality of a\nfederal law.\nOn December 14, 1799, George Washington died at Mount Vernon where\nhe had retired after his Presidency. His military genius and\nbrilliant statesmanship are probably best summarized in the \"Funeral\nOration upon President Washington\" by Henry Lee in his now-famous\nphrase: \"First in War, First in Peace and First in the Hearts of His\nCountrymen.\"\nIn 1800, Virginia was considered first among the sixteen states of\nthe Union (Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee having been admitted into\nthe Union before 1800) in wealth and in population: 447,800 whites\nand 359,777 Negroes. The influence of Virginia in the political,\neconomic and social life of the country was a profound one. The\nmajority of residents now consisted of \"average\" individuals who\nregarded the democratic ideas of Thomas Jefferson as a basic\nphilosophy for everyday living. The polite courtesy and hospitality\nof the olden days still remained, but many of the traditional,\ndignified ceremonies had become outmoded. The descendants of the\naristocratic planters of the early nineteenth century were usually\npeople of limited means and limited acreage because the war and\nits aftermath had decreased much of their wealth. However, the\ntypical Virginian who could afford it still preferred to live in the\ncountry, own horses, dogs and fine cattle, enjoy fox hunting and the\nsocial gatherings of friends, celebrate traditional activities and\nunderstand and cherish the rich heritage which was theirs.\nIn 1800, Thomas Jefferson, a native of Shadwell, Virginia, was\nelected third President of the United States. He was the first\nPresident to be inaugurated at Washington, D. C. His ideas\nconcerning government were so numerous and thought-provoking that\nhis political philosophy has been termed \"Jeffersonian Democracy.\"\nHe had strong faith in the ability of the common man, believed\nin government economy and practiced this belief throughout his\nadministration. He exhibited his broadmindedness by allowing many\ngovernment officials of opposite political party beliefs to retain\ntheir same positions after he became President and he was a strong\nadvocate of States' Rights. After Jefferson became President,\nhe appointed John Marshall of Germantown and Richmond as Chief\nJustice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall had\nbeen a member of the state legislature, an outstanding lawyer, a\nCongressman and had served as Secretary of State under President\nJohn Adams. John Marshall remained Chief Justice for thirty-four\nyears and holds the record for length of service on the Supreme\nCourt of the United States. He was personally responsible for\ncreating a strong foundation for the Supreme Court. Although he\nwas the second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, it was during\nhis judgeship that for the first time, a Congressional law was\ndeclared unconstitutional in the case of Marbury versus Madison.\nThis decision greatly strengthened the theory of judicial review of\nnational legislation. It is interesting to note that John Marshall\nwas as strong a Federalist as his cousin, Thomas Jefferson, was a\nstrong \"States' Rights\" man.\nWhile Jefferson as President was solving national problems, his home\nstate was solving problems, too. In August 1800, Virginia had its\nfirst organized slave insurrection. Led by Gabriel, approximately\none thousand slaves in the area around Richmond decided to march on\nRichmond and massacre the white inhabitants there. However, at the\nscheduled time for the march to begin, a severe rainstorm delayed\nthe march. During the delay, Pharaoh, one of the Negroes, decided\nto warn the Richmonders of their impending disaster. In spite of\nthe heavy rains and the fact that it became necessary for him to\nswim certain swollen streams without being caught by one of his own\ngroup, he continued to Richmond and warned the authorities in time.\nHe informed them of the proposed plan to kill the male inhabitants,\ncapture the women inhabitants, seize the public arms and create\na general slave insurrection. Consequently, the conspirators,\nincluding Gabriel, were caught, convicted and executed. The\nVirginia Assembly rewarded Pharaoh for his courageous act by giving\nhim complete freedom.\nWhile the State of Virginia was increasing its counties, the\nUnited States was beginning to expand beyond its original boundary\nestablished after the Revolutionary War. President Jefferson had\nheard rumors that Spain had ceded Louisiana back to France in secret\ndiplomatic relations. If true, such a condition could ruin American\ntrade along the Mississippi River and could suggest a possibility of\na French empire in America. Jefferson decided to have the government\nof the United States purchase the Island of Orleans, near the mouth\nof the Mississippi River. After the United States Ambassador to\nFrance had been unable to purchase only the Island of Orleans,\nJefferson sent James Monroe, a native of Westmoreland County, to\nassist the Ambassador. In 1803, the treaty making the purchase of\nLouisiana, that vast area of land west of the Mississippi, official\nwas ratified by the United States. This purchase added 827,000\nsquare miles to the area of the land under the jurisdiction of the\nUnited States government at the cost of $15,000,000.\nPresident Jefferson was also very much interested in the Oregon\nCountry. He had made frequent attempts to have this region explored\nbut all his attempts were unsuccessful. However, after the purchase\nof Louisiana, he persuaded the federal government to finance, by\nmeans of a $2500 appropriation, an official government expedition\nto make the first overland route to the Pacific Ocean and to\nexplore the region which the United States had recently acquired.\nHe selected Captain Meriwether Lewis of Ivy, Virginia, to head this\nexpedition and Lieutenant William Clark, a very close Virginian\nfriend of Lewis' to accompany him. Their group left St. Louis in\nthe spring of 1804, traveled up the Missouri River, spent a rigid\nwinter in an area now located in North Dakota, continued traveling\nup the Missouri in the spring of 1805, crossed the Rocky Mountains,\nand built and paddled canoes until they reached the mouth of the\nColumbia River in November, 1805. There they built a fort near the\npresent site of Astoria. They remained on the Pacific Coast during\nthe winter and returned to St. Louis in 1806. Lewis and Clark were\naided considerably in their travel route directions by an Indian\nwoman guide, Sacajawea. This expedition to the Northwest furnished\nthe best claim of the United States in later ownership disputes with\nEngland.\nAaron Burr, long the political opponent of Alexander Hamilton,\nlived in Petersburg. In 1807, Burr was accused of a conspiracy to\ninvade Mexico, to snatch it from Spanish control and to establish an\nindependent Mexican government with himself as the self-appointed\nruler. Furthermore, he was accused of having laid plans for setting\nup a government in the western territory of the United States with\nthe objective of eventually organizing this area into a separate,\nindependent government with himself the self-appointed ruler.\nBurr was officially tried on a charge of treason at the State\nCapitol Building in Richmond. Chief Justice John Marshall was the\npresiding judge. Jefferson, who had disliked Burr for political\nreasons for a long time and who believed that Burr was guilty of the\naforementioned treasonous actions, wanted Burr convicted. Although\nthe trial involved many political entanglements, Burr was finally\nacquitted.\nDuring the same year, Virginia made national headlines again when\nthe \"Leopard-Chesapeake\" Affair took place. France and Britain had\nbeen having personnel problems with their navy crews, each accusing\nthe other of trying to encourage desertions. Britain had sent a\nfleet over to Norfolk in an attempt to intercept some French ships\nharbored in the Chesapeake Bay. One of the British ships had its\nentire crew desert, and it was believed that they had dashed to\nNorfolk and would be hiring out soon on a French or American ship.\nThe British captain of the fleet had been informed that these crew\nmembers supposedly had enlisted on the \"Chesapeake,\" a new American\nnaval vessel. A British vessel, the \"Leopard,\" was ordered to search\nthe \"Chesapeake\" outside the jurisdiction of the United States.\nConsequently, the \"Leopard\" followed the \"Chesapeake\" out beyond\nCape Henry and then demanded that the \"Chesapeake\" be searched\nby British officers. When the \"Chesapeake,\" under the command of\nCommodore James Barron, denied having any deserters and refused\nthe right to search, the \"Leopard\" approached very closely the\n\"Chesapeake\" and fired at it broadside. Three Americans were killed,\nseventeen others wounded and four deserters were surprisingly found\naboard the \"Chesapeake.\" Although many Americans clamored for\nwar as a result of this incident, Jefferson, who still preferred\npeace, retaliated by having Congress pass the Embargo Act whereby\nno American ship could depart for any foreign port. Jefferson\nbelieved the lack of American exports would cause the countries of\nEurope to cease the practice of impressment of American seamen. The\nAmericans, however, suffered more from this act than did the French\nand the British; eventually, it was repealed and a law was passed\nallowing American vessels to trade with any country except England\nand France. By the end of Jefferson's administration, nevertheless,\nthe American people were very restless, and in some sections of\nthe country war was believed to be inevitable with England or with\nFrance.\nOn March 4, 1809, Virginia had another one of her sons, James\nMadison, inaugurated as President of the United States. He was born\nin Port Conway, Virginia, and, after graduating from Princeton, he\nhad fought in the Revolutionary War. He had served in the state\nlegislature, had been a member of the Second Continental Congress,\nhad been a member of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia\nwhere he had earned the title \"Father of the Constitution of the\nUnited States\" and had contributed to the \"Federalist\" papers\nencouraging the adoption of the Constitution. After serving in the\nUnited States House of Representatives, he had retired from national\npolitics and had centered his interest upon state government\nfunctions. He had written the \"Virginia Resolutions\" and had served\nas United States Secretary of State at the request of President\nJefferson. Therefore, he came to the Presidency well prepared to\nassume presidential duties.\nIn contrast with his desire for peace, Madison held the office of\nPresident of the United States during the War of 1812 with England.\nOnly a few battles were fought near Virginia in this war. The\nBritish had as one of their objectives the capture of the City of\nNorfolk. George Cockburn, a British Admiral, entered Chesapeake Bay\nwith a fleet of approximately 1800 men, and they plundered many\nplantations along the coast of Maryland and Virginia. An American\nship, the \"U. S. S. Dolphin,\" was captured by the British ship, \"St.\nDomingo,\" in the Rappahannock River. A sea battle was later fought\nat Craney Island, located at the entrance of Norfolk Harbor where\nAmerican sailors, marines and militia men were defending the small\nisland. As the British rowed toward the island shore on barges,\nheavy artillery fire sank many of the boats causing hundreds of the\nBritishers to drown. The British subsequently withdrew and Norfolk\nescaped serious damage. The British soon desired to attack Hampton.\nThey successfully pillaged the town and proceeded to the Carolinas.\nSeveral Virginians participated in the War of 1812 and the students\nof Hampden-Sydney College, as in the Revolutionary War, volunteered\nas an entire student body to fight for their country.\nVirginia became a famous place of refuge during the War of 1812.\nWhen the British invaded Washington in August 1814, President\nMadison and his wife, Dolly Madison, fled from the White House on\nAugust 24 to Salona, a house located in Falls Church. It is believed\nthat Dolly Madison crossed the Chain Bridge over the Potomac River\nand traveled rapidly over the secondary roads until she finally\nreached the house of Reverend and Mrs. William Maffitt. Dolly\nMadison carried with her the Declaration of Independence and the\nfamous portrait of George Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart. Mrs.\nMaffitt quickly admitted Dolly Madison, and the President himself\nand some of his cabinet members arrived later with Reverend Maffitt.\nThey could see the burning White House from the Maffitt residence.\nAlthough the President had to depart shortly afterwards, Dolly\nMadison stayed there for the duration of the war.\nAfter his Presidency had ended, James Madison returned to\nMontpelier, the family homestead near Orange, where he lived until\nhis death in 1836.\nWhile Madison was occupied with national affairs, there were\nseveral important events happening in his home state. In 1809-1810,\na Literary Fund for Virginia was established as an aid to public\neducation by providing money for school expenses. The state\nlegislature under the direction of Governor John Tyler, Sr.,\nprovided that \"all escheats (land the title to which was reclaimed\nby the state), confiscations, penalties and forfeitures, and all\nrights in personal property found derelict (deserted or abandoned)\nshould be appropriated to the encouragement of learning.\" As time\npassed, this fund expanded considerably and was used to improve\nelementary education. Only the most proficient students were allowed\nto attend public secondary schools. The General Assembly encouraged\nthe establishment of classical schools and academies via revenue\nsecured from lotteries. In 1816, the Federal Government paid\n$1,210,550 to Virginia in return for a loan granted to the Federal\nGovernment by Virginia for the defraying of expenses incurred during\nthe War of 1812. This payment was allotted to the Literary Fund.\nFrom 1800 through 1816, the State of Virginia had four new counties\nformed: Tazewell (formed from Wythe and Russell Counties and named\nfor Henry Tazewell, a United States Senator), Giles (created from\nMontgomery, Monroe and Tazewell Counties and named for William\nBranch Giles, a Congressman from Virginia who served four terms),\nNelson (formed from Amherst County and named for General Thomas\nNelson, military leader and Governor of Virginia in 1781), and Scott\n(formed from Lee, Russell and Washington Counties and named for\nGeneral Winfield Scott, lawyer and military leader).\nIn 1811, Richmond suffered from a dreadful tragedy. Richmond had\ngrown in approximately twenty-five years from a village to a\nthriving city. As the capital city of the state, it had become a\ncenter of wealth, social activities and entertainment. The leading\nactors and actresses of the country played at the Richmond Theater\nwith pride. On the evening of December 26, 1811 as a play was in\nprogress, the scenery at the back of the stage caught fire. When an\nactor shouted \"The house is on fire!\", chaos and confusion resulted.\nIn addition to the flames which rapidly roared through the theater,\nthe panic and hysteria contributed to the death of seventy-three\nindividuals, including Governor George W. Smith and many other\ndistinguished citizens. Gilbert Hunt, a slave, is credited with\nsaving approximately twenty women and children by catching them as\nthey were hurled to safety from flaming windows. The doors of this\ntheater had been constructed in such a way that they only opened\ninwardly. Thus, when the audience madly rushed for an exit, numerous\nindividuals were crushed since the doors could not be opened\noutwardly. As a result of this terrible tragedy, theater doors in\nVirginia and in other states were constructed in the future to open\noutwardly from the inside. A structure of stuccoed brick, known as\nMonumental Church, has been built by the architect, Robert Mills,\nupon the site of the old theater, and on a monument at the door is\nan inscription bearing the names of those who died in this incident.\nIn 1816, thirty-five western counties of Virginia held a convention\nat Staunton and demanded that the General Assembly be informed of\ntheir grievances and be asked to adjust same. After the War of\n1812, the western counties believed that the State Constitution\nof 1776 was no longer appropriate and that the earlier counties,\nin spite of their longer political experiences, were greatly\nover-represented in proportion to their population as compared with\nthe population of the western counties. One particular criticism\nwas the representation plan of membership in the General Assembly.\nAlthough the white population was much greater in number west of\nthe Blue Ridge than in the east, the western counties had only four\ndelegates in the Assembly in comparison to thirteen delegates from\nthe east. Therefore, these convention delegates demanded a revised\nor new state constitution which would include fair treatment, in\ntheir opinion, for the western counties of Virginia. The Staunton\nconvention of 1816 caused other residents of Virginia, especially\nthe politicians, to realize that this mountainous area was\nincreasing in population and in interest in state and in national\naffairs and that it expected a similar increase in power and in\ninfluence in the state government of Virginia.\nIn 1817, James Monroe was inaugurated the Fifth President of the\nUnited States. A native of Westmoreland County, Monroe had had\nconsiderable political and diplomatic experience before becoming\nPresident. He had been a practicing lawyer in Fredericksburg, a\nRevolutionary War participant who had been wounded in the Battle\nof Trenton, New Jersey, a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional\nConvention at Williamsburg, a member of the Virginia General\nAssembly, a United States Senator, an American envoy to France, a\nGovernor of Virginia, a United States Minister to France where he\nhelped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, a United States Minister\nto Spain, a United States Secretary of State and a United States\nSecretary of War under President Madison. His two presidential terms\nare often referred to as the \"Era of Good Feeling\" because wars and\ninternational disputes were unknown in this period.\nForeign policy was a highlight of Monroe's two years. A treaty\nwith Spain in 1819 transferred East Florida to the United States,\nincluded an official admission that West Florida rightfully belonged\nto the United States, provided that the United States would assume\nand pay claims of citizens of the United States against the Spanish\ngovernment amounting to five million dollars and defined the\nboundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Another incident taking place in\nthis general area of the United States was the permission granted\nby the government of Mexico to Stephen Fuller Austin, a native of\nAustinville, Virginia, to establish a settlement for colonization\non a land grant in Texas. He became the leader of the section and\nparticipated in so many happenings in the history of Texas that\nlater, the capital, Austin, was named in his honor.\nWhile Monroe was President, Congress had a difficult situation to\nface. Missouri applied for admission to the Union in 1819. Since\nthere were eleven free and eleven slave states in the Union at this\ntime, there was equal representation in the Senate from the North\nand from the South. However, the North had increased much more\nrapidly in population than had the South with the result that there\nwere 105 Northern representatives in the House of Representatives\nand only 81 Southern representatives in the same body. Therefore,\nthe South did not want any additional free states admitted to\nthe Union at this time to upset the equal balance in the Senate.\nConsequently, a bill which had been proposed to admit Missouri to\nthe Union with the understanding that slavery was to be abolished\nthere directly upon such admission failed to pass in the Senate.\nIn the same year, Maine, a free state, applied for statehood.\nSlavery had become a significant sectional issue by 1819 and Henry\nClay, a native of Hanover County, proposed the now-famous Missouri\nCompromise of 1820: Maine was to be admitted as a free state,\nMisouri as a slave state; slavery was to be forever excluded in\nthe rest of the Louisiana Purchase Territory north of the parallel\nof 36\u00b4 30\u00b4\u00b4 (southern boundary of Missouri). Although Henry Clay,\nlater known as the \"Great Pacificator\" or \"Peacemaker\" because of\nhis ability to make compromises in difficult situations, moved to\nKentucky in his \"twenties,\" he studied law with the famous Virginia\nlawyer, George Wythe, and acquired many of his political beliefs in\nVirginia. President Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise expressing\nhis approval of this bill.\nA new trend in foreign policy was formulated by President Monroe,\nwith the help of his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, in\nhis annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The Monroe\nDoctrine, as it was later termed, stated that there was to be no\nfurther European colonization in the Western Hemisphere, that no\nEuropean nation was to interfere in the government of any nation in\nthe Western Hemisphere and that violation of either of the previous\nprinciples would be considered unfriendly to the government of the\nUnited States. In return, the government of the United States would\nnot interfere in the governments of Europe.\nFrom the time of the Revolutionary War, societies opposed to slavery\nwere organized in the United States. Religious and non-religious\ngroups favored the emancipation of the slaves, but the greatest\nproblem facing those who favored freedom for the slaves was the\nfinding of a suitable environment for the freed, uneducated Negroes.\nThe South which had the greatest number of Negroes would have\nfavored emancipation much more readily if this problem could have\nbeen solved satisfactorily. Washington and Jefferson both opposed\nslavery and Washington in his will provided for the freeing of his\nslaves upon the death of his wife. Jefferson proposed that the\nNegroes be freed and then sent out of the United States. Monroe\nlikewise strongly opposed slavery and suggested that the Negroes be\nallowed to settle in an independent country of their own.\nIn 1816, an American Colonization Society was formed which was\ngranted permission by the Congress of the United States to send\nemancipated volunteer Negro slaves to Liberia, Africa where they\ncould organize an independent country of their own. The Virginia\nlegislature heartily supported this project. Bushrod Washington,\na nephew of George Washington, served as one of the presidents of\nthis national colonization society. John Marshall was the first\npresident of the state branch at Richmond. The capital of Liberia,\nan independent republic since 1847, is Monrovia, named in honor\nof James Monroe, who personally urged the establishment of this\nindependent country for Negroes.\nOn March 4, 1825, the \"Virginia Dynasty\" ended, and President\nMonroe returned to his home state, Virginia, where he remained\nuntil the death of his wife. Virginia had earned the title of\n\"Mother of Presidents\" because it had furnished four of the first\nfive Presidents of the United States: George Washington, Thomas\nJefferson, James Madison and James Monroe. By 1825, Virginia had\nlost its first rank in population to New York State, primarily\nbecause of the large number of immigrants in the North. The\npopulation of Virginia, however, had passed the million mark.\nDuring Monroe's presidency, an ex-President of the United States\nundertook a task in his home state which he had patiently\nwaited to perform. In 1819, the Virginia legislature passed an\nact establishing a state university in Virginia. Jefferson had\nworked very hard to get this personal ambition of his realized\nbecause he believed that a state has the obligation of educating\nits citizens. He constantly discussed his idea with influential\nmen of the time and was elated when the University of Virginia\nwas finally created by law. Jefferson personally recommended\nthe accepted site of Central College in Charlottesville, drew\nup the plans for the university building and grounds, chose the\nmaterials for construction, selected the workmen and then assumed\nthe responsibility of personally supervising and directing the\nactual building project. One of the outstanding architectural\ncharacteristics of the University grounds is the famous Serpentine\nWall designed and built by Jefferson himself. Jefferson's interest\ndid not cease with the supervision and construction of the buildings\nbut extended to the intellectual area with his outlining the course\nof study which was followed carefully at the University for several\nyears. The University of Virginia was opened for students for the\nfirst time in 1825 with an enrollment of forty students and seven\nfaculty members. It has continued to be an outstanding institution\nfor higher education in the United States. This institution, unlike\nthe former ones in America, was independent of a church and was the\nfirst institution to offer the elective system of subject matter,\nallowing students to make their choice with music and liberal arts\nfirst included in any curriculum of higher education. Jefferson thus\nparticipated significantly in the education field in addition to\nmaking political, historical and inventive contributions.\nIn 1829 the citizens of Virginia voted for a special state\nconvention to be held for the purpose of drafting a new state\nconstitution. When the delegates met in Richmond on October 5,\nex-President James Madison was selected as President of this\nVirginia Convention. Other notables present included ex-President\nMonroe, Chief Justice Marshall and John Randolph. It was soon\nobvious that there were two distinct types of delegates: the\neastern \"conservatives\" and the western \"reformers.\" Debates and\ndiscussions became so heated that this convention is often compared\nto the federal convention of 1787 which exposed sharp differences\nbetween the North and the South as separate sections. Governor\nWilliam B. Giles, A. P. Upshur, Benjamin Leigh, John Randolph and\nLittleton Waller represented the east or Tidewater section while\nAlexander Campbell, John R. Cooke, Philip Doddridge and Charles\nFaulkner represented the western or mountainous counties. The most\nobjectionable features of the State Constitution of 1776, in the\nopinion of the western counties delegates, were the following: (1)\nthe voting requirement of freehold land tenure, (2) the election\nof the Governor by the state legislature rather than by the voters\nthemselves, (3) the actual carrying out of some of the Governor's\nduties by a nine-man Council of State, (4) the equal representation\nin the House of Delegates from each county regardless of population,\nand (5) a procedure in the local and state courts which often\nresulted in favoritism. The easterner combatted the criticism about\nrepresentation with the fact that he paid much higher taxes on his\nland (in some instances as much as nine times more per acre). After\nlengthy discussions, the new state constitution was finally written\nand recommended for adoption. The following changes were included:\n(1) voting was extended to leaseholders and householders, (2) the\nGovernor was chosen by a joint ballot of the Senate and the House\nof Delegates, (3) the power and the responsibility of the Governor\nwas increased and the number of men and the powers of the Council of\nState were decreased, (4) the representation of the western counties\nin the Assembly was increased slightly, and (5) state courts were\nslightly revised but county courts were practically unchanged. The\nConstitution of 1829 was adopted, and John Floyd was the first\nGovernor elected under the new system.\nThe strong feeling of states' rights in Virginia became apparent\nonce more. When President Andrew Jackson threatened to use armed\nforce upon South Carolina in his attempt to coerce South Carolina\ninto paying Federal taxes, according to the Tariff of 1828 (\"The\nTariff of Abominations\"), Virginians became very alarmed. John\nRandolph, a sick man at the time, traveled throughout the country\ndenouncing Jackson's coercive attitude. Virginia then sent Benjamin\nWatkins Leigh to South Carolina to try to bring peace within the\nUnion again and to prevent South Carolina from seceding from the\nUnion. Governor John Floyd of Virginia stated that federal troops\nwould meet armed opposition if President Jackson ordered them to\nmarch through Virginia to South Carolina and to force South Carolina\nto pay the exorbitant tariff rates. Henry Clay's compromise tariff\nlaw providing for gradually reduced tariff rates prevented possible\nsecession from occurring at this time.\nIn August 1831, a Negro preacher of Southampton County, Nat Turner,\nstarted a local slave insurrection by persuading the Negro slaves\nthat it was time to kill the white people. Sixty whites, mostly\nwomen and children, were killed before the rebellion could be\nsuppressed. Nat Turner and twelve of his accomplices were hung.\nMany Virginians believed that Nat Turner's Rebellion took place\nas a direct result of the writings of William Lloyd Garrison of\nMassachusetts who published the \"Liberator,\" a newspaper which\ndemanded the immediate abolition of slavery. The southerners,\nin general, were so aroused by this rebellion that southern\nlegislatures passed laws prohibiting slaves from being taught to\nread. In fact, a reward was offered for Garrison himself. Many\nsouthern states passed resolutions requesting the northern states to\nforbid the publication of abolitionist papers. In 1832 at a regular\nsession of the Virginia General Assembly, an act was proposed\nwhereby all slaves born after July 4, 1840 were to be free and to\nbe removed from the State of Virginia. The act was defeated in the\nHouse of Delegates by a close vote of 67 to 60.\nIn 1831, Cyrus Hall McCormick of Rockbridge County invented the\n\"Virginia Reaper,\" a mechanical harvester which could harvest wheat\nat a much faster rate than previously harvested by hand with a\nsickle or a cradle. He did not get it patented, however, until\nthree years later. This was a most significant invention for the\nState of Virginia as well as for the nation as a whole. The Virginia\nReaper affected grain, as the cotton gin had affected cotton, by\nmaking it possible for grain to be grown and harvested in much\nlarger quantities. When Virginians first used the reaper, Virginia's\ntotal wheat production increased so rapidly that Virginia ranked\nfourth among the wheat-raising states in 1840. However, the climate\nand soil of the West were more conducive to wheat-raising than in\nVirginia, and, when the western farmers heard about the Virginia\nReaper, they were anxious to acquire such a machine for their own\nuse. The usual journey for such reapers included a wagon trip from\nRockbridge County over the Blue Ridge Mountains to Scottsville, a\ncanal trip from there to Richmond, a boat trip from Richmond down\nthe James River to the Atlantic Ocean, from Norfolk an ocean trip to\nNew Orleans and then a boat trip up the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers\nto their specific destination in Kentucky or Ohio--a water trip of\napproximately 3,000 miles. Since the demand for his invention was\nmuch greater in the West, McCormick moved from Virginia to Chicago\nto build his factory in order that he could reduce his shipping\ncosts considerably. However, one may still see one of the original\nbinders at Walnut Grove, the restored McCormick homestead located\nnear Midway, Virginia.\nIn 1836, Samuel Houston, a native Virginian of Rockbridge County who\nhad migrated to Texas, became the heroic leader at the Battle of\nSan Jacinto in the Texas Revolt from Mexico. General Houston with\na small group of Texans captured Santa Anna, President of Mexico,\nin this battle and forced him to grant Texas its independence from\nMexico. Houston became the first President of the Republic of Texas\nand, later, the first Governor of the State of Texas after its\nannexation to the United States. The City of Houston was named in\nhis honor.\nOn November 11, 1839, the Virginia Military Institute, the first\nstate military school in the United States, was founded at\nLexington. This school was located adjacent to the Washington\nAcademy which is now known as Washington and Lee University. The\nVirginia Military Institute was greatly appreciated because it\nwas no longer necessary for the Southern young men to travel to\nWest Point for military training and discipline. V. M. I. opened\noriginally with twenty-three cadets and two teachers: Francis Smith\nand J. T. L. Preston, a lawyer who is accredited with having the\nconcept of a state military institute. It became the first normal\nschool in the state because during the first year of its existence,\nthe state legislature passed a law stating that the training of\nteachers was to be considered as its chief objective. When the War\nbetween the States took place, V. M. I. supplied the Confederate\nforces with many of its military leaders, earning for itself the\ntitle, \"The West Point of the Confederacy.\" At the Battle of New\nMarket in 1864, V. M. I. cadets led by General John C. Breckinridge\ndefeated the Union Army by the remarkable capture of a Union battery.\nFrom 1822 to 1850 thirteen additional counties had been created:\nAlleghany (formed from Bath, Botetourt and Monroe Counties and named\nfor the Indian word, \"Alleghany\" meaning \"Lost\"), Page (formed\nfrom Rockingham and Shenandoah Counties and named in honor of John\nPage, Virginia Governor [1802-1805]), Floyd (formed from Montgomery\nCounty and later, part of Franklin County and named for John Floyd,\nVirginia Governor [1830-1834]), Smyth (formed from Washington and\nWythe Counties and named for Alexander Smyth, Inspector-General\nof the Army in 1812 and a Congressman), Rappahannock (formed from\nCulpeper County and named for the Rappahannock Indian tribe which\nlived along the Rappahannock River which flows in this county),\nClark (formed from Frederick and named for General George Rogers\nClark), Warren (formed from Shenandoah and Frederick Counties\nand named for Major General Joseph Warren who died in the Battle\nof Bunker Hill), Roanoke (formed from Botetourt County and named\nfor the term, \"Roanoke,\" which was used by the colonists to\nindicate the shell-beads which the Indians used for money and\nfor decoration), Greene (formed from Orange County and named\nfor General Nathaniel Greene of the Revolutionary War), Pulaski\n(formed from Montgomery and Wythe Counties and named for Count\nCasimir Pulaski, Revolutionary War Polish Patriot), Carroll (formed\nfrom Grayson County and named in honor of Charles Carroll of\nCarrollton), Appomattox (formed from Buckingham, Prince Edward,\nCharlotte and Campbell Counties and named from the Indian word,\n\"Appomattox,\" meaning \"tobacco plant country\") and Highland (created\nfrom Pendleton and Bath Counties and named for the extremely high\naltitude of this mountainous area).\nIn 1841, William Henry Harrison became the ninth President of the\nUnited States and John Tyler became the Vice-President of the\nUnited States. Both were born in Charles City County, approximately\ntwenty-four miles from Richmond. William Henry Harrison had\nsuccessfully defeated the Indian chief, Tecumseh, and his brother,\n\"The Prophet,\" at Tippecanoe River in Indiana. From this experience\nhe earned the title, \"Old Tippecanoe\" which became a part of the\n1840 presidential campaign slogan: \"Tippecanoe and Tyler too.\"\nWilliam Henry Harrison has a most unique distinction in the history\nof the United States in that he served the shortest term of any\nPresident--March 4, 1841 to April 4, 1841. Upon his death from\npneumonia, believed contracted during the inauguration ceremonies,\nthe other Virginian, John Tyler, succeeded to the Presidency.\nTyler had been a Congressman, a state legislator, a Governor of\nVirginia and a United States Senator before becoming President.\nDuring his term of office, the United States and Canada agreed upon\na final boundary in the Treaty of Washington. Tyler approved the\nannexation of Texas to the Union near the end of his Presidential\nadministration.\nThe annexation of Texas to the United States caused bitter feeling\nbetween Mexico and the United States. In the Mexican War which\nfollowed, two Virginians, General Zachary Taylor of Orange County\nand General Winfield Scott of Dinwiddie County, participated in\nan outstanding manner: the former, in charge of the campaign at\nMonterey and at Buena Vista and the latter, in charge of the\ncampaign at Vera Cruz and Mexico City. Other Virginians who received\nfirst-hand military experience during the Mexican War were Robert E.\nLee, Thomas J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston.\nOn September 7, 1846, the land including the town of Alexandria\n(originally Belhaven) which Virginia had ceded to Congress in\n1789 was retroceded to Fairfax County. In the following year,\nAlexandria County was formed from that part of the District of\nColumbia which had formerly been a part of Fairfax County and the\ntown of Alexandria became the county seat. Five years later, the\ntown of Alexandria became the city of Alexandria through a charter\nregulation of the General Assembly, and its status as an independent\ncity (not subject to county jurisdiction) was granted.\nWhile Alexandria was changing from a town to a city, another\nVirginian was elected President of the United States. Zachary\nTaylor, a native of Orange County, became the twelfth President of\nthe United States. He had achieved national fame during the Mexican\nWar and had earned the title \"Old Rough and Ready.\" He defeated his\nmilitary colleague, General Winfield Scott, at the Whig convention\nby winning the presidential candidacy and proceeded to defeat Martin\nVan Buren for the Presidency. After serving only sixteen months of\nhis term, he died of typhus on July 9, 1850. The most important\nissue during his administration was the slavery controversy.\nAs in the slavery issue in 1820, Henry Clay once more proposed a\ncompromise measure in an attempt to prevent, or at least postpone, a\nsecession movement. The Compromise of 1850 was eventually passed and\nis often referred to as the \"Omnibus Bill\" because it included many\nmiscellaneous provisions, namely: (1) California was to be admitted\nas a free state, (2) slavery limitation in the Mexican cession land\nwas to be decided upon by the residents of the particular area\ninvolved, (3) Texas was to pay ten million dollars for giving up\nits claim to territory west and north of its present boundary, (4)\nslave trade but not slavery was to be prohibited in the District\nof Columbia, and (5) a more effective fugitive slave law was to be\npassed and to be enforced.\nWhile the United States government had numerous national problems\nwith which to cope during this period, Virginia had several\ngovernmental problems. In 1850-1851, a second state constitutional\nconvention was held. The age-old feud concerning representation,\nvoting qualifications and election of the Governor continued until,\nfinally, a compromise was reached. Main provisions of the compromise\nwere: (1) every white male citizen, except the insane, minors,\npaupers and criminals, was to be allowed to vote from that time\nforward, (2) the Governor was to be elected directly by the voters\nthemselves rather than by the General Assembly and his term was\nto be extended from three to four years, (3) the Council of State\nwas to be abolished, (4) membership in the House of Delegates was\nto be selected upon the basis of population, thereby giving the\nwestern counties a majority number; membership in the Senate was to\nbe based upon population and property, thereby giving the eastern\ncounties a majority, and (5) the voters were to be allowed to vote\nfor judges, county officials and members of the Board of Public\nWorks. In addition, the General Assembly was to meet every other\nyear instead of annually. The 1851 State Constitution was ratified\nby the voters by an overwhelming majority at the next election.\nThe western counties of Virginia had finally been recognized as\nan important area whose ideas and opinions were to be considered\nseriously. Although the economic and social life of the inhabitants\nof the western part of Virginia were different from those of the\ninhabitants of the eastern part of Virginia, this Constitution which\ngranted the western counties most of their desired reforms fostered\nbetter unity within the state.\nIn 1855, a dreadful epidemic of yellow fever spread throughout\nNorfolk and approximately one tenth of its total population\nsuccumbed. A Negro gravedigger, nicknamed \"Yellow Fever Jack,\" was\nconsidered the hero of this situation because he painstakingly kept\nburying the dead until he too died from the fever. A monument has\nbeen erected in his honor in the Norfolk Cemetery.\nIn 1857 James Ethan Allen Gibbs, a native of Rockbridge County,\nsecured a patent to make a \"twisted loop rotary hook sewing\nmachine,\" an invention which he had created as a result of watching\nhis mother sew by hand. He was unaware at the time of Elias Howe's\nsewing machine invention of 1846. After a few years, James A.\nWillcox added some improvements to Gibbs' sewing machine, and their\ncombined efforts resulted in the Willcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine.\nOn October 16, 1859, John Brown, a freesoiler and an ardent white\nabolitionist of Kansas and Ohio, led his five sons, eight northern\nwhite men and a group of five Negroes on a raid of the federal\narsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now located in West Virginia).\nRifles were made and stored here. John Brown had decided to show\nthese slaves how to revolt against their masters. Therefore, he\nequipped them with arms, ammunition and with steel-tipped pikes\nwhich he had brought with him from Kansas. After they had seized\nthe arsenal, he urged them to start an insurrection. They captured\nmany of the gentlemen slaveholders of this area, and then John\nBrown suggested that they use their pikes to \"strike for freedom!\"\nThe Negroes of this area and those of the south in general did not\nrespond to his encouragement. His band killed five people including\nthe mayor of Harper's Ferry and a free Negro porter of the Baltimore\nand Ohio Railroad. On October 18, Colonel Robert E. Lee of the\nUnited States Army, who was a native Virginian, was placed in charge\nof the situation. James Ewell Brown Stuart (later, commonly known\nas \"J. E. B.\" Stuart) was appointed aide-de-camp to Lee. Stuart\nwas assigned the task of presenting the summons to John Brown to\nsurrender after one hundred United States Marines had surrounded\nthe arsenal and had captured the raiders. Stuart successfully\nperformed his task and was admired by many Americans for his staunch\ncourage in this action because John Brown was such an unpredictable\nindividual. Lee then sent John Brown to Charlestown, Virginia (now\nlocated in West Virginia) where he was tried by a Virginia Circuit\nCourt for treason and for murder because of the capture of guns\nand supplies belonging to the government, was found guilty and was\nhanged on December 2, 1859. Ten of his followers were also killed.\nThis incident caused hostile feelings between the sections to\nincrease and made the Virginians very angry upon finding out the\nextent to which some individuals would conspire to incite Negro\nhatred for their masters.\nBy 1860, the population of Virginia had reached over one and a half\nmillion including 490,865 slaves and 58,042 free Negroes. From 1851\nto 1861, four counties were added: Craig (formed from Botetourt,\nGiles, Monroe and Roanoke Counties and named for Robert Craig, a\nVirginia Congressman), Wise (formed from Lee, Scott and Russell\nCounties and named for Henry Alexander Wise, Governor of Virginia,\n1856-1860), Buchanan (formed from Tazewell and Russell Counties and\nnamed in honor of President James Buchanan) and Bland (formed from\nGiles, Wythe and Tazewell Counties and named for Richard Bland, a\nVirginia statesman during the Revolutionary War Period).\nS U M M A R Y\nAfter Virginia had furnished many leaders for the First Continental\nCongress, another special Virginia convention was held in Richmond\nwhere a resolution for military preparedness was passed and\ndelegates were elected to the Second Continental Congress. Three\nadditional special conventions were later held in the Virginia\ncolony alone which resulted in the abdication of the last colonial\nGovernor of the colony, the declaration of Virginia as a free\nand independent State, the writing of the Virginia Declaration\nof Rights, the adoption of an official State seal and motto, the\ncreation and adoption of a State Constitution establishing the\nCommonwealth of Virginia, the adoption of the Statute of Virginia\nfor Religious Freedom and the eventual ratification of the United\nStates Constitution. In the political field, the names of Patrick\nHenry, Peyton Randolph, George Washington, George Mason, George\nWythe, Edmund Pendleton, James Madison, Edmund Randolph, Archibald\nCary, Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe suggest numerous\ncontributions made by Virginians during the period, 1775-1860.\nVirginians also had major roles in the military history of our\ncountry during this same period: George Washington, John M\u00fchlenberg,\nHenry Lee, Jack Jouett, Andrew Lewis, Daniel Morgan, John Paul\nJones, Samuel Houston, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor,\nWinfield Scott and Robert E. Lee. In the meantime, the capital had\nbeen moved from Williamsburg to Richmond, Virginia had ceded its\nNorthwest Territory to the new national government and Yorktown had\nbecome internationally famous as the area where the British had\nsurrendered to the Americans. It is a unique historical fact that\nthe site where the British armies were forced to surrender in 1781\nwas located only a few miles from the site where the first permanent\nEnglish settlement in America was established.\nThe Presidency of George Washington started the so-called \"Virginia\nDynasty\" of Presidents. By 1861, the Commonwealth had furnished\nthe United States with seven Virginia-born Presidents: George\nWashington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, William\nHenry Harrison, John Tyler and Zachary Taylor. For this achievement,\nVirginia has earned the title of \"Mother of Presidents.\"\nDuring the period of 1775 to 1860, many significant activities\nof Virginians took place at both the state and federal levels of\ngovernment: the \"Leopard-Chesapeake\" Affair, Jeffersonian Democracy,\nJohn Marshall's role as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme\nCourt, the consent of Virginia allowing Kentucky County to become\nan independent state in the Union, the Lewis and Clark Expedition\nto the Northwest, the role of Norfolk, Hampton and Falls Church\nduring the War of 1812, the Monroe Doctrine, the efforts of Henry\nClay (\"The Great Compromiser\"), the historical connotation of the\ncapital city, Monrovia, in Liberia, the creation of a non-sectarian\nstate university and of the first state military school in the\ncountry, the attitude of Virginians toward the sectional issues\nof tariff, secession and slavery, the inventions of the McCormick\nVirginia Reaper and the Willcox-Gibbs Sewing Machine and the active\nparticipation of Virginians in the Texan Revolt and the Mexican\nWar. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry increased sectionalism\nand intensified the slavery problem. By 1860, the population of\nVirginia had reached over one and one-half million people, including\napproximately 500,000 slaves.\nHistorical Life: 1860-Present\n_The War Between the States_\nIn November 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the\nUnited States. He represented the Republican Party which strongly\nopposed slavery, and he had made numerous speeches stating his\npersonal opposition to it. Although Lincoln had declared that he had\nno desire to interfere with slavery in the states where it already\nexisted, he also had made the following statement: \"A house divided\nagainst itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure\npermanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to\nbe dissolved: I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect\nthat it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or\nall the other.\" Thus, on December 20, it was not a complete surprise\nthat a special convention held at Charleston, South Carolina,\nresulted in the secession of South Carolina, a strong pro-slavery\nstate, from the Union. By February 1861, six other southern states\nhad acted likewise. The Confederate States of America was organized\nat Montgomery, Alabama, with Jefferson Davis as its President.\nUntil this time, Virginia had not declared herself. Like her\nneighboring states, she had to make the momentous decision. The\nGovernor of Virginia at this time was John Letcher, later known\nas the \"War Governor\" of Virginia. The people of Virginia did not\nenthusiastically favor secession, that is, they did not have an\nardent desire to leave the Union as South Carolina had had. Neither\ndid Virginia believe in the national policy of coercion of a state\nto return to the Union. In an attempt to bring the seceded states\nback into the Union and to try to find some solution to the slavery\nproblem, the Virginia legislature invited delegates from all the\nstates to attend a national \"Peace Conference\" at Washington on\nFebruary 4. Virginia appointed John Tyler (ex-President), Judge John\nRobertson, James A. Seddon, William C. Rives and George W. Summers\nto attend this conference. There was so much sectionalism bitter\nwith political and economic rivalries at the conference that it was\nunsuccessful.\nOn February 13, 1861, a special state convention was held in\nRichmond to discuss the possibility of secession. When the counties\nelected the 152 delegates to this special state convention, their\nchoice resulted in several pro-Union, anti-secession residents of\nthe state. John Janney was the presiding officer of the convention.\nIt was evident that the majority of the delegates hesitated to\nleave the Union because they had very strong ties with the Federal\ngovernment. Virginia had played an important role in creating\nthe Union and had furnished one-third of all the Presidents,\nnumerous cabinet members, a Supreme Court Chief Justice who held\nthis position for thirty-four years (John Marshall), and other\nless important Federal officials. The convention delegates sent a\ncommittee consisting of William B. Preston, George W. Randolph and\nAlexander H. H. Stuart to President Lincoln to plead for a peaceful\nsolution to the slavery and secession problems.\nOn March 10, 1861, the Committee on Federal Relations at the\nRichmond convention submitted reports consisting of fourteen\nresolutions to the convention. These resolutions expressed the\ndoctrine of states' rights, criticized slavery interference,\nadvocated the right of secession and resolved that Virginia would\nbe justified in seceding only if the Federal government usurped\nstate powers or if it attempted to force the payment of tax duties\nfrom the seceded states or if it recaptured certain Southern forts.\nThe first twelve resolutions had been adopted at the time of the\nunofficial firing on Fort Sumter, near Charleston, South Carolina\non April 12th and the forced surrender of the Federal garrison.\nThe Federal government had sent arms, troops and provisions to the\naid of Colonel Robert Anderson at Fort Sumter. The Confederate\ngovernment had considered the action a hostile act and had acted\naccordingly. The actual signal for the attack was given by Roger\nPryor, a strong secessionist from Virginia; furthermore, the actual\nshot was fired by another Virginia secessionist, Edmund Ruffin. The\nultimate surrender of Fort Sumter to the Confederates resulted in\nan immediate call from President Lincoln for volunteers to save the\nUnion.\nEven as late as April 4, the Richmond convention had rejected\nsecession by a vote of two to one. Some of the minority were strong\nin their wishes to secede immediately and to join the Confederacy,\nand they used the issues of self-government, states' rights and\nslavery as their points of variance with the national government.\nFurthermore, these advocates believed that an alliance with the\nConfederacy would at least remove them from the direct influence\nof high protective tariffs since a clause prohibiting protective\ntariffs had been included in the Constitution of the Confederacy.\nTwo days after the firing on Fort Sumter, April 15, President\nLincoln called on all the states in the Union to send volunteers,\nnumbering 75,000 total, to invade the seceding states and to coerce\nthem back into the Union.\nTwo days later, April 17, 1861, the Virginia Convention passed\nan ordinance of secession by a vote of 88 to 55. Many pre-Union\nVirginians at this convention preferred to choose secession rather\nthan to send troops to fight against their southern neighbor\nstates. In the previous election, the Virginia people voted\noverwhelmingly to have the convention submit its results for their\nvoting approval or disapproval via referendum. On May 4, a large\nmajority of the Virginia citizens voted their approval of secession.\nNevertheless, although eastern Virginia voted almost solidly\nfor secession, western Virginia voted almost as solidly against\nsecession. Governor John Letcher of Virginia sent the following\nreply to the United States Secretary of War, Simon Cameron: \"In\nreply to this communication I have only to say that the militia\nof Virginia will not be furnished to the powers at Washington for\nany such use of purpose as they have in view. Your object is to\nsubjugate the Southern States, and a requisition made upon me for\nsuch an object--an object, in my judgment, not within the purview\nof the Constitution, or the Act of 1795--will not be complied with.\nYou have chosen to inaugurate civil war, and having done so, we\nwill meet it in a spirit as determined as the Administration has\nexhibited towards the South.\"\nOn April 25, the same convention members passed an act which\nprovided for the adoption of the Constitution of the Provisional\nGovernment of the Confederate States of America, and Virginia became\nthe eighth state of the Confederate States of America. Although\nMontgomery, Alabama, had been the capital of the Confederacy, one\nmonth after Virginia joined, Virginia invited the Confederacy\nto make Richmond its capital. The offer was accepted on May 21.\nVirginia thus became the focus of major battles of the War between\nthe States during the four-year period: 1861-1865.\nColonel Robert E. Lee was a United States Army officer at this\ntime and had one of the most difficult decisions to make. He\nwas recognized as a man of great military ability, and the high\nregard which the Federal government had for him was expressed in\nthe tremendously responsible position offered to him by President\nLincoln. Lincoln was familiar with his great military strategy which\nhad been followed in the Mexican War, his efficient administration\nas Superintendent of West Point, his excellent cavalry supervision\non the frontier and his carefully planned capture of John Brown\nand his raiders at Harper's Ferry. Consequently, on April 18,\nPresident Lincoln had offered him the command of the Union forces.\nLee realized the wonderful honor for which he had been selected and\nwas deeply appreciative. However, he was a Virginian, and, after\nhis state had seceded from the Union, he believed that there was\nno choice in the matter. His love of country was great, but the\nlove of his state and his fellowmen was greater. Therefore, he\nsadly declined Lincoln's offer and stated that \"though opposed, to\nsecession and deprecating war, I could take no part in an invasion\nof the Southern States.\" Thus, as soon as Virginia seceded from the\nUnion, he resigned his United States Army Commission on April 20\nwith the words: \"Sir: I have the honor to tender the resignation\nof my commission as Colonel of the first regiment of cavalry. Very\nrespectfully, your obedient servant--Robert E. Lee.\"\nLee then went to Richmond at the invitation of the convention and\nwas made Major-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Virginia forces\non April 23. It should be noted here that Virginia did not have an\naggressive, warlike attitude toward the Union. Governor John Letcher\nis quoted as speaking to Robert E. Lee in the convention itself in\nthe following manner: \"Yesterday, your mother, Virginia, placed her\nsword in your hand upon the implied condition that we know you will\nkeep to the letter and in spirit, that you will draw it only in her\ndefense, and that you will fall with it in your hand rather than\nthat the object for which it was placed there shall fail.\"\nFor the first three and a half years of the War between the States,\nthe military actions took place simultaneously in two different\nareas: a small area in northern and northeastern Virginia and a\nwestern area in the region bounded by the Mississippi River, the\nCumberland River, and the Appalachian Mountains. For most of the\nwar, the Confederate forces were on the defensive side. With General\nRobert E. Lee as Commander-in-Chief, the Confederates had unity\nof command whereas the Union forces actually had five successive\ngenerals before appointing Ulysses S. Grant as the supreme\ncommander. Many of the best military minds were fighting on the\nConfederate side, and it is believed by several historians that only\ntheir great strategic ability and planning against larger military\nforces with better equipment and clothing kept the war from being\nconcluded at a much earlier date.\nThe major objective of the Federal government became a clearcut one,\nnamely, to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. Thus,\na chief aim of the military forces in Virginia was the protection\nand defense of Richmond at all times. Virginia lost Accomack and\nNorthampton Counties on the Eastern Shore at the beginning of the\nwar and was unable to obtain control of Union Fort Monroe.\nOn May 24, 1861 the Fire Zouaves, a unit of the United States Army,\nmarched from Washington to Alexandria, the first point of invasion\nin Virginia in the War between the States. They took possession of\nAlexandria in the name of the United States and found no organized\nopposition because there were no Southern troops here. Virginia had\nnot been ready for war and had made no preparations for war. The\nonly standing army in the state at the time of her secession was a\ngroup of soldiers whose duty had been to guard public property in\nRichmond. Several volunteer companies had organized in various parts\nof the state for the first time after John Brown's Raid. One of the\nfirst immediate tasks to be done was the training of soldiers in\nVirginia and the acquiring of cannon and fire-arms. Consequently, it\nwas not unusual for Alexandria not to have had an organized force\nby May 24, awaiting Federal invasion. As these Fire Zouaves entered\nAlexandria, they noticed a Confederate flag flying from the top of\na small hotel called the Marshall House. Colonel Elmer Ellsworth,\nthe Federal commander, decided to obtain this flag. He entered the\nhotel, ran up the stairs to the roof and grabbed it. He had started\nto descend the stairs with his trophy when, at the first landing,\nhe met the hotel owner, James W. Jackson, who had been curious to\nknow who had been rushing up the stairs and invading his hotel. When\nhe saw the Confederate flag in the hands of the Federal officer,\nhe shot him in the breast. Ellsworth died instantly and Jackson\nwas immediately killed by bullets and bayonets used by Ellsworth's\ntroops. This was the first blood shed in Virginia in the War between\nthe States.\nA skirmish took place at Fairfax Court House on June 1, 1861, which\ncaused the death of Captain John Quincy Marr of the Warrenton\nRifles. His death is considered the first Confederate battle death.\nIn the same month, the first land battle of the War between the\nStates took place around and near the town of Philippi located in\nwestern Virginia (today, in West Virginia). On June 3, Union troops\nled by Colonel B. F. Kelly clashed with Confederate troops led by\nColonel George A. Portfield. This fighting was not only a victory\nfor the Union forces, but the retreat of the Confederates from the\nsurprise Union attack on a dark, rainy night was exceedingly rapid.\nThe Confederates fled more than thirty miles in one day to a town\ncalled Beverly, thereupon earning for their action the title, the\n\"Philippi Races.\"\nOn July 21, along a creek called Bull Run, near Manassas,\napproximately twenty-five miles from Washington, some Union forces\nunder the leadership of General Irvin McDowell met Confederate\nforces under the leadership of General Pierre G. T. Beauregard.\nManassas was the site of a key railroad junction, an important line\nof supply and communication. Although the Union forces were at\nfirst successful, the firm stand taken by the Confederate forces\non Matthews Hill and on Henry Hill led by General Thomas Jonathan\nJackson and a counter-attack led by Confederate General Joseph E.\nJohnston's forces resulted in chaos in the Union army and a panicky\nretreat to Washington. This was a most unexpected defeat for the\nUnion forces. \"J. E. B.\" Stuart served under Joseph Johnston at\nthis time and led a successful mounted charge against the Federal\ninfantry. He also helped create disorder and panic in their lines.\nThis first Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Manassas was the occasion\nfor T. J. Jackson's famous nickname: \"Stonewall.\" General Bernard\nE. Bee, a South Carolinian, headed some troops which had become\npanicky, and, as he saw T. J. Jackson's brigade in correct line\nformation, he is said to have made the following comment to his\ngroup: \"Look! There is Jackson and his brigade standing like a stone\nwall. Rally behind the Virginians.\" From that time on, T. J. Jackson\nwas called \"Stonewall\" Jackson. As the Union forces neared Manassas,\nCaptain Alexander, a Confederate officer, spotted their coming from\nhis lookout station. He relayed their approach by wigwagging signals\nwith flags. This action is believed to be the origin of semaphoring.\nThis battle caused the North to realize that the conquering of the\nSouth was not the easy task that it had predicted or had assumed.\nTheir military slogan \"On to Richmond\" became a military challenge\nrather than an accepted conclusion.\nPresident Lincoln had declared a blockade of the Southern ports as\nsoon as the war had started. The Federal Navy Yard at Norfolk was\ncaptured by the Confederates without resistance. The United States\nships were only twelve in number at the beginning of the war, but\nothers were quickly constructed. The Confederates hoped to keep\nthe James River open at all times. They needed ships badly, having\nhad no navy to draw upon for ships. When the Federal employees had\nabandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard, they had sunk a wooden frigate\ncalled the \"Merrimac.\" Governor Letcher of Virginia ordered that\nthis ship be raised and be converted into an effective, usable\nfrigate. Lieutenant John M. Brooke, John L. Porter, W. P. Williamson\nand others planned together for a converted ship. Finally, the\nhull of the old ship was covered with pine, oak and iron plates\nfrom the famous Tredegar Iron Works of Richmond. It was equipped\nwith ten guns and an inexperienced crew under the ex-United States\nNaval Commander, Franklin Buchanan. This iron-clad vessel was\nrenamed the \"Virginia,\" and it traveled to Hampton Roads to attack\nthe Federal fleet on March 8, 1862. When it first received gunfire\nfrom a Federal ship, the shots surprisingly glanced off its sides.\nThe vessel moved very slowly. When at close range, it pierced the\n\"Cumberland\" with its iron ram causing it to sink. The next day,\nmuch to its surprise, it was matched by a Union ship, the \"Monitor,\"\ndesigned by John Ericsson, which was ironclad, smaller, more agile\nand newly constructed throughout. The ships fired upon each other,\nbut they could not inflict serious damage. The Battle of the\n\"Monitor\" and the \"Virginia\" (formerly \"Merrimac\") was a draw or\nindecisive from a victory point of view. However, it is important\nhistorically as the first battle of ironclad vessels in the United\nStates. The \"Virginia\" was later blown up when the Confederates\nevacuated Norfolk.\nOn March 23 of the same year, \"Stonewall\" Jackson became the\naggressor and attacked a Union force at Kernstown, near Winchester.\nHowever, when one of his brigade became short of ammunition, he had\nto retreat southward. This battle was the beginning of Jackson's\n\"Valley Campaign.\"\nBeginning on April 5 and continuing for approximately one month,\nan important siege took place at Yorktown. After a line of\nfortifications had been erected across the Peninsula from the\nWarwick River to Yorktown by the Confederate Commander John B.\nMagruder, General Joseph E. Johnston entrenched his army here.\nUnion General George B. McClellan coming from Fort Monroe besieged\nthe area for weeks and finally mounted his large size guns. With\nthis action, Johnston withdrew since he was not equipped for such\nheavy fighting. As General Johnston's forces were retreating from\nYorktown, they met an advance section of McClellan's army about one\nmile east of Williamsburg. Johnston was forced to fight at this\ntime because he did not want them to capture his wagon train. Both\narmies fought valiantly, and neither side could get the advantage of\nthe other. When night came, after a rainy day of fighting, Johnston\nretreated westward toward Richmond under cover of darkness. Two days\nlater, Union General W. B. Franklin attempted to intercept Johnson\non his retreat toward Richmond by landing just south of West Point\non the eastern bank of the York River. However, General G. W. Smith\ncame to Johnston's rescue and successfully drove Franklin forces\nback to the York River in order that Johnston could continue on his\nway to Richmond.\nOn May 8, 1862, \"Stonewall\" Jackson decided to prevent two Union\ngenerals, John C. Fremont and Nathaniel P. Banks, from combining\ntheir forces. He selected a position on a mountain top near\nMcDowell, a village in Highland County. When Fremont's troops\narrived under the leadership of General R. H. Milroy, they rushed up\nthe sides of the mountain, only to be attacked by the Confederate\nforces under Jackson and driven back to a retreating position.\nOn May 23, Jackson successfully captured the town of Front Royal\nlocated in Warren County--an important area which had been held by\nUnion forces under General Banks. This was a great blow to Banks\nas well as to his troops who rapidly retreated to Winchester. A\nunique feature of this battle was that among the opposing forces was\nthe First Maryland Regiment, U. S. A. being attacked by the First\nMaryland Regiment, C. S. A. (Confederate States of America).\nTwo days later, Jackson rushed Banks at Winchester and surprised his\ntroops to such an extent that they were routed from the town and\ndriven across the Potomac in panic. Jackson who had been ordered by\nLee to strike at Banks unexpectedly and to create the impression\nthat it would be utterly impossible for him to converge with Fremont\nhad carefully and painstakingly carried out such an order. Jackson\nis considered by many as second in military stature only to Lee\nhimself.\nOn May 31-June 1, 1862 the Battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks took\nplace. The left wing of the Union army under McClellan was attacked\nby Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston at Fair Oaks Station and\nSeven Pines, located just east of Richmond. The Confederates won\nat Seven Pines but were driven back at Fair Oaks. The Battle of\nSeven Pines was considered indecisive. General Johnston was wounded\nseriously in this battle, and, at this time, General Robert E. Lee\nwas put in command of the Army of Northern Virginia.\nOn June 8-9, Jackson was slowly retreating up the Shenandoah Valley\nwhen he decided to prevent two Union generals, John C. Fremont and\nJames Shields, from combining forces by checking or holding back\nFremont and then attacking Shields. He sent part of his troops\nunder General Richard S. Ewell to attack the forces under Fremont\nat Cross Keys in Rockingham County. General Ewell defeated the\nforces of Fremont very badly and kept Fremont's help completely\naway from Shields. Jackson then led his remaining forces north\nof Port Republic and encountered Shields there. Bitter fighting\nfollowed. Shields was eventually defeated and driven down the\nShenandoah Valley. This was the final engagement of the so-called\nValley campaign. Jackson had proven himself a great military man\nwho had fought on both sides of the Shenandoah Valley and who had\nmarched approximately 700 miles in seven weeks in almost continuous\nfighting with one or more of the Federal fighting forces. This\ncampaign included five major engagements: Kernstown, McDowell, Front\nRoyal, Winchester and Port Republic. Jackson suffered defeat only at\nKernstown by the Union General James Shields. Jackson then proceeded\ntoward Richmond to prevent General McClellan from entering there.\nOn June 11, General Lee dispatched General James Ewell Brown (\"J.\nE. B.\") Stuart with 1200 cavalry and infantrymen from Richmond\nto obtain information behind the lines of the enemy concerning\nthe specific position of McClellan. In three days, Stuart and his\ncontingent had courageously ridden completely around the army of\nMcClellan, acquiring much valuable information for General Lee. Only\none of Stuart's men was killed during the assignment. Based upon\nthe information furnished by General \"J. E. B.\" Stuart, General Lee\ndecided to advance his army on June 26. The Union forces under\nGeneral Fitz-John Porter had outposts near Richmond just north of\nthe Chickahominy River in the town of Mechanicsville. Confederate\nGeneral Ambrose P. Hill successfully occupied Mechanicsville and\nthen continued to attack General Fitz-John Porter's troops along\nBeaver Dam Creek where he severely defeated them.\nFrom June 26 to July 2, the Seven Days' Battle occurred. This\nincluded the fighting at Mechanicsville and at Gaines' Mill.\nIn these two skirmishes, Lee, after severe fighting, drove the\nright wing of McClellan's army under General Porter across the\nChickahominy River. At Glendale, Confederate Generals James\nLongstreet and Ambrose Hill fought terrific hand-to-hand skirmishes\nwith gun butts and bayonets against the rearguard of the forces\nunder McClellan. At nightfall, the Confederates retreated to Malvern\nHill. On the following day, the forces under McClellan set up\ninfantry fire with cannon fire just preceding it at the top of the\nhill. As the separate Confederate detachments charged up the steep\nhill, they were literally mowed down by the thousands. McClellan\nretreated during the night to Harrison's Landing. In spite of these\nmilitary maneuvers, the army under McClellan was finally forced to\nretreat at the end of the Seven Days' battle, and Richmond, the\n\"City of Seven Hills,\" still remained in Confederate control.\nOn August 9, as Jackson was on his way to encounter the Union\nGeneral, John Pope, who had started southward, he unexpectedly met\nUnion General Nathaniel P. Banks near Cedar Mountain (later called\n\"Slaughter Mountain\"), located just south of Culpeper. Severe\nfighting resulted, and the forces under Jackson had almost been\nannihilated when they received reinforcements which pushed the\nUnion forces back. Since the number of casualties was extremely\nhigh during this battle, Jackson allowed Banks to bury his dead the\nfollowing day.\nOn August 30, the Union troops made a second attempt to capture\nManassas. Jackson defeated Union General Pope in the Second Battle\nof Manassas or Second Battle of Bull Run, after destroying large\nquantities of his supplies. When the Confederate troops had used all\ntheir available ammunition, they used stones until reenforcements\nunder General James Longstreet arrived. These soldiers forced the\nUnion troops under Pope to retreat to Centerville and eventually to\nAlexandria.\nOn September 5, 1862, General Lee, believing the time was suitable\nfor invading the North, advanced across the Potomac River into\nMaryland. As they approached Frederick, they sang and marched to\n\"Maryland, My Maryland\" but this gesture did not result in large\nnumbers of Marylanders joining the Confederate armed troops as they\nhad hoped. After Jackson had successfully captured Harper's Ferry,\nLee moved his remaining troops to Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg,\nMaryland. Severe fighting with McClellan's troops resulted and the\nConfederate forces in this area finally were forced to recross the\nPotomac River into Virginia.\nOn December 13, the Battle of Fredericksburg took place between\nConfederate forces under General Lee and Union forces under General\nAmbrose Burnside. Burnside had supplanted General McClellan. The\ntown itself was used as a battlefield and many of the individual\nhouses were completely destroyed. The city had been evacuated when\nit was first bombarded by Burnside on December 11. He proceeded to\nuse five pontoon bridges to get his troops across the Rappahannock\nRiver. Although this battle resulted in some of the heaviest losses\nof the war, Burnside with his remaining forces was finally driven\nback across the Rappahannock River with the Union casualties twice\nas many as the Confederates.\nOn March 8, 1863, an unusual incident occurred. At midnight, a group\nof Confederate raiders, led by Colonel John S. Mosby, made a raid on\nthe Fairfax Court House which had become federally occupied. Noted\nfor its ruthless guerilla actions, this group of raiders then made a\ndaring invasion of the Union lines and continued to the headquarters\nof Union Brigadier-General Edwin H. Stoughton. After cleverly\ngetting past Stoughton's guards in the middle of the night, Mosby\nhimself quickly captured Stoughton as a choice Confederate prisoner.\nOn April 30, 1863, the Union army under General Joseph E. Hooker,\nBurnside's successor, crossed the Rappahannock River again,\nthis time at Chancellorsville, approximately ten miles north of\nFredericksburg. \"Stonewall\" Jackson was in charge of the attack on\nHooker at Chancellorsville and his troops were forcing back the\ntroops under Hooker when fate seemed to take a hand. On May 2,\n\"Stonewall\" Jackson had ridden beyond his own line of battle and was\nreturning at dusk when he was mistaken for one of the enemy and was\nfired upon by a group of his own soldiers. He was wounded in the\nleft shoulder, forearm and right hand and had to have his left arm\namputated the next day. He was mortally wounded and died on May 10.\nHis death was a great shock to the Confederate forces. General A.\nP. Hill had also been wounded at Chancellorsville. \"J.E.B.\" Stuart\nvoluntarily took command of the corps originally under Jackson and\nby his own audacious actions successfully led them in pursuit of\nthe Union forces under Hooker, as Jackson had originally planned.\nAttacked by troops from the west under Stuart and by forces from the\neast under Lee, Hooker and his army were finally driven back across\nthe Rappahannock River.\nOn June 9, the famous Confederate cavalry leader, \"J.E.B.\"\nStuart, met in combat the great Union cavalry leader, General\nAlfred Pleasanton at Brandy Station, near Culpeper. Stuart had\nbeen on a scouting trip between the Union forces and Washington,\nseeking information for the proposed advance of Lee to Gettysburg;\nPleasanton had been seeking Confederate information for General\nGeorge G. Meade, who had succeeded Hooker in command of the Union\nArmy. Both cavalry groups consisted of approximately 10,000 troops\neach. Excellent horsemanship was displayed in this action with\nsabers as the chief weapons. Pleasanton and his men inflicted much\ndamage and then left in orderly fashion. Stuart withstood the\nsurprise attack very well and did not retreat in a panic, as might\nhave been expected. Since the Unionists lost more men than did\nthe Confederates in this practically evenly-matched fighting, the\nBattle of Brandy Station is considered as a notable victory for\n\"J.E.B.\" Stuart and his men because Pleasanton had a highly skilled\ngroup of infantrymen. This battle was the first real cavalry battle\nof the War between the States. It is considered by many military\nstrategists as the greatest cavalry battle of the nineteenth\ncentury. As soon as his battle ended, Stuart made another famous\nride directly behind the Federal fighting lines. He was later\ncriticized for this trip, however, because he had not been ordered\nto make such a trip and was badly needed by Lee at this time to\nscreen planned operations and to keep Lee informed of the activities\nof Meade and his troops.\nFrom June 13 to June 15, 1863, a second Battle of Winchester\noccurred. Union General R. H. Milroy was forced to evacuate\nWinchester and retreat across the Potomac due to the hard fighting\nof Confederate General Richard S. Ewell whose troops had captured\nnot only valuable cannon and wagons but also approximately 4,000\nUnion soldiers.\nAt the beginning of the War between the States, forty western\ncounties of Virginia preferred not to secede from the Union.\nConsequently, when Virginia joined the Confederacy, a majority\nof the residents of the western counties voted to secede from\nConfederate Virginia at a special Wheeling convention. They formed\na separate Unionist Virginia government and selected Francis H.\nPierpont as their Governor. They had already chosen two United\nStates Representatives from their Virginia government and they\nproceeded to elect two United States Senators. State officers of\nthe Unionist Virginia government were required to take an oath of\nallegiance to the federal government. This Pierpont government\nwas accepted by the President of the United States and Congress\nas the official government of Virginia. Three months later, at a\nsecond Wheeling convention, the strong desire on the part of many\nresidents of this area to become a separate state in the Union\nresulted in Pierpont's calling together his legislature which gave\nthe necessary consent for the creation of an independent state from\nwithin the original state of Virginia government boundaries. The\nnew area was first called \"Kanawha\" but later the name was changed\nto West Virginia. On June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted\nas the thirty-fifth state to the Union. Although this procedure\nwas apparently illegal and unconstitutional because the United\nStates Constitution provides that no new state can be formed within\nthe jurisdiction of any other state without the consent of the\nstate legislature so involved, President Lincoln and the United\nStates Congress overlooked this technicality because of a need for\nmilitary and political expediency in wartime. Governor Pierpont\nand his Unionist government in August 1863 changed the location\nof his \"restored\" or \"reorganized\" government from Wheeling to\nAlexandria, which he termed the West Virginia capital city at that\ntime. Alexandria maintained this West Virginia capital city status\nuntil the end of the war and the residents of Alexandria were\nforced to live under the provisions of a Pierpont-drafted \"state\"\nconstitution. Later, Berkeley County and Jefferson County were\nannexed to West Virginia by November 1863 and became an official\npart of the state of West Virginia. Eventually, Virginia lost fifty\ncounties altogether to West Virginia, approximately one-third of its\ntotal land area, with their human and natural resources as well as\ntheir financial support.\nAfter the victories of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Lee\ndecided to cross the Potomac again and invade the north once more.\nWhen Lee found out that a large Union force under the command of\nGeneral George G. Meade, who had replaced General Joseph Hooker,\nwas at Frederick, Maryland, Lee decided to center his forces at\nGettysburg, Pennsylvania. On July 1, 1863, the Confederate forces\nattacked Meade's forces and made temporary gains. Two days later,\nthree Confederate brigades commanded by General George E. Pickett\nadvanced to the Federal cannon center, now called Cemetery Ridge,\nwhere mass slaughter of the Confederates took place. On July 4,\nthe remaining Confederates returned sadly across the Potomac\nRiver into Virginia. Approximately two weeks after the Gettysburg\ndefeat, a surprise attack on Wytheville, Virginia, was thwarted by\nthe courageous efforts of Molly Tyres who rode rapidly over forty\nmiles of mountain road between Tazewell and Wytheville to warn the\ninhabitants of the coming attack. Thus, did Virginians--military\nand civilian--strive to help the Confederate cause in which they so\nstrongly believed.\nOn May 5 and 6, 1864 the so-called Battle of the Wilderness was\nfought in the heavily forested terrain of Spotsylvania County. As\nGeneral R. S. Ewell was returning his forces from Fredericksburg\nto Orange, he encountered General Ulysses S. Grant who had become\ncommander of the Union army. At the same time forces under General\nAmbrose P. Hill encountered the left wing force under Grant which\nresulted in terrific fighting within the dense woods of the\nwilderness. As the left wing force under Grant was breaking through\nthe forces under Hill, General James Longstreet approached and\nforced the Union troops back to Spotsylvania Courthouse, southwest\nof Fredericksburg. Grant retreated in this direction in an attempt\nto keep Lee away from Richmond. However, Lee was ahead of Grant.\nAlthough Grant tried repeatedly from May 8 to May 18 to break\nthrough the Confederate lines at Spotsylvania with exceptionally\nheavy musketry fire causing thousands of casualties, he was unable\nto penetrate Lee's lines. Therefore, he moved southward to the North\nAnna River.\nIn the meantime, on May 10, when General Philip Sheridan tried to\nmake an unexpected rush on Richmond, \"J.E.B.\" Stuart, with only\npart of his cavalry, blocked Sheridan's way at Yellow Tavern and\nsaved the Confederate capital. Stuart was mortally wounded by a\nclose pistol shot in this fighting and he died on May 11, 1864 in\nRichmond. He is considered by many military strategists as the\ngreatest cavalryman in United States history.\nOn May 15, General Franz Sigel, a Union leader, decided to capture\nStaunton in order to ruin the communication system there which Lee\nhad used to be kept informed about activities in the Shenandoah\nValley. He arrived as far as New Market, in Shenandoah County,\nwhen he met Confederate General John C. Breckinridge who had a\ncomparatively small army consisting mostly of young Virginia\nMilitary Institute cadets. They showed the benefits of their\nmilitary training and successfully captured a Union battery. After\nthis had been done, General Breckinridge advanced, defeated Sigel\nand drove him down the Shenandoah Valley.\nOn May 23-27, 1864, the North Anna River in Hanover County became\nthe next area of military concentration. General Lee and General\nGrant were on opposite sides of the river. Although the forces\nled by Grant were able to cross the river at various intervals,\nthey were unable to penetrate the forces led by Lee. Consequently,\nGrant turned southwest and proceeded to march to Cold Harbor,\napproximately ten miles north of Richmond. When Grant arrived at\nCold Harbor, he decided to have an all-out offensive against the\nforces of Lee at this location. His attempt was in vain, however,\nand he received very heavy losses on June 3. This caused him to\nretreat to the James River south of Richmond.\nOn June 11, 1864 there was an important cavalry battle at\nTrevillians Station, in Louisa County, between Union General Philip\nSheridan and Confederate cavalrymen led by Wade Hampton and Fitzhugh\nLee. Sheridan had been trying to reach Union General Hunter who\nwas on his way to Lynchburg. After heavy fighting on both sides,\nSheridan was defeated and retreated eastward.\nIn the meantime, after General Grant had found it impossible to\npenetrate the lines established by Lee north of Richmond, he had\ncrossed the James River south of Richmond and had set up camp on\nthe outskirts of Petersburg. On June 15, 1864, Confederate General\nBeauregard held the forces under Grant back for three days until\nreenforcements under Lee arrived. Fighting continued between these\ntwo groups until April of the following year. During this siege,\nthe Union forces decided to make a tunnel under the Confederate\ndefenses which surrounded the city of Petersburg and to blow up\nthe fortifications via a mine blast. Some Pennsylvania coal miners\nin one Union regiment were assigned the task of making the tunnel\nand laying the mine. On July 30, 1864 the mine was exploded, and\nthe shape of the area after the explosion resembled a huge crater\nof a volcano. For this reason, this action is often referred to as\nthe Battle of the Crater. Two hundred Confederate soldiers lost\ntheir lives due to the explosion. However, as the Union soldiers\nwere ordered to charge up the sides of the recently carved crater,\nthey found them too steep and while they were struggling to get out\nof the crater, about 4,000 Unionists lost their lives. The Union\nmen could not see from behind the lines and continued to advance\naccording to their orders into the crater until the crater was\npractically filled with struggling Union soldiers. The remaining\nUnionists were driven at the point of bayonets out of the crater\nback to their own lines.\nWhile the Petersburg siege was taking place, Lynchburg became\nthe next objective of the Union forces. When General Jubal Early\nreached Charlottesville on his mission to block Union General\nHunter, he learned that Hunter was heading for Lynchburg, the\nchief center of supplies of the Army of Northern Virginia and its\ncenter of communications. Early's forces in this battle consisted\nof two extremes in age: very young men cadets from the Virginia\nMilitary Institute and older men whose hair locks were so white\nthat they were nicknamed \"Silver grays.\" The fighting lasted from\nthe afternoon of the 17th to the end of the next day when Hunter\nwithdrew unexpectedly to the west. Early pursued him down the\nShenandoah Valley and across the Potomac River to the outskirts of\nthe Federal capital. Since Early, however, was not prepared for a\nfight on Washington, D. C., he returned to Winchester.\nAt approximately noon, on September 19, 1864, General Early\nsurvived a surprise attack by General Sheridan and his forces near\nWinchester. Early, in a victorious mood, even turned the tables\non the attackers and attacked them. Much to his surprise at three\no'clock of the same day, Sheridan returned and badly defeated Early,\ndriving him back to Winchester and eventually to a retreat up the\nShenandoah Valley. Sheridan, whose forces had been savagely attacked\nby some Confederate guerilla bands, now retaliated by destroying\nhouses, barns and foodstuffs and by capturing or killing livestock.\nThe valley was completely devastated by his destructive campaign.\nOne month later, however, Early made a surprise crossing of a branch\nof the Shenandoah River and drove the forces of Sheridan northward\nfrom Cedar Creek in Frederick County. As Sheridan and his forces\nwere fleeing, Union reenforcements arrived under the leadership of\nGeneral Horatio Wright. The combined forces of Sheridan and Wright\nattacked the troops of Early and drove them from the area in great\nchaos. This victory was the shortest victory in the War between the\nStates.\nDuring the war, several attempts had been made by the Union\nforces in the Shenandoah Valley to capture and destroy the Salt\nWorks at Saltville, located in southwestern Virginia. In 1864,\nthe Confederate General John H. Morgan with a small cavalry\nforce successfully repulsed a Union force under General William\nAverell. On December 18, 1864, however, the salt mines and the\nSalt Works were destroyed by a small detachment of Union forces\nwho were ordered to Saltville while the Confederates were engaged\nin severe fighting with the major Union troops at nearby Marion.\nThe destruction of the Salt Works was significant because this\nlocation had furnished the principal source of salt supply for the\nConfederacy.\nIn spite of the many Unionist casualties at the Crater in 1864,\nGrant continued to keep his army near Petersburg. Finally, both\nsides made their camp there for the winter. General William Mahone\nwas the Confederate general in charge of the Petersburg defense at\nthis time. While the winter passed, the Union forces kept receiving\nenforcements while the Confederate forces had no reenforcements. As\nthe Union forces were increased over a large area, the Confederates\nwere forced to station their meager forces farther apart. There\nwas a scarcity of food and clothing for the Confederates; the cold\nclimate was most uncomfortable and demoralizing for them. On April\n2, General Grant succeeded in breaking through the Confederate\nlines. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, was informed\nwhile attending services at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond\nthat Petersburg could be held no longer by the Confederate forces.\nThe Virginians knew that, if and when Petersburg fell, Richmond\nwould fall next because Petersburg was the key to Richmond. The\nnext day, April 3, Richmond fell. As General Richard S. Ewell and\nhis Confederate troops evacuated the city, they burned bridges and\nlarge tobacco and cotton warehouses to prevent the Union forces from\nreceiving beneficial goods. However, a surprising wind spread the\nflames rapidly and resulted in approximately thirty million dollars\nworth of damage to the City of Richmond.\nThree days later, the final battle of the Army of Northern Virginia\noccurred at Sailor's Creek near Farmville. The rearguard of Lee's\nArmy on the way to Lynchburg was completely surrounded and attacked\nby Unionists. The Confederates lacked equipment, especially cannon,\nand were quickly overpowered by artillery fire. In the mass\nsurrender which resulted, two generals were captured: R. S. Ewell\nand Custis Lee, son of General Robert E. Lee.\nWhile the rearguard of Lee's army was retreating toward Lynchburg,\nthe rest of his army was retreating from Petersburg. On April 8,\n1865, two Confederate corps consisting of starved, poorly equipped\nsoldiers under General John B. Gordon and General James Longstreet\narrived at a village called Appomattox Court House. When General\nLee arrived, he noticed that his men were actually surrounded and\nfar outnumbered by General Grant's Army of the Potomac. He had been\ncorresponding with Grant concerning a surrender ever since the fall\nof Petersburg. Lee, realizing the futility of the comparatively\nsmall group of poorly equipped troops which he now commanded against\nGrant's large army, asked for an official meeting at Appomattox\nCourt House. The meeting took place at noon on April 9, 1865, on\nPalm Sunday in the parlor of Wilmer McLean's House. General Lee and\nColonel Charles Marshall, one of Lee's staff members and a most\ndistinguished officer, represented the Army of Northern Virginia\nat the meeting while General Grant and fourteen federal officers\nincluding General George A. Custer and Major General Philip H.\nSheridan constituted the remaining membership of the famous meeting.\nThe contrasting appearance of the two leaders was very noticeable:\nGrant, the victor, appeared straight from the battlefield in a\ndusty, fatigue uniform of a private without side arms and Lee,\nthe vanquished, appeared in a new dress uniform of a Confederate\ngeneral--the only one he owned after his personal effects had been\nburned in a wagon raid during an earlier retreat. Although the\ntwo leaders had had only casual meetings in their earlier years,\ntheir previous acquaintance seemed to lighten the tenseness of\nthe situation. After an exchange of formal greetings and general\nconversation, the talks gradually shifted to a discussion of peace\nterms of surrender.\nThe terms have been described as most fair and generous and they\nincluded the following: parole was given to the Confederate officers\nand soldiers with the understanding that they were not to take\nup arms against the United States during the period of exchange,\nmilitary weapons were to be relinquished to Union military officers\nwith the exception of the side-arms belonging to the Confederate\nofficers and baggage and privately-owned animals were to be kept\nfor the spring plowing. Thus, after four years of brave fighting,\nGeneral Robert E. Lee, in the name of the Army of Northern\nVirginia, graciously accepted with dignity the surrender terms of\nGeneral Ulysses S. Grant and stated that the terms \"will do much\ntoward the conciliation of our people.\" General Grant then proceeded\nto furnish food for the starving Confederate forces. The formal\nsurrender took place the next day. When the Union forces began to\ncheer during the surrendering of Confederate arms, Grant immediately\nordered the cheers to cease with the remark: \"The war is over; the\nrebels are our countrymen again.\" Thus, Virginia, where the first\nblood of the War between the States was shed, was also the scene\nwhere the final negotiations for the conclusion of the war were made.\nFrom April 3 to April 10, 1865, Danville was the capital of the\nConfederacy. As the evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond took\nplace, Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, and his\ncabinet moved to Danville. The present Danville Public Library\noccupies the building known as the Confederate Memorial Mansion\nwhere Jefferson Davis held his last cabinet meeting, making Danville\nthe Confederate capital for a few days. At the time of the meeting,\nthis beautiful building was the home of Major W. T. Sutherlin.\nGovernor William Smith of Virginia also evacuated from Richmond to\nLynchburg where the state archives had been sent earlier.\nAfter the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, Jefferson\nDavis and his cabinet fled to Greensboro, North Carolina, and\neventually, to Washington, Georgia, where they finally dispersed.\nDavis was later confined for two years at Fort Monroe, Old Point\nComfort, Virginia, from May 10, 1865 to May 15, 1867. He was finally\nreleased on bail furnished surprisingly by Horace Greeley and other\nindividuals who had strongly opposed Davis and his Confederate ideas\na few years previously.\nAll the remaining Confederate troops had surrendered by the first\nweek of June, and the War between the States had ended. Since a\nmajority of the battles had been fought in Virginia, tremendous\ndamage had been inflicted upon Virginia during the war. The state\nhad been a constant battleground. Virginia troops, however, had\ndistinguished themselves in their excellent fighting tactics,\nand the most brilliant military leaders of the Confederacy were\nVirginia-born.\nNot only from a military viewpoint had the Confederacy welcomed\nthe addition of Virginia within its membership, but also from an\neconomic viewpoint. War munitions had been manufactured in huge\nquantities for the Confederate forces by the Tredegar Iron Works\nof Richmond. Richmond was also the home of the country's largest\nflour mills at that time. Because of its plentiful farm products,\nparticularly wheat and corn, the Shenandoah Valley was called the\n\"Granary of the Confederacy.\"\nEven in defeat, the courageous spirit of the Virginians continued.\nThe r\u00f4le of women in Virginia as well as in the entire South cannot\nbe overemphasized. They had suffered physically, emotionally and\neconomically during the war. They made military uniforms by hand,\nstood by helplessly as their homes and, often, life fortunes were\nburned to the ground, experienced certain types of deprivation\nsuch as a lack of proper food (particularly sugar, salt and meat),\nclothing, shelter and medicinal needs and performed numerous\nphysical household tasks previously done by the Negro slaves\nalthough many of these women were unaccustomed to such hard labor.\nIndividual examples of bravery and courage, far too numerous to\nmention, were common throughout the entire war. A most unusual\ncontribution of the women was their continuous experimentation\nin the discovery of food substitutes: the use of blackberry and\nsassafras leaves for tea; parched wheat, rye and corn for coffee\nbeans; sea water for salt; and corncob ashes for cooking soda. A\nlack of processed candles and kerosene oil left only grease and wax\nto be utilized for making handmade candles. Wood was frequently\nsubstituted for leather and seeds for buttons. Formal education, of\nnecessity, was almost non-existent; with a few exceptions, like the\nVirginia Military Institute, education became solely one of family\ntraining.\nAn incident of special interest was the activity of Sally Tompkins\nof Gloucester who was eventually commissioned by President Jefferson\nDavis as a Captain in the Confederate Army. She had charge of\nRobertson Hospital located in Richmond after she had previously\nused her own money and efforts to get this hospital established\nbecause of the urgent need for a hospital in the Richmond area.\nShe influenced Judge Robertson to lend his house as a hospital\nheadquarters. Later, after the government of the Confederacy assumed\ncontrol of all the hospitals in the Confederacy, President Davis\nappointed an army officer as a director for each one. Recognizing\nthe conscientious efforts of Sally Tompkins in establishing this\nhospital at Richmond, President Davis commissioned her as Captain,\nthe only woman to be commissioned by the Confederate government.\nAt the end of the war, Virginia was in a devastated condition:\nprivate property as well as public property had in many cases been\ncompletely destroyed by fire or by ammunition. Practically all the\nlivestock had been carried away. Family members had been decreased\nin number, and disease and starvation conditions were common\nthroughout the state. Politically, economically, geographically,\nhistorically and socially, the South had been affected: Virginia, in\nthe heart of the most severe battleground area, seemed to base its\nexistence for the future upon the \"survival of the fittest\" theory.\n_The Reconstruction Period and Its Aftermath_\nReturning Virginia soldiers found some houses completely destroyed\nand large sections of land completely laid to waste. With little, if\nany, livestock left and with farm tools missing, the serious problem\nof reconstruction and rehabilitation can be easily understood.\nRailroad tracks and bridges had been demolished; transportation\nfacilities in some areas were almost non-existent. Even fences, so\nimportant to livestock raising, had been entirely demolished in most\ninstances. So hopeless did a recovery appear to many Virginians that\na few men proposed migration to Mexico rather than to start anew\nwith such poor living conditions.\nGeneral Robert E. Lee still showed his leadership qualities when\nhe beseeched several Virginians, including Matthew Fontaine Maury,\nthe brilliant marine cartographer, not to abandon Virginia when the\nstate needed all her sons so badly. Maury was so impressed by the\nplea of Robert E. Lee that he rejected offers of employment from\nforeign countries which were familiar with his broad, oceanographic\nknowledge. Instead, he accepted the chairmanship of the Meteorology\nDepartment of the Virginia Military Institute. Robert E. Lee,\nhimself, had been offered various employment opportunities but the\nhonor which he deemed the highest of all was the position offered to\nhim as President of Washington College at Lexington. Lee's financial\ngain from this position was to be a sum of $1500 per year plus a\nhouse and a garden. He humbly accepted the position and was allowed\nto keep his faithful horse, \"Traveler,\" with him in a stable built\nadjacent to the President's house. From September 1865 until October\n1870, Robert E. Lee served as President of Washington College.\nLee had two objectives which he hoped personally to achieve: (1) the\nlessening of the hatred which then existed between the North and the\nSouth so that all Americans might work together in unity for peace\nand progress, and (2) the education of youth in such a manner as to\nmake them capable of living as successful citizens of the United\nStates. With his deep idealism, Lee was also a practical man. When\nhe recognized the interest of many young men in writing, editing\nand publishing newspapers, he included a course in journalism at\nWashington College. This was the first college journalism class\noffered in the United States. He was also responsible for the\norigin of the honor system whereby a student is on his personal\nhonor to refrain from cheating and is also honor-bound to report\nany individual seen violating such code; this system is now used in\nnumerous institutions of learning. Many of the current attributes\nof this college are traceable to the administration of Robert E.\nLee. In 1871, the name of the college was changed to Washington\nand Lee University in honor of two Virginians who made numerous\ncontributions to American culture.\nAfter the war had ended, a most unusual situation existed in\nVirginia. The \"Restored Government\" under Governor Francis Harrison\nPierpont claimed to be the official government of Virginia although\nhe and his cohorts were responsible for dividing the State of\nVirginia and actually had set up an illegal Unionist Virginia\ngovernment at Wheeling. President Lincoln, however, had at one time\nstated that \"The government that took Virginia out of the Union is\nthe government that should bring her back.\" He suggested that the\npresent Governor of Virginia at that time, William Smith, should be\npresent to ratify such procedure. However, U. S. Secretary of War\nEdwin Stanton persuaded Lincoln to withdraw this offer. Lincoln's\nuntimely death on April 14, 1865, when he was assassinated by John\nWilkes Booth at the Ford Theater in Washington, was a real blow to\nthe South in general because he was much more conciliatory toward\nthe South than the majority members of the Congress who were radical\nabout their military victory over the South. It is interesting to\nnote that, fifteen days later, John Wilkes Booth was shot to death\nin a burning barn on the Garrett Farm near Port Royal, Virginia.\nOn May 9, 1865, President Andrew Johnson officially recognized\nthe \"Restored Government\" of Virginia, which had relocated in\nAlexandria, and also recognized Pierpont as the Provisional Governor.\nOn June 15, 1865, a Freedman's Bureau headed by General Orlando\nBrown was established in Virginia. The Bureau was supported by the\nUnited States Government and had charge of the interests, aid,\nprotection and guidance of the Negroes. This bureau distributed\nfood rations and clothing to the Negroes and provided educational\nopportunities for them. Originally founded to help newly freed\nNegroes, the Freedmen's Bureau soon became overshadowed with\npolitical activities and severe radicalism with strong racial\nprejudices resulted.\nFrom June 19 to June 23, 1865, Governor Pierpont had changed\nhis headquarters from Alexandria to Richmond and his \"General\nAssembly\" of twelve representatives held meetings there. They\nendorsed Lincoln's plan of reconstruction and were rejoicing at\nthe comparatively easy way in which Virginia was going to be\nrestored to the Union. In the meantime, the radical Congress in\nWashington believed that the Confederate States had left the Union\nvoluntarily and should not be allowed to return until they had\nfulfilled specific conditions. When the State of Virginia sent her\nofficially-elected representatives to Congress, they were refused\nadmission. Nevertheless, Congress did allow the Virginia General\nAssembly to meet in regular session, and one of the measures passed\nby this group consisted of a formal appeal to West Virginia to\nreunite with the original State of Virginia.\nOn March 2, 1867, Congress under the Reconstruction Act of 1867,\ndivided the ex-Confederate states (with the exception of Tennessee\nwhich had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment providing citizenship\nfor the Negroes) into five military districts, each of which was\nunder the command of a Major-General of the United States Army.\nLater, on March 23, the Commonwealth of Virginia became Military\nDistrict No. 1, and General John M. Schofield became the first\nmilitary Governor of District No. 1 in 1867. Since Pierpont had been\nreelected Governor of Virginia in 1864 for a four-year term, he\nwas accepted as the civilian Governor by the radical Congress, but\nsubject to the authority of the military commander.\nOn December 3, 1867, a convention was held in Richmond for the\npurpose of writing a state constitution which would be accepted\nby the Federal Congress. A large majority of the representatives\nattending were radicals. Membership included twenty-five Negroes,\nindividuals of foreign birth who had drifted into the State of\nVirginia after the War between the States, many northerners who had\ncome South to enter politics and a few eligible white men who had\nchanged to Republicanism. White men of the South who had held high\npublic office before the War between the States and those who had\nhelped or participated in the Confederacy in any way were barred\nfrom voting or taking part in the Constitutional Convention. Since\nthe chairman or president of this convention was Federal Judge\nJohn C. Underwood, the convention is sometimes referred to as the\nUnderwood Convention. The measures passed by these members were so\nradical that even General Schofield himself appeared personally\nbefore the convention and pleaded with the members to repeal a\nclause, drafted by the convention delegates, which disfranchised\napproximately 95% of the male white population of Virginia and\ndisqualified them from holding office and from serving on juries.\nHis plea, however, was ignored.\nAt this time, a Committee of Nine Virginians was formed at the\nsuggestion of Alexander H. Stuart. The chief objectives of this\ncommittee were to observe political developments in Virginia and to\ndetermine the appropriate time to report to Washington on the state\nof events in order to obtain a more favorable method for Virginia\nto re-enter the Union. They bluntly stated that the Virginians\nwere definitely opposed to full Negro suffrage and declared that\nmany states other than the southern states, such as Kansas, Ohio,\nMinnesota, Michigan and Connecticut, had refused to enfranchise the\nNegro.\nGeneral Schofield prevented the planned election of the Underwood\nConvention from taking place in June by refusing to appropriate\nmoney for election expenses. Such postponement gave the Committee\nof Nine an opportunity to obtain public opinion backing before\nthe Senate voted for the Underwood Constitution. The House of\nRepresentatives had already voted in favor of it immediately before\nthe Christmas recess occurred. A representative of the Committee\nof Nine stated before Congress that the Committee advocated the\nacceptance of full Negro suffrage as inevitable in order that\nconstitutional representative government might be restored at once.\nChairman Stuart had already successfully achieved the support of the\nBoston \"Advertiser,\" the Chicago \"Tribune,\" the New York \"Times\"\nand the New York \"Tribune.\" President Grant, who had succeeded\nPresident Johnson, suggested that, when the election took place in\nVirginia, the Underwood Constitution be voted upon first and then\nthe test oath. As a result of the test oath, only individuals who\nhad never taken arms against the Union and had never given aid or\ncomfort to the Confederacy would be eligible to vote or to hold\noffice. Likewise, it was suggested that the extension of the white\ndisfranchisement be voted separately. When the election took place\non July 6, 1869, the Underwood Constitution was adopted, but the two\nseparate items mentioned above were defeated.\nGilbert C. Walker, a conservative Republican from New York and\nPennsylvania, was appointed on September 21, 1869 as Governor of\nVirginia by General Canby, a successor of General Schofield. On\nOctober 8, 1869 the newly-elected General Assembly ratified the\nFourteenth Amendment--\"All persons born or naturalized in the United\nStates are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein\nthey reside ...\" and the Fifteenth Amendment--\"The right of citizens\nof the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the\nUnited States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous\ncondition of servitude.\" Congress then approved the new state\nconstitution, and Virginia was officially re-admitted into the Union\non January 26, 1870.\nOne of the biggest problems facing Governor Walker was the extremely\nhigh debt of approximately forty-five million dollars which faced\nthe state. The Underwood Constitution had provided for numerous\nadditional office positions in an attempt to force the New England\nTownship plan upon the Virginia County plan and to create positions\nfor the many \"Carpetbaggers\" (northern politicians who came south\nto gain control of the local governments) and \"Scalawags\" (southern\npoliticians who helped the \"Carpetbaggers\" get control). This\nincreased the cost of state government. To remedy this situation,\nthe General Assembly decreased its total membership approximately\none-fourth to help reduce expenses.\nPrior to the war, Virginia had embarked upon an extensive program\nof internal improvements which under normal circumstances would\nhave paid for itself eventually and which during the war had\naccumulated much unpaid interest on the bonded debt. This financial\nburden would seem secondary to the tremendous poverty of the\nVirginians themselves at the end of the war. However, the General\nAssembly which had met prior to the adoption of the Underwood\nConstitution pledged the payment of all the ante-bellum debt\nplus the interest, even though Virginia had lost one-third of its\ntaxable assets because of the separation of West Virginia. Some of\nthe members still hoped and actually believed that West Virginia\nmight return to the fold of Virginia after the war had ended. At the\nGovernor's suggestion, in order to obtain revenue, the state sold\nits railroad holdings at a great reduction. Another method was the\nexchange of certain bonds for new ones at six per cent interest for\ntwo-thirds of the amount of the old bonds. For the additional third,\ncertificates were issued endorsed against future settlement with\nWest Virginia. Although these attempts were made to obtain necessary\nrevenue, the amount received was very insufficient, and the state\nactually became more indebted because of them.\nAnother grave problem which faced the state at this time was the\nestablishment of a state system of free public schools. This action\nwas based upon a provision of the Underwood Constitution of 1869\nand although having a most worthy purpose, the action was a costly\none. Schools were to be furnished for the Negroes (approximately\n30% of the total Virginia population) as well as for the whites,\nand this condition made the problem more difficult since there was\na large number of illiterate Negroes. Dr. William H. Ruffner of\nLexington, the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction,\nwas elected by the General Assembly when the new state public\nschool system was organized in 1870. The formidable task facing\nhim can be better appreciated when one considers the creation of\nan entire public school system with very little money and few\ntrained teachers available. The interest from the Literary Fund,\nall the capitation or poll tax, a new state property tax and a new\none dollar annual tax on each male citizen twenty-one years and\nolder were to constitute the financial support of the public school\nsystem. Local school and capitation taxes were optional with each\ncounty and public school district. Dr. Ruffner received much help\nfrom Dr. Benjamin Mosby Smith who helped him formulate a program and\nat the end of the first year, twenty-nine hundred schools were in\noperation with three thousand teachers employed to teach one hundred\nand thirty thousand students. From time to time, the schools were\nseriously threatened when the interest on the state debt was so high\nthat there was little surplus left for educational purposes. Dr.\nRuffner fought not only to keep the school funds from being used for\nother state activities but also to encourage Virginians themselves\nto favor a free public school system.\nIn 1868, General Samuel Chapman Armstrong was responsible for\nthe founding of the Hampton Institute at Hampton, an educational\ninstitution whose primary objective was the education of the\nex-slaves. The American Missionary Society, at the suggestion of\nGeneral Armstrong, purchased a farm in Hampton where the Federal\nGovernment had established a hospital during the War between the\nStates. The school began with General Armstrong as the principal,\ntwo additional teachers and fifteen students. Two years later, it\nbecame the Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute. Since General\nArmstrong believed in education of the \"head, the heart, and the\nhands,\" training of the mind, character training, and vocational\ntraining were emphasized with the over-all objective of preparing\nthe students to earn a living. The now-famous Hampton singers,\noriginally led by General Armstrong, made their first tour through\nEngland and New England in 1870.\nIn the same year, Richmond was the scene of a dreadful disaster.\nWhen a sensational political case was about to be tried by the\nVirginia Supreme Court of Appeals which held its sessions above\nthe Old Hall in the State Capitol, the gallery in the court room\ncollapsed due to the weight of the spectators. It crashed so hard\nthat it broke through the ceiling of the Old Hall of the House of\nDelegates causing the death of sixty-two persons and injury to\ntwo hundred and fifty-one other individuals. This tragic incident\nfocused attention on the need for more careful supervision of the\nconstruction and maintenance of buildings, especially where crowds\nare likely to congregate.\nIn the following year, the United States Supreme Court, which has\noriginal jurisdiction in the settlement of disputes between two or\nmore states of the Union, was asked to settle a controversy between\nVirginia and West Virginia concerning the joint boundary line.\nThe Supreme Court held that the new State of West Virginia was\nvalid and agreed with West Virginia as to the territory within her\njurisdiction. At the same time, the Virginia General Assembly passed\nan act whereby the state debt of approximately forty-five million\ndollars was to be funded. West Virginia was to be responsible for\nfunding one-third of this amount since she had helped accumulate\nthis debt before her separation from Virginia.\nIn 1872, the Virginia General Assembly appropriated money to\nestablish an agricultural college at Blacksburg. This college was\ncreated as a result of the Morrill Act of Congress whereby federal\nfunds were appropriated by Congress and awarded to colleges which\nemphasized the teaching of agriculture and of mechanical arts. The\nfederal funds were received from the money collected from the sale\nof public lands. Therefore, such colleges were called \"land-grant\"\ncolleges. The college of Blacksburg, originally known as Virginia\nAgricultural and Mechanical College, was the first land-grant\ncollege in Virginia and is now known as the Virginia Polytechnic\nInstitute.\nThe recessions which took place in the United States in 1867 and\nin 1869 and the Panic of 1873 indirectly helped Virginia because,\ninstead of devoting much time and effort to Virginia's internal\nproblems as had been planned upon its re-admission to the Union, the\nCongressmen at Washington were busy with the national problem of\ngetting the United States in a more prosperous economic condition.\nWhen the political parties held their gubernatorial conventions\nin Virginia in 1873, the Conservatives nominated General James\nL. Kemper and the Republicans nominated Robert W. Hughes. Kemper\nwon, and the chief issue in the election was the debt problem.\nThe Conservatives had advocated payment of the debt in order to\nmaintain the credit of Virginia in the eyes of the public and to\nassume what they considered a proper obligation. However, some of\nthe Conservatives believed that the debt would have to be lowered\nsomewhat if it were ever to be paid in full and that, from a\npractical standpoint, it would have to be adjusted to the ability\nof the state to pay. This group of Conservatives was called the\n\"Readjusters.\" In 1870, the state had been gerrymandered (districted\npolitically) in an effort to create Negro majorities which would\nguarantee \"carpetbagger\" rule because the \"carpetbaggers\" seemingly\nhad been very helpful to the Negro. The Conservatives who had won\nthe election then enacted some reapportionment laws which resulted\nin the restoration of white rule in the cities. They also took it\nupon themselves to abolish approximately one-third of the local jobs\ncreated by the Underwood Constitution. In 1876, a law was passed\nwhich required the payment of a poll tax before voting in the state\nof Virginia. Although originally this tax was levied for revenue\npurposes, it automatically kept some of the Negroes from the voting\npolls because they could not afford to pay this tax. At the same\ntime another law was passed, disfranchising all voters who had been\nfound guilty at any time of petty larceny. Since this method had\nbeen commonly used by the Negroes directly after their emancipation,\nthis law was criticized by some individuals as discriminatory toward\nthe Negroes and contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment.\nAs time passed, the old question of the state debt loomed more\nimportant and more controversial than ever. The problem had two\ntypes of backers: one group called the \"Readjusters\" who believed\nthat the debt should be drastically reduced or practically\nrepudiated; the other group called the \"Funders\" who believed\nthat Virginia was honor-bound to pay the original debt in full.\nThe \"Funders\" surprisingly enough consisted of the planter and\nmerchant class men whose financial losses had been the greatest\nduring the war. The \"Readjusters\" persuaded the Negroes to adhere\nto their ideas primarily for political reasons. The arguments\ncentered around such issues as: (1) whether the interest on the debt\nshould have been cumulative during the War between the States, (2)\nwhether Governor Walker had greatly over-estimated the potential\nresources of Virginia in considering the capacity of the ability\nof the people to pay, (3) whether the payment of a debt primarily\nbecause the honor of a state is involved is a major factor in an\neconomic world, (4) whether the Federal government had regarded\nthe State of Virginia as \"conquered territory\" and hence should\nassume the ante-bellum debts of this \"conquered territory,\" (5)\nwhether the debt itself should be reduced in all fairness because\nof the severe war property destruction in Virginia and because\none-third of Virginia's entire state area had been reduced by the\ncreation of West Virginia as a separate and permanent state, (6)\nwhether Virginia had been forced by the Federal government to have\nthe status of Military District No. 1 from 1865 to 1870 and hence\nwould the state be held responsible for debts incurred during this\nperiod, and (7) whether local state government debts should be paid\nbefore payment should be made to outside debtors such as those in\nNew York and London. In 1877 Colonel Frederick W. M. Holliday, the\nConservative or \"Funder\" candidate, defeated General William Mahone,\nthe \"Readjuster\" candidate for the Governorship.\nMahone subsequently succeeded in getting himself elected to the\nUnited States Senate in 1879. He became so politically influential\nthat he eventually secured the nomination and the election of\na \"Readjuster\" Governor for Virginia in 1881 and a Republican\nLieutenant-Governor. At this time, he publicly declared himself a\nRepublican. His \"Readjuster\" friends gained control of the General\nAssembly and removed several state government officials solely for\npolitical reasons. Mahone was considered responsible for the use of\nthe \"Spoils\" System throughout the State of Virginia. During the\nadministration of a Readjuster Governor, the debt of Virginia, as\ncould be expected, was re-adjusted to approximately $23,000,000.\nSince many of the Readjuster party members consisted of Negroes, the\npoll tax was repealed also. The public school system and even the\ncourt system became infiltrated with politics. Often the responsible\npositions in these fields were filled by employees of political\nability or affiliation rather than by employees with qualifications\npertinent to such positions. After much rioting and corruption,\nMahone's political machine finally lost control of the state in 1883.\nA permanent reminder of the \"Readjuster\" Party was formulated in\n1880 with the creation of Dickenson County from Russell, Wise and\nBuchanan Counties. It was named for one of the leaders of the\n\"Readjuster\" Party, William J. Dickenson. This county has the\ndistinction of being the youngest county in Virginia.\nIn 1892, the state debt problem was settled more satisfactorily\nwhen the balance of the debt was established at a figure lower than\nthe original but higher than the \"Readjuster\" figure and the rate\nof interest was lowered. The creditors and the debtors cooperated\nin this situation, and the credit of Virginia was gradually\nre-established.\nDuring the Reconstruction Period, a great majority of the Republican\nParty members in the South were Negroes. Lincoln, himself, had been\na Republican. Since it was during his administration that the war\nstarted and that the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued,\nthe word \"Republican\" in the South had for many individuals the\nconnotation of a moral and social stigma. So permanent were the\nscars of events of the Republican Reconstruction era that until\n1920, the former seceded states never cast an electoral vote for a\nRepublican candidate in a national election. Thus, a vote solidly or\nunanimously for the Democratic Party resulted and the term \"Solid\nSouth\" came into existence.\nIn the Spanish-American War of 1898, many Virginians fought\nvaliantly for their country. The outstanding contributions of such\nVirginians as Dr. Walter Reed (birthplace, Gloucester County)\nand his colleague, Dr. Robert Powel Page Cooke, in discovering\nthat yellow fever was transmitted to human beings by the bite of\nmosquitoes, Major-General Fitzhugh Lee (nephew of General Robert\nE. Lee) who served as United States Consul-General to Cuba in 1896\nand who was given the command of the Seventh Army Corps in the\nSpanish-American War and Robley Dunglison Evans (Floyd) who was\nCommander of the U.S.S. Iowa at the Battle of Santiago Harbor helped\nconsiderably in the efforts of the United States to win this war.\nBy 1900, although Virginia's population (both white and Negro) had\nincreased at a rapid rate, Virginia ranked seventeenth in population\nin comparison to the other forty-four states in the Union. Virginia\nhad approximately 1,854,000 people including approximately 661,000\nNegroes. However, one-third of the area of the state--which had\nbecome West Virginia--was permanently separated. In addition,\nKentucky had been carved from within the original boundaries of\nVirginia with the consent of the state government.\n_Twentieth Century Developments_\nOn June 12, 1901, a state constitutional convention was held in\nRichmond at the request of Carter Glass, an outstanding Virginia\nstatesman from Lynchburg. The major issue of this convention was the\ndiscovery of a method of reducing the large number of illiterate\nNegro votes which in the 1900 election had outnumbered the white\nvotes in one-third of the counties of the state. Since there was a\nlarge number of illiterate whites in the western mountain regions\nof Virginia, careful consideration had to be given to any proposed\nrestrictions on suffrage so that these inhabitants whose ancestors\nhad fought bravely in the Revolutionary War and in the War between\nthe States would not be severely penalized. Consequently, the\nConstitution of 1902 included the requirement that a poll tax of one\ndollar and fifty cents had to be paid as a qualification for voting.\nFurthermore, a constitutional requirement demanded payment of three\nyears' poll taxes six months before general elections. Since the\nNegroes were financially very poor at this time, this requirement\nindirectly caused a great decrease in the total number of Negro\nvotes cast.\nThis constitution also included an \"understanding clause\"\nprovision which required voters to prove in written statements\ntheir understanding of the government of Virginia. This provision\nwas to be replaced in 1904 by the requirement of each potential\nvoter passing an intelligence test proving that he could properly\ninterpret the constitution. Such provisions prevented many\nuneducated Negroes from participating in elections.\nA State Corporation Commission was created for the first time\nin the Commonwealth to control corporations such as the public\ntransportation companies and the telephone and telegraph companies.\nOther governmental changes provided for in this constitution were:\nthe direct election of the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the State\nTreasurer, the Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration and the\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction by the qualified voters; the\nreplacement of County Courts by Circuit Courts; the constitutional\nrequirement for the political status of a city: an incorporated\ncommunity with a minimum population of 5,000 inhabitants is eligible\nto become an independent city, and, as the name implies, such cities\nare not subject to county administration; the establishment of\nracial segregation in the public schools of Virginia; a considerable\nextension of the powers of the State Board of Education, and a\nchange in the age range used to determine school population as a\nbasis for distributing the common school fund from 5-21 years to\n7-20 years.\nOn May 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was \"proclaimed\" by the\nconvention members, whose delegates voted for its adoption. Although\nthis Constitution was never ratified by the voters themselves, it\nwas later approved by the state legislature. With certain revisions\nwhich were added later, this Constitution of 1902 is the present\nConstitution of the Commonwealth.\nIn spite of the political influence which had been prevalent in\nthe public school system of Virginia in the 1880's, by the early\n1900's numerous educational improvements had resulted: the local\ngeneral public began to favor a public school system; professional\nteacher training methods were developed; a Virginia State Education\nAssociation was formed; simultaneous examinations for teacher\ncertification throughout the state were standardized; state summer\nnormal schools were organized; teacher scholarships were created,\nand education conferences were held.\nThe oft-called \"renaissance\" in Virginia education occurred in 1905.\nA New York educator had encouraged various educational conferences\nto be held in the South in an attempt to improve education in the\nSouth which had lagged far behind the rest of the nation. The\nVirginia Cooperative Education Commission and the leaders of the May\nCampaign of 1905 (so-called because the intensive campaigning took\nplace in the month of May) demanded improved schools, better school\nregulations, an increase in the number of secondary schools and\ninstitutions of higher learning and a revised curriculum. The State\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction at this time was Dr. Joseph\nDupuy Eggleston whose leadership contributed greatly to the success\nof a movement to modernize and improve the educational standards of\nthe State of Virginia. Vocational training (examples, agricultural,\neducational, manual training and domestic economy classes) which\nhad long been discussed by certain educators became a reality,\nspecific legislative appropriations for public high schools were\nmade, public school libraries were established, health checkups for\nabnormalities were instituted in the school program and the number\nof teacher-training schools was increased.\nSuch educational progress was observed that, after five years of\nthe new education planning and of the execution of such plans, a\nspokesman for the Carnegie Foundation remarked that \"Probably no\neducational development in any State of the Union is more remarkable\nthan that which is represented in the Old Commonwealth of Virginia.\"\nPractical education as well as theoretical education was offered\nwith opportunities also available to study improved farming methods.\nIn 1906, Virginia filed suit against West Virginia in the United\nStates Supreme Court concerning a judicial determination of the\namount of money which Virginia should rightfully receive from\nWest Virginia as partial assumption of the state debt accumulated\nwhile West Virginia was still a part of Virginia. Eight additional\nseparate actions were filed against West Virginia by Virginia which\nfinally resulted in an investigation of the financial status of each\narea, the debts incurred and the suggestion of a conference between\nthe two states. West Virginia originally evaded such a conference\nbut, later, appointed a commission to represent the state. More\ndeliberation and delay occurred until 1915 when the indebtedness of\nthe State of West Virginia to the State of Virginia was declared by\nthe United States Supreme Court as $12,393,292.50. Finally, after\ncontinuous postponement and more court judgments, in 1919 a special\nsession of the West Virginia state legislature passed a law which\nprovided for the payment of the sum due Virginia. Over a million\ndollars was paid during 1919, and, by issuing twenty-year bonds, the\nbalance of the debt with interest was paid by 1939.\nIn 1908, the first municipality in the United States to adopt the\nCity Manager form of government was Staunton. After this form of\ngovernment had been successfully employed, many additional cities in\nVirginia and in the other states proceeded to adopt the City Manager\nPlan of local government.\nOn March 4, 1913, Thomas Woodrow Wilson, a native of Staunton, was\ninaugurated as the twenty-eighth President of the United States. He\nwas the eighth Virginia-born individual to attain this high office,\nalthough he had left the state for a college teaching position and\nlater a gubernatorial post. From his experiences as a professor\nof history and as the governor of New Jersey, he had formulated a\npersonal brand of political philosophy which he entitled \"The New\nFreedom.\" He believed that government leaders should act through the\npeople as well as for the people. During his first administration,\nhe signed the famous Federal Reserve Bank Act, authored by U. S.\nSenator Robert Owen, a native Virginian, and Carter Glass, a U.\nS. Representative at that time from Lynchburg. Although he was\nre-elected President in 1916 as a peace candidate, Wilson soon had\nto wage an intensive war against Germany as conditions warranted\nsuch action. He stated his idealism in his famous words \"to make the\nWorld safe for Democracy\" and \"a War to end all Wars.\" His famous\n\"Fourteen Points\" Speech before Congress concerning the war aims of\nthe Allied Powers was constantly referred to during the Armistice\nnegotiations and is still quoted in international conferences. His\npersonal visit to the peace conference at Versailles Palace near\nParis, France--the first personal visit of a President of the United\nStates to such a conference--was history-making in itself. He will\nalways be remembered for his idea of \"A League of Nations,\" the\nforerunner of the United Nations, a project for international peace\nwhich is believed to have caused or, at least, to have hastened his\ndeath due to his strenuous speaking tour on behalf of the League.\nIn 1914, the General Assembly voted for a state-wide law providing\nfor the prohibition of liquor. This law went into effect on November\n1, 1916. At the federal level, the Eighteenth Amendment to the\nConstitution of the United States which prohibited the \"manufacture,\nsale or transportation of intoxicating liquors\" throughout the\nUnited States and its territories was submitted to the states by\nCongress on December 18, 1917. Virginia was the second state to\nratify it.\nDuring World War I, the state contributed 91,623 men to the armed\nforces, many of whom participated in the Somme, St. Mihiel and\nMeuse-Argonne Forest campaigns. Most of the Virginia troops fought\nwith the 80th Infantry Division of the American Expeditionary\nForces. This division was called the Blue Ridge Division because\nthe Blue Ridge Mountains are located in the home states of the men\nfrom Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania who made up this\ndivision. Noted for their bravery, this division was the only\ndivision to enter the front lines three times during the offensive\nand the only one to advance a maximum distance of twenty-two miles\nagainst the enemy between the first offensive and the Armistice.\nMany members of the 29th Infantry Division were Virginians who\nserved in France, particularly during the Meuse-Argonne Forest\ncampaigns. Thirty-six Virginians received the Distinguished Service\nMedal of the United States Army, the French Legion of Honor or the\nCroix de Guerre.\nOn the home-front, World War I caused a tremendous increase in\nbusiness and, in some instances, prompted the construction of war\ncamps in various parts of the state. Camp Lee, near Petersburg,\nwas used as an infantry training base for 50,000 soldiers; Camp\nStuart at Newport News was used chiefly as an embarkation point and\nCamp Humphreys, near Alexandria, was used as a training center for\nengineers. Langley Field, near Hampton, was used as training grounds\nfor pilots; the Hampton Roads area was utilized for construction of\nnumerous United States ships and as naval and military bases.\nThe present city of Hopewell actually owes its city status and\ngrowth to World War I and the construction of a huge munitions\nplant on Hopewell Farm by the E. I. DuPont de Nemours Company. As a\nmatter of fact, the manufacture of fertilizer from nitrogen in the\nair still accounts for the great industrial activity at Hopewell at\nthe present time. During World War I also, the famous Tredegar Iron\nWorks in Richmond manufactured projectiles, explosives, shrapnel\nshells and other war materials of necessity.\nAmong prominent Virginians who played a major role during World War\nI was Admiral David Watson Taylor. Admiral Taylor was chief of the\nNaval Bureau of Construction and Repair (1914-1922) at Washington.\nHe had responsibility for the design and construction of naval\naircraft and he developed a type of flying boat during World War\nI. His contributions were later acknowledged by the establishment\nof the David Taylor Model Basin, a naval activity at Carteret,\nMaryland, near the Virginia border.\nHealth, too, was a critical problem on the home front during the\nwar. For example, a dreadful influenza epidemic occurred followed\nby a severe fuel shortage due to a railroad strike. This condition\ncaused many \"flu\" patients to develop pneumonia and to die. In\nRichmond alone, approximately eight hundred people succumbed during\nthis epidemic period.\nAs a reminder of the sacrifices of Virginians during World War I, at\nWilliam Byrd Park in Richmond, is a 240-foot tower constructed of\npink brick. It is called the Carillon Tower and was erected in 1932\nas a memorial to the war dead.\nIn 1918, women received special recognition in the state. For the\nfirst time, women were admitted to the College of William and\nMary and to the graduate and professional schools of the state\nuniversity, the University of Virginia. It is interesting to note\nthat, in contrast to the educational status accorded women, the\nstate refused to ratify the proposed Nineteenth Amendment to the\nUnited States Constitution. Contrary to this negative attitude\nexpressed in Virginia toward giving women the right to vote, the\nConstitutional Amendment was officially ratified and adopted\nnationwide in 1920. One of the first effects of this amendment in\nVirginia was a legislative enactment requiring all women to pay the\npoll tax.\nVirginia continued to play a key role in international events\nduring this period. For example, in 1926, Navy Lieutenant-Commander\nRichard Evelyn Byrd, a native of Winchester, made the first polar\nflight by flying over the North Pole and back in fifteen and a half\nhours. He then flew over the Atlantic Ocean the following year with\nBert Balcher, Bert Acosta and George Noville. In 1929, he made the\nfirst return flight over the South Pole. Rear Admiral Byrd led\nfour expeditions to the Antarctic and, just prior to his death in\n1957, he was the leader of another expedition to Antarctica called\n\"Operation Deepfreeze\" at which time he was consulted concerning\nmany ideas of importance to the safety and progress of the\nexpedition. During World War II, he did secret work for the United\nStates Government and furnished much valuable information concerning\nterrain of the land which he had mapped on his third Antarctic\nexpedition. He wrote \"Skyward,\" \"Little America,\" \"Discovery,\"\n\"Exploring with Byrd\" and \"Alone\" describing his various\nexplorations. Richard Evelyn Byrd will always be remembered as one\nof the greatest explorers in United States history. An eight-foot\nhigh bronze statue of the late Admiral Richard E. Byrd was recently\nerected on the Virginia side of the Potomac River between the\nArlington Cemetery and the Memorial Bridge. The statue depicts him\nin his middle thirties when he was at the height of his exploration\ncareer. He is clad in a fur outfit and is mounted on a four foot\npedestal with fitting carved maps of the Arctic and Antarctic\nregions and an eagle as a background symbolizing his achievements.\nIn 1926, the famous project now known as the Restoration of\nWilliamsburg began. The original purpose of the restoration was to\nbenefit the people of the present in \"That the Future May Learn\nfrom the Past.\" Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin, the late Rector of Bruton\nParish Church in Williamsburg, was responsible for interesting John\nD. Rockefeller, Jr. in such a project. To date, not only have 350\nbuildings been reconstructed, 82 buildings been restored and 619\nbuildings been torn down, but also many of the early crafts such as\nwigmaking, millinery-making, silversmithing, printing, shoe-making\nand repairing, cabinetmaking, blacksmithing and glassmaking have\nbeen revived. These craft shops are open to the public. A visit to\nthe Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, the Bruton\nParish Church (Episcopal), the Public Gaol, the Magazine, the\nRaleigh Tavern, the Capitol or the Governor's Palace provides an\nappreciation of life as it existed in the colonial period.\nDuring the early 1920's there was much discussion within the state\nconcerning the need for government reorganization at the state\nlevel. During the governorship of Harry F. Byrd (1926-1930),\nconsiderable effort was made to reorganize the state government\nwith the objective of increasing its efficiency. The Reorganization\nAct of 1927 provided that only the executive offices of Governor,\nLieutenant-Governor and Attorney-General were to be elected by\npopular vote; that the state legislature was to have the authority\nto elect the auditor and that the Governor was to appoint other\nexecutive officials with confirmation by the General Assembly. The\nstructure and functions of the various state departments were also\nchanged by this act to make each department more effective. Twelve\nadministrative departments were created, and, in most instances,\ndepartment heads were made appointive positions rather than elective\nones. The twelve departments created were: Finance, Taxation,\nAgriculture and Immigration, Workmen's Compensation, Corporations,\nHighways, Conservation and Development, Health, Public Welfare,\nEducation, Law, and Labor and Industry.\nDuring this same period, the \"Pay-as-You-Go\" system for roadbuilding\nwas adopted. This system means that, instead of floating large\nbond issues to raise revenue for roadbuilding, the state pays for\nthe roads as they are built, with some of the revenue obtained\nfrom gasoline taxes and fees from motor vehicle licenses. During\nthe first few years of the system while adequate funds were being\naccumulated, the state did not have the total mileage of modern\nroads which would have been built more rapidly through borrowing;\nhowever, as the funds increased, the state was able to develop an\nexcellent system of state and local highways. The \"Pay-as-You-Go\"\nsystem has reflected favorably on the state's financial reputation.\nVirginia made national headlines in the Presidential election of\n1928. For the first time since 1872, the Republican set of electors\nin Virginia was chosen by a majority of the Virginia voters.\nConsequently, the Republican Presidential candidate that year,\nHerbert Hoover, received the twelve electoral votes of Virginia.\nVirginia was fortunate in escaping the most severe pangs of the\ndepression years of the 1930's. The great variety of industries\nand occupations kept the Commonwealth from becoming severely\neconomically stricken as was the case of states having one\nspecialized type of economic activity. Surprisingly enough, some\nindustries such as the tobacco industry and the rayon and cellophane\nindustries expanded considerably. In conjunction with the federal\ngovernment's construction program during the depression years as an\nattempt to create new job opportunities, numerous bridges, public\nschool buildings and other structures--such as the Museum of Fine\nArts in Richmond--were built. Economy in government administration\nwas stressed and Governor John G. Pollard (1930-1934) reduced his\nown salary ten per cent for one year as a part of the economy\nprogram. Virginia was one of the three states which was successful\nin maintaining a balanced budget in the depression years of the\n1930's. Although the relief cost in Virginia was below the national\naverage relief, at one point during the depression, over 50,000\nfamilies and single individuals had become dependent upon the dole\nsystem--especially industrial workers in the cities. Job-finding\ncommittees were organized in many sections of the state to stimulate\nre-employment.\nAfter the national census of 1930 had been taken and the results\nhad been tabulated, the state legislature of Virginia passed an act\ndividing the Commonwealth into nine Congressional districts instead\nof its previous ten districts. This decrease took place because of\na smaller increase in population in Virginia in proportion to other\nstates of the United States. This act was found to be objectionable\nby some residents who stated that the new seventh district was\ndisproportionately large. After suit had been filed, the Virginia\nCourt of Appeals declared the act invalid on the grounds that it\ndid not provide for equal representation as required by the United\nStates Constitution. As a result, in the 1932 national election,\nall the United States Representatives from Virginia were elected\nat-large by the whole state electorate rather than by particular\ndistricts. Subsequently, the legislature redistricted properly,\nand at the next election Congressmen from Virginia were chosen by,\nand represented, particular Congressional districts. Like a large\nmajority of the states in the 1932 national election, Virginians\ngave Franklin D. Roosevelt a victory at the polls with a plurality\nof 114,343 popular votes.\nDuring Governor Pollard's administration, the General Assembly\npassed the Optional Forms Act. Under this act, two types of county\ngovernment were made available for selection according to local\npreference: the county-manager form, usually preferred by urban and\nlarge rural county areas and the county-executive form, generally\npreferred by small rural areas. As a result of this act, several\ncounty administrative offices were merged for more efficient and\neconomical management.\nIn August 1933, a special session of the Virginia legislature\nwas held to select delegates for a special convention to vote\non the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States\nConstitution. Although Governor Pollard at first refused to summon\nthe extra session, he was forced by petition of two-thirds of both\nhouses of the General Assembly to do so. Subsequently, the delegates\nfavored the repeal of the amendment by a vote of 96 to 54. The\nvote by the people was actually a referendum vote, but ballots for\nrepeal automatically elected a slate of thirty delegates-at-large\nwho were pledged to a repeal vote. Later, at a special convention,\nthe delegates voted to repeal the Eighteenth Amendment by favoring\nthe Twenty-First Amendment. The General Assembly then created\nits own regulations for the sale of liquor and provided for the\nestablishment of Alcoholic Beverage Control Boards throughout the\nCommonwealth.\nWhen President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Claude A. Swanson\nof Virginia as the first Secretary of the Navy in his cabinet,\nex-Governor Harry F. Byrd was appointed to succeed Swanson as United\nStates Senator. Harry F. Byrd was elected United States Senator at\nthe next national election. Thus, in 1933, Senator Byrd began one\nof the longest periods of continuous service in the United States\nSenate.\nIn 1935, the first national park in Virginia and the second\nnational park east of the Mississippi River was established. It was\ncalled the Shenandoah National Park and was dedicated by President\nFranklin D. Roosevelt. This very scenic park, which now includes\nthe famous Skyline Drive, was made possible by the combined efforts\nof many people: Governor E. Lee Trinkle who publicly advocated the\nestablishment of parks, numerous citizens who willingly donated\nproperty (because Virginia had been informed by the federal\ngovernment that it would have to furnish the land), the state which\nalso contributed land after it had purchased it or condemned it and\nthe federal government which helped financially with appropriations\nand with physical labor furnished by the Civilian Conservation\nCorps. This park has attracted tourists from throughout the nation\nwith its breath-taking mountain scenery and diversity of trees and\nwild flowers.\nVirginia made a very significant contribution to World War II.\nWhen the nation began to mobilize for war, Governor James H. Price\ncreated the Virginia Defense Council. Dr. Douglas Southall Freeman,\na noted author, was appointed chairman of this council, the first\nin the United States. As in previous wars, the Hampton Roads area\nbecame strategically important; navy activities increased rapidly\nin this area; various camps including Camp Lee and Langley Field\nwere re-opened; and production, transportation and consumption\nactivities created new records in quantity and speed. Activities\nat Camp A. P. Hill, Camp Pickett, Newport News, Norfolk,\nAlexandria, Williamsburg, Quantico and Hampton Roads reflected much\nof the war effort of Virginians in this conflict. The Tredegar\nIron Works in Richmond was consigned again to make munitions for\nthe armed conflict. Richmond along with Madison, Wisconsin, was\nselected as a test city for a scrap aluminum drive. The test proved\nmost successful, and the scrap aluminum drives were soon extended\nthroughout the nation. Various federal government offices were\ntemporarily moved to Virginia, such as the United States Patent\nOffice which was moved from Washington to Richmond. Since Richmond\nis located within a one hundred mile radius of the national capital\nand is geographically and strategically situated from a military\nviewpoint, it was designated as a \"critical area.\" During the\n1940-1945 period, Virginia furnished 137,000 men and 3,757 women to\nthe Army (including the Air Force) and 71,091 men and 2,055 women to\nthe Navy (including the Marines). Civilians in Virginia, as in all\nother states, contributed much physical, mental and financial effort\nduring the war in their desire to bring peace again to the world.\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Shrine of Memory: Virginia War Memorial_]\nOne impact of World War II upon state government was action during\nGovernor Colgate W. Darden's term to modify the poll tax requirement\nas applied to Virginia members of the armed forces on active duty.\nA special session of the Virginia legislature in 1944 attempted to\nexempt those persons from poll tax requirements but the judiciary\nnullified this measure as contrary to constitutional provision.\nSubsequently, by referendum, the voters of the state favored the\ncalling of a limited constitutional convention to accomplish the\nobjective. A condition of the referendum restricted the delegates to\nthis convention to act solely upon the soldier vote and to agree not\nto consider, adopt or propose any other law, amendment or revision.\nThe constitutional convention approved a measure which became the\nseventeenth article of the Virginia State Constitution: this new\narticle allowed service men and women on active duty, otherwise\neligible to vote, to vote without payment of a poll tax or without\nfulfillment of the registration requirement.\nSince the end of World War II, war memorials have been erected\nin various communities as an expression of appreciation for war\nsacrifices. The most famous such memorial constructed through state\nor local action has been the state memorial erected in Richmond. A\nmillion dollar white marble edifice known as the \"Shrine of Memory\"\nconsists of a structure twenty-two feet high and includes the names,\netched on glass panels and marble columns, of approximately 10,340\nVirginians who died in combat in World War II or in the Korean\nconflict. The memorial, located on a four-acre site overlooking\nthe James River near the north end of the Robert E. Lee Bridge,\nis also a tribute to the 360,000 Virginians who participated in\nthe armed forces during these two conflicts and to the 100,000\nVirginia volunteer civilian workers who contributed much in their\nvarious types of activities. At the base of the statue to \"Memory\"\nis a gas-fed torch, called the \"Torch of Liberty,\" which burns\nperpetually. Embedded in the floor of the \"Shrine of Memory\" are\nmemorial coffers which contain authentic, labeled ground and sea\nbattle mementos from battleground areas. The leading sculptor for\nthis unusually beautiful memorial was Leo Friedlander.\nThe sites of two battles which took place during the War between\nthe States within the geographical area of Virginia have been\naccorded official national recognition within the past few years.\nSpecifically, the Appomattox Court House National Historical\nMonument was granted National Historical Park status in 1954. This\narea of approximately 968 acres includes a reproduction of the\nWilmer McLean House in which the Confederate General, Robert E. Lee,\nsurrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to the Union\nGeneral, Ulysses S. Grant. The grounds where the two armies opposed\neach other for the last time are also included in this park. In the\nsame year, the Manassas Battlefield of approximately 1,719 acres was\ngiven the status of a National Battlefield Park. This area was the\nsite of the famous Battles of Bull Run or Manassas.\nDuring the 1950 session of the General Assembly, a bill was passed\nwhich provided for a state tax reduction of approximately one\nmillion dollars whenever the tax revenue exceeded the estimates by\ncertain amounts, the amount depending upon the state budget. This\nlaw was later revised to the effect that if the general fund revenue\nreceived from income taxes exceeded the estimates by five percent,\na tax reduction would automatically result. Since passage of the\nact, Virginia taxpayers have benefitted considerably through its\nprovisions. On the other hand, several attempts have been made to\nrepeal the general poll tax. The United States Supreme Court has\nupheld the legality of the poll tax by refusing to review a suit\nagainst some local officials who had barred individuals from voting\nbecause of non-payment of the poll tax.\nAt the Democratic National Nominating Convention held in Chicago in\n1952, the Virginia delegates under the leadership of Governor John\nS. Battle refused to accept the \"loyalty\" pledge adopted by voice\nvote in the convention. This \"loyalty\" pledge or \"majority rule\"\npledge required that each delegate agree to \"exert every honorable\nmeans\" to have the names of the Democratic Party's Presidential\nand Vice-Presidential nominees included on the Democratic ballot\nof each state. President Harry S. Truman had encouraged federal\nmeasures dealing with fair employment practices, the passage of\nfederal non-segregation laws and the enforcement of a strong federal\ncivil rights program. Some of the delegates who knew that many of\nthe Southern states did not approve of the Democratic legislative\nprogram believed that the states of Virginia, South Carolina and\nLouisiana would refuse to accept the \"loyalty\" pledge because\nof this program. Consequently, when delegates from these states\nrefused to accept the pledge, they were not initially seated at\nthe convention. Southern delegates, however, protested that state\nparty rules or state laws prohibited them making such a commitment.\nGovernor Battle, the leader of the 28 member delegation from\nVirginia, stated that a state law assured the inclusion of the names\nof the Democratic Party nominees on the Virginia Democratic ballot\nand that they rejected the pledge only as a matter of principle.\nUltimately, Virginia delegates as well as those of South Carolina\nand Louisiana were given seats and full voting rights at the\nconvention.\nThe Republican nominee for the Presidency in 1952, 1956 and 1960\ncarried the state, contrary to previous usual voting results in the\nstate. In the 1952 election the Republican candidate, Dwight D.\nEisenhower, received 349,037 popular votes from Virginia and the\nDemocratic candidate, Adlai Stevenson, received 268,677 popular\nvotes. Thus, the Republican Party won the twelve electoral votes\nof the state. In 1956, 386,320 popular votes from Virginia were\ncast for the Republican electors and 264,110 popular votes for the\nDemocratic electors who represented the same Presidential candidates\nas in 1952. In the 1960 election the Republican nominee, Richard\nM. Nixon, won the popular vote of the state over the Democratic\nnominee, John F. Kennedy. Virginia again cast her twelve electoral\nvotes for the Republican candidate. However, during this period, the\nGovernor, the two United States Senators from Virginia, eight of the\nten Virginia members of the United States House of Representatives\nand a majority of the General Assembly continued to be members of\nthe Democratic Party, illustrating the traditional role of the\nDemocratic Party in the state since the Reconstruction Era.\nPublic education has received much attention in Virginia, especially\nsince 1950. On several occasions, for example, the General Assembly\nhas approved million dollar appropriations of state funds for school\nconstruction projects. The tremendous influx of youth in the public\nschools during the decade of the 1950's accentuated the need for\nmore teachers as well as classrooms throughout the state. Hence,\nrising costs of education have become a key matter at each recent\nsession of the General Assembly. During the last few years, however,\nthe question of integration of white and of Negro students in the\npublic schools of the state has been a paramount education issue.\nWhen the United States Supreme Court on May 17, 1954 handed down its\ndecision which in effect outlawed racial segregation in the public\nschools of the nation, Virginia faced a very serious problem because\nthe State Constitution has required separate public schools for\nwhite and for Negro children in the Commonwealth. Governor Thomas B.\nStanley soon appointed a commission of thirty-two state legislators,\nunder the chairmanship of State Senator Garland Gray, to advise him\nconcerning a course of action to be taken by the Commonwealth. The\ncommission conducted a study and subsequently transmitted to the\nGovernor its report, known as the Gray Plan. The plan recommended\nconsideration of an amendment to the constitutional provision\nrequiring separate schools and suggested that local communities be\nenabled through their school boards to assign students to schools\nfor a variety of reasons other than race. Subsequently, a special\nsession of the General Assembly authorized a referendum election on\nthe calling of a constitutional convention. The referendum question\nwas worded as follows: \"Should a Constitutional Convention be called\nwith authority to revise Section 141 of the State Constitution so\nas to permit the General Assembly to appropriate public funds to\nfurther the education of Virginia students in non-sectarian private\nschools as well as in public schools?\" A majority of the voters\nvoted in the affirmative at the referendum election held in January\n1956. In March 1956 a Constitutional Convention was held in Richmond\nand these delegates rewrote Section 141; hence it became permissible\nunder the Constitution of the Commonwealth to use public funds for\ntuition grants for pupils in private non-sectarian schools. Later,\nat a special session of the General Assembly in September 1956,\na pupil placement program was adopted under which the Governor\nappointed a pupil placement board whose chief function was to handle\nall student assignments in the state; under the program, parents of\nall children entering the public schools were required to fill out\nassignment applications which, in turn, were ultimately processed\nthrough the board.\nIn 1958, legislation provided for the automatic closing of any\nschool which might be policed by the federal government and\npermitted the Governor to close any school in a locality in which\nanother school was already being so policed. The admission of\nany Negro student to a public school for white students required\nthe Governor to close the school and assume full control.\nSubsequently, federal court orders directed school boards in\nArlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk to admit students without\nregard to race, effective September 1958; following state law, the\npupil placement board denied admission to Negro applicants in the\nlocalities mentioned previously; the local school boards in these\nareas and in Warren County initiated action to admit Negro students,\npursuant to federal court order. However, the Governor announced\nthe closing of the high school in Warren County, and similar action\nwas taken in Charlottesville and in Norfolk. During the Fall\nsemester of 1958, a total of nine schools (one in Warren County\nand eight in Norfolk and Charlottesville) were closed to 13,000\nstudents, many of whom transferred elsewhere. When court decisions\nin January 1959 voided the school closing law, the law cutting off\nstate funds and the law providing tuition grants of public funds for\nsegregated private schooling, the Governor stated that he could take\nno further action to prevent the opening of public schools on an\nintegrated basis. Some public schools in Arlington, Charlottesville\nand Norfolk, as well as in Alexandria, began integrated classes\nin the Spring semester of 1959. Since that time, the number of\nintegrated schools has increased. The implications of the United\nStates Supreme Court decision of May 17, 1954 upon the public school\nsystem of Virginia have presented to the Commonwealth one of its\nmost difficult problems of the Twentieth Century.\nAs the population of Virginia cities and towns has grown during the\npast two decades, persons have moved to the suburbs and surrounding\nterritory--sometimes at a faster rate than the increase in new\npopulation in the urban centers. The 1960 census confirmed such\ndeclines from the previous growth of cities in nearly all parts of\nthe nation. Attractions to persons who move from the urban centers\ninclude larger amounts of available land, newer homes, shopping\ncenters with comparatively easy parking, and initial lower real\nestate taxes. After these persons have lived in the suburbs or\nsurrounding territory for a while, various needs such as adequate\nstreets, police protection, schools, sewerage facilities, water and\nbuilding and zoning codes sometimes develop or become more apparent.\nOften county governments are not equipped to provide for all of\nthese services; if county governments do establish such services,\nthe initial costs may be very high for the taxpayers.\nTo counterbalance the move to suburbs and nearby rural areas, urban\nlocal units of government seek to annex surrounding land from\ncounties or nearby cities. In Virginia, annexation is determined\nby a panel of three judges, only one of whom is a resident of the\ncounty involved. No referendum is held to ascertain the wishes of\nthe residents of the area under consideration because of the belief\nthat annexation should be based on the need of the majority of the\npeople concerned. While annexation may be an answer to the urban\ngovernment's need for extending its tax base, county units lose\ntheir prime tax property. Over a period of time, the continued\ngrowth of the metropolitan area causes persons to locate outside of\nthe revised boundaries and the process of annexation starts over\nagain.\nIn addition to annexation, another method available whereby an urban\nunit may extend its boundaries is consolidation of local units.\nAn example is the merger of a city government unit and a county\ngovernment unit into a revised city government unit. In Virginia,\nconsolidation statutes are relatively flexible: officials of both\nunits negotiate between themselves to reach an agreement on the\nauthority of the new local unit of government, in contrast to\nannexation where the county government is often forced against its\nwill to give up valuable real estate.\nThe growth of metropolitan areas has raised a serious challenge\nto the ability of local units of government to provide adequate\ngovernment services to their residents at reasonable costs. Unless\nfurther understanding is developed among the citizenry involved,\nthe impact of metropolitanism will continue to result in serious\ninequities among individual local units of government.\nS U M M A R Y\nBy April 1861, the Commonwealth of Virginia had furnished one-third\nof all the Presidents of the United States, had had numerous other\nVirginian leaders in high federal positions, had been responsible\nfor the calling of a \"Peace Conference\" in the nation's capital\nand had been most reluctant to vote for secession from the Union.\nHowever, the inhabitants of Virginia believed in the doctrine of\n\"States' Rights,\" in non-interference of slavery by the federal\ngovernment and in not coercing neighboring seceded states back\ninto the Union via invasion. Consequently, Virginia joined the\nConfederacy, and Richmond soon became the Confederate capital and\nthe State of Virginia a huge battlefield.\nThe brilliant military tactics of General Robert E. Lee, Thomas\nJonathan Jackson and \"J.E.B.\" Stuart will always be worthy of\nmilitary study. Virginia helped the Confederacy, economically\nas well as militarily, especially with the food products of the\nSaltville area and of the Shenandoah Valley and the manufactured\narms equipment of the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond. When West\nVirginia became an independent state without the consent of\nVirginia, it reduced the area and population of the Commonwealth\nconsiderably. The ending of the War between the States, like that\nof the American Revolutionary War, took place in Virginia. The\nmagnificent courage and fervor of the Virginians as members of\nthe Confederacy will always be cherished by posterity. When one\nis well-informed of the deeds, hardships and activities which\noccurred during the War between the States in Virginia and in other\nsouthern states, one can easily understand the ever-present pride\nwhich the Confederate Flag does, and always will, inspire. This era\nof American history, although one of the darkest periods in our\nnational history when even brother sometimes fought brother on the\nbattlefield, will forever remain one of the most dynamic and heroic\nperiods in human civilization.\nAfter enduring a harsh Reconstruction Program enforced by a radical\nUnited States Congress and by \"Carpetbagger\" and \"Scalawag\"\ngovernments, Virginia officially returned to the Union on January\n26, 1870. Then the Commonwealth began settling some of its local\nproblems: the extremely high state debt, the educational program,\nthe joint boundary line between Virginia and West Virginia and the\n\"Readjuster\" Movement. The newest county in Virginia--Dickenson\nCounty--was created in 1880. By 1900, Virginia ranked seventeenth\nin United States state population and seemed prepared to meet the\nchallenging events of the Twentieth Century with renewed confidence.\nA new state constitution, still in effect today, was \"proclaimed\"\nin 1902. It provided for a poll tax and an \"understanding clause\"\nprovision as a voting requirement; later, the latter was changed to\nan intelligence test requirement. The unusual political status of a\ncity, completely independent of county jurisdiction, was originated\nat this time also. Racial segregation in the public schools of\nVirginia was provided for in the Constitution of 1902.\nOther events and activities concerning Virginia and Virginians\nduring the Twentieth Century include the payment to Virginia by West\nVirginia of the state debt which West Virginia had accumulated while\nshe was part of Virginia, the operation of the first City-Manager\nform of local government at Staunton, outstanding participation\nin two World Wars and in the Korean conflict, the \"Restoration\nof Williamsburg\" Project, a reorganization of state governmental\ndepartments, the comparatively small economic dislocation during\nthe \"Great Depression,\" the establishment of the Shenandoah\nNational Park, the opportunity afforded service men and women on\nactive duty to vote without payment of a poll tax, the constant\nincrease in the growth of industry, the victory for the Virginia\ndelegates at the 1952 Democratic National Nominating Convention,\nRepublican Presidential victories in Virginia in 1928, 1952, 1956\nand 1960, developments in education including the problems of\nschool integration and the expansion of school facilities and the\ncontinuing growth of metropolitanism.\nAs our nation's history unfolds, issues of state, national and\ninternational scope will continue to face the Commonwealth. The\nhistory of Virginia has furnished Virginians with a proud heritage,\nan appreciation for the noble deeds of the past and an understanding\nof the courage and wisdom required to solve successfully current and\nfuture problems. Virginia--a vital area of the United States--will\nundoubtedly play a major role in the fulfillment of the destiny of\nthe United States.\nEconomic Life\n_The Work Force_\nA variety of geographical resources and of human resources results\nin diversity in the economic life of the state. The proportion of\nthe population engaged in gainful occupation at the present time is\nsignificant. Approximately 38% of the total population in Virginia\nis included in the work force. The group outside the work force\nincludes individuals who are thirteen years of age or younger,\nhomemakers, students age fourteen and over, the physically and\nmentally handicapped who are unable to work, and persons who are\nretired.\nCensus enumerations since 1890 indicate that total employment in\nVirginia has expanded continuously. During the seventy year period\n1890-1960, the work force increased from approximately 552,000 to\napproximately 1,473,000. This represents an increase of 176%, or an\naverage annual increase of 13,137 workers.\nThree phases in the trend of employment are observable: from 1890\nto 1910, 1910 to 1940 and 1940 to 1960. The first phase coincides\nwith the Industrial Revolution in the United States; the increase\nin employment in Virginia during this time was 44%. In the second\nphase, from 1910 to 1940, the rate of increase slackened although\nthe total number in the work force grew; the increase amounted to\n14% during this period. The third phase of employment began in 1940\nas needs of World War II became clear; unprecedented peacetime\ndemands started in 1945 and have continued to the decade of the\n1960's; in this phase, for the first time, Virginia outpaced the\nUnited States as a whole in growth of employment, with an increase\n_Types of Employment_\nGovernment Employment--Government employees make up the largest\nnumber of workers in any particular type of occupation in the state.\nThe term \"government employees\" includes all civilians working\ndirectly for federal, state and local governments plus military\npersonnel stationed in Virginia. Nearly one-fourth of the total\nVirginia employment is found in this group. Government employment is\nthe greatest single source of personal income in the state.\nApproximately 65% of the government employment in Virginia, as\ndefined above, is engaged in activities of the federal government.\nThe number of military personnel in the state is slightly more than\ntwice the number of federal civilian employees. Although federal\nemployment is scattered throughout the state--every community has\npostal employees, for example--there is a concentration of federal\nemployees in two areas of the state, namely, Northern Virginia\n(Arlington and Fairfax Counties and the cities of Alexandria and\nFalls Church) and the Hampton Roads area. Within the federal\ncivilian group, approximately 70% are employed by the Department\nof Defense. Following the Department of Defense, the next largest\nnumbers of federal civilian employees work for the Post Office\nDepartment and for the Veterans Administration. In addition to the\nfederal employees working in the state, a substantial number of\npersons who live in Northern Virginia commute daily to the District\nof Columbia and nearby Maryland for federal employment.\nApproximately 35% of the government employees in Virginia work\nfor the state (11%) and for local (24%) governments. Since more\nthan half of the government employment in the United States is\nfound in state and local governments, the number of such employees\nin Virginia is relatively smaller. The state and local group in\nVirginia is nearly equally divided between school and non-school\npersonnel. Although the number of state and local employees in\nVirginia has grown during the past decade, the percentage of\nincrease has not been as great as that for the United States as a\nwhole.\nEmployment in Manufacturing--Excluding military personnel from\nthe total government group, employees engaged in manufacturing\nrank first in number. However, when civilian government and\nmilitary personnel are combined, government employment surpasses\nmanufacturing employment. Approximately 20% of the total work\nforce is engaged in manufacturing. During the decade of the 1940's\nmanufacturing in Virginia surpassed agriculture for the first time,\nand the growth of manufacturing continued progressively through the\ndecade of the 1950's. Manufacturing as a whole is diversified.\nExpenditure for new manufacturing plant and equipment exceeded\none billion dollars in one recent seven-year period. Additional\nmillions of dollars have been spent recently for expanding existing\nfacilities. Fabricated metals (example, swimming-pool type atomic\nreactors) and machinery and electrical equipment (examples, motors,\ncalculators) groups of industries have grown substantially within\nthe past few years. The four manufacturing industries having the\nlargest number of employees are textile, chemical and chemical\nproducts, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood products.\nThe employees in these four industries constitute nearly 50% of all\nworkers engaged in manufacturing.\nTextile employment leads all other manufacturing employment. The\ntextile industry in Virginia includes the spinning and processing\nof yarn and the weaving and finishing of material. Cotton and\nrayon broad-woven fabrics are the major ones. Approximately 60% of\nVirginia's textile employment is found in this category. The cities\nof Danville, Fieldale and Roanoke are especially noted for their\ntextiles. Knitting mills constitute the second type of textile\nactivity, and approximately two-thirds of employment in the knitting\nmills is engaged in making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery.\nLynchburg is a key center of knitting mills for men's and ladies'\nhosiery.\nThe second largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing\nin Virginia is the chemical industry. Approximately two-thirds of\nsuch chemical employees are found in the synthetic fiber field. In\n1917, the first large rayon plant was established. This industry\nhas developed rapidly, and Virginia now plays an important part\nnationally in this production. Virginia now has approximately 30%\nof the total employees in the United States engaged in synthetic\nfibers. There are at present large synthetic fiber plants in\nRichmond, Martinsville, Roanoke, Waynesboro, Narrows and Front\nRoyal. Virginia has been regarded as the geographical center of this\nindustry in the United States. Another type of chemical production\ninvolves industrial inorganic chemicals including alkalies--soda\nash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda--and chlorine (Saltville\nand Hopewell), sulfuric acid (Norfolk and Richmond) and ammonia\n(Hopewell). The manufacturing of fertilizer is also important in\nthe state because of the agricultural need for it in the South and\nbecause Virginia is conveniently located with respect to the raw\nmaterials necessary for making fertilizer (namely, potash, nitrogen\nand phosphate rock). Hopewell and Norfolk are two cities which have\nlarge plants for the manufacture of fertilizers. Both Fredericksburg\nand Richmond have a large cellophane company and certain medicinal\ndrugs such as streptomycin and thiamine hydrochloride are\nmanufactured at Elkton. In addition, dyes, wood turpentine, dry ice\nand various insecticides are produced in Virginia.\nThe third largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing\nis the food and kindred products industry. This industry may be\nconveniently divided into two groups based upon the factors which\ndetermine their location:\n1) those food industries whose products originate and are marketed\nin a population center--for example, bakery products (Richmond,\nNorfolk and Roanoke), beverages (Norfolk and Richmond), meat\nproducts (Richmond and Smithfield), dairy products (Richmond,\nRoanoke, Alexandria and Fredericksburg) and manufactured ice\n(Richmond and Alexandria);\n2) those food industries which find it desirable to locate close\nto the source of supply--usually a perishable commodity--for\nexample, seafood canneries (Norfolk, Hampton and Reedville),\nvegetable canneries (Walkerton and Urbanna), poultry dressing\nplants (Broadway, Harrisonburg and Winchester), fruit processing\nplants (Berryville, Mount Jackson, Winchester and Front Royal),\nconfectionery plants (Suffolk and Norfolk), meatpacking companies\n(Suffolk and Smithfield) and frozen foods (seafood--Norfolk;\npoultry--Broadway; fruits and vegetables--Exmore).\nThe fourth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing\nis the lumber and lumber products industry. In the latter part\nof the Nineteenth Century and the early Twentieth Century, this\nindustry had the greatest number of employees in the manufacturing\nfield. Gradually its importance declined until the 1930's when it\nincreased rapidly as the demand for lumber production increased\nuntil, at present, it has reached fourth place. Approximately\n77% of Virginia's total lumber industry employees is found in\nthe sawmills and planing mills, especially in mills located in\nFranklin, Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond. Whereas the synthetic\nfibers mentioned previously are manufactured primarily in seven\nlarge plants with numerous employees per plant, the lumber industry\nin Virginia consists of approximately 1700 establishments--only\napproximately 200 of which employ at least twenty employees. Veneer\nmills, excelsior mills, mill-work plants, plywood plants and\ncompanies which make fruit and vegetable baskets, boxes and crates\nalso furnish diverse types of wood products for the Virginia lumber\nindustry.\nThe fifth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is\nthe apparel industry. Approximately one-half of all such employees\nare engaged in making men's and boys' clothing: suits, coats and\novercoats are made in large quantities in Richmond, Staunton and\nNorfolk; shirts, pajamas and underwear at Danville, Radford,\nLynchburg and Marion; trousers, overalls and sports jackets at\nMartinsville, Richmond and Staunton. Women's and misses' dresses\nare manufactured at Roanoke, maids' and nurses' uniforms and sports\njackets at Lynchburg, lingerie at Staunton and Roanoke, gloves at\nLynchburg, children's and infants' dresses and play clothes at\nNewport News and Shenandoah. Supplementary textile products include\nsheets and pillow cases (Danville), towels (Fieldale), hassocks,\ncanvas awnings and automobile seat covers (Richmond).\nThe sixth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is\nthe transportation equipment industry. Most of this employment\nis found in shipbuilding at the Hampton Roads area where\naircraft carriers, atomic submarines, ocean liners--such as the\n\"Constitution\" and the \"United States\"--and numerous smaller vessels\nare constructed. Other employees of this industry work in numerous\ntruck and bus body companies scattered throughout the state, in\nrailroad equipment companies--for example, brake shoes (Roanoke);\nrailroad bearings (Petersburg) and in a wagon company (Lynchburg).\nFurniture-making ranks seventh in number of employees engaged in\nmanufacturing. Most of Virginia's furniture workers are engaged\nin the manufacture of unupholstered wooden house furniture. Such\nfurniture includes bedroom, living room and dining room suites\n(Bassett, Martinsville, Staunton, Marion, Stanleytown, Roanoke\nand Pulaski), cedar chests (Alta Vista) and radio and television\ncabinets (Bristol). Living room upholstered furniture including\nchairs, sofa beds, studio couches and furniture frames are\nmanufactured at Salem, Christiansburg, Norfolk, Roanoke and Galax.\nChrome dinettes and plastic furniture are manufactured in plants\nlocated at Marion. Office equipment including floor cabinets and\nmetal filing cabinets is made at Crozet. There is also an extensive\nfixture industry--bank, office and store fixtures--plus such\nitems as literary bookstacks, metal partitions, doors and movable\npartitions primarily at Orange, Norfolk and Richmond.\nThe eighth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is\nthe tobacco industry. Although the national consumption of tobacco\nhas increased considerably, the rapid mechanization added to the\nmanufacturing process has resulted in a decline in the total number\nof employees. Although only approximately six workers per 1,000\nengaged in manufacturing in the United States are in the tobacco\nindustry, in Virginia approximately 56 workers per 1,000 are so\nengaged. The chief locations for the tobacco industry are Richmond,\nPetersburg, Danville and South Boston. These workers are engaged\nprimarily in the manufacture of cigarettes and in tobacco stemming\nand redrying. Richmond is the largest cigarette manufacturing center\nin the world. Petersburg has an exceptionally large cigarette\nmanufacturing plant. Cigars, chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff\nare also manufactured in Richmond. Danville has the largest number\nof tobacco stemming and redrying workers. Approximately half of the\ntobacco industry workers are women.\nThe ninth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is\nthe paper and allied industries. The greatest number of such workers\nis engaged in the manufacturing of pulp. The largest pulp mills are\nlocated at Covington and Franklin. Approximately one-half of the\nnation's supply of wood pulp is furnished by the South and Virginia\nranks fifth among the southern states in its production. The newly\ndeveloped methods of utilizing southern pine for producing kraft\npaper and newsprint have caused considerable increase in this type\nof production. Kraft paper is usually dark brown in color and is a\nmost durable type of wrapping paper. Such paper is manufactured at\nCovington, Franklin, West Point, Hopewell and Richmond. Other paper\nproducts such as gummed and waxed paper (Richmond), varied types of\ncommercial envelopes and church collection envelopes (Richmond),\nmulti-wall paper bags (Richmond, Franklin and Newport News) and\npaperboard containers--corrugated shipping cases, cartons, boxes of\nvaried sizes and shapes (Richmond, Lynchburg) are likewise produced\nin abundance.\nOver 9,000 employees are engaged in the printing and publishing\nindustry. Approximately one-half of these employees work in the\nprinting and publishing of newspapers. These newspaper companies\nare scattered throughout the state. In addition, there are other\ncompanies which publish books, engage in commercial printing in\ngeneral, in lithographing, bookbinding, plate printing, engraving\nand in photo engraving. These companies also are located in several\nareas with Richmond, Norfolk and Newport News having the greatest\nnumber of employees.\nAnother industry important to Virginia's economic expansion is the\nstone, clay and glass production industry. Half of the employees\nin this industry are engaged in the manufacture of concrete and\nplaster products. An increase in local construction has resulted in\nan increase in the production of cinder blocks and other building\nmaterials. The following products are included: purchased glass\nproducts (example, mirrors)--Galax, Bassett, Richmond, Martinsville;\nhydraulic cement--Fordwick and Riverton; structural clay (brick and\nhollow tile)--Roanoke; pottery and china (lusterware)--Abingdon;\nflower pots and pans--Richmond; asbestos (automatic brake\nlinings)--Winchester; stone products (marble and granite monumental\nstones)--Burkeville, Richmond, Roanoke and Danville; concrete\nproducts--Roanoke and Richmond; gypsum products--Plasterco and\nNorfolk; lime--Austinville and Kimballton; mineral wool--Riverton;\nsoapstone and stone products--Schuyler; abrasives--Petersburg; and\nmica--Newport News.\nOther manufacturing industries in Virginia include (1) leather and\nleather products--with tanneries at Luray, Bristol, Pearisburg,\nBuena Vista and Salem; luggage-making at Petersburg and\nfootwear-making at Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Farmville and Halifax;\n(2) primary metals industry--with gray-iron foundries at Newport\nNews, Lynchburg and Radford; (3) fabricated metals industry--with\nthe manufacture of structural metal and structural and ornamental\nproducts at Richmond, Norfolk, Bristol and Alexandria; pressure\nvessels at Newport News; locks at Salem; swimming-pool type atomic\nreactors at Campbell County (near Lynchburg), and (4) non-electrical\nmachinery industry--with hydraulic turbines, textile wool cards,\npulp and papermaking machinery at Newport News, Crozet, Bristol and\nRichmond.\nEmployment in Agriculture--A persistent trend in Virginia's economic\npicture is the continuous decline in agricultural employment, a\ncondition characteristic of agriculture in the United States in\ngeneral. Approximately 10% of the total employment is presently\nfound in agricultural pursuits. Although the demand for agricultural\ncommodities has increased, the output per worker in agriculture has\nincreased more rapidly. The greater output has occurred as a result\nof improved methods of farming, technological advances and larger\nagricultural investments. This situation has resulted also in a\ngreater variety of crops, improved breeds of livestock, and better\ncontrol of insects and pests.\nIn the past twenty years there has been a gradual shift in\nVirginia's agriculture from the production of crops to the\nproduction of livestock and livestock products. As a matter of\nfact, Virginia is a leader in the South in the relative importance\nof livestock and livestock products. Poultry and poultry products\nlead the distribution list, followed by meat animals (cattle and\ncalves, hogs, sheep and lambs) and dairy products. Virginia ranks\nthird in the production of turkeys in the United States and sixth in\nproduction of broiler chicks in the United States. Rockingham County\nis famous for its turkeys and chickens. \"Cut-up chicken\" meat, as\nwell as broilers and eggs, constitutes important poultry products.\nCulpeper and Loudoun Counties have the greatest number of milk cows\nper square mile. Large manufacturing plants in the southwestern part\nof Virginia produce evaporated and condensed milk. Beef cattle are\nraised in almost every county in Virginia but the Southwest, the\nShenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia are the three chief regions.\nIn addition to the meat itself, by-products such as soap and fodder\nare manufactured and hides and skins are utilized in the making of\nmiscellaneous articles. Hogs and pigs are found in great numbers\nin Southampton, Nansemond and Isle of Wight Counties and sheep and\nlambs in large numbers in Augusta, Russell, Rockingham and Highland\nCounties.\nIn field crops, tobacco leads the list. One of the nation's\nlargest tobacco producers, Virginia has four types of tobacco: (1)\nflue-cured--the most extensive one--grown largely in Pittsylvania,\nHalifax and Mecklenburg Counties with Danville and South Boston the\nchief markets; (2) burley tobacco grown mostly in the southwest\narea--Washington, Scott and Lee Counties--with Abingdon the leading\nmarket; (3) fire-cured tobacco grown in Appomattox, Charlotte and\nCampbell with Lynchburg and Farmville important markets and (4)\nsun-cured tobacco grown in central Virginia--Louisa, Caroline and\nHanover Counties--with Richmond the largest market in this area.\nVirginia ranks first in the amount of peanut yield per acre and\nthird in peanut production in the United States. The peanut acreage\nis located in southeast Virginia--Southampton, Isle of Wight,\nNansemond and Sussex Counties; Suffolk is often referred to as the\n\"Peanut Capital of the World.\" Corn is grown in practically every\ncounty with most acreage in Southampton, Loudoun and Pittsylvania\nCounties. The growing of wheat, particularly winter wheat, is\nwidespread also, with Augusta, Rockingham and Loudoun Counties\nhaving the greatest harvest. Irish potatoes are grown extensively\non the Eastern Shore (Accomack and Northampton Counties) and in the\nNorfolk area. Virginia ranks third in sweet potato production in the\nUnited States and Accomack, Northampton and Princess Anne Counties\nare the chief growers of these potatoes. Soy beans are cultivated\nin Norfolk, Princess Anne, Accomack, Northumberland and Hanover\nCounties. Hay is grown in various parts of Virginia and consists\nof six types: clover and timothy hay, lespedeza hay, alfalfa hay,\npeanut hay, soybean hay and cowpea hay. Cotton is grown in the\nsoutheast, particularly in Southampton, Greensville, Brunswick\nand Mecklenburg Counties. Virginia leads all the states in the\nproduction of orchard grass seed. Some oats, barley and buckwheat\nare grown but only in small quantities.\nTruck farming is extremely important. Lima beans, snap beans, beets,\nbroccoli, cabbage, cucumbers, sweet corn, kale, onions, green peas,\ngreen peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes and watermelons are\ngrown extensively. The truck farming region is located primarily in\nAccomack, Northampton, King and Queen, Nansemond, Princess Anne and\nNorfolk Counties. Much of the truck farming crop is sent to New York\nCity, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Washington and Atlanta.\nIn fruit production, apples are first; in total production, apples\nfollow two field crops, tobacco and peanuts. Virginia ranks fourth\nin apple production in the United States. The chief apple producing\ncounties are Frederick, Clarke, Augusta and Nelson and the types\nof apples produced are York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman, Delicious,\nGrimes Golden, Albemarle Pippin or Yellow Newton, Ben Davis and\nGano, Black Twig, Golden Delicious, Rome Beauty and Jonathan.\nPeaches are grown in abundance in Nelson, Albemarle, Frederick,\nRoanoke, Rockingham and Botetourt Counties, making Virginia tenth in\npeach production in the United States. Pears and grapes are grown on\na small scale. In addition to the full-time agricultural employment,\nthere is much seasonal agricultural employment, particularly for\nfruit and truck farming.\nThus, although agricultural employment has been surpassed by\nemployment in government, in manufacturing occupations and in\nwholesale and retail trade, the products grown and the livestock\nraised are numerous and excellent in quality. Thus, Virginia with\napproximately 135,000 farms, contributes significantly to the\nagricultural economy of the United States.\nIn addition to employers engaged in government employment,\nmanufacturing and agriculture, additional groups of employees in\nVirginia are engaged in a series of diversified economic activities.\nAmong such occupations are those concerned with trade, services,\npublic utilities, construction, finance, mining and forestry and\nfishing.\nEmployment in Wholesale and Retail Trade--Employment in wholesale\nand retail trade has increased in Virginia to such an extent that\nit ranks third, following government employment and manufacturing\nemployment, in non-agricultural employment. Approximately 22% of\nthe civilian non-agricultural employees are engaged in trade. The\nshift from an agricultural to an industrial economy has resulted in\na greater demand for wholesale and retail goods. During the decade\nof the 1950's wholesale and retail trade employment increased its\nrelative share of total state employment by approximately one-third.\nThe greatest number of persons in retail trade work in the food\ntrades and in general merchandising.\nEmployment in Services--Services industries are located throughout\nthe state; approximately 11% of the civilian non-agricultural\nemployees are engaged in such activity. This category includes\ndomestic help and other forms of personalized aid.\nEmployment in Public Utilities--Employment in public utilities\nconstitutes approximately 9% of the total civilian non-agricultural\nemployment. This occupational group is extremely important because\nof the key role of transportation, communication and local utilities\nin the state. About one-half of these workers are employed in\ntaxicab service, local transit service, telephone and telegraph\nservice, radio broadcasting and television service, electric, gas,\nwater and sanitary service utilities. Half of the workers included\nin this category consist of railroad and water transportation\nworkers.\nEmployment in Construction Activities--Approximately 7% of the total\ncivilian non-agricultural employment is concerned with construction.\nMore than three-fourths of all construction during the past decade\nhas been for private use, approximately half of this construction\ninvolving private residences. The tremendous increase in the\npopulation of Virginia during the past twenty years has caused the\nrate of private residential building to be higher than that for the\nentire nation. Privately-owned public utility buildings, public\nhighways and private non-residential buildings rank high in kinds of\nconstruction projects undertaken.\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_A Modern Manufacturing Plant_]\nEmployment in Finance--Finance, including bank, insurance and real\nestate activity, affects all geographical areas of the state but, in\nterms of numbers, these activities are primarily located in or near\nurban centers. Approximately 7% of the civilian non-agricultural\nemployees are so engaged.\nEmployment in Mining Operations--Approximately 2% of the total\ncivilian non-agricultural employees in Virginia are engaged in\nmining. More than 80% of Virginia's mining employment is in\nbituminous coal which is the chief mining product of the nation\nas a whole. Virginia furnishes approximately 3% of the total\nannual output of this product in the United States. Such mining is\nextremely important in Buchanan and Dickenson Counties where more\nthan half of all the civilian employees are miners. Pocahontas, Big\nStone Gap, Dante and Tazewell have huge bituminous coal mines. Stone\nquarrying rates second in mining employment. Crushed stone granite\nquarries are found in Roanoke, Richmond, Fredericksburg, Red Hill\nand Leesburg and crushed limestone quarries are found in Kimballton,\nRiverton, Leesburg, Stephens City and Buchanan. Employment in crude\npetroleum, natural gas and in metal mining, which accounts for\none-third of the nation's total mining employment, is less than 3%\nof Virginia's total mining employment.\nEmployment in Forestry and Fisheries--Current employment in\nforestry and fisheries constitutes slightly less than 1% of the\ntotal civilian non-agricultural work force. Commercial fishermen\nfar outnumber the foresters. However, as described previously,\nthe lumber and lumber products industry, the paper and allied\nproducts industry and the furniture industry which are based upon\nthe forestry industry have experienced great increases in their\nemployment. Employees engaged in forest products industries now\nconstitute one-fourth of the total employment in manufacturing.\nAlthough fishermen outnumber foresters at the present time, the\nnumber of fishermen has been decreasing. Nevertheless, the fisheries\nsupply additional employment to processing and wholesale employees.\nA few localities such as Mathews, Northumberland, Lancaster,\nGloucester, York and Middlesex Counties have a comparatively high\npercentage of their workers engaged in fisheries.\nEmployment in Travel Trade--The number of employees engaged in\ntravel trade employment is unknown. Two characteristics of this\ntype of employment should be noted: (1) in addition to full-time\nemployees, there is an indeterminate number of part-time employees;\nand (2) employees engaged in travel trade are, for the most part,\nseasonal workers. The greatest number of such workers are found in\nhotels, motels and other tourist lodgings, in restaurants and cafes,\nin gasoline service stations and in recreational and entertainment\nactivities. Approximately 94% of Virginia's travel trade comes\nto Virginia via the automobile; out-of-state tourists constitute\nabout 70% of the travel trade in Virginia. It has been estimated\nthat about half of these travelers are on vacations and the other\nhalf are mainly on business trips. About half of the vacationers\nare usually passing through Virginia on the way to or from specific\ndestinations outside the state. The other half usually have selected\nVirginia as their particular destination to visit relatives or\nfriends, to tour historical and scenic places and to enjoy the\nrecreational attractions found here. The travel trade has increased\nconsiderably during the past few years. As a direct result of the\nincrease, the number of hotels, motels and other lodging places in\nVirginia has likewise rapidly increased. Williamsburg and Virginia\nBeach illustrate the singular importance of travel trade in causing\nwidespread growth in total employment in a community.\n_Importance of Transportation_\nThe economic activity of any region depends greatly upon its\ntransportation facilities. Without an efficient transportation\nsystem, goods--either raw materials or finished products or farm\nproduce--cannot be moved from one point to another, workers cannot\nreach their jobs and consumers cannot reach their markets. Virginia\nis particularly fortunate in having a network of key railroads,\nexcellent highways, deep harbors and modern airports. Trains, buses,\ntrucks, passenger cars, boats, ocean vessels and aircraft--all play\na basic role in the economic life of the state.\nNumerous railroads provide interstate as well as intrastate\nservice: the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad connects\nWashington with Richmond; running over the R.F.&P. tracks and\ncontinuing in a north-south direction between Richmond and the North\nCarolina border are the Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line\nrailroads; the Southern Railway runs diagonally from Washington\nacross Virginia to the North Carolina border near Danville, with\nanother route from West Point through Richmond and Danville; the\nAtlantic and Danville Railroad operates between Danville and\nNorfolk; the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad runs diagonally from\nWashington to Gordonsville where it connects either in a westerly\ndirection with West Virginia near Covington or in an easterly\ndirection with Newport News; the Norfolk and Western Railroad\noperates in an east-west direction from Norfolk through Lynchburg\nand Roanoke to West Virginia; and the Virginian Railway (now a\nbranch of the N. & W.) connects Suffolk with Roanoke and West\nVirginia. The Pennsylvania Railroad has a branch line crossing the\nEastern Shore from Maryland to Cape Charles while the Baltimore &\nOhio has a branch through the Shenandoah Valley.\nVirginia has a very modern system of primary and secondary roads\nwhich permit quick and comfortable motor transportation between\nurban, suburban and rural points. In addition, Virginia has within\nits borders several vital links in the national system of interstate\nand defense highways scheduled for final completion throughout the\nUnited States by 1972. In Virginia, the national system involves one\nlink cutting across the western part of the state in a southwesterly\ndirection (Interstate Number 81); a second link cutting across the\neastern part of the state in a north-south direction (Number 85 and\nNumber 95) to supercede U. S. Routes 1 and 301; a third link running\neast-west between Norfolk, Richmond, Staunton and the West Virginia\nborder (Number 64); a fourth link running east-west between northern\nVirginia near Washington and West Virginia via Strasburg (Number\n66) and a fifth link crossing the southwestern part of the state in\na north-south direction (Number 77). In terms of total designated\nmileage of the whole interstate system, Virginia is one of 16 states\nto have over 1000 miles within its borders. Although most of the\ninterstate system in Virginia will not be completed for a few more\nyears, some portions of the five Virginia links are already open for\ntraffic.\nA series of bridges, many toll-free, help the growth of\ntransportation. Construction plans for one of the most difficult\nwater crossings are underway in connection with a $200,000,000\nbridge-tunnel to run 17\u00bd miles across the mouth of the Chesapeake\nBay in the Hampton Roads area. This crossing will run from\nChesapeake Beach near Norfolk to Cape Charles on the Eastern Shore.\nWhen completed in 1964, the bridge-tunnel crossing will replace\nferryboats, the only type of public transportation heretofore\navailable between these points.\nFive major commercial air lines serve Virginia: American, Capital,\nEastern, National and Piedmont Lines. In addition to the Washington\nNational Airport near Alexandria and the Dulles International\nAirport at Chantilly, which serve the northern Virginia area,\nairports contributing to the economic progress of the state are\nlocated at Richmond, Bristol, Danville, Lynchburg, Newport News,\nNorfolk-Portsmouth and Roanoke.\nS U M M A R Y\nAn unusually large number of individuals in the\nCommonwealth--civilian and military--work in either federal,\nstate or local government employment. In proportion to the total\npopulation of a state, the greatest concentration of federal\ngovernment employment within a single state is found in Virginia.\nIf one considers civilian employees solely, the largest number of\nemployees in the state is engaged in manufacturing. The number of\nemployees in manufacturing first surpassed the number of employees\nin agriculture in the 1940's. The manufacturing industries which\nhave the largest number of employees are textile, chemical and\nchemical products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood\nproducts; these employees constitute nearly 50% of all workers\nengaged in manufacturing.\nOther important manufacturing industries include apparel,\ntransportation equipment, furniture, tobacco, paper and paper\nproducts, printing and publishing, stone, clay and glass production,\nleather and leather products, primary metals, fabricated metals,\nand non-electrical machinery. As Virginia has changed from a\npredominantly agricultural state to a predominantly manufacturing\nstate, wholesale and retail trade has increased proportionately.\nAlthough agriculture is no longer the leading occupation, Virginia\nhas a variety of important crops and livestock. Poultry and poultry\nproducts, meat animals, dairy products, tobacco, peanuts, corn,\nwinter wheat, sweet potatoes, hay, cotton, orchard grass seed, truck\nfarming crops and fruit (especially apples, peaches, strawberries\nand watermelons) are leading farm products.\nSignificant numbers of workers in Virginia are engaged in wholesale\nand retail trade, services, public utilities, construction\n(especially construction of private houses, buildings and public\nhighways), finance, mining (especially bituminous coal and quarry\nstone), forestry and fisheries, and travel trade.\nAn efficient transportation system, consisting of a network of key\nrailroads, excellent highways, deep harbors and modern airports\nplays a basic role in the economic life of the state.\nA survey of the major occupations reveals a diversified economic\nlife which provides the citizens of Virginia with broad\nopportunities for employment.\nCultural Life\nCulture has been defined as the \"training, improvement and\nrefinement of the mind.\" Since literature, art, sculpture,\narchitecture, music, drama and education are factors which\ninfluence, as well as reflect, the culture of a group, a survey of\nsome of the outstanding contributors to these fields will reveal the\nbroad, cultural heritage of the residents of the Commonwealth.\n_Literature_\nEven with the hardships and difficulties facing early settlers in\nVirginia, writings in the form of diaries and journals appeared\nduring the colonial period. George Percy describes his explorations\nin the New World in \"Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the\nSouthern Colonie in Virginia by the English.\" Captain John Smith,\nthe leader of the early colony, is believed to have used both fact\nand fiction in his writings. \"A True Relation of Virginia,\" which\nhe wrote in Virginia and sent to England in an attempt to attract\nmore settlers to the colony, describes his explorations up the James\nRiver. His \"Map of Virginia\" was based primarily upon observations\nwhich he made while exploring the Chesapeake Bay region. In 1624,\nhe wrote \"The General History of Virginia,\" which is considered his\nliterary masterpiece. Under modern literary standards, he would\nprobably be classed generally as a Romanticist.\nWilliam Strachey, who left England as the first secretary of the\nVirginia Colony at Jamestown and who experienced in his journey\nseparation of his ship from the rest of the small fleet, was\nshipwrecked on the Islands of Bermuda and eventually arrived at\nJamestown. Strachey, who had written some poetry before coming\nto America, used his shipwrecked experiences described earlier\nas background for a most descriptive letter concerning a tempest\nat sea. The original title of Strachey's manuscript was \"A True\nRepertory of the Wrecke, and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates\" (Gates,\nGovernor of the colony, was also a passenger on the same ship with\nStrachey). It is believed by some literary critics that William\nShakespeare who read this letter selected much of its contents as\nbackground material for his play, \"The Tempest.\" Another writer who\nleft a vivid description of his voyage from England to Virginia is\nHenry Norwood: his work entitled \"A Voyage to Virginia\" is regarded\nas one of the best realistic, detailed accounts of early voyages to\nAmerica.\nOnly two poets are remembered for their writings in Virginia\nduring the early period: Richard Rich and George Sandys. Rich\nutilized his journey from England to the New World as the basis\nfor his poem, \"A Ballad of Virginia,\" sometimes entitled \"Newes\nfrom Virginia.\" George Sandys, an Oxford gentleman, did not write\nconcerning Virginia but while he was in Jamestown as the treasurer\nof the colony, he completed a most unusual translation of Ovid's\n\"Metamorphoses.\" An anonymous elegy found in the \"Burwell Papers\" is\nconsidered one of the finest literary attempts during the colonial\nperiod: entitled \"Bacon's Epitaph, Made by His Man,\" it eulogizes\nthe courage and steadfastness of purpose of Nathaniel Bacon who\ndared to revolt against the autocratic rule of Governor Berkeley and\nto lead Bacon's Rebellion. Bacon's untimely death from fever caused\nmany Virginia settlers to feel, as the author of this elegy felt,\nthat the loss of the champion of their cause was a severe one.\nA different type of writing was furnished by Reverend James\nBlair, founder of the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg\nand president of the second oldest educational institution in\nthe United States for over fifty years. Reverend Blair wrote a\nscholarly article on the organization of churches in Virginia in\nan account called \"Concerning the Church and Religion.\" Another\nminister, Reverend Hugh Jones, who held the position of professor of\nmathematics at the College of William and Mary and who had a strong\npersonal interest in history, wrote \"The Present State of Virginia\"\nin 1724. His writing was characterized by seriousness of purpose,\naccuracy and keen observations. He later authored the first English\ngrammar book written in America.\nWhen Robert Beverley, a native-born Virginian of Middlesex County,\nwas visiting in London, he was asked by a London bookdealer to\nreview a manuscript which had been submitted concerning the American\ncolonies. Beverley disagreed with much of the information included\nin the manuscript and decided to write a book himself on Virginia.\nConsequently, he wrote \"The History of Virginia.\" This book was\nconsidered such enjoyable reading that it was later published in\nFrench. Robert Beverley is considered the first Virginia formal\nhistory author.\nThe man whose writings are usually classified as the best writings\nin Virginia before the Revolutionary Period was William Byrd II.\nHe was born on a plantation along the James River and was sent\nto England for his education at the age of ten. He traveled in\nHolland, studied law and was admitted to the bar at the age of\ntwenty-one. After returning to Virginia, he was elected to the\nVirginia Assembly. He built a beautiful home, Westover, became a\nleading figure in politics and in Virginia society and instituted\na personal library in his home which exceeded 3,000 volumes, the\nlargest library in the colonies. He returned to England as the\nlegal representative of the Virginia Assembly where he enjoyed\nthe companionship of the socially elite in England. When his\nfather died, he returned to Virginia and inherited 25,000 acres,\npolitical supremacy and a high place in social circles. Byrd's\nwritings did not appear publicly until more than two hundred years\nafter his death. Three papers are believed to be his best literary\nachievements: \"The History of the Dividing Line\" (concerning the\nboundary line established between Virginia and North Carolina), \"A\nProgress to the Mines\" (concerning a journey to some iron mines) and\n\"A Journey to the Land of Eden\" (concerning a journey to the Dismal\nSwamp area). These chronicles were combined and included in the\n\"Westover Manuscripts.\" Notes from Byrd's personal diary, which was\nkept in code and later translated by Mrs. Marion Tingling, have been\npublished and reveal many human-interest incidents in his eventful\nlife.\nAnother colonial Virginia historian is Reverend William Stith.\nHe used colonial records, personal papers of his uncle, Sir John\nRandolph, London Company official records and material available in\nthe Byrd Library to write a most comprehensive history of Virginia\nentitled \"The History of Virginia from the First Settlement to\nthe Dissolution of the London Company.\" Although it has been\ncriticized for its extreme length and detailedness, this history\nis a scholarly, authoritative source still used by researchers for\nknowledge of this period of history.\nAs the colonists in America were beginning to rebel against the\nmother country, were gradually learning the feeling of freedom\nand democracy and were becoming more settled in their mode of\nliving, their interests changed from problems of existence to\nserious thoughts concerning government, rights of individuals and\npolitical theories. The changing thoughts of the colonists were\nreflected in the type of writings which began to appear prior to the\nRevolutionary War.\nGeorge Washington, who is usually remembered foremost as the first\nPresident of the United States and as the great military leader of\nthe Revolutionary War, must not be overlooked in the literary field.\nWashington left numerous addresses, official documents, orders and\nletters of various types. However, one of his finest literary works\nis a personal diary kept by him, at the age of sixteen, while on a\nsurveying trip in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. It has become\nfamous for its human quality and is simply named, \"Journey over the\nMountains, 1748.\" Washington's acceptance as Commander-in-chief of\nthe United States Army, his \"Farewell Speech\" to the soldiers at the\nend of the war, his acceptance of the Presidency and his \"Farewell\nAddress\"--all reveal the literary qualities which he possessed.\nPatrick Henry of Hanover County spoke in dramatic fashion about\nideas and ideals which abounded in the minds of many other\nAmericans. Henry's arguments in the \"Parsons' Case,\" his authorship\nof the Virginia Resolutions prefaced by his famous \"Caesar-Brutus\"\nSpeech, his pleading address at the Continental Congress for the\narming of Virginia and his famous \"Give me Liberty or Death\"\nSpeech--all these words, written or spoken, are recorded for\nposterity in the literature of the times.\nThomas Jefferson, the \"Monticello Wizard\" of multi-talents, made\nconsiderable contributions to the historical, social and educational\nfields. His \"A Summary View of the Rights of British America,\"\nalthough considered radical in part, was a pamphlet which brought\nwidespread attention to the important issues of allegiance and\nnatural rights. Jefferson's language predominates in the Declaration\nof Independence, and, as some authors of history and of literature\nhave asserted, Jefferson's fame would have been international from\nthis one document alone even if he had died at the conclusion\nof this task. Jefferson rated his \"Act for Religious Freedom in\nVirginia\" as one of the three greatest personal achievements of his\nlifetime. After Jefferson retired to his home at Monticello upon\nthe completion of his Governorship, he wrote his famous \"Notes on\nVirginia.\"\nGeorge Mason, a native of Fairfax County, used a literary style\nthat is described as frank often to the point of bluntness, clear,\ndemocratic and unassuming yet distinguished. An illustration of\nthis type of writing is a group of resolutions called the \"Fairfax\nResolves\"--so-called because they were presented at a meeting in\nFairfax County. George Mason was selected later at the Virginia\nState Constitutional Convention at Williamsburg to pen a declaration\nof aims for a State constitution. The Virginia Bill of Rights which\nhe proceeded to describe consists of the fundamental rights of man\nwhich he believed must be guaranteed if happiness and peace are to\nbe attained. These ideas were considered so necessary to mankind\nthat eventually they were drawn upon for the Bill of Rights in the\nUnited States Constitution and Bills of Rights in various other\nState constitutions. Thus, the influence of George Mason of Gunston\nHall will be forever enshrined in the literary field as well as in\nthe political field.\nRichard Henry Lee of Westmoreland County is included in a survey\nof literary contributors because of his carefully worded public\naddresses, his well-written \"Leedstown Resolutions\" and his\nintroduction of the famous resolution \"that these united Colonies\nare, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ...\" at\nthe Philadelphia convention.\nExcellent information about life on a Southern plantation is found\nin \"The Journal of Philip Vickers Fithian.\" This manuscript was\nwritten in the form of a one-year diary and includes a description\nof the life of Philip Fithian as a tutor to the children of Robert\nCarter at Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County. His various letters and\na second diary describing a mission tour in Virginia taken after he\nhad become a Presbyterian minister also make enjoyable reading. His\nuntimely death at the age of twenty-eight while he was working as a\nchaplain in a Revolutionary Army camp ended a literary career which\nhad begun most successfully.\nBesides his political career, James Madison developed persuasive\nwriting techniques as illustrated in his contributions to \"The\nFederalist\" papers. He wrote twenty articles in an effort to\nencourage ratification of the United States Constitution. \"The\nFederalist\" remains the greatest single written influence which\npersuaded Americans who were doubtful about the Constitution to\ndecide finally in favor of it. Another example of his written powers\nof persuasion is \"A Memorial and Remonstrance to the Virginia\nGeneral Assembly\" wherein he successfully defeated a proposal to\nprovide state support for the teaching of religion in Virginia.\nHe was an ardent believer in the separation of church and state.\nThe voluminous, lucid notes which Madison recorded during the\nPhiladelphia Constitutional Convention are still the sole source of\ndetailed, accurate information about this historical meeting.\nSt. George Tucker, a student and later a law professor at William\nand Mary College and a Virginia judge, wrote two lyrical poems,\n\"Resignation\" and \"Days of My Youth,\" in addition to an annotated\nedition of Blackstone's \"Commentaries\" consisting of five volumes.\nPrinciples of government and of the Federal Constitution included\nin the appendix of these works are regarded as legally significant.\nTucker showed his versatility by writing drama and political satires\nas well as poetry. He is probably remembered best in literary\ncircles for \"A Dissertation on Slavery: With a Proposal For the\nGradual Abolition of It in the State of Virginia.\"\nJohn Taylor, a statesman, who served in the House of Delegates and\nin the United States Senate, wrote many economic and political\ntreatises. His most widely-read work was \"An Inquiry into the\nPrinciples and Policy of the Government of the United States.\" His\nstrong advocacy of Jefferson's agrarian program gained him a reading\naudience of farmers as well as statesmen.\nJohn Marshall, a famous Virginian in the federal judiciary,\npublished in 1804-1807 a five-volume scholarly biography of George\nWashington: \"The Life of George Washington.\"\nMason Locke Weems, often called \"Parson\" Weems, was a native of\nMaryland who married a Virginian and spent much of his life in\nVirginia. In 1800, he published \"A History of the Life and Death,\nVirtues and Exploits of General George Washington, With Curious\nAnecdotes Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young\nCountrymen.\" He combined fact and fiction at his own discretion and\nhad a highly imaginative mind. He is believed to have introduced the\nmethod of anecdote writing; the cherry tree episode and the throwing\nof the Spanish dollar across the Rappahannock were included in his\nbiography of Washington. He later wrote biographies of Francis\nMarion, Benjamin Franklin and William Penn. Weem's biographies are\nenjoyable reading rather than accurate accounts of the lives of\nthese individuals.\nHenry Lee, father of Robert E. Lee and widely known as \"Light\nHorse Harry\" Lee, was selected as the individual to deliver the\nfuneral oration of George Washington. His \"Tribute to Washington\"\nis a literary masterpiece which included the oft-quoted lines, in\nreferring to Washington, as \"first in war, first in peace and first\nin the hearts of his countrymen.\" Later, during his imprisonment\nfor an unpaid debt, he wrote \"Memoirs of the War in the Southern\nDepartment.\"\nJames McClurg, a delegate from Virginia to the Philadelphia\nConstitutional Convention, enjoyed writing light verse. \"The Belles\nof Williamsburg\" illustrates his type of poetry.\nAlthough William Wirt is usually associated with law, his name is\nalso associated with literature. His best known work is \"The Letters\nof a British Spy\" in which he included the oratorical ability of the\nblind Presbyterian evangelist, James Waddell. Wirt published two\nseries of essays, called \"The Rainbow\" and \"The Old Bachelor.\" He\nalso wrote a biography, titled \"Sketches of the Life and Character\nof Patrick Henry,\" which has been both favorably and unfavorably\ncriticized.\nAn individual whose original remarks, both written and oral, have\nbeen classified as literarily significant is the famous political\nleader, John Randolph of Roanoke. He is believed to have symbolized\nthe turning-point of the minds of Virginians from democratic and\ninternational viewpoints to aristocratic and states rights' beliefs.\nHis stepfather was St. George Tucker who influenced him in his youth\nto become intellectually acquainted through reading with some of\nthe great writers of the world: Shakespeare, Voltaire, Pope and\nGoldsmith. In the literary field, he became noted for his clever,\nthough often sarcastic, epigrams, particularly those referring to\npolitical leaders of the times. Although he himself did not publish\nany material, his remarks have been recorded and were later printed\nin a two-volume biography, entitled \"John Randolph of Roanoke\n1773-1833\" by William Cabell Bruce.\nNathaniel Beverly Tucker was the half-brother of John Randolph of\nRoanoke and the son of St. George Tucker. Born in Chesterfield\nCounty, he became a lawyer, a judge and a professor of law at\nWilliam and Mary College. Although he was never able to attain\neconomically and socially this high planter type of social status,\nhe taught the necessity of an aristocracy. He expounded the doctrine\nof secession, defended slavery in spite of his father's energetic\ncampaign against slavery and disliked practically everything outside\nof Virginia. In 1836, he wrote \"The Partisan Leader\" under the\nassumed name of Edward William Sidney. Since he strongly disliked\nMartin Van Buren, he wrote this book in direct opposition to Van\nBuren. He placed the time of the story as 1856 and then proceeded\nto describe the happenings of a \"dictatorship\" which had been\nestablished by Van Buren and the eventual secession of the Southern\nstates from the Union with a civil war as the result. Peculiarly\nenough, this book was reprinted in 1861 as a propaganda technique by\nboth the North and the South: the North used it as an illustration\nthat the theory of secession had been planned and discussed for\nyears in the South and the South used it as an illustration that the\ntheory of secession had been justified and accepted for years. Two\nmajor literary works of Tucker are \"A Discourse on the Importance of\nthe Study of Political Science\" and \"The Principles of Pleading.\"\nFrancis Walker Gilmer, a native of Albemarle County and a brilliant\nstudent at William and Mary where he prepared himself for a law\ncareer, wrote an anonymous volume entitled \"Sketches of American\nOrators.\" His \"Sketches, Essays and Translations\" were published\nposthumously.\nWilliam Alexander Caruthers was a medical doctor who enjoyed\nwriting. His most well-known book is \"The Knights of the Horse-Shoe;\na Traditional Tale of the Cocked Hat Gentry in the Old Dominion.\"\nHe also wrote \"The Kentuckian in New-York, or the Adventures of\nThree Southerners,\" \"The Cavaliers of Virginia, or the Recluse of\nJamestown\" and \"An Historical Romance of the Old Dominion.\"\nThe greatest literary genius of Virginia is generally considered to\nbe Edgar Allan Poe. Although born in Boston, Poe was adopted just\nprior to his third birthday by the John Allan family of Richmond.\nHe is said to have once remarked to a friend: \"I am a Virginian. At\nleast I call myself one.\" His early years were spent in Richmond,\nand his early education was acquired in Richmond. Upon the death\nof his stepmother, his stepfather arranged to get him appointed\nto West Point. He had published two sets of poems before he was\ntwenty: \"Tamerlane and Other Poems\" and \"Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and\nMinor Poems.\" After he had been dismissed from West Point one year\nlater, he decided to dedicate his life to writing. His third volume\nof poetry entitled \"Poems\" was published by the age of twenty-two.\nPoe spent the rest of his life combatting mental sickness, poverty\nand loneliness. At the age of twenty-four, he began writing prose\nwork. He created the modern short story, the detective story and\nwrote critical essays for the Southern Literary Messenger which\nthrived through his writings. He became editor of this publication\nin 1835. Other works written by Poe include \"The Narrative of Arthur\nGordon Pym,\" \"Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque,\" \"The Murders in\nthe Rue Morgue and The Man That Was Used Up,\" \"Tales,\" \"The Raven\nand Other Poems\" and \"Eureka: A Prose Poem.\" He died at the age of\nforty, the greatest literary purist the country had yet produced.\nAnother writer who contributed much to the Southern Literary\nMessenger was Philip Pendleton Cooke of Martinsburg, Virginia (now\nWest Virginia). Although a lawyer by career, he spent much of his\ntime writing. His best-liked poem is \"Florence Vane,\" a memorial\nlyric. He wrote several poems and prose during his comparatively\nshort life of thirty-three years.\nA survey of outstanding Virginia authors of the Mid-Nineteenth\nCentury Period would not be complete without mentioning the name\nof Matthew Fontaine Maury who is not only recognized for his broad\nknowledge of science and his unique ability of mapping winds and\nocean currents but also for his numerous articles on scientific\ninformation. His \"Physical Geography of the Sea\" (1855) is the first\ntextbook written on modern oceanography and two other books, a\n\"Manual of Geography\" and \"Physical Geography,\" were well received\nby the public.\nRobert E. Lee became famous in a literary sense for his sincere,\nhumble, cleverly worded letters, particularly those concerning his\ndeclining the command of the Federal army, his acceptance of the\ncommand of the Virginia forces, his farewell to his Confederate\ncolleagues at the end of the War between the States and his\nacceptance of the Presidency of Washington College after that war.\nMore books have been written about the period of the War between the\nStates than about any other similar period in United States history.\nOne writer who kept a detailed daily account of personal happenings\nfrom May 1861 to May 1865 was Judith W. McGuire of Richmond. Her\n\"Diary of a Southern Refugee, During the War, by a Lady of Virginia\"\nwas written originally for the benefit of younger members of the\nfamily who at that time were not old enough to understand what\nwas happening but would presumably appreciate a first-hand report\nwhen they were older. Mrs. McGuire's husband was a chaplain in\nthe Officers' Hospital in Richmond, and she served as a nurse in\nRichmond after fleeing from their home in Alexandria. She later\nauthored a brief biography of Lee, entitled \"General Robert E. Lee,\nthe Christian Soldier.\"\nIndividuals today are still writing biographies about military\nleaders who participated in the War between the States. The first\nimportant biography of \"Stonewall\" Jackson, however, was written\nby an army chaplain, Robert Lewis Dabney. Although he had written\nseveral articles on theology and religion, his most remembered work\nis \"Life and Campaigns of Lieutenant-General Thomas J. Jackson.\"\nSince Dabney served as a Major on Jackson's staff, he had access\nto first-hand information and personal observations of Jackson and\nproceeded to utilize such information advantageously.\nJohn Reuben Thompson, who was editor of the Southern Literary\nMessenger from 1847 until 1860, was an author and a poet. He wrote a\ndescription of his travels in Europe entitled \"Across the Atlantic,\"\nbut his literary reputation was based upon his pro-Confederate\narticles and his war poems.\nGeorge William Bagby was an essayist and humorist of Buckingham\nCounty. He succeeded Thompson as editor of the Southern Literary\nMessenger. Although educated as a doctor, he preferred writing for\na career; six years after his graduation, he pursued his literary\ninterest. He contributed several articles to leading magazines of\nthe times: Harper's, Appleton's, Lippincott's, and Putnam's. His\nsketches of everyday living are characterized by his human interest\ntouch and his unique technique of realism at that time. His lofty\nidealism was supplemented by the ability to admit weaknesses as\nwell as strength of whatever or whomever he was discussing. The\nwork which is usually associated with his name is \"The Old Virginia\nGentleman,\" a series of talks which he delivered to raise money for\nhistorical societies of the state. He was an ardent devotee of the\nCommonwealth and his writings exemplify this affectionate feeling.\nJames Barron Hope, a native of Norfolk, is another poet who also\ncontributed newspaper articles. He published \"Leoni de Monote and\nOther Poems,\" \"A Collection of Poems\" and \"An Elegaic Ode,\" but his\nmost famous poem was created in 1882 when he wrote \"Arms and the\nMan: A Metrical Address\" upon the invitation of Congress in honor of\nthe 100th anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.\nHe also wrote a novel, \"Under the Empire,\" and numerous stories for\nchildren.\nAn author who was as strongly a romanticist as George Bagby was a\nrealist was John Esten Cooke. He was a native of Winchester and\na brother of Philip P. Cooke. He exemplifies the many Virginians\nwho--even after the Confederacy had ended, the plantation system\nhad been transplanted by the merchant class system and the States'\nRights theory had dissolved into a type of nationalism--still\nclung to the idea of rebuilding or establishing another similar\nsocial system in the late 1880's. Cooke used his literary talents\nto glorify the plantation type of living and the heroic, military\ndeeds of the war itself. He is sometimes regarded as an author who\nlooked \"backward\" rather than at the present or toward the future.\nBy the age of twenty-four, Cooke had completed and had published a\ntwo-volume novel, \"The Virginia Comedians,\" a historical romance,\n\"Leather Stocking and Silk\" and another historical, romantic novel,\n\"The Youth of Jefferson.\" He also contributed several newspaper and\nperiodical articles. His biography, \"Life of Stonewall Jackson,\"\nwas later increased in scope and published under the new title,\n\"Surry of Eagle's-Nest.\" He wrote novels with extreme rapidity\nand, consequently, he did not take time for literary refinement\nas many authors do. His other written works include \"Virginia: A\nHistory of the People,\" \"Stories of the Old Dominion,\" \"Mohun\"\nand \"The Virginia Bohemians.\" However, he is usually considered\nthe outstanding historical novelist and biographer of the period\ndirectly following the War between the States.\nMoncure Daniel Conway, a native of Stafford County, may be\nclassified as a writer for the minority. He used forceful language\nto arouse interest in reforms in which only a minority of the\nVirginians believed at the time. He wrote a pamphlet in 1850\nentitled \"Free Schools in Virginia\" in which he voiced a strong\nappeal for public education. He became a minister and used the\npulpit as a place to advocate anti-slavery movements to such an\nextent that he was dismissed from his position as pastor of the\nUnitarian Church in Washington. He wrote many short articles in\npamphlet form about anti-slaveryism. In 1861, he published a volume\nof similar information entitled, \"The Rejected Stone, by a Native of\nVirginia.\" He spent the rest of his life writing more than seventy\nbooks and traveling in Europe where he made his home in England.\nAmong his best-known books are \"Life of Thomas Paine,\" \"Omitted\nChapters of History: Disclosed in the Life and Papers of Edmund\nRandolph,\" \"George Washington and Mount Vernon\" and \"Barons of the\nPotomac and the Rappahannock.\"\nFather Abram Joseph Ryan of Norfolk is considered the greatest\nVirginia poet of the period immediately following the War between\nthe States. He is often referred to as the \"Laureate of the South.\"\nUsing his pen name, \"Moina,\" he specialized in war lyrics which were\nsoon memorized by Southerners in general. His two most popular poems\nwere \"The Conquered Banner\" and \"Sword of Robert E. Lee.\"\nVirginius Dabney, a native of Gloucester County, was an ex-lawyer\nwho taught and wrote. His most famous novel was \"The Story of Don\nMiff\" which described the life of the plantation owners prior to\nthe War between the States. His last novel before his death was\n\"Gold That Did Not Glitter.\"\nFather John Banister Tabb was a native of Amelia County who became a\npersonal friend of the poet, Sidney Lanier. His \"Poems,\" \"Lyrics,\"\n\"Child Verse\" and \"Later Lyrics\" are still popular reading for\npoetry-lovers.\nChristopher P. Cranch should be mentioned for his translation of\nVirgil's \"Aeneid\" into English in 1875. Like George Sandys who\ntranslated Ovid's \"Metamorphoses,\" Cranch's translation promoted\nbetter understanding of the \"Aeneid\" on the part of Americans.\nThomas Nelson Page, a native of Hanover County, became famous from\na literary viewpoint when he published in 1887 six stories in a\nbook called \"In Ole Virginia.\" The first story is called \"Marse\nChan,\" and is written in Negro dialect. Page, like John Cooke,\nwrote pleasingly, though not entirely accurately, about conditions\nin the South after the War between the States. His writings served\nas a tonic to the depressed and hard-struggling Virginians who\nwere striving to rebuild their state to its former prosperous\nstatus. Page also wrote \"Two Little Confederates\" for juvenile\nreading and non-fiction articles as well as fiction ones. Some of\nthe non-fiction ones include \"The Old Dominion: Her Making and Her\nManners,\" \"The Old South\" and \"Robert E. Lee: Man and Soldier.\"\nMary Johnston, born at Buchanan, is sometimes classified as a\ntransitional writer as she wrote at the end of the Nineteenth\nCentury and also at the beginning of the Twentieth Century. She\nis considered a writer of historical realism although originally\nshe began writing as a romanticist. Her writings included \"To Have\nand To Hold,\" \"Prisoner of Hope,\" \"Cease Firing,\" \"The Long Roll,\"\n\"The Slave Ship,\" \"The Great Valley,\" \"Hagar,\" \"Silver Cross,\"\n\"Croatan,\" \"Michael Forth\" and \"The Exile.\" She lived near Warm\nSprings when she wrote the last six books, and she utilized the\nstyle of mysticism in these works. Her style was a great contrast to\nthe earlier hero-worshiping and glorification of ante-bellum days in\nVirginia.\nJohn Fox, Jr. of Big Stone Gap used the Cumberland Mountain\nresidents for the characters of his novel, \"The Trail of the\nLonesome Pine.\" A visitor to Bound Gap may view the countryside\ndescribed in this book and still see the spot where the evergreen\ntree, reputed to be the original Lonesome Pine, stood. The\nactivities of the mountain folk themselves and his own mining\nexperiences in West Virginia mines furnished John Fox, Jr., with\nmost of his plot sequences. His other two most well-known novels are\n\"The Kentuckians\" and \"The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come.\"\nVirginia Hawes Terhune, a native of Dennisville, Amelia County, and\nmother of Albert Payson Terhune, used the nom-de-plume of \"Marian\nHarland.\" She wrote newspaper articles about household activities\nand travel books, fiction books and a famous cookbook. Her last book\nwas \"The Carringtons of High Hill.\"\nWilliam Cabell Bruce, a native of Charlotte County, was a\ndistinguished author who was editor of the \"University of Virginia\nMagazine\" and who won the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1918. His\nprize-winning biography was \"Benjamin Franklin, Self-Revealed.\"\nEllen Glasgow, a native of Richmond, was one of the most\ndistinguished modern American novelists. She wrote her first novel\nat the age of eighteen and chose this type of work for her career.\nIn an era of sentimental and romantic writing, she dared to inject\nsevere realism. She has sometimes been characterized as a romantic\nrealist having no hesitation in frankly portraying weaknesses as\nwell as the strength of her beloved Virginia. Her novels depicted\nscenes of the South and featured a broad background, rather than a\ncomparatively small segment of people or a few isolated places. In\nher novels, Miss Glasgow presents a social history of Virginia from\nabout 1851 to 1945. Her writings include \"The Voice of the People,\"\n\"The Battle-Ground,\" \"The Deliverance,\" \"The Romance of a Plain\nMan,\" \"The Miller of Old Church,\" \"Virginia,\" \"Life of Gabriella,\"\n\"Barren Ground,\" \"The Romantic Comedians,\" \"They Stooped to Folly,\"\n\"The Sheltered Life,\" \"Vein of Iron\" and \"In This Our Life.\" She\npublished her first two volumes anonymously: \"The Descendant\" and\n\"Phases of an Inferior Planet.\" Her last novel, \"In This Our Life,\"\nwon the Pulitzer Prize in 1942.\nAnother native of Richmond, James Branch Cabell, was the author of\nthirty books classified as satirical fiction and essays. He had\na tremendous imagination which, coupled with his constant use of\nsymbolism and ridicule, resulted in a most unusual style of writing:\nliterature of disillusionment. In eighteen volumes he created\nan imaginary land of Poictesme and traced the \"Biography of Don\nManuel.\" After Cabell finished this lengthy biography, he omitted\nthe name, James, from his name and simply used the name, Branch\nCabell. An autobiography, \"These Restless Heads,\" was signed in this\nmanner. Later he wrote autobiographical essays entitled \"Quiet,\nPlease\" and once more began to use his full name, James Branch\nCabell.\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_White House of the Confederacy_]\nDouglas Southall Freeman, a native of Lynchburg, is considered\nthe greatest Virginian biographer. He was editor of the Richmond\n\"News-Leader\" from 1915 to 1949. In 1935, Dr. Freeman won the\nPulitzer Prize for his four-volume biography, \"R. E. Lee.\" He also\nwrote a supplement of three volumes, entitled \"Lee's Lieutenants,\"\nwhich was exceptionally well received. He wrote \"The South to\nPosterity\" and was in the process of completing the sixth volume of\nhis biography of \"George Washington\" at the time of his death in\n1953. In this same year another Virginian, David J. Mays, won the\nPulitzer Prize for the biography, \"Edmund Pendleton, 1721-1803.\"\n[Illustration: RICHMOND CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Virginia State Library Building_\n(_Including Supreme Court of Appeals_)]\nEmily Clark, a native of Richmond, founded and edited a literary,\nmonthly magazine entitled \"Reviewer.\" Her most well-known work is\n\"Innocence Abroad,\" written in 1931. Craddock Edmunds, a native of\nHalifax, specialized in poetry with such titles as \"Ulysses and\nOther Poems,\" \"Mass,\" \"Geese Are Swan,\" \"Poems,\" \"The Renaissance\"\nand \"Five Men.\"\nVirginius Dabney, grandson of the earlier author, Virginius Dabney,\nwas born at Lexington. He is known for outstanding editorial writing\nfor the Richmond \"Times-Dispatch\" and was awarded the 1948 Pulitzer\nPrize for this field of literature. In addition to his editorials,\nhe also wrote \"Liberalism in the South\" and \"Below the Potomac.\"\nJulian R. Meade, a native of Danville, became a literary figure\nthrough publication of his book entitled, \"I Live in Virginia.\"\nSince his style was characterized by romanticism combined with\nrealism, this book caused much controversy among its local readers.\nHaving horticulture as an avocation, Meade wrote a witty yet\nsarcastic book on gardening called \"Adam's Profession and Its\nConquest by Eve\" and a novel on gardening called \"Bouquets and\nBitters.\"\nClifford Dowdey, a native of Richmond, started his literary career\nas an editorial writer in New York City. One of his first best\nsellers was \"Bugles Blow No More\" which resulted in his being\nawarded a Guggenheim Fellowship. As he traveled throughout the\nUnited States, he wrote \"Gamble's Hundred,\" \"Sing for a Penny,\"\n\"Tidewater,\" \"Where My Love Sleeps,\" \"Experiment in Rebellion\" and\n\"Weep for My Brother.\" He also wrote a book, \"The Land They Fought\nFor: The Story of the South as the Confederacy, 1831-1865.\"\nIt is difficult to select the outstanding writers of a contemporary\nperiod because of the effect of the passage of time, the varied\nreaction of the reading public, and the detailed factors included in\na keen analysis of types of literature. Numerous current Virginians\nhave been accepted by the reading public with some of the best\nknown being Dr. Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Dr. Robert Douthat\nMeade, Agnes Rothery, Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr., John Wayland, Thomas\nT. Waterman, Mary Thurman Pyle, Murrell Edmunds, John H. Gwathmey,\nLeigh Hanes, M. Clifford Harrison, Helen Jones Campbell, Robert\nSelph Henry, Colonel William A. Couper and Dr. Charles Turner.\nThe \"Commonwealth\" Magazine, published monthly by the Virginia\nState Chamber of Commerce, the \"Virginia and the Virginia County\"\nMagazine, published monthly by the League of Virginia Counties\nand the \"Virginia Cavalcade\" Magazine, published quarterly by the\nVirginia State Library furnish excellent articles on domestic\nproblems and progress in the Commonwealth.\nThe Virginia State Library located in Richmond was founded for\nthe free use of the residents of Virginia as a general library\nwith primary emphasis upon reference service. The library houses\nan extensive collection of books, maps, public documents, private\npapers and manuscripts in a variety of subject matter areas. The\nState Library also provides an interlibrary loan plan and includes\nAdministration, Publication, General Library, Archives, Extension\nand Historical Divisions. The present library structure was\ndedicated in 1941 and cost one and one-half million dollars. It\nincludes a photographic laboratory, a work facility for restoring\nrare books and worn manuscripts, a facility for cleaning and\nfumigating reading materials, individual study nooks and rooms, an\nattractive entrance hall with a mural and several display cases as\nwell as the typical reading rooms, offices, and book stacks. The\nVirginia State Library is well-equipped staff-wise and facility-wise\nfor rendering unusual cultural services for the Commonwealth.\n_Art and Sculpture_\nArt--The early colonists found little time for engaging in the\narts. Nevertheless, a beginning in art was made. For example, John\nWhite (sometimes referred to as Johannes Wyth), the grandfather of\nVirginia Dare, made water color sketches portraying the life of the\nnative Indians in the area.\nVarious handicrafts were pursued from time to time. When Sir\nChristopher Newport came to Virginia, he included in his group\nsome Polish and Dutch glassmakers. When the terrible winter of\n1610 caused the death of a majority of the colonists at Jamestown,\nglassmaking came temporarily to an end. Another early attempt was\nthe making of glass beads as a bartering item for the Indians,\nbut the massacre of 1622 ended these ventures. Other handicrafts\ngenerally introduced in the colony included weaving, potterymaking,\nwigmaking, tanning, pewter making and cobbling. Williamsburg\neventually became the center of such handicrafts.\nIn the Eighteenth Century, numerous European artists visited\nAmerica. As they toured from one colony to another, they often\nmade prolonged visits in communities where their artistic talents\nwere appreciated. Not only did they sometimes sell their personal\npaintings, but they were often hired to paint important personages\nin such communities and members of individual families. In 1734,\nCharles Bridges, an English artist, arrived in Williamsburg: his\nreputation for portrait painting spread rapidly after he had\npainted portraits of the children of William Byrd II. He also\npainted a picture of Reverend James Blair, the first President of\nthe College of William and Mary.\nJohn Wollaston, Jr., another British artist, came to Williamsburg\nand earned the title, \"The Almond-Eyed Artist,\" because he painted\nthe eyes of his subjects with a peculiar slant toward the nose.\nPortraits of Betty Washington Lewis, sister of George Washington,\nand her husband, Colonel Fielding Lewis, and of Lawrence Washington,\nhalf-brother of George Washington were drawn by Wollaston.\nIn 1785, Jean Antoine Houdon, a distinguished French sculptor,\narrived at Mount Vernon to fulfill a commission of the Virginia\nState Legislature to make a statue of George Washington. After a\nyear of personal observation of Washington at Mount Vernon and an\nanalysis of Washington's facial characteristics, he created a life\nmask of Washington's face and made specific measurements of his\nbody. Washington was 53 years old at this time and was six feet, two\ninches in height. Houdon then returned to France and proceeded to\ncarve a Carrara marble statue of his subject. In 1796, the \"Figure\nof George Washington\" was placed beneath the dome of the rotunda\nof the State Capitol. This statue portrays Washington dressed in\nmilitary uniform with small battle weapons and a plowshare located\nat his feet and with his left arm on a fasces (a bundle of rods\nenclosing an ax to symbolize power or authority). This particular\npose is believed to have been selected by Houdon after he had\nobserved Washington in a bargaining bout for a yoke of oxen. When\nWashington heard what he considered an outrageous price requested\nfor the oxen, he exclaimed loudly his opinion of this proposal\nwith his arm outstretched on a fence post. Houdon is said to have\nwitnessed this incident and to have tried immediately to capture\nthis pose of Washington's facial characteristics for his statue. A\nstatue of LaFayette sculptured by Houdon is also included in one of\nthe niches in the encircling wall of the rotunda section and a bust\nof Washington by Houdon is also located at Mount Vernon.\nAfter Washington had become a member of the Masonic Lodge in\nAlexandria, the lodge members asked William Williams, a New Yorker,\nto paint Washington \"as he is.\" The pastel portrait which he\npainted caused much controversy: some individuals considered it\ncruel and unartistic, others considered it realistic and the only\ntrue likeness of Washington. Williams had even included the scars\non Washington's face which were remnants of a scarlet fever siege\nwhich Washington had endured. This portrait is in the Masonic Museum\nin the Masonic Temple Lodge in Alexandria. Williams also made a\nportrait of \"Light Horse Harry\" Lee, but this one did not cause\ncontroversy as did the one of Washington.\nAfter the Revolutionary War had ended in America, the artists of\nVirginia and the other ex-colonies of England were influenced by\nclassicism in art in Europe. Many of America's foremost artists of\nthis time traveled to Europe to study this new art movement and\nwere taught by Benjamin West who had set up a school in London. One\nof his best known students was Charles Willson Peale, who painted\na full-length portrait of William Pitt. Peale came to Virginia and\nsoon became well known for his individual and group portraits,\nsilhouettes and miniatures of outstanding Virginians. His portraits\nof William Henry Harrison and of Lafayette are considered artistic\ngems. Peale's most famous portrait is his painting of George\nWashington, clothed in the military garb of a colonel.\nGilbert Stuart is usually considered the finest American painter of\nthe post-Colonial period. Important Virginians whom he painted were\nGeorge Washington, Colonel John Tayloe, John Randolph of Roanoke\nand James and Dolly Madison. Most of his paintings were done at\nWashington soon after it became the national capital city.\nIn 1807, a Frenchman, Julien F. de Saint-Memin, visited Richmond for\napproximately one year. He used a machine called a physionotrace\nwhich enabled him to make profile drawing in white chalk and\nin crayon. He acquired the technique of getting these drawings\netched on copper plates which allowed him to make fine miniature\nengravings. One of his most famous art works is an etched view of\nthe waterfront at Richmond.\nBenjamin West Clinedinst, a native of Woodstock, is particularly\nremembered by Virginians for his great panorama painting of the\nBattle of New Market. Since he had received his education at the\nVirginia Military Institute, he had a very strong esprit de corps\nfor this battle in which 257 cadets from V. M. I, helped General\nJohn Breckinridge at the cost of ten students killed and forty-seven\nwounded. Over the rostrum of the Stonewall Jackson Memorial Hall\nat the Virginia Military Institute is a huge canvas painting\nby Clinedinst portraying a panorama of the charge of the cadet\ncorps at this historic Battle of New Market. In addition to his\nportrait painting, Clinedinst furnished numerous book and magazine\nillustrations.\nSculpture--Sculpture did not really develop fully in Virginia until\nthe Nineteenth Century. Alexander Galt of Norfolk was one of the\nearliest sculptors in this region. Although he died before his\nartistic ability had been fully developed, his memorable life-size\nwhite marble figure of Thomas Jefferson is located inside the\nRotunda at the University of Virginia.\nIn 1865, Edward Virginius Valentine, a native of Richmond who had\ntraveled and studied throughout Europe, came back to his home town.\nHe created not only great sculptures but many unusual sculptures:\nthe bronze figure of General Hugh Mercer in Fredericksburg, a\nbronze bust of Commodore Matthew Fontaine Maury located in the\nVirginia State Library at Richmond, a bust of John Jasper, a Negro\npreacher, located in the Sixth Mt. Zion Baptist Church in Richmond,\na marble statue of Thomas Jefferson in the lobby of a Richmond\nhotel, an ornate bronze statue of Jefferson Davis in a speaking\nposition on Monument Avenue in Richmond and a bronze statue of\n\"Stonewall\" Jackson at the grave of \"Stonewall\" Jackson in the\nLexington Presbyterian Cemetery. At Washington and Lee University\nlocated in Lexington is the Lee Memorial Chapel. Behind the altar\nin this chapel is an internationally famous white marble, recumbent\n\"Figure of Lee\" which Valentine created. Because of its recumbent\nposition, symbolic of General Lee resting on a battlefield cot,\nthis statue is considered most unique. For thirty years, Valentine\nused the original carriage house of the Mann S. Valentine House in\nRichmond as an art studio. When the Valentine House was acquired\nby the City of Richmond and was finally opened to the public for\nvisitation, many of Valentine's original sculptures were grouped in\nthe collection, including the plaster cast of his famous recumbent\nstatue of Robert E. Lee.\nSir Moses Ezekiel, a sculptor and a soldier, was a native Virginian,\nbut he studied and maintained his residence abroad for most of his\nlife. However, there are many examples of his fine artistic talent\nin his native state. In the center of the Rotunda at the University\nof Virginia is a bronze figure of Thomas Jefferson placed upon\na pedestal which is in the shape of the Liberty Bell; thus, the\nwork of Sir Ezekiel is called the Liberty Bell Statue of Thomas\nJefferson. Ezekiel has another bronze statue on the same campus\nknown as the Statue of Homer which portrays a boy with a lyre\nsitting against the knee of Homer. Major John Warwick Daniel was\na United States Senator from Virginia who was noted for his great\noratorical ability. After he was severely wounded in the Battle of\nthe Wilderness, he became a cripple and was nicknamed \"The Lame Lion\nof Lynchburg.\" Ezekiel designed a statue located at Lynchburg in\nhonor of Major Daniel which shows him seated and holding a crutch.\nEzekiel, like Clinedinst, was a cadet at the Virginia Military\nInstitute during the War between the States and was present at the\nBattle of New Market in which the V. M. I. Cadets participated.\nIn front of the Nichols Engineering Hall at the Virginia Military\nInstitute is a bronze seated figure of \"Virginia Mourning Her Dead,\"\nknown also as the \"New Market Monument.\" Ezekiel is buried in\nArlington National Cemetery, not far from the \"Confederate Memorial\"\nmonument of bronze which he created.\nWilliam Ludwell Sheppard, a sculptor, created numerous well-known\nstatues, including a bronze one of Governor William Smith located on\nthe north side of Capitol Square in Richmond, \"The Color-Bearer,\"\na bronze haut-relief, the \"Soldiers' and Sailors'\" Monument and the\nStatue of General A. P. Hill--all located in Richmond.\nAugustus Lukeman, a Richmonder who later moved to New York City,\nmade the portrait bust of Jefferson Davis in the United States\nCapitol. A Norfolk native, William Couper, molded a bronze statue of\nCaptain John Smith at Jamestown and a bronze statue of Dr. Hunter H.\nMcGuire, a brilliant Winchester doctor, on the north side of Capitol\nSquare in Richmond. He also designed a Norfolk Confederate Soldier\nMonument.\nMany sculptors who were born outside of Virginia have used events\nand personalities of Virginia as their subjects. Charles Keck\nexecuted a bronze group of statues of Meriwether Lewis and William\nClark, the two explorers of the Northwest, which may be seen at\nCharlottesville. Lewis and Clark are shown gazing at the horizon,\nwith their famous woman guide, Sacajawea, not far behind them. At\nMonument Terrace in Lynchburg is another bronze statue designed by\nKeck, \"Statue of a Doughboy,\" representing the forty-seven soldiers\nfrom Lynchburg killed in World War I. Keck also created the statue\nof John Tyler located in the Capitol Rotunda at Richmond.\nThere is a George Rogers Clark Memorial in Charlottesville designed\nby Robert Aitken. It consists of a bronze equestrian statue of\nGeorge Rogers Clark surrounded by a group of Indians and scouts.\nSix statues depicting the Virginia-born Presidents of the United\nStates found in the Capitol Rotunda are \"William Henry Harrison\"\ncarved by Charles Beach, \"Woodrow Wilson\" by Harriet Frishmuth,\n\"James Monroe\" and \"Thomas Jefferson\" by Attilio Piccirilli and\n\"James Madison\" and \"Zachary Taylor\" by F. William Sievers.\nPiccirilli also created a 16-foot marble \"Statue of Monroe\" located\nat the entrance of Ash Lawn, the home of James Monroe, near\nCharlottesville. An interesting fact about this statue is that,\nafter the government of Venezuela had commissioned Piccirilli to\ncreate this statue of Monroe, a revolution occurred in Venezuela\nwhich caused a new slate of officials to succeed in office. Since\nsome of these officials were not pro-Monroe in their regard for the\nMonroe Doctrine, the statue remained in a studio in New York City\nfrom the latter part of the 1800's until 1931. Sievers also designed\nthe bronze figure of \"Stonewall\" Jackson astride his horse, Little\nSorrel, for the \"Stonewall\" Jackson Monument on Monument Avenue in\nRichmond.\nSculptural contributions of Thomas Crawford and Randolph Rogers,\nboth New Yorkers, may be found in Capitol Square, Richmond. The\nWashington Monument here is considered an outstanding sculptural\ngroup. Robert Mills designed the base and pedestal. The monument\ndepicts a bronze equestrian statue of George Washington on a stone\nbase surrounded by huge figures of Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson,\nGeneral Andrew Lewis, John Marshall, George Mason and Thomas Nelson.\nFemale figures are seated on trophies of victory around the base of\nthe monument. All the figures were created by Crawford except Lewis\nand Nelson which were created by Rogers after Crawford had died.\nVirginians were encouraged to appreciate the Fine Arts even as\nearly as 1786 when a Frenchman, Chevalier de Beaurepaire, founded\nin Richmond the Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts of the United\nStates of America. This organization marked the formal beginning of\nRichmond as a cultural center in Virginia. In 1936, the Virginia\nMuseum of Fine Arts in Richmond became the first state-supported\nart museum in the United States. At present, the Museum Building,\nits equipment and the salaries of the staff are provided by the\nCommonwealth; other sources of revenue come from endowments, gifts,\nmembership, rental and admission fees. There are numerous traveling\nexhibitions, slide sets, films and filmstrips, permanent famous art\ncollections, temporary loan exhibits and an Art-mobile equipped with\na comprehensive art display which travels to specific areas on a\nscheduled basis. There is also a Museum Theater where a variety of\nperformances in the Fine Arts including the dance, music, drama and\nmotion pictures is presented.\nIn 1913, the Battle Abbey was constructed in Richmond. It is noted\nfor its large wall murals painted by the French artist, Charles\nHoffbauer and portraying the key battles of the War between the\nStates. Battle Abbey also includes valuable collections of paintings\nof Confederate leaders, of battle flags and of military weapons used\nduring the War between the States.\nThe White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, known also as the\nConfederate Museum, is the beautiful old Brockenbrough Mansion\nleased for the home of Jefferson Davis and his family during the\nWar between the States. In 1893, the Confederate Memorial Literary\nSociety established the house as a Confederate historical museum.\nSuch historical treasures as the sword of Robert E. Lee, military\nequipment of \"J. E. B.\" Stuart, T. J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston\nand individual sections housing battle mementoes of each Confederate\nState are located in this structure.\nThe Valentine house in Richmond, bequeathed to the city by Mann S.\nValentine in 1892, was opened to the public as a museum in 1930.\nIn addition to its specialized exhibits on Richmond historical\ntreasures, this museum has some of the original casts of Edward V.\nValentine (the sculptor), several rare books concerning Virginia\nand exhibits on world history and civilizations. Another famous\nmuseum which was constructed in 1930 is the Mariners' Museum at\nNewport News. A personal comprehensive collection of over 45,000\nnautical articles (including ship models, figureheads and pictorial\nmaterial) owned by Archer M. Huntington is housed in this museum.\nThe skills and techniques of painting are currently taught in the\nschools, colleges and art clubs, as well as by private tutors,\nthroughout Virginia. Thus, the Commonwealth offers excellent\nopportunities for the encouragement of, and appreciation for,\nmeaningful art and sculpture.\n_Architecture_\nArchitecture is often defined as the science and art of designing\nand constructing buildings or structures. Historically, architecture\nin Virginia is considered to have begun in 1611-1615 with the\nbuilding of the first frame row houses at Jamestown and at Henrico.\nPrevious to this period, only crude dwellings had been constructed.\nThe typical early row house, however, was a timber structure usually\ntwo stories high with an upper garret often included. Some of the\nearly colonists were bricklayers, brickmakers and carpenters. Often,\nthe Virginia colonists built a typical English timber cottage as\nsimilar as possible to those in their homeland insofar as the\navailability of materials in Virginia would allow. A gabled shingled\nroof was commonly used; wherever they could be afforded, dormer\nwindows were added. Such a frame house usually measured one room\ndeep and two rooms wide or two rooms deep and a passage-way wide. In\nthe latter type, huge chimneys were usually constructed at each end.\nOne of the first types of Seventeenth Century brick houses is\nexemplified by the \"Adam Thoroughgood\" House built between 1636\nand 1640 in Princess Anne County near Cape Henry. It has one\ncomplete story topped by a steep gabled roof with dormers and with\ntwo T-shaped chimneys. Like many of the early houses in Virginia,\nits interior is finished in pine paneling. Winona, in Northampton\nCounty, is another illustration of the early architectural house in\nVirginia. It consists of a story and a half structure with brick\nwalls. One of the unique features of the house has been hidden from\npublic view by a frame addition: a buttressed chimney surpassed by\nthree extremely tall stacks.\nThe houses in Virginia whose construction is believed to have been\ndirectly affected by the English Renaissance or Georgian Period of\narchitecture were built after 1720. Since the College of William\nand Mary had been established at Williamsburg and the colonial\ncapital had been changed from Jamestown to Williamsburg, this area\nhad become the greatest cultural center as well as the seat of\ngovernment of Virginia. It is commonly believed that the important\nbuildings in Williamsburg in 1720--namely, the Wren Building at\nthe College of William and Mary, the Governor's Palace and the\nCapitol--actually set the pattern for architectural designs for\nprivate homes and public buildings throughout the colony.\nThe Wren Building is the only structure in America designed by\nthe great Sir Christopher Wren and is the oldest academic hall in\nthe United States. The original design of Wren had to be altered\nslightly because of the terrain of the country-side. The building,\nconsisting of the commonly used sandy pink brick foundation\nmaterial, is a two-and-one-half storied rectangular building with a\nsteep roof which includes twelve dormer windows. The roof is topped\nby a plain cupola in the center with two huge chimneys on either\nside. Although the Wren Building was burned and rebuilt on three\ndifferent occasions, in 1928 some of the original walls were used\nas the basis for the restoration and repair of the Wren Building as\npart of the Williamsburg Restoration Project.\nThe Governor's Palace illustrates another Georgian architectural\ndesign in Williamsburg. It consists of two stories rising to a\ncornice topped by a steep, many-dormered roof. Atop the roof is\na platform with a lantern-cupola. There are narrow sash windows\non the fa\u00e7ade and a plain square-transomed doorway with a center\nwrought-iron balcony overhead. There are separate buildings for\nthe smokehouse, dairy, kitchen and laundry. Above the doorway of\nthe Governor's Palace is the carved coat of arms of George II and\nBritain's Royal Lion and Unicorn. The fine paneled woodwork in the\ninterior of the palace and the antique tooled leather walls of the\nlibrary are also noteworthy.\nThe Capitol at Williamsburg, originally completed in 1704 and\nlater reconstructed on the original foundations, is a two-storied\nH-shaped brick structure with semicircular bays on either end and\na connecting gallery in the center over an arched porch. The roof\nof the gallery is topped with a cupola which has the arms of Queen\nAnne, a clock and the Union Jack, one above the other. The Capitol\nwas restored in 1920.\nThe George Wythe House in Williamsburg is considered one of the\npurest Georgian Colonial architectural structures in America.\nGeorge Wythe was the first law professor at the College of\nWilliam and Mary. The house was a gift from his father-in-law.\nAlthough this structure was a town house, it had numerous separate\nbuildings--kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, stable--similar to a\nplantation. The house is rectangular in shape, constructed of brick\nand has two built-in chimneys. Under the restoration project, the\noriginal paint colors in many of the rooms have been matched, and\nit is now furnished with appropriate furniture of that period.\nOther houses built about this time reveal the similarity of designs\nof private estates to the Governor's Palace. Westover (1733), home\nof Colonel William Byrd II on the James River, is considered by many\nhistorians and architects as the finest example of colonial grandeur\nand Georgian stateliness in Virginia. English wrought-iron gates are\nfastened to posts at the top of which are two leaden eagles with\nhalf-spread wings. The mansion house is constructed of red brick\nwith a center section two stories high. On either side of the center\nsection is a wing a story and a half high connected by passageways.\nAt both ends of the house are pairs of tall chimneys. Elaborate\nentrances, paneled walls, an open-string staircase and black and\nwhite marble mantels imported from Italy are some of the elegant\nfeatures still found in the mansion at the present time.\nChrist Church in Lancaster County was erected about the same time as\nWestover. This structure is an example of a Greek-cruciform colonial\nchurch. The church is constructed of brick, has three wide brick\ndoors, oval windows and has the unusual history of having been built\nsolely with funds furnished by one individual, the wealthy \"King\"\nCarter.\nStratford Hall (1725-1730) in Westmoreland County, the home of\nThomas Lee and the birthplace of Robert E. Lee, exemplifies another\nH-shaped house of beauty and grandeur. Constructed of brick and\ndominated by two groups of four chimneys, Stratford consists of the\nH-plan with four large attached buildings at the corners. A unique\nfeature of this house is its exceptionally long flight of stairs\nwhich one must ascend before reaching the main floor. The main floor\nconsists of five large rooms with a huge hall which forms the bar of\nthe \"H.\" Each wing also has a pair of rooms connected by passages.\nCarter's Grove (1751) in James City County is another Georgian\ntype house, planned and partially constructed by Carter Burwell in\n1751. The main unit of the mansion was constructed by the English\nbuilder, Richard Bayliss, and another Britisher, David Minitree. The\nmansion consists of two-and-a-half stories with wings on each side\nof one story. It is particularly noteworthy for its almost perfect\nsymmetry. The main unit has a very high roof with a pair of large\nsquare chimneys. There are several dormer windows and the entire\nstructure is 200 feet long. The interior as well as the exterior\nis beautiful with extensive pine paneling, a graceful arch across\nthe middle of the main hall and exquisitely carved walnut railings\nalong the stairway. Some officers of Lt. Col. Banaster Tarleton's\ntroops used this place as headquarters in 1781. When Tarleton\nsuddenly needed his troops, he rode horseback up the beautiful\ncarved stairway. The horse's hoofprints are still observable on the\nstairway steps.\nMount Airy in Richmond County was constructed by Colonel John Tayloe\nin 1758. This house is unusual because it was built entirely of\nstone, a rarity because the Tidewater area did not have an extensive\namount of stone. Mount Airy is built of brown stone and trimmed with\nlight stone furnishing a colorful contrast.\nThe architecture of churches in Virginia is likewise varied. St.\nLuke's Church, originally known as the Brick Church in Isle of Wight\nCounty, is believed to be the oldest church still in existence in\nthe original thirteen colonies. It is easily recognizable from its\nsquare tower and gabled nave. The brick Jamestown Church Tower\n(1639) is a Gothic structure also. The famous Bruton Parish Church\nin Williamsburg (1715) is an example of the change in architecture\ndue to Governor Spottswood's planned improvement program for\nWilliamsburg. This is the oldest Episcopal Church continuously\nin use in Virginia. Its cruciform construction of red brick is\nunusual with its numerous high, white shuttered windows. The square\ntower was built at a later date and seems to add dignity to the\nstructure. Christ Church in Alexandria, constructed in 1767-1772,\nhas characteristics of the late Georgian Colonial Period: red brick,\na square tower with an octagonal-shaped belfry having a dome cupola,\na trimming of white stone and a crown of Wrennish pepperpots.\nThomas Jefferson contributed much to original Virginia architecture.\nJefferson was devoted to the classical style, yet followed new\ntrends of his own. For example, the Capitol at Richmond was planned\nby Jefferson. Jefferson used the famous Roman temple at N\u00eemes in\nsouthern France, the Maison Carr\u00e9e, as the basic design and modified\nit according to his wishes. He had a plaster model of it made in\nParis and sent to Virginia to be used as the pattern for the new\nCapitol. The original building is the central building which was\nconstructed from 1785 to 1788. Later, the brick was covered with\nstucco and the wings and the long flight of steps were added in\n1904-1906. The revival of classicism in architecture is traced to\nthe individual efforts of Thomas Jefferson. His contacts with many\nof the outstanding architects of the time, including Robert Mills,\nhelped spread the classic ideas throughout the nation. Thus, the\ndignity of the great plantation houses constructed during this\nperiod is attributed to the style advocated by Jefferson. He not\nonly favored this style but proceeded to utilize the style which\nhe advocated. Monticello, Jefferson's home at Charlottesville, was\nbuilt of red brick. Its dome, its Doric columns, its symmetrical\narrangement, its circular windows, its octagonal bay and stately\nporticos, its wedgewood mantelpiece--all characterize the Early\nRepublican type of architecture in Virginia.\nJefferson carried out a similar classical style when he founded the\nUniversity of Virginia. The Serpentine Walls of red brick which\nsurround most of the gardens were designed and built by Jefferson,\nfollowing a type he had seen in France. The walls are approximately\nsix feet high and one brick thick and constructed on a wavelike\nplan for added strength. Jefferson also designed the five two-story\ntemple-like pavilions including porticos and had them constructed of\nred brick walls with white trim and white classic columns. Bremo,\nnear Fork Union, and Poplar Forest, near Lynchburg (where Jefferson\nused to spend quiet weekends in retreat) are two other houses\ndesigned and built by Jefferson.\nRobert Mills, who received architectural instruction from Jefferson\nand whose name is associated with the colonnade of the Treasury\nBuilding in Washington and with the Washington Monuments in\nWashington and in Baltimore, also contributed to the development of\narchitecture in Virginia. Mills designed the Monumental Episcopal\nChurch in Richmond with its structure of stuccoed brick and brown\nsandstone, its octagonal domes and its columns. Mills' stuccoed\nhouses in Richmond are considered most unique. The front of this\ntype of house which faced the street is comparatively plain and\nsimple, but the back of the house which faced the river usually\nhad a graceful, tall, columned portico with a hanging balcony.\nThus, Mills' houses had the appearance of a regular city house\nin the front and a country house in the back. The Valentine\nMuseum, formerly the John Wickham House, and the White House of\nthe Confederacy, formerly the Jefferson Davis Mansion, located in\nRichmond were both designed by Robert Mills.\nSherwood Forest, located on the James River, was the home of John\nTyler, tenth President of the United States, after he retired from\nthe Presidency. He enlarged the originally-built dwelling twofold\nand also had a closed-in colonnade constructed to connect the main\nhouse with the kitchen and the laundry. After a ballroom and an\noffice had also been added, the entire structure was 300 feet long,\none of the longest houses in the country. The original house was\nbuilt in 1780 with additions made in 1845.\nWhen Jefferson with his great fervor for originality died, Virginia\narchitecture seemed to lose its original character. For many years\nafterwards, Virginia tended to follow the architecture fashion\nof the nation rather than to create any particular architectural\ncharacteristics of its own. Following the War between the States and\nits resulting poverty, many of the skills of the earlier craftsmen\nseemed to disappear. There was a lack of artistic brickwork and\nhandcarved woodwork; imitation and copying of designs throughout the\nnation seemed to dominate the architectural scene. The influence of\nmuch of the foreign architecture of this period seemed to crowd the\nAmerican scene and to stifle American originality. Experimentation,\nnot often beautiful in appearance or graceful in lines, resulted\nin an era of architecture with mediocre dwellings and a lack of\nsymmetry and of balanced proportions in design.\nNear the close of the Nineteenth Century, an event occurred which\ninfluenced American architecture to a great extent. When the Chicago\nWorld's Fair was held in 1893, visitors suddenly became reminiscent\nabout the numerous reconstructed American architectural designs\nof colonial buildings: the rich-looking red brick buildings with\ngraceful, tall white columns and with porticos and pediments.\nArchitects in the United States as well as the American public in\ngeneral found a new interest in the construction designs, techniques\nand materials of the Colonial Era. Several visits were made to\nVirginia and other southern states in an attempt to rediscover the\ntrue Colonial style which still has so much to offer in the way of\nbeauty, simplicity and grandeur.\nAs in the other states, Virginia architects have been busy recently\ndrawing up plans to meet the ever-increasing demand for private\ndwellings as well as for public buildings. Some of the structures\nin Virginia which have received nationwide attention are the\nfive-sided, five-floored Pentagon Building in Arlington with 17\u00bd\nmiles of corridors, the Iwo Jima Memorials--one at Quantico and\none in Arlington County--and numerous houses, apartment buildings,\nschools, churches and business establishments.\nThe greatest architectural restoration project in the United States\nis the Restoration of Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. Intense,\ncareful research has made this restoration authentic and appealing\nto the American public. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. made the project\npossible through financial backing and, to date, over 400 colonial\npublic buildings, homes, shops and taverns have been restored or\nreconstructed on a 216 acre section of land. Many of the restored\nbuildings--the Capitol, the Governor's Palace, the George Wythe\nHouse, the Raleigh Tavern, the Public Gaol, the Ludwell-Paradise\nHouse, the Brush-Everard House and the Magazine and Guardhouse--are\nnow furnished properly according to the Eighteenth Century style.\nAdditional atmosphere is created by the colorful, colonial costumes\nworn by the guides themselves. The restoration continues, and\nvisitors from various parts of the world, as well as from all of the\nfifty states, delight in viewing authentic colonial architecture.\nThe Williamsburg Project has had, and will continue to have, a\ndefinite influence upon American architecture.\nIn retrospect, Virginia is usually accredited professionally with\ntwo distinct types of individual architecture: the Colonial type\nbrought directly from England and adapted to American surroundings\n(with a slight variation in Early Colonial and Late Colonial due to\nthe results of the European Renaissance) and the Jeffersonian type\ndistinguished by the creativeness and superb artistic traits of\nThomas Jefferson.\n_Music and Drama_\nMusic--The early Jamestown settlers left no record of their music.\nThey apparently sang the same songs current in England at the\ntime of their departure and probably made up verses pertaining to\ntheir environment as time passed. There is evidence that unusual\ninstruments were occasionally used. Even though organs were very\nexpensive in colonial days, by 1700 the Episcopal Church at Port\nRoyal owned the first pipe organ brought to America from Europe. By\n1755, the Bruton Parish Church at Williamsburg had also received one.\nThe wealthy inhabitants usually paid instrumentalists, often foreign\nmusicians, to play at various social functions. String players\nwere particularly popular, not only for chamber music concerts but\nalso for private balls. In 1788, Francis Hopkinson, considered by\nmany historians as the first American composer, dedicated his most\nambitious published work, \"Seven Songs,\" for the harpsichord or\nforte piano to George Washington, his personal friend. Although\nWashington himself did not play an instrument he was an active\npatron of the arts including music. The harpsichord which he bought\nfor Nellie Custis is still at Mount Vernon. Hopkinson also had\nwritten in 1778 a musical manuscript called \"Toast\" commemorating\nWashington's position as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental\nArmy. After Hopkinson had made improvements on the harpsichord, he\ncontacted Thomas Jefferson, beseeching him to acquaint craftsmen\nwith his new, musical instrumental idea. Jefferson was a great\ndevotee to music and was considered by many as an accomplished\nviolin player as was Patrick Henry before him.\nThe musical talents of the Negroes are usually associated with\nSouthern music. From time to time, collections of slave songs,\nplantation and cabin songs and religious spirituals have been\npublished by William F. Allen, Lucy M. Garrison, Charles P. Ware,\nNatalie Burlin and Thomas Fenner. The Hampton Singers from Hampton\nInstitute still preserve the musical beauty of such Negro Spirituals\nas \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,\" \"Go Down Moses,\" \"Deep River,\" \"Steal\nAway to Jesus\" and \"O'er the Crossing.\" Reverend James P. Carrell\nof Harrisonburg and Lebanon published two spiritual song books:\n\"Songs of Zion\" and \"Virginia Harmony.\" James A. Bland, a Negro\noriginally from South Carolina but educated in Washington, wrote\nthe song: \"Carry Me Back to Ole Virginny.\" This song was adopted\nby the legislature as the official state song in 1940. Two other\nfamous songs written by Bland were \"Dem Golden Slippers\" and \"In the\nEvening by the Moonlight.\"\nMusical publishers and choral groups also encouraged active\nparticipation in the musical field. Joseph Funk, a German immigrant,\ncame to Singer's Glen near Harrisonburg near the beginning of\nthe Nineteenth Century. He established a singing school where he\ntaught vocal music and published \"Choral Music,\" a collection of\nGerman songs. Aldine Kieffer, a grandson of Funk, created a monthly\nmusical publication, \"Musical Millions,\" consisting of rural music\nand musical hints for singing schools. Kieffer wrote the words and\nB. C. Unseld the music to a song which became very popular in the\nrural areas of the South: \"Twilight Is Falling.\" In 1883, Theodore\nPresser of Lynchburg founded the well-known music publication for\nmusic teachers and pianists called \"The Etude.\" Scholars and music\nlovers in various parts of the world have enjoyed the contents of\nthis publication. F. Flaxington Harker was a Scotsman who came to\nAmerica and served as an outstanding choral director in Richmond.\nHe composed organ compositions, choruses, sacred and secular songs,\nanthems and cantatas. A collection of Virginia Folklore Songs,\ncalled \"The Traditional Ballads of Virginia,\" has been compiled by\nArthur Kyle Davis, Jr. and C. Alphonso Smith.\nJenny Lind, \"The Swedish Nightingale,\" afforded Richmonders a thrill\nwhen she appeared in person at the Marshall Theater in 1850. She was\nconsidered an outstanding singer by Virginia music lovers. In 1876,\nThomas Paine Westendorf of Bowling Green wrote the song, \"I'll Take\nYou Home Again, Kathleen,\" presumably for his wife while she was\nmourning the death of her son: she had traveled away from home with\nher husband and had become very homesick, prompting him to write the\nsong as words of encouragement to her.\nThe composer who is professionally considered as the greatest\nnative Virginian contributor to the music field is John Powell\nof Richmond and Charlottesville. He was an accomplished pianist\nand studied in Vienna as well as in the United States. He wrote\n\"Sonata Virginianesque\" for violin and piano (a sonata consisting\nof the happy aspects of plantation life before the War between the\nStates), several overtures and folk-songs. He became nationally\nfamous for his \"Rhapsodie Negre\" for piano and orchestra. His\nvaried talents included the writing of fugues and concertos as well\nas the creation of the Virginia State Choral Festival. Powell was\nalso an enthusiastic participant in the annual White Top Folk Music\nFestival. No description of musical contributions of Virginians\nwould be complete without reference to Joe Sweeney, a native of\nAppomattox who invented the five-stringed banjo.\nRichard Bales, a native of Alexandria, is a composer-conductor\nwho arranged a cantata, \"The Confederacy,\" consisting of music\nand literary compositions of the Confederate States during the\nWar between the States. This cantata was so well received that\nit inspired him to compose a second one called \"The Union\" which\nconsists of music and literary comments concerning the Union forces\nduring the War between the States. He also composed \"The Republic\"\nwhich consists of prominent European and American musical trends of\nthe Eighteenth Century.\nRegional festivals and a State Festival for public school bands and\nchoral groups are held each year. Symphony orchestras furnish superb\nmusical entertainment regularly in Richmond, Norfolk and Roanoke.\nNumerous Virginians have been, and are, active in the music field as\nsingers of classical, semi-classical and popular tunes of the day.\nThus, contributions to vocal music, instrumental music and musical\nforms have been made by natives and residents of Virginia.\nDrama--Unlike residents of many of the thirteen original colonies,\nVirginia residents delighted in the drama. An Accomack County record\nstates that a group of non-professionals performed in a play, \"Ye\nBeare and Ye Cub,\" as early as 1655. This record is believed to\nbe the earliest available evidence of an English-speaking play\npresented in the American colonies.\nVirginia is also proud of the fact that the very first theater\ncalled a playhouse was constructed by William Levingston at\nWilliamsburg in 1716. Its purpose was to present \"Comedies, Drolls,\nand other kind of stage plays ... as shall be thought fitt to\nbe acted there.\" In spite of its lofty origin, it soon became a\nfinancial loss and, in 1745, the original structure was allotted to\nWilliamsburg to be used as a town hall.\nSix years later, however, a second theater was constructed behind\nthe Capitol at Williamsburg. The opening play was \"Richard III\" and\nits performers subsequently enacted this play also at Petersburg and\nat Fredericksburg. It was at the Williamsburg Playhouse that the\nfamous Hallams (London Company, later known as the American Company)\nfirst performed in America. The Hallam family--father, mother and\ntwo children--and their supporting cast landed at Yorktown where\nthey were welcomed by Governor Dinwiddie and a group of his personal\nfriends. They later traveled to Williamsburg where the playhouse had\nreceived appropriate improvements and alterations in keeping with\nthe occasion. Their performance was a success as evidenced by the\nfact that their play, \"The Merchant of Venice,\" played for eleven\nmonths in Williamsburg.\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Virginia Museum of Fine Arts_]\nOther plays including tragedies and comedies, famous and not so\nfamous, were acted at the Williamsburg Playhouse. Most of the plays\nduring this period were European plays or American imitation of\nEuropean plays. The playhouses themselves were usually wooden\nstructures with crude benches for the average customers and a few\n\"less uncomfortable\" boxes for the aristocrats. In the winter, the\nheat was usually furnished by one stove in the center of the end of\nthe barn-like structure where the spectators congregated between\nthe acts. Often, spectators carried their individual footwarmers\nwith them to assure themselves of comfort during the play. Candles\nat first were the sole means of illumination. A custom which was\npracticed for many years consisted of the Negro servants arriving\nat the playhouse hours before the six o'clock curtain time and\nreserving seats for their masters by sitting in the most desirable\nareas until the arrival of the masters.\nThe early drama companies were often organized and managed as a\nregular stock company with the importance of the dramatic role\ndetermining the number of shares received by an actor. Another\ncommon method of paying outstanding actors was the holding of a\n\"benefit\" night near the end of the season whereby the receipts of\nthat night would be given to the individual actor.\nThe playhouse provided one of the most popular types of amusement\nand it soon became a colorful place for gay, social gatherings.\nSince Williamsburg was the capital of the colony of Virginia,\nduring legislative sessions the playhouse was particularly crowded\nwith important personages of the government and their friends.\nGeorge Washington enjoyed dramatic presentations very much and\non numerous occasions visited the Williamsburg Playhouse. Just\nbefore the American Revolution, however, as political, economic and\nsocial relationships between the Americans and the British were\nbeing severely strained, most forms of entertainment including the\nplayhouse were prohibited. Consequently, the Virginia playhouses\neventually closed and most of the actors and actresses traveled to\nforeign shores.\nAfter Governor Thomas Jefferson and numerous other Virginians\nbelieved that Williamsburg was no longer a safe or central location,\nthe capital of Virginia was moved to the Town of Richmond in 1779.\nSeven years later, a new theater in Richmond was opened on Shockoe\nHill. For twenty-five years, this theater was a social gathering\nplace and a stage background for numerous plays during this period.\nOn December 26, 1811, tragedy struck this theater when it was\ncrowded with holiday festive guests at a benefit performance for\nthe actor, Placide, and his daughter. The entertainment in the\ntheater usually consisted of a prologue, a feature play, a short\nafterpiece and, sometimes, singing or dancing. On this fateful date,\nthe feature had been completed and the afterpiece was being enacted.\nSuddenly, a lamp which was used for creating overhead light was\nmistakenly jerked by a pulley, causing it to swing fully lit into\nthe oil-painted scenery back-drop. Soon the entire theater was a\nflaming mass. Seventy-three persons were killed in this tragedy\nincluding Governor George William Smith. This incident caused many\ntheater-goers to refrain from attending theater performances for\nseveral years because of fear for their personal safety.\nDrama in Virginia, consequently, received a serious setback\nfrom this tragedy, but in 1818, a new theater was built through\nsubscription at Seventh and Broad Streets in Richmond. It was called\nthe Marshall Theater and was named in honor of Chief Justice John\nMarshall who was one of the theater's greatest patrons. Although\nthis new structure was larger, more conveniently situated and more\nsafely constructed, fear still kept the large crowds of the earlier\ntheater from attending. The theater for a time had to depend upon a\nfamous performer to assure patronage by large numbers. In July 1821,\none of these celebrated performers was Junius Brutus Booth--father\nof the American actor, Edwin Booth--who made his American debut at\nthe Marshall Theater in \"Richard III.\"\nBy the middle of the Nineteenth Century, Virginia began to\nexperience the \"Golden Age\" of its theater. Richmond still was the\ncenter of the drama in Virginia and one of the outstanding dramatic\ncenters in the United States. The opinion and reaction of Richmond\naudiences and critics became respected and noticed throughout\nthe country. Such well-known actors as Edwin Forrest, William C.\nMacready and James W. Wallack played here. On January 2, 1862, the\nMarshall Theater burned, but its owner immediately had a new one\ncalled the Richmond Playhouse built on the same site. Its opening\npremiere was \"As You Like It\" starring Ida Vernon and D'Orsay Ogden.\nEven though the War between the States was being fought, contrary\nto the Revolutionary War period, the theater furnished amusement\nand relaxation. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, and\nmany of his cabinet members attended this theater and viewed many of\nits tragedies which strangely enough seemed to be the type of play\npreferred over comedies at this time. One of the favorite actresses\nof the soldier audiences was Sally Partington.\nAs the years passed, additional theaters were built in Virginia\nincluding the Theater of Varieties in Richmond where vaudeville was\nfirst introduced. By the end of the Nineteenth Century, two native\nVirginians had become dramatic character actors of national fame:\nWilton Lackaye of Loudoun County and George Fawcett of Fairfax\nCounty. At the turn of the century, Bill Robinson, a native of\nRichmond, began his ascent to national and international fame for\nhis superb dance style and routines, not only in vaudeville but also\nin New York plays and, later, in moving pictures.\nEarly in the Twentieth Century, Francis Xavier Bushman of Norfolk\nwas one of the early moving picture lead actors. As the movies\nimproved and increased in their scope, Virginians such as Jack\nHall of Winchester, James H. Bell of Suffolk, Margaret Sullavan\nof Norfolk, Randolph Scott of Orange County, Richard Arlen of\nCharlottesville, Lynn Bari of Roanoke, Joseph Cotten of Petersburg,\nHenry King of Christiansburg, John Payne of Roanoke, Charles Gilpin\nof Richmond and Freeman F. Gosden of Richmond became nationally\nknown for their acting.\nAlthough strong competition of vaudeville, moving pictures, radio\nand television undoubtedly has affected the legitimate theater, the\nstrong desire for legitimate acting still remains and has resulted\nin the formation of summer stock companies and numerous Little\nTheater groups throughout Virginia. Such groups have become very\nactive and are found in many cities including Alexandria, Danville,\nLynchburg, Norfolk, Petersburg, Richmond and Staunton. Virginia\ncolleges and universities also keep the theater alive by sponsoring\ndramatics classes, workshops and plays.\nTwo recent developments of the theater in Virginia are the formation\nof the Barter Theater Group and the presentation of historical\nplays. The Barter Theater is part of the Barter Colony located at\nAbingdon, and this colony consists of the theater, a workshop,\nan inn and a dormitory. The colony was established by Robert and\nHelen F. Porterfield in 1932 as an attempt to create renewed\ninterest in legitimate play-acting. An original, unique feature of\nthe theater and the activity which was directly responsible for\nits name was the original ticket purchase price which could be\nobtained in exchange for produce or edible commodities--similar to\nthe old-fashioned barter system of exchange; at present, however,\ntheater patrons pay money rather than produce for their tickets.\nDuring the winter months, the cast travels in other nearby states as\nwell as in Virginia. An annual Barter Theater award was established\nby Robert Porterfield in 1939 for the \"finest performance by an\nactor or actress on the current Broadway stage.\" Such well-known\nindividuals as Laurette Taylor, Dorothy Stickney, Mildred Natwick,\nEthel Barrymore, Tallulah Bankhead, Louis Calhern, Helen Hayes,\nHenry Fonda, Frederic March, Shirley Booth, Cornelia Otis Skinner,\nDavid Wayne, Rosalind Russell, Mary Martin, Ethel Merman and Ralph\nBellamy have received this award. The Barter Theater Award consists\nof an acre of land located near Abingdon, a world-famed Virginia ham\nand a silver octagonal platter \"to eat it off.\" In addition, the\nrecipient is given the opportunity to nominate two young dramatic\nactors at New York City auditions for acting positions at the Barter\nTheater. The Barter Theater, now recognized as the State Theater of\nVirginia, is believed to be the only professional theater in the\nUnited States which receives financial aid from a state budget.\nSince 1947, an outstanding play, \"The Common Glory,\" written by\nPulitzer Prize Winner Paul Green, has been presented in the summer\nat the Lake Matoaka Amphitheater in Williamsburg. The theme of \"The\nCommon Glory\" is based upon important historical events from 1774\nthrough 1783 with the famous comments of such American statesmen as\nThomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Patrick\nHenry. The realistic performance of this theme in the historical\noutdoor, natural setting in Williamsburg near historical Jamestown\nand Yorktown is an experience the audience long remembers. Paul\nGreen also wrote \"The Founders,\" another historical drama in honor\nof the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of\nJamestown.\nMusic and drama--from both the creative sense and the participation\nsense--still remain an active phase of culture in Virginia.\n_Education_\nIn colonial days in Virginia, education was considered a personal\nfamily matter. A public school, as the term is understood now,\nwas non-existent. Since England had no national public system of\neducation until 1833, the Virginia colonists, of whom a majority\nwere of English descent, did not have any heritage for schools for\nthe general public. Later, the geographical distances between the\nplantations and the gradual development of social classes tended to\ndiscourage public education. The typical child who received formal\neducation was taught by the family members, privately tutored,\napprenticed for farming, attended a \"Pay School\" or \"Old Field\nSchool\" (a community school taught by a teacher paid either by\nthe individual parents or by a particular patron and located on\nrelatively poor agricultural land), enrolled in a Latin Grammar\nSchool or attended a fashionable school in London. Only the boys\nreceived the formal education and the girls learned the proper\ntechniques of performing household tasks and of being a gracious\nhostess. Many poor children had no formal education of any kind.\nIn 1634, the Syms Free School in Elizabeth City County was organized\nas a local, free school as a direct result of provisions of a will\nwhereby two hundred acres of land were provided and free milk and\nincome from eight cows were included for the support of the school.\nTwenty-five years later, Dr. Thomas Eaton of the same county also\nendowed a free school and left a five hundred acre estate with\nbuildings and livestock as the endowment. The endowment also\nprovided for the maintenance of an \"able schoolmaster to educate and\nteach the children born within the County of Elizabeth.\" Later, the\ntwo schools were combined and, by the beginning of the Twentieth\nCentury, they had been incorporated into the public school system as\nthe Syms-Eaton Academy.\nA few church schools were organized, but they reached a very small\nnumber of children with their enrollment. Orphans and poor children\noften received the benefits of apprenticeship training in trade\nor industrial schools and eventually had an opportunity to learn\nto read and write. By 1775, there were nine free schools endowed\nby private philanthropists for the poor and needy. Public schools\nat this time in Virginia were considered as schools for paupers,\norphans and needy financial cases rather than schools for the\nbenefit of the general public. Community tax-supported schools for\nthe children of the general public were practically unknown.\nUntil the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, the slaves--both\nNegro and Indian--were usually taught religious training and\nsome primary learning, the amount and type of training depending\nupon the individual master. After certain sensational articles\ntended to cause discontent and confusion in the minds of some\nof these individuals which resulted in sporadic raids and open\ndissatisfaction with living conditions, the legislature of Virginia\npassed a law making it illegal to teach any slave how to read, write\nor do arithmetic.\nBy the middle of the Nineteenth Century, private academies and\nseminaries (for girls) began to replace the early Latin-Grammar\nschools. The subjects of English, Latin, science, mathematics,\npublic speaking, spelling and penmanship were taught. The fine arts\nsubjects such as painting and music were stressed in the seminaries.\nSome of the early academies included Prince Edward Academy (later\nbecame Hampden-Sydney Academy and, eventually, Hampden-Sydney\nCollege), Liberty Hall Academy (later, Washington College and,\neventually, Washington and Lee University), Fredericksburg Academy\n(later, Fredericksburg College), Alexandria Academy, Shepherdstown\nAcademy (later, Shepherdstown College and, eventually, State Normal\nSchool in West Virginia), Central Academy (later, Central College\nand, eventually, the University of Virginia), Richmond Seminary\n(later, Richmond College), Salem Academy (later, Roanoke College),\nMonongahela Academy (later, West Virginia University) and Marshall\nAcademy (later, Marshall College and, eventually, a State Normal\nSchool in Huntington, West Virginia). These academies are considered\nforerunners of public high schools in Virginia because, even as late\nas the period immediately prior to the War between the States, there\nwere very few public schools of any type in Virginia.\nHenrico University was the first attempt in Virginia at an\ninstitution for higher learning. The Indian Massacre of 1622 ruined\nthese conscientious efforts. The first two colleges actually\nfounded in Virginia were William and Mary College at Williamsburg\nfounded in 1693--the second oldest college in the thirteen original\ncolonies--and Washington and Lee University at Lexington founded\nin 1749. William and Mary College was founded for the purpose of\nproviding an opportunity for higher education within the colony\nitself; Washington and Lee University--originally known as Augusta\nAcademy, then Liberty Hall, and, eventually, Washington College\nbefore being renamed Washington and Lee University--was founded to\neducate young men in Virginia in a similar fashion to the academies\nin England at that time. In 1819, the General Assembly passed a law\nallotting $15,000 annually from the Literary Fund to be used for\na state university, the University of Virginia, to be located in\nCharlottesville.\nAs in most states, the early private colleges were usually founded\nby religious groups. By the end of the Nineteenth Century,\ncolleges had been established in Virginia by Presbyterians,\nEpiscopalians, Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans and\nthe Brethren Sect. The following institutions were in existence\nat this time: the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in\nAlexandria, the University of Richmond (Baptist), Hampden-Sydney\nCollege at Hampden-Sydney (Presbyterian), St. Vincent's Seminary\nand College at Richmond (Catholic), Emory and Henry College at\nEmory (Methodist), Roanoke College at Salem (Lutheran), St. John's\nCatholic Academy and Seminary at Norfolk, Mary Baldwin College\nat Staunton (for women--Presbyterian), Randolph-Macon College at\nAshland (for men--Methodist), Bridgewater College at Bridgewater\n(Brethren), St. Paul's Polytechnic Institute at Lawrenceville\n(Episcopalian), the Virginia Theological Seminary and College\nat Lynchburg (for Negroes), Randolph-Macon College at Lynchburg\n(for women--Methodist), Union Theological Seminary in Virginia at\nRichmond (Interdenominational) and Virginia Union University at\nRichmond (for Negroes--Baptist).\nOther colleges founded in the Nineteenth Century include the Hampton\nInstitute at Hampton (private--Negro), Medical College of Virginia\nat Richmond (state), Hollins College at Hollins (private), Longwood\nCollege at Farmville (state--women), Virginia Military Institute\nat Lexington (state), Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg\n(private) and Virginia State College at Petersburg (Negro). Madison\nCollege was founded in 1908 at Harrisonburg as a private institution\nof higher learning and, nine years later, Eastern Mennonite College\nwas also chartered in Harrisonburg.\nThe increase of women in colleges became apparent by the Twentieth\nCentury with the organization of Sweet Briar College at Sweet Briar\n(private), Mary Washington College at Fredericksburg (women's\ndivision of the University of Virginia--state), Randolph-Macon\nWoman's College at Lynchburg, Lynchburg College at Lynchburg\n(coed--Disciples of Christ) and Radford College at Radford (women's\ndivision of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute--state). In\naddition, there are seven junior colleges: Stratford at Danville,\nAverett at Danville, Southern Seminary and Junior College at Buena\nVista, Sullins at Bristol, Marion at Marion, Virginia Intermont\nat Bristol--all colleges for women only. These additional junior\ncolleges--Shenandoah at Dayton, Bluefield at Bluefield and Ferrum at\nFerrum--are coed institutions.\nPublic schools were initially supported by a Literary Fund and by\none-half the capitation tax. Gradually, all the capitation or poll\ntax money was transferred to the Literary Fund. After the middle of\nthe Nineteenth Century, some cities and counties in Virginia began\nto adopt a system of free schools for the general public. For the\nfirst time, a favorable attitude toward public education on the part\nof a majority of the Virginians became apparent. The long-assumed\nidea that public schools were charity schools tinged with a social\nstigma faded into the background and public education for all the\nchildren began to be widely encouraged. Before much actual progress\nalong this line was achieved, however, the War between the States\ntook place. As a result, most of the academies were forced to close\nand education for a time became a comparatively minor issue.\nAfter the War between the States, the Underwood Constitution\nincluded a provision requiring public education through the\nestablishment of a uniform system of free public schools in all\ncounties of the state. The deadline date for organizing and\nestablishing such a system was 1876. A State Superintendent of\nPublic Instruction was elected by the General Assembly, a State\nBoard of Education was formed, and public education itself was\nfinanced by interest on the Literary Fund, capitation tax revenue,\nrevenue from state and local property taxes and a state tax on each\nmale twenty-one years old or over. Reverend William H. Ruffner of\nLexington was the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nin Virginia.\nRacial segregation in the public schools of Virginia was\nconstitutionally established in the Underwood Constitution of\n1902. Section 149 stated that white and colored children were not\nto be taught in the same schools. This idea had been in existence\nin statute law since 1869-1870, and the Constitution of 1902 also\nspecifically stated that public funds were to be restricted, with a\nfew exceptions, to public school use.\nGradually, teacher training courses were offered and improved and\nteacher scholarships were created in the attempt to organize a large\nnumber of new schools with qualified teacher personnel. Eventually,\nspecialized courses were offered in the elementary and secondary\nschools: vocational courses including agricultural and industrial\narts courses and household arts courses, Bible Study, Music,\nDrawing, Art and commercial subjects such as bookkeeping, shorthand\nand typing were introduced. These courses coupled with the original\nfundamental courses provided a rich curriculum for the public\nschool children of Virginia. By 1920, health examinations, health\ninstructions and physical training were required of each student.\nEarly State Superintendents of Instruction faced tremendous problems\nin their attempts to organize and develop a whole new school system.\nThe importance of education in Virginia by 1918 is ascertained by\nthe fact that the state legislature at that time passed an act\nordering the State Board of Education to appropriate a fund of not\nmore than $10,000 to be used for a scientific evaluation study of\nthe Virginia schools by a special Survey Commission. Both the Inglis\nSurvey of 1919 (named after Dr. Alexander Inglis, Director of the\nsurvey) and the O'Shea Survey of 1927 (named after Dr. M. V. O'Shea,\nDirector of the survey) resulted in considerable improvements in\nthe organization and administration of the educational system and\nin curricular offerings. Some of the recommendations included\nthe appointment of the State Board of Education by the Governor\nwith confirmation by the State Senate, the appointment of the\nState Superintendent of Public Instruction by the State Board of\nEducation, the selection of a variety of basic textbooks by the\nState Board of Education, an increase in vocational education\ncourses of study, a minimum nine month academic year, compulsory\nschool attendance, improvement in teacher certification standards,\nthe county unit plan (rather than the district plan) of school\norganization and a substantial increase in the salaries of teachers.\nWhen the depression occurred in the late 1920's and early 1930's,\nVirginia was affected but to a lesser degree than most of the\nother states. One of the first items drastically reduced in the\nlocal and state budgets was school expenditures. Regardless of\nits financial hardship, however, the educational system continued\nto improve. A new Division of Instruction headed by a Director of\nInstruction was created in the State Department of Education to\nassume the responsibility of improving the instruction program in\nthe Virginia public schools. Later, a Supervisor of Elementary\nEducation and a Supervisor of Music was added to the State structure\nand a Supervisor of Secondary Education, a Supervisor of Negro\nEducation and a Supervisor of Physical and Health Education were\nselected. Course content has been revised and new subjects added\nas needs warranted. Recent progress includes the development of\naudio-visual aids, rehabilitation education courses for disabled\nveterans, special education for the \"exceptional\" child and for the\nmentally retarded child, distributive education and adult education\ncourses. Most of the public schools in the Commonwealth now have a\ntwelve-year basic plan with the seven-five system predominating:\nseven years in grade school (elementary) and five years in high\nschool (secondary).\nSome of the outstanding public educators in Virginia have been\nJames Blair, Reverend William H. Ruffner, R. R. Farr, Dr. F. V.\nN. Painter, John L. Buchanan, John E. Massey, Joseph W. Southall,\nJoseph D. Eggleston, Dr. R. C. Stearnes, Harris Hart, Sidney B.\nHall, Dabney S. Lancaster, G. Tyler Miller, Dowell J. Howard, Dr.\nDavis Y. Paschall, Dr. Woodrow W. Wilkerson--State Superintendents\nof Public Instruction--George Wythe, Edwin Alderman, Edward\nArmstrong, Samuel C. Armstrong, George Denny, Thomas R. Dew, William\nH. McGuffey, Benjamin S. Ewell, John Langston, John T. Lomax, Booker\nT. Washington, William Morton, William Pendleton, Thomas R. Price,\nFrancis Henry Smith, William Waugh Smith, Charles E. Vauter, William\nWilson, Milton Humphreys, Ed Joynes, Lyon Tyler and J. L. Blair\nBuck. Countless individual teachers, state and local administrators,\nand parent-teacher organizations have also contributed ideas which\nhave influenced and improved the educational facilities throughout\nthe state.\nEducation has become one of the greatest problems in the\nCommonwealth and a field of paramount interest to the citizens as\nwell as to state and local officials, the students, the parents,\nand the professional educational staff directly involved. As the\nenrollments have rapidly increased, the governors, state legislators\nand local officials have increased their concern and support,\ncausing the educational facilities to improve and expand. Such\nactions provide opportunities for the residents of Virginia to\nobtain a well-rounded education.\nSUMMARY\nLiterature reveals the everyday experiences of people as well\nas their dreams and aspirations. Personal diaries, journals and\nletters were frequently used during colonial days to describe ideas\nand events. Poetry was scarce but many scholarly articles, often\nhistorically inclined, were written. Political thinking soon became\na favorite topic for written expression and biographies and essays\nbecame numerous. Edgar Allan Poe, a resident of Virginia from his\nadoption at the age of three, is considered the most original author\nfor his creation of the modern short story and the detective story.\nVirginians also have contributed several historical and romantic\nnovels. The distinguished history and picturesque setting of\nVirginia has furnished innumerable topics of interest for written or\noral expression.\nArt has flourished in Virginia from the handicraft of the early days\nto the plastic sculpturing of the present. In the colonial period,\nEuropean artists often visited Virginia and used Virginia and her\nresidents as their subjects. Later, Virginia artists began to study\nabroad and, upon their return home, engaged primarily in portrait\nand panorama painting. Edward Valentine created unusual, as well as\nfine, sculptures. Foreign artists as well as native artists have\noften used Virginia personalities and scenes as sources for their\ninspiration.\nAlthough Virginia can claim only two separate types of original\narchitecture--the Colonial type influenced by England and altered to\nfit the environment of Virginia and the Jeffersonian type originated\nthrough the artistic efforts of Thomas Jefferson himself--Americans\nand foreigners still visit and study these architectural types\nin an effort to imitate or perpetuate such desirable styles. The\nCommonwealth has a variety of standard forms of architecture.\nOrgans, harpsichords and violins were popular musical instruments\nin colonial days in Virginia. Gradually, American folk music,\nNegro spirituals, the founding of the \"Etude\" music magazine and\nthe invention of the five-stringed banjo tended to increase and\npopularize music in Virginia. John Powell of Richmond is considered\nVirginia's greatest single contributor to the musical composition\nfield.\nFrom the Williamsburg Theater of 1716 to the Barter Theater of the\npresent, Virginians have shared the spotlight, the hardships and the\nfame of plays, vaudeville, moving pictures, radio and television.\nThe annual production of \"The Common Glory,\" an historical drama, at\nLake Matoaka Theater in Williamsburg attracts thousands of patrons.\nEducation, the \"backbone\" of cultural activities, is one of the\nmost challenging current problems facing Virginia. Personal\ntraining in the home, apprenticeship training outside the home,\nthe church and church school education, private tutoring and\nprivate and public institutions of education of the elementary,\nsecondary and higher education level--all are significant milestones\nalong the educational paths of Virginia. With the educational\nfacilities expanding on all levels to meet the rapidly increasing\nenrollment, with teacher training becoming more specialized,\nwith the improvement in standard courses and the addition of new\ncourses of study and with larger legislative appropriations for\neducation, education in Virginia provides more students with better\nopportunities for effective learning.\nThe changing pattern of everyday living can be recognized by\nobservation and analysis of the literature, art, architecture,\nmusic, drama and education of a people. The inhabitants of the\nCommonwealth, consequently, have woven a particular pattern of their\nown from their contributions to these various phases of Cultural\nLife.\nPolitical Life\n_Background of Present State Constitution_\nThe original Constitution for the State of Virginia was written\nat a special convention held in Williamsburg from May 7, 1776 to\nJuly 5, 1776. The Constitution itself was officially adopted on\nJune 29, 1776, making this date the birth date of the State. The\nindividual who was primarily responsible for most of the content\nin the original Constitution was George Mason. The creation of the\nfirst Constitution was unusual in two respects: at the time it was\nwritten, the convention members decided upon specific powers which\nthe newly-formed government should not have before it determined\nthose powers which it should have; furthermore, the Constitution\nwas adopted officially by the convention members without the usual\nprocedure of submitting it to the voters for final ratification.\nAs years pass and conditions vary, it becomes necessary to make\nchanges in the framework of a government to meet such needs.\nConsequently, on four specific occasions, the Constitution of\nVirginia has been rewritten: namely, in 1829-1830, 1850, 1867 and\nIn 1816, the residents west of the Blue Ridge Mountains demanded\nmore representation in their state government and fewer suffrage\nrestrictions. After many years of discontent, these individuals\nfinally encouraged enough residents throughout the state to vote\nfor a constitutional convention to be held in Richmond in 1829.\nAt the convention, suffrage was extended slightly although all\nnon-real estate owners still could not vote. The term of the\nGovernor was extended to a three-year term with an increase in\nhis powers, and representation was reapportioned to benefit the\ninhabitants living west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. However,\nin the redistribution of seats in the House of Delegates, the\nresidents in the Trans-Allegheny section lost some seats. When the\nproposed Constitution was submitted to the people of Virginia for\nratification, 26,055 voted for it and 15,166 voted against it. In\nthis vote, for the first time, the Valley people of the western part\nof the state joined the residents of the east rather than their\nTrans-Allegheny neighbors who had strongly opposed it. The new\nConstitution was officially adopted in 1830.\nAfter the national census of 1840 had been taken, it revealed an\nunfair numerical representation of the white people west of the\nBlue Ridge Mountains in comparison with the representation of the\nnumber of white people living east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Such\nunfair representation existed in both houses of the General Assembly\nto the extent that some residents even suggested that the people\nof the western part of Virginia create a separate state and call\nit Appalachia. Special local meetings were held and a referendum\nwas finally suggested to determine the need of a constitutional\nconvention as an attempt to correct this unfair condition.\nFinally, a state-wide vote in 1850 recommended such a convention\nbe held in Richmond in the same year. After numerous arguments\namong the delegates had been voiced over a four months' period, a\ncompromise was eventually adopted. The national census of 1850 was\nto be used as the official white population count and legislative\nrepresentation was to be based upon this count: the effect of the\ncompromise was to give the counties west of the Blue Ridge Mountains\na majority in the House of Delegates and the counties east of the\nBlue Ridge Mountains a majority in the State Senate. Additional\nreforms were adopted which resulted in this 1850 convention\nsometimes being referred to as \"the reform convention\": suffrage was\nextended considerably to white male citizens; oral balloting was to\nbe maintained; the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the Attorney\nGeneral, certain judges, county clerks and sheriffs were to be\nelected directly by the qualified voters; the tenure of the Governor\nwas extended to a four-year term; and the General Assembly was to\nmeet once every two years instead of annually. A capitation or poll\ntax was to be levied upon each voter and half of the revenue from\nthis tax was to be used for school purposes. The General Assembly\nwas given additional power to control slavery by the passage of\ncertain restrictions which were to be imposed upon slaveowners. This\nthird Constitution for Virginia was officially adopted in 1851 after\nit had been ratified by the voters of the state.\nAfter the War between the States had ended and the Reconstruction\nPeriod had begun, Virginia became Military District Number One in\nMarch 1867 with General John M. Schofield as its chief executive.\nThe United States Congress demanded that Virginia and the other\nnine former seceded states rewrite their state constitutions. When\nthe delegates of the constitutional convention met on December\n3, 1867, they consisted of 32 Conservative Party members, 25\nRadical Republican Negroes, 14 native Virginia Radical Republicans\nand 31 Carpetbaggers, Scalawags and aliens. The constitution\nwhich resulted from this convention is known as the Underwood\nConstitution because the chairman of the convention was Judge John\nC. Underwood, a Radical Republican. Some of the provisions of this\nconstitution included the division of each county into townships,\nthe establishment of a county court with a single judge in each\ncounty, the appointment of a Board of Supervisors in each county\nto carry out the executive powers, the levying of a high tax rate\non landed property, the compulsory creation of a public school\nsystem, the denial of suffrage to many former Confederate leaders\nand a restriction of allowing only former non-supporters of the\nConfederacy to hold office or act as a juror. In 1869, upon the\nrecommendation of President Ulysses S. Grant, the United States\nCongress allowed Virginia voters to vote at a popular referendum on\nthe Underwood Constitution itself and then to vote separately on\nthe sections which denied suffrage rights and office-holding rights\nto former Confederates. On July 6, 1869, the qualified voters of\nVirginia ratified the Underwood Constitution and rejected the other\ntwo sections.\nIn 1897, an attempt to hold a constitutional convention was defeated\nbut three years later, the people of the Commonwealth voted in\nfavor of a constitutional convention. This fifth constitutional\nconvention began in June 1901 and continued for approximately one\nyear. As a result of this convention (described in Chapter Four),\nnumerous changes were made which were considered so important by\nthe delegates at the convention that they decided to \"proclaim\"\nthis Constitution of 1902 as the fundamental law of Virginia rather\nthan to submit it to the voters for ratification. Consequently, on\nMay 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was voted by the convention\ndelegates for adoption and this is the present Constitution of the\nCommonwealth, with certain subsequent revisions.\nLike the Constitution of the United States, the Virginia\nConstitution is divided into major areas called articles and into\nsubdivisions called sections. There are seventeen articles and\ntwo hundred and one sections. The following topics found in the\narticles indicate the broad range of subjects included: the Bill of\nRights, Elective Franchise and Qualifications for Office, Division\nof Powers, Legislative Department, Executive Department, Judiciary\nDepartment, Organization and Government of Counties, Organization\nand Government of Cities and Towns, Education and Public\nInstruction, Agriculture and Immigration, Public Welfare and Penal\nInstitutions, Corporations, Taxation and Finance, Miscellaneous\nProvisions--Homestead and Other Exemptions, Future Changes in the\nConstitution, Rules of Construction, and Voting Qualification of\nArmed Forces.\n_The Virginia Bill of Rights_\nArticle I is the Bill of Rights. Such rights are prefaced by an\nintroductory paragraph in the article which states that this\nseries of rights form the backbone of the governmental structure\nin Virginia: \"A declaration of rights made by the good people of\nVirginia in the exercise of their sovereign powers, which rights\ndo pertain to them and to their posterity, as the basis and\nfoundation of government.\" The famous Declaration of Rights which\nfollows the introductory paragraph was written by George Mason and\nintroduced at the Williamsburg Convention by Archibald Cary. It was\nunanimously adopted by the convention members on June 12, 1776, and\nits principles were considered so significant that they were later\nused as the basis for the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the\nUnited States as well as for many other state bills of rights. The\nimportance attached to these provisions has resulted in the Virginia\nBill of Rights often being called the \"Magna Charta of Virginia.\"\nIn seventeen different sections, the Virginia Bill of Rights\nguarantees various underlying principles of government:\n     (1) \"That all men are by nature equally free and independent and\n     have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a\n     state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest\n     their posterity, namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with\n     the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing\n     and obtaining happiness and safety\"--Thus, freedom and equality\n     of every individual is recognized, and one's rights of life,\n     of liberty, of owning property and of achieving happiness and\n     safety are guaranteed.\n     (2) \"That all power is vested in, and consequently derived\n     from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and\n     servants, and at all times amenable to them\"--Thus, a principle\n     of democracy is expressed that the right to rule comes from the\n     people themselves and that office-holders are representatives of\n     the people and are responsible to the people.\n     (3) \"That the government is, or ought to be, instituted for the\n     common benefit, protection and security of the people, nation\n     or community; of all the various modes and forms of government,\n     that is best which is capable of producing the greatest degree\n     of happiness and safety, and is most effectually secured against\n     the danger of maladministration; and, whenever any government\n     shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a\n     majority of the community hath an indubitable, inalienable\n     and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish it, in\n     such manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public\n     weal\"--Thus, the objective of a government is to benefit,\n     protect and preserve security for the people. The best type of\n     government is that which results in the greatest happiness and\n     safety of all those whom it governs. Whenever a majority of\n     those being governed consider such government as not attaining\n     such an objective, they have a right to change it, reform it,\n     or, if deemed wise, to abolish it as long as it is done in a\n     legal manner considered for the good of all involved.\n     (4) \"That no man, or set of men, is entitled to exclusive or\n     separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in\n     consideration of public services; which not being descendible,\n     neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator or judge to\n     be hereditary\"--Thus, the amount of financial profit or gain\n     received by an office-holder in any community is to be based\n     solely upon his rendering public service to the community.\n     Consideration of birth, influence or wealth is to be ignored,\n     and office-holding itself cannot be automatically inherited or\n     handed down from father to son.\n     (5) \"That the legislative, executive and judicial departments\n     of the State should be separate and distinct; and that the\n     members thereof may be restrained from oppression, by feeling\n     and participating the burthens of the people, they should, at\n     fixed periods, be reduced to a private station, return into that\n     body from which they were originally taken, and the vacancies\n     be supplied by regular elections, in which all or any part of\n     the former members shall be again eligible, or ineligible, as\n     the laws may direct\"--Thus, the principle of the separation\n     of powers is set forth, that is, the legislative, executive\n     and judicial departments are organized as three separate,\n     independent departments. Officials should have specific terms of\n     office and should be elected for designated periods of time at\n     the end of which time they should return to their former private\n     status and be eligible for re-election if the law provides for\n     such an opportunity.\n     (6) \"That all elections ought to be free; and that all men\n     having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with,\n     and attachment to, the community, have the right of suffrage,\n     and cannot be taxed, or deprived of, or damaged in, their\n     property for public uses, without their own consent, or that\n     of their representatives duly elected, or bound by any law to\n     which they have not, in like manner, assented for the public\n     good\"--Thus, all elections should be free and open, and all\n     men who have become regular residents of a community should\n     be allowed to vote. Property cannot be taxed, disposed of\n     or damaged for public use without the consent of the people\n     involved or that of their representatives. Neither can the\n     people be forced to abide by any law unless it has been voted\n     upon by them or by their elected representatives.\n     (7) \"That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of\n     laws, by any authority, without consent of the representatives\n     of the people, is injurious to their rights and ought not to be\n     exercised\"--Thus, no office-holder should have the authority to\n     suspend a law or to carry out a law, independent of the legal\n     representatives of the citizenry.\n     (8) \"That in criminal prosecutions a man hath a right to demand\n     the cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with\n     the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favor,\n     and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage,\n     without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty. He\n     shall not be deprived of life or liberty, except by the law of\n     the land or the judgment of his peers; nor be compelled in any\n     criminal proceeding to give evidence against himself, nor be\n     put twice in jeopardy for the same offense....\"--Thus, any man\n     accused of a crime is entitled to certain rights: to be informed\n     of the charges placed against him, to meet face to face with the\n     witnesses and accusers, to defend himself in a fair and speedy\n     trial with an impartial or unprejudiced jury. He cannot be\n     deprived of life or liberty except by legal judicial action; he\n     cannot be made to testify against himself; and he is ineligible\n     to be tried twice for the same crime.\n     (9) \"That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor\n     excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments\n     inflicted\"--Thus, bails, fines and punishments must be\n     reasonable.\n     (10) \"That general warrants, whereby an officer or messenger\n     may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of\n     a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named,\n     or whose offense is not particularly described and supported\n     by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be\n     granted\"--Thus, a search warrant should state specifically the\n     exact place to be searched or the exact individual to be seized\n     and the offense should be specified.\n     (11) \"That no person shall be deprived of his property without\n     due process of law; and in controversies respecting property,\n     and in suits between man and man, trial by jury is preferable\n     to any other, and ought to be held sacred. The General Assembly\n     may limit the number of jurors for civil cases in courts of\n     record to not less than five in cases cognizable by justices\n     of the peace, or to not less than seven in cases not so\n     cognizable\"--Thus, since man has a right to own property, he\n     cannot be deprived of it without due course of law. In certain\n     types of lawsuits, trial by jury is believed the best legal\n     procedure.\n     (12) \"That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks\n     of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic\n     governments; and any citizen may freely speak, write and\n     publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for\n     the abuse of that right\"--Thus, the right of the freedom of\n     press and of the freedom of speech is advocated as long as an\n     individual assumes the responsibility for same.\n     (13) \"That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the\n     people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural and safe defense\n     of a free State; that standing armies, in time of peace, should\n     be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the\n     military should be under strict subordination to, and governed\n     by, the civil power\"--Thus, a militia promotes the safety of the\n     people. There are dangers of a standing army of professional men\n     in peacetime, and, even in wartime, the military group should be\n     subject to civilian authority.\n     (14) \"That the people have a right to uniform government; and,\n     therefore, that no government separate from, or independent of,\n     the government of Virginia, ought to be erected or established\n     within the limits thereof\"--Thus, the people in the State should\n     be governed by the same rules and regulations. No other separate\n     or independent government within Virginia other than the one\n     established by the State Constitution can be organized.\n     (15) \"That no free government, or the blessings of liberty can\n     be preserved to any people, but by a firm adherence to justice,\n     moderation, temperance, frugality and virtue, and by frequent\n     recurrence to fundamental principles\"--Thus, government, like\n     men, must be guided by moral principles: namely, justice,\n     moderation, temperance, frugality and virtue. Without repeated\n     adherence to these moral precepts, free government cannot\n     survive.\n     (16) \"That religion or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and\n     the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and\n     conviction, not by force or violence; and, therefore, all men\n     are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according\n     to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of\n     all to practice Christian forbearance, love and charity toward\n     each other\"--Thus, the right of the freedom of religion is\n     advocated and guaranteed.\n     (17) \"The rights enumerated in this bill of rights shall not\n     be construed to limit other rights of the people not therein\n     expressed\"--Thus, since there are other rights not included in\n     this Bill of Rights, this last section reminds the people that\n     there are additional rights not specifically included in this\n     article.\nAn understanding of the natural fundamental rights of a people as\nindividuals, as guaranteed by the Virginia Bill of Rights, causes\none to appreciate deeply the guarantees of liberty and freedom\nprovided for the people of the State.\n_Election Requirements, Offices and Procedures_\nThe extreme importance which the early Virginians attached\nto suffrage is recognizable by the location of the voting\nqualifications in the Virginia Constitution. Such qualifications\ndirectly follow the Bill of Rights as Article II and include the\nfollowing requirements:\n(1) a citizen of the United States\n(2) at least twenty-one years of age\n(3) a resident of Virginia at least one year\n(4) a resident of the county, city or town at least six months\n(5) a resident of the voting precinct at least thirty days prior to\nthe election\n(6) the payment of an annual state capitation or poll tax of one\ndollar and fifty cents to the county or city treasurer at least\nsix months prior to the election; the receipt of such payment is\nnecessary for registration before voting. A resident who, although\neligible to vote at the age of twenty-one, has refrained from doing\nso must pay a poll tax assessable against him for a maximum three\nyears before being able to vote. A new resident must pay only for\neach year or part of a year spent in Virginia.\n(7) the passing of a literacy test to prove one's ability to read\nand write in English and to understand the functions of government\n(8) proper registration at least 30 days before the election at\nthe office of the local Registrar of Elections which includes the\npresentation of one's poll tax receipt, the filling in of certain\nrequired forms pertaining to personal history and the swearing under\noath of the truth of one's statements. Registration in Virginia\nis now permanent so that after a resident citizen has properly\nregistered, he does not have to repeat this process unless he moves.\nA noteworthy provision of the Constitution allows any person who is\nan active member of the United States Armed Forces to be exempt from\npaying a poll tax and from registering as a prerequisite to voting.\nLikewise, his poll taxes are cancelled and annulled for the three\nyears next preceding if he has an honorable discharge.\nCertain persons are excluded by Article II from registering and\nvoting: idiots, insane persons, paupers, persons disqualified by\ncrime or specific disabilities which have not been removed, persons\nconvicted of treason, felony, bribery, petit larceny, obtaining\nmoney or property under false pretenses, embezzlement, forgery or\nperjury. The General Assembly has the power, by a two-thirds vote,\nto remove such disabilities.\nQualified citizens of Virginia have the opportunity to elect three\ntypes of officials:\n     (1) national officials--the President and the Vice-President\n     of the United States (every four years), two United States\n     Senators (normally, every six years) and ten United States\n     Representatives (normally, every two years).\n     (2) state officials--the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor,\n     Attorney-General (every four years), forty State Senators (every\n     four years) and one hundred House of Delegates members (every\n     two years).\n     (3) local officials--County: Treasurer, Sheriff, Commonwealth\n     Attorney, Commissioner of the Revenue (every four years),\n     County Clerk (every eight years) and Assembly members or\n     members of the Board of Supervisors; City: Treasurer, Sergeant,\n     Mayor, Councilmen, City Attorney for the Commonwealth, City\n     Commissioner of the Revenue (every four years) and Clerk of the\n     City Courts (every eight years).\nAll elections by the people are by secret ballot. Generally,\nelection officials are sworn in office the day of the election;\none of the judges opens the ballot box publicly, turns it upside\ndown to prove its emptiness, locks it and keeps it locked until\nthe voting polls are closed. At the beginning of the election day,\nthe election judges receive the registration books and the list of\nthose citizens whose past three years poll tax has been paid. The\nelection clerk receives a poll book, a blank book to be used for\nthe official listing of the voters who come to the polls. After all\nelection officials have received their necessary clerical supplies\nand their instructions, the polls are opened for voting. Thus, a\ncitizen is immediately checked for his proper registration and poll\ntax payments when he comes to vote. He then receives a ballot which\nhe alone marks secretly in a voting booth. Voting must be performed\ncarefully because a defaced, improperly marked ballot may be\nchallenged and thrown out. He folds his ballot to maintain secrecy\nand hands it to an election judge who places it immediately in the\nballot box. It is illegal for a voter to be approached concerning a\npossible candidate any nearer than 100 feet from the polling place.\nFifteen minutes before closing time for the polling place, one of\nthe election judges will loudly proclaim this fact in front of the\npolling place. Exactly fifteen minutes later, the voting officially\nends and only ballot holders at this time are allowed to cast their\nvote.\nAfter the polls are closed, all the unused ballots are placed in a\nspecial envelope marked accordingly. The used ballots are tipped out\nof the ballot box onto the table. All the election officials present\ncheck the complete emptiness of the box. Representatives of each of\nthe political parties are allowed to watch the correct counting of\nthe votes. The election clerks make two sets of tally sheets which\ninclude the names of all the candidates which appeared on the ballot\nand each clerk keeps personal tally as the ballots are counted and\nthe names of the candidates voted for are called off by the election\njudges. The usual tally method is used, and the word \"tally\" is\nspoken by each clerk as the diagonal fifth line is drawn so that any\nmistakes in the count made by either clerk can be caught quickly.\nAny time there is disagreement between the tally scores of the two\nclerks, a complete recounting of the ballots for the candidate\nwhose score disagrees must take place. In case of a tie vote for a\nCongressman, Assemblyman, or county or city official, the outcome\nis determined by the Election Board, often by the flip of a coin.\nWhen all the votes have been tallied, an official written report is\nprepared on the back of each poll book: it includes the number of\nvotes cast individually and totally for each candidate. This report\nis signed by the election judges and the election clerks. These poll\nbooks plus the used ballots and the unused ballots are submitted\nto the county or city clerk and later reviewed by the Board of\nElections. The successful candidates then receive a certificate of\nelection which makes them officially elected to their respective\noffices.\nEvery person qualified to vote is eligible to any office of the\nState, county, city or other subdivision of the State wherein he\nresides except as stated otherwise in the State Constitution.\nPersons eighteen years of age are eligible to the office of notary\npublic. The terms of all officers elected begin on the first day of\nFebruary after their election unless otherwise stated. The members\nof the General Assembly and all officers, executive and judicial,\nelected or appointed, take the following oath or affirmation: \"I do\nsolemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution of\nthe United States, and the Constitution of the State of Virginia,\nand that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform\nall the duties incumbent on me as ----, according to the best of my\nability, so help me God.\"\nAny person who is registered and qualified to vote at the next\nsucceeding regular election is eligible to vote at any legalized\nprimary election held for the nomination of any candidate for office.\n_Legislative, Executive and Judicial Departments_\nThe separation of powers theory in government is considered so\nimportant that Article III of the Virginia State Constitution\nconcerns solely this underlying principle: namely, that the\nlegislative, executive and judicial departments are to be separate\nand distinct. To emphasize this idea, the Constitution further\nstates that neither department shall \"exercise the powers properly\nbelonging to either of the others nor may any person exercise the\npower of more than one of them at the same time.\"\nThe Legislative Department--Since one of the chief functions of a\ngovernment is to make laws, it is logical for Article IV of the\nConstitution to consist of a detailed description of the Legislative\nDepartment: its composition, membership, qualifications, powers and\nlimitations.\nThe State legislature or legislative branch is called the General\nAssembly. It is a bicameral legislature composed of an upper\nhouse, the Senate, and a lower house, the House of Delegates. This\nlegislative body has been in continuous existence since 1619 and\nis believed to be the oldest one in the Anglo-Saxon world and the\nsecond oldest Parliament in the entire world.\nThe Constitution requires that the Senate consist of not more than\nforty and not less than thirty-three members, elected quadrennially\n(once every four years). There are forty members in the present\nState Senate, and their term of office is four years. They are\nelected to office by the qualified voters of the State Senatorial\nDistricts on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in\nNovember of every other odd-numbered year in which the Governor is\nnot elected. Therefore, they are elected during the mid-term of\nthe Governor. The State Constitution requires that the House of\nDelegates consist of not more than one hundred and not less than\nninety members. In the present House of Delegates, there are one\nhundred members, and their term of office is two years. Members\nof the House are elected to office by the qualified voters of the\nState House districts on the Tuesday following the first Monday\nin November of every odd-numbered year. Both the Senatorial and\nHouse of Delegates Districts are set up by the General Assembly in\nthat a special commission is appointed by the governor to do the\ndistricting: this commission membership must be approved by the\nGeneral Assembly. The Constitution requires that reapportionment\nor redistricting take place every ten years to offset population\nchanges. The last reapportionment was made in 1952; therefore, the\nnext reapportionment or redistricting is due in 1962. There are now\nthirty-six State Senatorial Districts, thirty-three of which are\nentitled to one Senator each and seventy-six House of Delegates'\ndistricts, sixty-two of which are entitled to one Delegate each.\nAny qualified voter living in a Senatorial or in a House district is\neligible for election from that district to the General Assembly.\nHowever, no General Assembly member can hold any other public\noffice at the same time or be elected by this assembly to any\ncivil office of profit in the state during his term of office.\nLikewise, an individual who holds a federal government or state\ngovernment salaried office or employment or the position of court\njudge, Commonwealth attorney, sheriff, sergeant, treasurer, assessor\nof taxes, commissioner of revenue, collector of taxes, or court\nclerk cannot be a member of either house of the General Assembly\nduring his continuance in office. If such an individual is elected\nto either house of the General Assembly, his former office must\nbe vacated. Two Constitutional requirements are necessary: the\nindividual must be a qualified voter and must live in the district\nhe represents.\nThe salaries of the members of the General Assembly are fixed by law\nand are paid from the public treasury. Any act passed which provides\nfor an increase of legislative salary cannot take effect until the\nend of the term for which the members voting thereon were elected.\nThe present salary is $1080 per regular sixty-day biennial session\n(plus $720 for expenses) for the House of Delegates members and\nfor the State Senators and $1,260 for the Speaker of the House of\nDelegates and the President of the Senate.\nThe General Assembly meets at Richmond in regular session once\nevery two years on the second Wednesday in January in even-numbered\nyears, directly following the election of the members of the House\nof Delegates. The maximum number of days in the regular session is\nsixty, but a session may be extended not longer than thirty days if\nthree-fifths of the members of each house concur. The usual session,\nhowever, is sixty days in length. A special session may be called at\nany time by proclamation of the Governor on his own initiative or\nby him at the request of two-thirds of the members of both houses.\nNeither house can, without the consent of the other, adjourn to\nanother place nor for more than three days while a session is still\nin progress. A quorum is necessary to do business and a majority\nof the members of each house is considered as a quorum. However, a\nsmall number may adjourn from day to day and they have the power to\ncompel the attendance of members according to the rules established\nby each house individually. The House must organize itself at the\noutset of each session because its members have been elected the\npreceding November. The Clerk of the previous House serves until a\nnew chairman has been chosen. Therefore, the Clerk calls the House\nto order, calls the roll, and officially swears in the members.\nThe chairman of the House of Delegates is called the Speaker: he is\nchosen by the House of Delegates members after a party caucus. The\nchairman of the Senate is called the President of the Senate and\nthe Lieutenant-Governor automatically serves as chairman. In the\nabsence of the Lieutenant-Governor or whenever he finds it necessary\nto carry out the office of Governor, the Senate chooses a president\npro tempore (president for-the-time-being) from its own membership.\nEach house of the General Assembly selects its own officers (Clerk,\nSergeant-at-Arms, two Door Keepers), settles its rules of procedures\nand directs writs of election for filling vacancies which may occur\nduring the General Assembly's session. If vacancies occur during\nthe recess period when the General Assembly is not in session, the\nGovernor may issue writs of election as prescribed by law. Each\nhouse is responsible for determining its own rules and for judging\nthe election, qualifications, and returns of its own members; each\nhouse may punish its members for disorderly conduct and may expel a\nmember whenever two-thirds of its members so concur.\nThe members of the General Assembly are entitled to certain\nprivileges. They are free from arrest during the session of their\nparticular house except in cases of treason, felony (a serious\ncrime) or breach of the peace. They cannot be questioned in any\nother place for any speech or debate in which they participate in\neither house. Furthermore, they are free from arrest under any civil\nprocess during the regular sessions of the General Assembly and\nduring the fifteen days directly preceding or directly following the\nsession.\nEach house of the General Assembly must keep a journal of its\nproceedings and must publish it from time to time. Whenever\none-fifth of the members present express a desire to have the \"yeas\"\nand \"nays\" of their members on a specific question recorded, such\ninformation must be entered in the journal. The Clerk of each house\nhas this important duty of journal-keeping. In addition, the Clerk\nalso prepares the payroll, keeps the docket and supervises the\nprinting of the legislative acts--hence, he is often called the\n\"Keeper of the Rolls\" of the Commonwealth.\nAs mentioned earlier, the chief purpose of any legislative body is\nto make laws. In Virginia, every law must be introduced in the form\nof a bill. There are six major steps in the process whereby a bill\nbecomes a law:\n     (1) A bill may originate in either house. The legislator who\n     sponsors it is called the \"Patron.\" It is customary for all\n     appropriation bills to be introduced in the House of Delegates;\n     the Clerk of the house in which it originated assigns a number\n     to it. No regular bill can be introduced after the beginning of\n     the last three weeks of a session.\n     (2) The bill is then referred to the proper committee of each\n     house. There are twenty-one standing committees in the Senate\n     and thirty-four standing committees in the House of Delegates.\n     In addition, there are a few joint standing committees--Senators\n     and Delegates serving together on a committee--including an\n     auditing committee, nominations and confirmations committee,\n     printing committee and a library committee. The bill is\n     considered carefully by the proper committee and then reported\n     back to the Clerk of the House.\n     (3) The bill is then printed by the house in which it\n     originated. The original bill is sent directly to the printer,\n     and the copies are usually then printed and distributed to\n     the members the next day. When the Clerk, having received the\n     committee report, places the bill an the calendar, it is called\n     the first reading and only the title of the bill is read at this\n     time.\n     (4) The bill is read in its entirety when its turn comes\n     on the calendar and the \"Patron\" explains carefully its\n     contents. Detailed discussion may take place and amendment,\n     rejection, referral to another committee for further study or\n     approval occurs. If the bill is approved, it is then sent to\n     be engrossed--the contents of the bill is pasted on a large\n     sheet of paper with the amendments or suggestions included in\n     the proper place for final examining. This entire procedure is\n     called the second reading.\n     (5) The third reading takes place when the bill is being\n     considered for final passage. The bill must be passed in both\n     houses in a recorded vote of \"aye\" or \"nay\" on a roll call with\n     a majority of \"ayes\" from those voting: at least two-fifths of\n     the members elected to each house must be participants in the\n     voting. This is performed in Virginia by an electric voting\n     machine. The names of the members voting for and against must\n     be entered on the official journal of each house. Thus, a\n     bill may be approved or rejected by either house. Frequently,\n     a conference committee has to be appointed to smooth out\n     differences between the two houses in regards to the details of\n     a bill.\n     (6) After the bill has been passed by both houses, it is\n     enrolled--that is, printed in final form--and signed by\n     the presiding officer of each house in the presence of the\n     house members. The bill is then sent to the Governor for\n     his consideration. (See Article V concerning the Executive\n     Department.)\nEither house may amend a bill by an approved \"aye\" vote of a\nmajority of those voting (at least two-fifths of the total\nmembership in each house is a required minimum for voting).\nIn case of an emergency measure, a recorded \"aye\" vote in the\nofficial journals of four-fifths of the members voting in each\nhouse may result in the omission of the usual required printing and\nreading of the bill on three different calendar days.\n[Illustration: VA. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\n_State Capitol at Richmond_]\nA recorded affirmative vote by a majority of all the members elected\nto each house is necessary for the passing of any bills which create\nor establish a new office, which create, continue or revive a\ndebt or charge, or which concern public monies or taxes. All tax\nbills must specifically state the tax requirements clearly.\nEach law can include only one subject or object, and such subject\nor object must be expressed in its title. In order to revive or\namend a law, the title reference alone cannot be used; the act\nrevived or the section amended must be re-enacted and published at\nlength. After a bill has been successfully passed, it generally\ncannot take effect until at least ninety days after the adjournment\nof the General Assembly session during which it was enacted. Two\nexceptions to this restriction exist: a general appropriation law\nand an emergency law. In these two instances, the General Assembly\nby an official \"aye\" recorded vote, by a vote of four-fifths of the\nmembers voting in each house, has the power to state the time such\nlaws are to take effect.\nThe House of Delegates has the right to bring impeachment charges\nagainst the executive or judicial officers of the state. Impeachment\ncharges may be brought for malfeasance (unlawful or wrongful action)\nin office, corruption, neglect of duty, or other high crimes or\nmisdemeanors. Such charges are prosecuted before the Senate which\nhas the sole power to try impeachments. A two-thirds affirmative\nvote of the senators present is necessary for conviction. If an\nindividual is convicted of impeachment charges, he is subject to the\nfollowing penalties: removal from office and disqualification from\nfurther office-holding under the State. In addition, the individual\nis subject to indictment (a formal charge of crime presented by a\ngrand jury), trial, judgment and punishment according to law. It is\npossible in Virginia for the Senate to try impeachments during the\nrecess of the General Assembly if the charges are preferred before\nadjournment.\nIn addition to passing state laws, the General Assembly also has\nthe responsibility of electing (1) the judges of the Supreme Court\nof the State where terms have expired and (2) the judges of all\ncircuit, corporate and chancery courts. Although the Governor\nappoints all the executive department heads, appointments generally\nmust be approved by the General Assembly and likewise, all\ncommission member appointments must be confirmed or rejected by the\nGeneral Assembly.\nAccording to the Federal Constitution, each state is represented in\nthe United States Senate by two senators usually elected directly\nby the qualified voters of the state. The number of representatives\nfrom each state in the United States House of Representatives\nis based upon the proportional population of each state to the\nothers. According to the last national census, the state of\nVirginia is entitled to ten members in the United States House of\nRepresentatives, based upon its population in proportion to the\nother states. In order to determine the sections of the state each\nmember will represent, the state legislatures usually are given the\npower to divide their states into Congressional election districts\nas well as state election districts. Therefore, the Virginia General\nAssembly has the power to apportion the State into Congressional\ndistricts. Virginia has, at the present time, ten Congressional\nelection districts. The state Constitution provides that these\ndistricts must \"be composed of contiguous (adjacent) and compact\nterritory containing as nearly as practicable, an equal number of\ninhabitants.\"\nSection 58 of Article IV of the Virginia Constitution is considered\nso significant that it is required by the General Assembly to be\nincluded in the subject matter of all schools in the state. Its\nsignificance lies in the provisions included in this section which\nguarantee added protection to individual liberties by a series of\nprohibitions on the General Assembly itself. These prohibitions\ninclude the following:\n(1) The General Assembly cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus\nunless when, in case of invasion or rebellion, such action is\nrequired for public safety. Habeas corpus, literally, is a Latin\nexpression meaning \"You have the body\"; a writ is a written legal\ncommand or order. Therefore, a writ of habeas corpus is an official\norder commanding a person who has another person in custody to\nproduce the body of such person who is being detained before\na court; thus, any person arrested or otherwise detained upon\nsuspicion of crime has the right to demand an immediate hearing in\ncourt with a view to determine officially whether or not there is\nadequate ground for his detention. If the prisoner is then believed\nto have been detained on insufficient grounds, he will be given\nhis freedom; otherwise, he will be held for trial, with or without\nrelease on bail. Consequently, the writ of habeas corpus acts as a\nprotection for each individual against possible illegal or unlawful\nimprisonment.\n(2) The General Assembly cannot pass a bill of attainder. In English\nlaw, a bill of attainder was an act of Parliament which pronounced\nthe sentence of death against an accused person with consequent\ncomplete destruction of his civil rights without even a trial being\nconducted. In the Seventeenth Century these bills were commonly used\nin England. The writers of the Virginia Constitution did not believe\nin having an individual punished or convicted of a crime without a\ntrial by jury in a court with proper jurisdiction. This prohibition\nguarantees a fair trial and means that an individual is \"not guilty\"\nuntil proven \"guilty\" of violating some law or constitutional\nprovision.\n(3) The General Assembly cannot pass an ex post facto law. \"Ex\npost facto\" literally means \"after the fact.\" An ex post facto\nlaw is defined by the United States Supreme Court as one which\n\"makes an action done before the passing of the law, and which was\ninnocent when done, criminal, and punishes such action.\" Therefore,\nthe legislature cannot pass criminal legislation after an alleged\ncrime has been committed that, if brought to bear against an\naccused person, would be to his disadvantage. Retroactive criminal\nlegislation which is not detrimental to an accused person is\npermissible (for example, a law reducing a penalty). Therefore, only\nthose individuals who violated a law after a law has been passed are\nsubject to punishment.\n(4) The General Assembly cannot pass a law impairing the obligation\nof contracts. A contract is a formal agreement between two or more\npersons binding them to a particular action. Such contracts play\na most important role in society today and must be regarded with\nutmost sincerity. The United States Constitution specifically\nprohibits the states from passing any law which would impair the\nobligation of contracts, would weaken their effect or would make\nthem more difficult to enforce.\n(5) The General Assembly cannot pass a law abridging the freedom\nof speech or of the press. Individuals are granted the right to\nparticipate in political discussion and criticism and in the\ninterchanging of ideas and opinions in general. This, however,\ndoes not guarantee absolute freedom: one cannot utter or publish\nuntruths, incite insurrections, encourage the disobedience of laws,\ndefame the government, or give aid and comfort to foreign countries\ninvolved in war against the United States. One can easily understand\nthe necessity for such limitations to freedom.\n(6) The General Assembly cannot enact a law whereby private property\nwould be taken or damaged for public uses without just compensation.\nThe General Assembly has the authority to define the term \"Public\nUses.\" Originally in Virginia, the courts decided this definition,\nbut an amendment later transferred this power from the courts to the\nGeneral Assembly, making it a legislative rather than a judicial\ndecision. The sovereign power of a state to take private property\nfor public purposes with proper compensation is called the \"right of\neminent domain.\" The General Assembly must abide by such a right.\nTherefore, a resident in Virginia is guaranteed protection from\nhaving his private property seized from him for unfair or unjust\ncompensation. In case of a dispute over the fair value of such\nproperty, the court decides the fair amount.\n(7) The General Assembly cannot compel an individual to frequent or\nsupport a particular religious place of worship and cannot force an\nindividual to suffer because of his religious beliefs or opinions.\nAll individuals are to be guaranteed their religious freedom and the\nGeneral Assembly cannot require religious tests, bestow certain\nprivileges or advantages to a particular sect or denomination and\ncannot pass any law requiring or authorizing any official church\nwithin the state. Likewise, the General Assembly cannot levy taxes\non the people forcing them to support the activities of a particular\nchurch or the building program of any house of worship. The General\nAssembly, therefore, is forbidden to interfere with the religious\nbelief and worship of the inhabitants within the state. Another\nsection of the Constitution forbids the General Assembly from\nincorporating churches or granting charters of incorporation to any\nreligious denomination.\nThese religious safeguards for a person's individual beliefs are\nprimarily repetitions of the provisions of Thomas Jefferson's\n\"Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom.\" Since it is more\ndifficult to change a provision of a constitution than a statute or\na law, these provisions were included in the Virginia Constitution\nfor emphasis and for a more enduring effect.\nThe General Assembly is also forbidden to authorize lotteries (the\ndistribution of prizes determined by chance or by lot) or to allow\nthe residents of the state to buy, sell, or transfer lottery tickets\nor chances.\nAn extremely important power of every state legislature is the\ncreation of political subdivisions within the state itself: namely,\nthe counties. The Virginia Constitution specifically provides for\nthe formation, division and consolidation of counties. A new county\nmust have a minimum area of 600 square miles and the county or\ncounties from which it is formed cannot be less than 600 square\nmiles after the new county has been formed. No county can be reduced\nin population below 8,000 people. Whenever any county has a length\nthree times its breadth, or has a length exceeding fifty miles, it\nmay be divided at the discretion of the General Assembly. Such added\nlength can occur as a result of boundary changes or the annexation\nof territory. The General Assembly may consolidate existing\ncounties upon the approval of a majority of the qualified voters\nof each of these counties voting as a result of an election held\nfor this specific purpose. If the majority do not vote approval of\nconsolidation, such consolidation cannot take place.\nVirginia had eight counties originally, dating from 1634: Accawmack\n(now known as Accomack and Northampton), Charles City (now known\nas Prince George County), Charles River (now known as York\nCounty), Elizabeth City (ceased as a county in 1952), Henrico,\nJames City (now known as Surry County), Wamosquyoake (no longer in\nexistence--existed only from 1634-1637) and Warwick River (known as\nWarwick but ceased as a county in 1952). In 1648, an Indian district\ncalled Chickacoan was formed into the County of Northumberland. From\nthese nine counties eventually 172 counties were created, with the\nlargest number, 116, created from Northumberland. The last change\nin the number of counties occurred in 1952 when both Elizabeth City\nCounty and Warwick County became first class independent cities,\nthus relinquishing county status. At the present time, there are 98\ncounties in Virginia. Furthermore, since 1788, nine counties became\npart of the present state of Kentucky, fifty counties became part of\nthe present state of West Virginia and fifteen counties (including\nthe two mentioned previously) went out of existence through\nconsolidation or other methods. The General Assembly has exercised\nand will continue to exercise its power of county-making in Virginia.\nIn the Virginia Supreme Court case of Moss versus County of\nTazewell, the decision stated that \"the power of the legislature\nof the State is supreme, except so far as it is restrained by\nState or Federal Constitution.\" Therefore, a State constitution is\nusually considered as a restraining agreement whereby the Federal\nConstitution is considered as a granting agreement. Thus, the\nlegislative body of a State has all the powers not prohibited to it\nby the State or Federal Constitution. A State constitution is often,\ntherefore, a summary of what the state legislative body may not do.\nThe Virginia Constitution specifically states that \"the authority of\nthe General Assembly shall extend to all subjects of legislation,\nnot herein forbidden or unrestricted; and a specific grant of\nauthority in this Constitution upon a subject shall not work a\nrestriction of its authority upon the same or any other subject.\"\nThe principles described are further emphasized in this quotation\nfrom the Virginia Constitution which follows: \"The omission in this\nConstitution of specific grants of authority heretofore conferred\nshall not be construed to deprive the General Assembly of such\nauthority, or to indicate a change of policy in reference thereto,\nunless such purpose plainly appear.\"\nThere are several limitations placed upon the General Assembly by\nthe Constitution: the General Assembly cannot enact any local,\nspecial or private law in the following instances (but can enact\ngeneral laws in the same instances):\n(1) for the punishment of crime,\n(2) for providing a change of venue (the place where a trial is\nheld) in civil or criminal cases,\n(3) for regulating the jurisdiction of, or changing the rules of,\nevidence in any judicial proceeding,\n(4) for changing county seats,\n(5) for assessing and collecting taxes and for extending the time\nfor assessment or collection of taxes,\n(6) for exempting property from taxation,\n(7) for postponing or diminishing any obligation or liability of any\nperson, corporation or association to the State or to any local unit\nof government,\n(8) for refunding money lawfully paid into the treasury of the State\nor the treasury of any local unit of government,\n(9) for granting from the treasury of the State any extra\ncompensation to any public officer, servant, agent or contractor,\n(10) for conducting elections or designating places of voting,\n(11) for regulating labor, trade, mining or manufacturing, or the\nrate of interest on money,\n(12) for granting any pension,\n(13) for creating, increasing or decreasing fees, salaries,\npercentages, or allowances of public officers during the term for\nwhich they are elected or appointed,\n(14) for declaring streams navigable or authorizing the\nconstructions of booms or dams or the removal of obstructions from\nsuch streams,\n(15) for regulating fencing or the boundaries of land, or the\nrunning at large of stock,\n(16) for creating private corporations, or amending, renewing, or\nextending their charters,\n(17) for granting to any private corporation, association or\nindividual any special or exclusive right, privilege or immunity,\n(18) for naming or changing the name of any private corporation or\nassociation,\n(19) for forfeiting the charter of a private corporation.\nGeneral laws pertaining to the above subjects may be amended or\nrepealed as long as they do not have the effect of enactment of a\nspecial, private, or local law.\nThe General Assembly also has the power, by means of general law,\nto confer upon boards of supervisors of counties and the councils\nof cities and towns powers of local and special legislation insofar\nas the delegation of power is not inconsistent with constitutional\nlimitations.\nEach time the regular session of the legislature is held, the\nGeneral Assembly appoints a standing committee, called the auditing\ncommittee which consists of two members of the Senate and three\nmembers of the House of Delegates. The chief function of this\ncommittee is to examine, at least once a year, the books of the\nState Treasurer and other government executive officers whose\nduties concern auditing or accounting for the State revenue and of\nthe public institutions. This committee reports the results of its\ninvestigations to the Governor and must arrange for publication\nof results in two newspapers of general circulation. The Governor\nhimself submits such reports to the General Assembly at the\nbeginning of each session. The members of this committee have the\nright to employ accountants to assist them in carrying out their\ninvestigations.\nThe Executive Department--Article V of the Virginia Constitution\nconcerns the Executive Department. The chief function of the\nExecutive Department is to enforce or carry out the laws. The\nhighest executive officer in the State is the Governor. He receives\nhis position by direct election of the qualified voters on the\nTuesday following the first Monday in November of every other\nodd-numbered year--at the same time and place as the election of\nthe General Assembly members. The term of office for a Governor is,\ntherefore, four years. He is not eligible for re-election to the\nsame office during the succeeding term; in other words, a Governor\ncannot succeed himself.\nThe Governor's term begins on the third Wednesday in January on the\nfirst year after his election and ends on the Tuesday following the\nsecond Wednesday in January of his fourth year. This timing allows a\nnew Governor to come into office one week after the General Assembly\nhas convened for its regular session and has had the opportunity to\norganize. The interval also affords an opportunity for the outgoing\nGovernor to present his opinions and experiences to the state\nlegislature before his departure.\nAfter the votes have been cast for the State gubernatorial\n(Governor) candidates, the returns of the election are usually sent,\nunder seal, to the Secretary of the Commonwealth. He delivers the\nreturns to the Speaker of the House of Delegates on the first day\nof the next session of the General Assembly. Within three days,\nthe Speaker of the House of Delegates must open the returns in the\npresence of a majority of the Senate and of the House of Delegates.\nThen the votes are counted. The person who receives the highest\nnumber of votes is declared elected. If there is a tie, however, the\ntwo houses of the General Assembly jointly vote for the Governor.\nIn order to be eligible for the governorship, a candidate must have\nthree qualifications: (1) he must be a United States citizen (if not\na native-born citizen, he must have been naturalized for at least\nten years preceding his election), (2) he must be at least thirty\nyears of age and (3) he must have been a resident in the State of\nVirginia for at least five years directly preceding his election.\nThe Governor must live in the city of Richmond, the capital of\nVirginia, during his term of office. He resides at the Executive\nMansion and receives at the present time a salary of $20,000 per\nyear. Such compensation cannot be increased or diminished during his\nterm of office. He cannot receive any other emolument (money) while\nin office from the state government or from any other government and\nhe cannot hold any other position while he is Governor of the State.\nThe chief duty or power of the Governor is to faithfully administer\nor execute the laws. Other powers include:\n(1) reporting to each session of the General Assembly the condition\nof the State in a message known as the \"Governor's Message\"\n(2) recommending to the General Assembly for consideration measures\nwhich he believes are beneficial to the State\n(3) convening the General Assembly whenever two-thirds of the\nmembers of both houses request it\n(4) convening the General Assembly into special session whenever, in\nhis opinion, the interest of the State requires it\n(5) acting as the commander-in-chief of the State land and naval\nforces\n(6) calling out the State militia or State Police whenever necessary\nto repel invasion, suppress insurrection and enforce the execution\nof the laws\n(7) conducting all relations with other states\n(8) during the recess of the General Assembly, suspending from\noffice for misbehavior, incapacity, neglect of official duty, or\nacts performed illegally, any executive officer in Richmond except\nthe Lieutenant-Governor (whenever he exercises this power, however,\nhe must report to the General Assembly, at the beginning of the\nnext session, the fact that he suspended an officer or officers and\nthe cause for such suspension: then the General Assembly itself\ndetermines whether or not such individuals are to be restored or\nfinally removed from office).\n(9) during the recess of the General Assembly, appointing pro\ntempore (temporary) successors to all individuals suspended (as\ndescribed previously)\n(10) likewise, during the recess of the General Assembly, filling\npro tempore vacancies in all offices of the State if such filling\nis not otherwise provided for by the Constitution or by laws. (Such\nappointments must be by commissions which automatically expire at\nthe end of thirty days after the beginning of the next session of\nthe General Assembly).\n(11) remitting fines and penalties under rules and regulations as\nprescribed by law\n(12) granting reprieves and pardons after conviction except those in\nwhich the House of Delegates carried on the prosecution\n(13) removing political disabilities resulting from conviction for\noffenses committed prior to or subsequent to the adoption of the\nState Constitution\n[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE\n_Executive Mansion_]\n(14) commuting sentences of capital punishment\n(15) informing the General Assembly, at each session, of the details\nof each case of fine or penalty remitted, of each reprieve or pardon\ngranted, and of punishment commuted, plus his reason for doing so.\n(16) requiring information in writing, under oath, from the\nofficers of the executive department and superintendents of State\ninstitutions upon any subject relating to the duties of their\nrespective offices and institutions (Likewise, he may inspect at any\ntime their official books, accounts and vouchers, and ascertain the\nconditions of the public funds in their charge and he may employ\naccountants for this purpose)\n(17) requiring the opinion in writing of the State Attorney-General\nconcerning any question of law affecting his official duties as\nGovernor or relating to the affairs of the Commonwealth\n(18) legally certifying all commissions and grants in the name of\nthe Commonwealth of Virginia and affixing each with the official\nseal of the Commonwealth\n(19) supervising the activities of all State Executive Departments,\nDivisions, Boards and Commissions and appointing all the chief\nofficers and members of such groups with the consent or confirmation\nof the General Assembly\n(20) appointing certain officials, subject to confirmation by the\nGeneral Assembly (for example, the Secretary of the Commonwealth,\nthe State Treasurer)\n(21) considering all bills passed by the General Assembly\nThe Governor's responsibility in the law-making process is\nsignificant. After a bill has passed both houses of the General\nAssembly, it is sent to the Governor who has four choices of action:\n(1) He may approve the bill by signing it; it becomes a law.\n(2) He may disapprove the bill by vetoing it; he then returns it\nwith his objections to the house in which it originated. This house\nenters such objections on its journal and reconsiders the bill in\nview of such objections. If, after careful consideration, two-thirds\nof the members present (at least a majority of the membership of\nthat house is required as a minimum present for voting) still\napprove the bill, it is sent with the Governor's objections to the\nother house. After careful consideration here, if it is approved by\ntwo-thirds of all the members present (at least a majority of the\nmembership of this house is also required as the minimum present for\nvoting), it will become a law over the Governor's disapproval. This\nprocess is called \"Over-riding the Veto.\" The Governor also has\nthe power to veto any particular item or items of an appropriation\nbill without vetoing the entire bill. Such veto affects only the\nparticular item or designated items. In such a case, the item or\nitems must be considered by the same methods described previously.\nIf the Governor favors the general purpose of any bill but opposes\na part or certain parts, he may return it with recommendations\nfor amending it to the house in which is originated with the same\nprocedures described previously being used. One exception, however,\nexists: a vote of only a majority of the members present in each\nhouse is required to amend a bill.\n(3) He may do nothing about the bill; after five days have passed,\nSundays excepted, and if the General Assembly is still in session,\nthe bill automatically becomes a law.\n(4) He may do nothing about the bill; after ten days have passed,\nif the General Assembly has adjourned in the meantime, making it\nimpossible to return the bill, the bill does not become a law. Such\nprocedure is called a \"pocket veto.\"\nWith such a wide range of power, the tremendous responsibility\nand authority which the Governor of Virginia possesses is readily\napparent.\nThe second highest ranking state executive is the\nLieutenant-Governor. He is elected to office by the qualified\nvoters at the same time as the Governor for the same four-year\nterm of office. His qualifications and election procedure are\nidentical to those of the Governor. In case the Governor of the\nstate dies, fails to qualify, resigns, is removed from the State\nor is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office,\nthe Lieutenant-Governor then assumes the Governorship with its\nduties, powers and compensation. Normally, the chief duty of the\nLieutenant-Governor is to act as permanent chairman of the State\nSenate. While presiding over same, he is called the President of\nthe Senate. In such capacity, he has no vote except in case of a\ntie. His salary consists of $1260 for each biennial session of the\nlegislature plus $3,000 per year for traveling expenses. Hence, he\nreceives the same salary as the Speaker of the House of Delegates.\nTwo major administrative officials appointed by the Governor and\nsubject to the approval of the General Assembly are the Secretary\nof the Commonwealth and the State Treasurer. Their terms of office\nare coincident with the Governor who appoints them. The Secretary\nof the Commonwealth acts as the official secretary to the Governor\nand is the head of the Division of Records where all records of\nthe official acts of the Governor are kept. The Secretary of the\nCommonwealth is also the custodian of the official State Seal and\nis responsible for affixing same to all the official documents\nsigned by the Governor. The State Treasurer has custody of the funds\nof the state in the payment of bills. He makes deposits of all\nrevenue belonging to the Commonwealth in certain specified banks\nand withdraws such money by check only upon the State Comptroller's\nwarrant.\nAnother important state official is the Auditor of Public Accounts.\nHe is elected by the joint vote of both houses of the General\nAssembly for a four-year term. His powers and duties include the\nauditing of all accounts of each state department, institution and\nagency, and he acts as chief auditor and accountant of the Auditing\nCommittee of the General Assembly. In addition, he is responsible\nfor exposing unauthorized, illegal or unwise handling of state funds\nto the Governor, the Auditing Committee of the General Assembly and\nthe Comptroller. He is also required by law to audit all city and\ncounty officials' accounts unless such accounts are audited annually\nby a certified public accountant according to the State Auditor's\ninstructions.\nAll state officials who collect, keep in custody, handle or disburse\npublic funds must give bond for the faithful performance of these\nduties. The amount of the bond varies with the amount of revenue\ninvolved in carrying out such duties.\nAny individual who is appointed to any office by the Governor\nwhich requires confirmation by the General Assembly and who does\nnot receive such necessary confirmation cannot start or continue\nin office and is ineligible for reappointment during the recess\nof the General Assembly to fill a vacancy caused by such refused\nconfirmation.\nTo assist the Governor in carrying out his executive duties,\nnumerous departments and agencies have been established by the\nConstitution or by legislative act. Most of the department names\nsuggest the particular type of work for which each is responsible:\nthe Department of Military Affairs, the Department of Law including\nthe Division of Motion Picture Censorship and the Division of War\nVeterans' Claims, the Department of Accounts, the Department of\nPurchases and Supply, the Department of the Treasury, the Department\nof Taxation, the Department of State Police, the Division of\nMotor Vehicles, the Department of Corporations, the Department of\nAlcoholic Beverage Control, the Department of Labor and Industry,\nthe Department of Agriculture and Immigration, the Department of\nWorkmen's Compensation, the Department of Conservation and Economic\nDevelopment, the Department of Education, the Department of\nHighways, the Department of Health, the Department of Welfare and\nInstitutions, the Department of Mental Hygiene and the Department\nof Professional and Occupational Registration. The Division of\nPersonnel, the Division of the Budget, the Division of Records and\nthe Office of Civilian Defense are all located in the Governor's\nOffice. Additional specialized commissions such as the Advisory\nCouncil on Virginia Economy, the Art Commission, the Safety Codes\nCommission, the State Library Board, the State Water Control\nBoard, the Commission on Constitutional Government, the Potomac\nRiver Basin Commission and the Commission on Interstate Cooperation\nalso participate actively in the carrying out of the financial,\nlaw enforcing, service rendering, conservation, preservation, and\nregulation functions of the executive department of the Commonwealth.\nThe Judicial Department--Article VI concerns the Judiciary\nDepartment whose chief purpose is to interpret the laws properly.\nThe State Constitution in Virginia provides for a Supreme Court of\nAppeals, Circuit Courts, City Courts and other inferior courts. The\njurisdiction of these courts is regulated by law with the exception\nof jurisdiction granted specifically by the State Constitution\nitself. The General Assembly authorizes by law the appointment of\njudges pro tempore by the Governor.\nThe highest State Court is the Supreme Court of Appeals, located in\nRichmond. It consists of seven members: one Chief Justice and six\nassociate justices. The Chief Justice is always the Senior Justice\nin years of continuous service; in case the total years of service\nare equaled by two or more justices, seniority is then determined by\nage. The term of office of the justice is twelve years, and they are\nelected by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates.\nTheir sole constitutional qualification is that they must have held\na \"judicial station\" in the United States or have practiced law in\nVirginia or some other state for five years previously. The annual\nsalary of a justice of the Court of Appeals is $15,500 with the\nChief Justice receiving an additional $4,500 or a salary of $20,000.\nWhen meeting in court session, the members of the Supreme Court\nof Appeals may sit as an entire group or may sit in two divisions\nconsisting of not less than three justices each. By sitting in two\nsuch divisions, it is possible to hear more cases at a rapid pace.\nWhenever convening in this manner, each division has the full power\nand authority on the determination of causes, in the issuing of\nwrits, and in the exercise of all powers authorized by the State\nConstitution for the Supreme Court of Appeals or provided by law.\nEach division is subject, however, to the general control of the\nSupreme Court of Appeals and is subject to any rules and regulations\nwhich this court may make. Likewise, the decision of either division\ndoes not become the judgment of the Supreme Court of Appeals unless\nconcurred in by at least three judges. Any case which involves a\nconstruction of the State Constitution or of the Constitution of the\nUnited States must be decided upon by the Supreme Court of Appeals\nin toto and, furthermore, the assent of at least four of the judges\nis necessary for the court to determine that any law is or is not\ncontrary to the State Constitution or the Constitution of the United\nStates. If, in such a case, it is impossible for more than three of\nthe judges to agree on the constitutional questions involved and\nif the case cannot be determined without passing on such questions,\nthe case must be reheard by a full court. Whenever the judges within\neither division differ as to the judgment to be rendered in any\ncause, or whenever any judge of either division within a time and in\na manner fixed by the court rules certifies that in his opinion any\ndecision of any division of the court is in conflict with a prior\ndecision of the court, the cause must be considered and adjudged\n(decreed) by the full court or at least a quorum of the full court.\nThere are two types of court jurisdiction: original and appellate.\nOriginal jurisdiction exists whenever a court has the legal right\nto hear a case for the first time. Appellate jurisdiction exists\nwhenever a court is hearing a case which is being appealed or\nbrought to it from a lower court. The Virginia Supreme Court of\nAppeals has original jurisdiction in cases of habeas corpus,\nmandamus and prohibition. Habeas corpus is a court order which\ncommands a person having another individual in custody to bring\nbefore the court the individual detained for the purpose of\ndetermining the legality of detention. A mandamus is a court\norder directed to subordinate courts, corporations, or the like,\ncommanding them to do something therein specified. A prohibition is\na writ or court order which legally restrains someone from doing\nsome particular action. In all other cases in which the Supreme\nCourt of Appeals has jurisdiction, it has appellate jurisdiction\nonly. The General Assembly has the power to provide, from time to\ntime, for a Special Court of Appeals whose chief purpose is to\nassist the Supreme Court of Appeals.\nWhenever a judgment or decree is reversed, modified or affirmed\nby the Supreme Court of Appeals, the court must state in writing\nthe reasons for same and must keep such record on file with the\ncase. In criminal matters, the court may direct a new trial. If\nthe court believes that the accused should be discharged from\nfurther prosecution, in such instance, it has the right to order\nthe case ended, thereby discharging such an individual from further\nprosecution. This court has no power, however, to increase or\ndecrease the punishment of an accused person. In civil cases, the\ncourt may enter a final judgment.\nThe courts which rank second highest in the Virginia judiciary are\nthe Circuit Courts. The General Assembly has the power to arrange\nand re-arrange the judicial circuits of the state and to increase\nor diminish their number. However, no new circuit can be created\ncontaining less than forty thousand inhabitants according to the\nmost recent census nor if such creation would result in reducing the\nnumber of inhabitants in any existing judicial circuit below forty\nthousand. There are thirty-seven judicial circuits in Virginia.\nThe geographical composition of the circuit ranges from one county\nor city to five counties and one city. Each circuit has one judge\nchosen by the joint vote of both houses of the General Assembly\nfor a term of eight years. He must possess the same qualifications\nwhen chosen as judges of the Supreme Court of Appeals and must live\nin the circuit area where the circuit court is located while he\nis in office. The number of sessions of the circuit courts to be\nheld for each county and city is prescribed by law and the judge of\none circuit may be required or authorized to hold court in another\ncircuit or city. Circuit courts usually have original and appellate\njurisdiction in (1) all civil cases involving twenty dollars or more\nand (2) certain criminal cases.\nBelow the circuit courts in the court structure in Virginia are\nthe city Hustings or Corporation Courts. They are courts of record\nalso and have original jurisdiction except in cases of appeals from\njustices. These courts have the sole power to appoint electoral\nboards in cities where they are located. They have much concurrent\njurisdiction with the circuit courts. They are criminal courts\nand can try cases of felonies committed within one mile of the\ncorporation limits. There are sixteen such courts: Corporation\nCourts located in Alexandria, Bristol, Charlottesville, Danville,\nLynchburg, Newport News, Norfolk (2), South Norfolk, Staunton, and\nWinchester; Hustings Courts located in Petersburg, Portsmouth,\nRichmond (2) and Roanoke. These city court judges must live in the\ncity where the court is located.\nThe Virginia Constitution divides the cities of Virginia into two\nclasses as far as the judicial system is concerned: (1) cities\nhaving a population of at least ten thousand according to the last\nofficial census are called cities of the first class; (2) cities\nhaving a population of less than ten thousand according to the last\nofficial census are called cities of the second class. In each first\nclass city there may be a corporation court in addition to a circuit\ncourt. In any city containing at least thirty thousand inhabitants,\nthe General Assembly may provide additional courts with the number\nof judges it deems necessary for the public interest.\nIn a second class city, there may be a corporation or hustings\ncourt. The circuit court of the county in which the city is situated\nand the corporation or hustings court have concurrent jurisdiction\nin actions at law and suits in equity unless otherwise provided\nby law. Therefore, the General Assembly has the power to confer\nexclusive original jurisdiction upon a corporation or hustings\ncourt in all cases involving residents of any such city; this setup\nis much more convenient to the residents who live a considerable\ndistance from the county seat. This type of court may be abolished\nby a vote of a majority of the qualified voters of the particular\ncity in which the court is located at a special election held for\nthis purpose. Another method by which a court may cease to exist is\nby having the office of judge of such a court whose annual salary\nis less than eight hundred dollars become vacant and remain vacant\nfor ninety days consecutively. Automatic abolishment of such court\nresults. In each case in which such court is abolished, the city\nimmediately comes within the jurisdiction of the circuit court of\nthe county wherein it is geographically situated unless otherwise\nprovided for by law. The records of the abolished corporation or\ncity court immediately become records of the aforementioned circuit\ncourt and are transferred accordingly.\nFor each city court of record there is a judge chosen for an\neight-year term by a joint vote of both houses of the General\nAssembly. He must have the same qualifications as Supreme Court of\nAppeals judges and must live within the jurisdiction of the court\nover which he presides while he is in office. However, the judge of\na corporation court of any corporation having a city charter and\nhaving less than ten thousand inhabitants may live outside the city\nlimits. Such an individual may be judge of such corporation court\nand also judge of a corporation court of some other city having\nless than ten thousand inhabitants. The judges of city courts may\nbe required or authorized to hold the circuit or city courts of any\ncounty or city.\nThe General Assembly has the power also to establish courts of land\nregistration for the administration of any law it may adopt for the\npurpose of the settlement, registration, transfer, or assurance of\ntitles to land in the State.\nJudges are commissioned by the Governor of the State. Their salaries\nand allowances are prescribed by law and cannot be diminished during\ntheir term of office. Their term of office begins on the first day\nof February succeeding their election by the General Assembly.\nWhenever there is a judgeship vacancy, the successor is elected for\nthe unexpired term. The General Assembly also has the authority\nto retire judges and to provide their compensation. The General\nAssembly has the power to pass laws giving duties to retired judges\nsuch as substitute judge work. The salaries of judges are paid out\nof the State treasury but the State is reimbursed for one-half of\nthe salaries of each of the circuit judges by the counties and\ncities composing the circuit, based upon their population and of\neach of the judges of a city of the first class by the city in which\neach judge presides. The one exception is the judge of the Circuit\nCourt of the city of Richmond whose entire salary is paid by the\nState. A city may increase the salary of its circuit or city judges\nif the city assumes the entire increase and guarantees that such\nsalary will not be diminished during the entire term of office. A\ncity which has less than ten thousand inhabitants pays the salary of\nits city judge.\nJudges may be removed from office in Virginia for cause by a\nconcurrent vote of both houses of the General Assembly. A majority\nof all the members elected to each house must concur in such vote,\nand the cause of removal must be entered on the journal of each\nhouse. The judge against whom the General Assembly is about to\nproceed for removal must have notice of same accompanied by a copy\nof the alleged causes at least twenty days before the actual voting\ntakes place. Typically, no judge can practice law within or without\nthe State of Virginia nor hold any other office of public trust\nwhile he is in office.\nWrits (court orders) must be issued in the name of the \"Commonwealth\nof Virginia\" and must be certified by the clerks of the various\ncourts. The Constitution requires that indictments (a formal charge\nof crime presented by a grand jury) conclude \"against the peace and\ndignity of the Commonwealth.\"\nThe General Assembly provides for the appointment or the election of\njustices of the peace and establishes their jurisdiction. Authority\nof justices of the peace includes civil suits which involve limited\namounts. In addition, Virginia also has police justices, trial\njustices, civil justices, civil and police justices, juvenile and\ndomestic relations courts and mayor's courts. Their jurisdiction is\nusually limited, however, and appeals from them are heard by city\nand circuit courts.\nAll cities and counties and many towns have local courts called\nMagistrate Courts or Justice of the Peace Courts. Their jurisdiction\nincludes misdemeanors and civil cases involving small amounts of\nmoney.\nThe Commonwealth also has two Law and Chancery Courts, one located\nin Roanoke and one in Norfolk. Their jurisdiction includes the\nprobating of wills and the settling of estates. There is a special\nChancery Court located in Richmond which has complete charge of\nwills to be probated and the settling of estates in that part of\n\"Richmond north of the south bank of the James River.\" There is also\na special Law and Equity Court located in Richmond.\nThe Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court, located in Norfolk, is\na special state court which has jurisdiction over cases involving\ndependent, neglected and delinquent children and in cases involving\ncrimes--except manslaughter--against a family member.\n[Illustration: _Virginia_]\nThe State Attorney-General is elected by the qualified voters of the\nState at the same time and for the same term as the Governor and\nLieutenant-Governor of the State (a four-year term of office). He\nmust have the same qualifications as the Governor but he is eligible\nfor re-election. His chief duty is to serve as the attorney-at-law\nfor the State; he renders opinions concerning the interpretation and\napplication of laws upon the request of the Governor or of various\nDepartment heads, he presents cases to the Supreme Court of Appeals\nif the State's interest is involved and he represents the State of\nVirginia before the Supreme Court of the United States. The numerous\nproblems arising in the carrying out of these responsibilities make\nit desirable and necessary for him to have legal assistants who\nmay aid him in furnishing aid to local Commonwealth attorneys. The\nState Attorney-General is subject to removal from office in the same\nmanner as judges. His present salary is $17,000 annually.\n_Local Governmental Units_\nThe State Constitution not only establishes state government\norganization, but it also includes rules concerning local\ngovernmental units which are found in Article VII. Local charters\nare granted by the General Assembly. The political level immediately\nbelow the state government level is the county. Virginia is divided\ninto ninety-eight counties at the present time. The last original\ncounty to be created is Dickenson County, formed in 1880. The\nlargest county in the state in area is Pittsylvania with 1,022\nsquare miles and the smallest county in area is Arlington with 24\nsquare miles. Fairfax County is currently the most populated county\nin Virginia, surpassed in population only by the city of Norfolk.\nLegally, a county is a corporation. Its main functions, in general,\nare the preservation of order, the protection of life and property,\nthe establishment of public schools, the administration of justice,\nthe registration of legal documents, the maintenance of highways and\nbridges outside the cities and the care of the poor and the criminal.\nCounties of Virginia are divided into magisterial districts,\nthe number of districts varying from three to ten. Provision is\nmade in the state constitution that additional districts may be\nmade by law only if the new district contains at least 30 square\nmiles. Each district has one supervisor elected by the qualified\nvoters. Thus, the Board of Supervisors of the county consists of\none representative elected from each magisterial district in the\ncounty with the exception of Arlington County where the Board of\nSupervisors is elected at-large from the county. Therefore, the\nnumber of members of each Board of Supervisors varies among the\ncounties. A chairman for this group is selected by the members\nthemselves. Their meetings are usually held once a month at the\nCourt House located at the County Seat. The Board of Supervisors\ncarries out various duties such as: (1) supervises county affairs,\n(2) establishes and levies county taxes, (3) prepares the county\nbudget, (4) audits claims against the county, (5) erects and\nmaintains county buildings, (6) acts as a legislative and executive\nbody by issuing and carrying out ordinances on such subjects as\nsanitation, health and police, (7) approves saluary scales for\ncounty workers, (8) controls county property, (9) furnishes care for\nthe mentally and physically handicapped, and (10) borrows money.\nThere are five county officials of importance who are elected to\noffice by the qualified voters on the first Tuesday after the first\nMonday in November and take office on January 1 following their\nelection. These officials are:\n(1) Attorney for the Commonwealth--a lawyer who acts as a legal\nadviser to the Board of Supervisors and to the county officials and\nwho acts as legal representative of the people of the county; he\nalso acts as prosecutor for all civil and criminal cases in which\nthe county is interested; he is elected by the qualified voters for\na four-year term.\n(2) County Clerk--an officer who serves as a clerk to the County\nBoard of Supervisors and to the County Circuit Court; as the main\ncounty recording official, he records all types of county documents\n(such as deeds, wills, judgments, mortgages, births, divorces,\ndeaths, elections, court trials and marriages); attends meetings of\nthe Board of Supervisors and has custody of property records; he is\nelected by the qualified voters for an eight-year term.\n(3) Commissioner of the Revenue--an official who assesses property\nvalues for taxation purposes, assesses State personal income taxes,\nprepares personal property tax books and land books and assesses and\ncollects all professional and business licenses; he is elected by\nthe qualified voters for a four-year term.\n(4) County Treasurer--an officer who collects the county taxes\nassessed by the Commissioner of Revenue, collects the state taxes,\nkeeps the county funds and disburses money upon order of the Board\nof Supervisors; he is elected by the qualified voters for a term of\nfour years.\n(5) Sheriff--an officer who is the chief executive officer of the\ncounty; he and his assistants, called deputies, form the county\npolice force; the Sheriff serves warrants of arrests, summons\nwitnesses and jurors whenever necessary, preserves peace in the\ncounty, has charge of prisoners, cooperates with the State Police\nand acts as a Bailiff at meetings of the Board of Supervisors and\nat Trial Justice and Circuit Court sessions; he is elected for a\nfour-year term.\nOther significant county positions include County School Board\nmembers, County Superintendent of Schools, County Health Board\nmembers, County Surveyor, Welfare Board members, Planning Commission\nand Highway Commission members, Game Wardens and Election Board\nmembers. A state official who exerts strong influence upon the\ncounty is the State Circuit Judge. Since he tries cases in various\ncounties within his own circuit, he comes in contact with many\ncounty officials and has the authority to appoint certain county\nofficials within his own circuit such as (1) a Trial Justice who\ntries the less important civil and criminal cases in the county and\nholds hearings of cases to be tried by the circuit judge and (2)\nthe Coroner who makes investigations and reports concerning sudden,\nviolent or suspicious deaths in the county. The Circuit Judge also\nappoints the School Trustee Electoral Board which in turn appoints\nthe County School Board.\nThere are three types or forms of County Government in existence in\nVirginia: the County Executive Form, the County Manager Form and the\nCounty Board (often called the \"Traditional\") Form. Two counties,\nAlbemarle and Fairfax, have adopted the County Executive Form and\ntwo counties, Arlington and Henrico, have adopted the County Manager\nForm. Arlington County was the first county in the United States to\nadopt the County Manager form of government by popular vote (1932).\nThe major difference between the County Executive and the County\nManager Forms of government is found in the fact that, in the former\ntype, the Board of Supervisors makes all key appointments upon the\nrecommendations of a county executive who is employed to act as the\nadministrative head of the county whereas, in the latter form, the\nBoard of Supervisors employs a manager for the county and gives\nhim authority to name and appoint his own department heads. The\nremaining 94 counties are operated under a County Board: under this\nform, the Board of Supervisors exercises not only legislative but\nfull executive authority as well.\nThe county form of government, therefore, acts not only as a local\ngovernment unit but also as an administrative agent of the state.\nCities and towns make up the next political level of government\norganization in Virginia as described in Article VIII of the\nconstitution. A city is defined in the constitution as an\nincorporated community which has within defined boundaries a\npopulation of five thousand or more; a town is an incorporated\ncommunity which has within defined boundaries a population of\nless than five thousand. In determining such population, the last\ncensus of the United States or an enumeration made by authority of\nthe General Assembly must be used as the basis. Any incorporated\ncommunity which had a city charter when this section of the State\nConstitution was adopted in 1902, regardless of its numerical\npopulation at the time, was allowed to keep its city charter.\nThe General Assembly has the authority to enact general laws for\nthe organization and government of cities and towns in Virginia.\nIn special instances, the Circuit Court may issue such charters.\nWhenever an area has a population of at least five thousand, it may\napply, but is not required to apply, for city status. Unlike many of\nthe other states in the United States, Virginia does not have any\nvillage type of government.\nCities having at least ten thousand persons are eligible to be\nclassified as cities of the first class; cities having less than\nten thousand persons are eligible to be classified as the second\nclass. Cities in Virginia have generally followed a three-fold plan\nor pattern of development: first, an area is established, then\nincorporated as a town and finally elevated to city status as an\nindependent municipality. During the colonial period, there were\nonly two towns actually incorporated: Williamsburg and Norfolk.\nBy 1800, only six additional towns were incorporated: Alexandria,\nWinchester, Fredericksburg, Richmond, Petersburg and York\n(Yorktown). Yorktown is the only town incorporated before 1800 which\nhas not become a city.\nA unique characteristic about cities in Virginia is the fact that\nan incorporated city is politically separate from the county in\nwhich it is geographically located. There are thirty-two independent\ncities: Alexandria, Bristol, Buena Vista, Charlottesville, Clifton\nForge, Colonial Heights, Covington, Danville, Falls Church,\nFredericksburg, Galax, Hampton (formerly, a second class city; now\ncombined with the town of Phoebus and Elizabeth City County into a\nfirst class city since 1952), Harrisonburg, Hopewell, Lynchburg,\nMartinsville, Newport News, Norfolk, Norton, Petersburg, Portsmouth,\nRadford, Richmond, Roanoke, South Boston, South Norfolk, Staunton,\nSuffolk, Virginia Beach, Waynesboro, Williamsburg and Winchester.\nWhen Newport News and Warwick became the city of Newport News on\nJuly 1, 1958, this was the first city to be consolidated in the\nCommonwealth since Richmond and Manchester combined in 1910.\nThere are three types or forms of City Government in existence in\nVirginia: Mayor-Council form, Commission form and City Manager form.\nThe city charter bears a similar relation to the city that the\nVirginia Constitution bears to the state. The citizens within the\ncity area may decide for themselves the type of city government they\nprefer when they apply for their city charter.\nAlthough there are three forms of local government available, there\nare certain characteristics common to all three types:\n(1) A bicameral City Council (unless authorized by the General\nAssembly to have only one branch) is elected by the qualified voters\nof the city on the second Tuesday in June. The term of office of the\ncouncilmen begins on the following September 1. The council acts\nas the legislative body by passing city or municipal laws called\nordinances. Cities are usually divided into various sections called\nwards. Since representation from each ward is primarily based upon\npopulation of the ward, the city council has the power to change\nward boundaries. Since 1933, after every ten-year period, the city\ncouncil is required by the Virginia Constitution to re-apportion\nsuch representation accordingly. Usually, there is one councilman\nfrom each ward.\n(2) The following officials are required by the Constitution to\nbe elected to office by the qualified voters: City Court Clerk,\nCity Commonwealth's Attorney, City Commissioner of Revenue, City\nTreasurer and City Sergeant (Sheriff). All these officials (with the\nexception of the City Court Clerk whose eight-year term of office\nbegins at the same time as the city judges' term) are elected on\nthe first Tuesday after the first Monday in November and their term\nof office begins on the following January 1. Under a constitutional\namendment proposed in November 1960, certain elected officials of a\ncity (or county) could serve as such officials in two or more cities\n(or counties, or city and counties) if a majority of the voters of\nthe local units affected so decided; however, the amendment was\ndefeated.\n(3) Every city has a mayor who is the chief executive and who is\nelected by the people for a four-year term. Depending upon the\nform of city government adopted, the mayor may be essentially a\nfigurehead or a key official. The chief duties of a mayor usually\ninclude the following:\n     a. enforcing ordinances, by-laws and orders,\n     b. ascertaining that duties of various city officials are\n     carried out properly,\n     c. suspending city officials upon the authorization of the\n     General Assembly for misconduct in office or for neglect of duty,\n     d. considering ordinances, resolutions, and other measures and\n     approving or disapproving them,\n     e. presiding at city council meetings (unless a special\n     provision already has provided for a council president) and\n     voting only in case of a tie\n     f. appointing key officials with the approval of the city\n     council (for example, the Chief of Police, the Fire Chief, the\n     City Attorney) and members of certain boards (Planning, Health,\n     Zoning Boards).\nEvery resolution or ordinance must be presented to the Mayor of a\ncity after it has been passed by the City Council. The Mayor has\nthree choices:\n(1) He may approve the ordinance by signing it; it then becomes\noperative.\n(2) He may disapprove the ordinance by vetoing it; he then returns\nthe ordinance to the clerk of the council with his written\nobjections. The council then enters the detailed objections in its\njournal and reconsiders the original resolution or ordinance in view\nof such objections. If, after due consideration, two-thirds of the\nmembership of the council still wishes the original ordinance to\npass, it is passed over the Mayor's veto.\n(3) He may do nothing about the ordinance; after five days have\npassed, Sundays excepted, if the Mayor is still in office and the\nterm of office of the members of the city council has not expired,\nit automatically is passed. If, however, during these five days,\neither the term of office of the Mayor or the term of office of the\nmembers of the city council ends, the ordinance is not passed but is\nconsidered \"killed.\"\nLike the Governor of the state, the Mayor can veto a particular item\nor more than one item in an appropriation ordinance or resolution\nwithout affecting the rest of the resolution or ordinance. Any\nordinance or resolution which concerns the appropriation of money\nfor an amount over one hundred dollars, the levying of taxes or\nthe authorizing of the borrowing of money can be passed only by a\nrecorded affirmative vote of a majority of all council members.\nThe oldest form of city government in Virginia is the Mayor-Council\nForm. Under this form, the Council and the Mayor are elected by\nthe qualified voters. The Mayor, therefore, is the chief executive\nofficer of the city and he either appoints solely, or with the\nconsent of the city council in some instances, the city officers\nnot constitutionally required to be elected. He also has the\nauthority to supervise all city departments and to suspend any\nofficer or employee for cause. Under this system, the council is the\nlegislative body only.\nAnother form is the Commission form of local government. Of the\nthree different types mentioned previously, this form is used in\nVirginia the least. According to this plan, the city council itself,\nelected at large, assumes the legislative and administrative or\nexecutive powers. A mayor is elected from council membership but he\nhas very limited powers. He is chairman at the council meetings and\nmay suggest recommendations as possible legislative measures as he\nsees fit. The city itself is divided into various administrative\ndepartments by the council and each department is assigned to\na different council member who becomes the head executive or\nadministrative official of that department. Thus, each council\nmember acts as an administrator individually and as a legislator\ncollectively. The city council according to this plan carries out\nthe usual functions of the legislative body and of the executive\ndepartment, including such functions as determining the powers of\neach department and the rules and regulations of each office holder\nand employee.\nThe City Manager form of government was first adopted in the United\nStates by the city of Staunton in 1908. This is the most widely-used\nplan found in Virginia cities at the present time and in many other\nlarge cities throughout the United States. Under this plan, the\nCouncil members are elected at large by the voters. The Council is\nthe legislative body which makes the local laws. The City Council\nselects the City Manager who may or may not be an inhabitant of the\ntown, city or state involved. He not only acts as the chief adviser\nto the City Council but also becomes the chief executive in this\nplan. His term of office is at the discretion of the City Council\nmembers and he is responsible directly to them. Charles E. Ashburner\nwas the first City Manager in the United States.\nThe City Council usually elects its own chairman from among its own\nmembership; this chairman automatically becomes the Mayor of the\ncity. He is the official titular head of the city and represents\nthe city upon various public occasions. He presides at Council\nmeetings, has regular Council powers and can vote but cannot veto a\nproposed law. In contrast, the City Manager has the power to appoint\nthe chief officials of the various city government departments,\nthe responsibility for enforcing city ordinances and resolutions,\nthe obligation of attending City Council meetings and of making\nsuggestions and recommendations to the Council, the duty of keeping\nthe City Council informed of general and specific activities of\nthe city including its financial status, the task of preparing and\nsubmitting a proposed budget to the City Council and the duty of\ncarrying out miscellaneous functions assigned to him by the City\nCouncil.\nThese three forms--Mayor-Council, Commission and City\nManager--exemplify the variety of local government organization\navailable to cities and towns located in Virginia.\nTowns in Virginia in order to be incorporated must have at least 300\ninhabitants and must receive approval of the local circuit judge.\nTowns still remain part of the county after their incorporation.\nAt present, there are approximately two hundred incorporated towns\nwhose functions are carried out and services furnished by the County\nand the Town governments. Every town has a Council and a Mayor\nand in the large towns, usually a Town Manager. Three other town\nofficials are a Treasurer, a Clerk (called a Secretary or Recorder)\nand a Town Attorney.\nResidents of Virginia, consequently, are governed daily by either\nTown, City or County levels of government in addition to State and\nNational levels.\n_Education and Public Instruction_\nArticle IX concerns education. The Constitution specifically states\nthat \"The General Assembly shall establish and maintain an efficient\nsystem of public free schools throughout the State.\" Therefore, as\nin all states in United States, the management of the schools is\nbasically the responsibility of the state. There is a State Board\nof Education consisting of seven members appointed for four-year\nterms by the Governor with the approval of the General Assembly. The\nGovernor with the approval of the General Assembly also appoints an\nexperienced educator to the chief educational position known as the\nSuperintendent of Public Instruction. His term of office parallels\nthat of the Governor who appoints him. The duties and powers of the\nState Board of Education are constitutionally described as follows:\n     (1) to divide the State into school divisions or districts;\n     to certify to the local school boards within each division\n     a list of persons who have reasonable academic and business\n     qualifications for division superintendent of schools (the local\n     school board has the authority to select from this list the\n     individual whom they wish to hold the position of superintendent\n     of their division for a four-year term),\n     (2) to manage and invest the school fund, according to legal\n     regulations,\n     (3) to make rules and regulations for the management and conduct\n     of the schools, upon the authority of the General Assembly,\n     (4) to select textbooks and educational appliances for school\n     use with the General Assembly itself prescribing the time when\n     textbooks are to be changed by the State Board of Education.\nAccording to the Constitution, each magisterial district is a\nseparate school district, and the magisterial district furnishes\nthe basis of representation on the county or city school board. In\ncities which have a population of at least one hundred and fifty\nthousand, school boards have the authority to decide for themselves,\nwith the approval of the local legislative body, the number and\nthe boundaries of their school districts. The General Assembly has\nthe right to consolidate into one school division, if it deems it\nadvisable, one or more counties or cities with one or more counties\nor cities. Each division school board is empowered to select the\nsuperintendent of schools for its own division or district. In\ncase a local school board fails to make such an appointment within\na prescribed time, the State Board of Education then appoints the\nsuperintendent in that district.\nIn 1810 a Literary Fund was created as a permanent fund to be used\nto defray educational expenses in Virginia. This money originally\ncame from the proceeds of public lands donated by Congress for\npublic free school purposes, from unclaimed property, from property\nwhich the state received through forfeiture, from fines collected\nfor offenses against the state and from other funds appropriated\nby the General Assembly. The only money in the fund which must, by\nconstitutional requirement, be apportioned on a basis of school\npopulation for the benefit of the primary and grammar school levels\nis the annual interest on the Literary Fund, one dollar of the\nState capitation tax (total State capitation tax, $1.50) and an\namount equal to an annual tax on property of not less than one nor\nmore than five mills on the dollar. The school population in this\ninstance refers to the number of children in each school district\nbetween the ages of seven and twenty years.\nEach school district has the authority to raise additional sums of\nmoney for educational purposes by levying a school tax on property,\na maximum amount being established by the law. The Board of\nSupervisors in the county area and the Council in the town or city\nareas have the authority to levy and collect local school taxes.\nThe General Assembly has the right to establish agricultural,\nnormal, manual training and technical schools as well as other\nschools deemed desirable for the public welfare. Virginia colleges\nunder State control at present are the College of William and Mary\nat Williamsburg, Longwood College at Farmville, Madison College\nat Harrisonburg, Mary Washington College (women's division of the\nUniversity of Virginia) at Fredericksburg, Medical College of\nVirginia at Richmond, Radford College, (Women's division of Virginia\nPolytechnic Institute) at Radford, the University of Virginia at\nCharlottesville, Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, Virginia\nPolytechnic Institute at Blacksburg and Virginia State College\nat Petersburg. The State also controls the Richmond Professional\nInstitute of the College of William and Mary in Richmond, the\nNorfolk Division of the College of William and Mary in Norfolk and\nthe Norfolk Division of Virginia State College in Norfolk. The\nVirginia School for the Deaf and the Blind at Staunton and the\nVirginia State School for Colored Deaf and Blind Children at Newport\nNews are State operated.\nThe General Assembly also establishes compulsory education. At the\npresent time, school attendance is not compulsory on a state basis\nbut many communities have passed local compulsory attendance laws.\nWhenever a parent or guardian is financially unable to furnish\npublic school children with necessary textbooks, the local school\nsystem provides free textbooks to such individuals. The Virginia\nConstitution has required that there be segregation of white and\ncolored children in the schools of Virginia. However, as a result of\na U. S. Supreme Court ruling in 1954, the segregation of colored and\nwhite children became illegal and unconstitutional. Consequently,\nlocal and state officials throughout Virginia have been compelled to\nreconsider the state constitutional provision concerning segregation\nin the public schools and to integrate the school population in some\nareas.\nMembers of the Board of Visitors and Trustees of educational\ninstitutions are appointed by the Governor with the approval\nof the Senate for four-year terms. They regulate the policy of\nstate-operated institutions of higher learning.\n_Miscellaneous Provisions_\nArticle X concerns the Department of Agriculture and Immigration\nwhich is headed by a State Board of Agriculture consisting of one\npractical farmer from each Congressional district. The president\nof the Virginia Polytechnic Institute is also automatically an\nex-officio member of this board. The chairman of this board is\nthe Commissioner of Agriculture appointed by the Governor. The\nDepartment of Agriculture and Immigration has three chief functions:\nto encourage the production and sale of Virginia farm products,\nto protect the Virginia farmers and consumers by carrying out\nvarious state laws concerning food products, and the improvement\nof such products. The major divisions of this department include\nthe Division of Chemistry, of Statistics, Dairy and Food, Markets,\nAnimal Industry and of Plant Industry. The immigration function\nis now non-existent. This function was added when a severe labor\nshortage existed in the latter part of the 1800's: at that time the\nCommissioner traveled to Ireland, Holland, Belgium and Denmark in an\nattempt to get agricultural workers. The department still retains\nthe name of Agriculture and Immigration but no longer has authority\nover immigrants.\nArticle XI relates to Public Welfare and Penal Institutions.\nThe General Assembly has the authority to establish and operate\npublic welfare, charitable, sanitary, benevolent, reformatory or\npenal institutions. As mentioned in the Executive section of the\nConstitution, there is a Department of Welfare and Institutions\nwhich includes a six-member Board of Welfare and Institutions\nappointed for a four-year term by the Governor with the approval\nof the General Assembly. The Director of this department is the\nCommissioner of Public Welfare. The Department of Welfare and\nInstitutions consists of four divisions: the Division of Corrections\nwhich controls the State Penitentiary, the State Farm, the State\nIndustrial Farm for Women, the Southampton Farm, the State Convict\nRoad Force and the Bland Correctional Farm; the Division of General\nWelfare which helps needy children, elderly individuals, persons\nwho are permanently disabled physically or mentally, and other\nmiscellaneous cases; the Virginia Parole Board which has charge of\ngranting parole, revoking parole, releasing qualified persons on\nparole and actually discharging individuals considered no longer\nnecessary on parole; and the Division of Youth Services which\nsupervises children placed in boarding homes and which operates and\ncontrols training schools for minors who have committed crimes and\nhave been sent to these schools by court order: the Beaumont School\nfor Boys (white), the Hanover School for Boys (Negro), the Bon Air\nSchool for Girls (white) and the Janie Porter Barrett School for\nGirls (Negro).\nArticle XII provides that the creation of corporations, as well\nas amendment to their charters, be provided by general laws which\nmay be amended or repealed by the General Assembly. The General\nAssembly is not permitted to regulate the affairs of any corporation\nor to give it any rights, powers or privileges by special act. The\nState Corporation Commission is the unit of the state government\nthrough which all charters and amendments are issued. Therefore,\nthe State Corporation Commission carries out all the provisions\nof the Constitution and of the laws for the creation, visitation,\nsupervision, regulation and control of corporations chartered by,\nor doing business in, the state. The State Corporation Commission\nconsists of three members elected by members of the General Assembly\nfor a six-year term. Among other duties, the commission prescribes\nrates of railroads and telephone companies. Because of the numerous\nincorporated businesses operating in Virginia, this commission\nexercises broad, economic authority on behalf of the welfare of the\nstate.\nArticle XIII concerns Taxation and Finance. The General Assembly\nhas the authority for levying taxes, for appropriating revenue,\nand, in most instances, is empowered to specify and determine which\ngoods and services shall be taxed by state and/or local government.\nAll state, local or municipal taxes must be uniform and must be\nlevied and collected according to general laws. State income taxes\nare levied on incomes over six hundred dollars per year. License\ntaxes and state franchise taxes are levied upon businesses. A state\ncapitation or poll tax of one dollar and a half is levied on every\nresident of the state at least twenty-one years of age; one dollar\nof which is to be used exclusively for public free schools and the\nremainder returned to the county or city treasurer to be used for\nlocal purposes. Local taxes are also levied on real estate and\npersonal property. Property exempt from taxation by Article XIII\nincludes property owned directly or indirectly by the Commonwealth\nor any local unit of government, buildings, land and furnishings\nowned and used exclusively for religious organizations or for\nbenevolent or charitable organizations and private or public burying\ngrounds or cemetries. Before any money can be paid from the State\nTreasury, appropriations must be made by law. No such appropriation\ncan be made which is payable more than two and a half years after\nthe end of the session of the General Assembly at which the law is\nenacted.\nArticle XIV primarily pertains to Homestead Exemptions. Certain\nhomestead exemptions are authorized. Furthermore, this Article\nprohibits the General Assembly from passing a law staying the\ncollection of debts. The General Assembly is authorized to provide\nthe conditions on which a householder may set apart for himself and\nfamily a homestead on certain property.\n_The Amendment Process_\nArticle XV describes the Amendment Process. An amendment may be\nproposed in either house of the General Assembly: the Senate or\nthe House of Delegates. It is then voted upon for approval or\ndisapproval. If a majority of the members of each house vote in\nfavor of the proposed amendment, the amendment is then referred\nto the General Assembly at its first regular session held after\nthe next general election of members of the House of Delegates.\nThe amendment must then be published for three months previous to\nelection time. Whenever a majority of all the members in each house\nvote in favor of the amendment either in a regular session or in an\nextra session, the amendment must then be submitted for approval\nby the people. If a majority of the qualified voters approve the\namendment at this time, the amendment becomes effective.\nArticle XV also includes the procedure necessary for calling a\nconstitutional convention in Virginia. Whenever a majority of the\nmembers of each house of the General Assembly vote for a convention\nto revise or amend the Constitution, the question of calling such\na constitutional convention must be submitted to the qualified\nvoters. If a majority of the voters favor such a convention for the\nspecific purpose included in the original question submitted to\nthe voters, the General Assembly at its next session must provide\nfor the election of delegates to the special convention. The\nqualified voters elect the specific delegates to such constitutional\nconvention.\nArticle XVI concerns rules of construction within the constitution\nitself pertaining to word usage. Article XVII, already described in\nthis chapter under Article II, provides for poll tax exemption for\nmembers of the armed forces on active duty.\nThe original Virginia Constitution of 1776 consisted of 3,000 words.\nIn 1830, the number of words was doubled with numerous revisions. In\n1870, the number of words was increased six times the number in the\noriginal constitution. The present Constitution which was written in\n1902 contains approximately 35,000 words. Consequently, as living\nbecomes more complex, the constitution has become more lengthy.\n_State Symbolism_\nCertain symbols and emblems are approved by various state\nlegislatures which indicate a particular idea or belief which is\nsoon recognized or identified with a specific state. The official\nsymbols of the Commonwealth are the State Seals, the State Motto,\nthe State Flag, the State Flower, the State Song and the State Bird.\nThere are two state seals: the Great Seal and the Lesser Seal.\nThe official seals now used in the Commonwealth were adopted and\napproved by a legislative act on March 24, 1930. The Great Seal\nconsists of two discs, metallic in nature and two and one-fourth\ninches in diameter; there is an ornamental border one-fourth of an\ninch in width. On the front or obverse side of the Great Seal is\nengraved the figure of Virtus, goddess of courage, garbed as an\nAmazon representing the \"genius of the Commonwealth.\" In her right\nhand, Virtus holds a spear which points downward toward the earth\nand upon which she appears to be resting; in her left hand, she\nholds a parazonium or sheathed sword which points upward. The head\nof Virtus is erect and her face upturned. The left foot of Virtus\nis placed on a prostrate figure of a man who represents Tyranny.\nThe head of this symbol of Tyranny is to the left of Virtus with\nhis distorted tyrannical symbols close by: a fallen crown, a broken\nchain and a scourge. At the top of this obverse side is the word,\n\"Virginia,\" and at the bottom of the seal in a curved line is\nengraved the state motto: \"Sic Semper Tyrannis\" which translated\nmeans \"Thus ever to tyrants,\" implying that such will be the fate of\nall tyrants.\nOn the reverse or opposite side of the Great Seal is engraved a\ngroup of three figures: Libertas, goddess of liberty and freedom,\nin the center with a wand and pileus in her right hand, Aeternitas,\ngoddess of eternity, on her right with a globe and phoenix (a sacred\nbird) in her right hand and Ceres, goddess of grain and the harvest,\non her left with a sheaf of wheat in her right hand and a cornucopia\n(horn of plenty symbolizing peace and prosperity) in her left one.\nAt the top of the reverse side of the seal in curved line appears\nthe word, \"Perseverando.\" Originally, the reverse side of the Great\nSeal had engraved the motto: \"Deus Nobis Pace Olim Fecit\" meaning\n\"God gave us this freedom\" (Virgil's \"Eclogues\") but the motto was\nchanged to the brief word, \"Perseverando\" in October 1779. George\nWythe proposed the original design of the seal and George Mason\noriginally recommended the motto for the seal at the Williamsburg\nConvention in 1776.\nThe Lesser Seal is one and nine-sixteenths inches in diameter and it\nconsists of the figures and inscriptions found on the obverse side\nof the Great Seal.\nOn March 24, 1930, the present Flag of the Commonwealth was\nofficially adopted. It consists of a deep blue field with a circular\nwhite center--all of bunting or merino material. Within this white\ncircle is embroidered or painted, in such a manner as to appear\nalike on both sides, the official coat-of-arms of the Commonwealth:\nnamely, the identical design of figures and inscriptions which\nappears on the observe side of the Great Seal of Virginia. The outer\nedge of the flag, the one farthest from the flag-staff, is bounded\nby a white silk fringe.\nOn March 6, 1918, the General Assembly declared the American\nDogwood, known technically as the Cornus Florida or Flowering\nDogwood, as the official state flower in Virginia.\nIt was not until 1940 that the state legislature officially adopted\nits state song. At this time, \"Carry Me Back to Ole Virginny,\"\nwritten by James A. Bland, a South Carolina Negro, was declared the\nstate song although it had been widely recognized and sung by many\ngenerations of Virginians. The Cardinal, known technically as the\nCardinalis Virginianus, is considered the official State Bird.\nSUMMARY\nFundamental state laws for Virginia are found in a written\nconstitution, originally adopted in 1776. The United States\nConstitution provides not only the framework for our national\ngovernment but also the relationships between the national\ngovernment and the individual states. With the exception of these\nrestrictions, the state constitution determines the political\nstructure or organization within the state area and the various\npowers and functions granted to each governmental agency. Like all\ngovernments established by state constitutions, the state government\nof Virginia consists of three departments: the legislative,\nexecutive and judiciary departments.\nThe Virginia Bill of Rights, written by George Mason, furnished a\npattern for the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution\nas well as for numerous state bills of rights. The significance\nattached to voting even in the early post-Revolutionary period is\nobvious by the location of the voting qualifications in the Virginia\nConstitution directly following the Bill of Rights.\nSome unique features about government in Virginia include Section 58\nof Article IV which lists a series of prohibitions on the General\nAssembly as a protection for individual liberties, the fact that\nthe Governor cannot succeed himself (only sixteen states have this\nrestriction), the existence of three types of county government\n(the County Executive, the County Manager and the County Board),\nthe lack of a village form of local government, the existence of\nthirty-two independent cities and the existence of three forms of\ncity government (Mayor-Council, Commission and City Manager).\nOther articles in the Constitution concern suffrage, education,\npublic welfare and penal institutions, taxation and finance,\ncorporations and local government. Since constitution writers\nrealize that living conditions change from time to time, the method\nof making changes in a constitution whenever necessary is included\nin the amendment process. Thus, a recent constitutional change was\na revision of Section 141 making it legally permissible to permit\nthe use of public funds for tuition grants for pupils in private\nnon-sectarian schools. Virginians, like the residents of other\nstates, will undoubtedly continue to make necessary revisions when\nconditions so warrant in order to keep the state governmental\nstructure a practical, adjustable foundation for a progressively\nchanging society.\nWhen one understands the meaning of the various symbols used by\na state in order to create a specific identity or a particular\nrecognition of its inhabitants and their ideas, the state seal,\nmotto and flag become more significant to the citizen. Thus, it\nis with pride that Virginians show reverence and respect to their\nHALLOWED HERITAGE.\n  Academies and Seminaries, 195\n  Adam Thoroughgood House, 182\n  Agriculture, 156-158\n  Agriculture and Immigration, 240\n  Agriculture and Mechanical College, 131\n  Amendment process, 242\n  Annapolis Convention, 82\n  Antietam (Sharpsburg), Battle of, 116, 117\n  Appalachian Plateau, 14\n  Appalachian Ridge and Valleys, 14\n  Apparel, 153\n  Appomattox Court House, 123\n  Aquia Creek, 37\n  Architects and Architecture, 182-188\n  Area, 11\n  Armstrong, Samuel C., 130-131\n  Arnold, Benedict, 77\n  Articles of Confederation, 76, 81\n  Assumption of State Debts, 88\n  Attorney (Commonwealth), 232\n  Attorney General, 230, 231\n  Auditor of Public Accounts, 225\n  Augusta Academy, 47\n  Austin, Stephen Fuller, 97\n  Authors and Poets, 163-176\n  Bacon, Nathaniel, 40-42\n  Bales, Richard, 190\n  Barter Theater, 193-194\n  Battle Abbey, 181\n  Battle, John, 144-145\n  Batts, Thomas, 40\n  Bean, William, 58\n  Beauregard, Pierre G. T., 112-113\n  Berkeley, Sir William, 35, 36, 39, 40-42\n  Blair, James, 43\n  Bland, James A., 188-189\n  Bland, Richard Henry, 54-55, 57\n  Blue Ridge and Valleys, 13-14\n  Boone, Daniel, 58\n  Booth, John Wilkes, 127\n  Botetourt, Lord, 55\n  Boundaries, 11\n  Braddock, Edward, 50-51\n  Brandy Station, Battle of, 117, 118\n  Braxton, Carter, 71\n  Breckinridge, John C., 101-102, 120\n  Brent Family, 37\n  Bruton Parish Church, 185\n  Brown, John, 104-105\n  Buckner, John, 42\n  Bull Run; _see_ Manassas\n  Burgesses, House of, 32, 33, 41, 57\n  Burke, Edmund, 61\n  Burnside, Ambrose, 117\n  Burr, Aaron, 92-93\n  Byrd, Richard Evelyn, 139\n  Byrd, William II, 46\n  Cahokia, 73\n  Campbell, William, 75\n  Cape Charles, 26\n  Cape Henry, 26\n  Capitol, Colonial (Williamsburg), 44, 183;\n    (Richmond), 185\n  Carillon Tower, 138\n  Carter, Robert (\"King\"), 46\n  Carter's Grove, 184-185\n  Cary, Archibald, 69\n  \"Cavalier State,\" 37\n  Caverns, 15\n  Cedar Creek, 122\n  Cedar Mountain, Battle of, 116\n  Cession for Federal District, 88\n  Cession of Northwest Territory, 76\n  Chancellorsville, Battle of, 117\n  Chancery Court, 230\n  Chanco, 34\n  Charters of Virginia:\n  Chemical Products, 152\n  Christ Church (Alexandria), 185\n  Circuit Courts, 227, 228, 232\n  City Council, 234, 237\n  City Manager Plan of Government, 137, 234, 237\n  City Officials, 234-235\n  Clark, George Rogers, 72-73, 76\n  Clark, William, 92\n  Climate, 17\n  Cold Harbor, Battle of, 120\n  College of Henrico, 34\n  Commission form, 234, 237\n  Commissioner of Revenue (County), 232\n  Committee of Correspondence, 55-56, 59\n  Committee of Nine, 128, 129\n  Committee of Safety, 66, 67\n  Commonwealth, 37, 69\n  Confederate States of America, 110\n  Congressional election districts, 215, 216\n  Constitution, United States: Ratification, 83-85\n  Constitutions (State):\n  Continental Congress:\n  Conventions, State:\n  Constitutional Convention Requirements, 242\n  Cornstalk (Chief), 59\n  Corporation Commission, 241\n  Corporation Courts, 228\n  Cotton, 157\n  Counties, in general: 35, 218, 219, 231;\n    origin of name and year created:\n      Accawmack (Accomack), 35;\n      Albemarle, 48;\n      Alleghany, 102;\n      Appomattox, 102;\n      Arlington, 103;\n      Botetourt, 62;\n      Brunswick, 48;\n      Buchanan, 105;\n      Buckingham, 61;\n      Campbell, 85;\n      Charles City, 35;\n      Charles River (York), 35;\n      Charlotte, 61;\n      Chesterfield, 48;\n      Clark (Clarke), 102;\n      Culpeper, 48;\n      Cumberland, 48;\n      Dickenson, 133;\n      Dinwiddie, 61;\n      Elizabeth City (Kiccowtan), 32, 35;\n      Fauquier, 61;\n      Fluvanna, 72;\n      Franklin, 85;\n      Frederick, 48;\n      Gloucester, 38;\n      Goochland, 48;\n      Greensville, 85;\n      Highland, 102;\n      Isle of Wight (Warrosquyoake), 35;\n      James City, 35;\n      Kentucky, 72;\n      King and Queen, 42;\n      King George, 48;\n      King William, 42;\n      Lancaster, 38;\n      Lunenburg, 48;\n      Mecklenburg, 61;\n      Middlesex, 38;\n      Montgomery, 72;\n      Nansemond, 38;\n      Northampton (Accawmack), 35;\n      Northumberland, 38;\n      Nottoway, 85;\n      Pittsylvania, 61-62;\n      Powhatan, 72;\n      Prince Edward, 61;\n      Prince George, 43;\n      Prince William, 48;\n      Princess Anne, 42;\n      Rappahannock, 102;\n      Richmond, 42;\n      Rockbridge, 72;\n      Rockingham, 72;\n      Shenandoah, 72;\n      Southampton, 48;\n      Spotsylvania, 47;\n      Stafford, 38;\n      Tazewell, 95;\n      Warwick River (Warwick), 35;\n      Washington, 72;\n      Westmoreland, 38;\n      York; _see_ Charles River.\n  County forms of government, 233\n  County Officials, 231-232\n  Dale, Sir Thomas (\"Marshall\"), 30\n  Danville, 124\n  Dare, Virginia, 24\n  Davis, Jefferson, 108, 122, 124\n  Debt Problem (ante-bellum), 129-130, 132-134\n  Declaration of Independence, 70-71\n  Declaration of Rights (Bill of Rights), 204-207\n  Delaware (de la Warr), Lord, 29-30\n  Democratic National Nominating Convention of 1952, 144, 145\n  Depression Years, 140-141\n  Dinwiddie, Robert, 49, 50\n  Early, Jubal, 121-122\n  Eastern Shore, 12\n  Eaton, Thomas, 194\n  Education:\n    Academic, 195;\n    Current Educational Problems, 145-147, 197-199;\n    Institutions of Higher Learning, 43, 47, 98, 195, 196-197, 239;\n    School District, 238;\n    School Property Tax, 239;\n    State Department of Education, 238\n  Eggleston, Joseph D., 136\n  Elections, 209-210\n  Employment, 150-160:\n    Agriculture, 156-158;\n    Construction Activities, 158;\n    Finance, 159;\n    Forestry and Fisheries, 159;\n    Government, 150-151;\n    Manufacturing, 151-156;\n    Mining Operations, 159;\n    Public Utilities, 158;\n    Services Industries, 158;\n    Travel Trade, 159, 160;\n    Wholesale and Retail Trade, 158\n  Evans, Robley D., 134\n  Executive Department, 221-226\n  Executive Department Agencies, 225-226\n  Fairfax Proprietary, 39, 40\n  Fairfax Resolutions, 60\n  Fall Line, 11-12\n  Fallen, Robert, 40\n  \"The Federalist,\" 84\n  Field Crops, 156-158\n  Fincastle Resolutions, 60\n  Fish, 18\n  Floyd, John, 100\n  Food and kindred products, 152\n  Foreign settlements, 46, 47\n  Forests, 18\n  Fort Duquesne; _see_ Fort Necessity\n  Fort Kaskaskia, 73\n  Fort Le Boeuf, 47, 49\n  Fort Monroe, 124\n  Fort Necessity, 50-51\n  Fort Pitt; _see_ Fort Necessity\n  Fort Vincennes, 73\n  Fredericksburg, Battle of, 117\n  Freedmen's Bureau, 127\n  French and Indian War, 49-52\n  Fruit, 157\n  Funk Joseph, 189\n  Furniture, 154\n  Garrison, William Lloyd, 100\n  Gates, Sir Thomas, 29\n  General Court, 30-31\n  Germanna, 45, 47\n  Gettysburg, Battle of, 119\n  Gibbs, James Ethan Allen, 104\n  Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 24\n  Gist, Christopher, 49\n  \"Golden Age\" of Colonial Virginia, 49\n  Gooch, Sir William, 46\n  Governor's Palace, 45, 183\n  Grant, Ulysses S., 119-124\n  Grasse, Comte de, 80\n  Great Charter, 32\n  Great Dismal Swamp, 16\n  Great Massacre, 34\n  Great Meadows, Battle of, 50\n  Green, Paul, 194\n  Hampton, 30\n  Hampton Institute and Singers, 130-131, 188\n  Hampton, Wade, 120\n  Harrison, Benjamin, 57, 71\n  Harrison, William Henry, 102\n  \"Head-Right\" system, 31, 44\n  Henrico University, 195\n  Henricopolis (City of Henricus), 30, 34\n  Henry, Patrick:\n    \"Caesar-Brutus\" Speech, 53-54;\n    Committee of Correspondence, 55;\n    First Continental Congress, 59-60;\n    First Governor of the Commonwealth, 70, 72;\n    \"Liberty or Death\" Speech, 63-64;\n    \"Parsons' Cause,\" 52-54;\n    Williamsburg Convention of 1774, 57\n  Hill, Ambrose P., 116, 119\n  Hooker, Joseph E., 117\n  Hopkinson, Francis, 188\n  Houdon, Jean Antoine, 80\n  Houston, Samuel, 101\n  Hunt, Robert, 26-27\n  Hustings Courts; _see_ Corporation Courts\n  Impeachment, 215\n  Indentured servants, 33\n  Indians:\n    Attacks, 27;\n    Cherokee, 51;\n    Chickahominy, 22;\n    College of Henrico, 34;\n    Illinois area, 72-73;\n    Lord Dunmore's War, 58-59;\n    Massacre, 36;\n    Mattaponi 22;\n    Northwest Territory, 73;\n    Pamunkey, 22;\n    Susequehannock, 40, 45;\n    William and Mary College, 45-46\n  \"Intolerable Acts,\" 56\n  Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, 103, 112-117\n  James River Canal, 88\n  Jamestown Church, 185\n  Jefferson, Thomas:\n    Architecture, 185;\n    \"A Summary View of the Rights of British America,\" 57-58;\n    Declaration of Independence, 70-71;\n    Governor of the Commonwealth, 74-79;\n    Jeffersonian Democracy, 91;\n    Presidential Administrations, 91-92;\n    \"Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom,\" 74;\n    U. S. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 87-88;\n    Vice-President of the United States, 90\n  Johnson, Joseph E., 103, 112-115\n  Jones, John Paul, 64, 74\n  Jouett, Jack, 78-79\n  Judicial Department, 226-231\n  Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court, 230\n  Kemper, James L., 132\n  Kentucky (Independent State), 88\n  Kentucky Resolutions, 90\n  King's Mountain, Battle of, 75\n  Lafayette, Marquis de, 77, 79-80\n  Lake Matoaka Amphitheater, 194\n  Lakes, 17\n  Law and Chancery Courts, 230\n  Law and Equity Court, 230\n  Law-making process, 213-214\n  Leather products, 155\n  Lee, Fitzhugh, 120, 134\n  Lee, Henry (\"Light Horse Harry\"), 57, 73, 84, 90\n  Lee, Francis Lightfoot, 71\n  Lee, Richard Henry:\n    Committee of Correspondence, 55-56;\n    Leedstown Resolutions, 54-55;\n    Resolution for United States Independence, 70-71;\n    Williamsburg Convention of 1774\n  Lee, Robert E.:\n    Commander-in-Chief of Virginia forces, 111;\n    Harper's Ferry Mission, 105;\n    Mexican War, 103;\n    Military Campaigns of War between the States, 116, 117, 120-123;\n    President of Washington College, 126;\n    Resignation from the Union Army, 110-111;\n    Surrender at Appomattox, 123\n  Lee, Thomas, 47\n  Lee, Thomas Ludwell, 54\n  Leedstown (Westmoreland) Resolves, 54\n  Legislative Department, 211-221\n  \"Leopard-Chesapeake\" Affair, 93\n  Levingston, William, 46, 190\n  Lewis, Andrew, 58-59, 71\n  Lewis, Charles, 59\n  Lewis, Meriwether, 92\n  Lieutenant-Governor, 224\n  Literary Fund, 95, 238-239\n  Livestock and livestock products, 156\n  Location of state, 11\n  London Company, 25-26, 33\n  Longstreet, James, 116, 120\n  \"Lost Colony,\" 24\n  Lumber and lumber products, 153\n  Lynchburg, Battle of, 121\n  McCormick, Cyrus Hall, 100-101\n  Madison, Dolly, 94\n  Madison, James:\n    \"The Federalist,\" 84;\n    Philadelphia Convention, 82-83;\n    Presidential Administration, 93-94;\n    Religious clause, 69;\n    Richmond Constitutional Convention of 1829, 99;\n    Signer of U. S. Constitution, 83;\n    U. S. Bill of Rights, 85;\n    Virginia Constitutional Convention, 68-69;\n    Virginia Resolution, 90\n  Maffitt, William, 94\n  Magisterial Districts, 231, 238\n  Magistrate Courts (Justice of the Peace Courts), 230\n  Mahone, William, 122, 133\n  Makemie, Francis, 44\n  Malvern Hill, Battle of, 116\n  Manassas, Battle of, 112-113 (First battle); 116 (Second battle)\n  \"Map of the Chesapeake,\" 28\n  Mariner's Museum, 182\n  Marr, John Quincy, 112\n  Marshall Theater, 192\n  Mason, George:\n    Committee of Correspondence, 55-56;\n    Declaration of Rights, 69;\n    Fairfax Resolutions, 60;\n    Motto of Official State Seal, 69;\n    Philadelphia Convention, 82;\n    Second Continental Congress, 69;\n    Third Virginia Convention, 66;\n    Virginia Constitution of 1776, 69, 201;\n    Virginia State Convention of 1788, 84\n  Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 126\n  Mayor-Council form, 234, 237\n  McClurg, James, 69, 82, 84\n  Mercantilism, 38\n  \"Monitor\" and the \"Merrimac\" (\"Virginia\"), Battle of, 113-114\n  Metropolitanism, 147-148\n  Middle Plantation; _see_ Williamsburg, 43-44, 143\n  Military District No. 1, 128, 202\n  Military Poll Tax Exemption, 143\n  Mills, Robert, 96, 186\n  Minerals, 18-21\n  Monroe Doctrine, 97\n  Monroe, James:\n    Louisiana Purchase, 92;\n    Monroe Doctrine, 97-98;\n    Monrovia, 98;\n    Presidential Administration, 96-97;\n    Virginia State Convention of 1788, 84\n  Moore House, 80\n  Morgan, Daniel, 65-66\n  Mosby, John S., 117\n  \"Mother of Presidents,\" 98\n  \"Mother of States,\" 76\n  Mount Airy, 185\n  Mount Alexander, 45\n  Mount George, 45\n  Mount Rogers, 13\n  Mount Vernon Meeting, 81\n  Muhlenberg, John P. G., 68\n  Museum of Fine Arts, 181\n  Nat Turner's Rebellion, 100\n  Natural Bridge, 15\n  Natural Chimneys, 16\n  Natural Resources, 17-21\n  Natural Tunnel, 15\n  Navigation Acts, 38-39\n  Nelson, Thomas, 71, 80\n  Nelson, William, 76\n  New Market, Battle of, 120\n  Newport, Christopher, 26-27\n  Non-electrical machinery products, 156\n  Non-Importation Association, 55\n  Northern Neck Proprietary, 39-40\n  Northwest Territory, Cession of, 76\n  Nuthead, William, 42\n  Occupational Employment, 150-160\n  Ohio Company, 47\n  \"Old Dominion,\" 36\n  Opechancanough, 34, 36\n  Optional Forms Act, 141\n  Owen, Robert, 137\n  Paper Products, 154\n  Parishes (incorporations), 32, 36\n  Parks, William, 46\n  \"Parsons' Cause,\" 52-53\n  Paterson, William, 83\n  Peanuts, 157\n  Penal institutions, 240-241\n  Pendleton, Edmund, 57, 66, 67, 84\n  Pennsylvania-Virginia Boundary Dispute, 85-86\n  Petersburg, Battle of and Fall of (\"Crater\"), 121-122\n  Pharaoh, 91-92\n  Philadelphia Convention of 1787, 82\n  Philippi, Battle of, 112\n  Pickett, George E., 119\n  Piedmont Plateau, 13, 58\n  Pierpont, Francis H., 118, 127, 128\n  Pitt, William, 51, 61\n  Plantations, 31, 46\n  Plymouth Company, 25-26\n  Pocahontas (Lady Rebecca), 28-30\n  Point Pleasant (Great Kanawha), Battle of, 59\n  Pollard, John G., 141-142\n  Population:\n    Density, 22;\n  Portsmouth (Gosport), 74\n  Pory, John, 32\n  Powell, John, 189\n  Powhatan, 29\n  Presidential elections:\n  Presser, Theodore, 189\n  Printing and publishing industry, 155\n  Private Academies and Seminaries, 195\n  Prohibition Law (State), 137\n  Public Utilities Employment, 158\n  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 24-25\n  Raleigh Tavern, 55, 57\n  Randolph, John, 100\n  Ratcliffe, John, 26-27, 29\n  Ratification of U. S. Constitution, 85\n  Readmission to the Union, 129\n  Reed, Dr. Walter, 134\n  Religion, 35\n  Reorganization Act of 1927, 140\n  Repeal of Eighteenth Amendment, 142\n  Restoration of Colonial Williamsburg, 187\n  Revolutionary War, 74-82\n  Richmond:\n    Burr Trial, 93;\n    Confederate Capital, 110-111;\n    Fall of Richmond, 122;\n    \"Flu\" epidemic, 138;\n    Old Hall of House of Delegates Disaster, 131;\n    Richmond Theater Tragedy, 95-96;\n    Slave Insurrection, 91-92;\n    State Capital, 75;\n    State Conventions--\n      Second Virginia Convention, 63;\n      Third Convention, 66;\n      Fourth Convention, 66-67;\n      1901 Constitutional Convention, 134-135\n  Rivers, 16-17\n  Royal (Crown) Colony Status, 34\n  Ruffner, William H., 130, 197\n  Rumsey, James, 86\n  Sailors' Creek, 123\n  Salt Works at Saltville, 122\n  Sand and gravel, 20-21\n  Sandys, Sir Edwin, 31-32, 35\n  Schofield, John M., 128\n  Scott, Winfield, 103\n  Sculptors, 178\n  Secession, 109-110\n  Separation of Powers Theory, 210-211\n  Seven Days' Battle, 116\n  Seven Pines, Battle of, 115\n  Sevier, John, 75\n  Shelby, Isaac, 75\n  Shenandoah National Park, 16, 142\n  Sheridan, Philip, 120-121\n  Shires, 35\n  Simcoe, John G., 77-78\n  Smith, William, 127\n  Soil, 18\n  South Atlantic Coastal Plain, 11-12\n  Spanish-American War, 134\n  Spotswood, Alexander, 44-46\n  Stamp Act and Stamp Act Congress, 53-54, 55\n  Stanley, Thomas B., 146\n  State bird, 244\n  State Constitutions:\n  State flag, 244\n  State flower, 244\n  State parks, 16\n  State seals and motto, 69, 243\n  State song, 244\n  Stone resources, 19-20, 155\n  Stuart, James Ewell Brown (\"J.E.B.\"):\n    Battle of Brandy Station, 117-118;\n    Battle of Yellow Tavern, 120;\n    Death of Stuart, 120;\n    First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), 113;\n    Harper's Ferry Mission, 105;\n    Reconnaissance Journey, 115\n  Syms, Benjamin, 35\n  Tarleton, Banastre, 78-79\n  Taxation and Finance, 241\n  Taylor, David Watson, 138\n  Taylor, Zachary:\n    Mexican War, 103;\n    Presidential Administration, 103\n  Tea Act, 56\n  Textile products, 152\n  Thorpe, George, 34\n  Tidewater area, 11-13\n  Tompkins, Sally, 125\n  Topography, 11-14\n  Towns, 237\n  Townshend Acts, 55\n  Transportation and Transportation Equipment, 154, 161\n  Treasurer, 224\n  \"Treasury Right\" System, 44\n  Treaty of Jamestown, 37\n  Tredegar Iron Works, 124, 138, 143\n  Trevillians Station, Battle of, 120\n  Trial Justice, 232-233\n  Truck farming products, 157\n  Tyler, John, 102-103\n  Tyres, Molly, 119\n  Underwood Constitution, 128-129\n  University of Virginia, 98-99\n  Valentine House, 181\n  Valley Campaign, 114-115 (Front Royal, Kernstown, McDowell, Port\n        Republic, Winchester)\n  Vanbraam, Jacob, 49\n  Vestries, 36\n  \"Virginia,\" Origin of name, 24\n  Virginia Charter, 25\n  Virginia Company, 30, 34\n  \"Virginia Gazette,\" 46\n  Virginia Military Institute, 101-102, 121\n  Virginia-North Carolina border, 46\n  Virginia-Pennsylvania boundary dispute, 85-86\n  Virginia Plan of representation, 83\n  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 131\n  Virginia Resolutions, 90\n  Virginia War Memorial (\"Shrine of Memory\"), 143-144\n  Von Steuben, Baron, 78\n  Walker, Gilbert, 129\n  Walker, William, 79\n  War between the States, 111-124\n  War, Lord Dunmore's, 58-59\n  Washington, George:\n    Annapolis Convention, 82;\n    at Fort Le Boeuf, 49-50;\n    at Yorktown, 80-81;\n    Commander-in-Chief of the American Continental Army, 65;\n    First Inauguration, 87;\n    French and Indian War, 50-52;\n    Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Regiment, 50;\n    Notification of the Presidency, 86;\n    President of the Philadelphia Convention, 82;\n    Presidential Administration, 87-89;\n    Second Continental Congress, 69;\n    Signer of the United States Constitution; Williamsburg\n          Constitution of 1774, 57\n  Washington and Lee University, 47, 126\n  Washington \"Peace Conference,\" 108\n  Waterpower, 18\n  Wayne, Anthony, 77\n  West, Thomas (Lord de la Warr), 29-30\n  Westendorf, Thomas P., 189\n  West Virginia (\"Kanawha\"):\n    Debt owed to Virginia, 131, 136-137;\n    Separation from Virginia, 118-119;\n    West Virginia-Virginia boundary line, 131\n  Wheat, 157\n  Wheeling Conventions, 118\n  White House of the Confederacy, 181\n  Wholesale and Retail Trade Employment, 158\n  Wilderness, Battle of, 119\n  William and Mary College, 43, 139, 196\n  Williamsburg:\n    Colonial Capital, 46;\n    Colonial Capitol, 44-46;\n    Conventions--\n      Constitutional, 201;\n    Governor Dunmore and the Powder Magazine Episode, 64;\n    Governor's Palace, 45;\n    Origin of Name, 44;\n    Raleigh Tavern, 55, 57;\n    Restoration, 139-140;\n    Theater, 46;\n    Washington's visit, 50\n  Williamsburg Playhouse, 190-191\n  Wilson, T. Woodrow, 137\n  Winchester:\n    Battle of (first), 115;\n    Battle of (second), 118;\n    Frontier campaign, 51\n  Wingfield, Edward Maria, 26-27\n  Woodford, William, 67\n  Women:\n    Arrival, 33;\n    heroic role during War between the States, 125\n  World War I, 137-138\n  World War II, 142-144\n  Wren, Sir Christopher, 43\n  Wren Building, 43, 183\n  Yeardley, Sir George, 32\n  Yellow Tavern, 120\n  Yorktown:\n    Battle of, 114;\n    Cornwallis at Yorktown, 79-81;\nTranscriber's note:\nMinor typographical errors have been corrected without note.\nIrregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as\nprinted.\nMismatched quotes are not altered if it's not sufficiently clear\nwhere the missing quote should be placed.\nThe cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the\ntranscriber and is placed in the public domain.\nResearch has indicated the copyright on this book was not renewed.", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  Hallowed Heritage"},
{"language": ["und", "eng", "hun"], "scanningcenter": "capitolhill", "sponsor": "The Library of Congress", "contributor": "The Library of Congress", "date": "1949", "subject": ["Military art and science -- Dictionaries -- Hungarian", "Hungarian language -- Dictionaries -- English"], "title": "2000 Hungarian military terms, their English meaning and definition in Hungarian language", "creator": "Army Language School (U.S.)", "lccn": "52061767", "collection": ["library_of_congress", "fedlink", "americana"], "shiptracking": "ST011711", "partner_shiptracking": "166GP", "call_number": "8379298", "lc_call_number": "U25 .U54 1949", "possible-copyright-status": "The Library of Congress is unaware of any copyright restrictions for this item.", "note": "If you have a question or comment about this digitized item from the collections of the Library of Congress, please use the Library of Congress \u201cAsk a Librarian\u201d form: <a href=\"https://www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/ask-internetarchive.html\">https://www.loc.gov/rr/askalib/ask-internetarchive.html</a>", "publisher": "Presidio of Monterey", "description": "74 p. 27 cm", "mediatype": "texts", "repub_state": "19", "page-progression": "lr", "publicdate": "2019-11-01 16:33:34", "updatedate": "2019-11-01 17:36:29", "updater": "associate-richard-greydanus@archive.org", "identifier": "2000hungarianmil00army", "uploader": "associate-richard-greydanus@archive.org", "addeddate": "2019-11-01 17:36:31", "identifier_bib": "00010253007", "operator": "associate-annie-coates@archive.org", "tts_version": "2.1-final-2-gcbbe5f4", "camera": "Sony Alpha-A6300 (Control)", "scanner": "scribe1.capitolhill.archive.org", "imagecount": "88", "scandate": "20191212154705", "ppi": "300", "republisher_operator": "associate-richard-greydanus@archive.org", "republisher_date": "20191216105421", "republisher_time": "124", "foldoutcount": "0", "identifier-access": "http://archive.org/details/2000hungarianmil00army", "identifier-ark": "ark:/13960/t2v48vw8c", "scanfee": "300;12;240", "invoice": "36", "openlibrary_edition": "OL27823681M", "openlibrary_work": "OL20576840W", "external-identifier": "urn:oclc:record:1156121965", "backup_location": "ia907005_8", "ocr_module_version": "0.0.21", "ocr_converted": "abbyy-to-hocr 1.1.37", "page_number_confidence": "0", "page_number_module_version": "1.0.3", "creation_year": 1949, "content": "Two thousand Hungarian military terms, their English meanings and definitions in Hungarian language by Bela C. Maday, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Hungarian Department, Army Language School, Presidio of Monterey, California\n\nThis military dictionary contains nearly 2000 Hungarian military terms. The selection of terms was guided by the requirements of the Army Language School, with emphasis on current military terms. Condensed technical and historical entries have been included where desirable. An attempt was made to give accurate and clear definitions, understandable to students after eight months of language study. To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, the English equivalents of the Hungarian terms are also given.\n\nK\u00c9TEZER\nMilitary Equipment in Hungarian:\n\nL feeding mechanism: component of long guns, which pushes the cartridge back into the barrel chamber during loading.\nStock: part of a rifle, where metal components are mounted.\nTo shoot to death: to cause someone's death with a firearm.\nGun or cannon: weapon, whose projectile has a flat trajectory and high initial velocity.\n\nSize-wise: light (up to 30 cm), medium (20-30 cm), heavy (30 cm and above).\n\nApplication-wise: infantry, mountain, anti-tank, ship, anti-aircraft, long-range, etc.\n\nFunction-wise: rapid-firing, machine, etc.\n\nGun roar: sound produced during firing of guns.\n\nGunboat: small, usually unarmored, watercraft used for naval warfare, typically under 2000 tons, equipped with artillery. Provides coastal defense and patrol.\nacademic 1. /cadet/ : katona academia student,\n2. /academician/ : the academia member,\n3. /theoretical/ : elm\u00e9leti\nobstacle : ami the progress slows down or stops. It can be natural, such as a river, marsh, mountain, or artificial, like a Spanish tank, minefield, etc.\nacademy : f\u0151iskola\nmine : robban\u00f3anyaggal t\u00f6lt\u00f6tt rendszerint f\u00e9m, gyujt\u00f3berendez\u00e9ssel ell\u00e1tott test, which is placed in water, on the ground, or underground. Sometimes, the mine on the ground contains a non-explosive filling instead of an explosive one.\nmine field : olyan sz\u00e1razf\u00f6ldi vagy v\u00edzi ter\u00fclet, which is mined\nmine layer : kis v\u00edzi j\u00e1rm\u0171, which is used for mining or for the installation of a port's commercial equipment, to strike a mine; water or land-based mining vehicle that touches a mine.\ntrench mortar: a light infantry weapon, with a steep trajectory and small starting velocity; mine block: used to block a path or area with mines; to mine; to place a mine in a formation: the positioning of the Czech patrol, for example, in a column, line, or other formation; subordinate officer: a junior officer below the commanding officer in rank; to subordinate: to place an inferior officer under the command of another officer; junior officer: a subordinate officer who is younger in rank.\n\ncamouflage: to deceive the enemy by disguising an object or person with an outer appearance, but not hiding it;\n\nlieutenant colonel: the second highest officer rank in the corps officer corps; highest noncommissioned officer grade: the highest rank for noncommissioned officers.\n\nthe highest alt officer rank\nalkalmas for service: suitable person for military service\nkatonai szolg\u00e1latra haszn\u00e1lhat\u00f3 szem\u00e9ly\nunalmas for service: unsuitable person for military service\nkatonai szolg\u00e1latra nem haszn\u00e1lhat\u00f3 egy\u00e9n\nalkalmaz\u00e1s: deployment\nig\u00e9nybev\u00e9tel, m\u0171k\u00f6d\u00e9sbe helyez\u00e9s\nsz\u00e1rnyk\u00e9nt val\u00f3 alkalmaz\u00e1s: deployment as flank guards\naz egys\u00e9gek egym\u00e1s melletti m\u0171k\u00f6d\u00e9se\nl\u00e9pcs\u0151ik\u00e9nt val\u00f3 alkalmaz\u00e1s: deployment in echelon\naz egys\u00e9gek egy m\u00e1s m\u00f6g\u00f6tti m\u0171k\u00f6d\u00e9se\nalkalmaz\u00f3 megbesz\u00e9l\u00e9s: maneuver\nharc\u00e1szati, had\u00e1szati feladatok oktat\u00e1sser\u00fc megold\u00e1sa t\u00e9rk\u00e9pen\n\u00e1lland\u00f3 er\u0151d\u00edt\u00e9s: permanent fortification\nb\u00e9k\u00e9ben meg\u00e9p\u00edtett, \u00e1lland\u00f3 jelleg\u0171 berendez\u00e9s\n\u00e1ll\u00e1s: position\n1. \u00e1ll\u00f3 helyzet, 2. in enemy contact: gyalogs\u00e1g elhelyezked\u00e9si helye\n\u00e1ll\u00e1sharc: fight position\n1. parancsnoki \u00e1ll\u00e1s: /l\u00e1sd: harc\u00e1ll\u00e1s/1, /opinion/:\na helynek a megnevez\u00e9se ahol a parancsnok tart\u00f3zkodik /l\u00e1sd: harc\u00e1ll\u00e1s/2. opinion:\nv\u00e9lem\u00e9ny foglalni to move into\nposition: a marked position/status\n/to be in/ a new position/status\nposition change: from an existing position- into a new position- and the process.\nveterinary: in the military, for the care of animals' health.\ninstitutions and measures for the designation.\nveterinarian: the head of the veterinary service and executive officer.\nstatus: military rank\nmilitary rank group:\nofficers' status:\na military rank group created by military rank assignments, including:\ncatering officers' group, rank-and-file officers' group,\nready-for-duty officers' group, medical officers' group.\nstation: the place where the troop is stationed/garrisoned.\nto garrison: to remain in a place\ngarrison officer: the officer in charge of the garrison/post.\norder issued by the Provost Marshal:\norder.\nThe command issued by the garrison commander, which applies to all troops and military units stationed here:\n\nProvost Marshal: responsible for the placement of individuals in charge of soldier and general military discipline, and the head of the military surveillance unit in radio technology for detecting and transmitting vibrations.\n\nRod for securing sails: 1Y.\nRod for securing flags, signaling rods.\n\nProvost Marshal's office: located perpendicular to the enemy front line.\nSubdivision: a larger unit's component, front: the enemy.\n\nGenerally, the term used for battalion subdivisions.\n\nLower commanding officer: see: commanding officer.\nparancsnoks\u00e1g : see : leadership\nals\u00f3 vezet\u00e9s : see : veze\u00e8re /commander/\n\u00e1ltal\u00e1nos ipozg\u00f3sit\u00e1s : see : mobilization\n\u00e1ltal\u00e1nos v\u00e9dk\u00f6telezetts\u00e9g /Universal Military Training/ : the law that compels eligible citizens, in peace and war, to military service for the territories occupied by the troops\n\u00e1rk\u00e1sz /pioneer, engineer/ : a organized technical unit within infantry and cavalry for performing minor technical tasks\n\u00e1tal\u00e1ny /lump sum/ : precisely undetermined expenses, pre-paid amount, which is usually not accounted for\n\u00e1tcsoportos\u00edt\u00e1s /tactical re-grouping/ : the military's repositioning of forces or units for tactical reasons\nalt\u00e1bornagy /Major General/ ; atha.i\u00f3z\u00e1s /ship crossing/ : the second echelon of naval command for river crossings with naval vessels.\nRear Admiral; bridge member: In the military, the rank used for crossing is equivalent to that of a lieutenant in the army. In the navy or on a pontoon bridge, there is no transfer: one officer to another. A permanent change of position: from senior non-commissioned officer to sergeant, quartermaster, or chief quartermaster, outflanking: a lieutenant outmaneuvers enemy flanks. English shoe; see shoe evasion on land. Antenna: for radio or aerial crossing. Crossing: through a body of water or other terrain obstacle. Trajectory fire: over something, such as one's own or enemy lines, to fire through.\n\n2. Fire through: something to shoot through, such as a wall, a person. Change horses: mount another horse.\nattektinto terkep /general map/; larger territoriot magabafoglalo terkep. A magyar hadsereben 1:200.000 aranyu terkep /map with a scale of 1:200,000/ atteszteseresitas /breakthrough/: such a attack that passes through or advances beyond the enemy lines\nautobusz /bus/: vehicle for transporting 7-50 people\nazonossagi jegy /identification card/: small card carrying personal identification data, worn by every soldier\nazonossagi jegy-tok /identification card holder/: see: personal identification card holder\nB\nba.itars /comrade/: term of address, used instead of \"ur\"\nba.itarsag /comradeship/: solidarity, unity, community spirit\nbak /saw horse/: X-legged cart\nbaka /infantry man/: galos\nbakancs /service shoe/: magsasaru eros cipo\nbakancsfuzo /boot lace/: bakancsszij, a bakancs befuzesezeshez hasznalt, rendszerint b\u0151r zsinor j\nbakancsszeg /hob nail/: a\nbakancs talpaba vert szeg\ninfantry man : a gyalogos\nbastion : r\u00e9gi er\u0151dit\u00e9sek sarok-er\u0151dei/usually fortifications/ kiugr\u00f3 r\u00e9szei/protruding parts\nto adjust : a sz\u00fcks\u00e9ges helyzetbe hozni\nto intrench : l\u00f6v\u00e9sz techn\u0151t, l\u00f6v\u00e9szg\u00f6dr\u00f6t stb. k\u00e9sz\u00edteni and elhelyezkedni\nimpact : a l\u00f6ved\u00e9k \u00e9rintkez\u00e9se a c\u00e9llal\npoint of impact : the place, where the projectile hits the target\nangle of impact : the angle of the projectile and the target surface at impact\na tiszt olyan cselekm\u00e9nye, amelyben benzint vagy mulaszt\u00e1sa, which is held to be an affair of honor\nan affair of honor : maga ut\u00e1n er\u0151vel behatolni/forces its way in/ be.C-S \u00fcgyi elj\u00e1r\u00e1s/trial/ : ideiglenes/temporary or v\u00e9gleges/permanent.\nthis is the conduct of a person, or a matter to be examined and referred to in a trial, concerning the position of a soldier in a unit. The military rules for conduct in trials: honor is at stake in the military position. Placing someone in a position of responsibility: see regulations for details. Sick: a person who is not fit for duty. Embarkment: when they are injured. Quarters: a sick bay, nurse, male or female attendant. Male: a skilled man. For military service or a woman, the wounded are ordered to appoint someone for their care. The assistant helps in the care of the sick in Iran. Reporting sick: reporting the sick person.\nTo play with the bubble: the water break /in/: a tension sensor, which allows the enemy's lines to be penetrated but not surrounded: the break-in point: the intake valve, that is, the valve on the gas mask where the enemy's lines have successfully penetrated, making it impossible for us to breathe: bracketing fire: the X cannot be taken as a target: directed fire cannot be used until we find the target or a reserve: garrison duty: bringing it into combat or garrison duty, sending it internally: entering or occupying: locating the target.\n1. to enter into service: military servant to help begin, for example, a trainee.\n2. enter: someone who completes a measurement in a place, collectively.\n3. benzine: see: fuel to put in.\n4. fuel tank: vehicle - peace: the mutual, armed conflict's end.\n5. written, final termination\n6. peace-time table of organization: the army or unit's peacekeeping force size.\n7. peace agreement: the process of creating peace.\n8. banning troops: see: extinguishers.\n9. bilgeri boots: see: boots.\n10. confidential: only specified eyes may know.\n11. to secure: for securing against potential attacks.\n12. security detachment: protecting the unit's main body from the enemy's potential attacks.\nbo.la /buoy/ : a viszen uszo,\nde lehorgonyzott berendezes, hajosasi akadalyok.\nBorbala /Barbara/ : Szent Borbala, a tuzerek vedszent-buktato drotakadaly /wire trap/.\n^ fuvetes terpen elhelyezett alacsony drotakadaly, amelybe a gyalogos laba beleakad es elbukik.\nburkolni : betakarni lathatatlannak tenni.\nburkolo halo /camouflage net/ : halo, amellyel a burkolando celt betakarjak es ezzal elmosodnak az elenseg megfigyelesel elott.\nbujtavo : keskeny szij vagy egyeb anyagbol keszult csik, hosszukba hosszus anyagot, szijat fuznek.\nbolcsowo /cradle/ : a l\u00f6vegcsobokasorito.\nbobor /puttee/ : a bobar /diver/ : vizalamerules-kat mereten tarto tekercs ben szakkepzett ember vagy borpant buvarhajo.\nlasese : tengeralattas.\ntassel /on/ a club, ancient weapon: carrying the weighty tassel on a kardon b\u00fazog\u00e1ny, /club, ancient weapon/, is a r\u00e9gi, bunk\u00f3sv\u00e9gu ut\u00f3fegyver, /bomb/ a gyujt\u00f3berendez\u00e9ssell\u00e9sel ell\u00e1tott robban\u00f3test. It has a rep\u00fcl\u0151bomba, t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9gi bomba, and k\u00e9zi bomba. bombaproof: bombat\u00e1mad\u00e1s ellen v\u00e9d\u0151 bomba, /bomb proof/, t\u00e1mad\u00e1s bomb\u00e1k vet\u00e9s\u00e9vel, v\u00e9grehajtott. To bomb: bomb\u00e1t dobnak, vetni. bombavet\u0151 rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p: see : bomb\u00e1z\u00f3 rep\u00fcl\u0151, bomb\u00e1z\u00f3 rep\u00fcl\u0151/g\u00e9p, /bombing plane/, bomb\u00e1k sz\u00e1l\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1ra alkalmas harceszk\u00f6z.\n\nC target: 1. the selected point for shooting\n2. result of the action\ntarget sphere: the aiming sight\nthe aim: to aim at the target\nholding the target: keeping the weapon\nthe weapon on the target, holding it.\ntable /target/: training ground for real targets, usually a circular table target. target area: if the target is larger than can be destroyed with one shot, cruiser: large, fast, medium-draft warship used for reconnaissance and protection, pile: a post driven into the ground or water, CS, or mess kit: metal dish used for soldier's food, cs\u00e1k\u00e1ny: a fanned-edged, picking, sharp-edged tool used by technical teams, pick axe: an axe with one end formed into a pick, fetlock: approximately 7 inches long, animal's lower leg, team: military unit, 2nd echelon of the fighting force, not an office team, /team/ : three people, alternate team members in sports, insignia: a quicker, lighter insignia for a battle ship, not the ship's identification mark.\ncsapa tk\u00f6rlet  /troop  area/  s  p\u00e1nc\u00e9lzat\u00fa  Vizij\u00e1rm\u0170 \naz  a  ter\u00fclet,  ahol  a  csa-  csatahaj\u00f3  /battleship/  ;  a \npatok  /csapatvonattal  e-  \u2018  legnagyobb  haditenger\u00e9sze- \ngy\u00fctt/  a  hadm\u0171veleteket  ti  egys\u00e9g,  a  legnehezebb \nfolytatj\u00e1k  t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9ggel  felszerelve \ncsapatlovass\u00e1g  ;  l\u00e1sd  lovas-  csat\u00e1r  /fighter/  i  a  gyalog\u00ac \ns\u00e1g  s\u00e1gi  raj  egy  tagja \ncsapatnem  /branch  of  service/*  csat\u00e1rcsoport  /skirmish  group/* \n:  fegyvernem  '  a  csat\u00e1rok  szab\u00e1lytalan \ncsapatrend  /troop  assignment/*  csoportban  val\u00f3  elhelyez- \na  csapatokat  /vonatokat/  ked\u00e9se  a  harcban  /m\u00e9lys\u00e9g- \nhat\u00e1pozott  harc\u00e1szati  c\u00e9l-  ben  \u00e9s  sz\u00e9less\u00e9gben  tagoz- \nra  \u00e9s  hat\u00e1rozott  id\u0151re  \u00e1l-  va/ \nlit ja  \u00f6ssze  /Pl. el\u0151v\u00e9d,  csat\u00e1rl\u00e1nc  /skirmish  line/  : \noszlop,  harccsoport/  a  csat\u00e1rok  egym\u00e1s  mellett \ncsapatsz\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00f3  /haj\u00f3,  vagy  re-  val\u00f3  elhelyez\u00e9se  /sz\u00e9les- \np\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p/  /troop  transport/  s\u00e9gben  tagozva/ \nolyan  j\u00e1rmit,  amely  t\u00f6bb  csat\u00e1roszlop  7skirmish  columry^ \nembert, egy s\u00e9gtelesebb csat\u00e1roz\u00e1si egys\u00e9g l\u00edtani kell a csat\u00e1k egym\u00e1s m\u00f6g\u00f6tt: a csapattest, a unit kisebb tagozva; then an operational unit: kis csapatok, nem \u00f6sszef\u00fcgg\u0151 k\u00f6tel\u00e9k harca. A csapattiszt \u00e9s a csat\u00e1rt\u0171z: a hader\u0151 harcol\u00f3, hadsz\u00ednnel \u00f6vezett csat\u00e1r \u00f6n\u00e1ll\u00f3 t\u00fczel\u00e9se ter\u00e9n\u00e9l szolg\u00e1l\u00f3 csatl\u00f3s. csapatvonat: a csapat szerves r\u00e9sze, amely f\u0151leg anyagot sz\u00e1ll\u00edt, de ha kell csapatot is. K\u00e9t r\u00e9szb\u0151l \u00e1ll: ell\u00e1t\u00f3vonat \u00e9s \u00fctk\u00f6zetvonat. csap\u00f3d\u00f3 gy\u00fajt\u00f3: az olyan gy\u00fajt\u00f3 berendez\u00e9s, amely becsap\u00f3d\u00e1skor gy\u00fajt. csap\u00f3dszeg: henger alak\u00fa szeg. csata: had\u00e1szati elgondol\u00e1sok teljes\u00edt\u00e9se. Kinek h\u0171s\u00e9ges k\u00f6vet\u0151je, p\u00e1rt h\u00edve, kiszolg\u00e1l\u00f3ja. 2. l\u00f6v\u00e9sztiszt.\ngroom: a horse servant who leads the horse\ncanal: a man-made waterway, either a river or a long narrow sea\nscrew steamer: a water-propelled vehicle\ntrick: deceptive movement\ngendarmerie: a police force\nbefore the first world war, an armed law enforcement body was in existence. Ranks: a star-shaped long-term residence sign;\nstar: a star, a long-lasting rank symbol;\nofficer: bone\nsub-officer: silver\npetty officer: gold\nstar motor: radial engine, an aircraft engine in which the cylinders are arranged in a star shape\nboots: long-legged footwear\nEnglish boots: high-heeled\nriding boots: clean\nHungarian boots: low-heeled, khaki\ntrench boots: short\n\"boots\"\nsoft-soled boots: soft, made of leather\nBilgeri boots: soft-soled.\ncsizma, breeches: a shoe or trousers for wearing with a shoe\ngroup: 1. a cohesive unit, usually consisting of various weapon types\n2. a collective mass /small mass/\nbarrel: 1. cylindrical metal casing, component of firearms\n2. tube, pipe: civilian, typically cylindrical structure /corn cob/\nvont cs\u0151, rifled bore: internally grooved barrel, equipped for rotating projectiles\ncs\u0151burkolat, jacket: casing /jacket, casing/ surrounding the barrel, typically for insulation\ncs\u0151kocsi, carriage for barrel of gun: gun carriage /artillery/\ncs\u0151k\u00f6peny, jacket.barrel, casing: covering for the barrel, typically facilitating barrel handling\ncs\u0151sz\u00e1r, muzzle brake: device attached to the end of a firearm's barrel, reducing recoil from the explosion of a grenade\ncs\u0151tengely, axis of the barrel: the central shaft of a barrel.\ncs\u0151 hossz\u00e1ban, annak k\u00f6zepeken elk\u00e9pzelt vonal cs\u0151torkolat v\u00e9d\u0151/muzzle cover/; az \u00e1gy\u00facs\u0151 v\u00e9g\u00e9t t\u00e1t k\u00fcls\u0151 s\u00e9r\u00fcl\u00e9st\u0151l v\u00e9dekupak cs\u0151visszafut\u00e1s/recoil/: a cs\u0151nek a robban\u00fag\u00e1zok \u00e1ltal okozott h\u00e1tramozg\u00e1sa csukl\u00f3gyakorlat a rendszeles reggeli torna gyakorlat cs\u00fasztat\u00f3/belt loop/: 1. bujtat\u00f3 a szijazaton, slide: 2. ferd\u00e9n \u00e1ll\u00edtott deska, amin lecs\u00faszatak valamit cs\u00fasztat\u00f3 s\u00edn/slide, rail, part of the recoil mechanizmus/: amin a l\u00f6veg cs\u0151 cs\u00faszik\n\ndand\u00e1r/brigade/: azonos fegyver nemb\u0151l \u00f6ssze\u00e1ll\u00edtott, ezredn\u00e9l magasabb k\u00f6tel\u00e9k delejt\u00fc/compass needle/: ir\u00e1nyt\u0171/or in it the compass needle/ der\u00e9kszij/beit/: viselt szij der\u00e9kon d\u00edszl\u00e9p\u00e9s/goose step/: \u00fcnnep\u00e9lyes/usually solemn/ l\u00e9p\u00e9s, d\u00edszmenetben haszn\u00e1latos.\n\negy csapat d\u00edszelg\u0151 felvonul\u00e1sa\nhonor guard: a goal is to give honor to the guarding, rather than to guard\ndrum: a stretched membrane, used as a musical instrument when struck with a drumstick\ncorduroy road: rough roads, made of old roads placed next to each other, primarily used on watery or muddy terrain\ndog tag: a personal identification tag\ndecision: 1. the persistence in an argument, resulting in one party's victory\n2. a final and binding resolution\nwire entanglement: a barrier made of wire, such as a Spanish olive or a wire cutter for cutting wire barriers\ncylinder lock: a sealing mechanism, used to prevent the escape of explosive gases\npiston: a moving part in a cylinder\npop, crack: a loud, explosive sound.\ndurrano gas /explosive gas/ : hydrogen-and-oxygen gas mixture, forming water, either from heat or a spark, causing it to explode\ndurrano mercury /fulminant mercury/ : a silvery-white crystalline substance; heats up greatly and explodes after heating\n\u00e9breszt\u0151 /reveille/ : 1. end of nightly rest\n2. horns signaling the end of nightly rest\nmedical department : administrative division\nresponsible for maintaining the combat readiness of the medical personnel\nmedical corpsman : member of the medical department\nmedical battalion or detachment : collective of medical servicemen\ntotal number of medical personnel in each operational unit, which transports the wounded and sick to the medical institution after initial medical treatment\nmedical service : units, hospitals, and reserve hospitals.\ntiered stations, EU.\npurpose-built other facilities and transport equipment.\nuniform: the Katona's clothing\nindividual training: one-on-one intensive training\nagreed symbolic markers\nsee: marker symbol\nmonoplane: a single-winged aircraft.\nUpper-, middle-, or lower-winged unit: a cohesive military unit\ngeneral attack: a collective tactic\nsimple confinement: the least restrictive form\nsingle track: a railway that allows only one-way traffic, with only one track\nnight bomber: a bomber designed for night use;\nnight bomber: a bomber used for night operations;\nnight flight: a flight made at night;\nnight lodging: usually a lodging place for one night.\nparachute: a parachute.\nparatroopers/: a light, self-contained infantry force, equipped with portable weapons, that jumps from an aircraft for deployment\nparachute jump/: jumping from an aircraft with a parachute\nwedge/: the enemy's front line, at breaching points\nhead, point/: the forefront, usually led by a rapid-moving and disciplined advance force\nhead/: motorized and cavalry\nfork, junction/: road junction\npop, crack/: a sudden, sharp sound, causing the gunfire\nfiring mechanism/: gun component that initiates firing\ndecide/: to make a decision.\nprovision: eating /provision/: provision of food\nration in kind: for first-ranking personnel in nature, provision of food\nration money: payment for natural food\nration point: place for storing and distributing rations: for food items that the team cannot buy on site\nration truck: vehicle for transporting food\nration detachment: unit responsible for supplying and storing food, livestock for the troops\nration officer: officer in charge of the troops' provisions and mess\nrations: consist of two parts: 1. prescribed ration (3 daily) 2. reserve ration (1 daily)\nprovision of food\na. obtaining of rations: the necessary food acceptance from the supply or the food train: the supply train which carries rations and baggage; a part of the troop train,\nb. the fallen: in battle: to fall in battle,\nc. live firing: shooting with live ammunition: for practice purposes,\nd. to engage in battle: to fight,\ne. live ammunition: full value ammunition, contrasted with practice ammunition without explosives or reduced charge ammunition,\nf. to occupy: to take possession of,\ng. to capture: to take as a prisoner,\nh. to gas: to fill with gas,\ni. to divert: to ward off: to keep at a distance,\nj. to decide: to make up one's mind,\nk. billeting: lodging.\nsz\u00e1ll\u00e1sol\u00e1s,  lak\u00e1s  kije\u00ac \nl\u00f6l\u00e9s \neligaz\u00edtani  /to  direct/  :  uta\u00ac \ns\u00edt\u00e1st-  adni \nellen\u00e1ll\u00e1s  /resistance/  :  el\u00ac \nlenszeg\u00fcl\u00e9s,  egy  er\u0151nek \nnem  engedelmesked\u00e9s \nellen\u00e1llni  /to  resist/  :  egy \ner\u0151nek  nem  engedelmesked\u00ac \nni,  ellenszeg\u00fclni \nellenf\u00e9l  /enemy/  :  harcban  a \nm\u00e1sik  f\u00e9l \nellenakna  /enemy's  mine/  : \n1/  az  ellens\u00e9g  \u00e1ltal  lera\u00ac \nkott  akna \nellen\u00e1llom\u00e1s  /opposite  sta- \ntion  on  a  telephone  line, \ncounter  station/  :  a  ve\u00ac \nzet\u00e9k  m\u00e1sik  v\u00e9g\u00e9n  lev\u0151 \n\u00e1llom\u00e1s \nellenl\u00f6k\u00e9s  /counter  attack/  : \naz  ellens\u00e9ges  l\u00f6k\u00e9st  vi- \nszonz\u00f3  l\u00f6k\u00e9s \nellen\u0151rizni  /to  control/  : \nmegvizsg\u00e1lni \nellen\u0151rz\u00e9s  /control/  :  \u00e1llan\u00ac \nd\u00f3,  vagy  id\u0151szaki  vizsg\u00e1\u00ac \nlat \nellens\u00e9g  /enemy/  :  harcban  a \nm\u00e1sik  f\u00e9l \nellens\u00e9ges  csapat  /hostile \ntroops/  :  az  ellens\u00e9g \ncsapata \nellens\u00e9gesked\u00e9s  /hostility/  : \nellens\u00e9ges  tev\u00e9kenyked\u00e9s \nellenszeg\u00fclni  /to  oppose/  : \nnem  engedelmeskedni,  el- \nlent\u00e1llni \nellensz\u00e9l  /headwind/  :  menet\u00ac \nir\u00e1nyb\u00f3l  j\u00f6v\u0151  sz\u00e9l \nellent\u00e1mad\u00e1s  /counter  attack/: \nThe text appears to be in Hungarian with some English words mixed in. To clean the text, I would first translate it into modern English. Here's the cleaned text:\n\ndefense teams reserve attack on the defense line broke enemy ranks\ncommodore /commodore/ : naval rank equivalent to colonel\npoint /point/ : leading, mounted soldier\nadvanced guard : scouting and supporting troops\nlead team : 1. draft horse\n2. small cart\nadvanced spark : early ignition of explosive device (near the engine)\nregulation : sabotage, prescribed strength, table of organization\nprescribed strength : the total strength as stated in the regulations or orders\nto schedule /to plan/ : to schedule for an additional time\nto advance /to step forward/ : to receive a higher rank\nto step forward /to promote/ : to be promoted\n\nTherefore, the cleaned text is:\n\ndefense teams reserve attack on the defense line broke enemy ranks\ncommodore: naval rank equivalent to colonel\npoint: leading, mounted soldier\nadvanced guard: scouting and supporting troops\nlead team: 1. draft horse\n2. small cart\nadvanced spark: early ignition of explosive device (near the engine)\nregulation: sabotage, prescribed strength, table of organization\nprescribed strength: the total strength as stated in the regulations or orders\nto schedule /to plan/: to schedule for an additional time\nto advance /to step forward/: to receive a higher rank\nto step forward /to promote/: to be promoted\nThe text appears to be in Hungarian with some English words mixed in. I will translate it into modern English as faithfully as possible. I will also remove unnecessary line breaks and whitespaces.\n\nadvancement in rank: advancement in rank, not in rank-level\nsuperior: superior: in rank\npreceding: preceding: moving forward. One can move forward with or without a fight.\nadvance guard: advance guard: the part of the vanguard between the front and the main body. Its strength is a squad or a regiment, reinforced with various weapons.\noutpost: outpost: the units that ensure security. The size of a simple outpost is determined by the distance from the base.\nsimple outpost: simple outpost: used against the enemy's flanks at great distances.\nadvancement of outposts: joining of the outposts: a unit begins to move from the base towards the outposts, passing them by as it advances.\nimagined line: imagined line: connecting the outposts. The secure outposts form a connecting line.\nSee also: advance guard also has advancement.\nlead: lead: moving the goal forward towards the enemy.\nThe text appears to be in Hungarian with some English words mixed in. To clean the text, I would first translate it into English, then remove unnecessary elements. Here's the cleaned text:\n\nDistance of engagement: advanced position: the first defensive position is placed in front of the combat troops on the open terrain. The advanced guard: ensures a clear path for the main force and creates favorable conditions for battle. Components: infantry, advance guard, and front line. The front line: is formed from two-thirds of the advance guard. Preliminary information/briefing: the information given before the execution, which is provided when the executing units need to prepare and have little time to dispose: to go off: the weapon functions, the ammunition explodes. First defensive position: formed when the enemy comes into close contact during the end of mobile combat. To sink: the weapon is deployed.\n- place on the ground, compel - to put off, discharge, fire: 1. to bring a weapon into operation 2. to load and fire a gun or shell: to quarter in a lodging  night quarters: 1-3 days long leave  to bleed to death: 1. losing enough blood to cause death 2. losing enough men to devalue the troop\n- to transfer: to send to another troop unit  to withdraw: 1. someone or something before  review: to inspect, to pass in review, to order in review, to obstruct: to block a passage or way  first wheel drive: the engine's power to the vehicle's front wheels  first aid: temporary medical assistance in case of injury  to black out with curtains: to block out light  to darken the room's illumination.\nThe first officer in command, ranked above him is the first lieutenant. Near a deep object: to leave from somewhere. Angle of elevation: the angle of elevation of the lever towards it. An elevating device: an device used to lift. Force: as the strength of the enemy and our own. Strength: as the power of the enemy's weapons, guns. Fortress: usually built with a pancaked dome and reinforced walls, an fortified building capable of holding more guns, handlers, and sufficient ammunition and food supplies. Fortification: a technical defensive installation. Fortified line: a series of fortified structures in depth and width. Forced march: an average march distance of 20 kilometers per day, for instance, for infantry.\nlarger road, with few rest stops, oath: a ceremonial encounter, in which we prove our commitment or pledge, to God's name, with our words or oath-taking. oath-taking: the act of taking the oath at a certain age, providing sustenance to those passing by. transit mess: observing older soldiers, with food. Directly to the quartermaster's office. mess kit: a regiment's highest-ranking officer's staff, consisting of one to two battalions and immediate subordinate units. regimental commander: the commander of the regiment, regimental commander's adjutant, the regimental commander's assistant. regimental owner: a historical custom of designating and naming an infantry regiment after its first owner. F dummy cartridge: one who does not obey the regulations, the cartridge case is the casing for the bullet.\nDisciplined: At basic training, one who disciplines himself and is disciplined in turn:\nFarhm (crupper): A disciplinary punishment for the horse, a finely decorated whip: a punishment inflicted without judgment by the commanding officer who orders the execution of living trees as a penalty.\nFed\u00e9lzete (betweendeck): The disciplinary offense on a ship's lower deck: infringement of the second deck's rules.\nDeck (hull): The ship's upper weapon: 1. Every area above the deck, both offensive and defensive, covered terrain: 2. Originally, only the covered area named after the \"planked-over\" sword, 3. Nowadays, the firing deck.\nCovered space: To take up arms.\n1. arms: 1. to take arms to a battlement\n  2. shelter: a designated place for enemies to line up with weapons\n  arms arrangement T 1, military force\n  2. shelter height: vertical, capable of bearing the weight of an enemy gun\n  clearance of a shelter: sufficient for a gun to pass through\n  cover: protection from enemy weapons\n  rattling of arms and objects behind: sabre rattling, intimidating position or signal\n  v\u00e9s: armed\n  1. covering troops: 1. troops with shields\n  2. troops: large movements of armed forces\n  s\u00e1t biztos\u00edt\u00f3 k\u00f6tel\u00e9kek: military force\n  fed\u0151n\u00e9v: codename: armed strength: military force\nDiscipline in armed forces: the application of force to armed units and their adherence to it: strict adherence enforced with weapons. Undisciplined soldiers to be armed: supplying weapons, armory or arsenal. Weapon handling training: 1. Small unit exercises in the field, 2. Mission to carry a weapon. Drafted soldiers under short-term military service, regulated by a four-to-five page document permitting weapon training during basic training. Further education in weaponry: one weapon factory. Personnel in full weapon preparation.\nA hol a fegyvereket k\u00e9sz\u00edt\u00e9s\u00e9vel kapcsolatos:\n1. Fegyverell\u00e1t\u00f3: ell\u00e1tja a ma telep\u00edthet\u0151 felvev\u0151vel a fegyverrel.\n2. H\u00e1tt\u00e9r: k\u00e9sz\u00fcl\u0151dik a bor\u00fara.\n3. Feladat: amit elv\u00e9gzik.\n\nFegyverkov\u00e1cs: a fegyverek k\u00e9sz\u00edt\u0151je.\nFegyvermester: a csapatn\u00e1l a fegyver jav\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1t v\u00e9gzi.\n\nFegyver: telep\u00fcl\u00e9s Hungary-ban.\nNagyk\u00f6zs\u00e9g J\u00e1sz-Nagykun-Szolnok v\u00e1rmegy\u00e9ben.\nFegyvernem: 1. a hadsereg, k\u00fcl\u00f6nf\u00e9le felszerel\u00e9s\u0171 \u00e9s k\u00fcl\u00f6nf\u00e9le harci feladatokra k\u00e9pes\u00edtett alakulatok.\n2. A hadsereg harci r\u00e9szeinek legfontosabb csoportjai.\n\nFegyvernek:\nFegyver\u00e1llapot: \u00e1tmeneti jelleg\u0171 \u00e1llapot k\u00e9t harcos fele k\u00f6z\u00f6tt, amikor k\u00f6z\u00f6s meg\u00e1llapod\u00e1s alapj\u00e1n a harcoss\u00e1got meg\u00e1ll\u00edtj\u00e1k /rendszerint a b\u00e9kek\u00f6t\u00e9s \u00e9letben marad.\npermit /for- keeping a weapon/ - a regulatory document, which allows insight into enemy relations, is required for military intelligence and strategic reconnaissance: the military intelligence provides data for military planning. The weight is in air reconnaissance. Military intelligence and tactical reconnaissance; the troops provide data for tactical deployment and extend to the nearby battlefield, reconnaissance patrol /reconnaissance patrol/ - the reconnaissance unit's advanced patrol, usually a squad or a tank or an armored car reconnaissance plane /close- and long-range reconnaissance plane/ - the reconnaissance plane carrying out the reconnaissance, is authorized for weapon carrying and wearing by the reconnaissance unit /for specific purposes, e.g. tank group/.\nA sent-out unit,\nsystematically armed with armor works, weapons, reinforced,\nto arm: supply with weapons,\ndevelop: deploying from a unit,\ntransforming from a marching formation,\nassuming an attacking formation,\nsuperior: a higher-ranking military person,\nto massacre: 1. with a piercing or cutting tool and kill, 2. kill with a sword,\ndisperse: alarm,\nfrom a dream, awaken and alert,\nand the movement of regiments towards the battlefield,\nreview: 2. the orderly progression of military camps,\n3. the passage of any mass,\nmarching plan for troop movements or review,\nthe execution of the marching plan,\napproach:\nget closer to the one in front,\nfuse: base fuze,\nplaced at the bottom of the projectile,\nat the rear end, ignited.\nfenyiteni : to reprimand\nlen felverni : to endure, suffer\nfels\u0151 vezet\u00e9s : superior leadership (see: vezet\u00e9s)\ntes\nfelszerelni : to equip\nminden sz\u00fcks\u00e9gessel ell\u00e1tni : with all necessity\n/to install/ : to install something, set up\npl. telefont felszerelni : e.g. to equip a telephone\nfelszerel\u00e9s : equipment\nminden amit a katona fegyverzet\u00e9n fel\u00fcl a kincst\u00e1r from : issue\nfelv\u00e1ltani : to relieve\n\u0151rt vagy csapatot kicser\u00e9lni : to relieve a guard or a team\nfelv\u00e9tel : photograph\n1. mit felvett valaki : what someone took a picture of\nfelv\u00e9teli \u00e1ll\u00e1s : supplementary position\nvisszavonul\u00e1s eset\u00e9n a r\u00e9gi \u00e9s az \u00faj v\u00e9d\u0151 \u00e1ll\u00e1s k\u00f6z\u00f6tt v\u00e1lasztott \u00e1ll\u00e1s : in case of withdrawal, the chosen position between the old and new defensive positions\nfelv\u00e9telezni : to draw\na kioszt\u00f3helyen \u00e1tvenni valami : to take something from the distributor\nmit\nfelv\u00e9telez\u0151 hely : supply room\nahol felv\u00e9telezni lehet : where you can take things to be recorded\nfelvonul\u00e1s : troop movements towards the area of concentration\n1. csapat enyh\u00e9n b\u00fcntetni : lightly punish a team\nfenyit\u0151 hatalom : authority to reprimand\nakinek joga van feny\u00edt\u00e9st alkalmazni : who has the power to reprimand\nf\u00e9nyjel : light signal : light\nsignal lamp: a device for giving two-colored signals /photographic reconnaissance: aerial photography: completed reconnaissance\nsearchlight: device for emitting light /beam: the light beam cast by the searchlight\nnest: a place where birds or other animals have built their nests, often for the protection of their young or weapons\nbridle: the external rein, which attaches to the horse and controls its smallest movements\nobserver: soldier, entrusted with observing the enemy due to the effectiveness of our own firepower or due to a specific area being under observation\nobservation position: where the observer carries out his observations\nobservation sector: the area that the observer is responsible for keeping under surveillance\nview slit: a narrow opening through which observation can be carried out, such as in the case of a tank's viewport.\nfrom forest, etc.\nfine sight: such aiming when only the ball's top is visible to the viewer\nflotilla base: with repair workshops, supply depots, and naval forces embarking from it\npromise: solemn pledge, commitment, undertaking\nbow and arrow: curved shape, arch, sinewy body, sharp-edged\ngear wheel: wheel used for power transmission, with teeth on its outer rim\nteam: group\nhorse-drawn train: national transport system consisting of trains\npunishment cell: where soldiers are confined for disciplinary offenses\nchoking gas: colorless, odorless gas, usually nitrogen\nriver obstacle: dam in the river and protected by fire from the bank against enemy watercraft\nriver guard, m.kir. in the military, \"hadihaj\u00f3\" named forces, reticle: in sighting equipment, placed cross-shaped measuring devices, used to easily determine distance and size. revolving fort, Dan\u010d\u00e1l vehicle, circular, rotating cupola built on top, helicopter. head: head, usually in personnel counts \"sem\u00e9ly\" instead of \"sz\u00e9ly\" for deep. main body: a military unit, the main force, excluding support and rear troops. main zone of resistance: the enemy's weaponry's firing system, divided into zones in width and depth. main line of resistance: the connecting line of the enemy's closest positions, an imaginary line. headquarters: the military unit's command center of a deployed army.\nThe text appears to be in Hungarian with some English words interspersed. To clean the text, I will first translate it into English using a Hungarian-English dictionary. I will then remove unnecessary formatting and irrelevant information.\n\nOriginal text:\n\"\"\"\nz\u00e9rs\u00e9g\u00e9nek \u00e9rr\u00e9 a c\u00e9lra\nberendezett \u00e1llom\u00e1shelye\nf\u0151hadnagy /First Lt./ : a\nm\u00e1sodik f\u0151tiszti rendfokozat\nf\u0151ors /picket/ : 1. a nyugv\u00f3 csapat biztos\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1ra\nalkalmazott egys\u00e9g /rendszerint sz\u00e1zad erej\u00e9vel/. Ez \u00e1ll\u00edtja fel a t\u00e1bori \u0151rs\u00f6ket. 2. a f\u0151\u0151rs k\u00e9sz\u00fclts\u00e9gben lev\u0151 r\u00e9sze /picket guard/\nf\u0151\u0151rs\u00e9g /main guard/ : szab\u00e1lyos \u0151rs\u00e9g, amelynek feladata a sz\u00e1m\u00e1ra kil\u00f6lt ter\u00fclet, \u00e9p\u00fcletek, szem\u00e9lyek \u0151rz\u00e9se\nf\u0151parancsnok /commander in chief/ : egy orsz\u00e1g haderej\u00e9nek legfels\u0151bb parancsnoka\nf\u0151t\u00f6rzs\u0151rmester /ftiaster Sgt/ a sorrendben a harmadik altiszti rang\nfrontharcos /combat soldier/\n1. aki az arcvonalon harcol\n2. aki az arcvonalban harcolt\nf\u0151vez\u00e9rs\u00e9g /general headquarter. ters/ : a hadrakelt szervek legmagasabb parancsnoks\u00e1ga\nfnt\u00f3\u00e1rok /7trench/ : \u00e1ll\u00f3kat \u00e9s f\u00e9szkeket \u00f6sszek\u00f6t\u0151 \u00e1rokh\u00e1l\u00f3zat\nfut\u00f3l\u00e9p\u00e9s /double time march/ : lass\u00fa, \u00fctemes fut\u00e1s\nf\u00fcggelem /chain of command/ :\n\"\"\"\n\nCleaned text:\n\nThe prepared post for the garrison:\nFirst lieutenant /f\u0151hadnagy/ : second lieutenant rank\nPicket: 1. unit for securing the resting troops, usually a company. 2. ready guard\nMain guard: regular guard, responsible for guarding the designated area, buildings, and people\nCommander in chief: highest commander of the country's military\nSergeant major /f\u0151t\u00f6rzs\u0151rmester/ : third rank in the officer hierarchy\nCombat soldier:\n1. fighting at the front\n2. fought at the front\nGeneral headquarters: command center for the assembled troops\nTrenches /fnt\u00f3\u00e1rok/ : network of trenches and dugouts\nDouble time march: slow, rhythmic marching\nChain of command:\nobedience required, by which every soldier is subject to his superior officer\nlistening device /locator/ for aircraft approach detection\n1. enemy movement observer soldiers\n2. soldiers observing enemy aircraft with listening device\nobserver soldiers\nsmokeless powder /smokeless powder/ - such powder that burns without smoke\ngas /gas/ - military context gas-filled grenades\ngas warfare /gas warfare/ : gas-gas combat\ngas mask /gas mask/ : gas protective mask\ngaz tazal, filter /filter/ : protective equipment for gas training\nheating filter, to be placed on the face for gas use /gas-heated equipment for defense/\ngaz decontamination patch /patch/ : removable gas-free part, which filters the air from gas\ngasproof /gasproof/ : see cleaning instructions.\ng\u00e1szt\u00f3l mentes 2. g\u00e1s el- g\u00e1s palack: g\u00e1s len biztos t\u00e1rol\u00e1s\u00e1ra haszn\u00e1lt f\u00e9m- g\u00e1zbomba. G\u00e1s t\u00f6lt\u00f6tt bomba g\u00e1zzal palack t\u00f6lt\u00f6tt r\u00e9p\u00fcl\u0151 bomba g\u00e1zra jata\u00fct\u00e9s: g\u00e1zfelh\u0151: g\u00e1z hirtelen megkezdett, r\u00f6vid, \u00e9s leveg\u0151 kever\u00e9ke er\u0151teljes g\u00e1zl\u00f6v\u00e9s, g\u00e1z g\u00e1zfertotlen\u00edt\u0151 anyag: g\u00e1z g\u00e1zriad\u00f3 c. ellen- anyag amit fert\u0151tlen\u00edt\u00e9s- s\u00e9ges g\u00e1zt\u00e1mad\u00e1s eset\u00e9n re haszn\u00e1lnak elrendelt riad\u00f3. G\u00e1zgr\u00e1n\u00e1t: g\u00e1zt\u00e1mad\u00e1s: g\u00e1s alkalmaz\u00e1s\u00e1val v\u00e9grehajtott t\u00e1mad\u00e1s. G\u00e1ztiszt: a g\u00e1zzal vivj\u00e1k harcot g\u00e1ztiszt: a g\u00e1zzal megbizott tiszt. G\u00e1zzal val\u00f3 fert\u0151z\u00e9s: kontamin\u00e1ci\u00f3 ter\u00fcleteknek hez.\n\nG\u00e1s bottle: used for safe g\u00e1s storage. Gas-filled bomb: bomb filled with gas for gas raid.\nG\u00e1sfelh\u0151: sudden, short-lived, and powerful gas cloud.\nG\u00e1zfertotlen\u00edt\u00f3 anyag: used for decontamination in case of poisonous gas attack.\nG\u00e1zg\u00e1zriad\u00f3: alarm against poisonous gas.\nG\u00e1zgr\u00e1n\u00e1t: weapon used for gas warfare.\nG\u00e1zv\u00e9delem: defensive measures against gas attacks.\nG\u00e1zv\u00e9d\u0151 ruha: clothing that gas cannot penetrate.\nG\u00e1ztiszt: officer in charge of gas defense.\nG\u00e1zve to: gas projector: weapon used to conduct gas warfare.\nG\u00e1zval\u00f3 fert\u0151z\u00e9s: contamination with gas.\nGassing or complete immersion with gas: disorienting and calming an enemy with gas. Destruction by gas. The enemy's elimination with gas. Guns: a 50 mm or smaller caliber gun, which holds five to ten bullets in a single load and fires, empties, and reloads automatically. Used for air defense and against armored vehicles. Motorized: motorized, towed, manned. Motor vehicle: motor vehicle. Motor vehicle with a rocket motor. Passenger car: designed for two to seven passengers. Motor truck: suitable for cargo transport. Heavy trucks, 1.5-2.5 tons and above, are a truck column. The motorized infantry battalion's truck transport.\nmotorized transport / g\u00e9pkocsiz\u00f3 /: motorized vehicle for transporting\nmotorized infantry / gyalogs\u00e1g z\u00f3 /: infantry motorized in motorized vehicles\nmotorized infantry / ter\u00e9pi j\u00e1rm\u0171vek /: moving infantry\nmotorized artillery / g\u00e9pkocsiz\u00f3 t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9g /: motorized artillery\nmotorized artillery / vontatott t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9g /: towed artillery\nmachine pistol / g\u00e9ppisztoly /: a pistol-sized, hand-held, automatic firearm, which can be loaded using a magazine, and fires, empties, and repeats. Its relatively small size, light weight, and high firing power make it a popular choice for infantry\nmachine gun / g\u00e9ppuska /: a gun-sized, automatic firearm, which can be loaded using a magazine or a drum, and fires, empties, and repeats. Its firing power is approximately equal to that of a rifle, and it is used extensively in various forms of military engagements.\nmachine gun nest / g\u00e9ppuska f\u00e9szek /: the position from which a machine gun is fired, usually fortified with earthworks.\nmachine gun squad, platoon, company: goppuskas rajszakasz, szazad /a puskasztal eltereso szervezesis/ unit: goppuskaval felfegyverzett puskasztiras gepvontatasu tuzerseg: vontato traktor segitsegel mozgatott tuzerseg golyo /bullet/ : konnyu tuzfegyverek lovedek, (amit kilonek) golyofogo: olyan berendezes, which the golyokat felfogja golyoszoro /BAR type light machine gun/ : szerkezetes a geppuskaival azonos nos fegyver, de annal sulyban kevobber es loveszakilag nem alkalmas a geppuskaval azonos feladatok ellatasara. A harcban gyalog kuedo reszek az elso vonalbol hasznaljak c-form golyozapor 7 hail shower of bullets/ : az igennel erok gyalsagituz\n\nrolling material, in which a wheel is present /altalanosagban vasutik kocsikra nevezik/\nexercise: a elsajatitott katona tudas yakorlasa, hasznala.\npractice ammunition : used ammunition, which doesn't contain projectile\ndrill ground, field : the place where drills are held\ndummy ridge : small-caliber practice ammunition\nrange chart : a graphic tool, which shows the required charge needs\ngranate : artillery projectile. It comes in both airburst and impact types. Used against armor vehicles and ships as armor-piercing, against living targets as fragmentation, against aerial targets as anti-aircraft, and against personnel and structures as smoke or tear gas grenades\ngranate splinter : fragment of a bursting grenade\ngranate casing : formed from the bursting grenade upon detonation\ngranade thrower : light infantry weapon, which launches hand grenades up to 1000-1500 meters range.\ngyalogezred : see : ezred\ngy aloghados zt\u00e1ly : see : hadoszt\u00e1ly\ngyalogharc /fight on foot/ : gyalogharc with infantry,\ngyalogos /infantry-man/ : 1. infantry soldier, 2. infantryman\ngyalog\u00f6sv\u00e9ny /foot trail/ : narrow path, through forest or field,\nonly passable for foot soldiers. Foot soldier troop,\ngyalogs\u00e1gi katona, baka : infantry soldier, common soldier,\ngyalogj\u00e1r\u00f3 : infantry soldier, foot soldier,\ngyalog\u00f6sv\u00e9ny : infantry, foot soldier: trained for infantry combat, most important arm,\nFeladatai : a. destruction of the enemy, b. territory seizure, c. holding of seized territory\ngyalogs\u00e1gi \u00e1gy\u00fa /infantry cannon/ : light, infantry-used cannon, 20-37 mm caliber,\ngyalogs\u00e1gi \u00e1s\u00f3 /trenching tool/ : infantry-used, short-handled shovel. Regularly part of an infantry soldier's individual equipment,\ngyalogs\u00e1gi parancsnok /infantry commander/ : infantry commander, part of the regimental command.\ncommander, according to regulations, carries out duties as a company commander. foot path: a path that can only be traversed by infantry. quick response force: a new weapon system, consisting of motorized infantry, tanks, artillery, rapid fire, quick fire cannon: a device that recoils due to gases produced during firing, then returns to functioning position for victory: 1. forcing the enemy to surrender or destroy. 2. overpowering someone, taking control of someone ignition: 1. igniting a bomb with a match. 2. explosion caused by igniting ignitors at the propellant in rocket motors.\n1. mechanical or electronic device for igniting a projectile, mine, or bomb at the desired time.\n2. match or incendiary bomb in military ammunition, which has both the igniting and explosive effects.\n3. detonator: a substance or electroexplosive device that initiates the detonation of explosive charges.\n4. spark plug: a device used in internal combustion engines and required for the ignition of compressed fuel-air mixture.\n5. incendiary projectile: a type of projectile that typically causes a fire upon impact.\n6. focus: mirrors or lenses at the point where rays converge.\n7. to set the fuze: to ignite the explosive charge in a projectile, mine, or bomb, either upon impact or after being fired or launched.\nfuse cord: black filled with gunpowder\nigniting charge: easily gathers, igniting charge: quickly, at high temperatures\nigniting charge, which initiates the explosion of explosives\nassembly area: previously designated territory, where the troops must gather\nwar: 1. armed conflict between peoples or nations, 2. maintained peace\ncadet: his soldiers\narmy: 1. soldiers, fighters, collective group, 2. large gun carrier, 3. old term; battle, fight\nMythical name of the Milky Way: military judicial officer, responsible for the supply and provisioning, finance, and economics at higher command levels.\ncommander and supervising officer in the armed forces: the collective strength in the army, the entire military organization, was formerly known as the military academy; the officers' corps, from which the regiment's insignia on the horses' hooves comes, signifying a state of war: to wage war: 1. relations between states, carrying on a war 2. declaring war, engaging in military operations: military strength: position: the army at its wartime strength, individual parts of which are called war orphans: the commander faces the enemy in battle, the fallen soldier's family opposes him.\nveteran: article of war: soldier, pensioner.\nstrategy: hadiflotta, hadi- visel\u00e9s tudom\u00e1nya (haj\u00f3had, had\u00e1szati felder\u00edt\u00e9s: hadifogoly felder\u00edt\u00e9s a h\u00e1bo, had\u00e1szati vezet\u00e9s: gondoskod\u00e1s, ir\u00e1ny\u00edtja \u00e9s eredm\u00e9nyezteti a hadbavonultak, nyelt kiakn\u00e1zza csal\u00e1djair\u00f3l es a h\u00e1bor\u00fa; hadbir\u00f3: az ellens\u00e9gben az \u00e1ldozatair\u00f3l val\u00f3 \u00edt\u00e9lemben a katonai szem\u00e9ly; nyes, \u00e1llami, gondoskod\u00e1s; hadihaj\u00f3: katonai rendeltet\u00e9s\u0171 vizi j\u00e1rm\u0171, tekintet n\u00e9lk\u00fcl arra, hogy fel van-e fegyverezve vagy sem; hadihaj\u00f3s: magyar folyamos er\u0151k tagjai; hadihal\u00e1l: a harc \u00e1ll\u00e1sa (ellenfelek helyzete); hadihid: ideiglenes hadic\u00e9lokra \u00e9p\u00fclt hid\n\nhadiflotta: war fleet, hadi- visel\u00e9s tudom\u00e1nya (haj\u00f3had, had\u00e1szati felder\u00edt\u00e9s: prisoner of war felder\u00edt\u00e9s a h\u00e1bo, had\u00e1szati vezet\u00e9s: dependency office, ir\u00e1ny\u00edtja \u00e9s eredm\u00e9nyezteti the military personnel, exploiting their families and the war; hadbir\u00f3: judge advocate: trials of the victims in the enemy's hands; nyes, state, care; hadihaj\u00f3: military vessel, regardless of whether it is armed or not; hadihaj\u00f3s: members of the Hungarian River Forces; hadihal\u00e1l: strategic situation (position of the opponents); hadihid: bridge built for military purposes.\nHadvisel\u00e9si anyagot el\u0151\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00f3 ipar: 1. T\u00e9rk\u00e9pen lej\u00e1tszott hadgyakorlat: a. Ter\u00fcleten j\u00e1tszott hadgyakorlat (pl. cserk\u00e9szek\u00e9); b. Nem katonai alakulatok hadgyakorlata. Hadij\u00e1t\u00e9k: a. Hadvitel: a nemzetk\u00f6zi jog r\u00e9sze, amely a hadvisel\u00e9st szab\u00e1lyozza. b. Hadik\u00e1rp\u00f3tl\u00e1s: l\u00e1sd j\u00f3v\u00e1hagy\u00e1s. c. Hadikik\u00f6t\u0151: katonai c\u00e9lokat szolg\u00e1l\u00f3 kik\u00f6t\u0151. d. Hadik\u00f3rh\u00e1z: T h\u00e1bor\u00fa eset\u00e9n fel\u00e1ll\u00edtott katonai k\u00f3rh\u00e1z (rendszerint h\u00e1torsz\u00e1gban). e. Hadik\u00f6lcs\u00f6n: hossz\u00falej\u00e1rat\u00fa \u00e1llami k\u00f6lcs\u00f6n, amellyel a h\u00e1bor\u00fa k\u00f6lts\u00e9geinek nem fedezhet\u0151 r\u00e9sz\u00e9t teremtik el\u0151. f. Hadik\u00f6vet: az ellens\u00e9gesked\u0151 felek egyik\u00e9t\u0151l a m\u00e1sik\u00e1hoz k\u00fcld\u00f6tt szem\u00e9ly, aki a hadvisel\u00e9s megsz\u00fcntet\u00e9s\u00e9r\u0151l, vagy k\u00fcl\u00f6n\u00f6s felt\u00e9telekr\u0151l t\u00e1rgyal. Hadil\u00e1b-on \u00e1llni: ellens\u00e9ges viszonyban van valakivel. (\u00c1tvitt \u00e9rtelemben)\nhadilobog\u00f3 /war ensign/; the army's flag\nhadimii /war profiteer/; one who makes a profit from war\nhadisz\u00e1l\u00edt\u00e1s meggazd\u00e1lkod\u00e1s /war supply management/; provisioning\nhadinapl\u00f3 /war diary/; mandatory record-keeping for every soldier\nhadinyeres\u00e9g /war profit/; profits from the war for the Ikozok and Vall\u00e1k\nhadinapl\u00f3k nyeres\u00e9ge /disz\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00f3k profits/\nhadih\u00f6z\u00e9s /war widow/; wife of a fallen soldier\nhadip\u00f3td\u00edj /war bonus/; bonus for those residing on the war front\nhadm\u0171veleti ter\u00fcleten tart\u00f3zkod\u00f3 szem\u00e9lyek /persons or companies/ selling goods to the army\nhaditan\u00e1cs /war council/; advisory body for military leaders, consultation during the war.\nopportunities for viseslese regarding haditechnology and strategy in the field of military technology and the military's equipment issues, engineering knowledge:\nnaval forces and naval vessels: suitable watercraft for military operations. For instance, battleship, aircraft carrier, cruiser, torpedo destroyer, fast attack craft, submarine, mine sweeper, amphibious vehicles, war zone: the operational area and hinterland, military secret: military information not allowed for the enemy, military court-martial: military tribunal, usually consisting of a military judge and three jurors, military science: the scientific principles of warfare and their application in practice, war correspondent.\njournalist, who moves with the fighting teams and sends reports from there\nwar spoils /spoils of war/: the seizure and requisition of the enemy's weapons, equipment, and state property during military operations. It does not extend to private property.\ncampaign: 1. carrying on a war, 2. the entirety of operations in one place\nreplacement system. This is the system by which the state ensures the personnel reinforcement of its armed forces\nconscript /see: soldier/\nmilitary engineer /military officer/\nmilitary operation: the sum total of battles and engagements and the related activities /\"reconnaissance, provisioning, coordination, troop movement/\"\noperational supply service G-4: handles logistics\noperational unit: a military unit\nHadroszaly, which are independent tasks to solve. For example, army, division, etc.\n\nHadm\u0171veleti ter\u00fclet / theatre of operations/ : a unit and its surroundings,\nheaded by a lieutenant /Second Lt./ : 1. the lowest rank officer\n2. formerly the commander of the army,\ndivision : a military unit, which usually consists of three infantry regiments, 9-12 artillery batteries, cavalry, cyclists, signal corps and other technical troops /possibly including artillery trains/ :\nto go to war /hadrakelt/ : to go to war\nHadrakelt sereg /forces at war/ : the part of the army that is placed at the disposal of the supreme command for the conduct of operations\nhadrend /order of battle/ : the Hader\u0151's command and organizational structure, determined by the supreme command. The supreme command alone can change it.\nhadseg\u00e9d /hadseg\u00e9d/ : see: adjutant\nHadsereg /army/ : 1. military establishment, the collective body of the armed forces\n2. 2-4 armies.\ntestb\u0151l,  k\u00f6zvetlen  csapa- \ntokb\u00f3l  \u00e9s  seregvonatb\u00f3l, \nhad\u00e1szati  feladatokra \n\u00f6ssze\u00e1ll\u00edtott  k\u00f6tel\u00e9k \nhadsz\u00ednt\u00e9r  /theatre  of  war/: \na^  a  ter\u00fclet,  ahol  a  had\u00ac \nm\u0171velet, az  \u00fctk\u00f6zet  folyik \nhad t\u00e1pszolg\u00e1lat  /rear  echelon/ \na  hadt\u00e1pter\u00fcleten  v\u00e9gre\u00ac \nhajtott  ut\u00e1np\u00f3tl\u00e1si,  e- \ng\u00e9szs\u00e9g\u00fcgyi,  sz\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00f3, \nbiztos\u00edt\u00f3  \u00e9s  karhatalmi \nszolg\u00e1lat  \u00f6sszes\u00e9ge \nhadt\u00e1pter\u00fclet  /rear  echelon \narea/  T\"az  a  ter\u00fclet,  a- \nhol  a  k\u00fczd\u0151  hader\u0151  vona\u00ac \nta  mozog  \u00e9s  ahol  a  katc- \nnai  k\u00f6zigazgat\u00e1st  meg  le\u00ac \nhet  szervezni \nhadtest  /army  corps/  :  t\u00f6bb \nW-H,  esetleg  k\u00fcl\u00f6nb\u00f6z\u0151 \nhadm\u0171veleti  egys\u00e9gekb\u0151l \n\u00f6ssze\u00e1ll\u00edtott  seregtest, \nk\u00f6zvetlen  csapatokkal  \u00e9s \n/seregvonattal \nHad\u00far  /comr ander  in  chief. \nWar  God/  :  1 .  a  magyar \nhadsereg  legfels\u0151bb  veze\u00ac \nt\u0151j\u00e9nek  volt  elnevez\u00e9se \n/legfels\u0151bb  hadu^/  2.  a \nmagyar  irodalom  romanti\u00ac \nkus  kor\u00e1ban  a  magyarok \nIsten 'nek  k\u00f6lt\u0151i  neve \nhad\u00fcgy  /military  affairs/  : \na  hadsereggel  \u00f6sszef\u00fcgg\u0151 \nminden  \u00fcgy \nhad\u00fcgyminiszt\u00e9rium  :  l\u00e1sd  : \nhad\u00fczenet /declaration of war/:\na h\u00e1bor\u00fa megind\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1nak hivatalos bejelent\u00e9se\nhadvez\u00e9r /commander/,: a hadsereg, vagy hadm\u0171velet legf\u0151bb parancsnoka\nhadvisel\u00e9s /warfare/: h\u00e1bor\u00fa folytat\u00e1sa\nhadviselt: aki r\u00e9szt vett a h\u00e1bor\u00faban\nhaj\u00f3had /flotta/: \u00f6sszetartoz\u00f3 hadihaj\u00f3k csoportja\nhaj\u00f3raj /flotilla/: rendszerint aknarak\u00e1sra haszn\u00e1lt kis haj\u00f3csoport\nhajr\u00e1: buzd\u00edt\u00f3, lelkes\u00edt\u0151 felki\u00e1lt\u00e1s\nhall\u00f3t\u00e1vlat /hearing distance/: amilyen messze hallunk\nhalogat\u00f3 harc had\u00e1szatban: seregtestek harca, hogy az ellens\u00e9get a f\u0151hadisz\u00e1ll\u00e1s t\u00e1vol tartsuk, lekess\u00e9k\nharczban: c\u00e9lja az id\u0151nyer\u00e9s \u00e9s az ellens\u00e9g megt\u00e9veszt\u00e9se\nhang\u00e1r: nagy \u00e9p\u00edtm\u00e9ny l\u00e9gij\u00e1rm\u0171vek t\u00e1rol\u00e1s\u00e1ra\nhar\u00e1csol\u00e1s /levy of a fine/: t\u00e9r\u00edt\u00e9s n\u00e9lk\u00fcli anyagbehajt\u00e1s\nThe text appears to be in Hungarian with some English words mixed in. To clean the text, I will first translate it into English using a translation tool, and then remove unnecessary content.\n\nCleaned Text:\n\nFighting the civil population:\n1. Struggle: struggle, dispute, moving fight; when the fighting troops are in constant movement and position changing.\n2. Static fight: when the fighting troops are on a fixed front line.\nBattle formation: the formation of the troops in battle.\nCommand post: the place of the commander in battle.\nTactics: the set of principles and rules according to which a military unit must carry out its combat mission.\nTactical unit: a unit that can act independently in battle.\nMilitary reconnaissance: see - reconnaissance -\nMilitary leadership: the lower military leadership that prepares battles for the battle objective.\nharcja \u00e9s haszn\u00e1lja:\na harc r\u00e9szei, p\u00e9ld\u00e1ul a csata, \u00fctk\u00f6zet stb.\nharccsapat: a hadm\u0171veleti egys\u00e9g r\u00e9szei, melyek harcolnak.\nharci elj\u00e1r\u00e1s: a ember \u00e9s anyag alkalmaz\u00e1s\u00e1nak m\u00f3dja harcban.\nharci \u0151r: az ellens\u00e9ggel szoros \u00e9rintkez\u00e9sben lev\u0151 csapat biztos\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1t v\u00e9gzi.\nharc\u00e9rintkez\u00e9s: az ellens\u00e9ges er\u0151k \u00e9rintkez\u00e9se harccslekm\u00e9nyekkel.\nharceszk\u00f6z: a harc megv\u00edv\u00e1s\u00e1hoz sz\u00fcks\u00e9ges eszk\u00f6z\u00f6k a t\u0171zfegyverek k\u00edv\u00fcl, p\u00e9ld\u00e1ul harckocsi, vegyianyagok (g\u00e1z) stb.\nharcg\u00e1z: k\u00fczd\u00e9sre \u00e9p\u00edtve \u00e9s felfegyverezve, mint a vad\u00e1szg\u00e9p \u00e9s bomb\u00e1z\u00f3.\nharck\u00e9sz\u00fclts\u00e9g: a teljesen felk\u00e9sz\u00fclt csapat helyzete\nharckocsi: 1. motoros p\u00e1nc\u00e9lozott, herny\u00f3talpas.\njetting. Equipment: 1-2 guns, several machine guns, likely flamethrower or recoilless. Can be 2-5 ton, 35 ton or larger.\n/war chariot/ : 2. In ancient times, a two-wheeled, military vehicle drawn by horses with one driver and one warrior for battle training: for battle training.\nharckocsi akad\u00e1ly /anti-tank obstacle/ : obstacles for tank advancement, natural or man-made.\nharckocsielh\u00e1r\u00edt\u00f3 cannon : see tank-destroying cannon\nto put out of action /to disable/ : to disable in battle\nsector /unit sector of the front/ will be a defensive line, possibly for an individual unit if it indicates the presence of a chemical agent. There is a section of land where it is necessary to fight against irritating, choking, and foam-emitting warlike substances.\nhuz\u00f3 harcg\u00e1z harcszeru /warlike practice/ : a practice that must be carried out as if we were actually in battle.\ncombat training /combats between fighters/ : such shooting practice, war game, the practice of war.\nwar situation /battlefield/ : the position of the combatants, during battle.\nfighting forces : the strength of the opposing parties.\nfighter plane : a plane where the target and shooter behave alike in war.\nterritory /fighting zone/ : rear defense, the territory behind the lines.\nfirst defensive position : the position built to counter enemy activity.\nbattlefield : where the battle takes place, the highest point of a mountain.\ntriangulation /mountainous terrain/ : terrain measurement with mountains.\nmountain peak : the mountain's highest point.\nthree-point survey /mountain ridge/ : useful load, the mountain's spine.\npay load /useful load for mountain artillery/ : the weight a mountain artillery can carry.\njet can transport Tillery/ : fortified positions for border defense, equipped and trained: a country's artillery\non the border, helicopter /helicopter/ : a type of aircraft, capable of lifting a armed military unit, rotating data for border surveillance, peacefully\nif the border is closing:\nthe cessation of peaceful border trade, border closure\nsaddle horse/ : on which one can ride\neffective range/ : the distance, within which a firearm can effectively shoot\nbackpack : see: piglet\nhinterland/ : the operational territory's rear area\nradius of action/ : the distance, up to which a weapon or combat unit can operate\nresection/ : self-determination, known landmarks\nassistance: recoil: the gun's or its muzzle's backward movement due to firing; recoil brake: a device, a brake, which hinders the gun's recoil; corrector: the device on the bullet's primer, with which the rotation time can be changed; garrison: a geographical location, a town, where military units are stationed; garrison service: service under the garrison command; place of service; street fighting: fighting in a city, in a village, between houses; situation: combat, military situation; estimate of the situation: information about our position and our own troops, as well as the enemy's intentions based on available data.\n1. cylinder: 1. non-motor part, cylinder-shaped space, where the combustion material burns and releases energy. 2. every cylinder body has a caterpillar track: a connecting latticework for joining wheels, enabling the vehicle's movement on uneven terrain. 2. caterpillar tractor: a tractor with caterpillar tread. 3. heveder: wide, strong rubber belt, used for horse-drawn carts, ammunition boxes, and other purposes. 4. breach: a continuous link in the troops' chain. 5. lane firing: our own units engaging in firing from the rear ranks. 6. bridge engineer: a specialized member of the technical team for bridge construction. 7. bridgehead: area secured after river crossing. A more advanced position, reached to secure the crossing point.\nWe assure the defense of our infantry against the enemy's weapons by constructing a wider bridgehead. This territory, which enables us to concentrate all our forces for attack on the far bank, also secures the bridge, known as a bridge span. The bridge's foundation, an ancient term, is: the bridge construction unit. The bridge abutments, a logistical battalion. The bridge pier: a structure built in the river bed to support the bridge framework. The bridgeway: the part of the bridge on which we travel. Bridge building: the process of constructing a bridge. Information: 1. transmission, message 2. the term used by communication troops generally for their designation and briefing. Communication troops, signal corps: 1. one of the branches of the military, directly serving the command 2. they establish communication networks and keep them operational.\nmeans of communication: such devices used for transmitting news. There is a wired (telephone) and wireless (radio) communication device. communication officer: an officer subordinate to the military commander, whose instructions organize and manage the communication. intelligence network: a network of intermediaries who provide information. message center: 1. communication center, installed at command posts. 2. intelligence center: where received intelligence reports are processed. intelligence system: a system integrating wired and wireless communication devices. intelligence service: intelligence service, including intelligence agents. dispatch runner: one who delivers news. professional: one who has chosen a military career.\nbelieving /signal/ : a call-sign for communication between stations for recording contact signal\ntire chains : placed on the wheels of vehicles, helping to prevent wheel spinning in the snow\ntar\u00e9 /dead weight/ : not a load, but the weight of the transport vehicle itself\nhaza /home land/ : Hungary\nsoldier : a Magyar hadsereg member, a rankless private\nmilitary : military\nHonv\u00e9delmi Bizottm\u00e1ny /Home Defense Committee/ : a 6-member independent government body, then the highest government institution of Hungary. Its chairman was Kossuth.\nHonv\u00e9delmi Miniszt\u00e9rium /Ministry of National Defense/ : a governmental body dealing with military affairs\nHonv\u00e9d Kossuth Akad\u00e9mia /Hungarian Military Academy/ : a Budapest-based institution for officer and non-commissioned officer training\nHonv\u00e9d Pet\u0151fi Akad\u00e9mia /Hungarian Pet\u0151fi Academy/ :\nPolitical Officer Academy: nesting place for political guidelines and teachings in Budapest.\nHungarian Army: the name of the Hungarian military since 1848.\nLitter: carriage suitable for Titas.\nHord\u00e1gy hordt\u00e1vols\u00e1g: distance the gun can shoot.\nHorony: groove, rotating device in the barrel.\nEnfilade: continuous firing on a line or column of enemy troops.\nLongitude variation: difference in longitude from the gun to the target.\nLongitudinal dispersion: deviation of the shot from the gun's direction.\nJet engine: h\u00f6l\u00e9gsug\u00e1r motor, flying machine engine. The motor compresses air, which is burned in the combustion chamber.\nh\u00e9kel functioning gas turbines heat teteks the flowing air hejk have reverse jets which drive the aircraft hero: one who gave his life for heroic death: in battle dies heroic deed: great endeavor performed, outstanding combat feat husz\u00e1r: light cavalry Hungarian horseman tona cooling jacket firearms barrel and from the heated barrel the human hand is protected h\u00fcvely case, shell: 1. part of a cartridge where the explosive agent and bullet are placed 2. any hollow container, such as a sword case, sheath etc\n\nI id\u0151jelz\u0151 \u00e1llom\u00e1s meteorological observatory: the air force's time signaling station, which examines, evaluates and communicates weather conditions for aviation purposes meteorological service: the air force monitors the weather conditions\nThe following stations are along it, and the results are valuable for the flight's objectives. Timed ignition /time fusing/ is the type of igniter that initiates the timed ignition. L.I /bow/: a bent wood match, with its two ends tied together by a string. The pistol was a primitive weapon before the discovery of gunpowder. Register: splitting of a cartridge, spitzle cartridge: the cartridge case developed a leak. Book, which contains the incoming and outgoing documents, letters, and papers. Indul\u00f3: march: accompanying, lively music or song. Indul\u00f3ir\u00e1ny /line of departure/: the direction of the projectile when the gun barrel is left. Indul\u00f3szer\u0171 /angle of departure/: the projectile's trajectory.\nThe text appears to be written in a mixed language of Hungarian and English, with some English words appearing to be misspelled or incorrectly translated. I will attempt to clean the text by correcting the English words and translating the Hungarian phrases to the best of my ability while preserving the original meaning. I will also remove unnecessary characters and formatting.\n\nHorizontal line, at the muzzle of a firearm,\nrelay traffic /ing traffic/ moves between two points,\ncreated by moving vehicles,\ncontinuous traffic internalization /internment/:\nexceptional measure, by which dangerous persons\ncan be prevented from entering,\nplaced under police supervision, or\nconfined to an internment camp\ninternment camp /detention camp/ - closed area,\nwhere individuals are temporarily detained,\nawaiting trial or not yet sentenced deep ones\ninstitute /institution/ : an administrative body,\nwhich carries out its tasks with organizational efficiency\ndisposition : such an order, which regulates and coordinates\nthe actions of the subordinate units\nspearhead /ir\u00e1nycsapat/ : a unit specifically employed\nin the narrow terrain for the coordination of movement.\n\nDuring an attack.\na more advanced team\nlistening post /sound location/ : see : hearing aid equipment\nto point: direct\nreference point:\na clear visible point, which we can mark with important points or directions\ndirection error: a mistake in the weapon's direction\nsight: weapon sight\nsight elevation: the sight's vertical height\nto set the sight: the sight is adjusted\nfor the gun, or its barrel\nseat for sighting:\nwhere the sighting is done\noffice work:\nperformed in the office\ntraining ship:\nwhere sailors train\ntraining plane:\nwhere they learn to fly.\nrecognition marking: sign, which distinguishes the repeating pistol /automatic pistol/: self-loading pistol, which loads the first shot by itself after firing\nstable guard: guard, which takes care of the horses and maintains the stable order\ntraces: harness on the horse, with which the horse is guided\nelevation sight: adjustable sight on light firearms, which can be moved along the sight scale for distance measurement\ngun pointer: soldier in charge of the gun\npatrol: special unit, assigned a unique mission, consisting of several armed men\nicebreaker: ship, whose task is to break up the frozen water surface\nreport: communication to the superior from the subordinate.\nreport station /center/: gathers the collection of reports.\nreport-forwarding center /station/: forwards the reports to transmission points.\nreporting: personal appearance before superiors or reporting via communication devices, indicating location.\ndispatch runner /runner/: carries the report personally or by vehicle.\nmessenger dog: carries the report.\nmessenger horse: carries the report.\nmessage service /service/: organizes continuous reporting.\nmessage pad /pad/: where reports are written.\npassword: see T\u00c9Tsz\u00f3.\ncommand by signals /command/: not with spoken words, but with signals such as car, rod, light, or other means to give orders.\nlegend /explanation/: territory.\npassword: 24 hours changing word, which allows the guard to tell if a person approaching the camp is joining or not. Reparation: the amount, in either goods or money, that the defeated half in war asked the victor to pay for the damage caused. Hook: bendable end of a rod. Bridle: a strap with a bit, put on a horse's head when caught or ridden, or on a carriage. In Vsnack bar, P.X.: a barracks, where they set up heating, alcohol, and food, as well as the most necessary supplies for sale. Footing: 1. instead of a horse's hoof, a square-shaped wooden shoe for a rabbit. 2. horse disease (splint foot). Switchboard: for multiple electric currents.\ncentral component /telephone, power switch, etc./: connecting unit; in protection, a unit sent by the battalion to the right flank for contact assurance, maximum company-sized /squad/ force.\n\ncarbine: short-barreled rifle, usually carried on the back, crossed\n\nrepairing: placing in operation, setting to order\n\nmaintenance: care of functioning equipment, machine, material\n\nsabre, sword: cutting and thrusting weapon; now only belonging to the armed forces as a symbol\n\nsabre-knot: a cord tied around the hilt of the sabre, formerly used to secure the scabbard to the horse\n\nsheath, scabbard: where the sabre is kept, hidden\n\nhilt: where the sabre is held\n\nsabre blade: what is used for fighting /for cutting/\nkat\u00f3nas\u00e1g:Karon viselt elszem eerstettek a jelz\u00e9st, cs\u00edk kasz\u00e1rn\u00e1t: l\u00e1sd laktanya. Katona: a hadseregben szolg\u00e1latot teljes\u00edt\u0151 egy\u00e9n. A hadsereg tagja katona\u00e1llom\u00e1ny\u00fa: nem tisztvisel\u0151, l\u0151i \u00e1llom\u00e1ny-f\u0151csoportba tartoz\u00f3 katonai szak\u00e9rt\u0151, aki k\u00f6zvetlen\u00fcl a had\u00fcgyminiszternek van al\u00e1rendelve. Katonai: katon\u00e1k, katonaorsz\u00e1g. Katonai attas\u00e9: k\u00f6vets\u00e9gekhez beosztott katonai szak\u00e9rt\u0151, aki a had\u00fcgyi miniszternek van al\u00e1rendelve. Katonai b\u00fcntet\u0151k\u00f6nyv: katonai t\u00f6rv\u00e9nyk\u00f6nyv, a katonai b\u00fcntet\u0151jog rendszeres \u00f6sszefoglal\u00f3ja. Katonai igazs\u00e1gszolg\u00e1ltat\u00e1s: a katonai t\u00f6rv\u00e9nysz\u00e9kek \u00e1ltal gyakorolt jogszolg\u00e1ltat\u00e1s, azaz a katoni jogrendet s\u00e9rt\u0151k elleni megtorl\u00e1s. Katonai k\u00f6zigazgat\u00e1s: katon\u00e1k\u00e9z \u00e1ltal ir\u00e1ny\u00edtott k\u00f6zigazgat\u00e1s, rendszerint meg\u00e1llt ter\u00fcleten. Katonai nyelv: soldier's slang.\nmilitary service: soldier's life has become commonplace with words and expressions, military service: performed as a soldier, military service: liable for, soldier: one who is liable for military service, minimum height for military service: required height for enlistment, army doctor: the personnel of the honor guard in the summer, soldierly manner: 1. required in the army, 2. rigid, precise, disciplined army, 1. entirety of the army, 2. military service, playing soldier: soldier's game, deserter: one who deserts military service after 161 days or from service, army officer: one holding a rank in the military, veteran: one who was a soldier, table of organization and equipment: required quantity of personnel and material according to regulations.\nspy : the enemy's intelligence investigator\ncounter intelligence service : see: hirszerzeszolgalat\nstirrup : the two feet hanging from the saddle, which the rider puts his foot in\nlubricating material : for machinery lubrication, an oily or waxy substance\nforced landing : a plane's landing before the planned one, due to hostile intervention or other force\nbicycle unit : a military unit using bicycles. Quick reaction forces consider and use them for occasional tasks\ncross section : the internal image of an object passing through a flat plane\ncross fire : fire from two or more sides\nframe aerial : a frame-shaped antenna\nbicyclist : a person who bicycles. A type of infantry, one of the gyalogs\u00e1g's branches, due to their bicycle.\narmy areas: 1. military territorial unit, usually a corps area\n/in peace/ 2. area of deployment of a mobilized army\ncommand: the military command of a mobilized army\ndelay fuse: which causes the projectile to explode after impact\nto put in readiness and assemble: for the purpose of tactical deployment\nposition of readiness: the place where the troops assemble for attack\nbiplane: a two-winged aircraft\ncrew: a group formed from personnel for the operation of a single piece of equipment or weapon\nsmall arms: weapons that can be carried and fired by one person.\nhand grenade: a soldier's combat equipment, with explosive or fragmentation filling, a metal body that is thrown at the enemy to force or coerce: to compel, use force to achieve, evaluate: to assess, determine what we are interested in, hand grenade: a port for water vehicles, built for loading and unloading, also used in aviation, kik\u00f6t\u0151g\u00e1t: a pier, to which boats are tied when they reach the shore, separate: to detach, keep a unit away from the main body for specific tasks, absence: to be away from the barracks, hiding and resting periods, leaving: on leave with a special pass, away from the barracks, under military orders, hiding and resting periods, leaving: Class \"A\" uniform, worn outside the barracks.\nIn the city, a prescribed uniform is required: a point where we know the real purpose. Rejecting: looking and throwing out the unsuitable. A bunker: a smaller concrete building, usually equipped with two firearms, capable of accommodating necessary personnel and ammunition. An attached weapon: a weapon not belonging to a unit but assigned for specific tasks. A loaned weapon: a weapon temporarily commanded for a ship, providing protection for cargo or troop-carrying vessels. An attached artillery: temporarily commanded and subordinate to the infantry command. Maximum strength artillery detachment. Evacuation: the civilian population, along with possible assets, being evacuated.\nejector : a firearm component that ejects the empty shell after firing\nhospital train : a train equipped for patient transport and surgeries, controllable airship: a type of airship equipped with a suitable control system and aircraft engine\ncorvette commander : commander of a corvette, a fast gunship\ncorvette : the fast gunship\nKossuth Academy : see: Hungary's defense, Kossuth Academy\nsmoke agent : a chemical agent capable of producing smoke to obstruct vision\nsmoke projector : a device for producing smoke\nsmoke generation : the production of smoke to obstruct vision\nsmoke generator : a smoke-producing device\nsmoke bomb : a projectile that produces smoke upon impact\ncompulsory military service : see: general conscription\nlacrimator : a device for producing tears or other irritants.\nchemical substance, which attacks metals and corrodes them, causing an unpleasant sharp feeling; light tank: a harckocsi weighing between 5-16 tonnes; harckocsi: a term for a lightweight tank; slow trotting: when a horse moves easily; coat: military coat; Mnagy cabaret: a military greatcoat; coat strap: the strap on a coat; used short rope; sight: round sight; area: territory, part of a neighboring territory; unit: a combined military unit, a group; rope: used to tie something; halter: a horse's head harness, usually made of leather and typically made of felt or wool from cold regions; captive balloon: a balloon tethered to the ground, capable of being raised and lowered.\n\nfunctionary: a person with a specific role.\nauthorized person /perimeter security/ close territory, carried out guarding /tactical reconnaissance/ close area, carried out exploration /harcaszati felderites/ close combat : hand-to-hand fight, within grenade throwing distance, combat\nclose quarters weapon/ close combat weapon : effective hand-to-hand weapon\nmiddle : something in the middle\nfare : common meal\nprivate /Private/ : rankless soldier\nindirect fire : firing not visible towards target\nopen target : visible target\ndirect fire : firing towards visible target\nto aim directly : directly aim\nassistant target /kisegito cel/ kul:\npersonal equipment /canteen/ : personal equipment\nfelszerel\u00e9s part, water tank from fermented steel, kukoricagr\u00e1n\u00e1t /pineapple handgrenade/, one type of which has a ridged metal casing: 1. deep service, rank-less soldier, 2. short range messenger, external fortification: one part of an fortification system, L-shaped boat: flat-bottomed boat, lafetta: see : artillery carriage, list: register, laktanya: barracks, 1. living quarters for soldiers, 2. one or more military buildings enclosed, 3. large, simple rental barracks, laktanyafogs\u00e1g /restriction/: disciplinary measures, preventing the soldier from leaving the barracks area, flat runway: see : airstrip, latrina: outdoor, temporary privy.\nchain drive : a gear set with a chain drive\nflame thrower : a device that shoots out flames, burning oil as fuel\nvisual signal : a visible signal, visible sector\nbugle : a horn or trumpet\nbugler : a soldier who plays the bugle\nfighting group : a combat unit\nlower leadership : the unit's lower command\nalready employed unit\nterritory, which can be seen from one point\nvisibility : the distance one can see\npanoramic sketch : a sketch of the terrain visible from one point\nmessage to be dropped : a message dropped from an aircraft\ndisarm : to disarm someone of their weapons\npropeller : a propeller, an aircraft component that creates thrust\nair resistance : resistance of the air to moving objects\nenlisted men: the rank-and-file soldiers / nons commissioned officers /: a balloon: a large, highly powerful balloon filled with light gas and equipped with a thoughtful balloon observer: the one who performs observations from the balloon's perspective airship: controllable, motorized, and korm\u00e1nyll\u00e1t\u00f3 ell\u00e1tott, light gas filled aircooling: cooling through a cooling system air target: the target in the air, located above the ground target l\u00e9ghaj\u00f3: air force: an independent part that includes all military aviation forces and the air forces of a country commander of the air forces: the commander of the air forces, responsible for the organization of the air troops air reconnaissance: aerial reconnaissance, using aircraft, balloons, or other means.\naircraft surveillance\naerial photo taken from the air\nair superiority: one air force is usually or only in certain areas significantly stronger than the other's\nactive air defense by fighter aircraft: disabling the enemy's air activity power\naerial combat, dog fight: aircraft engaging each other in the air\nair power concentration: the air force's focused operation in a specific time frame and limited operational area\nair transport: transportation by airplane\nair raid alarm: alert issued when enemy air forces are detected\nair raid: attack from the air, from an aircraft\nair base: establishment for military air operations\nA flying field, equipped with necessary defensive technical and combat equipment, is a form of aerial activity: a activity in the air /rep\u00fcl\u00e9s/. Aerial torpedo from an aircraft? A gun mounted on a plane, moving towards the target with the help of built-in motor torpedo equipment. Air superiority: \"if one side has constant air dominance: an aerial barrage in the air: an aerial barrier, preventing enemy penetration. Air pressure: the air pressure, as the pressure of a gas, affects the following: 1. Air cannot penetrate it. 2. It does not contain oxygen. Maximum range: the maximum range of a weapon or projectile. The heaviest artillery: see artillery. Air pressure: the pressure of the air.\npassive air defense : defensive measures against air /air affairs/ : dealing with aircraft\nactive air defense : active air defense, defense against air attacks, using firearms and aircraft\nair defense system : active air defense, anti-aircraft gun\n40-mm automatic anti-aircraft gun : 40-mm self-firing weapon, firing in a six-round burst\nair raid shelter : shelter protecting against air raids, built into the ground\nair raid commander : anti-aircraft officer\nhe commands directly the air defense troops under his command, and leads the air defense units of the subordinate army formations if necessary.\nlegvedelmi tuzerseg : see : tuzerseg /artillery/\nlehajtott galler : a magas, kifele visszahajtott zubbony galler /turned-down collar/\nlehallgato keszulek : see : felelokozes device /listening device/\nlejto sz\u00f6g : a lejto es a vizsintes kozotti szog /angle of slope/\nlekotni : 1. helyhez kotni /to pin down, neutralize/ 2. valamihez odaeroseni /to attach to something/\nlepcso /echelon/ : egy, a masik csapat m\u00f6g\u00f6tt elhelyezett /placed behind/, de atolto megfelelo tavolsagra lev\u00f3 /at a suitable distance/ k csapat egysag /unit/\nlepcsozni : egy egysag megbontva, reszeit egymas mellett alkalmazni /to echelon/\nleplesezes : elivo fejekkel annak megakadalyozasa, hogy az ellensag helyzetunket es ebbol szanadunkat meg\u00e1llapitassa /deception/\nlesallas : olyan tuzelovallas, ahol a tuzfegyverek az elonyulo csapatok tamogatasa ra keszemllanak /concealed position/\nleszerelni : 1. /disarm/\n\n(Note: The text appears to be a fragmented and incomplete list or instruction in Hungarian language, possibly related to military terminology. It is difficult to provide a perfect translation and cleaning without additional context or a complete text.)\nfegyver elv\u00e1llasztani, fegyver\u00e9t elvenni 2. katonat\u00f3l megv\u00e1lni /get a discharge/ letart\u00f3ztatni : valakit \u0151rizetbe venni, akarata ellen\u00e9re l\u00e9tsz\u00e1m : emberek sz\u00e1ma l\u00e9tsz\u00e1mfeletti, a sz\u00fcks\u00e9ges l\u00e9tsz\u00e1mon felt\u00f6lt\u00f6tt, felesleges l\u00f3\u00e1pol\u00f3 : aki a ist\u00e1ll\u00f3ban gondozza l\u00f3g\u00e1z\u00e1larc : lovak haszn\u00e1lat\u00e1ra k\u00e9sz\u00fclt g\u00e1z\u00e1larc l\u00f3k\u00f3rh\u00e1z : az \u00e1llateg\u00e9szs\u00e9g\u00fcgyi csapat int\u00e9zete l\u00f3szersz\u00e1m : l\u00f3kocsibafog\u00e1s hozz\u00e1fog\u00e1s\u00e1hoz sz\u00fcks\u00e9ges teljes felszerel\u00e9s loszton /mustard gas/ : yperit, s\u00e1rgakeresztes g\u00e1z lovagl\u00f3csizma : lovagl\u00e1sra alkalmas magassz\u00e1r\u00fa csizma lovagl\u00f3ostor : lovagl\u00e1shoz haszn\u00e1lt r\u00f6vid, hajl\u00e9kony bot lovas : 1. a lovas fegyvernem tagja /husz\u00e1r/ 2. /rider/ : akinek van lova, lovon \u00fcl lovas\u00edtott : loval ell\u00e1tott, lovra \u00fcltetett\ncavalry attack: a cavalry's charge\ncavalry: mounted troops, rarely used for transport now due to horse supply issues. Sensitive due to horse needs, thus an occasional weapon and only suitable for short-term tasks. Independent mounted unit: self-sufficient horse regiment, horse regiment, cavalry battalion, or horse brigade. Mounted troops: other regiments' subordinate cavalry. Cavalry squadron: one squadron of cavalry. Horse artillery: where every gunner rides. Rifle firing lane: part of the training ground where a soldier practices shooting. Rifle rest: what the shooter places his rifle on during shooting. Ballistic elements: factors affecting bullet movement. Fire control equipment: device providing ballistic data for shooting.\nfiring system: the procedure followed during shooting\nfire arms: a weapon used for shooting, not for striking, cutting etc.\ntarget practice: the practice of shooting at a target\ngun cotton: a material made of nitrocellulose and concentrated nitric acid, used for gunpowder\nrapidity of fire: the rate of successive shots\nschool of marksmanship: a place where shooting is taught and practiced\njacketed: see : hydrogen and rocket motor\nbanquette: a bench or seat on a shooting range where the shooter sits\npowder: a nitrocellulose-based explosive used for propellant in firearms\npowder charge: the amount of powder used to fire a projectile, either in the cartridge or separately\nloophole: an opening or hole through which to shoot.\nammunition: all types of ammunition in a magazine or barrel. Usable for shooting.\nammunition supply: supplying ammunition, ammunition resupply.\nammunition carrier: one who carries ammunition, loading/feeding at the gun.\nammunition car: ammunition transport vehicle.\nammunition pack: a container for carrying ammunition.\nammunition supply point: where the ammunition supply of a train is replenished.\nammunition consumption: the amount of consumed, fired ammunition.\nrequisition of ammunition: request for ammunition supply.\nammunition store: ammunition supply.\nammunition echelon: the part of the unit that supplies ammunition to the main unit from behind.\nammunition column: ammunition transport column.\ncolumn/ : loading column, for a horse or automobile column, ammunition rack? a container where the ammunition is kept ammunition depot/ : where the ammunition is stored ammunition section/ : the part of a squad or train that carries and handles ammunition ammunition replacement/ : 1. replenishing used ammunition 2. ammunition transported in crates firing table/ : table containing ballistic data, necessary data for shooting elements range/ : the distance we can shoot l shooting range and where shooting is practiced manual for firing and maintenance of weapons/ : instructions for handling and maintaining weapons projectile/ : the \"goally\" that is fired from a weapon, causing destruction in the enemy projectile becapacitation/ : projectile impact.\nI. impact: a hole in an object /resistance/\nconical head: the tip of the projectile\nprojectile height: the projectile's effectiveness in causing damage to the enemy\nprojectile jacket: the bullet's outer casing, harder shell\ngun: the artillery weapon, from which explosive projectiles are fired\nparts: barrel, cradle, gun carriage, recoil mechanism, and gun mount\ngun platform: a structure to which the gun or some of its parts are mounted for greater stability\ngun pit: the position from which the gun is fired\ngun barrel: a part of the gun, the barrel\ngun limber: a two-wheeled cart to which the gun and some of its parts are coupled, for transportation and ammunition carrying\ngun carriage: a part of the gun that touches the ground\ngun mount: a part of the gun, on which the gun stands /wheels, axles/\nlovegtalpsarkantvu /trail: a lovegtalp's end, a spade: a lovegtalp's\nrear and something rigid for securing it in the ground\n1 oven gtalpul\u00e9s /carriage seat/ where the gun crew member sits\ngunner: one who operates a gun, the gun crew leader's supervisor\nl\u00f6v\u00e9stan /ballistics/ the science of ballistics, the study of shooting\nl\u00f6veg /shot/ 1. a rifle association member, 2. a lookout in the rifle squad\nIf mag\u00e1nfogs\u00e1g /solitary confinement/: most severe form of punishment,\nwhen the offender is kept alone in a room\nhigher command and leadership: see also command and leadership\nmagasasantenna /overhead antenna/ : an antenna erected high for\ninterference-free reception\nmagasfesz\u00fclts\u00e9g /high tension/ : over 1000 volts, high tension power\nmagas figyel\u0151 /elevated observation stand/ : an observation post\nelevated above the ground /observation person/\ncontour /line:/ trench system: connected defensive installation trench; one man trench, a buried defensive structure for one soldier l\u00f6v\u00e9szsz\u00e1zad /rifle company/: one type of infantry l\u00f6v\u00e9szg\u00f6d\u00f6r /prone shelter/: a buried depression that provides protection for a soldier lying down firing line: a line, where the riflemen give their fire line; the line drawn on the map that connects points of equal height magaslat /height/: elevated terrain feature height difference /divergence/: difference in elevation vertical direction magnetic compass: a flying machine part that controls the aircraft's pitch magass\u00e1gm\u00e9r\u0151 /altimeter/: aircraft instrument that measures the aircraft's altitude.\nmark jet 2-- instrument, which indicates the height of an aerial target from the ground-- hilt: where something-- a sword, pike, etc.-- is held-- markot\u00e1nyos: soldiers, who work in the commissary or commissary and Post Exchange unit-- hadm\u0171veleti ter\u00fcleten fel\u00e1ll\u00edtott \u00fczlet, amely az illetm\u00e9nyszerfl ell\u00e1t\u00e1s felett mutatkoz\u00f3 k\u00f6zsz\u00fcks\u00e9gleti cikkek \u00e9s haszn\u00e1lati t\u00e1rgyak \u00e1rul-- matr\u00f3z: sailor, rank-less seaman, haj\u00f3s-- m\u00e1lha: baggage, cargo-- m\u00e1lhakocsi: baggage car, wagon-- which transports the cargo-- m\u00e1lhanyereg: pack saddle-- on which cargo is carried by a horse, ox, or mule-- m\u00e1lha sz\u00ed: strap for mounting-- with which we mount or bundle-- m\u00e1lhat\u00e1ska: saddle bag-- the rider's saddlebag.\nanimal pack : which carries packs according to their kind, loading them onto animals, or with packs, making themselves surrender, giving up the fight and standing at the disposal of the enemy. megaphone : amplifies sound with the help of a transformer and amplifying device, storming with great momentum to attack and annihilate the enemy's resistance. annihilating fire : Pamely extinguishes the enemy's elusiveness or completely eliminates their resistance. occupying : taking possession and holding it. parapet : a defensive wall made of earth or other materials, protecting the one in position from the enemy's fire and observation, but also facilitating firing. membrane : a flexible membrane, part of a defensive wall, which forms a membrane.\nmen-, gumi-, or leather-covered thing that takes up waves. Telephone, microphone, sound system component.\n1. certain process: a. completed event /pl. a naoi procession/\nb. group of people assembled\nprocession formation: a shape in which one can march\nmarch supervision: the protective measures of the marching troops against surprise attacks\nto march: rhythmic, in a group\nmarch exercise: the practice of marching\nmarch direction: the direction of marching\nmarching order: the designated direction for the marching troops\nmarch facilities of discipline: provisions for the troops in the march\nmarch document: the regulations for the troops in the march.\nmilitary order document, which includes the route, flag signal, and personal data of the concerned troops.\ncolumn /marching column/ : a military unit in column formation.\nmarching equipment : the full equipment carried by a soldier.\nmarching performance : the distance covered in a certain time.\nmarching rate : the average speed of the march.\nmarching direction : the designated route for the march.\nartificial fog : smoke screen, which obscures the enemy's vision.\nlong range : capable of firing at long distances.\ndepth : 1. the distance below the ground surface. 2. a line formation in the attack line. 3. the distance between the front and rear soldiers in any formation.\ndeep knee bend, tor\u0146ady exercise, when the wrestler comes close to the ground, mile : distance, measurement\nHungarian mile : 8,3530.6 km\nEnglish mile : 1.524 m\nRussian mile : 7.467.5 m\ngeographical : 7.420 m\nmonarcho-fascist V not communist, the Greek government's sign for the Russian meaning,\nmotorized : see : mechanized\nmotorcycle : 12T cm or larger motor-equipped bicycle\nmotor to stop the engine's fog,\nlocomotive : 1. artillery locomotive, 2. train-towing,\ntot vontato gas, diesel, or electric vontato movement : position change, one of the war's most important elements,\nmobile : easily moves,\nmobile warfare : where the fighting parties move,\nmobile war : see : war,\nmobile kitchen : two-wheeled cooking place.\nhader\u0151 among my equipment, which is systematically updated every hundred years for mobilization: the army is kept ready for partial mobilization, a portion of the army for a specific corps or weapon class is not placed in readiness, general mobilization for all soldiers, mobilization order: with which the mobilization is ordered, mobilization plan: the plan for the execution of the mobilization, mortar: a short-barreled weapon with a steep trajectory, typically heavy and largest in size for destroying fortifications, The use of flying bombs and heavy mortars is being phased out, munitions worker detachment: a non-combatant unit, only working for the fighting troops in numbers, compulsory labor service: military service for physical labor.\nmandatory labor service; instead of military service; must be trick flying; the flying academy of special flying demonstrations: such as backflip, loop-the-loop, barrel roll, etc. technical troops; technical support personnel; not like utility, signaling, or railway construction; technical obstacle; artificial obstacle; technical personnel formed a strong barrier against the enemy's advance, with the goal of gaining time, space, and territory; technical obstacle zone; extensive and deep; technical obstacle equipment; technical obstacle system; the technical obstacles were the basis for its application; technical boundary; artificial obstacle.\nobstacle, line-to-line; applied technical closing system for wide spaces with little depth, artificial object: human-made objects on the terrain - bridge, passage, house, etc. highway: at least 5 m wide, smooth surface - macadam, asphalt, concrete, or stone\n\ndaily report: to be prepared nani times a day; daily march: one day's schedule\n\norder of the day: daily orders; the difference between the plan and the actually executed result\n\nduty officer: responsible for supervising the internal affairs of the subunit, 24-hour shift\n\ncorporal of the day: in charge of the subunit's internal administrative duties, with the administrative officer.\nfour-wheel drive vehicles: a type of vehicle with four driven wheels\nheavy infantry weapon: a gun mounted on a carriage for larger bullets\nheavy infantry: heavy military unit; see infantry, heavy\nheavy artillery: see artillery\nnegative peoples' army:\n1. communist-led military units in the terminology of Marxist theory\n2. semi-military units established alongside regular armies, militia\npolitical officer: a Marxist, ideological instructor and political observer in Russian armies\nlist of names: a document containing names\nsaddle and seat on a horse's back, where the rider sits\nsaddle cushion: protective padding under the saddle on the horse's back.\nnyereg/ saddle : a nyereg al\u00e1 helyezett, a l\u00f3 eg\u00e9sz h\u00e1t\u00e1t befed\u0151 pokr\u00f3c /nowadays more like a d\u00edsz/\nnyeregt\u00e1ska/ saddle bag : nyomt\u00e1vols\u00e1g /wheel track/ : ami egy j\u00e1rm\u0171 k\u00e9t p\u00e1rhu zamos /one axle on which/ kereke k\u00f6z\u00f6tt van\nnyug\u00e1llom\u00e1ny\u00fa/ pensioner : aki m\u00e1r nem teljes\u00edt szolg\u00e1latot /has retired/ de havi j\u00e1rad\u00e9kban r\u00e9szes\u00fcl /is a pensioner/\nnyugv\u00e1s /rest/ : amikor a csapat nem mozog, pihen nyereghez szerelt t\u00e1ska /to saddle/ ; a l\u00f3ra a szersz\u00e1mot \u00e9s a nyerget felszerelni\nnyomjelz\u0151 l\u00f6ved\u00e9k /tracer shell/ : amely a leveg\u0151ben, rep\u00fcl\u00e9s k\u00f6zben l\u00e1that\u00f3, r\u00f6pp\u00e1ly\u00e1j\u00e1nak nyomon k\u00f6vethet\u0151\ndeviation : a c\u00e9l \u00e9s a l\u00f6ved\u00e9k becsap\u00f3d\u00e1sa k\u00f6z\u00f6tti elt\u00e9r\u00e9s /deviation/\noldalfej\u00e9r/ side arm : amit a katona az oldal\u00e1n hord /sword, pike etc./\noldalsz\u00f6g /azimuth/ : a l\u00f6veg c\u00e9lz\u00e1s\u00e1hoz megadott v\u00edzszintes sz\u00f6g\nteam member on the side, necessary for close quarters combat: the team should expect potential attacks and surprises, which require the fortification /siege/ to be reinforced: the direction /direction, horizontal/ for the cannon: the correction of the directional discrepancy, horizontal: in the cannon's line of sight, the water level's vertical relevance determines the given direction: the traversing wheel /traverse wheel/ - a part of the cannon, which allows it to move in a vertical plane: the firing mechanism /traversing mechanism/ for the cannon: the cannon's sighting device's part, which sets the elevation for the gunlayer: flanking fire /flanking fire/ from the side, given fire /not facing/ the advancing unit for its support: the parapet /side rampart/: a structure from which railway cars can be loaded from the side: enemy fortification /fort/ assault from every side. siege state.\n1. military formation: a military unit where soldiers or units stand in line with one another, e.g. a column.\n2. detachment: a unit or subunit, e.g. a squad.\n1. military formation: a military unit, which is formed in a column, where the soldiers or units stand behind each other.\n2. railway car: a sub-unit or company within a battalion.\nunit: in a column formation, the half of the unit.\nshelter: a protective structure, e.g. a defensive shelter.\nspontaneous combustion: a substance igniting on its own.\nstarter: an electric component in a vehicle, which rotates the engine during starting.\nvolunteer: 1. a person who voluntarily takes on a task, 2. a person who voluntarily enlisted in military service.\nautomatic: 1. a weapon that operates automatically.\nfirst self load and shoot. automatic rifle/ self-loading repeating rifle with a 5-20 round magazine. guard /or/ the first soldier, who protects someone or something, or the sentry box; a personal building that protects the guard from the elements. sergeant /officer/ the lowest rank of non-commissioned officer. major officer of a lower rank than a lieutenant. lieutenant /junior officer/ the officer's corps. commander of the guard/ the guard's commander. sentry squad/ a designated group of sentries. outer guard/ sentries placed in the front line. sentry/ a sentry, one of the guards. change of guard/ the replacement of the guard. sentry/ a sentinel.\nguard room; the women guards staying there for childbirth or rest replace sentries, who are on duty in the guardhouse. guard duty: time spent on guard. relieve I, the sentry on duty, rests and relieves the guard standing. lowest rank officer, private, supervises the guard. path; only suitable for foot traffic, not paved road. communication trench: two or more trenches connecting positions, enabling safe passage and protecting against enemy ground attacks. liaison officer, a commander, is appointed by one commander to another, working between the two command posts. engagement and clashes between enemies begin. concentrate, open in one place. mule: the most commonly used pack animal; a horse or donkey.\nmule track: a wider, impassable mountain path for vehicles. plank: a thin wooden plank placed across a narrow gap, used for crossing. railway transport office commander: a military officer in charge of railway transport and supervision at individual railway stations. armor: 1. a sheet of metal, steel, or other material that protects against enemy bullets. 2. historically, a part of body armor. 3. a turtle's back. armored fort: a fortification where defensive weapons, such as cannons or gun emplacements, are housed. armored car: a vehicle with armor plating. armored car: a terrain vehicle, not a hermit crab, armed with a machine gun and a light gun. armor piercing grenade: a grenade with a pointed armor-piercing tip.\nThe text appears to be in a mixed language of Hungarian and English, with some English words already translated. I will translate the remaining Hungarian words and correct some OCR errors. I will also remove unnecessary line breaks and whitespaces.\n\ntor\u0151 embedded in projectile, set there a detonator, which was fastened to the bottom for the purpose of detonation. The artillery and pannelelh\u00e1rit\u00f3k use it.\n\nArmored vehicle: armored vehicle, protected by armor, such as a tank, armored car, etc.\n\nArmored cupola: half-sphere-shaped steel casing\nused on fortifications and armored vehicles for mounting guns. See also: pan-\nceiltower.\n\nArmor plate: hard plate made of metal\n\nArmored: p\u00e1nc\u00e9los (member of armored troops)\n1. The name of the armored troops' members: p\u00e1nc\u00e9ltorony (pantsertoren in Dutch) is also used.\n2. Armored: p\u00e1nc\u00e9llal felfegyverzett p\u00e1nc\u00e9lozott csapat (pantsertrouwen in Dutch)\np\u00e1nc\u00e9lozott j\u00e1rm\u0171vekkel rendelkez\u0151 and combative arm, mainly in cooperation with other weapons, but also independently.\n\nExamples: a. Armored vehicle units, b. Tank units, c. Pan-\n\nThis text describes the use of detonators embedded in projectiles, the use of armored vehicles and armored cupolas, and the role of armored troops equipped with armored vehicles. The text also mentions the term \"p\u00e1nc\u00e9ltorony,\" which translates to \"pantsertoren\" in Dutch and refers to a tower with armored sides.\ncommander of armored troops: The sergeant-major works with the commander of armored troops. For armor: a pavilion-like structure, with a revolving turret, enclosed on the sides and from above, protecting guns and crews. Anti-tank gun: a defensive weapon mounted on armored vehicles. Armored train: a train with armored and armed rail cars. Pantaloons and hose, a straight-legged uniform, are a command's clear, concise order, whether spoken or written, not tolerating countermand. The command's transmission: the command's transmission. The commander is the leader of each military unit.\ncommander of smaller units: a commander of units smaller than brigade size; the commander of a unit is followed by a subordinate commander of a lower rank.\n\ncommander of higher units: which is led by a higher-ranking commander. A higher-ranking commander typically has a staff officer or staff officer's division next to him:\n\nheadquarters: which includes the commander and his staff.\n\nheadquarters of smaller units: whose leader is a lower-ranking commander.\n\nheadquarters of higher units: whose leader is a higher-ranking commander, accompanied by a staff officer or staff officer's division.\n\nfortification: fortification on a river or coastline. An enemy fortification.\npartizan/irregular, guerrilla; the irregular military forces not part of the regular army, coastal defense; the defense of the coast; patrolling; to sweep; every point of a territory; with fire; beaten zone; the territory, which we can reach with fire at every point; hoof and the animals; horse-shoe; a protective half-circle of iron; to shoe; a blade; part of the thrusting and cutting weapons, thin sheet; drum-fire; a powerful ten, which sounds drum-like; periscope; an optical instrument, with which one can observe from a covered position; submarines, tanks. rest/at ease: a command to relax in a rigid posture.\npilot /pilot/ : a person who flies an aircraft\ninstantaneous fuse /instantaneous fuse/ : a fuse that explodes with the smallest touch\npistol /pistol/ : a handgun, a weapon easily handled; its recoil is much less than a rifle's\npontoon /pontoon/ : a flat-bottomed boat, made of wood or metal, used for floating structures\npontoon bridge /pontoon bridge/ : a bridge built on pontoons\ntarpaulin /tarpaulin/ : a thick canvas used as a cover\ncarburetor /carburator/ : a device that mixes fuel and air for an internal combustion engine\nforay /porty\u00e1z\u00e1s/ : a small group that goes out for a raid or expedition, engaging in combat while wandering\ncarrier pigeon /postagalamb/ : a messenger pigeon used for delivering messages\nsupplementary allotment, pay /p\u00f3tdi.i. /supplementary allotment, pay/ : an additional payment made on top of the regular allowance\nremount /p\u00f3tl\u00f3/ : a spare horse, used to replace a horse that has been lost or is unable to continue\ndepot company /p\u00f3t sz\u00e1zad/ : a military unit responsible for maintaining and supplying equipment and ammunition.\nIn the fortified position of the hundredth year, a unit was established for the supply of human resources. This second echelon of the reserve, usually composed of older and less well-trained personnel, stood ready.\n\nReserve: the second echelon of the reserve consisted of:\na supplementary charge: an explosive charge, which increased the projectile's effectiveness, especially in artillery.\nfascines: bundles of stakes, barriers, and protective equipment used for construction.\nprisons: lying platforms, usually made of wood, used in military prisons and guardhouses.\nprobationary service: military service during which one proves their suitability for a certain rank or position.\nrifle: a light infantry weapon, typically held to the shoulder and fired.\nrifle stock: the part of the rifle that supports the shoulder.\nbarrel: the part of a rifle where the bullet exits\nrifle grenade: a grenade that can be fired from a rifle\nstack of arms: piles of rifles\ngula: a pile of rifles arranged in the shape of a cone\nat least three rifles\nrifle shot: a shot fired from a rifle\nsling: the part of a rifle used to sling the rifle over the soldier's shoulder or back\nrifle butt: the thicker end of a rifle that is pressed against the shoulder\nrifle squad: a squad armed with rifles\nsquad: a squad, usually consisting of 12 men\nsquad leader: the leader of a squad\nraid: a sudden, surprise attack\nskirmish-line: the line of skirmishing troops\nharcra sz\u00e9less\u00e9gben fejl\u0151dve: developing in the width of battle\nrocket: a rocket\nrocket with heat reactive propulsion: a rocket-propelled weapon\nradio: controllable with radio.\nguided missile / a type of rocket that is launched and then controlled via radio waves for guidance and detonation\nramp / loading area / a structure from which vehicles, such as trains or cargo trucks, can be loaded\nhidden text I will describe\ncipher device / encryption device / the device used to create or decipher the hidden text\nencrypted writing requires this tool, or the key to its decryption\ncollection of encryption keys and methods\ncover / disguise / two types of disguises, one to make it appear insignificant or difficult to detect, the other to provide natural cover using the terrain or objects\nnatural cover / 1. if we use the terrain or objects on the ground to achieve concealment\nartificial cover / 1. if we achieve concealment through artificial means\norder of precedence / list / the list of military personnel and their availability:\nthe real ones.\nranking and title, based on military service: radio station, a place where even a receiving device is present; concealed weapon: only activates unexpectedly in the last moment, with a code (such as one that replaces letters and words) unreadable to the uninitiated; cipher: for certain individuals, who receive their assignments based on later developments; military personnel's position/rank: determined by their qualifications, age, and length of service; splinter and the fragment of a shattered projectile; fragmentation grenade: two grenades with a large splinter effect; the effect caused by the projectile's shattered pieces.\nRep\u00fcl\u0151 j/Flyer/: 1. a l\u00e9gi er\u0151 tagjainak n\u00e9pies neve /Flyer: 1. for the people of the air force/ 2. aeroplane /airplane:/ rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p /flying machine/\nRep\u00fcl\u0151alap /air base:/: ja v\u00edzm\u0171helyekkel, tartalak lak anyagrakt\u00e1rakkal fel szerelt rep\u00fcl\u0151ter /airfield:/ rendszeresized \nRep\u00fcl\u0151bomba /air bomb:/: 0.5-20.000 kgr. s\u00faly\u00fa l\u0151szert, amit rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9pr\u0151l dobnak a c\u00e9lra /bomb: 0.5-20,000 kg weight explosive, dropped from an airplane/ lehet gy\u00fajt\u00f3, rombol\u00f3, stb. /can be incendiary, destructive, etc./\nRep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p /airplane:/ a l\u00e9gi j\u00e1rm\u0171 \u00e9s harceszk\u00f6z. /an aircraft is a flying vehicle and a weapon./\nFajt\u00e1i: felder\u00edt\u0151, harci \u00e9s sz\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00f3 rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9pek. /types: reconnaissance, combat, and transport aircraft/\n\u00c9jjeli \u00e9s nappali; egy fedeles \u00e9s k\u00e9tfedeles; vitorl\u00e1z\u00f3, l\u00e9gcsavar meg hajt\u00e1s\u00fa \u00e9s l\u00e9gl\u00f6k\u00e9ses; vizi \u00e9s sz\u00e1razf\u00f6ldi rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9pek /day and night, single-engine and two-engine; glider, piston engine and jet engine; water and land aircraft/\nRep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p anyahaj\u00f3 /aircraft carrier:/ rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9pek sz\u00e1ll\u00edt\u00e1s\u00e1ra, valamint fel- \u00e9s lesz\u00e1ll\u00e1sra alkalmas hadihaj\u00f3 /aircraft carrier:/ lo-45.000 tonna s\u00faly\u00fa /displaces 45,000 tons/\nRep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p sz\u00edn: l\u00e1sd: hang\u00e1r /paint: see: hangar/\nRep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p vezet\u0151: l\u00e1sd: pil\u00f3ta /pilot/\nRep\u00fcl\u0151-ra.i /squadron:/ a legkisebb rep\u00fcl\u0151 egys\u00e9g /squadron: the smallest flying unit/ rep\u00fcl\u0151t\u00e9r /airport:/ rep\u00fc- 16 g\u00e9pek, /airfield: 16 aircraft,/ l\u00e9gi j\u00e1rm\u0171vek /flying machines/\npartial charge: a part of the t\u00f6lhet\u0151 t\u00f6lvet for t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9 and \u00e9gi l\u00f6ved\u00e9kek kil\u00f6v\u00e9s\u00e9hez is a r\u00e9sze /if in parts handled/\ncontour line: the imaginary line connecting identical terrain height points on the map\nblocking position: such a combat stance that separates a path, valley, or some cohesive whole\nresonance length: the longest resonance, amplified\nalarm and urgent call for ready supplies and signaling\nexplosive: used for ignition or lighting, requiring high temperature and rapid heating\nexplosive fuze: the device that initiates explosion\nexplosive motor: a motor driven by the rapid combustion of fuel.\ngear, vehicle, etc. motor parts/\nbursting charge/ : such a charge,\nwhich explodes\nexploding charge : see: charge\nassault, charge/ : the enemy's attack from, the fastest and most powerful way\njumping-off position/ : from where we plan to execute\nlight bridge/ : a portable bridge for river crossing\nrohamtropas/ storm troops/ : a selected, good fighter squad\nsoftened for attack/ and prepared for assault, ready for attack\ntrench knife/ ; a knife used in hand combat, regularly issued to infantry\nsteel helmet/ ; a helmet protecting the soldier's head\nsteelsquad/ storm squad/ ; see: rohamszadat\nchinstrap/ ; a strap securing the helmet or hat to the head, which is attached during battle.\nassault distance /assault distance/ is the distance from which, without interruption, a charge can be initiated. fox hole; a small personal trench, dug by a soldier in battle, for a wounded or disabled soldier and see; disabled soldier disability pension or gratuity is an addition to the wages of a soldier who is already disabled quotant illetn\u00e9ny\u00e9hez J\u00e1rul\u00f3 p\u00f3tl\u00e9k\ndestruction and damage to objects, buildings, total destruction or such extensive damage that restoration requires 3-5 days\ndestructive fire and see tinderbox rong\u00e1l\u00e1s /damaging/ is the damaging of objects, buildings, slight damage to small objects that can be restored in a short time /maximum 1-2 days/ only possible in case of\ntrajectory; the path of a projectile in the air\nflat trajectory /flat trajectory/ is one that does not deviate significantly from the line of sight at its maximum height.\n[Meredek r\u00f6pp\u00e1lya / arched trajectory / F which is a parabola, a launching pad and see rocket or a short ways, 9 steps oppose its servicing side with brushwood: bundled, tangled tree branches, rudasl\u00f3 / pole horse: the horse on the right side, ruha\u00e1tal\u00e1ny / clothing allowance is: the amount, which instead of ruhas a treasure chest, a katon\u00e1nak / tisztnek is paid, clothing allowance for civilian clothing, and the sum, which the treasury pays for a person's daily uniform maintenance, k\u00e9pen / pen, and own and our power, troops, air force, salable value of personal appearance, saj\u00e1t / own and our power, are raised for a letter: only the wounded: the one who is entitled to dismantle it for a meager livelihood's sustenance during the performance of labor]\nambulance: a military ambulance for transporting wounded soldiers and army personnel; section: the military ambulance service: a military ambulance suitable for transporting wounded and army personnel, equipped with entertaining and used cars, stretcher bearer class, only for higher commanding offices, entrenching tools for building a trench, sapka insignia: a military cap with an insignia on its peak, usually not white, a large badge with a pin \"hoszsz\u00e1g\" in its band, which is split into two parts and is adjusted and secured afterwards, er: the entire military medical personnel, a soldier carrying a wounded man on a stretcher, sebess\u00e9gm\u00e9r\u0151: a device that measures the vehicle's speed, sebk\u00f6t\u00f6z\u0151 csomag: a first aid kit.\ntent, which holds and contains minimal medicine/oil, jod/ for wound care, assistants: eagle feather, adjutant, for the sasan's (soldier's) commanding officers, tent: made of strong fabric, tent pegs: wooden or metal, for securing the tent to the ground, tent fly: can be attached to the tent as a rain cover, single tent attendant, dressing station, for the wounded troops in battle, ground, often used as a raincoat, tent floor, usually foldable, tent pole: wood or metal, holding up the tent, tent pole guard: a bent metal rod, protecting the trigger guard of light firearms.\ns\u00e1tor /to pitch/ a tent: s\u00e1tor \u00e9p\u00edteni sebes\u00fcl\u00e9si p\u00f3tdij /extra payment: for the wounded/ : az az \u00f6sszeg, amennyivel a sebes\u00fclt katona illetm\u00e9nye elter\u00fcl\u0151 ter\u00fclet\nseregcsoport /group of higher units/ V t\u00f6bb seregtest\nsereg\u00edrrendszer /communication system of higher unit/ a seregtest, vagy seregcsoport h\u00edrrendszere\nseregk\u00f6zvetlen csapat /attached troops to higher HQ/ a seregtestparancsnoks\u00e1g\u00e1nak k\u00f6zvetlen\u00fcl al\u00e1rendelt csapat\nsereg-lovass\u00e1g s l\u00e1sd: lovas\u00e1g\nseregtest /higher unit/ : nagyobb katonai k\u00f6tel\u00e9k, mint amilyen\na/ hadm\u0171veleti egys\u00e9g\nb/ hadtest\nc/ hadsereg\nseregvas\u00fat /train, higher mtt/ a seregtest parancsnoks\u00e1g\u00e1nak k\u00f6zvetlen\u00fcl al\u00e1rendelt vonategys\u00e9gek\nsiker kiakn\u00e1zni /to follow up success/ saj\u00e1t csapataink \u00e1ltal el\u00e9rt siker tov\u00e1bbi el\u0151ny\u00f6k sz\u00e1rmaz\u00e1s\u00e1ra kihaszn\u00e1lni\nsikl\u00f3rep\u00fcl\u00e9s /gliding/ 2 mozg\u00e1s.\ntorn\u00e9lkuli repul\u00e9s - sight 2 vaganygepko - csi\nsipjel /whistle signal/ : one - signal with whistle\ntwo - Morse signals\none of the signals\nhat sisak - see rohamsisak - sisak crest - on the sisak's top, front and back\nstiff wave, or separately reinforced metal pole\nsolya /poppet/ and its csusztato - on which the boat is launched into the water\nsor - draft and first series - for tonai szolg\u00e1latra - ton-related service\nassessment of suitability and mandatory service\n/line/ and living beings' - succession: temporal order\nfate - five states - lining up and standing in line\nsorhad - serge - see 2 ser-katonasag\nbattleship - five larger battle haj\u00f3\nregular troops - actual troops - behind the \"line\" - all other soldiers\nto draft - two military service - examining and conscripting\nfor mandatory service.\n2. collect soldiers\n3. line up soldiers in a row, see: row\n3. series of 2 closed rows, one after the other\n3. rocket launcher\n4. with several ejector pipes or rails, armed with\n5. a weapon that launches rockets\n6. burst of fire 2\n7. not single shots but series of shots from a firing committee\n8. draft board\n9. a committee of military and civilian personnel responsible for drafting\n10. the process of drafting\n11. distance between lines\n12. the distance between rows\n13. dark room for solitary confinement!\n14. windowless,\n15. one-person prison cell\n16. knife rest 2\n17. made of wood or metal,\n18. with an X-shaped stand,\n19. on which sharp wires are strung and used as an obstacle\n20. shrapnel 2, artillery shell,\n21. which explodes on its trajectory with timing control,\n22. scattering the bullets it contains towards the target.\n23. straja 2, see: guard duty.\nmaster of training 2, see 2 orphan-ranc and women\nweight /sometimes the weight of forces,/ whose fight is sharpened with precise drill : a certain\ngravity /center of gravity/ pendulum : see also 2 aerial weight drill : drill in a platoon-like manner : the highest\nauthority, drill supervisor's gravity center mark : see also : thread marker\n1. where the weight is part of it\n2. the point of a sack /palliasse, straw sack/ for a lying position, filled with the attacking g\u00e1l\u00f3 straw,\nhas a place in the sack\narea of weight : quarter /quartering, billeting/ where the weight is applied, where it can be used for the night,\n3. branded mark /branded stamp, quarters/ : living animals retreat to their straw quarters marked by a burned brand\nfor the night, rest.\nutas ozcol: szallaszt elfojalni seregtestek kenyerellas- szallascsinalo: elore kuljott gepesitett alakulatok, akik a beerkel\u0151 szabad csapat szamara a szallaszt rendszerint detil: T nem a haderohoz elk\u00e9szitik, tartozo, fegyveres portya- szallaskorlet zo csapatok a szallasra kijelolt eszabfagysag: h\u00e1rom let es tartozekai napnal hosszabb eltavozoasas szallasmester: szabadsagharc, G-4/ a f\u0151vezers\u00e9g 1. A 184-8-49.es magyar anyagi osztalynek szerve szabadsagharcot alkalmasan a hadm\u0171veleti teruen hasznalt neve szallasszabalyzo tiszt 2. fuggetlensegert szazing officer:aki egy bunasert vivott kuzdelem bizonyos teruleten a elszabadosolasi igazolvany szallolaszt v\u00e9gzi, ossze/leave pass: Irasbeli hangolja.\n\nTranslation:\nutas (column): accommodating troops\nozcol (billeting officer): in charge of accommodating troops\nseregtestek (soldiers): distributing quarters for\nkenyerellas-szallascsinalo (quartermaster): distributing quarters for soldiers, usually\nT: not prepared by the army, but by the quartermaster\nz\u00f3 csapatok (quartered troops): troops quartered in the designated area of freedom\nszabadsag (leave): three days and belongings\nszabadsagharc (liberty war): in G-4/ the chief headquarters\n1. The name of the 184-8-49th Hungarian financial class for the liberty war generally used on the operational terrain is called the quartermaster officer\n2. freedom fighter officer: one who arranges accommodation for a certain area in the liberation struggle, leave pass: please make it in writing.\npermit, which is handed over to the free transport review /shipment/ : the process of granting leave /to grant leave to those in confinement and those planned/ : to grant freedoms for shipments - a summary table for regulations\nregulation : chart or graphic table for transport management /Railway Transport Command/ : standard\nfood rations : for those directing transport - see food ration serving section\nplatoon : a transport unit, part of a battalion, usually the largest transported unit or smaller officer-led transport, equipment, and cargo\nplatoon commander /transport platoon leader/ : the commander of a platoon echelon /platoon level/ - the commander, theoretically a officer, but in practice mostly responsible for a transport unit's part\nassistant transport commander /transport platoon commander/ \u00ab the transport commander \u00ab\ncommander, for the transport duration, see: cargo officer: cargo commander; transport plane /plane/ or other - for towing or other cargo - accounting: financial management and reporting, responsible for funds and supplies, self-sustaining unit: self-sufficient, economically independent subordinate: above and beyond, see and personnel:\n- FeTYi\nbookkeeper: usually an assistant, responsible for material and financial matters in command posts\nground forces: the army, consisting of infantry and aviation\nwing: exterior, end part of something, also for ships\nwing panel: aircraft part, wing structure\nwing aid: aide-de-camp: highest military rank.\nThe given text appears to be in Hungarian with some irregular characters. I will first translate it to English using a Hungarian-English dictionary, and then clean the text according to the given requirements.\n\nOriginal text:\n```vbnet\nrangban lev\u0151 parancsnok\nseg\u00e9dtisztje /hadseg\u00e9d/\nsz\u00e1rnytisztes /flank guide/\nJr., NoCY\u00d6 ./  s a sz\u00e9les\u00ac\ns\u00e9gben felfejl\u0151d\u00f6tt raj\nvagy szakasz sz\u00e1rny\u00e1n\nalkalmazott tisztes, aki\nhez a raj /szakasz/ t\u00f6bbi tagja\nalkalmazkodik mozg\u00e1s\u00e1ban\nsz\u00e1zad : a legt\u00f6bb fegyvernem harc\u00e1szati \u00e9s gazd\u00e1szat\nk\u00f6zigazgat\u00e1si alapegys\u00e9ge, a z\u00e1szl\u00f3alj\nr\u00e9sze, rendszerint 2-4 szakaszb\u00f3l \u00e1ll. T\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9g-\nnel : oszt\u00e1ly sz\u00e1zados /Gaptain/ : legmagasabb\nf\u0151tiszti rendfokozat sz\u00e1zadparancsnok /company\ncommander/ i a sz\u00e1zad parancsnoka, f\u0151tiszt\nszeker\u00e9sz /soldier of army service corps/ : fogatolt\nvonat- cs&p-jba tagj\u00e1nak n\u00e9pek\nneve\nsz\u00e9less\u00e9gi sz\u00f3r\u00e1s /lateral dispersion/ t a l\u00f6ved\u00e9kek\nbecsap\u00f3d\u00e1s\u00e1nak a l\u00f6v\u00e9s ir\u00e1ny\u00e1val mer\u0151leges ir\u00e1ny\nsz\u00e9less\u00e9gben /jobbra-bal-ra/ alkalmazott t\u0171z\nsz\u00e9lr\u00f3zsa : a l\u00e1t hat\u00e1r s\u00edkj\u00e1ban fekv\u0151, a vil\u00e1gt\u00e1jak\nalapj\u00e1n beosztva\n```\n\nCleaned text:\n\nCommanding officer,\nassistant officer /quartermaster/\nflank guide,\nJr., NoCY\u00d6 ./ and located in a wide area,\nthe developing squad or platoon on its wing,\nan officer, who adapts to its movement,\nbelongs to the squad or platoon,\nsz\u00e1zad: the main military unit of most combat and administrative branches,\na part of the infantry regiment, usually consisting of 2-4 squads or platoons. Artillery:\nclass captain /Gaptain/ : the highest officer rank,\ncompany commander /company commander/ for the company,\nthe commander of the company, chief,\nsoldier of the army service corps: a member of the train or transport,\nnamed among the peoples,\nlateral dispersion: the spread of projectiles in the direction perpendicular to the shot,\nsweeping fire: applied fire in the left-right direction,\nwind rose: a map showing the wind directions,\nlocated on the boundary of the observation area, assigned according to the compass directions.\nwind sock: a flying field's equipment, which indicates the wind direction. A bag, filled with granular powdered gunpowder in granular form, is pressed powdered gunpowder. Identity tag, dog tag: a military personnel's deep data and personal identification number are stored in a small c\u00e9dula, which is worn around the neck in a metal case. Identity tag case, the metal case of the identity tag, holds the personal identification number, civilian. A Hungarian citizen receives a number at birth, which is stamped in the identity tag's metal case, for easier handling of the deceased. Personal car: see car. Car distribution point: a personnel distribution point on the operational territory for travelers, or to and from it.\n1. A right to review: someone's jurisdiction to inspect:\n1. Officially viewing\n2. Civil: observing\nAn inspector, reviewer:\n- Carefully examining\nAccessory: equipment, attachment, or accessory\nAccessory cart: hauling accessories\nMechanic: in gears, repairing, skilled labor\nEquipment: military equipment, carried with soldiers and themselves\n2. Railroad cars, attached to something\n3. Equipment magazine:\n- Storing tools\nDispersion:\n- The marching columns' lines' signaling, shallow and deep, to more columns\nStrict confinement:\n- Imprisonment\n7. Disciplinary punishment\nOne type of this species, which in olden times filled all its free time in prison, was the feigned position, or the enemy deceit position, a fire-weapons emplacement where there was no gun: the feigned battle, an enemy-deceiving and not attack-seeking fight; the feigned attack, confusing the enemy in time, space, strength, with the effect of creating confusion: the leveling staff, a device for bringing water level, with a water bubble indicating the water level. Prison quarters, officer: officers' penalties, when they are not allowed to leave their rooms; barracks chief: a commander in each room, the senior person in the room, in service: 1, the time served in the army, duty: 2. the time served in special missions.\nduty: to assume a duty or role in the military: to begin a duty or service; branch of service: units or organizations responsible for meeting specific needs, such as troops, units, and service branches; code of duty: military regulations; channel: established route for reporting, requesting, or communicating; ut: defined path, which must be followed in order, both upward and downward; official trip: journey undertaken while on duty for the purpose of carrying out orders; off duty: released from duty and no longer subject to military authority; out of service status: having withdrawn from active military service and no longer receiving pay or benefits; on duty: performing military duties.\nsergeant : the most important non-commissioned officer in the squad\ndispersion : the spread of bullets, to the same target, from the same firearm, under identical conditions\ncone of dispersion : the imaginary cross-section of the bullets' trajectories from one firearm, with identical aimers\nsweeping fire : the area we designate, specifically without a target\nangular velocity : the angular change in direction for aiming at a moving target in degrees\nrush : a type of movement on the battlefield, such as jumping up from a prone position, running, and then lying down again\ndeserter : one who has deserted from somewhere, militarily speaking\npointed weapon : a weapon for thrusting, such as a bayonet or a lance\nbayonet : a type of pointed weapon, specifically for a rifle\nvegetable attachable short knife, called a part of a soldier's side-arms, is a scabbard or holster: it can be strapped to the waist with a leather thong, in which the knife hilt is carried. bayonet attack, sharp bayonet charge, fixing a bayonet: attaching a bayonet to a rifle,\nbayonet charge: making ready a bayonet,\nholding a rifle at the ready and assuming an attacking position.\nrear foot soldier, see foot soldier, see t\u00f6rzs.\nneed: for which there is a need.\ncalculation of needs, determining needs.\n\nT. TY\ncamp: 1. territory, where the army encamps and stays for an extended period,\n2. permanent military settlement, where soldiers live and train.\nfield gun.\nterepen used siege gun, flat trajectory, for field fortification; heavy, folk-like permanent fortification\nfield hospital, applied on military operation site\nfield chaplain: military priest\nfield gun: siege gun\nsiege weapons' collective name\noutdoor service: Roman Catholic open-air mass\ncamp guard: the main guard, which recruits sentries\nfield post *APO*: military post, set up during war, functioning between the deployed army and the homeland\nservice cap: Hungarian Army soft service cap\ncamp kitchen: see: cooking column\nfield howitzer: siege gun, flat trajectory, artillery\nartillery: see: siege's egg\nt\u00e1bornagy /field marshal/ : the highest military rank of a t\u00e1bornok /general/ : the highest military rank of an officer, commanding a group of generals\nt\u00e1bornoki kar /General Corps/ : a whole regiment of generals\nt\u00e1borszernagy /Lt. General/ : officer with engineering background, former rank of a vez\u00e9rezredes /megsz\u0171nt military rank/\nwidened head : see head, widened\nwidened staff : see staff, widened\ncompass : device used to determine the northern direction\ntattoo : 1. military units, signifying the end of the daily work\n2. their signals, indicating the tattoo time\n3. real probability of hits : the ratio of hits to shots fired\ntal\u00e1lati sz\u00f6g : see bearing angle\ntal\u00e1l\u00f3 sz\u00f6g : see firing angle\ntal\u00e1l\u00f3 sz\u00f6g : see firing angle\ntaliga /cart/ : a two-wheeled cart, usually used for ammunition transport\nattack : 1. advantageous.\nmul\u00e1s, once the team's firearms began the firing 2. encounter with an officer: one who refused to engage in attack. attack: the actual objective: military service for a direct period of the operation. target: an individual belonging to the operational team, carrying accessories. attacker: one who is part of the attacking force t\u00e1mogat\u00f3 t\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport: see t\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport supporter: to help in the attack in close quarters support base: a larger power base where well-equipped, well-organized troops are stationed tank: harckocsi training section: about a hundred-strong, serving the training purpose unit training battalion: about a battalion-strength, equipped with various firearms.\ngoal /vonat/ unit: suitable for dance.1 See: tanosz- taly tar: magazine: receptacle for something's loading space or frame tarack: howitzer: steep trajectory, artillery weapon, usually only in small sizes (6-10 cm caliber) reserve: the part of the force which is not currently employed reserve: ration: See i food reserve status: the non-professional soldiers' inventory reserve: reservist: not professional reservist officer: reserve telephone: telephone tavbeszelo: telephone station: from where one can call tavcszo: telescope: prismatic observing device telegram: message sent with coded signals telegraph: machine /gep/ telegraph: the device by which soldiers transmit messages via coded signals telegraph pole: tall pole, to which the telegraph wires are attached.\nt\u00edtle: distance-related terms\n\ndistance: the distance between two objects, in the direction of progress\nrange finder: device for measuring distance\ntelephone message: message transmitted via telephone\ntelevision: transmission of images without wires, using ultrashort waves\nlong-distance reconnaissance: discovery of distant targets\nlong-distance reconnaissance group: see: artillery group\nartillery group\ndistance: composed of the following words: far \u2014 \u2022\ntruck and see: truck\nfreight station: place for loading and unloading freight trains\nfreight station's yard\nspiral spring: long coil spring\nspiral spring: used to roll a metal cable\ntelephone: see: telephone\nparking place: place for parking vehicles, temporary quarters for troops\nto place: to put, temporary quarters\n\nThis text appears to be a list of Hungarian terms related to distance and their English translations. It appears to be mostly readable, with only minor errors and no need for extensive cleaning. Therefore, I will not output any caveats or additional text, and will simply provide the cleaned text as is.\n\nt\u00edtle: distance-related terms\n\ndistance: a t\u00e1vols\u00e1g, a halad\u00e1s ir\u00e1ny\u00e1ban\nt\u00e1volm\u00e9r\u0151: t\u00e1vols\u00e1gm\u00e9r\u0151 eszk\u00f6z\nt\u00e1vmondat: t\u00e1vbesz\u00e9l\u0151n tov\u00e1bb\u00edtott \u00fczenet\nt\u00e1volbal\u00e1t\u00e1s: ultrar\u00f6vid hull\u00e1mokon kereszt\u00fcli k\u00e9p tov\u00e1bb\u00edt\u00e1sa\nt\u00e1volfelder\u00edt\u00e9s: t\u00e1voli c\u00e9lok felder\u00edt\u00e9se\nt\u00e1volharc csoport: l\u00e1sd: t\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport\nt\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport:\nt\u00e1vols\u00e1g: t\u00e1vols\u00e1g, a k\u00f6vetkez\u0151 szavak l\u00e1sd: t\u00e1v \u2014 \u2022\nteherg\u00e9pkocsi: teheraut\u00f3, l\u00e1sd: g\u00e9pkocsi\nteherp\u00e1lyaudvar: tehervonatok p\u00e1lyaudvara\np\u00e1lyaudvara:\ncsavarrug\u00f3: hosszan tekercselt rug\u00f3\ncsavarrug\u00f3: hossz\u00fa csavarrug\u00f3 ac\u00e9lhuzat\ntelefon: l\u00e1sd: t\u00e1vbesz\u00e9l\u0151\ntelephely: parkol\u00f3hely\nparkol\u00f3hely: j\u00e1rm\u0171vek, j\u00e1rm\u0171vel ell\u00e1tott csapatok ideiglenes tart\u00f3zkod\u00e1si helye\ntelep\u00edteni: elhelyezni, ideiglenes tart\u00f3zkod\u00e1si hely\n\nTherefore, the cleaned text is:\n\nt\u00edtle: distance-related terms\n\ndistance: a t\u00e1vols\u00e1g, a halad\u00e1s ir\u00e1ny\u00e1ban\nt\u00e1volm\u00e9r\u0151: t\u00e1vols\u00e1gm\u00e9r\u0151 eszk\u00f6z\nt\u00e1vmondat: t\u00e1vbesz\u00e9l\u0151n tov\u00e1bb\u00edtott \u00fczenet\nt\u00e1volbal\u00e1t\u00e1s: ultrar\u00f6vid hull\u00e1mokon kereszt\u00fcli k\u00e9p tov\u00e1bb\u00edt\u00e1sa\nt\u00e1volfelder\u00edt\u00e9s: t\u00e1voli c\u00e9lok felder\u00edt\u00e9se\nt\u00e1volharc csoport: l\u00e1sd: t\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport\nt\u00fcz\u00e9rcsoport:\nt\u00e1vols\u00e1g: t\u00e1vols\u00e1g, a k\u00f6vetkez\u0151 szavak l\u00e1sd: t\u00e1v \u2014 \u2022\nteherg\u00e9pkocsi: teheraut\u00f3, l\u00e1sd: g\u00e9pkocsi\nteherp\u00e1lyaudvar: tehervonatok p\u00e1lyaudvara\np\u00e1lyaudvara:\ncsavarrug\u00f3: hosszan tekercselt rug\u00f3\ncsavarrug\u00f3: hossz\u00fa csavarrug\u00f3 ac\u00e9lhuzat\ntelefon: l\u00e1sd: t\u00e1vbesz\u00e9l\u0151\ntelephely: parkol\u00f3hely\nparkol\u00f3hely: j\u00e1rm\u0171vek, j\u00e1rm\u0171vel ell\u00e1tott csapatok ideiglenes tart\u00f3zkod\u00e1si helye\ntelep\u00edteni: elhelyezni, ideiglenes tart\u00f3zkod\u00e1si hely\na. goal identification: in the center, with the greatest effect, for successful targeting\nfull sighting sphere: only when the entire sphere is visible to the observers\nfull coverage: entire body concealed, concealed position\naxis connection: motor and propeller shaft coupling, including connecting and disconnecting, control handle management\nsubmarine: a watercraft capable of submerging and navigating underwater for a certain period\nsubmarine trap: defensive equipment against submarines\nsailor: one who serves on a ship\nenlisted man in the navy: a member of the naval personnel\nnaval officer: a naval officer\nnaval academy: where naval officers are trained.\nnaval command /Admiralty/ : the highest command authority for naval forces /sailors' total/\nsubmarine mine: a mine used at sea\nnautical mile : see : mile on land\ncoastal strip: the land strip adjacent to the sea\nadmiral : a military rank equivalent to a general in the naval forces\nactive : currently serving\nterrain : the land's surface and its natural and man-made features\nnatural obstacle : an obstacle arising from the terrain\nground formation : the terrain's shape or form\nto survey : to examine the terrain, outline its features, and create a sketch\nterrain wave : a wave that forms on the terrain\nfold of the ground : a fold or bend in the terrain.\ncross-country vehicle: a type of vehicle that can move easily off the road\ncross-country ride: riding in the countryside\ndepression of ground: the part of the ground that is lower between two terrains\ntopography: the study of terrain features and their interrelationships, particularly in military contexts\nterrain feature: any natural or man-made object visible on the terrain\nin kind: in the same way; in this context, not referring to a specific type of terrain feature\nvaluables: not explicitly stated, but can be inferred from the context as something of value, possibly related to the terrain or the military context\nmap: a representation of the terrain, usually flat and simplified\nmap symbol: a symbol representing terrain conditions and terrain features on the map\nmap reading: interpreting the symbols on a map to understand terrain conditions and features.\nmap case: carrying a map requires a suitable case, usually one arm, often a sergeant or officer; officers' mess: where officers eat; officers club: a entertainment venue for officers; orderly: a soldier assigned to attend to officers; orders: orders only for officers; steward: see orderly; cleaning rod: for cleaning the barrels of firearms; puskavessz\u0151: cleaning rod; candidate: selected for officer rank, usually attending officer school or training. decimation: a transparent material bag; interval: the distance between two objects, be it for individuals or groups.\ntests of physical punishment; a form of punishment, such as corporal or military, inflicted by an officer in rank, appointed by the commanding officer, salute; the prescribed mode of greeting as stated in the Regulations, respect; a junior NCO: the lowest rank of soldier, wearing the insignia of a sergeant, executing a sentence, recruit; to gather people, workers, voters etc. for some purpose, recruiting dance; an old Hungarian military dance performed during army recruitment, addition or supplement to the order, containing instructions for the higher command to provide intelligence to the air force and technical services.\nservice, for reporting and air defense, a detailed measure including financial provisions.\n\n1. a supplementary part\nfeather ornament, worn by a constable, made of a quill, in the form of a bunch.\ninterpreter : one who speaks several languages and translates between them.\nmuzzle : the part of the barrel, where the bullet exits.\nmuzzle fire : fire from the muzzle.\ncross country : given direction, without regard to terrain.\nterrain obstacle\ntorpedo : a boat-launched, long, explosive-filled body, propelled by a motor system towards the target, see also: aircraft torpedo.\ntorpedo tube : from which the torpedo is launched.\ntorpedo net : net used to hold back torpedoes, laid out underwater.\ntorpedo boat /100-tonnage/, rapid military vessel. Weaponry: smaller guns and torpedo launchers. Torpedo destroyer: smaller and lighter weaponry than a cruiser; quick-moving, air defense with belt armor and torpedo launcher. Reenlisted soldier: a person who continues to serve after mandatory naval service. Tank: see: granade tank /to load/: loading the projectile /ammunition/ into the gun. Cartridge: part of light firearms ammunition /components: the shell, casing, powder charge and primer/. Cartridge drum: drum-shaped ammunition magazine. Cartridge belt: belt-shaped ammunition carrier, suitable for loading cartridges, used with machine guns. Cartridge magazine: magazine holding ammunition. Cartridge box: where the soldier carries the ammunition.\nnyeit  viseli  /rendszerint \na  der\u00e9ksz\u00edjra  f\u0171zve/ \nt\u00f6lt\u00e9ny\u00fcr  /chamber/  :  a  t\u0171z\u00ac \nfegyvernek  az  a  r\u00e9sze, \namely  a  kil\u00f6v\u00e9sre  sz\u00e1nt \nt\u00f6lt\u00e9nyt  foglalja  mag\u00e1ba \nt\u00f6lt\u00e9nyvon\u00f3  /cartridge  ex\u00ac \ntractor/  :  a  pt^ska  r\u00e9sze \namely  a  kil\u0151tt  t\u00f6lt\u00e9ny \nh\u00fcvely\u00e9t  kih\u00fazza \nt\u00f6ltet  /load/  :  a  t\u00f6lt\u00e9ny \ntartalm\u00e1nak  az  a  r\u00e9sze, \namit  a  gy\u00fajt\u00f3  l\u00e1ngra  lob\u00ac \nbant  \u00e9s  amely  a  l\u00f6ved\u00e9ket \nkiveti \nt\u00f6lt\u0151  g\u00e9p  /loader/  :  szerke\u00ac \nzet,  amely  az  \u00fcres  t\u00f6l\u00ac \nt\u00e9nyt\u00e1rakat  \u00fajra  megt\u00f6l\u00ac \nti  t\u00f6lt\u00e9nyekkel \nt\u00f6lt\u0151\u00e1llom\u00e1s  /loading  s t\u00e1tim \nahol  valamilyen  anyagot \n/pl.  \u00fczemanyagot,  akkumu\u00ac \nl\u00e1tort/  t\u00f6ltenek,  /ed\u00e9nyt \nmegt\u00f6ltenek \nt\u00f6megs\u00edr  /common  grave/  : \ns \u00edrverem 9  amelybe  egyn\u00e9l \nt\u00f6bb  embert  /katon\u00e1t/  te- \nJetnek  jc \nt\u00f6m\u00edt\u00e9s  /gasj\u00e9et/  :  h\u00e9zag  ki\u00ac \nt\u00f6lt\u00e9sei  a  robban\u00f3g\u00e1zok \nelt\u00e1voz\u00e1s\u00e1t  megakad\u00e1lyoz\u00f3 \nanyag  vagy  elj\u00e1r\u00e1s \nt\u00f6rzs  /HQ  &  Staff/  :  a  parancs\u00ac \nnokot  a  vezet\u00e9sben  t\u00e1moga\u00ac \nt\u00f3,  szakk\u00f6zegeit  is  mag\u00e1\u00ac \nban  foglal\u00f3  szerv,  amely\u00ac \nnek  az  \u00e9l\u00e9n,  magasabb  pa\u00ac \nThe following text refers to a command structure within a military headquarters:\n\nheadquarters staff:\nthe commander-in-chief stands\ndarker core staff:\nessential personnel for the headquarters in battle\nwider headquarters and staff:\nthe entire headquarters\nheadquarters company:\na subdivision of the wider headquarters, comprised of the headquarters' personnel\nheadquarters detachment:\na subordinate unit serving and supporting the headquarters\nsergeant major:\nsecond-in-command, middle rank\nfield officer:\nofficers in the middle rank group, e.g., majors, lieutenant colonels, colonels\nextra force:\nlarger than our own force\nammunition store:\nthe thinning, upper part of a rifle, where a hostage\ncan be taken, for negotiations, with guarantees for their safety and release\ndemonstration:\na deceptive display, from which the enemy can infer the presence of larger forces in a certain area.\nfire : to loosen a firearm, command for shooting series from foot soldiers or artillery weapons to inflict damaging effect\nshooting : to fire\nfiring position : the place where a fighter or firearm is positioned for shooting\ntuzcsapas /rafale/ : foot soldiers or artillery weapons from which the enemy is fired upon in a series, aiming for a bending effect\nto fire : to shoot\nfiring position : the place from which shooting is carried out\nsee also:\nchanging position\nstanding still\nfeigned position\nconcealed firearm\nartilleryman : a member of the artillery\nartillery group /artillery group/ : the same group of guns assembled for the same purpose\nsupporting artillery group /supporting artillery/ : the group of guns that directly supports the designated combat group\ndistant combat group /distant combat/ : the combat group responsible for distant targets and countering enemy artillery\nartillery observation point /artillery observation point/ : from where the artillery observer carries out observations.\nIn the military, the appropriate fire power for a unit under the flag: a unit capable of igniting fire for a artillery officer is called a artillery officer. An artillery support aircraft for the artillery: a supporting or observing, reconnaissance aircraft or flying artillery. The artillery: it exerts its power through its firepower. It can be field and anti-aircraft artillery. Field artillery: the most important arsenal for infantry. According to mode of transport: drawn, horse-drawn, mountain, or motorized, depending on size: light (10 cm.- 7 cm.), medium (10-20 cm.), or heavy (20 cm. and above), types of artillery weapons: gun, howitzer, mortar. Anti-aircraft artillery: it engages and keeps enemy aircraft at bay from the battlefield and the rear areas. It is also useful for counter-battery fire. Its organization:\nl\u00e9gv\u00e9delmi gun, air defense gun, light artillery gun, artillery range: where artillery troops train with artillery weapons.\nArtillery commander: the artillery commander's advisor to the military command, has no direct decision-making power in artillery matters.\nArtillery barrage: individual batteries and heavy infantry weapons combined fire.\nUsually against enemy water vehicles.\nTo cease fire: stop the firing.\nTo open fire: start firing.\nFirearm: automatic firearm, a device that can shoot guns, rifles, artillery, etc.\nBaptism of fire: when someone first encounters friendly fire.\nsergeant /artillery/ firemaster:\nmaster-sergeant at the artillery,\ntyes of fire /tyges of fire/:\nneutralizing fire, destructive fire,\nconcentrated fire\nneutralizing fire: to immobilize,\ncompletely disable the enemy's living forces and weapons, in battle,\ndestructive fire: to destroy enemy firepower, etc.,\nconcentrated fire: prepared fire on a specific area,\nstiff fire, fire concentration: to engage as many fire weapons as possible on one target or a specific area at once,\nopen fire: firing at a target.\nfire raid /fire raid/: beginning, wide, powerful fire,\nfire system /fire system/: arranging fire weapons for a specific target, and the tasks assigned to them,\npyrotechnician /pyrotechnician/: one who sets up and prepares the defenses and the unfired munitions.\ntzedek szetszereleset: tuzszinet /pause in firing/: amikor a tuz megszakad ft eppen nem tuzelnek tuz terv: a tizennek meghatozott feladatra, terben es idoben elore eszes szabulyozasa tuzvezetes: a tuzgepek tuznek egyszes iranyitasa tusvonal: ahol az ellenseg tizthatasa erezheteto tuzzel valo elk\u00e9szites tuzel: a roham helyere es az ellenseg mas fontos helyeire iranyittott benito esetleg rombolotuzzel valo lefogas: az ellensag zavarasa, nyugtalanitasan mozgasnak megakadalyozasa tuzzel udvarlaki \u0151rs\u00e9g: az allamf\u0151 epuleteot (az udvart) \u0151rzo egyseg u.1: one /recruit/: a besorozott katona 2. kezdob valamelyik folyalkozasban\nrecruitment /training/ : those who entered military service undergo basic training, usually for 6-12 weeks\nrecruit class : the cohort that is obliged to serve in the military as the first military personnel\nfloating mine : a mine that is not anchored to the ground and floats in the water instead\ndirective : a command that sets distant goals and provides guidelines for achieving them\nroute, march : long-distance marches led by experienced commanders with appropriate facilitations. Safety measures are taken\nsupply service : responsible for ensuring that military units receive the necessary supplies in a timely and appropriate manner\nengineer : a member of the technical corps whose duty is to work on amphibious operations and fortifications.\nstreet fight: a fight in a built-up area, such as a city:\nroad junction or fork: where two or more roads meet and diverge\nroad system: the interconnected network of roads in a particular area\nroad crossing: where one road intersects another\nrear party or rearguard: a group of soldiers forming the rear of the main body, including those who remain behind to guard the rear and the baggage train\nrear guard: the rear guard, protecting the column and maintaining order\nrear guard: the main body of the rear guard\ncorrespondence: documents, letters\nduty officer or PFC on duty: responsible for internal administrative duties within the squad or platoon, working 24 hours with the day sergeant.\nThe day: Akis meghat\u00e1rozott ter\u00fcleten lakta ny\u00e1, hely\u0151rs\u00e9g. A hely\u0151rs\u00e9g l\u00e1t el rend\u00e9szeti \u00e9s \u00fcgyeleti szolg\u00e1latot. \u00dcgyeleti k\u00f6zeg: Man on duty. \u00dcgyeletes szolg\u00e1lat: teljes\u00edt\u0151 szem\u00e9ly. \u00dcgyeleti szolg\u00e1lat: a huszonn\u00e9gy\u00f3r\u00e1nk\u00e9nt v\u00e1ltott szolg\u00e1lat egyik fajt\u00e1ja, p\u00e9ld\u00e1ul \u00fcgyel\u0151 tiszt, \u00fcgyeletes \u0151rvezet\u0151, stb. Ur\u00edtani: l\u0151szert a t\u0171zfegyverb\u0151l kivenni. Urm\u00e9ret: a t\u0171zfegyver ver cs\u00f6v\u00e9nek keresztmetszete. \u00dcteg: a t\u00fcz\u00e9rs\u00e9g aloszt\u00e1lya, rendszerint 4 l\u00f6veg \u00fcteg\u00e1ll\u00e1s. Ahol az eg\u00e9sz \u00fcteg egy\u00fctt t\u00fczel\u0151 \u00e1ll\u00e1sban van. \u00cdtem: 1. Az egy\u00fctthalad\u00f3k egyszerre t\u00f6rt\u00e9n\u0151 l\u00e9p\u00e9se a kanon\u00e1val l\u00e9p\u00e9seinek sz\u00e1ma ez perc alatt. /cycle/ 2y a digatty\u00fa mozg\u00e1sa a henger egyik v\u00e9g\u00e9t\u0151l a masikig. \u00dctk\u00f6zet: a csata r\u00e9slet cselekm\u00e9nye terben, id\u0151ben, er\u0151ben. \u00dctk\u00f6zet \u00e1llom\u00e1ny:\n/utkozeltszam/ is the sum of troops and weapons in a battle for a CSAs pat during combat, when the troop is preparing for the possibility of engagement against the enemy, contrary to the marching order. Combat train, a part of the troop train, supplies necessary materials for the battle. Striking power: the power a attacking unit can inflict on the enemy, Firing pin: a part of a firearm that ignites the cartridge by striking it, Fuel: the necessary substance for the movement of motor vehicles, Benzine, diesel or gasoline, Vadaszgep: a type of reconnaissance aircraft, Earliest form of jet aircraft, a single or two-seater, high-speed, powerful flying weapon, Night fighter: a specialized aircraft with radar equipment.\nfighter pilot with a fighter plane and rackets, leads a fighter aircraft.\nvad\u00e1szig\u00e9p : see : hunting aircraft.\nrail car : built for railway use.\ns\u00ednaut\u00f3\nlivestock column : manages and maintains the herd.\nvad\u00e1szat n\u00e9lk\u00fcli rep\u00fcl\u00e9s : flying in fog, clouds, or at night, when the pilot can only rely on instruments.\nblank cartridge : training ammunition, contains little explosive material.\nenterprise : undertaking a military reconnaissance mission.\npuskasz\u00edj\nfuture firing position : a prepared firing position for another weapon in view.\nfort : fortified, enclosed area.\nv\u00e1rat v\u00e9d\u0151, magas fal : castle wall, fortifies the castle.\nvassal : binding with iron, reinforcing with iron.\nrailroad engineers: one type of technical team, which are involved in railway construction, the creation of the necessary equipment for railway track construction, including the track and foundation, railway gun: a heavy artillery piece mounted on a railway car, railway ramp: an elevated platform from which railway cars can be loaded without level changes, railway carriages: a series of connected railway cars, railway sleeper: a transverse support for railway tracks, railway embankment: a mound of earth along which the railway runs, railway engineering: the branch of engineering dealing with railway construction, operation, and traffic from a technical standpoint, sketch: a simple drawing that highlights the distinctive features of a terrain or subject.\nit is located on a battlefield area, holding combat units for defense: a type of combat, whose goal is to stop the enemy and break their offensive power defensive circle: see defensive circle defensive army: military defense law regulating the establishment, goals, and financial basis of the defense defensive area: a part of the main resistance line final defense point: the rearguard's last men mixed brigade: a unit composed of various weapon types chemical warfare: chemical warfare gas persistent battlefield veres\u00e9g: suffering defeat retreat signal: signaling danger distress shot: warning shot casualty: loss.\nlosses report: a list of casualties: names of persons lost, injured, or missing in the battle:\nacknowledgment correspondence, to registry:\nto acknowledge, sign\nto command:\n1. give loud verbal orders for carrying out actions\n2. give orders with verbal commands\ncommand: short, two-word orders for carrying out actions\nLt. General: the highest Hungarian military rank, equivalent to major general, star\nflagship: a large naval vessel leading a fleet\ncommanding officer: the commander of a fleet or formation of ships\ngeneral staff: a group of officers responsible for strategic planning and operations\nchief of the general staff: see: chief of the general staff.\narmy chief: 1. chief of staff of the military: 1. commander-in-chief of the army's staff\n2. head of higher command structures' core: standing army officer /deputy commander/\nmilitary officer: 2. military officer: one who completed the academy with at least 100 colonel rank /brigadier general/\nconduit: electrical conduit: 2. to lay the conduit: to lead horses or a horse-drawn vehicle between two points\ndisconnect: to dismantle the conduit: to eliminate unexpected conduit\nvehicle hitch: horse hitch: a vehicle, such as a horse or a carriage, pulled by the enemy and driven by its captors\nterritory: leadership and direction: to occupy and take control of an area.\nleader /recoil/: a tuz- ship on higher level: ' weapon's firing direction, contrary to the higher command, is equal or nearly equal to the leading formation's movement at that moment.\n\nlower leadership /to repulse/: on lower level: the advancing enemy is brought back into the sphere of influence of the leading formation by the lower leadership.\n\nvezet\u00e9si gyakorlat /retreat/ : 1. the restriction of the enemy's attack in front of us, theoretically, through territorial withdrawal. 2. brave/heroic: the one who practices it.\n\nvehicle leadership\n\ncopper ring /artillery/ shells, which fit snugly into the gun barrels, facilitate the firing.\n\nworld war|s/ World War:\nin which many continents and countries participate.\nAz  els\u0151  vil\u00e1gh\u00e1bor\u00fa  1914 \nvil\u00e1git\u00f3  l\u00f6ved\u00e9k  :  l\u00e1sd  : \nnyomjelz\u0151  l\u00f6ved\u00e9k \nvil\u00e1g\u00edt\u00f3  pisztoly  /signal \narcban  b\u00e1tran  viselkedik \n2.  a  Vit\u00e9zi  Rend  tagja \nVit\u00e9zi  Rene  /Hero\u2019s  Orc^er/  : \naz  els\u0151  vil\u00e1gh\u00e1bor\u00faban \nvit\u00e9z\u00fcl  harcolt  katon\u00e1k\u00ac \nb\u00f3l  Horthy  Mikl\u00f3s  korm\u00e1ny\u00ac \nz\u00f3  \u00e1ltal  l\u00e9tes\u00edtett  tes\u00ac \nt\u00fclet \nVit\u00e9zi  Sz\u00e9k  /Board  of  the  He\u00ac \nro\u2019s  Order/  :  a  Vit\u00e9zi \nRend  vezet\u00e9s\u00e9t  ell\u00e1t\u00f3 \ns  zerv \nvitorl\u00e1s  haj\u00f3  /sailing  vessel \nvitorl\u00e1val  felszerelt  vi\u00ac \nzi  j\u00e1rma \nvitorl\u00e1z\u00f3  rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p  /glider/ : \nmotor  n\u00e9lk\u00fcli  rep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p \n1 .  k\u00fczde- \npisto\u00ed/  :  amelyb\u0151l  jelz\u0151  _ _ * \nl\u00f6ved\u00e9ket,  vil\u00e1git\u00f3  r\u00e1k\u00e9\u2014  v\u00edvni  /to  fence/ \nt\u00e1t  l\u0151nek  ki  ni ,  harcolni \nvil\u00e1gi t\u00f3  rak\u00e9ta  /flare/  :^kis  2\u00ab  karddal  harcolni \nrak\u00e9ta,  amely  a  leveg\u0151ben  v\u00edzh\u00fct\u00e9s  /water  cooling/  : \nmagas  h\u0151fokon  \u00e9gve  f\u00e9ny\u00e9-  v\u00edzzel  t\u00f6rt\u00e9n\u0151  h\u0171t\u00e9s \nvei  megvil\u00e1g\u00edtja  az  alat-  ylzirep\u00fcl\u0151g\u00e9p  /hydroplane/  : \nta  lev\u0151  ter\u00fcletet  amely  vizr.ol  fel-\u00e9s  v\u00edzre \nvil\u00e1git\u00f3  t\u00f6lt\u00e9ny  /flare/  :  vissza-tucf|sz\u00e1llni \nModern waterway: such water, called \"Toly\u00f3,\" is used to carry a bucket in a rowing boat that can accommodate two or more lines of firearms. First, the soldiers shoot one by one, placing themselves between two fires. Second, there is a wire: a rope, cable, or chain. For securing: conduit. Train: the team responsible for transporting supplies and provisions. Its application is widespread: Csapatv\u00e1r and regiment. According to common belief, there is: prisoner train, tractor train, supply train, and command train orders. The movement of the steam train is obstructed. Train area: the area for the movement and placement of trains. Tractor: a tractor, suitable for towing. Tractor steamship: a towing vessel.\nVontat\u00f3 ha. good: see: vontat\u00f3 g\u0151z\u00f6s\nvont /vontato/ escs /rifled bore/: in elvnek belsej\u00e9ben menet van a l\u00f6ved\u00e9k saj\u00e1t tengelye k\u00f6r\u00fcli megp\u00f6rget\u00e9sre\nzabla: see: z\u00e1bla\nz\u00e1rni: elz\u00e1rni: close up: egym\u00e1s hoz k\u00f6zelebb mefcni\nz\u00e1rlat: blockade: valaminek az elz\u00e1r\u00e1sa\nz\u00e1r\u00f3akna: land mine\nvonul: marches: goes, induls valahova, usually in a column\nV\u00f6r\u00f6s Hadsereg: the Soviet Union's armies\nV\u00f6r\u00f6skereszt: civil organization, which works with the military to care for the wounded, connect families, and maintain morale, largely for the alleviation of great suffering during war\n'Switzerland 1863, Hungary\nFrom your input, I assume the text is in Hungarian with some English words mixed in. Based on the given requirements, I will translate the Hungarian parts into English and remove unnecessary characters. Here's the cleaned text:\n\non it: the angle of\na measuring instrument for degrees:\n\u2022 the division of a,\nzs\nclosing piece: for a rifle,\na gun's locking mechanism, part of,\nthe gun's barrel and the muzzle brake,\nclosing piston: a rifle's locking mechanism's,\nthe part that engages the bolt and seals the chamber,\nclosing lever: a rifle's locking mechanism's,\nthe part used to turn the bolt handle and cock the gun,\nclosing barrier: for transportation routes, valleys, narrows,\nindependent fortifications for the protection of,\nclosing safety catch: the gun's safety mechanism,\na balloon filled with gas, often tied down,\ndeployed around important military targets,\nto counter enemy air raids.\nclosing fire: see gunpowder,\nclosing line: the rear echelon border,\nthe boundary where the operational area and the hinterland meet,\nseparating the logistical traffic.\nclosed order? The katonai alakulat, where the individual soldiers, formations, are closely arranged: battalion: the part of a regiment or independent sub-unit, which forms a combat unit with its immediate subordinate formations; battalion commander: the battalion commander, according to rank, is a t\u00f6rzstiszt, warrant officer: the rank holder between non-commissioned officers and officers, currently not present in the Hungarian army; harassing fire: the enemy's fire intended to disrupt tranquility, irregular rifle shots, artillery attacks; z\u00e1v\u00e1rzat: the rifle's main body, consisting of the rifle stock, mechanism, and bolt. z\u00f6m: a unit's main body, at least half of which is a team; blouse: military uniform, civilian.\nkat\u00e1nk responds for a dive bomber,\na/an aircraft/ which drops its bomb during a dive,\nplunder: the seized, acquired material,\nsoldier's pay and logistic staff's wages,\nsoldier's payroll:\nsurnames of the soldiers,\nsoldier: the soldier who fights for pay,\nevery modern army has such soldiers,\nThe Library of Congress.", "source_dataset": "Internet_Archive", "source_dataset_detailed": "Internet_Archive_LibOfCong"}
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