OpenRaiser/Intern-Atlas huggingface dataset:
Cost-Driven Representation Learning for Linear Quadratic Gaussian Control: Part I
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

We study the task of learning state representations from potentially high-dimensional observations, with the goal of controlling an unknown partially observable system. We pursue a cost-driven approach, where a dynamic model in some latent state space is learned by predicting the costs without predicting the observations or actions. In particular, we focus on an intuitive cost-driven state representation learning method for solving Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) control, one of the most fundamental partially observable control problems. As our main results, we establish finite-sample guarantees of finding a near-optimal state representation function and a near-optimal controller using the directly learned latent model, for finite-horizon time-varying LQG control problems. To the best of our knowledge, despite various empirical successes, finite-sample guarantees of such a cost-driven approach remain elusive. Our result underscores the value of predicting multi-step costs, an idea that is key to our theory, and notably also an idea that is known to be empirically valuable for learning state representations. A second part of this work, that is to appear as Part II, addresses the infinite-horizon linear time-invariant setting; it also extends the results to an approach that implicitly learns the latent dynamics, inspired by the recent empirical breakthrough of MuZero in model-based reinforcement learning.
Normalization for multimodal type theory
Venue: arXiv cs.LO 2026
Year: 2026

We prove normalization for MTT, a general multimodal dependent type theory capable of expressing modal type theories for guarded recursion, internalized parametricity, and various other prototypical modal situations. We prove that deciding type checking and conversion in MTT can be reduced to deciding the equality of modalities in the underlying modal situation, immediately yielding a type checking algorithm for all instantiations of MTT in the literature. This proof uses a generalization of synthetic Tait computability -- an abstract approach to gluing proofs -- to account for modalities. This extension is based on MTT itself, so that this proof also constitutes a significant case study of MTT.
Contextual Causal Bayesian Optimisation
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

We introduce a unified framework for contextual and causal Bayesian optimisation, which aims to design intervention policies maximising the expectation of a target variable. Our approach leverages both observed contextual information and known causal graph structures to guide the search. Within this framework, we propose a novel algorithm that jointly optimises over policies and the sets of variables on which these policies are defined. This thereby extends and unifies two previously distinct approaches: Causal Bayesian Optimisation and Contextual Bayesian Optimisation, while also addressing their limitations in scenarios that yield suboptimal results. We derive worst-case and instance-dependent high-probability regret bounds for our algorithm. We report experimental results across diverse environments, corroborating that our approach achieves sublinear regret and reduces sample complexity in high-dimensional settings.
Grounding Large Language Models in Interactive Environments with Online Reinforcement Learning
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Recent works successfully leveraged Large Language Models' (LLM) abilities to capture abstract knowledge about world's physics to solve decision-making problems. Yet, the alignment between LLMs' knowledge and the environment can be wrong and limit functional competence due to lack of grounding. In this paper, we study an approach (named GLAM) to achieve this alignment through functional grounding: we consider an agent using an LLM as a policy that is progressively updated as the agent interacts with the environment, leveraging online Reinforcement Learning to improve its performance to solve goals. Using an interactive textual environment designed to study higher-level forms of functional grounding, and a set of spatial and navigation tasks, we study several scientific questions: 1) Can LLMs boost sample efficiency for online learning of various RL tasks? 2) How can it boost different forms of generalization? 3) What is the impact of online learning? We study these questions by functionally grounding several variants (size, architecture) of FLAN-T5.
Secret Sharing on Superconcentrator
Venue: arXiv cs.CC 2026
Year: 2026

We study the arithmetic circuit complexity of threshold secret sharing schemes by characterizing the graph-theoretic properties of arithmetic circuits that compute the shares. Using information inequalities, we prove that any unrestricted arithmetic circuit (with arbitrary gates and unbounded fan-in) computing the shares must satisfy superconcentrator-like connectivity properties. Specifically, when the inputs consist of the secret and $t-1$ random elements, and the outputs are the $n$ shares of a $(t, n)$-threshold secret sharing scheme, the circuit graph must be a $(t, n)$-concentrator; moreover, after removing the secret input, the remaining graph is a $(t-1, n)$-concentrator. Conversely, we show that any graph satisfying these properties can be transformed into a linear arithmetic circuit computing the shares of a threshold secret sharing scheme, assuming a sufficiently large field. As a consequence, we derive upper and lower bounds on the arithmetic circuit complexity of computing the shares in threshold secret sharing schemes.
Toward Highly Efficient and Private Submodular Maximization via Matrix-Based Acceleration
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Submodular function maximization is a critical building block for diverse tasks, such as document summarization, sensor placement, and image segmentation. Yet its practical utility is often limit by the $O(knd^2)$ computational bottleneck. In this paper, we propose an integrated framework that addresses efficiency and privacy simultaneously. First, we introduce a novel matrix-based computation paradigm that accelerates function evaluations. Second, we develop approximate data structures that further streamline the optimization process, achieving a theoretical complexity of $O(ε^{-2}(nd+kn+kd^2)\log(k/δ))$. Third, we integrate ($ε, δ$)-DP guaranties to address the privacy concerns inherent in sensitive optimization tasks.
A Simple Generative Model of Logical Reasoning and Statistical Learning
Venue: arXiv cs.AI 2026
Year: 2026

Statistical learning and logical reasoning are two major fields of AI expected to be unified for human-like machine intelligence. Most existing work considers how to combine existing logical and statistical systems. However, there is no theory of inference so far explaining how basic approaches to statistical learning and logical reasoning stem from a common principle. Inspired by the fact that much empirical work in neuroscience suggests Bayesian (or probabilistic generative) approaches to brain function including learning and reasoning, we here propose a simple Bayesian model of logical reasoning and statistical learning. The theory is statistically correct as it satisfies Kolmogorov's axioms, is consistent with both Fenstad's representation theorem and maximum likelihood estimation and performs exact Bayesian inference with a linear-time complexity. The theory is logically correct as it is a data-driven generalisation of uncertain reasoning from consistency, possibility, inconsistency and impossibility. The theory is correct in terms of machine learning as its solution to generation and prediction tasks on the MNIST dataset is not only empirically reasonable but also theoretically correct against the K nearest neighbour method. We simply model how data causes symbolic knowledge in terms of its satisfiability in formal logic. Symbolic reasoning emerges as a result of the process of going the causality forwards and backwards. The forward and backward processes correspond to an interpretation and inverse interpretation in formal logic, respectively. The inverse interpretation differentiates our work from the mainstream often referred to as inverse entailment, inverse deduction or inverse resolution. The perspective gives new insights into learning and reasoning towards human-like machine intelligence.
Disjunctive Branch-and-Bound for Certifiably Optimal Low-Rank Matrix Completion
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Low-rank matrix completion consists of computing a matrix of minimal complexity that recovers a given set of observations as accurately as possible. Unfortunately, existing methods for matrix completion are heuristics that, while highly scalable and often identifying high-quality solutions, do not provide an instance-wise certificate of optimality. We reexamine matrix completion with an optimality-oriented eye. We reformulate low-rank matrix completion problems as convex problems over the non-convex set of projection matrices and implement a disjunctive branch-and-bound scheme that solves them to certifiable optimality. Further, we derive a novel and often near-exact class of convex relaxations by decomposing a low-rank matrix as a sum of rank-one matrices and incentivizing that two-by-two minors in each rank-one matrix have determinant zero. In numerical experiments, our new convex relaxations decrease the optimality gap by two orders of magnitude compared to existing attempts, and our disjunctive branch-and-bound scheme solves $n \times m$ rank-$k$ matrix completion problems to certifiable optimality or near optimality in hours for $\max \{m, n\} \leq 2500$ and $k \leq 5$. Moreover, this reduction in the training error translates into an average $2\%$--$50\%$ reduction in the test set error compared with alternating minimization-based methods.
Eye-tracked Virtual Reality: A Comprehensive Survey on Methods and Privacy Challenges
Venue: arXiv cs.HC 2026
Year: 2026

The latest developments in computer hardware, sensor technologies, and artificial intelligence can make virtual reality (VR) and virtual spaces an important part of human everyday life. Eye tracking offers not only a hands-free way of interaction but also the possibility of a deeper understanding of human visual attention and cognitive processes in VR. Despite these possibilities, eye-tracking data also reveals users' privacy-sensitive attributes when combined with the information about the presented stimulus. To address all, this survey first covers major works in eye tracking, VR, and privacy areas between 2012 and 2022. While eye tracking in VR part covers the computational eye tracking pipeline from pupil detection and gaze estimation to offline data analysis, for privacy and security, we focus on eye-based authentication as well as computational methods to preserve the privacy of individuals and their eye-tracking data in VR. Later, we outline three main directions by focusing on privacy. In summary, this survey presents an extensive literature review of the utmost possibilities of eye tracking in VR and their privacy implications.
Mindstorms in Natural Language-Based Societies of Mind
Venue: arXiv cs.AI 2026
Year: 2026

Both Minsky's "society of mind" and Schmidhuber's "learning to think" inspire diverse societies of large multimodal neural networks (NNs) that solve problems by interviewing each other in a "mindstorm." Recent implementations of NN-based societies of minds consist of large language models (LLMs) and other NN-based experts communicating through a natural language interface. In doing so, they overcome the limitations of single LLMs, improving multimodal zero-shot reasoning. In these natural language-based societies of mind (NLSOMs), new agents -- all communicating through the same universal symbolic language -- are easily added in a modular fashion. To demonstrate the power of NLSOMs, we assemble and experiment with several of them (having up to 129 members), leveraging mindstorms in them to solve some practical AI tasks: visual question answering, image captioning, text-to-image synthesis, 3D generation, egocentric retrieval, embodied AI, and general language-based task solving. We view this as a starting point towards much larger NLSOMs with billions of agents-some of which may be humans. And with this emergence of great societies of heterogeneous minds, many new research questions have suddenly become paramount to the future of artificial intelligence. What should be the social structure of an NLSOM? What would be the (dis)advantages of having a monarchical rather than a democratic structure? How can principles of NN economies be used to maximize the total reward of a reinforcement learning NLSOM? In this work, we identify, discuss, and try to answer some of these questions.
Enhancing the Driver's Comprehension of ADS's System Limitations: An HMI for Providing Request-to-Intervene Trigger Information
Venue: arXiv cs.HC 2026
Year: 2026

Level 3 automated driving systems (ADS) have attracted significant attention and are being commercialized. A Level 3 ADS prompts the driver to take control by requesting to intervene (RtI) when its operational design domain (ODD) or system limitations are exceeded. However, complex traffic situations may lead drivers to perceive multiple potential triggers of RtI simultaneously, causing hesitation or confusion during take-over. Therefore, drivers must clearly understand the ADS's system limitations to understand the triggers of RtI and ensure safe take-over. In this study, we propose a voice-based HMI for providing RtI trigger cues to help drivers understand ADS's system limitations. The results of a between-group experiment using a driving simulator showed that incorporating effective trigger cues into the RtI enabled drivers to comprehend the ADS's system limitations better and reduce collisions. It also improved the subjective evaluations of drivers, such as the comprehensibility of system limitations, hesitation in response to RtI, and acceptance of ADS behaviors when encountering RtI while using the ADS. Therefore, enhanced comprehension resulting from trigger cues is essential for promoting a safer and better user experience using ADS during RtI.
Gradient is All You Need? How Consensus-Based Optimization can be Interpreted as a Stochastic Relaxation of Gradient Descent
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

In this paper, we provide a novel analytical perspective on the theoretical understanding of gradient-based learning algorithms by interpreting consensus-based optimization (CBO), a recently proposed multi-particle derivative-free optimization method, as a stochastic relaxation of gradient descent. Remarkably, we observe that through communication of the particles, CBO exhibits a stochastic gradient descent (SGD)-like behavior despite solely relying on evaluations of the objective function. The fundamental value of such link between CBO and SGD lies in the fact that CBO is provably globally convergent to global minimizers for ample classes of nonsmooth and nonconvex objective functions. Hence, on the one side, we offer a novel explanation for the success of stochastic relaxations of gradient descent by furnishing useful and precise insights that explain how problem-tailored stochastic perturbations of gradient descent (like the ones induced by CBO) overcome energy barriers and reach deep levels of nonconvex functions. On the other side, and contrary to the conventional wisdom for which derivative-free methods ought to be inefficient or not to possess generalization abilities, our results unveil an intrinsic gradient descent nature of heuristics. Instructive numerical illustrations support the provided theoretical insights.
On The Relationship Between Continual Learning and Long-Tailed Recognition
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Real-world datasets often exhibit long-tailed distributions, where a few dominant "Head" classes have abundant samples while most "Tail" classes are severely underrepresented, leading to biased learning and poor generalization for the Tail. We present a theoretical framework that reveals a previously undescribed connection between Long-Tailed Recognition (LTR) and Continual Learning (CL), the process of learning sequential tasks without forgetting prior knowledge. Our analysis demonstrates that, for models trained on imbalanced datasets, the weights converge to a bounded neighborhood of those trained exclusively on the Head, with the bound scaling as the inverse square root of the imbalance factor. Leveraging this insight, we introduce Continual Learning for Long-Tailed Recognition (CLTR), a principled approach that employs standard off-the-shelf CL methods to address LTR problems by sequentially learning Head and Tail classes without forgetting the Head. Our theoretical analysis further suggests that CLTR mitigates gradient saturation and improves Tail learning while maintaining strong Head performance. Extensive experiments on CIFAR100-LT, CIFAR10-LT, ImageNet-LT, and Caltech256 validate our theoretical predictions, achieving strong results across various LTR benchmarks. Our work bridges the gap between LTR and CL, providing a principled way to tackle imbalanced data challenges with standard existing CL strategies.
Spectral Norm, Economical Sieve, and Linear Invariance Testing of Boolean Functions
Venue: arXiv cs.CC 2026
Year: 2026

Given Boolean functions \( f, g : \mathbb{F}_2^n \to \{-1,+1\} \), we say they are {\em linearly isomorphic} if there exists \( A \in \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{F}_2) \) such that \( f(x)=g(Ax) \) for all \( x \). We study this problem in the tolerant property testing framework under the known--unknown model, where \( g \) is given explicitly and \( f \) is accessible only via oracle queries, meaning the algorithm may adaptively request the value of \( f(x) \) for inputs \( x \in \mathbb{F}_2^n \) of its choice. Given parameters \( ε\ge 0 \) and \( ω>0 \), the goal is to distinguish whether there exists \( A \in \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{F}_{2})\) such that the normalized Hamming distance between \( f \) and \( g(Ax) \) is at most \( ε\), or whether for every \( A \in \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{F}_2) \) the distance is at least \( ε+ω\). Our main result is a tolerant tester making \( \widetilde{O} \left( \left( m/ω\right)^4 \right) \) queries to \( f \), where \( m \) is an upper bound on the spectral norm of \( g \), improving the previous \( \widetilde{O} \left( \left( m/ω\right)^{24} \right) \) bound of Wimmer and Yoshida. We complement this with a nearly matching lower bound of \( Ω(m^2) \) for constant \( ω\) (for example, \( ω=1/4 \)), improving the prior \( Ω(\log m) \) lower bound of Grigorescu, Wimmer and Xie. A key technical ingredient on the algorithmic side is a query-efficient local list corrector. For the lower bound, we give a reduction from communication complexity using a novel subclass of Maiorana--McFarland functions from symmetric-key cryptography.
Pengembangan Model untuk Mendeteksi Kerusakan pada Terumbu Karang dengan Klasifikasi Citra
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2026
Year: 2026

The rich biodiversity of coral reefs in Indonesian waters represents a valuable asset that must be preserved. Rapid climate change and uncontrolled human activities have caused significant degradation of coral reef ecosystems, including coral bleaching, which is a critical indicator of declining reef health. Therefore, this study aims to develop an accurate classification model to distinguish between healthy corals and bleached corals. This research utilizes a specialized dataset consisting of 923 images collected from Flickr using the Flickr API. The dataset comprises two distinct classes: healthy corals (438 images) and bleached corals (485 images). All images were resized so that the maximum width or height does not exceed 300 pixels, ensuring consistent image dimensions across the dataset. The proposed approach employs machine learning techniques, particularly convolutional neural networks (CNNs), to identify and differentiate visual patterns associated with healthy and bleached corals. The dataset can be used to train and evaluate various classification models in order to achieve optimal performance. Using the ResNet architecture, the results indicate that a ResNet model trained from scratch outperforms pretrained models in terms of both precision and accuracy. The successful development of an accurate classification model provides substantial benefits for researchers and marine biologists by enabling a deeper understanding of coral reef health. Furthermore, these models can be applied to monitor environmental changes in coral reef ecosystems, thereby contributing meaningfully to conservation and restoration efforts that are vital to sustaining marine life.
Prompting4Debugging: Red-Teaming Text-to-Image Diffusion Models by Finding Problematic Prompts
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Text-to-image diffusion models, e.g. Stable Diffusion (SD), lately have shown remarkable ability in high-quality content generation, and become one of the representatives for the recent wave of transformative AI. Nevertheless, such advance comes with an intensifying concern about the misuse of this generative technology, especially for producing copyrighted or NSFW (i.e. not safe for work) images. Although efforts have been made to filter inappropriate images/prompts or remove undesirable concepts/styles via model fine-tuning, the reliability of these safety mechanisms against diversified problematic prompts remains largely unexplored. In this work, we propose Prompting4Debugging (P4D) as a debugging and red-teaming tool that automatically finds problematic prompts for diffusion models to test the reliability of a deployed safety mechanism. We demonstrate the efficacy of our P4D tool in uncovering new vulnerabilities of SD models with safety mechanisms. Particularly, our result shows that around half of prompts in existing safe prompting benchmarks which were originally considered "safe" can actually be manipulated to bypass many deployed safety mechanisms, including concept removal, negative prompt, and safety guidance. Our findings suggest that, without comprehensive testing, the evaluations on limited safe prompting benchmarks can lead to a false sense of safety for text-to-image models.
Contextualising Levels of Language Resourcedness that affect NLP tasks
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Several widely used software applications involve some form of processing of natural language, with tasks ranging from digitising hardcopies and text processing to speech generation. Varied language resources are used to develop software systems to accomplish a wide range of natural language processing (NLP) tasks, such as the ubiquitous spellcheckers and chatbots. Languages are typically characterised as either low (LRL) or high resourced languages (HRL) with African languages having been characterised as resource-scarce languages and English by far the most well-resourced language. But what lies in-between? We argue that the dichotomous typology of LRL and HRL for all languages is problematic. Through a clear understanding of language resources situated in a society, a matrix is developed that characterises languages as Very LRL, LRL, RL, HRL and Very HRL. The characterisation is based on the typology of contextual features for each category, rather than counting tools. The motivation is provided for each feature and each characterisation. The contextualisation of resourcedness, with a focus on African languages in this paper, and an increased understanding of where on the scale the language used in a project is, may assist in, among others, better planning of research and implementation projects. We thus argue in this paper that the characterisation of language resources within a given scale in a project is an indispensable component, particularly for those in the lower half of the scale.