OpenRaiser/Intern-Atlas huggingface dataset:
A large-scale pipeline for automatic corpus annotation using LLMs: variation and change in the English consider construction
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

As natural language corpora expand at an unprecedented rate, manual annotation remains a significant methodological bottleneck in corpus linguistic work. We address this challenge by presenting a scalable pipeline for automating grammatical annotation in voluminous corpora using large language models (LLMs). Unlike previous supervised and iterative approaches, our method employs a four-phase workflow: prompt engineering, pre-hoc evaluation, automated batch processing, and post-hoc validation. We demonstrate the pipeline's accessibility and effectiveness through a diachronic case study of variation in the English evaluative consider construction (consider X as/to be/zero Y). We annotate 143,933 'consider' concordance lines from the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) via the OpenAI API in under 60 hours, achieving 98 percent+ accuracy on two sophisticated annotation procedures. A Bayesian multinomial GAM fitted to 44,527 true positives of the evaluative construction reveals previously undocumented genre-specific trajectories of change, enabling us to advance new hypotheses about the relationship between register formality and competing pressures of morphosyntactic reduction and enhancement. Our results suggest that LLMs can perform a range of data preparation tasks at scale with minimal human intervention, unlocking substantive research questions previously beyond practical reach, though implementation requires attention to costs, licensing, and other ethical considerations.
A Hierarchical Quantized Tokenization Framework for Task-Adaptive Graph Representation Learning
Venue: arXiv cs.IR 2026
Year: 2026

Foundation models in language and vision benefit from a unified discrete token interface that converts raw inputs into sequences for scalable pre-training and inference. For graphs, an effective tokenizer should yield reusable discrete codes that capture both node semantics and relational structure across scales, yet prior quantization-based graph tokenizers typically combine residual vector quantization (RVQ) levels with fixed rules and often focus on a single structural view, limiting cross-task transfer. We present a hierarchical quantized tokenization framework with task-conditioned routing and dual-view token streams. It produces multi-scale codes and two synchronized sequences: a local stream that preserves node-level information and a diffusion-style multi-hop stream that summarizes connectivity. A lightweight router learns task-dependent mixtures over RVQ depths to select an appropriate granularity, while a gated cross-attention module aligns and fuses the two streams into a single token sequence without altering the downstream backbone encoder. Experiments on node classification and link prediction show consistent gains over strong quantized baselines at matched compute, with ablations verifying contributions from hierarchical quantization, adaptive routing, and fusion.
Cautious Weight Decay
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

We introduce Cautious Weight Decay (CWD), a one-line, optimizer-agnostic modification that applies weight decay only to parameter coordinates whose signs align with the optimizer update. Unlike standard decoupled decay, which implicitly optimizes a regularized or constrained objective, CWD preserves the original loss and admits a bilevel interpretation: it induces sliding-mode behavior upon reaching the stationary manifold, allowing it to search for locally Pareto-optimal stationary points of the unmodified objective. In practice, CWD is a drop-in change for optimizers such as AdamW, Lion, and Muon, requiring no new hyperparameters or additional tuning. For language model pre-training and ImageNet classification, CWD consistently improves final loss and accuracy at million- to billion-parameter scales.
Power Assumptions Matter: Evaluating End-user Laptop Energy Models for Sustainability Reporting of Browser-Based Web Services
Venue: arXiv cs.SE 2026
Year: 2026

Sustainability reporting for web-based services often relies on simplified end-user energy models that assume constant laptop power during browser interactions. Energy models such as Digst and DIMPACT apply fixed power values (15-22W), yet the validity of this approach for realistic browsing remains underexplored. We empirically evaluate constant-power assumptions in a controlled user study where ten participants repeatedly complete eight representative user flows across shopping, booking, navigation, and news services on four laptop platforms, while device energy is measured. Typical power is 9--13~W, substantially below current reporting standards, implying systematic overestimation. Moreover, the error scales proportionally with task duration, indicating systematic bias rather than random noise. Comparing progressively refined constant-power models, we find that category-specific parameters improve accuracy more than hardware-only parameters and approach flow-specific performance. The best fit is obtained by combining category (or flow) with hardware, while category-level models retain most of the benefit with fewer parameters, making them a practical upgrade for sustainability reporting.
COINS: SemantiC Ids Enhanced COLd Item RepresentatioN for Click-through Rate Prediction in E-commerce Search
Venue: arXiv cs.IR 2026
Year: 2026

With the rise of modern search and recommendation platforms, insufficient collaborative information of cold-start items exacerbates the Matthew effect of existing platform items, challenging platform diversity and becoming a longstanding issue. Existing methods align items' side content with collaborative information to transfer collaborative signals from high-popularity items to cold-start items. However, these methods fail to account for the asymmetry between collaboration and content, nor the fine-grained differences among items. To address these issues, we propose COINS, an item representation enhancement approach based on fused alignment of semantic IDs. Specifically, we use RQ-OPQ encoding to quantize item content and collaborative information, followed by a two-step alignment: RQ encoding transfers shared collaborative signals across items, while OPQ encoding learns differentiated information of items. Comprehensive offline experiments on large-scale industrial datasets demonstrate superiority of COINS, and rigorous online A/B tests confirm statistically significant improvements: item CTR +1.66%, buyers +1.57%, and order volume +2.17%.
Protege Effect for Behaviour Change: Does Teaching Digital Stress Solutions to Others Reduce One's Own?
Venue: arXiv cs.HC 2026
Year: 2026

The protégé effect suggests that individuals learn a subject more effectively when they teach it to others. Can we therefore assume that when individuals with a problematic behaviour teach others about it and how to manage it, they become more likely to reduce and better manage that behaviour themselves? We address this question by evaluating a protégé based approach to reducing and managing digital stress (DS). Over three weeks, 137 participants with moderate-high DS were assigned to four groups. Two groups followed a protégé based approach: a passive group, given materials to teach, and an active group, given headlines and required to search for and prepare teaching content. Both groups completed three sessions, each focusing on one DS dimension: availability stress, approval anxiety, and fear of missing out. A digital literacy group received content and quizzes, alongside a control group. Outcomes included DS levels, problematic social media use, word of mouth, and issue involvement. Results showed no significant differences between groups. The findings highlight the difficulty of translating cognitive engagement into behavioural change. This study contributes empirical evidence to digital wellbeing literature by illustrating the challenges of enhancing digital wellbeing, potentially due to persistent digital habits and socially reinforced stressors.
CleverCatch: A Knowledge-Guided Weak Supervision Model for Fraud Detection
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Healthcare fraud detection remains a critical challenge due to limited availability of labeled data, constantly evolving fraud tactics, and the high dimensionality of medical records. Traditional supervised methods are challenged by extreme label scarcity, while purely unsupervised approaches often fail to capture clinically meaningful anomalies. In this work, we introduce CleverCatch, a knowledge-guided weak supervision model designed to detect fraudulent prescription behaviors with improved accuracy and interpretability. Our approach integrates structured domain expertise into a neural architecture that aligns rules and data samples within a shared embedding space. By training encoders jointly on synthetic data representing both compliance and violation, CleverCatch learns soft rule embeddings that generalize to complex, real-world datasets. This hybrid design enables data-driven learning to be enhanced by domain-informed constraints, bridging the gap between expert heuristics and machine learning. Experiments on the large-scale real-world dataset demonstrate that CleverCatch outperforms four state-of-the-art anomaly detection baselines, yielding average improvements of 1.3\% in AUC and 3.4\% in recall. Our ablation study further highlights the complementary role of expert rules, confirming the adaptability of the framework. The results suggest that embedding expert rules into the learning process not only improves detection accuracy but also increases transparency, offering an interpretable approach for high-stakes domains such as healthcare fraud detection.
Beyond Correctness: Rewarding Faithful Reasoning in Retrieval-Augmented Generation
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Inspired by the success of reinforcement learning (RL) in Large Language Model (LLM) training for domains like math and code, recent works have begun exploring how to train LLMs to use search engines more effectively as tools for retrieval-augmented generation. Although these methods achieve performance improvement across QA benchmarks, many prioritize final answer correctness while overlooking the quality of intermediate reasoning steps, which may lead to chain-of-thought unfaithfulness. In this paper, we first introduce a comprehensive evaluation framework for evaluating RL-based search agents, covering three distinct faithfulness metrics: information-think faithfulness, think-answer faithfulness, and think-search faithfulness. Our evaluations reveal that canonical search agents trained via Reinforcement Learning from Verifiable Reward (RLVR) -- including SearchR1 and ReSearch -- have significant room for improvement in this regard. To foster faithful reasoning, we introduce VERITAS(Verifying Entailed Reasoning through Intermediate Traceability in Agentic Search), a novel framework that integrates fine-grained faithfulness rewards into the reinforcement learning process. Our experiments show that models trained with VERITAS not only significantly improve reasoning faithfulness, but also achieve better task performance compared to the baselines trained against pure outcome-based reward.
On Your Own: Pro-level Autonomous Drone Racing in Uninstrumented Arenas
Venue: arXiv cs.RO 2026
Year: 2026

Drone technology is proliferating in many industries, including agriculture, logistics, defense, infrastructure, and environmental monitoring. Vision-based autonomy is one of its key enablers, particularly for real-world applications. This is essential for operating in novel, unstructured environments where traditional navigation methods may be unavailable. Autonomous drone racing has become the de facto benchmark for such systems. State-of-the-art research has shown that autonomous systems can surpass human-level performance in racing arenas. However, the direct applicability to commercial and field operations is still limited, as current systems are often trained and evaluated in highly controlled environments. In our contribution, the system's capabilities are analyzed within a controlled environment -- where external tracking is available for ground-truth comparison -- but also demonstrated in a challenging, uninstrumented environment -- where ground-truth measurements were never available. We show that our approach can match the performance of professional human pilots in both scenarios.
Entropy Meets Importance: A Unified Head Importance-Entropy Score for Stable and Efficient Transformer Pruning
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Transformer-based models have achieved remarkable performance in NLP tasks. However, their structural characteristics-multiple layers and attention heads-introduce efficiency challenges in inference and deployment. To address these challenges, various pruning methods have recently been proposed. Notably, gradient-based methods using Head Importance Scores (HIS) have gained traction for interpretability, efficiency, and ability to identify redundant heads. However, HIS alone has limitations as it captures only the gradient-driven contribution, overlooking the diversity of attention patterns. To overcome these limitations, we introduce a novel pruning criterion, HIES (Head Importance-Entropy Score), which integrates head importance scores with attention entropy, providing complementary evidence on per-head contribution. Empirically, HIES-based pruning yields up to 15.2% improvement in model quality and 2.04x improvement in stability over HIS-only methods, enabling substantial model compression without sacrificing either accuracy or stability. Code will be released upon publication.
Harnessing Consistency for Robust Test-Time LLM Ensemble
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Different large language models (LLMs) exhibit diverse strengths and weaknesses, and LLM ensemble serves as a promising approach to integrate their complementary capabilities. Despite substantial progress in improving ensemble quality, limited attention has been paid to the robustness of ensembles against potential erroneous signals, which often arise from heterogeneous tokenization schemes and varying model expertise. Our analysis shows that ensemble failures typically arise from both the token level and the model level: the former reflects severe disagreement in token predictions, while the latter involves low confidence and pronounced disparities among models. In light of this, we propose CoRE, a plug-and-play technique that harnesses model consistency for robust LLM ensemble, which can be seamlessly integrated with diverse ensemble methods. *Token-level consistency* captures fine-grained disagreements by applying a low-pass filter to downweight uncertain tokens with high inconsistency, often due to token misalignment, thereby improving robustness at a granular level. *Model-level consistency* models global agreement by promoting model outputs with high self-confidence and minimal divergence from others, enhancing robustness at a coarser level. Extensive experiments across diverse benchmarks, model combinations, and ensemble strategies demonstrate that CoRE consistently improves ensemble performance and robustness. Our code is available at https://github.com/zhichenz98/CoRE-EACL26.
Guarding the Guardrails: A Taxonomy-Driven Approach to Jailbreak Detection
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2026
Year: 2026

Jailbreaking techniques pose a significant threat to the safety of Large Language Models (LLMs). Existing defenses typically focus on single-turn attacks, lack coverage across languages, and rely on limited taxonomies that either fail to capture the full diversity of attack strategies or emphasize risk categories rather than jailbreaking techniques. To advance the understanding of the effectiveness of jailbreaking techniques, we conducted a structured red-teaming challenge. The outcomes of our experiments are fourfold. First, we developed a comprehensive hierarchical taxonomy of jailbreak strategies that systematically consolidates techniques previously studied in isolation and harmonizes existing, partially overlapping classifications with explicit cross-references to prior categorizations. The taxonomy organizes jailbreak strategies into seven mechanism-oriented families: impersonation, persuasion, privilege escalation, cognitive overload, obfuscation, goal conflict, and data poisoning. Second, we analyzed the data collected from the challenge to examine the prevalence and success rates of different attack types, providing insights into how specific jailbreak strategies exploit model vulnerabilities and induce misalignment. Third, we benchmarked GPT-5 as a judge for jailbreak detection, evaluating the benefits of taxonomy-guided prompting for improving automatic detection. Finally, we compiled a new Italian dataset of 1364 multi-turn adversarial dialogues, annotated with our taxonomy, enabling the study of interactions where adversarial intent emerges gradually and succeeds in bypassing traditional safeguards.
Noise-Adaptive Layerwise Learning Rates: Accelerating Geometry-Aware Optimization for Deep Neural Network Training
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Geometry-aware optimization algorithms, such as Muon, have achieved remarkable success in training deep neural networks (DNNs). These methods leverage the underlying geometry of DNNs by selecting appropriate norms for different layers and updating parameters via norm-constrained linear minimization oracles (LMOs). However, even within a group of layers associated with the same norm, the local curvature can be heterogeneous across layers and vary dynamically over the course of training. For example, recent work shows that sharpness varies substantially across transformer layers and throughout training, yet standard geometry-aware optimizers impose fixed learning rates to layers within the same group, which may be inefficient for DNN training. In this paper, we introduce a noise-adaptive layerwise learning rate scheme on top of geometry-aware optimization algorithms and substantially accelerate DNN training compared to methods that use fixed learning rates within each group. Our method estimates gradient variance in the dual norm induced by the chosen LMO on the fly, and uses it to assign time-varying noise-adaptive layerwise learning rates within each group. We provide a theoretical analysis showing that our algorithm achieves a sharp convergence rate. Empirical results on transformer architectures such as LLaMA and GPT demonstrate that our approach achieves faster convergence than state-of-the-art optimizers.
Exploratory Causal Inference in SAEnce
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Randomized Controlled Trials are one of the pillars of science; nevertheless, they rely on hand-crafted hypotheses and expensive analysis. Such constraints prevent causal effect estimation at scale, potentially anchoring on popular yet incomplete hypotheses. We propose to discover the unknown effects of a treatment directly from data. For this, we turn unstructured data from a trial into meaningful representations via pretrained foundation models and interpret them via a sparse autoencoder. However, discovering significant causal effects at the neural level is not trivial due to multiple-testing issues and effects entanglement. To address these challenges, we introduce Neural Effect Search, a novel recursive procedure solving both issues by progressive stratification. After assessing the robustness of our algorithm on semi-synthetic experiments, we showcase, in the context of experimental ecology, the first successful unsupervised causal effect identification on a real-world scientific trial.
Every Language Model Has a Forgery-Resistant Signature
Venue: arXiv cs.CR 2026
Year: 2026

The ubiquity of closed-weight language models with public-facing APIs has generated interest in forensic methods, both for extracting hidden model details (e.g., parameters) and for identifying models by their outputs. One successful approach to these goals has been to exploit the geometric constraints imposed by the language model architecture and parameters. In this work, we show that a lesser-known geometric constraint -- namely, that language model outputs lie on the surface of a high-dimensional ellipse -- functions as a signature for the model and can be used to identify the source model of a given output. This ellipse signature has unique properties that distinguish it from existing model-output association methods like language model fingerprints. In particular, the signature is hard to forge: without direct access to model parameters, it is practically infeasible to produce log-probabilities (logprobs) on the ellipse using currently known methods. Secondly, the signature is naturally occurring, since all language models have these elliptical constraints. Thirdly, the signature is self-contained, in that it is detectable without access to the model inputs or the full weights. Finally, the signature is compact and redundant, as it is independently detectable in each logprob output from the model. We evaluate a novel technique for extracting the ellipse from small models and discuss the practical hurdles that make it infeasible for production-scale models. Finally, we use ellipse signatures to propose a protocol for language model output verification, analogous to cryptographic symmetric-key message authentication systems.
CodeEvolve: an open source evolutionary coding agent for algorithmic discovery and optimization
Venue: arXiv cs.AI 2026
Year: 2026

We introduce CodeEvolve, an open-source framework that combines large language models (LLMs) with evolutionary search to synthesize high-performing algorithmic solutions. CodeEvolve couples an islands-based genetic algorithm with modular LLM orchestration, using execution feedback and task-specific metrics to guide selection and variation. Exploration and exploitation are balanced through context-aware recombination, adaptive meta-prompting, and targeted refinement of promising solutions. We evaluate CodeEvolve on benchmarks used to assess Google DeepMind's AlphaEvolve, and include direct comparisons with popular open-source frameworks for algorithmic discovery and heuristic design. Our results show that CodeEvolve achieves state-of-the-art (SOTA) performance on several tasks, with open-weight models often matching or exceeding closed-source baselines at a fraction of the compute cost. We provide extensive ablations, practical hyperparameter guidance, and release our framework and experimental results at https://github.com/inter-co/science-codeevolve.
Contrastive Diffusion Alignment: Learning Structured Latents for Controllable Generation
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2026
Year: 2026

Diffusion models excel at generation, but their latent spaces are high dimensional and not explicitly organized for interpretation or control. We introduce ConDA (Contrastive Diffusion Alignment), a plug-and-play geometry layer that applies contrastive learning to pretrained diffusion latents using auxiliary variables (e.g., time, stimulation parameters, facial action units). ConDA learns a low-dimensional embedding whose directions align with underlying dynamical factors, consistent with recent contrastive learning results on structured and disentangled representations. In this embedding, simple nonlinear trajectories support smooth interpolation, extrapolation, and counterfactual editing while rendering remains in the original diffusion space. ConDA separates editing and rendering by lifting embedding trajectories back to diffusion latents with a neighborhood-preserving kNN decoder and is robust across inversion solvers. Across fluid dynamics, neural calcium imaging, therapeutic neurostimulation, facial expression dynamics, and monkey motor cortex activity, ConDA yields more interpretable and controllable latent structure than linear traversals and conditioning-based baselines, indicating that diffusion latents encode dynamics-relevant structure that can be exploited by an explicit contrastive geometry layer.