OpenRaiser/Intern-Atlas huggingface dataset:
Distribution Testing in the Presence of Arbitrarily Dominant Noise with Verification Queries
Venue: arXiv cs.DS 2025
Year: 2025

We study distribution testing without direct access to a source of relevant data, but rather to one where only a tiny fraction is relevant. To enable this, we introduce the following verification query model. The goal is to perform a statistical task on distribution $\boldsymbol{p}$ given sample access to a mixture $\boldsymbol{r} = λ\boldsymbol{p} + (1-λ)\boldsymbol{q}$ and the ability to query whether a sample was generated by $\boldsymbol{p}$ or by $\boldsymbol{q}$. In general, if $m_0$ samples from $\boldsymbol{p}$ suffice for a task, then $O(m_0/λ)$ samples and queries always suffice in our model. Are there tasks for which the number of queries can be significantly reduced? We study the canonical problems in distribution testing, and obtain matching upper and lower bounds that reveal smooth trade-offs between sample and query complexity. For all $m \leq n$, we obtain (i) a uniformity and identity tester using $O(m + \frac{\sqrt{n}}{\varepsilon^2 λ})$ samples and $O(\frac{n}{m \varepsilon^4 λ^2})$ queries, and (ii) a closeness tester using $O(m + \frac{n^{2/3}}{\varepsilon^{4/3} λ} + \frac{1}{\varepsilon^4 λ^3})$ samples and $O(\frac{n^2}{m^2 \varepsilon^4 λ^3})$ queries. Moreover, we show that these query complexities are tight for all testers using $m \ll n$ samples. Next, we show that for testing closeness using $m = \widetilde{O}(\frac{n}{\varepsilon^2λ})$ samples we can achieve query complexity $\widetilde{O}(\frac{1}{\varepsilon^2λ})$ which is nearly optimal even for the basic task of bias estimation with unbounded samples. Our uniformity testers work in the more challenging setting where the contaminated samples are generated by an adaptive adversary (at the cost of a $\log n$ factor). Finally, we show that our lower bounds can be circumvented if the algorithm is provided with the PDF of the mixture.
Explainability matters: The effect of liability rules on the healthcare sector
Venue: arXiv cs.CY 2025
Year: 2025

Explainability, the capability of an artificial intelligence system (AIS) to explain its outcomes in a manner that is comprehensible to human beings at an acceptable level, has been deemed essential for critical sectors, such as healthcare. Is it really the case? In this perspective, we consider two extreme cases, ``Oracle'' (without explainability) versus ``AI Colleague'' (with explainability) for a thorough analysis. We discuss how the level of automation and explainability of AIS can affect the determination of liability among the medical practitioner/facility and manufacturer of AIS. We argue that explainability plays a crucial role in setting a responsibility framework in healthcare, from a legal standpoint, to shape the behavior of all involved parties and mitigate the risk of potential defensive medicine practices.
Mano Technical Report
Venue: arXiv cs.MM 2025
Year: 2025

Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) are the primary medium for human-computer interaction, yet automating GUI interactions remains challenging due to the complexity of visual elements, dynamic environments, and the need for multi-step reasoning. Existing methods based on vision-language models (VLMs) often suffer from limited resolution, domain mismatch, and insufficient sequential decisionmaking capability. To address these issues, we propose Mano, a robust GUI agent built upon a multi-modal foundation model pre-trained on extensive web and computer system data. Our approach integrates a novel simulated environment for high-fidelity data generation, a three-stage training pipeline (supervised fine-tuning, offline reinforcement learning, and online reinforcement learning), and a verification module for error recovery. Mano demonstrates state-of-the-art performance on multiple GUI benchmarks, including Mind2Web and OSWorld, achieving significant improvements in success rate and operational accuracy. Our work provides new insights into the effective integration of reinforcement learning with VLMs for practical GUI agent deployment, highlighting the importance of domain-specific data, iterative training, and holistic reward design.
Pre-Trained CNN Architecture for Transformer-Based Image Caption Generation Model
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Automatic image captioning, a multifaceted task bridging computer vision and natural language processing, aims to generate descriptive textual content from visual input. While Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks have achieved significant advancements, they present limitations. The inherent sequential nature of RNNs leads to sluggish training and inference times. LSTMs further struggle with retaining information from earlier sequence elements when dealing with very long sequences. This project presents a comprehensive guide to constructing and comprehending transformer models for image captioning. Transformers employ self-attention mechanisms, capturing both short- and long-range dependencies within the data. This facilitates efficient parallelization during both training and inference phases. We leverage the well-established Transformer architecture, recognized for its effectiveness in managing sequential data, and present a meticulous methodology. Utilizing the Flickr30k dataset, we conduct data pre-processing, construct a model architecture that integrates an EfficientNetB0 CNN for feature extraction, and train the model with attention mechanisms incorporated. Our approach exemplifies the utilization of parallelization for efficient training and inference. You can find the project on GitHub.
Scale-free Characteristics of Multilingual Legal Texts and the Limitations of LLMs
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

We present a comparative analysis of text complexity across domains using scale-free metrics. We quantify linguistic complexity via Heaps' exponent $β$ (vocabulary growth), Taylor's exponent $α$ (word-frequency fluctuation scaling), compression rate $r$ (redundancy), and entropy. Our corpora span three domains: legal documents (statutes, cases, deeds) as a specialized domain, general natural language texts (literature, Wikipedia), and AI-generated (GPT) text. We find that legal texts exhibit slower vocabulary growth (lower $β$) and higher term consistency (higher $α$) than general texts. Within legal domain, statutory codes have the lowest $β$ and highest $α$, reflecting strict drafting conventions, while cases and deeds show higher $β$ and lower $α$. In contrast, GPT-generated text shows the statistics more aligning with general language patterns. These results demonstrate that legal texts exhibit domain-specific structures and complexities, which current generative models do not fully replicate.
Revisiting Vision Language Foundations for No-Reference Image Quality Assessment
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Large-scale vision language pre-training has recently shown promise for no-reference image-quality assessment (NR-IQA), yet the relative merits of modern Vision Transformer foundations remain poorly understood. In this work, we present the first systematic evaluation of six prominent pretrained backbones, CLIP, SigLIP2, DINOv2, DINOv3, Perception, and ResNet, for the task of No-Reference Image Quality Assessment (NR-IQA), each finetuned using an identical lightweight MLP head. Our study uncovers two previously overlooked factors: (1) SigLIP2 consistently achieves strong performance; and (2) the choice of activation function plays a surprisingly crucial role, particularly for enhancing the generalization ability of image quality assessment models. Notably, we find that simple sigmoid activations outperform commonly used ReLU and GELU on several benchmarks. Motivated by this finding, we introduce a learnable activation selection mechanism that adaptively determines the nonlinearity for each channel, eliminating the need for manual activation design, and achieving new state-of-the-art SRCC on CLIVE, KADID10K, and AGIQA3K. Extensive ablations confirm the benefits across architectures and regimes, establishing strong, resource-efficient NR-IQA baselines.
Diff-GNSS: Diffusion-based Pseudorange Error Estimation
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are vital for reliable urban positioning. However, multipath and non-line-of-sight reception often introduce large measurement errors that degrade accuracy. Learning-based methods for predicting and compensating pseudorange errors have gained traction, but their performance is limited by complex error distributions. To address this challenge, we propose Diff-GNSS, a coarse-to-fine GNSS measurement (pseudorange) error estimation framework that leverages a conditional diffusion model to capture such complex distributions. Firstly, a Mamba-based module performs coarse estimation to provide an initial prediction with appropriate scale and trend. Then, a conditional denoising diffusion layer refines the estimate, enabling fine-grained modeling of pseudorange errors. To suppress uncontrolled generative diversity and achieve controllable synthesis, three key features related to GNSS measurement quality are used as conditions to precisely guide the reverse denoising process. We further incorporate per-satellite uncertainty modeling within the diffusion stage to assess the reliability of the predicted errors. We have collected and publicly released a real-world dataset covering various scenes. Experiments on public and self-collected datasets show that DiffGNSS consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines across multiple metrics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first application of diffusion models to pseudorange error estimation. The proposed diffusion-based refinement module is plug-and-play and can be readily integrated into existing networks to markedly improve estimation accuracy.
Evaluating Multimodal Large Language Models with Daily Composite Tasks in Home Environments
Venue: arXiv cs.AI 2025
Year: 2025

A key feature differentiating artificial general intelligence (AGI) from traditional AI is that AGI can perform composite tasks that require a wide range of capabilities. Although embodied agents powered by multimodal large language models (MLLMs) offer rich perceptual and interactive capabilities, it remains largely unexplored whether they can solve composite tasks. In the current work, we designed a set of composite tasks inspired by common daily activities observed in early childhood development. Within a dynamic and simulated home environment, these tasks span three core domains: object understanding, spatial intelligence, and social activity. We evaluated 17 leading proprietary and open-source MLLMs on these tasks. The results consistently showed poor performance across all three domains, indicating a substantial gap between current capabilities and general intelligence requirements. Together, our tasks offer a preliminary framework for evaluating the general capabilities of embodied agents, marking an early but significant step toward the development of embodied MLLMs and their real-world deployment.
GeoPQA: Bridging the Visual Perception Gap in MLLMs for Geometric Reasoning
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

Recent advancements in reinforcement learning (RL) have enhanced the reasoning abilities of large language models (LLMs), yet the impact on multimodal LLMs (MLLMs) is limited. Particularly in vision-intensive tasks like geometric reasoning, MLLMs hallucinate frequently, leading to inaccurate reasoning. We attribute this to the perceptual bottleneck in MLLMs, which caps the benefits of reasoning training. To quantify this, we design a Geo-Perception Question-Answering (GeoPQA) benchmark, targeting basic geometric concepts and spatial relationships. Experiments on GeoPQA reveal significant shortcomings of MLLMs in visual perception, which constrain RL reward signals for effective training. To address this bottleneck, we propose a two-stage RL training framework by first enhancing the visual perception of geometric structures, then fostering reasoning capabilities. Applied to Qwen2.5-VL-3B-Instruct, our two-stage training improves geometric reasoning by 9.7% and geometric problem solving by 9.1%, compared to the direct reasoning training approach. Our method also generalizes to other vision-intensive domains like figure understanding, highlighting the importance of perceptual grounding in effective MLLM reasoning.
Codifying Natural Langauge Tasks
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

We explore the applicability of text-to-code to solve real-world problems that are typically solved in natural language, such as legal judgment and medical QA. Unlike previous works, our approach leverages the explicit reasoning provided by program generation. We present ICRAG, a framework that transforms natural language into executable programs through iterative refinement using external knowledge from domain resources and GitHub. Across 13 benchmarks, ICRAG achieves up to 161.1\% relative improvement. We provide a detailed analysis of the generated code and the impact of external knowledge, and we discuss the limitations of applying text-to-code approaches to real-world natural language tasks.
Stable Video-Driven Portraits
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Portrait animation aims to generate photo-realistic videos from a single source image by reenacting the expression and pose from a driving video. While early methods relied on 3D morphable models or feature warping techniques, they often suffered from limited expressivity, temporal inconsistency, and poor generalization to unseen identities or large pose variations. Recent advances using diffusion models have demonstrated improved quality but remain constrained by weak control signals and architectural limitations. In this work, we propose a novel diffusion based framework that leverages masked facial regions specifically the eyes, nose, and mouth from the driving video as strong motion control cues. To enable robust training without appearance leakage, we adopt cross identity supervision. To leverage the strong prior from the pretrained diffusion model, our novel architecture introduces minimal new parameters that converge faster and help in better generalization. We introduce spatial temporal attention mechanisms that allow inter frame and intra frame interactions, effectively capturing subtle motions and reducing temporal artifacts. Our model uses history frames to ensure continuity across segments. At inference, we propose a novel signal fusion strategy that balances motion fidelity with identity preservation. Our approach achieves superior temporal consistency and accurate expression control, enabling high-quality, controllable portrait animation suitable for real-world applications.
Privacy in Action: Towards Realistic Privacy Mitigation and Evaluation for LLM-Powered Agents
Venue: arXiv cs.CR 2025
Year: 2025

The increasing autonomy of LLM agents in handling sensitive communications, accelerated by Model Context Protocol (MCP) and Agent-to-Agent (A2A) frameworks, creates urgent privacy challenges. While recent work reveals significant gaps between LLMs' privacy Q&A performance and their agent behavior, existing benchmarks remain limited to static, simplified scenarios. We present PrivacyChecker, a model-agnostic, contextual integrity based mitigation approach that effectively reduces privacy leakage from 36.08% to 7.30% on DeepSeek-R1 and from 33.06% to 8.32% on GPT-4o, all while preserving task helpfulness. We also introduce PrivacyLens-Live, transforming static benchmarks into dynamic MCP and A2A environments that reveal substantially higher privacy risks in practical. Our modular mitigation approach integrates seamlessly into agent protocols through three deployment strategies, providing practical privacy protection for the emerging agentic ecosystem. Our data and code will be made available at https://aka.ms/privacy_in_action.
Enhancing Cross-Lingual Transfer through Reversible Transliteration: A Huffman-Based Approach for Low-Resource Languages
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

As large language models (LLMs) are trained on increasingly diverse and extensive multilingual corpora, they demonstrate cross-lingual transfer capabilities. However, these capabilities often fail to effectively extend to low-resource languages, particularly those utilizing non-Latin scripts. While transliterating low-resource languages into Latin script presents a natural solution, there currently lacks a comprehensive framework for integrating transliteration into LLMs training and deployment. Taking a pragmatic approach, this paper innovatively combines character transliteration with Huffman coding to design a complete transliteration framework. Our proposed framework offers the following advantages: 1) Compression: Reduces storage requirements for low-resource language content, achieving up to 50% reduction in file size and 50-80% reduction in token count. 2) Accuracy: Guarantees 100% lossless conversion from transliterated text back to the source language. 3) Efficiency: Eliminates the need for vocabulary expansion for low-resource languages, improving training and inference efficiency. 4) Scalability: The framework can be extended to other low-resource languages. We validate the effectiveness of our framework across multiple downstream tasks, including text classification, machine reading comprehension, and machine translation. Experimental results demonstrate that our method significantly enhances the model's capability to process low-resource languages while maintaining performance on high-resource languages. Our data and code are publicly available at https://github.com/CMLI-NLP/HuffmanTranslit.
Vision-Based Driver Drowsiness Monitoring: Comparative Analysis of YOLOv5-v11 Models
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Driver drowsiness remains a critical factor in road accidents, accounting for thousands of fatalities and injuries each year. This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of real-time, non-intrusive drowsiness detection methods, focusing on computer vision based YOLO (You Look Only Once) algorithms. A publicly available dataset namely, UTA-RLDD was used, containing both awake and drowsy conditions, ensuring variability in gender, eyewear, illumination, and skin tone. Seven YOLO variants (v5s, v9c, v9t, v10n, v10l, v11n, v11l) are fine-tuned, with performance measured in terms of Precision, Recall, mAP0.5, and mAP 0.5-0.95. Among these, YOLOv9c achieved the highest accuracy (0.986 mAP 0.5, 0.978 Recall) while YOLOv11n strikes the optimal balance between precision (0.954) and inference efficiency, making it highly suitable for embedded deployment. Additionally, we implement an Eye Aspect Ratio (EAR) approach using Dlib's facial landmarks, which despite its low computational footprint exhibits reduced robustness under pose variation and occlusions. Our findings illustrate clear trade offs between accuracy, latency, and resource requirements, and offer practical guidelines for selecting or combining detection methods in autonomous driving and industrial safety applications.
TACTFL: Temporal Contrastive Training for Multi-modal Federated Learning with Similarity-guided Model Aggregation
Venue: arXiv cs.DC 2025
Year: 2025

Real-world federated learning faces two key challenges: limited access to labelled data and the presence of heterogeneous multi-modal inputs. This paper proposes TACTFL, a unified framework for semi-supervised multi-modal federated learning. TACTFL introduces a modality-agnostic temporal contrastive training scheme that conducts representation learning from unlabelled client data by leveraging temporal alignment across modalities. However, as clients perform self-supervised training on heterogeneous data, local models may diverge semantically. To mitigate this, TACTFL incorporates a similarity-guided model aggregation strategy that dynamically weights client models based on their representational consistency, promoting global alignment. Extensive experiments across diverse benchmarks and modalities, including video, audio, and wearable sensors, demonstrate that TACTFL achieves state-of-the-art performance. For instance, on the UCF101 dataset with only 10% labelled data, TACTFL attains 68.48% top-1 accuracy, significantly outperforming the FedOpt baseline of 35.35%. Code will be released upon publication.
PRNU-Bench: A Novel Benchmark and Model for PRNU-Based Camera Identification
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

We propose a novel benchmark for camera identification via Photo Response Non-Uniformity (PRNU) estimation. The benchmark comprises 13K photos taken with 120+ cameras, where the training and test photos are taken in different scenarios, enabling ``in-the-wild'' evaluation. In addition, we propose a novel PRNU-based camera identification model that employs a hybrid architecture, comprising a denoising autoencoder to estimate the PRNU signal and a convolutional network that can perform 1:N verification of camera devices. Instead of using a conventional approach based on contrastive learning, our method takes the Hadamard product between reference and query PRNU signals as input. This novel design leads to significantly better results compared with state-of-the-art models based on denoising autoencoders and contrastive learning. We release our dataset and code at: https://github.com/CroitoruAlin/PRNU-Bench.
Interpreting Attention Heads for Image-to-Text Information Flow in Large Vision-Language Models
Venue: arXiv cs.CV 2025
Year: 2025

Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs) answer visual questions by transferring information from images to text through a series of attention heads. While this image-to-text information flow is central to visual question answering, its underlying mechanism remains difficult to interpret due to the simultaneous operation of numerous attention heads. To address this challenge, we propose head attribution, a technique inspired by component attribution methods, to identify consistent patterns among attention heads that play a key role in information transfer. Using head attribution, we investigate how LVLMs rely on specific attention heads to identify and answer questions about the main object in an image. Our analysis reveals that a distinct subset of attention heads facilitates the image-to-text information flow. Remarkably, we find that the selection of these heads is governed by the semantic content of the input image rather than its visual appearance. We further examine the flow of information at the token level and discover that (1) text information first propagates to role-related tokens and the final token before receiving image information, and (2) image information is embedded in both object-related and background tokens. Our work provides evidence that image-to-text information flow follows a structured process, and that analysis at the attention-head level offers a promising direction toward understanding the mechanisms of LVLMs.