OpenRaiser/Intern-Atlas huggingface dataset:
Real-Time Glass Detection and Reprojection using Sensor Fusion Onboard Aerial Robots
Venue: arXiv cs.RO 2025
Year: 2025

Autonomous aerial robots are increasingly being deployed in real-world scenarios, where transparent obstacles present significant challenges to reliable navigation and mapping. These materials pose a unique problem for traditional perception systems because they lack discernible features and can cause conventional depth sensors to fail, leading to inaccurate maps and potential collisions. To ensure safe navigation, robots must be able to accurately detect and map these transparent obstacles. Existing methods often rely on large, expensive sensors or algorithms that impose high computational burdens, making them unsuitable for low Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP) robots. In this work, we propose a novel and computationally efficient framework for detecting and mapping transparent obstacles onboard a sub-300g quadrotor. Our method fuses data from a Time-of-Flight (ToF) camera and an ultrasonic sensor with a custom, lightweight 2D convolution model. This specialized approach accurately detects specular reflections and propagates their depth into corresponding empty regions of the depth map, effectively rendering transparent obstacles visible. The entire pipeline operates in real-time, utilizing only a small fraction of a CPU core on an embedded processor. We validate our system through a series of experiments in both controlled and real-world environments, demonstrating the utility of our method through experiments where the robot maps indoor environments containing glass. Our work is, to our knowledge, the first of its kind to demonstrate a real-time, onboard transparent obstacle mapping system on a low-SWaP quadrotor using only the CPU.
From Description to Detection: LLM based Extendable O-RAN Compliant Blind DoS Detection in 5G and Beyond
Venue: arXiv cs.CR 2025
Year: 2025

The quality and experience of mobile communication have significantly improved with the introduction of 5G, and these improvements are expected to continue beyond the 5G era. However, vulnerabilities in control-plane protocols, such as Radio Resource Control (RRC) and Non-Access Stratum (NAS), pose significant security threats, such as Blind Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Despite the availability of existing anomaly detection methods that leverage rule-based systems or traditional machine learning methods, these methods have several limitations, including the need for extensive training data, predefined rules, and limited explainability. Addressing these challenges, we propose a novel anomaly detection framework that leverages the capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs) in zero-shot mode with unordered data and short natural language attack descriptions within the Open Radio Access Network (O-RAN) architecture. We analyse robustness to prompt variation, demonstrate the practicality of automating the attack descriptions and show that detection quality relies on the semantic completeness of the description rather than its phrasing or length. We utilise an RRC/NAS dataset to evaluate the solution and provide an extensive comparison of open-source and proprietary LLM implementations to demonstrate superior performance in attack detection. We further validate the practicality of our framework within O-RAN's real-time constraints, illustrating its potential for detecting other Layer-3 attacks.
Associative Memory Model with Neural Networks: Memorizing multiple images with one neuron
Venue: arXiv cs.NE 2025
Year: 2025

This paper presents a neural network model (associative memory model) for memory and recall of images. In this model, only a single neuron can memorize multi-images and when that neuron is activated, it is possible to recall all the memorized images at the same time. The system is composed of a single cluster of numerous neurons, referred to as the "Cue Ball," and multiple neural network layers, collectively called the "Recall Net." One of the features of this model is that several different images are stored simultaneously in one neuron, and by presenting one of the images stored in that neuron, all stored images are recalled. Furthermore, this model allows for complete recall of an image even when an incomplete image is presented
Flipping the Dialogue: Training and Evaluating User Language Models
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

Conversations with LMs involve two participants: a human user leading the conversation, and an LM assistant responding to the user's request. To satisfy this specific role, LMs are post-trained to be helpful assistants -- optimized to produce exhaustive and well-structured responses, free of ambiguity and grammar errors. User utterances, on the other hand, are rarely perfected, with each user phrasing requests in unique ways, sometimes putting in partial effort at each turn and refining on the fly. To evaluate LM performance in realistic settings, prior work simulated users in multi-turn conversations, often prompting an LLM originally trained to be a helpful assistant to act as a user. However, we show that assistant LMs make for poor user simulators, with the surprising finding that better assistants yield worse simulators. Instead, we introduce purpose-built User Language Models (User LMs) - models post-trained to simulate human users in multi-turn conversations. Through various evaluations, we show how User LMs align better with human behavior and achieve better simulation robustness than existing simulation methods. When leveraging User LMs to simulate coding and math conversations, the performance of a strong assistant (GPT-4o) drops from 74.6% to 57.4%, confirming that more realistic simulation environments lead to assistant struggles as they fail to cope with the nuances of users in multi-turn setups.
Safe Obstacle-Free Guidance of Space Manipulators in Debris Removal Missions via Deep Reinforcement Learning
Venue: arXiv cs.RO 2025
Year: 2025

The objective of this study is to develop a model-free workspace trajectory planner for space manipulators using a Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) agent to enable safe and reliable debris capture. A local control strategy with singularity avoidance and manipulability enhancement is employed to ensure stable execution. The manipulator must simultaneously track a capture point on a non-cooperative target, avoid self-collisions, and prevent unintended contact with the target. To address these challenges, we propose a curriculum-based multi-critic network where one critic emphasizes accurate tracking and the other enforces collision avoidance. A prioritized experience replay buffer is also used to accelerate convergence and improve policy robustness. The framework is evaluated on a simulated seven-degree-of-freedom KUKA LBR iiwa mounted on a free-floating base in Matlab/Simulink, demonstrating safe and adaptive trajectory generation for debris removal missions.
The Framework That Survives Bad Models: Human-AI Collaboration For Clinical Trials
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2025
Year: 2025

Artificial intelligence (AI) holds great promise for supporting clinical trials, from patient recruitment and endpoint assessment to treatment response prediction. However, deploying AI without safeguards poses significant risks, particularly when evaluating patient endpoints that directly impact trial conclusions. We compared two AI frameworks against human-only assessment for medical image-based disease evaluation, measuring cost, accuracy, robustness, and generalization ability. To stress-test these frameworks, we injected bad models, ranging from random guesses to naive predictions, to ensure that observed treatment effects remain valid even under severe model degradation. We evaluated the frameworks using two randomized controlled trials with endpoints derived from spinal X-ray images. Our findings indicate that using AI as a supporting reader (AI-SR) is the most suitable approach for clinical trials, as it meets all criteria across various model types, even with bad models. This method consistently provides reliable disease estimation, preserves clinical trial treatment effect estimates and conclusions, and retains these advantages when applied to different populations.
TinyScientist: An Interactive, Extensible, and Controllable Framework for Building Research Agents
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

Automatic research with Large Language Models (LLMs) is rapidly gaining importance, driving the development of increasingly complex workflows involving multi-agent systems, planning, tool usage, code execution, and human-agent interaction to accelerate research processes. However, as more researchers and developers begin to use and build upon these tools and platforms, the complexity and difficulty of extending and maintaining such agentic workflows have become a significant challenge, particularly as algorithms and architectures continue to advance. To address this growing complexity, TinyScientist identifies the essential components of the automatic research workflow and proposes an interactive, extensible, and controllable framework that easily adapts to new tools and supports iterative growth. We provide an open-source codebase, an interactive web demonstration, and a PyPI Python package to make state-of-the-art auto-research pipelines broadly accessible to every researcher and developer.
Do Internal Layers of LLMs Reveal Patterns for Jailbreak Detection?
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

Jailbreaking large language models (LLMs) has emerged as a pressing concern with the increasing prevalence and accessibility of conversational LLMs. Adversarial users often exploit these models through carefully engineered prompts to elicit restricted or sensitive outputs, a strategy widely referred to as jailbreaking. While numerous defense mechanisms have been proposed, attackers continuously develop novel prompting techniques, and no existing model can be considered fully resistant. In this study, we investigate the jailbreak phenomenon by examining the internal representations of LLMs, with a focus on how hidden layers respond to jailbreak versus benign prompts. Specifically, we analyze the open-source LLM GPT-J and the state-space model Mamba2, presenting preliminary findings that highlight distinct layer-wise behaviors. Our results suggest promising directions for further research on leveraging internal model dynamics for robust jailbreak detection and defense.
Code Agent can be an End-to-end System Hacker: Benchmarking Real-world Threats of Computer-use Agent
Venue: arXiv cs.CR 2025
Year: 2025

Computer-use agent (CUA) frameworks, powered by large language models (LLMs) or multimodal LLMs (MLLMs), are rapidly maturing as assistants that can perceive context, reason, and act directly within software environments. Among their most critical applications is operating system (OS) control. As CUAs in the OS domain become increasingly embedded in daily operations, it is imperative to examine their real-world security implications, specifically whether CUAs can be misused to perform realistic, security-relevant attacks. Existing works exhibit four major limitations: Missing attacker-knowledge model on tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP), Incomplete coverage for end-to-end kill chains, unrealistic environment without multi-host and encrypted user credentials, and unreliable judgment dependent on LLM-as-a-Judge. To address these gaps, we propose AdvCUA, the first benchmark aligned with real-world TTPs in MITRE ATT&CK Enterprise Matrix, which comprises 140 tasks, including 40 direct malicious tasks, 74 TTP-based malicious tasks, and 26 end-to-end kill chains, systematically evaluates CUAs under a realistic enterprise OS security threat in a multi-host environment sandbox by hard-coded evaluation. We evaluate the existing five mainstream CUAs, including ReAct, AutoGPT, Gemini CLI, Cursor CLI, and Cursor IDE based on 8 foundation LLMs. The results demonstrate that current frontier CUAs do not adequately cover OS security-centric threats. These capabilities of CUAs reduce dependence on custom malware and deep domain expertise, enabling even inexperienced attackers to mount complex enterprise intrusions, which raises social concern about the responsibility and security of CUAs.
A Review of 10 Years of ProtoSpace: Spacecraft CAD Visualization in Collaborative Augmented Reality
Venue: arXiv cs.ET 2025
Year: 2025

ProtoSpace is a custom JPL-built platform to help scientists and engineers visualize their CAD models collaboratively in augmented reality (AR) and on the web in 3D. In addition to this main use case, ProtoSpace has been used throughout the entire spacecraft mission lifecycle and beyond: ventilator design and assembly; providing AR-based instructions to astronauts in-training; educating the next generation on the process of spacecraft design; etc. ProtoSpace has been used for a decade by NASA missions-including Mars Perseverance, Europa Clipper, NISAR, SPHEREx, CAL, and Mars Sample Return-to reduce cost and risk by helping engineers and scientists fix problems earlier through reducing miscommunication and helping people understand the spatial context of their spacecraft in the appropriate physical context more quickly. This paper will explore how ProtoSpace came to be, define the system architecture and overview-including HoloLens and 3D web clients, the ProtoSpace server, and the CAD model optimizer-and dive into the use cases, spin-offs, and lessons learned that led to 10 years of success at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Pitch Estimation With Mean Averaging Smoothed Product Spectrum And Musical Consonance Evaluation Using MASP
Venue: arXiv cs.SD 2025
Year: 2025

This study introduces Mean Averaging Smoothed Product (MASP) Spectrum, which is a modified version of the Harmonic Product Spectrum, designed to enhance pitch estimation for many algorithm-wise deceptive frequency spectra that still lead clear pitches, for both harmonic and inharmonic cases. By introducing a global mean based smoothing for spectrum, the MASP algorithm diminishes the unwanted sensitivity of HPS for spectra with missing partials. The method exhibited robust pitch estimations consistent with perceptual expectations. Motivated upon the strong correlation between consonance and periodicity, the same algorithm is extended and, with the proposition of a harmonicity measure (H), used to evaluate musical consonance for two and three tones; yielding consonance hierarchies that align with perception and practice of music theory. These findings suggest that perception of pitch and consonance may share a similar underlying mechanism that depend on spectrum.
AI-Driven Forecasting and Monitoring of Urban Water System
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2025
Year: 2025

Underground water and wastewater pipelines are vital for city operations but plagued by anomalies like leaks and infiltrations, causing substantial water loss, environmental damage, and high repair costs. Conventional manual inspections lack efficiency, while dense sensor deployments are prohibitively expensive. In recent years, artificial intelligence has advanced rapidly and is increasingly applied to urban infrastructure. In this research, we propose an integrated AI and remote-sensor framework to address the challenge of leak detection in underground water pipelines, through deploying a sparse set of remote sensors to capture real-time flow and depth data, paired with HydroNet - a dedicated model utilizing pipeline attributes (e.g., material, diameter, slope) in a directed graph for higher-precision modeling. Evaluations on a real-world campus wastewater network dataset demonstrate that our system collects effective spatio-temporal hydraulic data, enabling HydroNet to outperform advanced baselines. This integration of edge-aware message passing with hydraulic simulations enables accurate network-wide predictions from limited sensor deployments. We envision that this approach can be effectively extended to a wide range of underground water pipeline networks.
StruSR: Structure-Aware Symbolic Regression with Physics-Informed Taylor Guidance
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2025
Year: 2025

Symbolic regression aims to find interpretable analytical expressions by searching over mathematical formula spaces to capture underlying system behavior, particularly in scientific modeling governed by physical laws. However, traditional methods lack mechanisms for extracting structured physical priors from time series observations, making it difficult to capture symbolic expressions that reflect the system's global behavior. In this work, we propose a structure-aware symbolic regression framework, called StruSR, that leverages trained Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs) to extract locally structured physical priors from time series data. By performing local Taylor expansions on the outputs of the trained PINN, we obtain derivative-based structural information to guide symbolic expression evolution. To assess the importance of expression components, we introduce a masking-based attribution mechanism that quantifies each subtree's contribution to structural alignment and physical residual reduction. These sensitivity scores steer mutation and crossover operations within genetic programming, preserving substructures with high physical or structural significance while selectively modifying less informative components. A hybrid fitness function jointly minimizes physics residuals and Taylor coefficient mismatch, ensuring consistency with both the governing equations and the local analytical behavior encoded by the PINN. Experiments on benchmark PDE systems demonstrate that StruSR improves convergence speed, structural fidelity, and expression interpretability compared to conventional baselines, offering a principled paradigm for physics-grounded symbolic discovery.
Can We Hide Machines in the Crowd? Quantifying Equivalence in LLM-in-the-loop Annotation Tasks
Venue: arXiv cs.IR 2025
Year: 2025

Many evaluations of large language models (LLMs) in text annotation focus primarily on the correctness of the output, typically comparing model-generated labels to human-annotated ``ground truth'' using standard performance metrics. In contrast, our study moves beyond effectiveness alone. We aim to explore how labeling decisions -- by both humans and LLMs -- can be statistically evaluated across individuals. Rather than treating LLMs purely as annotation systems, we approach LLMs as an alternative annotation mechanism that may be capable of mimicking the subjective judgments made by humans. To assess this, we develop a statistical evaluation method based on Krippendorff's $α$, paired bootstrapping, and the Two One-Sided t-Tests (TOST) equivalence test procedure. This evaluation method tests whether an LLM can blend into a group of human annotators without being distinguishable. We apply this approach to two datasets -- MovieLens 100K and PolitiFact -- and find that the LLM is statistically indistinguishable from a human annotator in the former ($p = 0.004$), but not in the latter ($p = 0.155$), highlighting task-dependent differences. It also enables early evaluation on a small sample of human data to inform whether LLMs are suitable for large-scale annotation in a given application.
The Effect of Attention Head Count on Transformer Approximation
Venue: arXiv cs.LG 2025
Year: 2025

Transformer has become the dominant architecture for sequence modeling, yet a detailed understanding of how its structural parameters influence expressive power remains limited. In this work, we study the approximation properties of transformers, with particular emphasis on the role of the number of attention heads. Our analysis begins with the introduction of a generalized $D$-retrieval task, which we prove to be dense in the space of continuous functions, thereby providing the basis for our theoretical framework. We then establish both upper and lower bounds on the parameter complexity required for $ε$-approximation. Specifically, we show that transformers with sufficiently many heads admit efficient approximation, whereas with too few heads, the number of parameters must scale at least as $O(1/ε^{cT})$, for some constant $c$ and sequence length $T$. To the best of our knowledge, this constitutes the first rigorous lower bound of this type in a nonlinear and practically relevant setting. We further examine the single-head case and demonstrate that an embedding dimension of order $O(T)$ allows complete memorization of the input, where approximation is entirely achieved by the feed-forward block. Finally, we validate our theoretical findings with experiments on both synthetic data and real-world tasks, illustrating the practical relevance of our results.
LLM Company Policies and Policy Implications in Software Organizations
Venue: arXiv cs.SE 2025
Year: 2025

The risks associated with adopting large language model (LLM) chatbots in software organizations highlight the need for clear policies. We examine how 11 companies create these policies and the factors that influence them, aiming to help managers safely integrate chatbots into development workflows.
Differentially Private Synthetic Text Generation for Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)
Venue: arXiv cs.CR 2025
Year: 2025

Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) enhances large language models (LLMs) by grounding them in external knowledge. However, its application in sensitive domains is limited by privacy risks. Existing private RAG methods typically rely on query-time differential privacy (DP), which requires repeated noise injection and leads to accumulated privacy loss. To address this issue, we propose DP-SynRAG, a framework that uses LLMs to generate differentially private synthetic RAG databases. Unlike prior methods, the synthetic text can be reused once created, thereby avoiding repeated noise injection and additional privacy costs. To preserve essential information for downstream RAG tasks, DP-SynRAG extends private prediction, which instructs LLMs to generate text that mimics subsampled database records in a DP manner. Experiments show that DP-SynRAG achieves superior performanec to the state-of-the-art private RAG systems while maintaining a fixed privacy budget, offering a scalable solution for privacy-preserving RAG.
Are LLMs Reliable Rankers? Rank Manipulation via Two-Stage Token Optimization
Venue: arXiv cs.CL 2025
Year: 2025

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as rerankers in information retrieval, yet their ranking behavior can be steered by small, natural-sounding prompts. To expose this vulnerability, we present Rank Anything First (RAF), a two-stage token optimization method that crafts concise textual perturbations to consistently promote a target item in LLM-generated rankings while remaining hard to detect. Stage 1 uses Greedy Coordinate Gradient to shortlist candidate tokens at the current position by combining the gradient of the rank-target with a readability score; Stage 2 evaluates those candidates under exact ranking and readability losses using an entropy-based dynamic weighting scheme, and selects a token via temperature-controlled sampling. RAF generates ranking-promoting prompts token-by-token, guided by dual objectives: maximizing ranking effectiveness and preserving linguistic naturalness. Experiments across multiple LLMs show that RAF significantly boosts the rank of target items using naturalistic language, with greater robustness than existing methods in both promoting target items and maintaining naturalness. These findings underscore a critical security implication: LLM-based reranking is inherently susceptible to adversarial manipulation, raising new challenges for the trustworthiness and robustness of modern retrieval systems. Our code is available at: https://github.com/glad-lab/RAF.