# -s
## English
### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/ (after a voiceless consonant sound /p, t, k, f, θ/)
* IPA: /z/ (after a vowel sound or a voiced consonant sound /m, n, ŋ, b, d, ɡ, v, ð, l, ɹ/)
* IPA: /ɪz/ (after a sibilant consonant sound /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/—usually written -es)
** (weak vowel merger) IPA: /əz/
* Homophones: -'s, 's

### Etymology 1

Inherited from Middle English -s, -es, from Old English -as, nominative-accusative plural ending of masculine a-stem (i.e. strong) declension nouns, from Proto-West Germanic *-ōs, from Proto-Germanic *-ōs, *‑ōz, from Proto-Indo-European *-es, *-oes (plural endings). The spread of this ending in later Middle English was once argued to have been the result of Anglo-Norman influence; however, -as was already the most common Old English plural marker (used in approximately 40% of Old English nouns), and was initially more common in the North of England where French influence was weakest, only later gradually spreading south, replacing the usual southern plural ending -en. Cognate with Scots -s (plural ending), Saterland Frisian -s (plural ending), West Frisian -s (plural ending), Dutch -s (plural ending), Low German -s (plural ending), Danish -er (plural ending), Swedish -r, -ar, -or (plural ending), Icelandic -ar (plural ending), Gothic -𐍉𐍃 (-ōs, nominative plural ending of a-stem masculine nouns). Not directly related to German -er (plural ending) which has a different origin.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form regular plurals of nouns.
    one computer → five computers; Kennedy → Kennedys; hanger-on → hangers-on; lapful → lapfuls; cul-de-sac → cul-de-sacs; standby → standbys; push-up → push-ups; gin and tonic → gin and tonics; pair → pairs; beef → beefs
* Used to form many pluralia tantum (nouns that are almost or entirely without singular forms).
    shorts
    sunglasses
* When appended to a number ending in at least one 0, expresses a range of numbers which share the digits before some or (usually) all of the 0s; frequently used for decades, centuries and temperatures.
    We often look back on the 1960s [the years from 1960 to 1969] with rose-tinted glasses.
    The Industrial Revolution went into full-swing during the 1800s [the years from 1800 to 1899 – but see usage notes].
    The temperature today will be in the low 30s.
    He placed in the 200s in the end.

##### Usage notes

* (regular plurals): In semi-formal or formal contexts, where the plurality of a noun depends on some unknown aspect of the sentence, the s may be parenthesised: "The winner(s) will be invited to a prize ceremony."
* (number): Decades formed with -s are usually pronounced as if they were written as two separate numbers. For example, 1970s is read as nineteen-seventies, as if it were written as 19 70s, not as *nineteen-hundred seventies or *one thousand nine hundred and seventies.
* (number): When the number before the -s ends in more than one zero, there is ambiguity about the range of numbers that is meant. For example, 1800s could mean "the years from 1800 to 1899; the entire 19th century" or "the years from 1800 to 1809; the first decade of the 19th century". The intended meaning can usually be derived from context.

##### Descendants

* → Cantonese: -s
* → Japanese: ズ (-zu)
* → Malayalam: -സ് (-sŭ)
* → Swedish: -s
* → Tagalog: -s
* → Welsh: -s

##### Translations

The translations below are a guide only. See individual words for precise translations.

#### See also

* -a
* -en
* -es
* -i
* -ir
* -z (nonstandard)

### Etymology 2

From Middle English -(e)s (third-person singular ending), from Northumbrian Old English -es, -as (third-person singular endings). Gradually replaced the older -eth, from Old English -(e)þ, -aþ, during the Middle English and Early Modern English periods.
It is predominantly believed that -(e)s is identical to the Old English second-person singular ending -es, -est (cf. archaic Modern English -est, as in thou singest). The use for the third-person singular would have been caused by speakers of Old Norse who switched to speaking English and confounded the endings due to analogy with their native tongue. In Old Norse, the second and third person singular indicative forms were identical (e.g. þú masar, hann masar; þú þekkir, hann þekkir; etc.).
An alternative theory sees the shift from /θ/ in -eth to /s/ (later /z/) in -(e)s as a mere phonetic simplification due to the frequency of the ending, but the objection to this is that no such development can be observed anywhere else in English. Nevertheless the relative similarity in sound between both forms may have facilitated the spread of -es.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the third-person singular indicative present tense of verbs.
    to eat → he eats

##### Usage notes

* In Standard English, the -s suffix is only used to mark the third person singular present of verbs; however, in some varieties of English, particularly northern English, Scottish, US Southern and AAVE, the -s can be extended to other persons/numbers as well, as in: I eats me spinach; I hates the Yankees; they likes it here; etc.
* As in modern nonstandard varieties, the -s suffix can be used to mark the third-person plural in Early Modern English. However, it is less common than the modern standard zero ending, and is frequently only found in restricted contexts; for instance, Shakespeare only uses it where a plural subject has "singular" semantics.

#### See also

* -ed
* -en
* -ing
* -t

#### References

* ↑ Herbert Schendl (2000) “The third person present plural in Shakespeare’s First Folio: A case of interaction of morphology and syntax?”, in Words: Structure, meaning, function. A festschrift for Dieter Kastovsky, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyte, pages 263-276

### Etymology 3

From Middle English -es, from Old English -es, the masculine and neuter genitive singular ending of strong nouns. More at -'s.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used in the formation of certain English adverbs.
    ‎forward + ‎-s → ‎forwards
    ‎downward + ‎-s → ‎downwards
    ‎alway + ‎-s → ‎always
    ‎sometime + ‎-s → ‎sometimes
    ‎betime + ‎-s → ‎betimes
    ‎while + ‎-s → ‎whiles
    ‎betide + ‎-s → ‎betides
    ‎toward + ‎-s → ‎towards
    ‎beside + ‎-s → ‎besides
    ‎evening + ‎-s → ‎evenings
    ‎unaware + ‎-s → ‎unawares

##### Derived terms

* -st

### Etymology 4

A variant spelling of -'s, partly an archaism, partly by dropping the apostrophe.

#### Alternative forms

* -'s (on pronouns; now nonstandard)
* -es (obsolete)

#### Suffix

-s
* (on pronouns) Possessive marker, indicating that an object belongs to the word bearing the marker.
    hers; its; ones (now one’s); theirs
    (neopronouns): eirs; hirs; pers; thons; xyrs; zirs
* (on nouns, now nonstandard) Alternative form of -'s
    devils doorbell; dogs-bane; St. Marys; (obsolete) kings

##### Usage notes

* In most cases where -s is found nowadays as a possessive case marker, it is a simple misspelling of -'s. However, possessive determiners derived from personal pronouns use -s (e.g., its, not it's). The same is true of pronouns derived from possessive determiners (e.g., theirs, not their's). The possessive form of who takes -se (whose, not who's).
* Bare -s is used in some business names that derive from possessive family names, e.g., Barclays and Harrods, but compare Sainsbury’s; compare Wikipedia's article on possessives in business names. In speech, /z/ (or /s/) is sometimes added to business names which have neither -s nor -'s in writing, resulting in s-forms.
* Sometimes used in place names; e.g., Harpers Ferry (formerly spelled “Harper’s Ferry”), Queens County (note that the former name of County Laois was officially “Queen’s County”, however, the apostrophe-less spelling is well-attested).

### Etymology 5

Modern sense in slang [circa 1936]. According to OED, a colloquial clipping of the hypocoristic diminutive suffix -sy. As AHD writes, -sy itself usually being informal, ironic and/or jocular, and possibly a combination of -s (“plural marker”) and conflation of -y as adjectival with its sense as a diminutive suffix (e.g., puppy, kitty), the latter notion probably from Scots.

#### Suffix

-s
* (informal, colloquial, sometimes humorous) Hypocoristic suffix
    Babs; moms; pops; homes; toots

##### Derived terms

Unsorted:

##### Related terms

* -sies

### Etymology 6

Derived from 's.

#### Verb

-s (clitic)
* (Internet slang, informal) Alternative spelling of 's
    whats he talking about

## Afrikaans
### Etymology 1

Inherited from Dutch -st.

#### Suffix

-s (plural -ste)
* appended to the stem of a verb, this suffix yields a verbal noun
    ‎dien + ‎-s → ‎diens

### Etymology 2

Inherited from Dutch -s (a suffix for forming plurals).

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form regular plurals of nouns that end in certain suffixes or syllables, such as -el, -er, -en, -em, -eur, -aar, -aard, diminutive -ie, etc.
    ‎redakteur + ‎-s → ‎redakteurs
* Used to form irregular plurals of many other nouns, chiefly of foreign origin.
    ‎ateljee + ‎-s → ‎ateljees

### Etymology 3

Inherited from Dutch -s, from the genitive case of Dutch masculine and neuter nouns and adjectives, Middle Dutch -s, -es, from Old Dutch -es, -is, from Proto-Germanic *-as, *-is.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the partitive form of the adjective
    nuut → iets nuuts
    groot → niks groots nie

### Etymology 4

Inherited from Dutch -s, from earlier -sch, from Middle Dutch -sch, from Old Dutch -isc, from Proto-West Germanic *-isk, from Proto-Germanic *-iskaz, from Proto-Indo-European *-iskos.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form adjectives of characteristic from nouns.
    ‎winter (“winter”) + ‎-s → ‎winters (“wintery”)
    ‎spel (“game”) + ‎-s → ‎speels (“playful”)
* Used to form adjectives or language names from place names.
    ‎Engeland (“England”) + ‎-s → ‎Engels (“English”)
    ‎Finland (“Finland”) + ‎-s → ‎Fins (“Finnish”)

## Albanian
### Etymology

Possibly akin to Old Armenian -իչ (-ičʻ), both reconstructible to a tentative Proto-Indo-European *-ikʷyo-s, from Proto-Indo-European *kʷey- (“to gather”), whence also Ancient Greek ποιέω (poiéō, “to do”), Sanskrit चिनोति (cinóti, “to arrange, pile up”).

### Suffix

-s
* Forms agent nouns.
    Synonym: -ar

#### Usage notes

* Becomes -ës after consonants.
* When attached to o- or ua-stem verbs the stem and the suffix merge into -ues in the modern standard, following Gheg practice, while traditionally made -onjës following Tosk practice.
* Similarly, when attached to e- or ye-stem verbs they give rise to -yes in Gheg and the modern standard, while -enjës in Tosk and the old standard.

#### Derived terms
### References

* ↑ Matzinger, J. (2016) Die sekundären nominalen Wortbildungsmuster im Altalbanischen bei Gjon Buzuku: Ein Beitrag zur altalbanischen Lexikographie (in German), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, →JSTOR, page 167
* ↑ Hyllested, A., Joseph, B. D. (2022) “Albanian”, in Olander, T., editor, The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, →DOI, →ISBN, page 228

### Further reading

* Newmark, L., Hubbard, P., Prifti, P. (1982) Standard Albanian: a reference grammar for students, Stanford University Press, →ISBN, § 3.4.1 A, page 164

## Catalan
### Etymology

Inherited from Old Catalan -s, from Latin -os, -es (accusative plural).

### Pronunciation

* IPA: (Central, Balearic, Valencia) [s]

### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the regular plurals of most masculine nouns and adjectives.
    Coordinate term: -es
    ‎cap + ‎-s → ‎caps
    ‎fred + ‎-s → ‎freds

## Chinese
### Etymology

Borrowed from English -s (“plural suffix”).

### Suffix

-s
* (Hong Kong Cantonese, neologism, humorous or sarcastic, rare, written only) Used to emphasise that there are multiple instances of the noun
    有車s有樓s／有车s有楼s [Cantonese] ― jau$^5$ ce$^1$ jau$^5$ lau$^{4-2}$ [Jyutping] ― to own cars and flats

#### Usage notes

May be repeated to further emphasise the number of instances of the noun.
    有樓sss／有楼sss [Cantonese] ― jau$^5$ lau$^{4-2}$ [Jyutping] ― to own many flatsss

### References

* Victor Chan Haw Fung (1999) “Hong Kong English and the Internet”, in Unpublished MA dissertation (in Chinese), page 40: “Some of these words have plural forms like leng luis in (example 13).”

## Czech
### Pronunciation

* IPA: [ s]

### Particle

-s
* Alternative form of -si

## Danish
### Etymology

Inherited from Old Norse -s, originally the genitive singular ending of a-stem nouns. Cognate with Swedish -s.

### Particle

-s
* Used to form genitive/possessive phrases, attached to the last word in a noun phrase.
    Danmarks dronning ― the Queen of Denmark
    Københavns snefald ― snowfall in Copenhagen

## Dutch
### Etymology 1

Unknown. Not present in Old Dutch, which used -a from Proto-Germanic *-ōz as the plural ending. Possibly spread from Middle Low German -s, -es, from Old Saxon -os, -as, from Proto-Germanic *-ōs. Further etymology is unknown, but cognate with Old English -as (English -s).

#### Suffix

-s pl
* Used to form regular plurals of nouns that end in certain suffixes or syllables, such as -el, -er, -en, -em, -eur, -aar, -aard, diminutive -je, etc.
    ‎bodem + ‎-s → ‎bodems
* Used to form irregular plurals of many other nouns, chiefly of foreign origin.
    ‎telefoon + ‎-s → ‎telefoons

##### Usage notes

* Nouns ending in unstressed -e generally have a plural in -s and one in -n (ziekte > ziektes, ziekten). Individual words, however, allow just one of the two ways.
* Most words of Latin origin ending in -um are pluralized with the suffix -s (museum > museums) or by replacing -um with -a (> musea). The latter tends to be preferred in formal style.

### Etymology 2

From the genitive case of masculine and neuter nouns and adjectives, Middle Dutch -s, -es, from Old Dutch -es, -is, from Proto-Germanic *-as, *-is.

#### Suffix

-s
* (archaic, except in fixed expressions) Used to form the genitive case of (strong) masculine and neuter nouns.
    tijd → de tand des tijds
* Used to form the genitive case of proper nouns and some pronouns.
    Pieter → Pieters jas
    iemand → iemands jas
* Used to form the partitive form of the adjective
    lief → iets liefs

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 3

From earlier -sch, from Middle Dutch -sch, from Old Dutch -isc, from Proto-West Germanic *-isk, from Proto-Germanic *-iskaz (from which also -isch via German), from Proto-Indo-European *-iskos.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form adjectives of characteristic from nouns.
    ‎winter (“winter”) + ‎-s → ‎winters (“wintery”)
    ‎spel (“game”) + ‎-s → ‎speels (“playful”)
* Used to form adjectives or language names from names of nations or countries.
    ‎Engeland (“England”) + ‎-s → ‎Engels (“English”)
    ‎Finland (“Finland”) + ‎-s → ‎Fins (“Finnish”)

### Etymology 4

Developed from the use of genitive suffix -s to form adverbial phrases of time or modality modality.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form some adverbs
    ‎ander (“other”) + ‎-s → ‎anders (“otherwise”)
    ‎zelf (“self”) + ‎-s → ‎zelfs (“even”)
    ‎maandag (“Monday”) + ‎-s → ‎'s maandags (“on Monday”)
    ‎willend (“wanting”) + ‎-s → ‎willens (“intentionally”)

##### Usage notes

The adverbial/adjectival -s combines with other suffixes like:
* -lijk → -lijks
* -je → -jes
* -ling → -lings
* -waarts

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 5

From earlier forms such as -sz, -se, -sen; all ultimately from the patronymic use of zoon with a connecting genitival interfix -s-. Bare -s as a patronymic may also represent an underlying patronymic use of dochter, as in the name Neeltje Jansdochter, which could reduce to Neeltje Jans by simple elision of -dochter. This etymology is incomplete. You can help Wiktionary by elaborating on the origins of this term.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form patronymic surnames.

##### Alternative forms

* -sz, -se, -sse, -sen, -ssen

##### Derived terms

More at the pages of the various alternative forms listed above, such as -sen.

## Estonian
### Etymology 1

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-isa. Related to Finnish -isa, Ingrian -isa, Votic -sa.

#### Suffix

-s (genitive -sa, partitive -sat, comparative -sam, superlative kõige -sam)
* creates adjectives from nouns
    ‎au (“honour”) + ‎-s → ‎aus (“honest”)
    ‎ilu (“beauty”) + ‎-s → ‎ilus (“beautiful”)
    ‎lõbu (“pleasure”) + ‎-s → ‎lõbus (“fun”)

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 2

From Proto-Finnic *-nci.

#### Suffix

-s (genitive -nda, partitive -ndat)
* forms ordinal numbers from cardinal numbers
    ‎kolm (“three”) + ‎-s → ‎kolmas (“third”)
    ‎kuus (“six”) + ‎-s → ‎kuues (“sixth”)

##### Inflection
## Finnish
### Etymology 1

Contracted from the second-person singular pronoun sa, sä (sinä in modern standard language), but no longer tied to being used in second-person.

#### Particle

-s (enclitic particle, informal or familiar)
* Makes commands or requests more persuasive.
** Appended to a second-person imperative to give a command or request a slightly rude or impatient tone—the tone may vary depending on the verb and other particles used.
    Kuules nyt! (addressing one person. quite an established expression of frustration, speaker very impatient) ― Now do listen!
    Kuulkaas nyt! (addressing many people, same tone as above) ― Now do listen!
    Tees nämä tehtävät. (addressing one person, tone less impatient) ― Go do these tasks.
** Appended to a second-person imperative with the particle -pa/-pä to give a command or request a slightly more persuasive or inspiring tone.
    Laitapas lautaset pöytään. ― Hey, go put the plates on the table.
** Appended to the impersonal indicative present form to soften the command or request or to make it more persuasive.
    Tehdääs tämä huomenna. ― Let's go do this tomorrow.
* Softens questions.
** Softens questions, such as when the speaker expects the person addressed to know the answer.
    Mikäs se Suomen pääkaupunki olikaan? ― What was Finland's capital again?
    Kukas heistä olikaan sinun lapsesi? ― Which of them was your child again?
    Eikös Saara opiskele oikeustieteitä? ― Saara studies law, doesn't she?
** Appended to an interrogative suffix -ko/-kö in order to bring the conversation partner or a person outside the conversation, talked about, emotionally closer to the #speaker, or to create familiarity into the conversation; also to express that closeness or familiarity—translation in English tends to vary; in some cases corresponds to tag questions.
    Jaksatkos sinä? ― You sure you can make it?

##### Usage notes

* When directly attached to forms ending in -n (e.g. impersonal/passive forms), the -n is dropped (e.g. miten → mites).
* When attached to imperative forms, the gemination is often ignored, unless another enclitic is also used before -s, like with -pas. Thus laitas /lɑi̯tɑs/, but laitapas /lɑi̯tɑpːɑs/. It may resurface before a vowel, however: laitas auto /lɑi̯tɑs(ː) ɑuto/

##### Derived terms
#### See also

* -han
* -kaan
* -kin
* -ko
* -pa

### Etymology 2

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-s, from Proto-Finno-Permic *-kse (compare Erzya and Moksha -кс (-ks, nominalizing suffix)).

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms some nouns.
    ‎jalka (“foot”) + ‎-s → ‎jalas (“runner, skid”)
    ‎liha (“meat”) + ‎-s → ‎lihas (“muscle”)
* Forms fractional numbers from ordinal numbers.
    ‎kolmas + ‎-s → ‎kolmannes

##### Usage notes

* (fraction): Usually used when the numerator is one (one third, one fourth, etc.) See the usage notes under osa for more.

##### Declension

Back vowel harmony:
Possessive forms of -s (Kotus type 39/vastaus, no gradation) :
first-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-kseni
-kseni
accusative
nom.
-kseni
-kseni
gen.
-kseni
genitive
-kseni
-steni -ksieni
partitive
-stani
-ksiani
inessive
-ksessani
-ksissani
elative
-ksestani
-ksistani
illative
-kseeni
-ksiini
adessive
-ksellani
-ksillani
ablative
-kseltani
-ksiltani
allative
-kselleni
-ksilleni
essive
-ksenani
-ksinani
translative
-ksekseni
-ksikseni
abessive
-ksettani
-ksittani
instructive
comitative
—-ksineni
second-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksesi
-ksesi
accusative
nom.
-ksesi
-ksesi
gen.
-ksesi
genitive
-ksesi
-stesi -ksiesi
partitive
-stasi
-ksiasi
inessive
-ksessasi
-ksissasi
elative
-ksestasi
-ksistasi
illative
-kseesi
-ksiisi
adessive
-ksellasi
-ksillasi
ablative
-kseltasi
-ksiltasi
allative
-ksellesi
-ksillesi
essive
-ksenasi
-ksinasi
translative
-kseksesi
-ksiksesi
abessive
-ksettasi
-ksittasi
instructive
comitative
—-ksinesi
first-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksemme
-ksemme
accusative
nom.
-ksemme
-ksemme
gen.
-ksemme
genitive
-ksemme
-stemme -ksiemme
partitive
-stamme
-ksiamme
inessive
-ksessamme
-ksissamme
elative
-ksestamme
-ksistamme
illative
-kseemme
-ksiimme
adessive
-ksellamme
-ksillamme
ablative
-kseltamme
-ksiltamme
allative
-ksellemme
-ksillemme
essive
-ksenamme
-ksinamme
translative
-kseksemme
-ksiksemme
abessive
-ksettamme
-ksittamme
instructive
comitative
—-ksinemme
second-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksenne
-ksenne
accusative
nom.
-ksenne
-ksenne
gen.
-ksenne
genitive
-ksenne
-stenne -ksienne
partitive
-stanne
-ksianne
inessive
-ksessanne
-ksissanne
elative
-ksestanne
-ksistanne
illative
-kseenne
-ksiinne
adessive
-ksellanne
-ksillanne
ablative
-kseltanne
-ksiltanne
allative
-ksellenne
-ksillenne
essive
-ksenanne
-ksinanne
translative
-kseksenne
-ksiksenne
abessive
-ksettanne
-ksittanne
instructive
comitative
—-ksinenne
third-person possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksensa
-ksensa
accusative
nom.
-ksensa
-ksensa
gen.
-ksensa
genitive
-ksensa
-stensa -ksiensa
partitive
-staan -stansa
-ksiaan -ksiansa
inessive
-ksessaan -ksessansa
-ksissaan -ksissansa
elative
-ksestaan -ksestansa
-ksistaan -ksistansa
illative
-kseensa
-ksiinsa
adessive
-ksellaan -ksellansa
-ksillaan -ksillansa
ablative
-kseltaan -kseltansa
-ksiltaan -ksiltansa
allative
-kselleen -ksellensa
-ksilleen -ksillensa
essive
-ksenaan -ksenansa
-ksinaan -ksinansa
translative
-ksekseen -kseksensa
-ksikseen -ksiksensa
abessive
-ksettaan -ksettansa
-ksittaan -ksittansa
instructive
comitative
—-ksineen -ksinensa :
Front vowel harmony:
Possessive forms of -s (Kotus type 39/vastaus, no gradation) :
first-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-kseni
-kseni
accusative
nom.
-kseni
-kseni
gen.
-kseni
genitive
-kseni
-steni -ksieni
partitive
-stäni
-ksiäni
inessive
-ksessäni
-ksissäni
elative
-ksestäni
-ksistäni
illative
-kseeni
-ksiini
adessive
-kselläni
-ksilläni
ablative
-kseltäni
-ksiltäni
allative
-kselleni
-ksilleni
essive
-ksenäni
-ksinäni
translative
-ksekseni
-ksikseni
abessive
-ksettäni
-ksittäni
instructive
comitative
—-ksineni
second-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksesi
-ksesi
accusative
nom.
-ksesi
-ksesi
gen.
-ksesi
genitive
-ksesi
-stesi -ksiesi
partitive
-stäsi
-ksiäsi
inessive
-ksessäsi
-ksissäsi
elative
-ksestäsi
-ksistäsi
illative
-kseesi
-ksiisi
adessive
-kselläsi
-ksilläsi
ablative
-kseltäsi
-ksiltäsi
allative
-ksellesi
-ksillesi
essive
-ksenäsi
-ksinäsi
translative
-kseksesi
-ksiksesi
abessive
-ksettäsi
-ksittäsi
instructive
comitative
—-ksinesi
first-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksemme
-ksemme
accusative
nom.
-ksemme
-ksemme
gen.
-ksemme
genitive
-ksemme
-stemme -ksiemme
partitive
-stämme
-ksiämme
inessive
-ksessämme
-ksissämme
elative
-ksestämme
-ksistämme
illative
-kseemme
-ksiimme
adessive
-ksellämme
-ksillämme
ablative
-kseltämme
-ksiltämme
allative
-ksellemme
-ksillemme
essive
-ksenämme
-ksinämme
translative
-kseksemme
-ksiksemme
abessive
-ksettämme
-ksittämme
instructive
comitative
—-ksinemme
second-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksenne
-ksenne
accusative
nom.
-ksenne
-ksenne
gen.
-ksenne
genitive
-ksenne
-stenne -ksienne
partitive
-stänne
-ksiänne
inessive
-ksessänne
-ksissänne
elative
-ksestänne
-ksistänne
illative
-kseenne
-ksiinne
adessive
-ksellänne
-ksillänne
ablative
-kseltänne
-ksiltänne
allative
-ksellenne
-ksillenne
essive
-ksenänne
-ksinänne
translative
-kseksenne
-ksiksenne
abessive
-ksettänne
-ksittänne
instructive
comitative
—-ksinenne
third-person possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ksensä
-ksensä
accusative
nom.
-ksensä
-ksensä
gen.
-ksensä
genitive
-ksensä
-stensä -ksiensä
partitive
-stään -stänsä
-ksiään -ksiänsä
inessive
-ksessään -ksessänsä
-ksissään -ksissänsä
elative
-ksestään -ksestänsä
-ksistään -ksistänsä
illative
-kseensä
-ksiinsä
adessive
-ksellään -ksellänsä
-ksillään -ksillänsä
ablative
-kseltään -kseltänsä
-ksiltään -ksiltänsä
allative
-kselleen -ksellensä
-ksilleen -ksillensä
essive
-ksenään -ksenänsä
-ksinään -ksinänsä
translative
-ksekseen -kseksensä
-ksikseen -ksiksensä
abessive
-ksettään -ksettänsä
-ksittään -ksittänsä
instructive
comitative
—-ksineen -ksinensä :

##### Derived terms

* -ska

### Etymology 3

From Proto-Finnic *-nci, from Proto-Uralic *-mte.

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms ordinal numbers from cardinal numbers, or ordinal pronouns.
    ‎moni + ‎-s → ‎mones

##### Usage notes

Added to the genitive singular (weak grade) stem.

##### Declension

Back vowel harmony:
Possessive forms of -s (Kotus type 45*J/kahdeksas, nt-nn gradation) :
first-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-nteni
-nteni
accusative
nom.
-nteni
-nteni
gen.
-nteni
genitive
-nteni
-nsieni
partitive
-ttani
-nsiani
inessive
-nnessani
-nsissani
elative
-nnestani
-nsistani
illative
-nteeni
-nsiini
adessive
-nnellani
-nsillani
ablative
-nneltani
-nsiltani
allative
-nnelleni
-nsilleni
essive
-ntenani
-nsinani
translative
-nnekseni
-nsikseni
abessive
-nnettani
-nsittani
instructive
comitative
—-nsineni
second-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntesi
-ntesi
accusative
nom.
-ntesi
-ntesi
gen.
-ntesi
genitive
-ntesi
-nsiesi
partitive
-ttasi
-nsiasi
inessive
-nnessasi
-nsissasi
elative
-nnestasi
-nsistasi
illative
-nteesi
-nsiisi
adessive
-nnellasi
-nsillasi
ablative
-nneltasi
-nsiltasi
allative
-nnellesi
-nsillesi
essive
-ntenasi
-nsinasi
translative
-nneksesi
-nsiksesi
abessive
-nnettasi
-nsittasi
instructive
comitative
—-nsinesi
first-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntemme
-ntemme
accusative
nom.
-ntemme
-ntemme
gen.
-ntemme
genitive
-ntemme
-nsiemme
partitive
-ttamme
-nsiamme
inessive
-nnessamme
-nsissamme
elative
-nnestamme
-nsistamme
illative
-nteemme
-nsiimme
adessive
-nnellamme
-nsillamme
ablative
-nneltamme
-nsiltamme
allative
-nnellemme
-nsillemme
essive
-ntenamme
-nsinamme
translative
-nneksemme
-nsiksemme
abessive
-nnettamme
-nsittamme
instructive
comitative
—-nsinemme
second-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntenne
-ntenne
accusative
nom.
-ntenne
-ntenne
gen.
-ntenne
genitive
-ntenne
-nsienne
partitive
-ttanne
-nsianne
inessive
-nnessanne
-nsissanne
elative
-nnestanne
-nsistanne
illative
-nteenne
-nsiinne
adessive
-nnellanne
-nsillanne
ablative
-nneltanne
-nsiltanne
allative
-nnellenne
-nsillenne
essive
-ntenanne
-nsinanne
translative
-nneksenne
-nsiksenne
abessive
-nnettanne
-nsittanne
instructive
comitative
—-nsinenne
third-person possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntensa
-ntensa
accusative
nom.
-ntensa
-ntensa
gen.
-ntensa
genitive
-ntensa
-nsiensa
partitive
-ttaan -ttansa
-nsiaan -nsiansa
inessive
-nnessaan -nnessansa
-nsissaan -nsissansa
elative
-nnestaan -nnestansa
-nsistaan -nsistansa
illative
-nteensa
-nsiinsa
adessive
-nnellaan -nnellansa
-nsillaan -nsillansa
ablative
-nneltaan -nneltansa
-nsiltaan -nsiltansa
allative
-nnelleen -nnellensa
-nsilleen -nsillensa
essive
-ntenaan -ntenansa
-nsinaan -nsinansa
translative
-nnekseen -nneksensa
-nsikseen -nsiksensa
abessive
-nnettaan -nnettansa
-nsittaan -nsittansa
instructive
comitative
—-nsineen -nsinensa :
Front vowel harmony:
Possessive forms of -s (Kotus type 45*J/kahdeksas, nt-nn gradation) :
first-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-nteni
-nteni
accusative
nom.
-nteni
-nteni
gen.
-nteni
genitive
-nteni
-nsieni
partitive
-ttäni
-nsiäni
inessive
-nnessäni
-nsissäni
elative
-nnestäni
-nsistäni
illative
-nteeni
-nsiini
adessive
-nnelläni
-nsilläni
ablative
-nneltäni
-nsiltäni
allative
-nnelleni
-nsilleni
essive
-ntenäni
-nsinäni
translative
-nnekseni
-nsikseni
abessive
-nnettäni
-nsittäni
instructive
comitative
—-nsineni
second-person singular possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntesi
-ntesi
accusative
nom.
-ntesi
-ntesi
gen.
-ntesi
genitive
-ntesi
-nsiesi
partitive
-ttäsi
-nsiäsi
inessive
-nnessäsi
-nsissäsi
elative
-nnestäsi
-nsistäsi
illative
-nteesi
-nsiisi
adessive
-nnelläsi
-nsilläsi
ablative
-nneltäsi
-nsiltäsi
allative
-nnellesi
-nsillesi
essive
-ntenäsi
-nsinäsi
translative
-nneksesi
-nsiksesi
abessive
-nnettäsi
-nsittäsi
instructive
comitative
—-nsinesi
first-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntemme
-ntemme
accusative
nom.
-ntemme
-ntemme
gen.
-ntemme
genitive
-ntemme
-nsiemme
partitive
-ttämme
-nsiämme
inessive
-nnessämme
-nsissämme
elative
-nnestämme
-nsistämme
illative
-nteemme
-nsiimme
adessive
-nnellämme
-nsillämme
ablative
-nneltämme
-nsiltämme
allative
-nnellemme
-nsillemme
essive
-ntenämme
-nsinämme
translative
-nneksemme
-nsiksemme
abessive
-nnettämme
-nsittämme
instructive
comitative
—-nsinemme
second-person plural possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntenne
-ntenne
accusative
nom.
-ntenne
-ntenne
gen.
-ntenne
genitive
-ntenne
-nsienne
partitive
-ttänne
-nsiänne
inessive
-nnessänne
-nsissänne
elative
-nnestänne
-nsistänne
illative
-nteenne
-nsiinne
adessive
-nnellänne
-nsillänne
ablative
-nneltänne
-nsiltänne
allative
-nnellenne
-nsillenne
essive
-ntenänne
-nsinänne
translative
-nneksenne
-nsiksenne
abessive
-nnettänne
-nsittänne
instructive
comitative
—-nsinenne
third-person possessor
singular
plural
nominative
-ntensä
-ntensä
accusative
nom.
-ntensä
-ntensä
gen.
-ntensä
genitive
-ntensä
-nsiensä
partitive
-ttään -ttänsä
-nsiään -nsiänsä
inessive
-nnessään -nnessänsä
-nsissään -nsissänsä
elative
-nnestään -nnestänsä
-nsistään -nsistänsä
illative
-nteensä
-nsiinsä
adessive
-nnellään -nnellänsä
-nsillään -nsillänsä
ablative
-nneltään -nneltänsä
-nsiltään -nsiltänsä
allative
-nnelleen -nnellensä
-nsilleen -nsillensä
essive
-ntenään -ntenänsä
-nsinään -nsinänsä
translative
-nnekseen -nneksensä
-nsikseen -nsiksensä
abessive
-nnettään -nnettänsä
-nsittään -nsittänsä
instructive
comitative
—-nsineen -nsinensä :

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 4

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-s, from Proto-Uralic *-s (compare Erzya -с (-s) in эйс (ejs, “into”)). Sometimes considered a reduction of *-kse (translative ending): *-kse > *-ks > *-s.

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms lative adverbs.
    ‎ala- (“below, down, lower”) + ‎-s → ‎alas (“down”)

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 5

From apocope of the final vowel of -ssa, -ssä.

#### Suffix

-s
* (case suffix, colloquial or dialectal) Alternative form of -ssa (inessive)

## French
### Etymology 1

Inherited from Middle French -s, from Old French -s, from Latin -os, -es (accusative plural).

#### Pronunciation

* Silent, except in liaison environments, when it may be pronounced /z‿/. This liaison is usual in adjectives, but fairly rare in nouns.
* Irregularly pronounced /s/ in tous (“all”) when used as a pronoun.
* Audio (liaison):(file)

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the regular plurals of most nouns and adjectives.
    ‎homme + ‎-s → ‎hommes
    ‎bon + ‎-s → ‎bons
* Used to form the irregular plurals of a few nouns and adjectives in -au, -eu (which regularly add -x) and in -al (which regularly make -aux).
    ‎landau + ‎-s → ‎landaus
    ‎bleu + ‎-s → ‎bleus
    ‎carnaval + ‎-s → ‎carnavals

### Etymology 2

Inherited from Middle French -s, from Old French -s, from Latin -es, -is (second-person singular).
The spread of this suffix to the first-person singular started out from Old French verbs whose stems happened to end in a sibilant, most notably the regular conjugation in -ir, e.g., je fenis, tu fenis (from Vulgar Latin fin-isc-o, fin-isc-is). In later Old French, final /s/ was only pronounced in liaison and in pausa. This weakened the distinction in those verbs which had originally had -s in the second-person only, but by analogy now began to take it in the first-person as well. The grammarians later on standardised the usage, prescribing -s in some cases and rejecting it in others.

#### Pronunciation

* Silent, except in liaison environments, when it may be pronounced /z‿/. This liaison is optional after full vowels (as in tu dois). After silent -e- (as in tu aimes) it is rare and often discouraged.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the second-person singular of most verb conjugations.
* Used to form the first-person singular of some verb conjugations.

### See also

* -x

## German
### Etymology 1

Inherited from Middle High German -es, from Old High German [Term?].

#### Alternative forms

* -es
* -ens (proper nouns ending with a sibilant consonant; dated)
* -' (proper nouns ending with a sibilant consonant)
* -'s (common nouns; now proscribed)
* -'s (proper nouns; correct in certain cases, but often seen as a misspelling)

#### Suffix

-s
* used to form the genitive singular of most masculine nouns, neuter nouns, and proper nouns of all genders

##### Usage notes

The formation of the strong genitive singular (in -s, -es, or no ending) may be of some difficulty both for learners and native speakers.
Only one form is possible in some nouns:
* Nouns in unstressed -as, -es,- is, -os, -us remain unchanged (except those in -nis, which make -nisses).
* Other nouns in -s, -ß, -x, -z take -es.
* Nouns ending in a vowel or in unstressed -el, -em, -en, -er, -or, -um take -s. (Only those in a diphthong or in -h allow -es, alternatively.)
* Nouns forming their plural in -s take the same ending also in the genitive singular. (Apparent exceptions will generally have an alternative plural in -e.)
Otherwise, both forms are usually correct, but certain tendencies can be observed:
* The es-form is strongly preferred in a number of frequently used monosyllables, to the degree that the s-form may even sound odd. No hard rule can be given to identify these nouns; they include e.g. Land, Mann, Weg, etc.
* The es-form is also preferred, for euphonic reasons, in words ending in certain clusters like -pf, -sch, -st.
* Most other monosyllables have no clear preference.
* The s-form is usually preferred in polysyllables, regardless of their being simple or compound and regardless also of stress patterns.
Note, finally, that there is a fairly strong tendency for proper nouns (used with the article) and for newer or less common loanwords to remain unchanged in the genitive singular.

### Etymology 2

Probably derived from the genitive -s (etymology 1), but developed into a noun-forming suffix in German Low German and Central German dialects.

#### Suffix

-s m
* used to form nouns from verb stems
    ‎klacken + ‎-s → ‎Klacks
    ‎schnappen + ‎-s → ‎Schnaps

### Etymology 3

Borrowed from Middle Low German [Term?]. Reinforced by the fact that French and English also use -s as a plural suffix.

#### Alternative forms

* -'s (now proscribed)
* -ens (family names ending with a sibilant consonant)

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the plurals of some nouns.
* Used to form the plurals of personal names, particularly family names.

##### Usage notes

* The plural ending -s is most typical of loanwords (as in Schals, Parfüms, Videos), though there is a tendency for naturalised loanwords to switch to -e or -en (compare Generäle, Lifte, Pizzen with older Generals, Lifts, Pizzas). Conversely, -s is also used in a certain number of native words (as in Fräuleins, Mädels, Uhus). Moreover, it is the most productive plural marker in contemporary German, typically used to pluralise initialisms (LKWs), neologisms (Honks), and words that do not otherwise have a common plural form (Streits).

### Etymology 4

Derived from the genitive -s (etymology 1), originally as an adverbial genitive (compare e.g. eines Tages).

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form adverbs from nouns:
    ‎der Tag (“the day”) + ‎-s → ‎tags (“in the daytime”)
    ‎die Nacht (“the night”) + ‎-s → ‎nachts (“by night”)
    ‎der Anfang (“the beginning”) + ‎-s → ‎anfangs (“initially”)
* Sometimes used to form adverbs from adjectives:
    ‎bereit (“ready”) + ‎-s → ‎bereits (“already”)
    ‎link (“left”) + ‎-s → ‎links (“on the left”)

### See also

* -s-

## Hungarian
### Etymology

Presumably can be traced back to a Proto-Uralic *-ć suffix.

### Pronunciation

* IPA: [ʃ]
* Audio:(file)

### Suffix

-s
* (adjective-forming suffix) Added to a noun to form an adjective meaning "having something, a quality"; sometimes referred to as ornative.
    ‎só (“salt”) + ‎-s → ‎sós (“salty”)
* (noun-forming suffix) Added to a noun to form an occupation or a collective noun.
    ‎hajó (“ship”) + ‎-s → ‎hajós (“sailor”)
* (number-forming suffix) Added to a cardinal number to form a digit or figure, cf. the relevant template.
    ‎nulla (“zero”) + ‎-s → ‎nullás (“the digit or figure 0”)
* (frequentative suffix, obsolete) Forms verbs with repetitive meaning. In today's Hungarian language, it is completely obsolete, and its old derivatives are also obscured, e.g. olvas (“to read”), keres (“to seek”), futos (“to run around”).

#### Usage notes

* (all senses) Variants:
    -s is added to words ending in a vowel. Final -a changes to -á-. Final -e changes to -é-.
    -os is added to some back-vowel words ending in a consonant
    -as is added to other back-vowel words ending in a consonant
    -es is added to unrounded (and some rounded) front-vowel words ending in a consonant
    -ös is added to most rounded front-vowel words ending in a consonant

#### Derived terms

* -us

### See also

* Appendix:Hungarian suffixes

### References

* ↑ -s in Zaicz, Gábor (ed.). Etimológiai szótár: Magyar szavak és toldalékok eredete (‘Dictionary of Etymology: The origin of Hungarian words and affixes’). Budapest: Tinta Könyvkiadó, 2006, →ISBN. (See also its 2nd edition.)

## Ingrian
### Etymology 1

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-ssa. Cognates include Finnish -ssa and Estonian -s.

#### Pronunciation

* (Ala-Laukaa) IPA: /-sːɑ/, [-s̠ːɑ], /-sːæ/, [-s̠ːæ]
* (Soikkola) IPA: /-s/, [-ʃ]

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the inessive case; in, inside

##### Usage notes

* May trigger vowel elongation of the preceding vowel.

##### Inflection
### Etymology 2

From Proto-Finnic *-nci, from Proto-Uralic *-mte. Cognates include Finnish -s and Estonian -s.

#### Pronunciation

* (Ala-Laukaa) IPA: /-s/, [-s̠]
* (Soikkola) IPA: /-s/, [-ʃ]

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form ordinal numbers from cardinal numbers; -th

##### Derived terms

* kaheksas
* kolmas
* kuuvves
* kymmenäs
* neljäs
* seitsemäs
* viijes
* yheksäs

### Etymology 3

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-ci, from Proto-Uralic *-ti. Cognates include Finnish -si.

#### Pronunciation

* (Ala-Laukaa) IPA: /-s/, [-s̠]
* (Soikkola) IPA: /-s/, [-ʃ]

#### Suffix

-s
* (obsolete) Used to mark the possession of the second person singular; thy, your
** 1936, D. I. Efimov, Lukukirja: Inkeroisia alkușkouluja vart (ensimäine osa), Leningrad: Riikin Ucebno-pedagogiceskoi Izdateljstva, page 7:Niin mamallees i saoki.Just say so to your mother.

##### Usage notes

* May trigger vowel elongation of the preceding vowel.

##### Inflection
### Etymology 4

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-s. Cognates include Finnish -s.

#### Pronunciation

* (Ala-Laukaa) IPA: /-s/, [-s̠]
* (Soikkola) IPA: /-s/, [-ʃ]

#### Suffix

-s
* (non-productive) Used to form nouns from other nouns
    ‎ohja (“rein”) + ‎-s → ‎ohjas (“rein”)

##### Declension

| (back-vocalic) Declension of -s (type 2/petos, no gradation) singular plural nominative -s -kset genitive -ksen -ksiin partitive -sta, -st -ksia illative -ksee -ksii inessive -ksees -ksiis elative -ksest -ksist allative -kselle -ksille adessive -kseel -ksiil ablative -kselt -ksilt translative -kseks -ksiks essive -ksenna, -kseen -ksinna, -ksiin exessive$^{1)}$ -ksent -ksint $^{1)}$ obsolete $^{*)}$ the accusative corresponds with either the genitive (sg) or nominative (pl) $^{**)}$ the comitative is formed by adding the suffix -ka$^?$ or -kä$^?$ to the genitive. | (front-vocalic) Declension of -s (type 2/petos, no gradation) singular plural nominative -s -kset genitive -ksen -ksiin partitive -stä, -st -ksiä illative -ksee -ksii inessive -ksees -ksiis elative -ksest -ksist allative -kselle -ksille adessive -kseel -ksiil ablative -kselt -ksilt translative -kseks -ksiks essive -ksennä, -kseen -ksinnä, -ksiin exessive$^{1)}$ -ksent -ksint $^{1)}$ obsolete $^{*)}$ the accusative corresponds with either the genitive (sg) or nominative (pl) $^{**)}$ the comitative is formed by adding the suffix -ka$^?$ or -kä$^?$ to the genitive. |

##### Derived terms
### References

* V. I. Junus (1936) Iƶoran Keelen Grammatikka‎, Leningrad: Riikin Ucebno-pedagogiceskoi Izdateljstva, page 43

## Karelian
### Etymology

Inherited from Proto-Finnic *-ci, from Proto-Uralic *-ti. Cognates include Finnish -si.

### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

### Suffix

-s
* Used to mark the possession of the second person; thy, your
    jalka (“leg”) → jalkas (“your leg(s)”)

#### Derived terms
### References

* P. M. Zaykov (1999) Грамматика Карельского языка (фонетика и морфология) [Grammar of the Karelian language (phonetics and morphology)], →ISBN, page 47

## Kashubian
### Etymology

Inherited from Proto-Slavic *si. Cognates include Polish -ś and Slovincian -sz.

### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

### Particle

-s
* appended to relative/interrogative pronouns to form indefinite pronouns
    ‎chto (“who”) + ‎-s → ‎chtos (“someone”)

#### Derived terms
## Latin
### Etymology

Inherited from Proto-Indo-European *-s. Cognate with Ancient Greek -ς (-s).

### Suffix

-s
* suffix marking the nominative singular form of non-neuter nouns and adjectives in declensions other than the first.

#### Usage notes

The suffix appears most obviously in the third declension, as in urbs. Stem-final consonants are often modified or deleted before the suffix: for example, ‎lēg- (“law”) + ‎-s → ‎lēx (“law”, nominative singular) and ‎dent- (“tooth”) + ‎-s → ‎dēns (“tooth”, nominative singular). Etymologically, the Latin third declension includes both original consonant-stem nouns and i-stem nouns, but these two classes are not consistently distinguished in the nominative singular due to frequent syncope of nominative forms that originally ended in *-is (such as *ǵénh₁tis > gēns), as well as some analogical interchange of endings between these two classes (as in *ḱwṓ and *h₂yéwHō being replaced with canis and iuvenis respectively). The ending -s usually does not appear in the nominative singular of n-stem, r-stem, or l-stem nouns. Most non-neuter n-stems instead drop the -n- and take the ending -ō̆ in the nominative singular (such as homō̆, hominis or carō̆, carnis); a smaller set end in -n in the nominative singular (as in tībīcen, tībīcinis); -s appears only in a handful of irregular formations such as canis, iuvenis, sanguī̆s. R-stem and l-stem nouns (such as āctor, cōnsul) normally have nominative singular forms ending in -r or -l respectively (which are the regular outcomes in Latin of word-final original *-rs and *-ls). Latin nominative singular forms that end in -ns, -rs or -ls are derived by consonant cluster simplification from stems ending in -t- or -d-; e.g. mōns, montis; pars, partis; puls, pultis.
Second declension non-neuter nominative singular forms originally ended in the suffix -s preceded by the Indo-European thematic vowel *-o-. Vowel reduction caused short -o- to be replaced with -u- in closed non-initial syllables, and so Proto-Italic *-os became Classical Latin -us, which is often interpreted as a nominative suffix of its own (an example of rebracketing) rather than a sequence of stem-final vowel + -s. Likewise, in the fourth declension and fifth declension, -s is always preceded by the characteristic vowels of these declensions (-u- and -ē- respectively), with the result that -us and -ēs are frequently regarded as nominative singular suffixes for these declensions.
The suffix -s generally appears only on non-neuter nominative/vocative forms, but it is found in the neuter nominative/vocative/accusative singular of third declension adjectives "of one termination". From an etymological perspective, third-declension neuter nouns such as genus, generis that end in -s in the nominative singular alternating with -r- in oblique forms do not end in this suffix: rather, they are derived from stems that originally ended in the consonant *s (which was changed to -r- by rhotacism when followed by a suffix starting with a vowel).

#### Derived terms
## Low German
### Etymology

Inherited from Middle Low German -es, from Old Saxon -es, the masculine and neuter genitive singular ending of strong nouns.

### Suffix

-s
* (archaic) Used to form the genitive case of (strong) masculine and neuter nouns.
* (rare) Used to form the genitive case of proper nouns.
* Used to form the partitive form of the adjective
    groot → wat groots
* Used to form adverbs
    Nacht → nachts

## Lushootseed
### Suffix

-s
* his, hers, theirs

## Manx
### Alternative forms

* -ish, -sh

### Etymology

From Old Irish -sa (first person singular) and -su (second person singular).

### Suffix

-s
* -self (emphatic)

#### Usage notes

* Added to prepositional pronouns (ending in a broad consonant) to add emphasis:
** Used in first-person singular: (e.g., lhiams).
** Used in second-person singular: (e.g., orts).

### See also

* -yn
* -syn

## Middle English
### Etymology

(This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium.)

### Suffix

-s
* Adverbial genitive ending, developed into the -ce at the end of some words

#### Descendants

* English: -s(t) (fossilized in whilst), -ce (mostly fossilized in hence, thence, whence)

## Mohawk
### Suffix

-s
* habitual verb suffix
** in verbal nouns: -er
** in adjectival verbs, indicates that the subject is not singular

### References

* Nora Deering, Helga H. Delisle (1976) Mohawk: A teaching grammar (preliminary version), Quebec: Manitou College, page 439

## Northern Sami
### Pronunciation

* This entry needs pronunciation information. If you are familiar with the IPA then please add some!

### Etymology 1

Inherited from Proto-Samic *-s.

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms nouns indicating a material.
* Forms nouns from numbers, indicating a group.
    ‎golbma (“three”) + ‎-s → ‎golmmas (“group of three”)

##### Usage notes

* This suffix triggers the weak grade on a preceding stressed syllable in the nominative singular and essive, and the strong grade in the other forms.

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 2

(This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium.)

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms adverbs of manner from adjectives.
    ‎buorre (“good”) + ‎-s → ‎būres (“well”)

##### Usage notes

* This suffix triggers the weak grade on a preceding stressed syllable.

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 3

Inherited from Proto-Samic *-ksë. Cognate with the Finnish translative ending -ksi.

#### Suffix

-s
* Forms adverbs indicating direction or a span of time.
    ‎davvi (“north”) + ‎-s → ‎davás (“northwards”)
    ‎dálvi (“winter”) + ‎-s → ‎dálvvás (“for the winter”)

##### Usage notes

* This suffix triggers the weak grade on a preceding stressed syllable.

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 4

From a merger of two older case endings:
* Inessive, Proto-Samic *-snē. Cognate with Finnish -ssa.
* Elative, Proto-Samic *-stē. Cognate with Finnish -sta.

#### Suffix

-s
* The ending of the locative singular case.

##### Usage notes

* This suffix triggers the weak grade on a preceding stressed syllable.
When possessive suffixes are attached, the suffix reverts to its earlier form -st- (for even-syllable stems) or -stti- (for odd-syllable stems).

## Norwegian Bokmål
### Etymology 1

From Danish -s, from Old Norse -sk, a grammaticalisation of Proto-Germanic *sek (reflexive pronoun).

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the passive voice of verbs.

### Etymology 2

From Danish -s, from Old Norse -s, originally the genitive singular ending of a-stem nouns.

#### Particle

-s
* Used to form genitive/possessive phrases, attached to the last word in a noun phrase.

##### Usage notes

If the last word already ends with a sibilant, only an apostrophe (-') is added. It is incorrect to use an apostrophe before the s.

## Ojibwe
### Etymology

Inherited from Proto-Algonquian *-ehs. Cognate to Plains Cree -is.

### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

### Suffix

-s
* Diminutive suffix for small animals
* Affective suffix for kinship terms

#### Derived terms
### References

* The Ojibwe People's Dictionary https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/word-part/s-final

## Old English
### Etymology

From Proto-West Germanic *-issju, *-ussju, from Proto-Germanic *-isjō, *-usjō.

### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

### Suffix

-s
* (often affects the value or quality of preceding consonants, may or may not cause i-mutation) Feminine noun suffix forming nouns from adjectives and verbs
    ‎milde (“gentle, mild”) + ‎-s → ‎milts (“mercy”) (earlier milds)
    ‎līþe (“gentle, limber”) + ‎-s → ‎liss (“grace”) (earlier liþs)
    ‎cweþan (“to say, speak”) + ‎-s → ‎cwiss (“a saying”) (earlier cwiþs)

#### Declension

Strong ō-stem:

## Old French
### Alternative forms

* -z (for most words that do not end in -e)

### Suffix

-s
* indicates a nominative singular of a masculine noun or adjective
* indicates an oblique plural of a masculine noun or adjective
* indicates a (nominative or oblique) plural of a feminine noun or adjective

#### Descendants

* Middle French: -s
** French: -s

## Pipil
### Suffix

-s
* (no longer productive) Forms nouns from verbs, indicating the activity of the verb

#### Synonyms

* -lis
* -was
* -wis

### Further reading

* Campbell, L. (1985). The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Mouton De Gruyter. p.49

## Portuguese
### Pronunciation

* (Portugal, Northeast Brazil, Rio de Janeiro) IPA: /ʃ/
* (Central-South Brazil) IPA: /s/

### Etymology 1
#### Alternative forms

* -es (after certain consonants and nasal vowels)

#### Suffix

-s
* used to form the regular plural of nouns and adjectives, especially those that end in vowels
** 2007, J. K. Rowling, translated by Lia Wyler, Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte [Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows] (Harry Potter; 7), Rio de Janeiro: Rocco, →ISBN, page 308:Você notou os cabelos dela, são negros e brilhantes e macios...Did you notice her hair, it's dark and bright and soft...

##### Usage notes

-s vs. -es vs. non-use:
* After l ([ɫ] [l], [w]), -s is used and the l is replaced with i ([j]): pastel → pastéis, capital → capitais,
** A scattering of exceptions have or allow -es after l, the most common being mal → males
** After stressed il, -s is used and the l is dropped: hostil → hostis, canil → canis
** After unstressed il, the ending becomes -eis: réptil → répteis, projétil → projéteis
** In sporadic and strongly proscribed Brazilian usage, the same rules are applied to words that end in a vowel + u or o ([w]): degrau → * degrais, troféu → * troféis
* After s:
** -es if the word is stressed in the last syllable: convés → conveses, anis → anises
** not used otherwise: status → status, íris → íris
* after m, -s is used and the m becomes n; this is an orthographic process, since in both cases the final consonant marks vowel nasalisation: dom → dons
* after n, either, but -es is more common in dialects where it is produced as /n/ rather than vowel nasalisation: hífen → hifens or hífenes
* after r and z, -es is used
* after vowels and semivowels, -s is used
** the plural of words ending in -ão can be -ões (by far the most common), -ãos (usually masculines with a feminine in -ã) or -ães (only a handful of words)
* loanwords usually follow the same rules: mouse → mouses, ópera → óperas
** in recent English loanwords ending in r, and occasionally in loans from other languages, -s is used: player → players
** unadapted loanwords ending in unusual consonants usually take -s or no morpheme: ankh → ankhs, flood → floods, spam → spam or spams
** rarely, and often alongside a regular form, the plural from the original language is used: campus → campi (also campus), mafioso → mafiosi (more commonly mafiosos), gol → gols (very rarely goles or gois)
** after x, Hellenisms and Latinisms are usually unchanged (following the rule for words ending in s), but sometimes have -es and the x becomes c (/s/), especially in Brazilian Portuguese: tórax → tórax, clímax → clímax or clímaces
* more often than not, surnames do not take an extra morpheme in the plural; when they do, they are usually Portuguese surnames with recognisable Portuguese morphemes: o Ferreira → os Ferreira or os Ferreiras
* names of peoples that do not contain Portuguese endings usually do not take the plural morpheme: polaco → polacos; ashanti → ashanti or ashantis (less common)
In informal varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, a noun phrase may take a single plural marker, usually in the article. For example, “the big houses” may be as casa grande where standard Portuguese requires as casas grandes. This usage is very widespread, however, it is proscribed and generally regarded as unacceptable in formal contexts and in serious writing.
In some words that end in O and have a stressed /o/ in the penult, the stressed vowel becomes /ɔ/ in the plural. See Category:Portuguese nouns with metaphony.
Colloquial Brazilian Portuguese allows /j/ to be added before /s/ in words stressed in their final syllables. This is blocked by morpheme boundaries, such that nós (“we”) may be pronounced /nɔjs/, but nós (“knots”) can only be pronounced as /nɔs/. vocês and colloquial forms cês and ocês are an exception to this rule, and can be pronounced /voˈsejs/. Note that this process is usually avoided in formal speech.

### Etymology 2
#### Suffix

-s
* (Brazil, slang) used to form slangier forms of certain words
    ‎foi mal (“sorry”) + ‎-s → ‎foi mals (“soz”)
    ‎grande coisa (“big deal”) + ‎-s → ‎grandes coisa (“biggie”)
    ‎valeu (“thank you”) + ‎-s → ‎valeus (“thanks”)

## Quechua
### Alternative forms

* -si (after consonants)
* -sh

### Suffix

-s
* Evidential suffix, second-hand information. Indicates that the speaker has not directly experienced the information at hand; hearsay
    Qusqumantas kanki. ― (They say that) you are from Cusco.
    Inisqa qayna ñañantas watukusqan. ― Inez visited her sister yesterday (so I heard).

#### See also

* -m/-mi

## Spanish
### Etymology

Derived from the Latin accusative plural endings (-ās, -ōs, -ēs).

### Suffix

-s
* Used to form the regular plural of nouns and adjectives which end in vowels.
    ‎amigo (“friend”) + ‎-s → ‎amigos (“friends”)
    ‎cocina (“kitchen”) + ‎-s → ‎cocinas (“kitchens”)

#### Related terms

* -es

## Swedish
### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

### Etymology 1

Inherited from Old Swedish -s, from Old Norse -s, originally the genitive singular ending of a-stem nouns. Cognate with Danish -s. The frequent use of the suffix in written and modern colloquial Swedish is possibly the result of foreign influence, either Latin or Middle Low German.

#### Clitic

-s
* Used to form genitive phrases, attached to the last word in a noun phrase.

##### Related terms

* -s-

### Etymology 2

Inherited from Old Norse -sk, a grammaticalisation of Proto-Germanic *sek (reflexive pronoun).

#### Suffix

-s
* (productive) Used to form the passive voice of verbs.
    Bilen kör ― The car drives.
    Bilen körs ― The car is (being) driven.
    Bilen körde. ― The car drove.
    Bilen kördes. ― The car was (being) driven.
    Grisen äter. ― The pig eats.
    Grisen äts. ― The pig is (being) eaten.
** 1995, Peter Grönvall, Maria Rådsten, Nanne Grönvall (lyrics and music), “Det vackraste [The most beautiful thing ["thing" from being nominalized]]”‎performed by Cecilia Vennersten:Det är en rikedom att få älska och att älskas.It is a richness to get to love and to be loved.
* (chiefly unproductive) Used to form the middle (reflexive and reciprocal) voice of verbs.
    Jag mötte honom. ― I met him.
    Vi möttes. ― We met up. (literally, “We met each other.”)
    Han slog mig. ― He hit me.
    Vi slogs. ― We fought. (literally, “We hit each other.”)
* (by extension) Used with certain transitive verbs, but without an object, to indicate a habitual or natural action.
    Var försiktig! Hästen sparkas. ― Be careful! The horse kicks [has a disposition to kick].
    Hunden bits. ― The dog bites [habitually].
    Han knuffas mycket. ― He pushes people a lot.

##### Usage notes

* Until the middle of the 20th century, the variant suffix -es was used to mark the present passive of all -er verbs of the second and fourth conjugations. This usage is mostly considered archaic today, but -es is still used for -er verbs whose stems end in s.
* See also vara (“be”), which forms a passive voice for states or completed actions.
* Verbs with the suffix -s that are not passive (including those in 2 and 3 above) are called deponent verbs. In such cases, the passive reading is often also possible. For example, vi slogs might also mean “we were hit” and hunden bits might mean “the dog is bitten”. However, such readings would be unintuitive unless suggested by the context.

### Etymology 3

Mostly from English -s.

#### Suffix

-s
* (chiefly colloquial, often proscribed) Used to form the plural form of some words, mostly loanwords
    ‎partner + ‎-s → ‎partners
    ‎fan + ‎-s → ‎fans
    ‎taco + ‎-s → ‎tacos

##### See also

* -sar

### Etymology 4

Originally from Old Swedish -s, a genitive suffix. Many of the examples are later analogically derived from each other.

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to derive some adverbs from nouns or adjectives
    ‎söndag (“Sunday”) + ‎-s → ‎i söndags (“last Sunday”)
* (colloquial) Used to form an adverbial participle from a present participle in -ande, -ende
    ‎skrattande (“laughing”) + ‎-s → ‎skrattandes
    Hon gick bort skrattandes. ― She went away laughing.

##### Alternative forms

* -as, -se, -es

##### Derived terms

* ens
* i aftons
* i fredags
* i jåns
* i lördags
* i måndags
* i onsdags
* i söndags
* i tisdags
* i torsdags
* inomlands
* inrikes
* långs
* nyss
* tids nog
* tvärs
* utomlands
* utrikes
* i höstas
* i julas
* i påskas
* i somras
* i vintras
* i våras
* i afse
* i morse
* alldeles
* framledes
* -ledes

### References

-s in Elof Hellquist, Svensk etymologisk ordbok (1st ed., 1922)

## Tagalog
### Etymology

Possibly from English -s.

### Pronunciation

* (Standard Tagalog) IPA: /s/ [s]

### Suffix

-s (Baybayin spelling ᜐ᜔)
* (slang, generally humorous) suffix added in slang, especially in place of reduplication
    ‎pwede + ‎-s → ‎pweds

#### Derived terms

* Tagalog terms suffixed with -s alaws arats bagets carps dabarkads daks deds dehins deliks dyologs ebs echas elibs ermats erpats gets gumps japorms jebs juts kebs kitakits kuys manyakis mangjombags mars naks ogags oks olats ows peksman petiks peyups pics pots sags saks scoobs sharks timbs tobalats tomguts tong-its tongpats xerex

#### Further reading

* Zorc, R. David, San Miguel, Rachel (1993) Tagalog Slang Dictionary‎, Manila: De La Salle University Press, →ISBN

## Welsh
### Etymology 1

Borrowed from English -s.

#### Pronunciation

* (North Wales) IPA: /s/
* (South Wales) IPA: /s/, /z/

#### Suffix

-s
* Used to form plural nouns.
    Synonyms: -aid, -aint, -au, -ed, -edd, -en, -i, -iaid, -iau, -ion, -od, -oedd, -on, -ydd, -yr, -ys
    ‎bàth (“bath”) + ‎-s → ‎baths (“baths”)
    ‎tomato (“tomato”) + ‎-s → ‎tomatos (“tomatoes”)
    ‎gwdihŵ (“owl”) + ‎-s → ‎gwdihŵs (“owls”)

##### Derived terms
### Etymology 2

Ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *só (“that”).

#### Pronunciation

* IPA: /s/

#### Pronoun

-s
* (literary, otherwise obsolete) him, her, it, them
    Nis gwelais erioed.I never saw him/her/it/them.
    Dyna ymadrodd nas clywir yn aml.That is a phrase which is not often heard. (literally, "There is a phrase which one does not hear [it] often."
    Nid yw iaith yn fyw onis defnyddir.The language is not alive unless it is used. (literally, "…unless one uses it.")
** 1588, Y Beibl cyssegr-lan, 1 Corinthians 2:7,8:
    Eithr yr ydym ni yn llefaru doethineb Duw mewn dirgelwch, sef y ddoethineb guddiedig, yr hon a ragordeiniodd Duw cyn yr oesoedd i’n gogoniant ni: yr hon nid adnabu neb o dywysogion y byd hwn: oherwydd pes adwaenasent, ni chroeshoeliasent Arglwydd y gogoniant.But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom, which God ordained before the world unto our glory: which none of the princes of this world knew: for had they known it, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.

##### Usage notes

* Found only in formal language after certain vowel-final preverbal particles, such as ni, na, oni and pe. After other vowel-final preverbal particles, such as fe, a and y, singular 'i and plural 'u are used instead.

##### Derived terms

* os (“if”)

### References

* R. J. Thomas, G. A. Bevan, P. J. Donovan, A. Hawke et al., editors (1950–present), “-s”, in Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru Online (in Welsh), University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh & Celtic Studies