# -우-
## Korean
### Etymology

From Middle Korean 우〮 (Yale: -Gwú-), from Old Korean 友 (*-(G)wu-), from older <*-kwú->.

### Pronunciation

* (SK Standard/Seoul) IPA: [u]
* Phonetic hangul: [우]

### Suffix

우 • (-u-)
* Derives certain causative verbs, especially for stems ending in ㅣ (i). No longer productive.
    Synonyms: 이 (-i-), 히 (-hi-), 리 (-ri-), 기 (-gi-), 구 (-gu-), 추 (-chu-)
    ‎비다 (bida, “to be empty”) + ‎우 (-u-) → ‎비우다 (biuda, “to empty”)
    ‎지다 (jida, “to bear”) + ‎우 (-u-) → ‎지우다 (jiuda, “to burden”)

#### Usage notes

Although still very common in Korean, the causative/passive suffixes are no longer productive for forming new verbs. Verbs that do not already have a morphological causative or passive must employ auxiliaries:
* 게 하다 (-ge hada) for causatives
* 어지다 (-eojida) for passives

#### See also

* 아 (-a-, causative suffix) (Southern Gyeongsang)

## Middle Korean
### Etymology 1

From Old Korean 乎 (*-wo, modulator suffix).

#### Pronunciation

* IPA: /ú/
Harmonic pair :
| Yin-form | 우〮 (-wú-) |
| Yang-form | 오〮 (-wó-) |

#### Suffix

우〮 (-wú-)
* A very common verbal suffix in fifteenth-century Middle Korean, sometimes called the "modulator" in English. The meaning of this term is uncertain. Possibilities include:
** 14th century?, “動動 (Dongdong)”, in 樂學軌範 (Akhak Gwebeom)‎:德(덕)이여 福(복)이라 호ᄂᆞᆯ 나ᅀᆞ라 오소ᅌᅵ다TEK-iye PWOK-ila hwon-ol nazola woswongitaI have come [-wo] to present [this] which they call [-wo] virtue and fortune.
** 14th century?, “西京別曲 (Seogyeong byeolgok)”, in 樂章歌詞 (Akjang gasa):괴시란ᄃᆡ 우러곰 좃니노ᅌᅵ다kwoysilantoy wulekwom cwosninwongitaIf you only loved me, I would chase after [-wo] you as I wept
** 1449, Sejong the Great, 月印千江之曲 (Worin cheon'gang ji gok):보ᄇᆡ ᄭᅮ뮨 술위예 象(샤ᇰ)이 메더니pwopoy skwumywun sulGwuy-yey SYANG-i meyteniThe elephant was bearing a cart which they had decorated [-wu] with treasures
** Heo Ung (1958) believed that this was not a single suffix, but three different suffixes:
    1) in the main clause, a suffix marking a first-person subject
*** 1459, 月印釋譜 / 월인석보 [Worin seokbo], page 2:34b:右(우ᇢ〯)手(슈ᇢ〯) 左(장〯)手(슈ᇢ〯)로〮 天(텬)地(띵〮) ᄀᆞᄅᆞ치〮샤〮 ᄒᆞ오ᅀᅡ〮 내〮 尊(존)호〮라 ᄒᆞ〮시니〮WǓW.SYǓW CǍ.SYǓW-lwó THYÈN.TTÍ kòlòchísyá hòwòzá ná-y CWÒN-h-wó-là hósìníWith his right and left hands, he pointed at heaven and earth, saying, "I alone am honored."
    2) in an adnominal verb, a suffix marking the noun as a direct or indirect object of the verb
*** 1459, 月印釋譜 / 월인석보 [Worin seokbo], page 10:9b:누ᄫᅮᆫ 자리〮예〮 겨〯샤〮 合(ᅘᅡᆸ〮)掌(쟈ᇰ〯)ᄒᆞ〮샤〮 […]nwùW-wùn còlí-yéy kyěsyá HHÁP.CYǍNG-hósyá […] Being at the place where he had lain down, he put his hands together […]
    3) in nominalized or gerund verbal constructions, simply an integral part of the nominalizing or gerund suffix (equivalent to English "-ing")
*** 1459, 月印釋譜 / 월인석보 [Worin seokbo], page 23:99b:比(삥〮)丘(구ᇢ)를〮 뫼호〮시니〮 比(삥〮)丘(구ᇢ) 우루〮믈〮 말〯라 ᄒᆞ〮시니〮 […]PPÍ.KWÙW-lúl mwòyhwó-sì-ní PPÍ.KWÙW wùl-wú-m-úl mǎllà hósìní […] He gathered together the bhikkhu, and the bhikkhu said, "Stop your crying" […]
** The basic framework of Heo's theory remains the most influential today. Examples difficult to explain in Heo's basic theory include:
*** 13th century, “翰林別曲 (Hallim byeolgok)”, in 樂章歌詞 (Akjang gasa):羊(야ᇰ)鬚(슈)筆(필) 鼠(셔)鬚(슈)筆(필) 빗기 드러 위 딕논 景(겨ᇰ) 긔 엇더ᄒᆞ니ᅌᅵᆺ고YANG.SYU.PHIL SYE.SYU.PHIL piski tule wuy tiknwon KYENG ku-y este-honingiskwoRaising slantedly the sheep-hair brush and rat-hair brush, yea, how [splendid] is the scene when they dip [-wo] them [in ink]!The adnominal construction with the verb "to dip" is describing the noun "scene", which is not the object of the verb, but the modulator appears.
*** 14th century?, “動動 (Dongdong)”, in 樂學軌範 (Akhak gwebeom)‎:二(ᅀᅵ)月(월)ㅅ 보로매 아으 노피 현 燈(드ᇰ)ㅅ블 다호라 萬(만)人(ᅀᅵᆫ) 비취실 즈ᅀᅵ샷다ZI.WEL-s pwolwom-ay au nwophi hyen TUNG-s pul tahwola MAN.ZIN pichwuysil cuz-isyastaBy the full moon of the second month, oh, [you] are like [-wo] a lamplight lit on high! Your appearance is one to illuminate a myriad men.The subject of the verb "to be like" is the beloved in the second or third person, but the modulator appears.
** Yi Sung-nyeong (1959) believed that this was a single aspectual suffix, called the "volitive", that conveyed the desire of the verb's subject to carry out the action. This remains a minority theory, Examples difficult to explain in Yi's theory include:
*** 1459, 月印釋譜 (Worin seokbo), pages 10:24a, 21:55a:내... 아ᄃᆞ〮ᄅᆞᆯ〮 나호〮니〮 […] 婢(비) ᄒᆞᆫ 아ᄃᆞ〮ᄅᆞᆯ〮 나ᄒᆞ니〮na-y... àtól-ól nàhwóní […] PI hòn àtól-ól nàhòníI... gave birth [-wo] to a son […] The slave-girl gave birth to one son.This contrast is difficult to explain under the volitive hypothesis.
*** 1461, 楞嚴經諺解 (Neung'eomgyeong eonhae), page 5:43a:내... 두〯 누〮늘〮 일후〮니〮na-y... twǔ nwún-úl ìlhwúníI... have lost [-wu] my two eyes.Contextually, this cannot have been desired by the subject of the verb.
** Examples clearly incompatible with Heo's theory led Heo himself to propose that the suffix could be used for non-first-person subjects to convey a sense of rapport in which the speaker speaks from the perspective of the verb's subject. A refined version of Heo's hypothesis, moving away from an Indo-European notion of person-marking, analyzes the suffix as conveying empathy or a close emotional tie between the speaker and the subject of the verb (in both main and adnominal clauses) in addition to its object-marking function in adnominal constructions and its integral function in verbal gerunds. It is currently the most popular interpretation of the modulator, though it is still not unanimously agreed upon. Both examples given above of the exceptions to Heo's hypothesis can be explained by this theory:
*** 13th century, “翰林別曲 (Hallim byeolgok)”, in 樂章歌詞 (Akjang gasa):羊(야ᇰ)鬚(슈)筆(필) 鼠(셔)鬚(슈)筆(필) 빗기 드러 위 딕논 景(겨ᇰ) 긔 엇더ᄒᆞ니ᅌᅵᆺ고YANG.SYU.PHIL SYE.SYU.PHIL piski tule wuy tiknwon KYENG ku-y este-honingiskwoRaising slantedly the sheep-hair brush and rat-hair brush, yea, how splendid is the scene when they dip [-wo] them [in ink]!The modulator is used to express the speaker's empathy and self-identification with the scholars who are dipping their brushes.
*** 14th century?, “動動 (Dongdong)”, in 樂學軌範 (Akhak gwebeom)‎:二(ᅀᅵ)月(월)ㅅ 보로매 아으 노피 현 燈(드ᇰ)ㅅ블 다호라 萬(만)人(ᅀᅵᆫ) 비취실 즈ᅀᅵ샷다ZI.WEL-s pwolwom-ay au nwophi hyen TUNG-s pul tahwola MAN.ZIN pichwuysil cuz-isyastaBy the full moon of the second month, oh, [you] are like [-wo] a lamplight lit on high! Your appearance is one to illuminate a myriad men.The modulator is used to express the speaker's emotional rapport with the beloved.

##### Usage notes

* By the late sixteenth century, the suffix had become obsolete and does not survive in the modern dialects.

##### Alternative forms

* 요〮 (-ywó), 유〮 (ywú) — after vowel stem with final -i
* 로〮 (-lwó) — after copula 이 (i-)
* Changes the pitch to rising, but the suffix itself is lost (after CV verb stems not ending in a minimal vowel)
* The suffix is conserved but causes loss of the minimal vowel of the verb stem (after CV verb stems ending in a minimal vowel)
** Except for ᄒᆞ다〮 (hò-tá, “to do”), which usually irregularly takes the form ᄒᆞ요〮다〮 (hòy-wó-tá), although 호〮다〮 (hwó-tá) is also attested.

##### Derived terms

* Combined forms:
** 거 (-ke-, subjective) + 우 (-wu-) > 가 (-ka-)
** 더 (-te-, imperfect) + 우 (-wu-) > 다 (-ta-)
** 시 (-si-, subject honorific) + 우 (-wu-) > 샤 (-sya-)

#### See also

Middle Korean verbal paradigm :
| Verb stem | Slot 1 Object honorific | Slot 2 Past-related TAM | Slot 3 Subject honorific | Slot 4 Present tense |
| | ᅀᆞᇦ〯 (-zǒW-) | 더〮 (-té-, imperfective) 아〮/어〮 (-á/é-, perfective) 거 (-ke-, perfective) | 으시〮/ᄋᆞ시〮 (-usí/osí-) | ᄂᆞ (-no-) |
| | Slot 5 Modulator | Slot 6 Prospective/Future | Slot 7 Emotive/Exclamatory$^1$ | (Slot 8) (Imperfective)$^2$ |
| | 오〮/우〮 (-wó/wú-) | 으〮리〮/ᄋᆞ〮리〮 (-úlí/ólí-) | 도〮 (-twó-) 돗〮 (-twós-) others | 더〮 (-té-) |
| | (Slot 9) (Modulator)$^3$ | Slot 10 Definitive | Slot 11 Addressee honorific | Slot 12 Verb-final suffix |
| | 오〮/우〮 (-wó/wú-) | 으〮니〮/ᄋᆞ〮니〮 (-úní/óní-) | 으〮ᅌᅵ/ᄋᆞ〮ᅌᅵ (-úngì/óngì-, very deferential) ㆁ (-ng-, deferential) | See Template:okm-sentence enders for sentence-final ones |
| Examples |||||||
| 기르ᅀᆞᄫᆞ〮시니〮ᅌᅵ다〮 (kìlù-zòWó-sì[sí]-ní-ngì-tá, “[the honored one] [indeed] brought up [the honored thing], [o honored one].”, 月印釋譜 10:19) 주그리로〮소〮ᅌᅵ다〮 (cwùk-ùlì[úlí]-lwós[twós]-wó-ngì-tá, “[I] shall die, [o honored one]!”, 月印釋譜 21:22) |||||||
| Notes |||||||
| $^1$ Many additional emotive suffixes, which have not been listed here, are fusional compounds that etymologically incorporate non-emotive morphemes. For example, 닷〮 (-tás-), which is used when the speaker has made a realization about some past state, comes from a merger of the imperfective 더〮 (-té-) and the emotive morpheme ㅅ (-s-). It is more appropriate to consider such suffixes as single-unit morphemes that belong to the slot for emotive suffixes, even if they also convey other information. They cause issues in the paradigmal order if they are broken down into their etymological constituents. And while the retrospective and confirmative suffixes share a slot and are hence mutually exclusive, 닷〮 (-tás-) has been attested as co-occurring with the latter. |||||||
| $^2$ In the fifteenth century, only after Slot 7 is filled by the emotive suffix 돗〮 (-twós-), forming the sequence 돗〮더〮 (-twós-té-), used to emotively convey a realization made in the past. In the sixteenth century, also appears after prospective 으〮리〮/ᄋᆞ〮리〮 (-úlí/olí-), forming the sequence 으〮리〮러〮/ᄋᆞ〮리〮러〮 (-úlí-lé/ólí-lé), used to convey a past state when something was about to happen. |||||||
| $^3$ Taken when Slot 7 (emotive) is filled. |||||||
| Certain suffixes are mutually exclusive. |||||||

### Etymology 2

Lenition of earlier <*-kwú-> in voiced environments.

#### Pronunciation

* (Morphophonemic) IPA: ⫽-ɣú-⫽

#### Suffix

Ablaut/harmonic pair :
| Yin-form | 우〮 (-Gwú-) |
| Yang-form | 오〮 (-Gwó-) |
우〮 (-Gwú-)
* A causative-deriving suffix attached to verb and adjective stems.
    ‎일〯다〮 (ǐl-tá, “to occur”) + ‎우〮 (-Gwú-) → ‎일우〮다〮 (ìl-Gwú-tá, “to create; to accomplish [to cause to occur]”)
    ‎퓌〮다〮 (pwúy-tá, “(of a fire) to be kindled”) + ‎우〮 (-Gwú-) → ‎퓌우〮다〮 (pwùy-Gwú-tá, “to kindle”)

##### Usage notes

When attaching to a high or rising monosyllable stem, this suffix regularly lowers its tone.

##### Alternative forms

* 후〮 (-hwú), 호〮 (-hwó-), 구〮 (-kwú-), 고〮 (-kwó-)

### References

* ↑ 임재욱 (Im Jae-uk) (2010) “고전시가 작품에 사용된 선어말어미 '오/우'의 기능 [gojeonsiga jakpume sayongdoen seoneomareomi -o/u- ui gineung, The function of the pre-final suffix -wo/wu- in classical poetry]”, in Gugeosa yeon'gu, volume 19, →DOI
* ↑ 석주연 (Seok Ju-yeon) (2014) “선어말어미 ‘오’의 연구 성과와 쟁점 [seoneomareomi ‘-o-’ui yeon'gu seonggwawa jaengjeom, Findings and key points in the study of the pre-final suffix -wo-]”, in Han'guk siga yeon'gu, volume 29
* ↑ Lee, Ki-Moon, Ramsey, S. Robert (2011) A History of the Korean Language, Cambridge University Press, →ISBN, pages 146, 178—179