# 降

| 降 | U+964D, &#38477; CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-964D |
| ← 陌 [U+964C] | CJK Unified Ideographs | 陎 → [U+964E] |
| 降 | U+FA09, &#64009; CJK COMPATIBILITY IDEOGRAPH-FA09 |
| ← 行 [U+FA08] | CJK Compatibility Ideographs | 見 → [U+FA0A] |

## Translingual
### Han character

降 (Kangxi radical 170, 阜+6 in Chinese, 阜+7 in Japanese, 9 strokes in Chinese in traditional Chinese, 8 strokes in mainland China, 10 strokes in Japanese, cangjie input 弓中竹水手 (NLHEQ), four-corner 7725$_4$, composition ⿰阝夅)

#### Derived characters

* 𭉓, 𰜡, 𤌅, 𧌰, 𡲣, 𡹷, 𱽿, 𫁫, 𩄐, 𱗘, 𰙳, 𤯲, 𨼇

#### References

* Kangxi Dictionary: page 1349, character 12
* Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 41620
* Dae Jaweon: page 1852, character 4
* Hanyu Da Zidian (first edition): volume 6, page 4126, character 18
* Unihan data for U+964D
* Unihan data for U+FA09

## Chinese
### Glyph origin

Historical forms of the character 降 :
| Shang | Western Zhou |
| Oracle bone script | Bronze inscriptions |
| | Old Chinese |
| 贛 | *kluːmʔ, *kluːms, *kromʔ, *kloːms |
| 灨 | *kluːmʔ, *kluːms |
| 竷 | *kʰluːms |
| 戇 | *kr'oːms, *qʰloːms |
| 洚 | *kruːŋs, *ɡruːŋ, *ɡloːŋ, *ɡluːŋ |
| 降 | *kruːŋs, *ɡruːŋ |
| 絳 | *kruːŋs |
| 栙 | *ɡruːŋ |
| 夅 | *ɡruːŋ |
| 跭 | *ɡruːŋ |
| 隆 | *ɡ·ruːŋ |
| 癃 | *ɡ·ruːŋ |
| 窿 | *ɡ·ruːŋ |
| 霳 | *ɡ·ruːŋ |
Phono-semantic compound (形聲 / 形声, OC *kruːŋs, *ɡruːŋ) and ideogrammic compound (會意 / 会意) : semantic 阝 (“hill, wall”) + phonetic 夅 (OC *ɡruːŋ, “to descend”) – descending a hill.

### Etymology 1
#### Pronunciation

* Mandarin
    (Standard)
       (Pinyin): jiàng (jiang$^4$)
       (Zhuyin): ㄐㄧㄤˋ
    (Chengdu, Sichuanese Pinyin): jiang$^4$
* Cantonese (Jyutping): gong$^3$
* Gan (Wiktionary): gong$^4$
* Hakka
    (Sixian, PFS): kong
    (Meixian, Guangdong): gong$^4$
* Northern Min (KCR): go̿ng
* Eastern Min (BUC): gáung
* Southern Min
    (Hokkien, POJ): kàng
    (Teochew, Peng'im): gang$^3$
* Wu (Shanghai, Wugniu): $^5$kaon
* Xiang (Changsha, Wiktionary): jian$^4$
* Mandarin
** (Standard Chinese)
*** Hanyu Pinyin: jiàng
*** Zhuyin: ㄐㄧㄤˋ
*** Tongyong Pinyin: jiàng
*** Wade–Giles: chiang$^4$
*** Yale: jyàng
*** Gwoyeu Romatzyh: jianq
*** Palladius: цзян (czjan)
*** Sinological IPA : /t͡ɕi̯ɑŋ⁵¹/
** (Chengdu)
*** Sichuanese Pinyin: jiang$^4$
*** Scuanxua Ladinxua Xin Wenz: giang
*** Sinological IPA : /t͡ɕiaŋ²¹³/
* Cantonese
** (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou–Hong Kong)
*** Jyutping: gong$^3$
*** Yale: gong
*** Cantonese Pinyin: gong$^3$
*** Guangdong Romanization: gong$^3$
*** Sinological IPA : /kɔːŋ³³/
* Gan
** (Nanchang)
*** Wiktionary: gong$^4$
*** Sinological IPA : /kɔŋ³⁵/
* Hakka
** (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
*** Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: kong
*** Hakka Romanization System: gong
*** Hagfa Pinyim: gong$^4$
*** Sinological IPA: /koŋ⁵⁵/
** (Meixian)
*** Guangdong: gong$^4$
*** Sinological IPA: /kɔŋ⁵³/
* Northern Min
** (Jian'ou)
*** Kienning Colloquial Romanized: go̿ng
*** Sinological IPA : /kɔŋ³³/
* Eastern Min
** (Fuzhou)
*** Bàng-uâ-cê: gáung
*** Sinological IPA : /kɑuŋ²¹³/
* Southern Min
** (Hokkien: Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Jinjiang, General Taiwanese)
*** Pe̍h-ōe-jī: kàng
*** Tâi-lô: kàng
*** Phofsit Daibuun: kaxng
*** IPA (Xiamen, Zhangzhou, Kaohsiung): /kaŋ²¹/
*** IPA (Quanzhou, Jinjiang): /kaŋ⁴¹/
*** IPA (Taipei): /kaŋ¹¹/
** (Teochew)
*** Peng'im: gang$^3$
*** Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: kàng
*** Sinological IPA : /kaŋ²¹³/
* Wu
** (Northern: Shanghai)
*** Wugniu: $^5$kaon
*** MiniDict: kaon$^去$
*** Wiktionary Romanisation (Shanghai): $^2$kaan
*** Sinological IPA (Shanghai): /kɑ̃³⁴/
* Xiang
** (Changsha)
*** Wiktionary: jian$^4$
*** Sinological IPA : /t͡ɕi̯æn⁴⁵/
* Middle Chinese: kaewngH
Rime :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 2/2 |
| Initial (聲) | 見 (28) |
| Final (韻) | 江 (9) |
| Tone (調) | Departing (H) |
| Openness (開合) | Open |
| Division (等) | II |
| Fanqie | 古巷切 |
| Baxter | kaewngH |
| Reconstructions ||
| Zhengzhang Shangfang | /kˠʌŋ$^H$/ |
| Pan Wuyun | /kᵚɔŋ$^H$/ |
| Shao Rongfen | /kɔŋ$^H$/ |
| Edwin Pulleyblank | /kaɨwŋ$^H$/ |
| Li Rong | /kɔŋ$^H$/ |
| Wang Li | /kɔŋ$^H$/ |
| Bernhard Karlgren | /kɔŋ$^H$/ |
| Expected Mandarin Reflex | jiàng |
| Expected Cantonese Reflex | gong$^3$ |
* Old Chinese
    (Baxter–Sagart): /*kˤruŋ-s/
    (Zhengzhang): /*kruːŋs/
Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014) :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 1/2 |
| Modern Beijing (Pinyin) | jiàng |
| Middle Chinese | ‹ kæwng$^H$ › |
| Old Chinese | /*kˁruŋ-s/ (? < *-[u]m-s) |
| English | descend |
| Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p; * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary. ||
Zhengzhang system (2003) :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 1/2 |
| No. | 6279 |
| Phonetic component | 夅 |
| Rime group | 終 |
| Rime subdivision | 0 |
| Corresponding MC rime | 絳 |
| Old Chinese | /*kruːŋs/ |

#### Definitions

降
* to fall; to drop; to descend; to come down
    降落 ― jiàngluò ― to fall; to land
* (honorific) to visit; to honor with one's presence
* to bestow; to confer
    From: The Classic of Poetry, c. 11th – 7th centuries BCE, translated based on James Legge's version
    Tiān jiàng sāngluàn, jījǐn jiànzhēn. [Pinyin]
    That Heaven [thus] sends down death and disorder? Famine comes again and again.
* to reduce; to decrease; to lower
    降價／降价 ― jiàngjià ― to reduce the price
* (music) flat (♭)
    降A大調／降A大调 ― jiàng-ēi dàdiào ― A-flat major
* to be born
* a surname

#### Compounds

* 下降 (xiàjiàng)
* 以降 (yǐjiàng)
* 光降
* 升降 (shēngjiàng)
* 升降機 / 升降机 (shēngjiàngjī)
* 升降舵 (shēngjiàngduò)
* 名降
* 喜從天降 / 喜从天降
* 崧生嶽降 / 崧生岳降
* 嵩嶽降神 / 嵩岳降神
* 左降
* 強迫降落 / 强迫降落
* 從天而降 / 从天而降 (cóngtiān'érjiàng)
* 打降
* 技術降落 / 技术降落
* 明降
* 昴降
* 星降
* 普降甘霖
* 牛筋牛降
* 禍從天降 / 祸从天降
* 空降 (kōngjiàng)
* 空降作戰 / 空降作战
* 空降兵 (kōngjiàngbīng)
* 空降部隊 / 空降部队
* 紆尊降貴 / 纡尊降贵 (yūzūnjiàngguì)
* 調降 / 调降 (tiáojiàng)
* 謫降 / 谪降
* 貴降 / 贵降
* 賤降 / 贱降 (jiànjiàng)
* 迫降
* 降下 (jiàngxià)
* 降世 (jiàngshì)
* 降乩 (jiàngjī)
* 降交點 / 降交点
* 降低 (jiàngdī)
* 降價 / 降价 (jiàngjià)
* 降元音
* 降冪 / 降幂 (jiàngmì)
* 降冪排列 / 降幂排列
* 降凡
* 降升調 / 降升调
* 降半旗 (jiàngbànqí)
* 降咎
* 降壓器 / 降压器
* 降席
* 降幅 (jiàngfú)
* 降心相從 / 降心相从
* 降志辱身
* 降情
* 降旗 (jiàngqí)
* 降旨 (jiàngzhǐ)
* 降格 (jiànggé)
* 降格以求
* 降格仿諷 / 降格仿讽
* 降水 (jiàngshuǐ)
* 降水量 (jiàngshuǐliàng)
* 降溫 / 降温 (jiàngwēn)
* 降火 (jiànghuǒ)
* 降災 / 降灾
* 降生 (jiàngshēng)
* 降真香
* 降神 (jiàngshén)
* 降祥
* 降福
* 降級 / 降级 (jiàngjí)
* 降級數 / 降级数
* 降罪
* 降職 / 降职 (jiàngzhí)
* 降臨 / 降临 (jiànglín)
* 降落 (jiàngluò)
* 降落傘 / 降落伞 (jiàngluòsǎn)
* 降薪 (jiàngxīn)
* 降詔 / 降诏 (jiàngzhào)
* 降調 / 降调 (jiàngdiào)
* 降貴紆尊 / 降贵纡尊
* 降降的
* 降階 / 降阶
* 降雨 (jiàngyǔ)
* 降霜 (jiàngshuāng)
* 降香 (jiàngxiāng)
* 陟降
* 霜降 (Shuāngjiàng)
* 頻頻貶降 / 频频贬降
* 驟降 / 骤降 (zhòujiàng)
* 黜降

#### Descendants

* → Vietnamese: giáng (降)

### Etymology 2
#### Pronunciation

* Mandarin
    (Pinyin): xiáng (xiang$^2$)
    (Zhuyin): ㄒㄧㄤˊ
* Cantonese (Jyutping): hong$^4$
* Hakka (Sixian, PFS): hòng
* Eastern Min (BUC): hòng
* Southern Min
    (Hokkien, POJ): hâng
    (Teochew, Peng'im): hang$^5$
* Wu (Shanghai, Wugniu): $^6$ghaon
* Mandarin
** (Standard Chinese)
*** Hanyu Pinyin: xiáng
*** Zhuyin: ㄒㄧㄤˊ
*** Tongyong Pinyin: siáng
*** Wade–Giles: hsiang$^2$
*** Yale: syáng
*** Gwoyeu Romatzyh: shyang
*** Palladius: сян (sjan)
*** Sinological IPA : /ɕi̯ɑŋ³⁵/
* Cantonese
** (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou–Hong Kong)
*** Jyutping: hong$^4$
*** Yale: hòhng
*** Cantonese Pinyin: hong$^4$
*** Guangdong Romanization: hong$^4$
*** Sinological IPA : /hɔːŋ²¹/
* Hakka
** (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
*** Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: hòng
*** Hakka Romanization System: hong$^ˇ$
*** Hagfa Pinyim: hong$^2$
*** Sinological IPA: /hoŋ¹¹/
* Eastern Min
** (Fuzhou)
*** Bàng-uâ-cê: hòng
*** Sinological IPA : /houŋ⁵³/
* Southern Min
** (Hokkien: Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Jinjiang, General Taiwanese)
*** Pe̍h-ōe-jī: hâng
*** Tâi-lô: hâng
*** Phofsit Daibuun: haang
*** IPA (Zhangzhou): /haŋ¹³/
*** IPA (Kaohsiung): /haŋ²³/
*** IPA (Xiamen, Quanzhou, Jinjiang, Taipei): /haŋ²⁴/
** (Teochew)
*** Peng'im: hang$^5$
*** Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: hâng
*** Sinological IPA : /haŋ⁵⁵/
* Wu
** (Northern: Shanghai)
*** Wugniu: $^6$ghaon
*** MiniDict: ghaon$^去$
*** Wiktionary Romanisation (Shanghai): $^3$hhaan
*** Sinological IPA (Shanghai): /ɦɑ̃²³/
* Middle Chinese: haewng
Rime :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 1/2 |
| Initial (聲) | 匣 (33) |
| Final (韻) | 江 (9) |
| Tone (調) | Level (Ø) |
| Openness (開合) | Open |
| Division (等) | II |
| Fanqie | 下江切 |
| Baxter | haewng |
| Reconstructions ||
| Zhengzhang Shangfang | /ɦˠʌŋ/ |
| Pan Wuyun | /ɦᵚɔŋ/ |
| Shao Rongfen | /ɣɔŋ/ |
| Edwin Pulleyblank | /ɦaɨwŋ/ |
| Li Rong | /ɣɔŋ/ |
| Wang Li | /ɣɔŋ/ |
| Bernhard Karlgren | /ɣɔŋ/ |
| Expected Mandarin Reflex | xiáng |
| Expected Cantonese Reflex | hong$^4$ |
* Old Chinese
    (Baxter–Sagart): /*m-kˤru[ŋ]/
    (Zhengzhang): /*ɡruːŋ/
Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014) :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 2/2 |
| Modern Beijing (Pinyin) | xiáng |
| Middle Chinese | ‹ hæwng › |
| Old Chinese | /*m-kˁru[ŋ]/ (? < *-[u]m) |
| English | submit |
| Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p; * Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary. ||
Zhengzhang system (2003) :
| Character | 降 |
| Reading # | 2/2 |
| No. | 6281 |
| Phonetic component | 夅 |
| Rime group | 終 |
| Rime subdivision | 0 |
| Corresponding MC rime | 栙 |
| Old Chinese | /*ɡruːŋ/ |

#### Definitions

降
* to surrender; to capitulate; to give in
    投降 ― tóuxiáng ― to surrender
* to subdue; to vanquish

#### Compounds

* 乞降 (qǐxiáng)
* 伏虎降龍 / 伏虎降龙
* 勸降 / 劝降 (quànxiáng)
* 受降 (shòuxiáng)
* 受降城
* 投降 (tóuxiáng)
* 招降 (zhāoxiáng)
* 招降納叛 / 招降纳叛
* 招降納順 / 招降纳顺 (zhāoxiángnàshùn)
* 拱手投降
* 拱手而降
* 服降
* 望風而降 / 望风而降
* 歸降 / 归降 (guīxiáng)
* 納降 / 纳降
* 詐降 / 诈降 (zhàxiáng)
* 誘降 / 诱降
* 降伏 (xiángfú)
* 降妖 (xiángyāo)
* 降將 / 降将 (xiángjiàng)
* 降書 / 降书
* 降服
* 降表
* 降附
* 降順 / 降顺 (xiángshùn)
* 降龍伏虎 / 降龙伏虎

#### Descendants

* → Vietnamese: hàng (降)

### Etymology 3

(This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium. Particularly: “related to etymology 1?”)

#### Pronunciation

* Hakka
    (Sixian, PFS): kiung
    (Hailu, HRS): giung$^ˇ$
    (Meixian, Guangdong): giung$^4$
* Hakka
** (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
*** Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: kiung
*** Hakka Romanization System: giung
*** Hagfa Pinyim: giung$^4$
*** Sinological IPA: /ki̯uŋ⁵⁵/
** (Hailu, incl. Zhudong)
*** Hakka Romanization System: giung$^ˇ$
*** Sinological IPA: /kiuŋ¹¹/
** (Meixian)
*** Guangdong: giung$^4$
*** Sinological IPA: /kiʊŋ⁵³/

#### Definitions

降
* (Hakka) to give birth
** 2012, 黃翠芳 [Grace Huang] (lyrics and music), “阿奶好作 [Easy To Be A Lady]”, in 牽等你介手 [Hold Your Hands]‎, performed by 黃翠芳 [Grace Huang]:
       ngin m heˇ giungˇ haˋ loi ciu+ denˊ ngin fugˋ sii+ [Taiwanese Hakka Romanization System]
       People are not born to wait to be served

## Japanese

| Shinjitai | 降 |
| Kyūjitai | 降󠄃 降+&#xE0103; (Hanyo-Denshi) (Moji_Joho) |
| The displayed kanji may be different from the image due to your environment. See here for details. |||

### Kanji

(Sixth grade kyōiku kanji)
* to descend
* to fall
* to precipitate
* to surrender

#### Readings

* Go-on: こう (kō, Jōyō)、ごう (gō)
* Kan-on: こう (kō, Jōyō)
* Kun: おりる (oriru, 降りる, Jōyō)、おろす (orosu, 降ろす, Jōyō)、ふる (furu, 降る, Jōyō)、くだす (kudasu, 降す)、くだる (kudaru, 降る)、ふらす (furasu, 降らす)、ふり (furi, 降り)
* Nanori: ふり (furi)、ふる (furu)

#### Compounds

* 降(こう)雨(う) (kōu)
* 降(こう)下(か) (kōka)
* 降格(こうかく) (kōkaku)
* 降参(こうさん) (kōsan)
* 降車(こうしゃ) (kōsha)
* 降雪(こうせつ) (kōsetsu)
* 降伏(こうふく), 降服(こうふく) (kōfuku)
* 以(い)降(こう) (ikō)
* 下(か)降(こう) (kakō)
* 滑降(かっこう) (kakkō)
* 降霊(こうれい) (kōrei)
* 昇(しょう)降(こう) (shōkō)
* 霜降(そうこう) (sōkō)
* 沈降(ちんこう) (chinkō)
* 投降(とうこう) (tōkō)

### References

* ↑ “降”, in 漢字ぺディア [Kanjipedia]‎ (in Japanese), The Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation, 2015–2025

## Korean
### Etymology 1

From Middle Chinese 降 (MC kaewngH).
Historical Readings :
| Dongguk Jeongun Reading |||
| Dongguk Jeongun, 1448 | Recorded as Middle Korean 가ᇰ〮 (Yale: káng) in Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 / 동국정운), 1448. | Recorded as Middle Korean 가ᇰ〮 (Yale: káng) in Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 / 동국정운), 1448. |
| Middle Korean |||
| Text | Eumhun | Eumhun |
| Text | Gloss (hun) | Reading |
| Hunmong Jahoe, 1527 | ᄂᆞ릴 강 | Recorded as Middle Korean 강 (kang) (Yale: kang) in Sinjeung Yuhap (新增類合 / 신증유합), 1576. |

#### Pronunciation

* (SK Standard/Seoul) IPA: [ka̠(ː)ŋ]
* Phonetic hangul: [강(ː)]
** Though still prescribed in Standard Korean, most speakers in both Koreas no longer distinguish vowel length.

#### Hanja

Wikisource 降 (eumhun 내릴 강 (naeril gang))
* hanja form of 강 (“to come down; to descend”)

#### Compounds

* 강단 (降壇, gangdan)
* 강등 (降等, gangdeung)
* 강림 (降臨, gangnim)
* 강설 (降雪, gangseol)
* 강쇄 (降殺, gangswae)
* 강수 (降水, gangsu)
* 강수량 (降水量, gangsuryang)
* 강신 (降神, gangsin)
* 강신술 (降神術, gangsinsul)
* 강우 (降雨, gang'u)
* 강탄 (降誕, gangtan)
* 강하 (降下, gangha)
* 낙강/락강 (落降, nakgang/rakgang)
* 등강 (登降, deunggang)
* 상강 (霜降, sanggang)
* 승강 (昇降, seunggang)
* 승강기 (昇降機, seungganggi)
* 적강 (謫降, jeokgang)
* 척강 (陟降, cheokgang)
* 침강 (沈降, chimgang)
* 탄강 (誕降, tan'gang)
* 하강 (下降, hagang)
* 활강 (滑降, hwalgang)

### Etymology 2

From Middle Chinese 降 (MC haewng).
Historical Readings :
| Dongguk Jeongun Reading |||
| Dongguk Jeongun, 1448 | Recorded as Middle Korean ᅘᅡᇰ (Yale: hhàng) in Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 / 동국정운), 1448. | Recorded as Middle Korean ᅘᅡᇰ (Yale: hhàng) in Dongguk Jeongun (東國正韻 / 동국정운), 1448. |
| Middle Korean |||
| Text | Eumhun | Eumhun |
| Text | Gloss (hun) | Reading |
| Hunmong Jahoe, 1527 | 항복 항 | Recorded as Middle Korean 항 (hang) (Yale: hang) in Sinjeung Yuhap (新增類合 / 신증유합), 1576. |
| ↑ 平聲 |||

#### Pronunciation

* (SK Standard/Seoul) IPA: [ha̠ŋ]
* Phonetic hangul: [항]

#### Hanja

降 (eumhun 항복할 항 (hangbokhal hang))
* hanja form of 항 (“to surrender”)

#### Compounds

* 귀항 (歸降, gwihang)
* 사항 (詐降, sahang)
* 투항 (投降, tuhang)
* 항마 (降魔, hangma)
* 항병 (降兵, hangbyeong)
* 항복 (降伏/降服, hangbok)
* 항삼세 (降三世, hangsamse)
* 항장 (降將, hangjang)

### References

* 국제퇴계학회 대구경북지부 (國際退溪學會 大邱慶北支部) (2007). Digital Hanja Dictionary, 전자사전／電子字典.

## Vietnamese
### Han character

降: Hán Việt readings: giáng, hàng (胡(hồ)江(giang)切(thiết))
降: Nôm readings: hàng, giáng, dán, nháng, giuống
* chữ Hán form of giáng (“to fall; to descend”).
* chữ Hán form of hàng (“to surrender”).

#### Compounds

* 降級 (giáng cấp)
* 降禍 (giáng họa/giáng hoạ)
* 降福 (giáng phúc)
* 降生 (giáng sinh/Giáng sinh)
* 降世 (giáng thế)
* 降秩 (giáng trật)
* 投降 (đầu hàng)
* 歸降 (quy hàng)
* 詐降 (trá hàng)

### References

* 1 2 3 4 Nguyễn (2014).
* 1 2 3 4 Nguyễn et al. (2009).
* 1 2 3 Trần (2004).
* 1 2 3 4 Bonet (1899).
* 1 2 Génibrel (1898).
* 1 2 Hồ (1976).
* 1 2 Taberd & Pigneau de Béhaine (1838).