# 開化
## Chinese
### Pronunciation

* Mandarin
    (Pinyin): kāihuà
    (Zhuyin): ㄎㄞ ㄏㄨㄚˋ
* Cantonese (Jyutping): hoi$^1$ faa$^3$
* Hakka (Sixian, PFS): khôi-fa
* Southern Min (Hokkien, POJ): khai-hòa
* Mandarin
** (Standard Chinese)
*** Hanyu Pinyin: kāihuà → kāihua (toneless final syllable variant)
*** Zhuyin: ㄎㄞ ㄏㄨㄚˋ → ㄎㄞ ˙ㄏㄨㄚ (toneless final syllable variant)
*** Tongyong Pinyin: kaihuå
*** Wade–Giles: kʻai$^1$-hua$^5$
*** Yale: kāi-hwa
*** Gwoyeu Romatzyh: kai.huah
*** Palladius: кайхуа (kajxua)
*** Sinological IPA : /kʰaɪ̯⁵⁵ xu̯ä⁵¹/ → /kʰaɪ̯⁵⁵ xu̯ä²/
* Cantonese
** (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou–Hong Kong)
*** Jyutping: hoi$^1$ faa$^3$
*** Yale: hōi fa
*** Cantonese Pinyin: hoi$^1$ faa$^3$
*** Guangdong Romanization: hoi$^1$ fa$^3$
*** Sinological IPA : /hɔːi̯⁵⁵ faː³³/
* Hakka
** (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
*** Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: khôi-fa
*** Hakka Romanization System: koi$^ˊ$ fa
*** Hagfa Pinyim: koi$^1$ fa$^4$
*** Sinological IPA: /kʰoi̯²⁴⁻¹¹ fa⁵⁵/
* Southern Min
** (Hokkien)
*** Pe̍h-ōe-jī: khai-hòa
*** Tâi-lô: khai-huà
*** Phofsit Daibuun: qai'hoax
*** IPA (Xiamen): /kʰai⁴⁴⁻²² hua²¹/
*** IPA (Quanzhou): /kʰai³³ hua⁴¹/
*** IPA (Zhangzhou): /kʰai⁴⁴⁻²² hua²¹/
*** IPA (Taipei): /kʰai⁴⁴⁻³³ hua¹¹/
*** IPA (Kaohsiung): /kʰai⁴⁴⁻³³ hua²¹/
* Middle Chinese: khoj xwaeH
Rime :
| Character | 開 | 化 |
| Reading # | 1/1 | 1/1 |
| Initial (聲) | 溪 (29) | 曉 (32) |
| Final (韻) | 咍 (41) | 麻 (99) |
| Tone (調) | Level (Ø) | Departing (H) |
| Openness (開合) | Open | Closed |
| Division (等) | I | II |
| Fanqie | 苦哀切 | 呼霸切 |
| Baxter | khoj | xwaeH |
| Reconstructions |||
| Zhengzhang Shangfang | /kʰʌi/ | /hˠua$^H$/ |
| Pan Wuyun | /kʰəi/ | /hʷᵚa$^H$/ |
| Shao Rongfen | /kʰɒi/ | /xua$^H$/ |
| Edwin Pulleyblank | /kʰəj/ | /hwaɨ$^H$/ |
| Li Rong | /kʰᴀi/ | /xua$^H$/ |
| Wang Li | /kʰɒi/ | /xwa$^H$/ |
| Bernard Karlgren | /kʰɑ̆i/ | /xwa$^H$/ |
| Expected Mandarin Reflex | kāi | huà |
| Expected Cantonese Reflex | hoi$^1$ | faa$^3$ |

### Verb

開化
* to become civilized
* (dialectal) to thaw; unfreeze
* to blossom; to mature; to reach fruition

### Adjective

開化
* civilized
* liberal; progressive; open-minded
* in good spirits

#### Antonyms

* (antonym(s) of “civilized”): (literary) 草昧 (cǎomèi), (attributive) 始祖 (shǐzǔ), 原始 (yuánshǐ)

### Proper noun

開化
* (～縣) Kaihua County (a county of Zhejiang, China)

### Descendants

* → Japanese: 開(かい)化(か) (kaika)
* → Korean: 개화(開化) (gaehwa)
* → Vietnamese: khai hoá (開化)

## Japanese

Kanji in this term :
| 開 | 化 |
| かい Grade: 3 | か Grade: 3 |
| on'yomi ||

### Pronunciation

* (Tokyo) かいか [káꜜìkà] (Atamadaka –)
* IPA: [ka̠ika̠]

### Noun

開(かい)化(か) • (kaika)
* civilization/modernization (in accordance with Western standards)
    『現代日本(げんだいにほん)の開化(かいか)』
       “Gendai nihon no kaika”
       The Civilizing of Modern Japan (1911 lecture by Natsume Soseki)

### Verb

開(かい)化(か)する • (kaika suru) suru (stem 開(かい)化(か)し (kaika shi), past 開(かい)化(か)した (kaika shita))
* to civilize/modernize (in accordance with Western standards)

#### Conjugation

Katsuyōkei ("stem forms") :
| Mizenkei ("imperfective") | 開化し | かいかし | kaika shi |
| Ren’yōkei ("continuative") | 開化し | かいかし | kaika shi |
| Shūshikei ("terminal") | 開化する | かいかする | kaika suru |
| Rentaikei ("attributive") | 開化する | かいかする | kaika suru |
| Kateikei ("hypothetical") | 開化すれ | かいかすれ | kaika sure |
| Meireikei ("imperative") | 開化せよ¹ 開化しろ² | かいかせよ¹ かいかしろ² | kaika seyo¹ kaika shiro² |
| Key constructions ||||
| Passive | 開化される | かいかされる | kaika sareru |
| Causative | 開化させる 開化さす | かいかさせる かいかさす | kaika saseru kaika sasu |
| Potential | 開化できる | かいかできる | kaika dekiru |
| Volitional | 開化しよう | かいかしよう | kaika shiyō |
| Negative | 開化しない | かいかしない | kaika shinai |
| Negative continuative | 開化せず | かいかせず | kaika sezu |
| Formal | 開化します | かいかします | kaika shimasu |
| Perfective | 開化した | かいかした | kaika shita |
| Conjunctive | 開化して | かいかして | kaika shite |
| Hypothetical conditional | 開化すれば | かいかすれば | kaika sureba |
| ¹ Written imperative ² Spoken imperative ||||

### References

* ↑ Matsumura, Akira, editor (2006), 大辞林 [Daijirin] (in Japanese), Third edition, Tokyo: Sanseidō, →ISBN