# Central Asia

Central Asia is a rugged, arid region, historically coveted for its position between Europe and East Asia with the legendary Silk Route, rather than for its resources, although petroleum, natural gas, and mineral reserves have become more important in modern times. Central Asia contains a wealth of historic sites and natural wonders without the large throngs of tourists found in Europe or other parts of Asia.
The region has no exact boundaries, but is usually considered to include all of the landlocked "-stans", listed below. All but Afghanistan, (which is sometimes categorized as part of South Asia) are former Soviet republics, most of which have so far have retained authoritarian, secular governments. They are home to generally poor, primarily Muslim peoples, mostly speaking various Turkic languages. Several of the peoples were historically nomadic, although some states are attempting to recover the nomadic traditions that were suppressed or lost during Soviet times.

## Countries

* Afghanistan One-time backpacker Shangri-La, but bloody wars, famine, and nightmare politics since the late 1970s have left it with considerably less appeal for travellers.
* Kazakhstan The world's largest landlocked nation is sparsely populated, dominated by archetypal Central Asian steppe, with deep reserves of fossil fuels, and pockets of beautiful wilderness for outdoors enthusiasts.
* Kyrgyzstan A truly beautiful country high in the mountains, and with the exception of the admittedly fascinating but periodically unsafe Ferghana Valley, Central Asia's easiest and perhaps most pleasant place to visit.
* Tajikistan The poorest state of the former Soviet republics, Tajikistan is truly off the beaten path, but makes for an awesome adventure destination with incredible landscapes and Persian culture. The only non-Turkic state among the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.
* Turkmenistan An amalgam of desert moonscapes and arid mountains, dotted with the ruins of great ancient civilizations, and ruled until 2006 by a post-Soviet lunatic cultivating one of the most bizarre cults of personality in history, this is off-the-beaten-path, difficult (courtesy of rotten officialdom), but potentially very rewarding travel.
* Uzbekistan With cities such as Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, Tashkent, and other old Silk Road citadels, this country has way more than its fair share of culture and history. The people are warm and friendly and the country naturally is nothing short of beautiful.
Much of Central Asia was once ruled by the Persian Empire and some definitions of the region would include Persia, now called Iran. Various other regions — Mongolia, Western China (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia), and parts of Russia (Buryatia, Chuvashia, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Tuva, Altai, Khakassia) — have cultures that are largely Central Asian, and are included in the region by authorities such as UNESCO.

## Cities

* 43.2476.9151 Almaty — Meaning "Grandfather Apple" due to the area around it being where apples were domesticated, Kazakhstan's former capital has an almost European feel to it and is the most socially progressive city in Central Asia.
* 37.9558.3833332 Ashgabat — Turkmenistan's capital, with weird dictator monuments galore and natural gas wealth ostentation.
* 51.13333371.4333333 Astana — Kazakhstan's dreary, cold northern capital.
* 42.86666774.5666674 Bishkek — the leafy and drowsy capital of Kyrgyzstan.
* 39.77472264.4286115 Bukhara — a 2,500-year-old Silk Road city in Uzbekistan and UNESCO World Heritage Site.
* 38.57305668.7863896 Dushanbe — the sleepiest Central Asian capital by leagues and a jumping-off point for anyone going to Tajikistan.
* 34.53277869.1658337 Kabul — Afghanistan's capital and hub for, well, anyone who has to go to Afghanistan.
* 39.65472266.9758338 Samarkand — another of Uzbekistan's world-famous 2,500-year-old Silk Road cities, and also another UNESCO World Heritage Site.
* 41.31111169.2797229 Tashkent — Uzbekistan's capital, whose ages-old history lies below Soviet-era construction, and by far the region's biggest city, at some 3 million.

## Other destinations

* 45601 Aral Sea — A post-apocalyptic ecological disaster area of a dead sea, filled with the empty husks of overturned rusting boats and seashells that once moved with life in this now dead region.
* 34.83972267.2308332 Band-e Amir — The breath-taking sight of five turquoise-blue lakes, connected by waterfalls, surrounded by barren wasteland in Afghanistan.
* 43.12805677.0808333 Chimbulak — Also spelled Shymbulak, Central Asia's most accessible ski resort (no helicopters needed), outside Almaty.
* 40.2526358.439394 Darvaza — Simultaneously Central Asia's strangest and most jaw-dropping attraction, the Gates of Hell is a vast flaming crater hundreds of miles from civilization in the middle of the inhospitable Karakum Desert.
* 42.41666777.255 Issyk Kul — An absolutely gorgeous alpine lake, and perhaps Central Asia's most iconic natural wonder.
* 37.66277862.19256 Merv — What was once the largest city in the world until its destruction by the Mongols is now the jewel in Turkmenistan's archeological crown.
* 37.95114758.2124087 Nisa — A ruined Parthian fortress-city comprising a UNESCO World Heritage site within easy striking distance of Ashgabat.
* 39.468670.49178 Zeravshan Valley — A rugged and beautiful section of Tajikistan in the trekking and climbing-friendly Fann Mountains.
There are two regions that were historically important and are culturally coherent but today are divided among several countries:
* Ferghana Valley - The main Silk Road route from China into Central Asia
* 36.75805666.8988899 Bactria - On the main trade route from Central Asia to Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent

## Understand

Central Asia is an area that was, until the late 20th century, inaccessible for independent travelers. That has all changed, although the traveler will still often come up against a wall of Soviet-style bureaucracy. Corruption is also an issue in most Central Asian countries, although most governments have made attempts to reduce red tape in an attempt to grow their tourism industries. Despite this, Central Asia is increasing in popularity amongst travelers who want to experience one of the world's last great frontier lands, and the strong Islamic tradition of hospitality means that you will likely be treated as a revered guest by the locals, particularly in rural areas.

### History

    See also: Persian Empire, Alexander the Great, Mongol Empire, Russian Empire, Soviet Union
Historically and geographically diverse, Central Asia is an interesting region. The earliest recorded people (for whom we have names) were nomadic Indo-Iranian peoples called the Saka/Scythians, who roamed across the Central Asian steppes as far west as Romania and as far south as India. At one time large parts of it were part of the old Persian Empire and were taken by Alexander the Great when he conquered that empire. Later, parts of it were ruled by Alexander's successors or by newer versions of the Persian Empire. By the sixth century BCE, a new group of Indo-Iranian people, the Sogdians, began founding cities and forts at strategic points along the Silk Roads, including the magnificent cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva, as well as other cities which didn't last the test of time, like Merv and Old Panjakent.
As a bridge between Europe and Asia, the region was the home of the Silk Road, the ancient trading route between the two continents from a few centuries BCE until it was mainly replaced by sea routes after 1500 CE. The area has seen much upheaval and conflict, from the expansion of Buddhism (which spread through Central Asia on its way to China) and Islam to the destructive Mongol invasion. By the end of the 19th century, most of the region had been conquered by the Russian Empire, with only Afghanistan remaining independent as a buffer state between the British Empire in India and the Russian Empire. This period of intense geopolitical competition between the British and Russian Empires in the region is often referred to as the Great Game.
Following the Russian revolutions that brought down the Russian Empire in 1917, the parts of Central Asia that had been conquered by the Russian Empire became part of its successor state the Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained independent but went through a turbulent history, resisting a Soviet invasion throughout the 1980s, then was taken over by the radical Islamist Taliban, then invaded by a US-led coalition. Many Soviet citizens (including Ukrainians and Koreans) settled in Central Asia's Soviet republics, with Baikonur as centre of the Soviet and Russian space program, and Semipalatinsk as a nuclear test site. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet republics in Central Asia gained their independence, but have maintained close political and economic ties with Russia since their independence, with Russian remaining the most common second language, and significant ethnic Russian minorities. However, China is rapidly expanding its influence through large infrastructure projects in the region as part of its Belt and Road initiative. Although the former Soviet republics in Central Asia have a Muslim majority, due to the fact that religion was heavily suppressed by the communist Soviet government, they tend to be more secular and relaxed in their religious observances than Muslims in the Middle East, though the Islamic tradition of hospitality is still very much alive.
Population increase and modernization have taken its toll on the environment. Central Asia is dependent on a few water sources, some of which, especially the Aral Sea, are near depletion.
Some Central Asian countries are beginning to find their feet and offer good traveling options. There are parts of Central Asia that have hardly seen a traveler before, and there are many wild and beautiful landscapes to be explored. That is not to say the region is bereft of problems, chiefly a lack of infrastructure and stifling bureaucracy.

### People

Central Asia is a diverse place, with the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Turkmen traditionally being nomadic, and the Uzbeks and Tajiks traditionally being sedentary. Turkic peoples make up the bulk of the population in the northern part of the region (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and parts of Uzbekistan), while Indo-Iranian peoples make up the bulk of the southern populations (Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and parts of Uzbekistan). The westernmost (historically Turkic) parts of China were historically more tied with the peoples in Central Asia, but now are seeing an increase in ethnic Han Chinese populations.
Understand that self-identification is an especially touchy issue in Central Asia, more so than most of Europe. Mongolians and Buryats tend to emphasize their historical ties with the Turkic Muslims to the west (despite being Mongolic Buddhists of the Tibetan Rite) and do not like being associated with the Chinese, and some even call themselves Europeans (by virtue of Russian influence). Language may not even be a useful distinction between peoples, as plenty of Tajik-speaking people in Samarkand will consider themselves Uzbek while their Uzbek-speaking next-door neighbor might call themself a Tajik.
This situation is not unique to Mongolic peoples; Xinjiang has a native population that has in many instances advocated for secession from China, often emphasizing their cultural ties with the other Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Many people in Tatarstan would emphasize their Turkicness over any connection to Russia.
The problem goes the other way as well. Many Chinese are quick to point out that the Qing Dynasty (and the earlier Tang and Han Dynasties) controlled parts of Central Asia, including some areas no longer controlled by China.
A history of tribal politics has left Central Asia at once totally isolated from the outside world, and intimately connected to whoever conquered them.

## Talk

Much of Central Asia speaks a language from either the Iranic, Turkic and Mongolic language groups, often influencing each other.
* Turkic languages are Uzbek in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, Kazakh in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz in Kyrgyzstan and Turkmen in Turkmenistan. A significant population speaks Karakalpak in western Uzbekistan. Kazakh is spoken as a native language in the westernmost province of Mongolia and the northern tip of China's Xinjiang province.
* Iranic languages belong to the Indo-European language family. Persian (Farsi) is spoken in Iran, with Dari and Pashto being the dominant languages of Afghanistan. Tajik is spoken in Tajikistan. (Farsi, Dari, and Tajik are - depending on the source - either dialects of the same language or very closely related separate languages à la Croatian and Serbian.) Other Iranic languages are spoken by minority groups in the Pamir regions of Tajikistan and Afghanistan (and very small populations in far-western China).
* Mongolic languages are scattered across the region, from Mongolia and Inner Mongolia (in China), to Buryatia and Kalmykia (in Russia).
With the exception of Afghanistan, Russian is widely spoken in the countries of Central Asia due to their history as part of the Soviet Union. Many older people in Mongolia can also speak Russian, due to Mongolia being an independent satellite state of the USSR, but fewer and fewer young Mongolians are learning the language, and today English is the most popular foreign language among younger Mongolians.
English is compulsory in grade school education in all of the Central Asian states plus Mongolia, but most people have a rudimentary grasp on the language at best, and the quality of said education may be very poor. However, every year more and more people choose to study and become proficient in English, and you can find English-speaking guides in every country in the region.

## Get in

As mentioned above, the definition of "Central Asia" can be controversial. One reason why the one used on this page is useful, however, is visas.
All Central Asian countries except for Kyrgyzstan require visas for visitors from a lot of countries, and the difficulty of getting them may range from a minor hassle to virtually impossible if not on a tour or with a guide. Before issuing a visa, some countries will require a letter of invitation, often best obtained via a specialist travel agency. Some hotels will issue letters of invitation for confirmed reservations. Some nationalities may be excluded from the requirement to have one at all. Start working on your visas well in advance, as it may take weeks for the gears of bureaucracy to grind through your application, and make sure you comply with any local police/bureaucracy registration requirements after you've arrived.
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have liberalized their visa regimes in the 21st century, so citizens of most Western countries no longer need a visa to visit.

### By plane

The hub for the region is Tashkent, Uzbekistan, which has the most flights to destinations outside Central Asia. Unfortunately the airport also has a reputation for being unpleasant, and it is best to avoid flights which arrive here late at night.
There are also increasingly good options for flights to Almaty, Kazakhstan. You can fly here directly from London, Frankfurt, Beijing, Seoul, Moscow, Riga, New York, and various others.
Most Afghans and Pakistanis travel by air to Islamabad or Lahore and go by road to their final destinations.
Turkish Airlines offers (relatively) routine flights to each of the Central Asian capitals from Istanbul. These flights usually arrive in Central Asia sometime between 2 and 3 am, and tend to depart back to Turkey in the early mornings as well.
Almost every major city in the region will also offer flights to/from Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, due to the region's overwhelming Muslim population. Travelers coming from other Muslim-majority countries might find it easier to connect in Jeddah, especially around the Hajj, as airlines will offer flights from Jeddah for dirt cheap in order to fill up the planes.
Flights from large, regional cities (like Khujand in Tajikistan or Ferghana in Uzbekistan) to Dubai, Istanbul, and Jeddah are becoming more frequent, but they may still only run once a week.
Travel between Central Asian cities by plane often requires making a connection in a third country's airport. In practice, this usually means connecting in Istanbul, Dubai, or sometimes Urumqi. Due to its colonial heritage, many Russian cities connect with Central Asian cities.

### Overland
#### From Russia

Trains going to Central Asia leave from Moscow Kazansky station. Trains go to Tashkent (56 hours/US$80), Almaty (78 hours/US$120), Bishkek (75 hours/US$70), Samarkand (85 hours/US$100), and others.
There are trains from Moscow to Dushanbe, but the route crosses through Turkmenistan, which does not grant then-and-again style visas for that route. So unless you want to get off the train in Uzbekistan before it enters Turkmenistan, race the train to where it reenters Uzbekistan and hop back on, this train option is for all intents and purposes not a viable option.
The Trans-Siberian Railway runs a bit north of this region, all the way from Moscow to Beijing or Vladivostok. It is possible to ride that some distance east, then change trains to head south into this region.

#### From China

There is a line from Urumqi, China to Almaty, but the bus is quicker. An interesting option is the challenging crossing from Kashgar, China to Kyrgyzstan through the Torugart Pass. This was a major link on the old Silk Road.

#### From Iran

As of June 2024, the border is open to foreigners at the Mashhad-Ashgabat crossing (but it can close on a whim), and there are buses running between those cities.

#### From Pakistan

Traveling to different areas of Pakistan is quite easy by train, bus or taxi. The route from there into Afghanistan via the Khyber Pass is not safe. The Karakoram Highway North into China is challenging but possible. It gets you to Kashgar; from there routes to Central Asia are either difficult (west to Bishkek) or long (swing north to Urumqi and then Almaty).

### By boat

    See also: Ferries in the Caspian Sea
There is an irregular service between Baku, Azerbaijan and Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan, although this is most often cargo shipping that can take the occasional traveler but won't provide for them while they're aboard. Situations are common where legal/bureaucratic issues can keep a ship just out of port for days if not weeks while customs/bribes are cleared, which can seriously delay any onward plans and can run the risk of the traveler running out of their provisions.

## Get around

Getting between Central Asian countries is tricky. Borders can close seemingly on a whim and travel to certain regions of countries can be restricted if there is even a hint of unrest in the region. Perhaps the surest method of traveling between borders would be to fly from one capital city to another and then take ground transportation once in the new country.
It used to be practically impossible to get into Turkmenistan, and you can still only get a visa if you're part of an officially-recognized tour (or a diplomat or the lucky, lucky journalist). With the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in the fall of 2021, entry requirements into Afghanistan are unknown, so you're probably not going to be able to just waltz across the Amu Darya river between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan/Tajikistan. Get as many visas as you can before you leave. If not, make sure you're "stationed" in one country and have time to deal with the bureaucracy at each embassy before you go. However, most Central Asian countries will grant visas to foreigners at their embassies in other Central Asian countries with little-to-no hassle (e.g. an American can get a Turkmenistan visa in Dushanbe), so some travelers opt to park themselves in one country while they get the visa for another.
Unlike other regions of Asia, transport infrastructure is generally underdeveloped, meaning that Central Asian countries have very bad public transport, limited highways and rail infrastructure, and low car ownership rates. Although countries like Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have improved infrastructure such as constructing more highways and Central Asia's only high-speed rail line (between Tashkent and Bukhara), much of Central Asia suffers from underinvestment when it comes to transport funding. While a car is necessary to get around in rural areas of Central Asia, be aware that the roads can be unpaved or haven't been paved since Soviet times and can be in poor condition.
Intracountry travel really depends on which country you're in. In Turkmenistan there are restrictions on independent travel outside of the capital, so you must be on a tour to visit other parts of the country. In Tajikistan, massive mountain ranges and generally-poor road quality mean that drives between cities take many more hours than could be expected from the distance. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have rail networks and highways connecting major cities. Kyrgyzstan has highways but also mountains, so falls between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in terms of travel ease. Almost 40 years of war have made travel in Afghanistan extremely dangerous.
Many Central Asian drivers drive like they're in a real-life game of Mario Kart, which can be unnerving for travelers coming from societies where calmer driving is the norm.

## See

Central Asia is a land of rugged extremes and historical beauty. Soaring mountains tower over pristine alpine lakes in Kyrgyzstan, near-inhospitable sandy deserts blanket Turkmenistan and western Uzbekistan, and the lonesome Great Eurasian Steppe races across Kazakhstan. Many mountain climbers come to Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to train for their Everest or K2 summits, while some people go to the vast steppes simply to get away from it all. While this article cannot hope to list every single natural or historic site in Central Asia, the following sites stand out from the rest:

### Natural sites

The Western Tien-Shan mountain range in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan is listed as a world heritage site.
Some natural sites that are popular with tourists include:
* Issyk-Kul Lake — Kyrgyzstan
* The Pamir Highway (M41) — Tajikistan
* Fann Mountains — Tajikistan
* The Aralkum (formerly the Aral Sea) — Uzbekistan
* Altyn Emel National Park — Kazakhstan
* Yangykala Canyon — Turkmenistan

### Historic sites

    See also: Persian Empire, Alexander the Great, Silk Road
Being smack-dab in the middle of the Silk Road, every Central Asian country boasts at least one major historic site from that period, and quite a few have sites from before the Silk Roads, before Islam, and even before the development of urbanization. Unfortunately for the ancient history lover, most structures in ancient Central Asia were made of mud-brick, which does not last the test of time well. So, with some exceptions, most sites date from the medieval era. Many Central Asian governments are devoting considerable time and resources to restoring/protecting their historic sites, so in some places (especially Samarkand) what you see is a reconstruction/renovation and is often not the original. That shouldn't dissuade you from visiting these sites, though.
The most notable sites per country include:

#### Uzbekistan

* The Registan, Gur-e Amir, Afrosiyab, and Ulug Bek's Obervatory, all in Samarkand.
* The Ark or Qala, a well-preserved historic fortified town, in Khiva.
* Practically all of the old city of Bukhara has been preserved.
* The ruins of Timur's monumental palace in Shakhrisabz.
* The quaint city of Kokand (spelled Qo'qan in Uzbek) was the capital of its own khanate centered on the Ferghana Valley until Russian annexation in the late 1800s.
While Tashkent is a very old city and was a stop along one route of the Silk Road, a devastating earthquake early into the Soviet period means that very little of the city's pre-Soviet architecture is still standing. Now, it serves as a modern contrast to the "traditional" cities elsewhere in the country, and its museums contain a lot of Silk Road related artifacts.

#### Turkmenistan

* The ruined city of Merv. Merv was the largest city in the world (1 million+ people) before its leveling by the Mongols in the 13th century.
* Nisa, an ancient Parthian fortress-city, on the outskirts of Ashgabat.
* Konye Urgench (lit. "Old Urgench" to differentiate it from the Urgench on the Uzbek side of the border). Perhaps the best example of what Samarkand or Bukhara looked like before restoration efforts. Home to many Sufi shrines and ruins that are just starting to lose their turquoise tiling.

#### Tajikistan

* The ruins of Panjakent and Sarazam, both in/near the modern city of Panjakent. Sarazam has over 6000 years of history, and ancient Panjakent was the "capital" of the Sogdian merchant confederation that controlled Central Asia prior to the migrations of the Turkic peoples. Both are directly across the Tajik-Uzbek border close to Samarkand.
* Hisor fortress in the village of Hisor. A fortress had been built on this spot since the time of the Achaemenid Empire, although the modern structure dates from the 2020s. About an hour west of Dushanbe.
* Small, hidden mountain forts dot the Tajik side of the Wakhan Valley, which splits the Pamirs between Tajikistan and Afghanistan. This was on the route that Marco Polo took during his journey into China.
While Khujand is the oldest still-inhabited city in Tajikistan (at about 3000 years in age), practically nothing survives from before the Soviet era. Still, the fortress was reconstructed in 2024 and its beauty is on par with sites like Samarkand and Kokand.

#### Kyrgyzstan

The Kyrgyz were (and still are) semi-nomadic peoples, so there does not exist much in the way of permanent historic structures on the scale found in the aforementioned countries. there are still many sites, though: they're just generally located in what appears to be the middle of nowhere.
* Burana tower (near the town of Tokmok). A lone minaret and some traditional humanoid headstones are all that remains of a mosque and traditional Kyrgyz burial ground. Due to its location not far from the main road between Bishkek and Lake Issyk-Kul, it's a popular site with most Kyrgyzstan tours.
* Tash Rabat (in a very remote location close to the Kyrgyzstan-China border crossing at Torugart). Probably the best-preserved caravanserai in Central Asia that hasn't been turned into a hotel, shop, or other tourist-oriented attraction. Its remoteness (4+ hours by car from Naryn) means that very few people visit it unless they are going to/from China, in which case it is an easy stop to make.

#### Kazakhstan

There is very little specifically "Silk Road" in Kazakhstan outside of the southern part of the country, since the Eurasian steppes were not traversed by normal Silk Road merchants. Even today, most of the towns in the steppes are recent (1700s) settlements, dating from the Russian or independent Kazakhstan periods.
* Turkistan: Kazakhstan's answer to Samarkand and Konye Urgench, this old Silk Road city has partially-preserved mosques, madrassas, and tombs. Not far from Kazakhstan's third largest city, Shymkent, which is also directly across the Uzbek border from Tashkent.
Somewhere between the Kazakh city of Taraz and the Kyrgyz city of Talas was the location of the Battle of Talas (751 CE), where Muslim Arab forces faced off against the forces of Tang China. While the Arab victory did little more strategically than finalize the border between the two great empires, this battle marked the beginning of the conversion of the various Turkic peoples to Islam, as Turkic mercenaries began to view the religion as a "religion of victory". Both Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan claim that their city is the one where the battle took place, but the jury is still out until the battlefield is actually found (if ever).
Also scattered throughout the Kazakh and Kyrgyz steppes are various Scythian and Turkic burial mounds and stone monoliths.

#### Afghanistan

Afghanistan has probably the largest concentration of historic sites in the region, since it was the crossroads of various Persian, Turkic, and South Asian states, but due to decades of warfare, vandalism, looting, and lack of finances for protection and restoration, many of these sites are threatened and/or not safe to visit. The most important sites include:
* The Buddhas at Bamyan. Known now more because of their destruction at the hands of the Taliban in 2001 than for their aesthetics, these were two massive stone statues of the Buddha carved into living rock near the town of Bamyan when Buddhism was the dominant religion in the region. Now, today, only fragments of the Buddhas' legs and the alcoves they stood in remain.
* The ancient city of Balkh was the capital of Bactria for centuries, and capital of a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, one of the successor states to Alexander's empire. It historically was also a major city on the southern branch of the Silk Road, until its gradual decline and its incorporation into the country of Afghanistan during the Great Game. Balkh wasn't hit as hard during the events in Afghanistan in the 2000s as some other major cities.
* Kabul: War-torn Kabul still retains a few historic sites that have been fortunate enough to survive the decades of conflict. Chief among these are the Bagh-e Babur (Gardens of Babur) which showcase Persian garden architecture, and the Bala Hissar, a fortress dating from the 5th century CE.
Many other places in Afghanistan have long histories, but with the recent wars, the status of historic sites is unknown.

### Itineraries

* Europe to South Asia over land
* Istanbul to New Delhi over land
* On the trail of Marco Polo
* Moscow to Urumqi
* Silk Road
* Sven Hedin's voyages
The Trans-Siberian Railway passes a bit north of this area. In addition there are some other named Russian-built railways from the late 19th and early 20th century, all meeting near Tashkent:
* The Trans-Aral railway goes from Orenburg in Russia (at the border between Europe and Asia) southeast across Kazakhstan; in the southern end the Turkestan-Siberia railway branches off to the east before the railway crosses into Uzbekistan and ends in its capital Tashkent.
* The Trans-Caspian railway begins in Turkmenbashi at the eastern shore of the Caspian sea, goes through the length of Turkmenistan, passing the capital Ashgabad, Mary, and Turkmenabad. Then the railway continues into Uzbekistan passing Bukhara and Samarkand before arriving in Tashkent.
* The Turkestan-Siberia railway: goes from Arys in Kazakhstan north of Tashkent to Shymkent and across southern and eastern Kazakhstan to Almaty and on to Barnaul and Novosibirsk in Siberia.

## Do

With its vast nature and harsh seasonal differences, Central Asia is a challenging destination for outdoor life. It may be surprising, but there are ski resorts in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Each of the countries offer incredibly stunning natural vistas, and the remoteness of it all can be an attraction in and of itself. Most tourists come to Central Asia to see the Silk Road cities and ruins. The most well-known cities are mainly concentrated in Uzbekistan, and consist of Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva. There is a smattering of archeological sites across the region, including Afrasyab near Samarkand, Panjakent across the border in Tajikistan, Merv and Gok Depe in Turkmenistan, and Turkistan in Kazakhstan.
Central Asia offers plenty of sites that can pique the interests of travelers who prefer more "niche" destinations. The easternmost region of Tajikistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast' (GBAO), contains the Pamir Highway, a high-altitude and extremely remote drive between Dushanbe and Osh, Kyrgyzstan, that is one of the world's finest destinations for the road trip lover. The city of Baikonur in central Kazakhstan is where Russian spacecraft are launched, and occasionally tours are offered and if you're lucky you can even watch a launch. And then, of course, there's Turkmenistan and Afghanistan, two of the most difficult countries to travel to in the world (one for politics and one for safety).

## Buy

Central Asia is a relatively cheap destination for western standards, but more expensive than, e.g., Southeast Asia. Prices vary across the region, but they all are low compared to Europe, East Asia, the Persian Gulf, or the Americas. Turkmenistan is probably the most expensive Central Asian state for purchases and travel, with Afghanistan and Tajikistan being the cheapest in the region. Expect to be paying between US$2-12 per person per lunch or dinner meal at a mid-range establishment throughout the region, and a mid-range room in a hotel should cost between US$10-40 per night. Like elsewhere in the world, prices in big cities will be higher.
The southern parts of Central Asia have a long history of carpet making (and there is a growing industry in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan as well). In particular, Turkmenistan and Afghanistan are known for high-quality beautiful carpets, although the difficulty of getting to those places means that most travelers acquire Turkoman or Afghan carpets in a third country (usually Uzbekistan). The cities of Samarkand and Bukhara also have notable carpet making traditions. See the relevant country articles for more information. Be aware that carpets purchased in Turkmenistan require an export permission, which costs a notable sum of money per square meter. Many countries also have specific limits on exporting "antique" carpets (usually 50-100 years).

## Eat

The cuisine of the region has been influenced by the Russian cuisine, Middle Eastern cuisine and Chinese cuisine.
The further south you are, the more flavorful the cuisine is. Afghanistan and Tajikistan have far different cuisine than the Mongolic or Turkic cuisines, which are mostly hearty, spice-free, meaty fare.
Bread holds an almost-sacred status in Central Asian societies. Never tear a piece with your left hand. If you happen to drop a piece on the floor, pick it up and return it to the table/your plate. And most importantly, it is considered crass to waste bread.
The most ubiquitous dish across Central Asia is plov (also called pilov, palov, or osh), a rice dish very similar to pilaf or paella. Its exact recipe varies across the region, but it generally uses a longer-grain rice, cumin, small date-like fruits, and your choice of meat (usually beef but sometimes lamb or horse). Another common dish is manty (also mantu), which are dumplings filled with meat and usually served in a soup (called a shurbo). In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, you can find beshbarmak, which is similar to Uyghur lagman noodles but with horse meat included.
As Central Asia is majority-Muslim, you will not be able to find anything with pork in it. In cities with large non-Muslim populations (like Almaty or Tashkent), though, you can find grocery stores catering to the expat community that carry pork products. Goat and horse meat are more common in the region than in many other parts of the world, although horse meat is generally not eaten outside of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and goat is generally reserved for ceremonial meals. Being landlocked countries, seafood is also generally not found, although river trout are widespread and are the go-to fish dish.
All Central Asian countries are heavily carnivorous. There are local vegetarians in all Central Asian countries (even Afghanistan) but they are in the minority. This means while you can go without meat and survive, you will attract odd looks. Leafy greens are uncommon in the region, so most "salads" and vegetable dishes will use cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, and carrots. Don't be surprised if you order a salad and you get a plate of cucumbers and tomatoes!
It is acceptable to ask for a "doggy bag" or to order food to go/takeaway. Simply say "с собой" (s soboy, literally "with yourself") and the waiter/waitress will bring your food to you in a takeout container.

## Drink

Except Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, alcohol is not uncommon to drink in Central Asia. However, tea still remains the region's favorite beverage. In some countries, green tea is customarily consumed all throughout the day.
The nightlife scene is almost nonexistent in Central Asia. While the region is not the world's number one destination for clubbing, the Russophone party culture ensures a good time in places like Bishkek, Almaty, and Tashkent. In the capital cities (plus Almaty and minus Kabul), many new and/or hip bars double as nightclub-esque places. You can get drinks, listen to live music, and dance, but these are still first and foremost bars or even restaurants, so the atmosphere will be different compared to, say, Amsterdam.
Central Asia is the home of kumys, a drink made of fermented mare's milk. While you won't get drunk off it (there is alcohol in it, just very small amounts), it's something every traveler should try at least once.

## Stay safe

Safety in Central Asia is a complex issue. While Afghanistan is notable for a high risk of kidnappings, terrorism, and the Taliban resurgence, most other Central Asian countries are safe for the average traveler. Some regions (particularly Karakalpakstan and the Pamirs) with large concentrations of ethnic or religious minorities can occasionally see outbreaks of violence. Occasionally, demonstrations and protests against governments or specific policies can become violent, although usually state-sponsored crackdowns on the protests by the armed forces are the actual cause of harm.
Most of the Central Asian nations' governments are very repressive, and while that rarely directly impacts tourists, do note that partaking in "anti-government activities" (whatever those may be) could see you arrested and/or fined. This is especially true in Turkmenistan, where the government very much does not like any criticism. The best way to stay safe is to avoid conversations that discuss the local politics.

### Female and minority travelers

Female travelers may face extra challenges in Central Asia that they might not face in their home countries. Females traveling alone in public are often harassed with offers of marriage (or proposals to "set you up with someone"), but occasionally worse forms of harassment can occur. Some female travelers opt to wear a fake wedding ring while traveling in Central Asia (especially for those who plan on spending some time in the region). Female travelers in Afghanistan face even more restrictions from the Taliban government.
Central Asia is a grab-bag for LGBTQ+ travelers. Same-sex activity is legal in three states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan), but it is illegal in the other three (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan). LGBTQ+ people in Afghanistan can face the death penalty under Taliban-imposed laws. Even in states where it is legal, it may not be culturally accepted to be open with one's sexuality.

### Weather

The weather in Central Asia is a land of extremes. Summertime on the steppes can reach 45° or even 50 °C while the winters can be brutally cold. In Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Kyrgyzstan, altitude sickness can be a major threat to one's trip. Across the region, pollution can pose health risks, especially during the winter when the smog from coal furnaces becomes unbearable in the cities. When packing, know what weather is usually expected in the region to which you're traveling, and pack accordingly.
It is recommended that you pack N95 masks when traveling in Central Asia (especially in colder months), as smog buildup is extremely common in cities and the masks can help mitigate the inhalation of particulate matter.

## Stay healthy

In general, Central Asia is very safe vis-à-vis diseases. Malaria periodically shows itself in Afghanistan and southern Tajikistan, but beyond those places it is unheard of; other mosquito- or insect-borne illnesses are very, very rare in the region. The bigger threat to your health comes from the poor quality of healthcare in the region. In most of Central Asia, the medical system is not equipped to care for anything greater than a broken bone properly, and your best options would be to go to Istanbul, Seoul, or Dubai for treatment. Likewise, dental issues are better handled outside of the region.
Tap water is not safe to drink in any Central Asian country, and not recommended for brushing your teeth for short-term visitors. Buy bottled water and use that; if you cannot buy bottled water, boil any tap water before use. In some countries, like Tajikistan, the water also has heavy minerals which don't boil off.