OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# History of biology

Welcome to the learning project on History of Biology!
The following is a suggested list of headings for a learning project. For more information, please read the directions. Please organise the page as you see fit.

## Learning Project Summary

* Project code:
* Suggested Prerequisites:
** General Biology textbook (concurrent study)
* Time investment: about 20 minutes a week of reading
* Assessment suggestions: Take the quizzes and tests listed below
* Portal:(List main portal/s here)
* School:(List main school/s here) Biology
* Department:
* Stream
* Level:

## Content summary

This is about who and what Biology is about.

## Goals

This learning project should teach people about the history of biology, entry-level.

## Contents
### Learning materials

This course may be taken concurrently or after General Biology.

### Readings and other resources

Each project/lesson/activity may have a suggested reading selection. For example:
* Wikipedia article: Charles Darwin
* Wikibooks textbook: b:General Biology/Genetics/Recombinant DNA Technology
* Etc.

### Lessons

* Lesson 1: The Beginning of Biology
* Lesson 2: Greeks and Romans
* Lesson 3: Asian contributions
* Lesson 4: Into the Enlightment
* Lesson 5: The 16th and 17th Centuries
* Lesson 6: Biology in the 1900s
* Lesson 7: The Frontiers of Research

### Activities

* Take Biology concurrently

### Tests and Quizzes

* Lesson 1 Quiz
* Lesson 2 Quiz
* Lesson 3 Quiz
* Lesson 4 Quiz
** Lesson 1-4 Assessment
* Lesson 5 Quiz
* Lesson 6 Quiz
* Lesson 7 Quiz
** Lesson 5-7 Assessment
*** Final Test

## Enrollment

Active participants in this Learning Group (to enroll, make a username, then paste this at the bottom of the section: * ~~~~)
There will be activities posted in the activities section for those who have enrolled.

## Other

* Learning materials
* Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace (i.e. without any prefix such as 'Topic:' or 'School:'). Simply make a link to the name of the learning resource, lesson, or learning project (these are independent pages in the main namespace, and sometimes subpages when appropriate) and start writing!
* You should also read about the Wikiversity:Learning model. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple projects - and you are encouraged to cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource.
[[Category:]] <--please include subject name. By default, this page is included in the category with the same name as this page.
# History of computing

Course Navigation
| << Course Page - Introduction to Computer Science | Next - Introduction to Turing Machines >> |
This is a lesson in the course, Introduction to Computer Science, which is a part of The School of Computer Science
* Objective
* To familiarize the student with the historical development of the modern (or present kind of) computer and its predecessors (or the old type). In this manner, the student can advance certain knowledge and ideas regarding the computer as a unit in itself. This could help students have a more critical understanding of the development of a computer in terms of sizes, the prices associated with selling individual units, and, more important, how computers have drastically changed society.
* Assignment
* Students should do the required reading and assignments, then are encouraged to take one or more of the quizzes below.
* Required Work
* 1. Read the following Wikipedia articles, and write summaries of each that are the specified number of pages.
* History of computation (1/4 pp.)
* The History of Computing Hardware (2 pp.)
* You may find the Timeline of computing helpful for this part of the assignment.
* 2. Read about one of the early pioneers in the field: Pascal, Leibniz, Jacquard, Babbage, Lovelace, Hollerith, Eckert, Mauchly, Aiken, Zuse, Atanasoff, Turing, or Von Neumann. Write a 2 pp., single spaced paper describing in detail that person's contribution to computing and computer science. You should consult more than one reputable source outside Wikipedia. Be sure to cite all references!
Quiz
Quiz for The Computer
Quiz for IT Quiz: Computer History Quiz
The statement that "any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform" is known as
The Church–Turing thesis
That is correct. This is known as the Church-Turing thesis.
The von Neumann thesis
No. When programs are contained in storage that may be easily modified by the computer itself, the device is said to have a von Neumann architecture.
The Babbage thesis
No. Charles Babbage was an English mathematician, analytical philosopher, mechanical engineer and (proto-) computer scientist who originated the idea of a programmable computer.
Sheffer Stroke
No. Henry Sheffer invented the Sheffer Stroke as a logical operator NAND which is true when p or q (or both) are false and is false when p and q are true. :
* Notes
* You may also find the following pages helpful:
* ENIAC: one of the first computers
* The Computer: a shorter version of the computer's history, and a description of its major components
* The history of software engineering
* Introduction to Computers/History
* Basics of computer architecture
* Personal computers
* Programming languages
* Next Lesson
* Course Home Page
# History of Western copyright law

* Please help develop and classify this resource
* Learn how you can develop this resource by September 2006 to teach participants about History of Western copyright law. Choose a subject, education level, and resource type to classify the resource by. You may learn more about the topic to help you develop and classify the resource from:

## Learning Project Summary

* Project code:
* Suggested Prerequisites: No prerequisites
* Time investment:
* Assessment suggestions:
* Portal:
* School: School of Law
* Department: Intellectual Property Law
* Stream: United States Copyright Law
* Level: Introductory.

## Content summary

In this Learning Projects, participants will explore the origins of Copyright, exclusivity of creative works as it changes over time, and, by gaining perspective on the past, learn to see what is unique about the present. Starting with an overview of the pre-Statue of Anne publishing world and moving forward through the dawn of the computer, this program will guide participants through series of critical thinking assignments that will leave them well-prepared to see the "Big Picture" in reference to recent developments in Copyright Law.

### Goals

This learning project offers learning activities to:
* Understand why, when and how copyright came into being;
* Recognize the effects the various exclusivity systems have had on Creativity;

## Learning materials

These are the learning materials for this Learning Project. We will focus on using other MediaWiki projects, and adding content to them when needed.

### Texts

* s:Statute of Anne
* s:Copyright Act of 1790
* s:Copyright Act of 1909

### Lessons

* Lesson 1. "Shakespeare's Copyright Notice:" Publishing in the 17th century
** An overview of the concepts of Copyright exclusivity in the pre-Statute of Anne years.
* Lesson 2. "'For The Encouragement of Learning:'" The Statute of Anne in Great Britain
** An analysis of the Statute of Anne and it's implications

### Activities
## Current Participants

Active participants in this Learning Group
* AdamG
# Broadcasting

Broadcasting resources:
* Amateur radio
* Television Engineering

## See Also

* School:Media studies
# Bromley by Bow Centre/Organising People, Resources and Power
## Assignments

1) Course Work 1
    Case-study of a successful/failed social enterprise; 1,500 words; 40%
       Learning outcomes to be focussed on: 1,2,3,4
    What is expected:
       Choose an organisation and tell its story from the perspective of two or more forms of resources the organisation’s leadership harnessed . Discuss the concepts of success and failure in relation to different forms of resources.
    Marking Criteria
   * Clearly defined unit of study
   * Effective selection and organisation of material
   * Critical analysis
   * Original thought
   * Integration of course materials into the assignment
   * A consistent referencing and bibliography system.
2)Course Work 2
    Essay on skills sets for effective management of NGOs/social enterprise; 2,500 words; 60%
       Learning outcomes to be focussed on: 5,6,7,8,9,10
    What is expected:
Focus on what skill sets need to be in organisations at strategic, managerial and operational levels to realise the mission of the organisation effectively. Use Stakeholder theory and related concepts.

### General guidelines for course works:

   * Keep to the word limit range. Variations of more than 10% will be penalised. Always include the word count on the title page of your assignment.
# British Romantic poetry

This is a temporary page that will later serve as the course page for classes, lectures, and other material on the subject of British Romantic poets.
The major British Romantic poets are generally regarded as William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats.
There are several minor British Romantic poets, including Samuel Rogers, Charles Lamb, Hartley Coleridge (son of Samuel Taylor Coleridge), Robert Southey, Leigh Hunt, Walter Savage Landor.
Many critics such as Louis Untermeyer argue that the Romantic movement continued into the late 19th century. The major later poets influenced by the Romantic movement were Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning. Others include Matthew Arnold, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Arthur Hugh Clough and, in America, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Greenleaf Whittier.

## Study Guides

* British Romantic literary theory
* John Keats's major works

## Lectures - Reception History

* Shelley's Prometheus Unbound collection
* Shelley's Alastor collection
* Comparison of Keats and Coleridge's "nightingale" poems
# British Empire/Tudor Origins/War

Tudor Origins of the British Empire Timeline Quizzes
Colonialism
· Culture
· Dynasty
· Governance
· Religion
· Science
· Trade
· War :
This is a self-assessment quiz. Please answer the questions and then click on submit. You will then be told how well you did. Please leave any feedback on the discussion page.
# Broad political discourse

Major problems that are not improved for a decade or more are often exacerbated by substantial misunderstanding on the part of the vast majority of the public. But how can the public understanding of an issue be improved – especially when the mainstream media restrict coverage to a range of options that is often excessively narrow? Dan Hind noted,
    If the laboring multitudes depended on a particular business to furnish them with their thoughts, then those who controlled the production of opinion could control the state. ... [T]he marketplace of ideas favored the wealthy and was subject to manipulation by powerful interests.
Herman and Chomsky insist that a major function of the major media conglomerates is to "manufacture consent" among the public for policies favored by the elites.
This "Broad political discourse" initiative hopes to attack this problem by attempting to crowdsource discussions of the range of perspectives. In some cases, it may be convenient to divide the range of options into two groups: "Liberal" vs. "Conservative" or "Left" vs. "Right" or "Heterodox" vs. "Orthodox". This could be arranged in a table with two columns separated by a third column outlining "research needed" to help resolve which description seems more consistent with reality and / or which alternative policy seems more likely to be more beneficial for the vast majority of people. Different rows of the table could represent different aspects of the issue or alternative research approached to improving human understanding of the issues.
One example is contained in the discussion of Blowback, leaks, and U.S. national security. The first row of the "Hetero-Ortho" table there calls for reviewing the history of secrecy in the U.S. government focusing on whether the bottom 99% of the public in the U.S. and internationally is better off today because of information kept secret in the past. The second row calls for more research on political corruption and its relation to secrecy and democracy.

## Heterdox - Research - Orthodox table

| heterodox | research needed | orthodox |
| Describe in the left-hand column perspective(s) with a reasonable claim to viability but rarely heard in the "responsible" media | Outline research that might help clarify the consequences of alternative orthodox and heterodox policies | Summarize in the right-hand column perspective(s) commonly heard discussed. |
# Bromley by Bow Centre

Bromley by Bow Centre (BbBC) is a community Centre in East London which of home of a Communiversity.
As part of the Social Enterprise course, run in conjunction with the University of East London, wikiversity is being used to host Study circles.

## BbBC Study Circles

* Bromley by Bow Centre/Study Circle One
# Human Legacy Course/Renaissance & Reformation (1300 - 1650)

Major changes in Europe caused the medieval period to give way to a new period. As trade with the East increased, Europeans rediscovered the classical knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome. This knowledge led to a period of creativity and learning called the Renaissance. A new focus on the individual emerged, contributing to new ideas about religion. These ideas caused a struggle in Christianity, known as the Reformation.
The migration of people and the diffusion of ideas have encouraged the development of a more global culture. This week, you will read about the diffusions of ideas that changed the cultural and religious lives of Europeans after the Middle Ages.
Let's Begin!
# Human Legacy Course/The Ancient Near East (4000 BC - 550 BC)

Historians use the term Ancient Near East to refer to a number of cultures that developed in Southwest Asia before about 500 BC. This region has often been called the Cradle of Civilization, because the world’s first civilizations developed there. People of the Ancient Near East were the first to develop writing, to use the wheel, and to form huge empires.
Throughout history, the environment has influenced civilizations, and people have changed the environment. In this week, you will study the relationship that developed between human beings and their environment in the ancient Near East.
Let's Begin!
# Human Legacy Course/Rome & Early Christianity (750 BC - 500 AD)

The city of Rome was the seat of one of the greatest powers of the ancient world. Over its 1,200-year history, Roman society experienced tremendous changes in both its government and its culture. Many of those changes were caused by the beginning and spread of one of the world’s largest and most influential religions—Christianity.
The ancient Romans made great advances in the areas of science and technology. This week, you will learn about some of those advances and the advantages they gave the Romans in building their powerful civilization.
Let's Begin!
# Human Legacy Course/The Americas (1000 BC - 1500 AD)

As an advanced civilization developed in Rome, other civilizations were developing in the Americas. These early American cultures found unique ways of adapting to the varied environments of the Americas. Some groups even developed sophisticated government structures and works of art and engineering that rivaled those of the ancient Romans.
As civilizations emerged, they developed a number of ways to keep their societies orderly and productive. This week, you will learn the different ways in which the early cultures of the Americas governed themselves.
Let's Begin!
# English-Chinese/Radiation

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium.
在 物理学中，辐射 是 通过 空间 或 通过 材料介质 以 波 或 粒子的 形式 发射 或 传输 能量。
# English-Chinese/RNA

RNA is an acronym for ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid. Many different kinds are now known.
RNA is physically different from DNA: DNA contains two intercoiled strands, but RNA only contains one single strand. RNA also contains different bases from DNA. These bases are the following:
    (A) Adenine
    (G) Guanine
    (C) Cytosine
    (U) Uracil
RNA 是 核糖核酸的 首字母缩写，是 一种 核酸。现在 已知 有 许多 不同 种类。
RNA 在 物理上 与 DNA 不同：DNA 含有 两条 相互交织的 链，但 RNA 仅 含有 一条 单链。 RNA 还 含有 与 DNA 不同的 碱基。这些 碱基 如下：
    （A）腺嘌呤
    （G）鸟嘌呤
    （C）胞嘧啶
    （U）尿嘧啶
# English-Chinese/RNA virus

RNA viruses are viruses that use RNA as their genetic material. In humans, well-known RNA viruses are those that cause SARS, Influenza or Hepatitis C.
Viruses that are not RNA viruses use DNA for their genome and are called DNA viruses.
RNA病毒 是 使用 RNA 作为 其 遗传物质的 病毒。在 人类中，众所周知的 RNA病毒 是 导致 SARS，流感 或 丙型肝炎的 病毒。
非RNA病毒的 病毒 使用 DNA 作为 基因组，被称为 DNA病毒。
# English-Chinese/Rapid eye movement

Although REM stands for "rapid eye movement", this mode of sleep has many other aspects, including virtual paralysis of the body.
尽管REM代表“快速眼动”，但这种睡眠模式还有许多其他方面，包括身体的虚拟瘫痪。
# English-Chinese/Radiation in physics
## English

In physics, radiation is the process by which high-energy particles or high-energy waves pass through a medium or space.

## Hanzi

在 物理学中，辐射 是 高能粒子 或 高能波 穿过 介质 或 空间的 过程。

## Pinyin

Zài wùlǐxué zhōng, fúshè shì gāonéng lìzǐ huò gāonéngbō chuānguò jièzhì huò kōngjiān de guòchéng.
# English-Chinese/Raw chicken may contain salmonella. The safe minimum cooking temperature recommended by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services is 74 °C to prevent foodborne illness because of bacteria and parasites

Raw chicken may contain salmonella. The safe minimum cooking temperature recommended by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services is 74 °C to prevent foodborne illness because of bacteria and parasites.
生鸡肉可能含有沙门氏菌。 美国卫生与公众服务部推荐的安全最低烹饪温度为74°C，以防止因细菌和寄生虫引起的食源性疾病。
# English-Chinese/Radar

Radar is a machine that uses radio waves for echolocation to find objects such as aircraft, ships, and rain.
Radar 是 一种 机器，利用 无线电波 进行 回声定位 以 寻找 诸如 飞机，轮船 和 雨水 等 物体。
# English-Chinese/Radio

Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information, such as sound, by systematically modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space, such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form.
无线电 是 利用 无线电波 传输 信息（如 声音）的 技术，通过 系统地 调制 通过 空间 传输的 电磁能量波的 特性，例如 它们的 幅度，频率，相位 或 脉冲宽度。当 无线电波 进入 电导体 时，振荡场 在 导体中 感应出 交流电流。可以 提取 波中的 信息 并 将 其 转换回 其 原始 形式。
# English-Chinese/Radio wave

Radio waves make up part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are packets of energy with differing wavelengths, similar to visible light waves, X-rays or gamma rays, except longer.
无线电波 构成 电磁频谱的 一部分。除了 较长的 无线电波 之外，这些 波 是 具有 不同波长的 能量包，类似于 可见光波，X射线 或 gamma射线。
# English-Chinese/Rates of allergies differ between adults and children

Rates of allergies differ between adults and children.
成人和儿童的过敏率不同。
# English-Chinese/Telecommunication

Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, this may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags, or a mirror to flash sunlight. Starting with the telegraph, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic transmitters such as the telephone, television, radio, optical fiber and computer.
电信 是 为了 通信 而在 一定距离上 辅助 传输信号。在 早期，这 可能 涉及 使用 烟雾信号，鼓，信号标，旗帜 或 镜子 来 闪光。从 电报 开始，电信 通常 涉及 使用 电子发射器，例如 电话，电视，无线电，光纤 和 计算机。
# English-Chinese/Telescope lets us to observe sky bodies in the Milky Way and other galaxies

Telescope lets us to observe sky bodies in the Milky Way and other galaxies.
望远镜让我们观察到银河系和其他星系的天体。
# English-Chinese/Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop

Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop.
种植时土壤准备和种子放置的技术进步，作物轮作和肥料的使用以改善植物生长，以及收获方法的进步都将小麦作为可行的作物。
# English-Chinese/Technology are the things and methods which humans use to make tasks easier

Technology are the things and methods which humans use to make tasks easier.
技术是人类用来使工作更容易的事物和方法。
# English-Chinese/Telephone

A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. A telephone converts sound, typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals that are transmitted via cables and other communication channels to another telephone which reproduces the sound to the receiving user.
电话 是 一种 电信设备，它 允许 两个 或 多个 用户 在 距离 太远 而 无法 直接 听到 时 进行 对话。电话 通常 并且 最有效地 将 人声 转换成 电子信号，该电子信号 通过 电缆 和 其他 通信信道 传输到 另一 电话，该电话 将 声音 再现给 接收用户。
# English-Chinese/Tentative evidence has found that dietary nitrate supplementation, such as from beets and other vegetables, results in a small improvement in endurance exercise performance

Tentative evidence has found that dietary nitrate supplementation, such as from beets and other vegetables, results in a small improvement in endurance exercise performance.
初步证据表明，膳食硝酸盐补充剂，如甜菜和其他蔬菜，可以使耐力运动表现略有改善。
# English-Chinese/Technology is very important for science, medicine and everyday life

Technology is very important for science, medicine and everyday life.
技术对科学，医学和日常生活非常重要。
# English-Chinese/Tension headaches are the most common, affecting about 1.6 billion people (21.8% of the population) followed by migraine headaches which affect about 848 million (11.7%)

Tension headaches are the most common, affecting about 1.6 billion people (21.8% of the population) followed by migraine headaches which affect about 848 million (11.7%).
紧张性头痛是最常见的，影响约16亿人（占人口的21.8％），其次是偏头痛，影响约8.48亿（11.7％）。
# English-Chinese/Tendon

A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of tissue that connects muscle to bone. It is built to withstand tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments except that ligaments join one bone to another. Tendons and muscles work together. They can only create a pulling force.
肌腱（或 腱）是 将 肌肉 与 骨骼 连接起来的 坚韧 组织带。它 可以 承受 张力。肌腱 类似于 韧带，但 韧带 将 一个 骨骼 连接到 另一个 骨骼。肌腱 和 肌肉 一起 工作。它们 只能 产生 拉力。
# English-Chinese/Tertiary education

Tertiary education, also referred to as third stage, third level, and postsecondary education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education.
高等教育，也 被称为 第三阶段教育，是 完成 中等教育 之后的 教育水平。
# English-Chinese/Star

A star is a giant sphere of brightly glowing hot matter in space. That substance is called a plasma. The stars are held together by gravity. They emit heat and light because they are too hot.
恒星 是 太空中 明亮发光的 热物质的 巨大球体。那 物质 叫做 等离子体。恒星 通过 重力 保持 在一起。它们 发出 热 和 光，因为 它们 太热了。
# English-Chinese/Starch is a tasteless and odorless white powder

Starch is a tasteless and odorless white powder. It thickens food during cooking. Starch-rich foods include cereals, bread, potatoes and beans. Foods that contain a lot of starch produce more energy than other foods. However, if we don't use this energy, it will turn into fat in the liver.
淀粉是一种无味无嗅的白色粉末。 它在烹饪过程中增稠食物。 富含淀粉的食物包括谷类，面包，土豆和豆类。 含有大量淀粉的食物比其他食物产生更多的能量。 但是，如果我们不使用这种能量，它会在肝脏中变成脂肪。
# English-Chinese/Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish

Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish.
香料与香草不同，香草是用于调味的植物的叶子，花或茎或作为装饰物。
# English-Chinese/Spinal cord

The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that go to and from the brain. It is enclosed in and protected by the bony vertebral column. The main function of the spinal cord is transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and the brain.
脊髓 是 联系 大脑的 一束 神经。它 被封闭 在 骨性 脊柱中 并 受其 保护。脊髓的 主要 功能 是 在 周围 和 大脑 之间 传递 神经 输入。