# Information literacy and researching skills
### Module Introduction

Welcome to the Information Literacy and Researching Skills module! In today’s information-driven world, the ability to effectively search, evaluate, and use information is essential. This course will equip you with the critical skills necessary to navigate the vast array of information available across multiple platforms, from academic databases to internet sources. You will learn how to identify credible sources, distinguish between different types of information, and apply research methods to gather relevant data for academic and professional purposes.
The module will also focus on key aspects such as understanding the ethics of information use, referencing styles, and avoiding plagiarism. By the end of the course, you will have developed the skills to conduct thorough, efficient, and ethical research, ensuring that you are prepared to tackle academic challenges with confidence.
Module key terms
* Information Literacy, Research Process, Information Sources, Credible Sources, Plagiarism, Referencing and citations, Search Strategies, Ethical Research, Information Overload

### Definition and Importance of Information Literacy

Information literacy refers to the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use information. It is a crucial skill that empowers individuals to navigate the vast landscape of information, especially in the digital age. Being information literate involves not just finding information but also critically assessing its relevance, credibility, and usefulness.
The importance of information literacy lies in its role in decision-making, problem-solving, and the production of knowledge. In an increasingly information-rich world, individuals with strong information literacy skills are better equipped to manage, analyze, and apply information in an informed, ethical, and effective manner.

#### The Role of Information Literacy

In academic contexts, information literacy is essential for conducting high-quality research, writing well-supported essays or dissertations, and engaging with scholarly discourse. It allows students to understand the types of sources available, differentiate between credible and unreliable information, and correctly attribute sources to avoid plagiarism.
In professional contexts, information literacy is crucial for informed decision-making, staying current with industry trends, and solving complex problems. Professionals across all fields, whether in business, healthcare, or technology, need to be able to locate relevant information, evaluate its quality, and apply it to their work.
Information literacy enables:
* Efficient research: Quickly and accurately finding the right sources for projects or reports.
* Informed decision-making: Using high-quality information to make better professional or academic choices.
* Effective communication: Presenting information clearly, based on credible sources, to colleagues, peers, or clients.

#### Key Skills and Competencies of an Information Literate Person

An information literate person possesses several key skills that enable them to effectively handle information. These include:
* Information Search Skills: The ability to formulate clear research questions, use appropriate search strategies, and efficiently find relevant sources from academic databases, websites, and libraries.
* Evaluation and Critical Thinking: Assessing the quality, credibility, relevance, and bias of information sources. This involves recognizing potential misinformation and distinguishing between fact and opinion.
* Application of Information: Integrating new information with existing knowledge, synthesizing findings, and applying them to solve problems, support arguments, or inform decisions.
* Ethical Use of Information: Understanding the importance of citing sources properly to avoid plagiarism and adhering to ethical guidelines when using others' work.
* Digital Literacy: The ability to use digital tools and platforms to locate, evaluate, and communicate information effectively in a digital environment.
* Communication and Presentation Skills: Effectively presenting information, whether through writing, speaking, or visual formats, and tailoring it to the needs of the audience.

### Understanding and Evaluating Information Sources

Information sources are materials or mediums that provide data, facts, knowledge, or insights on a specific subject or topic. These sources serve as the foundation for research, learning, and decision-making in both academic and professional contexts. Information sources can vary widely in form, ranging from printed books and articles to digital media, interviews, and online platforms.
The quality, reliability, and relevance of information sources are crucial in any research or information-gathering process. Identifying and utilizing the appropriate type of source ensures the accuracy and credibility of the information being presented.

#### Types of information sources: primary, secondary, and tertiary

Primary Sources:
Primary sources are original, unmediated records of an event, research, or phenomenon. They provide firsthand evidence and are often the most direct type of information for research purposes.
* Examples:
** Original research articles (e.g., scientific studies or clinical trials)
** Personal documents like diaries, letters, and autobiographies
** Interviews, surveys, and questionnaires
** Historical records and government documents
** Artifacts, photographs, and audiovisual materials
Secondary Sources:
Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or summarize primary data. They offer context, analysis, and commentary on primary sources or events, helping to explain and interpret the raw data.
* Examples:
** Review articles, essays, and critique papers
** Biographies and historical accounts
** Documentaries based on primary footage or interviews
** Books or articles summarizing research findings
Tertiary Sources:
Tertiary sources compile and summarize information from primary and secondary sources. They provide quick, accessible overviews and are often used for reference or general background information.
* Examples:
** Encyclopedias (e.g., Britannica, Wikipedia)
** Dictionaries, almanacs, and statistical handbooks
** Factbooks and directories
** Indexes and bibliographies
Each type of source plays a vital role in research. Primary sources provide the raw data, secondary sources offer interpretation and context, and tertiary sources offer quick references to a broad range of information.

#### Assessing credibility, reliability, and bias in sources

When working with any source, it is essential to evaluate its credibility, reliability, and bias to determine its usefulness and trustworthiness:
* Credibility: Refers to the trustworthiness of the source. A credible source is usually written by experts in the field or published by a recognized authority.
** Questions to ask: Who is the author? What are their qualifications? Is the source published by a reputable institution or organization?
* Reliability: Refers to the accuracy and consistency of the information presented. Reliable sources provide factual, well-supported data and can be trusted to deliver accurate information over time.
** Questions to ask: Is the source free from errors or inconsistencies? Can the information be corroborated by other trusted sources?
* Bias: Involves the presence of a particular viewpoint or agenda that may skew the objectivity of the information. It's crucial to identify whether the source presents information fairly or is driven by a particular bias.
** Questions to ask: Is the information presented from multiple viewpoints or only one? Does the source have a clear agenda (political, commercial, etc.) that influences how the information is presented?

#### Evaluating the quality of online resources and databases

The internet provides a vast amount of information, but not all online resources are of equal quality. When using online platforms and databases for research, it is vital to evaluate the following criteria to ensure the information is valuable and accurate:
* Authority: Look for reputable authors or organizations with expertise in the subject matter. Websites from educational institutions, government agencies, and respected publishers are often more reliable.
** Example: A study published in a peer-reviewed journal is typically more authoritative than an article from an unverified blog.
* Accuracy: Verify the factual correctness of the information. Cross-reference data with other credible sources to ensure that the information is accurate and consistent.
** Example: Checking the information presented on a health website against guidelines from the World Health Organization (WHO) can help confirm its accuracy.
* Objectivity: Consider whether the source presents information impartially, or if it is promoting a particular perspective or agenda.
** Example: A news article that presents only one side of an argument may be biased, while an academic article on the same subject is more likely to present a balanced viewpoint.
* Currency: Ensure that the information is up-to-date, particularly in fields where new research and data emerge regularly, such as technology, health, or economics.
** Example: A website that hasn’t been updated in several years may contain outdated information, especially in fast-evolving fields like technology.
* Scope: Evaluate whether the resource provides detailed, comprehensive information or just a superficial summary. For in-depth research, more comprehensive sources are typically preferred.
** Example: Academic journals provide detailed analysis, while encyclopedic websites may only provide an overview of a topic.

### The Research Process: From Question to Conclusion
#### Defining research questions and objectives

The research question is the foundation of any research project. It guides the direction of the study and determines the scope of the research. A well-defined research question is focused, clear, and researchable, and it helps to narrow down the subject of study into a manageable inquiry. The research objectives are the specific goals that the researcher intends to achieve through the research process.
Steps to define a research question and objectives:
· Identify a broad topic: Start with a general area of interest or problem within your field.
· Narrow down the topic: Focus on a specific aspect of the broader topic. This may involve identifying gaps in existing research, a specific problem, or a question that needs answering.
· Formulate the research question: Make sure the question is clear, focused, and researchable. A strong research question is often a question that can be answered through data collection and analysis.
Example: Instead of asking, "What are the effects of social media?", refine it to "How does social media use affect the mental health of teenagers?"
· Set research objectives: These are the goals you aim to accomplish in answering your research question. They should be specific, measurable, achievable, and aligned with the research question.
Example: "To investigate the correlation between daily social media usage and anxiety levels in teenagers."
Remember: A strong research question helps you stay focused, avoid irrelevant tangents, and structure your study.

#### Conducting literature reviews and background research

A literature review is an essential step in the research process that involves reviewing existing research, studies, and publications related to your topic. This helps to:
· Understand the current state of knowledge: Review previous findings to learn what has been already studied and what gaps might exist.
· Identify key themes and trends: Recognize patterns, debates, and areas of consensus or disagreement in the field.
· Establish a theoretical framework: Build on the work of others to develop a context for your research.
· Refine the research question: Based on what has already been studied, you may need to adjust or narrow your research question.
Steps to conduct a literature review:
· Search for relevant sources: Use academic databases (e.g., Google Scholar, JSTOR, PubMed) to find peer-reviewed articles, books, reports, and other scholarly materials.
· Evaluate the sources: Ensure that the sources are credible, recent, and relevant to your research question.
· Summarize and organize findings: Group the literature into key themes or categories. Summarize the key points, methodologies, and conclusions of each source.
· Identify gaps: Look for areas where little research has been done or areas that need further exploration. These gaps often provide valuable opportunities for your own research.
By conducting a thorough literature review, you will gain a deeper understanding of your topic and the context in which your research fits.

#### Organizing and synthesizing findings

Once you have collected data and completed the literature review, the next step is to organize and synthesize your findings. This involves:
· Categorizing the data: Group similar information or findings together. This might involve creating themes, categories, or subtopics based on your research question.
· Synthesizing the information: Synthesis is the process of combining information from multiple sources to create new insights. This might involve comparing different studies or perspectives to draw conclusions. Example: If several studies show a connection between social media use and anxiety, you may synthesize these findings to confirm the relationship or identify the conditions under which the relationship holds true.
· Identifying patterns or contradictions: Look for consistencies or discrepancies in the literature. Are there any areas where findings disagree? Are there patterns that can help support your research objectives?
· Drawing conclusions: Based on the synthesis of the findings, you should be able to draw conclusions about the research question. This step brings the research process closer to the conclusion and forms the basis for the next phase of analysis and discussion.
Organizing your findings:
· Use tools like mind maps, concept maps, or spreadsheets to visually organize data.
· Create outlines or thematic categories to group related ideas together.
· Prioritize key findings that directly address your research question and objectives.
Synthesis is key to turning raw data and existing research into meaningful insights that directly support your research question and objectives.

### Ethics in Research and Information Use
#### Understanding plagiarism and how to avoid it

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work, ideas, or expressions without proper acknowledgment, presenting them as your own. It is considered a serious academic and ethical violation and can have severe consequences, including academic penalties, damage to your reputation, and legal repercussions.
Types of Plagiarism:
· Direct Plagiarism: Copying text or ideas verbatim from a source without quotation marks or citation.
o Example: Copying a paragraph from an article and including it in your paper without proper citation.
· Paraphrasing Plagiarism: Rewriting someone else’s ideas or text in your own words without giving them credit.
o Example: Rewriting an author's argument in your own words without referencing the original source.
· Self-Plagiarism: Reusing your own previously submitted work (e.g., from another course or publication) without proper acknowledgment.
· Mosaic Plagiarism: Mixing your own ideas with borrowed ideas or text without proper attribution.
o Example: Taking phrases from various sources and stitching them together without citation.
How to Avoid Plagiarism:
· Cite all sources: Whenever you use someone else's work—whether quoting directly, paraphrasing, or summarizing—always provide proper attribution through citations.
· Use quotation marks: Direct quotes should be enclosed in quotation marks to indicate the borrowed text.
· Paraphrase effectively: Paraphrasing involves rewording an idea entirely in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Even when paraphrasing, a citation is required.
· Maintain thorough notes: Keep careful track of your sources so you can cite them correctly later.
· Use plagiarism detection tools: Tools like Turnitin can help detect and prevent unintentional plagiarism.
By understanding what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid it, researchers uphold academic integrity and contribute to the ethical use of information.

#### Proper citation practices and referencing styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.)

Citations are critical in academic research as they give credit to the original authors and allow readers to locate the original sources of information. Various citation styles exist, and choosing the correct one depends on your field of study and institutional requirements.
Common Citation Styles:
· APA (American Psychological Association): Often used in social sciences, psychology, and education.
o Example:
Book: Smith, J. (2019). The psychology of learning. Harvard Press.
Journal Article: Smith, J., & Jones, M. (2020). Impact of social media on adolescent behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 35(2), 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1234/jsp.2020.123456
· MLA (Modern Language Association): Common in humanities, particularly literature and cultural studies.
o Example:
Book: Smith, John. The Psychology of Learning. Harvard Press, 2019.
Journal Article: Smith, John, and Michael Jones. "Impact of Social Media on Adolescent Behavior." Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 35, no. 2, 2020, pp. 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1234/jsp.2020.123456.
· Harvard: Widely used in business, economics, and social sciences.
o Example:
Book: Smith, J. (2019) The psychology of learning. Harvard Press.
Journal Article: Smith, J. and Jones, M. (2020) 'Impact of social media on adolescent behavior', Journal of Social Psychology, 35(2), pp. 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1234/jsp.2020.123456
· Chicago: Common in history, business, and fine arts.
o Example:
Book: Smith, John. The Psychology of Learning. Cambridge: Harvard Press, 2019.
Journal Article: Smith, John, and Michael Jones. "Impact of Social Media on Adolescent Behavior." Journal of Social Psychology 35, no. 2 (2020): 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1234/jsp.2020.123456.
Citation Elements:
· Author(s): Include the full name(s) of the author(s), following the required format for the citation style.
· Title: The title of the book, article, or paper you are referencing should be in italics or quotation marks, depending on the style.
· Publication Details: Include the publisher, journal name, volume and issue number (for journal articles), and publication year.
· DOI/URL: Provide a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or URL if the source is available online.
Why Citation is Important:
· Academic Integrity: Proper citations ensure that the original authors get credit for their work.
· Avoid Plagiarism: Proper citation practices prevent plagiarism by acknowledging the sources of information.
· Verification: Citations enable readers to verify the sources and check for further details.

#### Ethical considerations in using and sharing information

Ethical research involves not only avoiding plagiarism but also responsibly handling data and information. Several key ethical principles guide researchers when using and sharing information:
· Informed Consent: When collecting data from participants (e.g., surveys or interviews), researchers must ensure that participants are fully informed about the purpose of the research and agree to participate voluntarily.
· Confidentiality: Researchers must respect the privacy and confidentiality of their participants. Personal information collected during research should be protected and only used for the stated research purposes.
· Data Integrity: Researchers should accurately represent data and findings without manipulating results to suit personal or institutional interests. Fabricating or falsifying data is an unethical practice that undermines the integrity of research.
· Acknowledging Contributions: All contributors to a research project, whether they are co-authors, funders, or advisors, should be properly acknowledged.
· Responsible Sharing of Information: When sharing research findings, especially in the digital age, it is essential to ensure that the data is shared responsibly. This includes respecting intellectual property rights and avoiding the unauthorized sharing of copyrighted or proprietary information.
· Fair Use of Sources: When using and quoting information, make sure that it falls under fair use guidelines. Do not overuse excerpts from any single source, especially copyrighted materials, without permission.
Researcher’s Responsibility: As a researcher, you must follow ethical standards to ensure the credibility of your work and to respect the intellectual property and privacy of others. Being aware of ethical considerations, from data collection to publication, helps maintain trust in the research community and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in a responsible and respectful manner.

### Critical Thinking and Data Analysis
#### Analyzing and interpreting data and information

Data analysis involves examining and interpreting data to uncover patterns, draw conclusions, and make informed decisions. The ability to analyze and interpret data is essential for turning raw numbers or information into meaningful insights. This process involves several key steps:
· Data Collection: Gathering relevant data through surveys, experiments, interviews, or secondary sources (e.g., databases, publications).
· Data Organization: Once the data is collected, it must be organized for analysis. This may involve categorizing data, cleaning up errors, and ensuring it is in a usable format.
o Example: Organizing survey responses into a spreadsheet for easy comparison.
· Statistical and Analytical Methods: Using statistical tools (e.g., mean, median, standard deviation) or qualitative analysis techniques (e.g., thematic coding) to analyze data.
o Example: Analyzing survey data to identify trends or correlations between variables.
· Interpreting Data: Understanding the meaning behind the data and identifying significant trends, patterns, and relationships. This involves identifying the context in which the data was collected and understanding what the results suggest.
o Example: If a study shows a positive correlation between social media usage and anxiety in teenagers, interpreting the meaning involves considering factors like frequency, intensity, and causality.
Key Considerations in Data Analysis:
· Context: Ensure the data is interpreted within the context it was collected.
· Accuracy: Double-check for errors in data or analysis processes.
· Limitations: Be aware of limitations in the data (e.g., sample size, biases) and acknowledge them in conclusions.

#### Evaluating arguments, identifying logical fallacies, and assessing evidence

Critical thinking requires the ability to evaluate arguments and assess the quality of evidence presented. This involves scrutinizing reasoning, identifying flaws, and determining whether an argument is logically sound.
Evaluating Arguments:
o Argument Structure: Understand the premises and conclusions of an argument. A strong argument has clear premises that logically lead to a conclusion.
Example: “All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
o Evidence: Assess the quality and relevance of the evidence used to support the argument. High-quality evidence should be credible, reliable, and directly relevant to the argument.
Identifying Logical Fallacies: A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that undermines the validity of an argument. Recognizing these fallacies helps in assessing whether an argument is logically sound.
o Common Fallacies:
Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.
Example: "You’re just a teenager, so your opinion on mental health doesn’t matter."
Straw Man: Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
Example: "You argue against social media, so you must think we should all live in caves and avoid technology altogether."
False Dilemma: Presenting two options as the only possibilities when other options may exist.
Example: "Either we ban all social media, or teenagers will be mentally unhealthy forever."
Appeal to Authority: Using the opinion of an authority figure as evidence, even if the authority is not an expert in the relevant field.
Example: "A famous actor believes social media is good for teens, so it must be true."
Assessing Evidence: Evaluate the credibility, relevance, and sufficiency of evidence used to support an argument. Strong evidence should come from reliable, unbiased, and reputable sources.
o Credibility: Is the source reliable? Is the evidence based on reputable research or data?
o Relevance: Is the evidence directly relevant to the argument being made?
o Sufficiency: Is there enough evidence to support the argument, or is it based on anecdotal evidence or small sample sizes?

#### Drawing conclusions based on evidence and reasoning

Drawing conclusions involves synthesizing the analyzed data, arguments, and evidence to form reasoned judgments and decisions. Critical thinking requires that conclusions be based on well-supported evidence, clear reasoning, and logical inference.
Reasoning: To draw valid conclusions, use inductive reasoning (drawing general conclusions from specific observations) or deductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from general premises to specific cases).
o Inductive Reasoning Example: After observing several instances of teenagers feeling anxious after using social media, you might conclude that social media use is linked to anxiety.
o Deductive Reasoning Example: If all members of a group are affected by a condition, and you know a specific individual is in that group, you can deduce that individual will also be affected.
Avoiding Bias: Ensure that personal bias or preconceived notions do not interfere with the conclusion. Look at the evidence objectively and avoid drawing conclusions based on assumptions or preferences.
Generalization and Extrapolation: When drawing conclusions, ensure that generalizations are reasonable and supported by sufficient evidence. Avoid jumping to broad conclusions based on limited data.
o Example: Concluding that "all teenagers are negatively affected by social media" from a small sample size would be an overgeneralization.
Transparency: Be transparent in your reasoning process. Clearly explain how you arrived at your conclusions and whether any alternative explanations were considered.
Testing Conclusions: After drawing conclusions, test them against other evidence and alternative explanations. Can your conclusions hold up to scrutiny when compared to other research or evidence in the field?
By mastering these processes of analyzing data, evaluating arguments, and drawing conclusions, you will be able to engage in effective critical thinking, leading to more robust and reliable research outcomes.
* ↑ Umar, Musa; Babalola, Yemisi (2022-02-08). "INFORMATION LITERACY SKILLS OF ACADEMIC STAFF OF FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES IN NORTH EAST NIGERIA". Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/6920/?utm_source=digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/6920&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages.
* ↑ "(PDF) Information Literacy Skills and the Research Process". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2025-01-16.
* ↑ O'Donnell, Brian. "Library Guides: Information Skills - successfully, find, use and evaluate information: Home". lit.libguides.com. Retrieved 2025-01-16.