# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Emotion preferences

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Figure 1. Robert Plutchik's Wheel of Emotions.
* Scenario
* Maeve and Zoe are having a confrontational conversation about Maeve's salary at Zoe's pet shop. Maeve prefers to feel anger when confronting someone as she feels that it advances her competitive nature and promotes better negotiation outcomes, particularly when it comes to a tricky topic like this. In contrast, Zoe prefers to feel more emotionally calm and composed, because this makes her feels more confident in her argument and has improved mental clarity to articulate her point.
* Further, before participating in her exams, Maeve prefers to feel anxiety to increase her motivation to study in order to achieve her goal grade of 85%. However, her friend Tahlia likes to be in a state of low tension in order to perform at her best in exams.
Robert Plutchik's Wheel of Emotions (see Figure 1) depicts some of the branches of human emotions we both consciously and subconsciously select from.
Emotion refers to the reactions to an appropriately evocative stimulus involving perception, expressive behaviour, feelings, physiological arousal and goal-directed behaviour (Heilman et al., 2000). It is a concept that is so ingrained in life and the term is often associated with a list, like sadness, anger, disgust, joy, happiness and fear. Although there is much literature on emotions and their implications in psychology, there is no single, agreed upon definition (Cabanac, 2002). Moreover, The Encyclopedia of Psychology does not formally define emotion, but a practical definition can be extracted when it explains that 'emotion is a mental state' (Oatley, 2000).
Emotion preferences refer to the emotional states that people strive to experience in certain situations. As a generalisation, people prefer to experience pleasant emotions over unpleasant emotions, and emotions that are familiar over unfamiliar (Ford & Tamir, 2013). However, much empirical evidence now shows that people vary in their emotion preferences. People attempt to experience the emotions that align with their preferences. This may look like people striving to feel a certain emotion as opposed to another. These emotion preferences vary between people due to both state and trait factors. What people want to feel and why is important to psychological science as it reveals much about an individual's state and trait factors. Further, the differences in emotion preferences between individuals with psychiatric disorders and those with no history of psychopathology have become more clear in recent times. There is much we can learn from deeper analysis of emotion preferences in terms of personality, psychiatric disorders, anxiety and more. Understanding why people want to feel certain emotions and what these are is a relatively understudied yet imperative area of psychology.
* 'People vary in their emotional preferences, or desired emotional states' (Vanderlind et al., 2021).
Emotion-preference frameworks and empirical evidence show that people want to experience emotions that align with their preferences (Vanderlind et al., 2021). The concept is foundational in the understanding that emotions complete functional purposes, and this underlies our motivation and desire for one emotion over another. Our emotions guide our behaviour and therefore the trajectory of our lives, and our close selection of emotions largely align with personal goals and values. Not only are emotion preferences valuable to personal issues, but they can be responsive in terms of health as emotional regulation choices have been found to be associated with different health outcomes (Gross & John, 2003).
Emotional preferences are a complex yet highly interesting area of psychology. They have an interconnected role within the branches of psychopathology relating to individual differences, emotional intelligence and emotional regulation. This concept is closely linked to emotional self-regulation, which is the ability to respond to the changing demands of life that involves modulating one's state or behaviour in a given situation. Further, it is related to emotional intelligence and social intelligence that will be discussed at length later in the chapter.
* Focus questions
* Why do we have emotional preferences?
* What is the connection between emotional preferences and emotional intelligence?
* What do our emotional preferences say about ourselves?
* What factors contribute to differences in people's emotional preferences?

### Learning outcomes

After reading this chapter, the following learning outcomes will have been addressed:
* Understand individual differences in emotional preferences, identify how and why emotion preferences vary between individuals.
* Explore the relationship between emotional preferences and mental health and how these preferences influence emotional regulation and behaviour.
* Examine the connection between emotional preferences and emotional intelligence.

## Differences in emotion preferences between individuals

There are clear differences in emotion preferences between individuals based on their unique psychological makeup and experience, as well as underlying factors that influence why some people seek to experience certain emotions over others. Prior study highlights that there are individual differences in emotion preferences that may be linked to psychopathology[factual?]. Emotions differ in their perceived pleasure; some emotions are generally thought to be good, others are generally thought to be bad. It is assumed that people prefer to experience pleasant over unpleasant emotions (Larsen, 2000). However, people attempt to experience emotions that are congruent with their emotional preferences. For example, individuals with major depression disorder possess greater allowance for negative emotions and less preference for positive emotion (Millgram et al., 2015).
Moreover, the assumption that everyone wants to be happy and feel happy is prevalent among society, yet motives for happiness are not as consistent as expected (Tamir, 2009). The differences in motivation to feel happiness compared to other emotions can be accounted for in terms of extraversion; 'extraverts are more likely to prefer happiness-inducing activities, whereas introverts were less likely to prefer happiness-inducing activities' (Tamir, 2009). This finding aligns with the Behavioural Concordance Model that proposes individuals prefer experiences that are consistent, rather than inconsistent, with personality traits (Tamir, 2009).
To finalise, the differences in emotion preferences between individuals can be shaped by an interplay of psychological and underlying factors as well as past experience. Research has shown that preferences are not always aligned with the assumption that everyone wants to experience pleasant emotions; as seen with MDD, some individuals may have a higher threshold for negative emotions and less desire for positive emotions. Not only is psychological makeup partially responsible for differences in emotion preferences but personality traits are seen to have influence too[factual?]. The evidence around the Behavioural Concordance Model reinforces the idea that we seek emotions parallel to our personality traits and emotional needs[factual?]. Understanding variation in emotion preferences provides valuable insight into the question of what people want to feel and why by emphasising that emotional experience is profoundly unique to individuals and propelled by psychological and contextual makeup.

### Measuring emotion preferences

There are usually two types of measures employed to assess emotional preferences.
The first involves self-report, where participants directly rate their emotional preferences. This may look like answering questions such as 'To what extent do you want to feel happy?' or 'How much do you want to experience fulfilment?'.
The second measure surrounds behavioural signs of regulatory behaviour. This may look like individuals selecting stimuli, such as music or images, to be exposed to from [awkward expression?] a range of emotion-provoking stimuli. They may choose to increase or decrease their reactions to their chosen stimuli (Vanderlind et al., 2020).

## Emotion preferences and emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be viewed as 'the ability to recognise and use an individual's own emotional states and those of others in order to regulate behaviour and get things done' (Book Chapter, 2011). It was one of the first non-cognitive concepts of intelligence to be analysed, alongside social intelligence. When Salovey and Mayer first created the concept of emotional intelligence, they described it from a social intelligence perspective, describing it as a 'form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action' (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). It is clear that emotional intelligence is a broad yet crucial concept in psychology that can be seen through many lenses. Viewing such concepts from different angles is useful when considering emotion preferences because an individual's perception of what emotional intelligence is will change their emotion preferences. This is because the emotions we select can be based off of our surroundings, utilising social intelligence, or from past experience and other areas, therefore using different aspects of emotional intelligence.
Following from the clear relationship between cognitive and non-cognitive abilities, there is research suggesting that emotional and social skills actually help improve cognitive functioning (Cherniss, 2000). This increased cognitive functioning allows individuals to apply their emotional preferences in a more effective manner because they are better equipped with the tools to evaluate complex situations, make decisions that align with their values and feelings and regulate their emotions in ways that enhance relationships. Individuals can better select these 'useful' emotions based on past experiences by drawing on both cognitive and non-cognitive capabilities. Further, some of the most emotionally intelligent individuals are those who prefer to use 'useful' emotions. This is because they understand their emotions and regulate them in a strategic manner. Therefore, some people are more emotionally intelligent than others who feel emotions that are not beneficial to the present situation (Vanderlind et al., 2020).

### Quiz

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## Desired emotional states

People desire emotions that they consider to be useful and of value, delivering benefits to any given situation[factual?]. Not only do we desire emotions that are advantageous, we can select emotions we consider to be pleasant and make us feel good (Tamir & Gutentag, 2017). These desired emotions differ between people based on individual perception, past experiences, social intelligence and emotional intelligence.
Under the instrumental model of emotion regulation, individuals are thought to use emotion regulation strategies that align with their emotion preferences (Vanderlind et al., 2020). The model proposes that one's goals influence the type of emotions (pleasurable or useful) that are preferred. More specifically, an individual's emotion preferences are driven by utility and pleasure. Individuals prefer emotions that are either pro-hedonic (those that increase pleasure or decrease pain) or emotions that are useful (those that help an individual attain a goal that is independent of these hedonic principles) (Vanderlind et al., 2020).
* Mini case study
* Mia has her Year 12 exams coming up and has a goal mark of 95 overall she wishes to achieve to get into her dream University course of Law[grammar?]. She may forgo immediate pleasure in order to study to achieve this future goal. While study is less pleasurable than other activities, such as spending time with friends, she chooses to study hard and will possibly experience unfavourable states, such as stress and anxiety, because in doing so she expects to achieve her goal mark.
* Mia's choice to study aligns with the instrumental model of emotion regulation as she is exercising her emotion preferences to achieve her goals, even if this means feeling adverse emotions such as stress or anxiety in the short-term, because her desired emotions may come as a result.

## Emotion preferences and emotion regulation

Emotion regulation refers the processes that modify the frequency, intensity and duration of emotional states (Vanderlind et al., 2020). It is a topic of increasing importance in psychology due to recent work in biological, cognitive, developmental, social, personality, clinical and health psychology (Gross, 2015).
Emotion preferences are strongly associated with emotion regulation because they influence how people choose to manage, suppress or enhance emotional experiences. Emotion preferences have a role in emotion regulation because of the way we manage our emotions at any one time. When we are regulating our emotions, this can be either conscious or subconscious, and does not always happen in order to suit our emotion preferences.[factual?]
Similarly, emotions can either be helpful or harmful, depending on the circumstances (Gross, 2015). For example, emotions are helpful when they suitably guide sensory processing, enhance decision making, inform us about others' behaviour and motivate social behaviours (Susskind et al., 2008). Emotions can be harmful in situations when they contain inappropriate intensity, frequency and duration (Gross & Jazaieri, 2014).
Emotion regulation plays a critical role in determining whether emotions are beneficial or damaging in various contexts. Effective emotion regulation strategies allow individuals to control emotional responses in a manner that orients situational demands, thus increasing the beneficial aspects of emotions while reducing any negative effects or unsuitable responses.

### Emotion preferences and emotion regulation within anxiety

Anxiety is a complex state that can be defined in a multitude of ways. Barlow's concepts describe anxiety as 'a future-oriented mood state associated with preparation for possible, upcoming negative events; and fear is an alarm response to present or imminent danger, being real or perceived (Barlow, 2004). A recent study has examined the nature of emotion preferences in anxiety. It found that diverging emotion preferences can contribute to emotion dysfunction in anxiety and spotlights emotion preferences a target for interventions that aim to improve emotion functionality in people with anxiety (Vanderlind et al., 2021).
There are many theoretical models that exist to aid our understanding of the interaction between emotion preferences in anxiety. Behavioural models of anxiety show avoidance as being prominent in both anxiety experiences and anxiety disorders. The two-factor theory of avoidance learning indicating that situations become feared through classical conditioning processes and that the fear of any given situation is continued by avoidance of the stimulus (Vanderlind et al., 2021). Researchers have also found that people with elevated levels of anxiety also seek to avoid any manifestations of anxiety, whether that be cognitive or behavioural, and this concept may be defined as anxiety sensitivity (Foa & Kozak, 1986). This research has emphasised that individuals may avoid anxiety because of pre-existing beliefs that the feeling with [grammar?] have negative implications, as well as the distress associated with feeling anxious. Further, these findings highlight the idea that individuals with anxiety prefer to avoid anxiety related emotions, strengthening the notion that we prefer to feel emotions that are beneficial or 'feel good'. In more depth, the tendency to avoid stressful or negative emotions associated with anxiety can stem from the belief that these emotions will create negative consequences. Here, the desired emotional state is not about looking for positive emotions because of the happy implications they possess, but avoiding negative ones because of the downward consequences they might create.

### Emotion preferences and emotion regulation within depression

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most costly and prevalent mental health conditions. It is diagnosed when 'an individual has a persistently low or depressed mood, decreased interest in pleasurable activities, feelings of guilt or worthlessness, lack of energy, poor concentration, appetite changes, sleep disturbances or suicidal thoughts' (Bains & Abdijadid, 2023). Emotional dysfunction has been seen as central to depression in recent decades because individuals who suffer from persistent negative emotions and struggle to regulate these emotions leads to an overwhelm of sadness and hopelessness (Rottenberg, 2017)[grammar?]. It is so central to depression that it consists of the two hallmark symptoms of MDD: sustained negative affect and loss of pleasure (Vanderlind et al., 2020). Research has also found that 'individuals with MDD have a greater preference for negative emotions and a reduced preference for positive emotions relative to participants with no history of psychopathology' (Vanderlind et al., 2021).
Further, emotion regulation difficulties are central to the perception of negative affect symptoms in those with depression. This is supported in other academic papers where empirical evidence has found that depression carries the tendency to have difficulty regulating such positive emotion (Vanderlind et al., 2020). Prior research has also shown that individual differences in emotion regulation plays a significant role in psychological understanding of the negative effects of the disorder (Vanderlind et al., 2020). Individuals with depression attempt to under-regulate positive emotions in subconscious habit. This is called a habitual use of emotion regulation strategies.
Mini case study
Charlotte has constantly been feeling sad and is finding it hard to enjoy activities she used to love, such as painting. She also reports low levels of energy, poor concentration and overwhelming guilt. Her psychologist has noted that her depression is connected to emotional dysfunction, especially a lowered preference for positive emotions and troubles regulating them. Charlotte often finds herself avoiding positive emotions and focuses on negative ones like guilt, making her mood worse.
1
Charlotte's depression is partly driven by her:
Preference for avoiding positive emotions
Increasing energy levels
Over-regulation of negative emotions
Preference to feel a mix of both positive and negative emotions equally.
2
What can be inferred about Charlotte's emotional preferences and regulation difficulties in the context of her depression?
She actively seeks out positive emotions but is unable to feel them.
She prefers to focus on negative emotions as a way of coping with her situation.
She has a strong preference for negative emotions and struggles to engage with positive ones.
She has no emotional preferences or regulation difficulties because of her depression. :

### The habitual use of emotion regulation strategies

The habitual use of emotion regulation strategies is the way in which people typically respond to emotion, being one of the main ways in which emotion preferences differ between people (Vanderlind et al., 2020)[grammar?]. Dysfunction within habitual emotional regulation arises when individuals regularly allow response styles that encourage emotional turmoil and avoiding potential strategies that could alleviate depression symptoms.
Depression is associated with a reduced emotional preference for positive emotion, and such reductions may increase the habitual use of emotion regulation strategies that exist to underregulate positive emotion. This can also decrease the use of strategies that exist to up-regulate positive emotion (Gross, 2014). It is clear that the habitual emotion regulation strategy can contribute to lowered amounts of positive emotions in people with depression. In the context of emotion preferences, and what people want to feel and why, individuals with depression may want to feel better and engage with positive emotions in a more meaningful manner but find it difficult to maintain such positive emotional states because of lowered emotional regulation strategies. Such misalignment between what people want to feel, like positive emotions for people with depression, and their ability to experience these emotions is reflective of intersection between emotion preferences and emotion regulation. People with depression may want to feel joy and contentment but only possess weak regulation skills, such as avoidance or suppression, that make it challenging to experience happy emotions. Further, the habitual use of emotion regulation strategies enables the lack of positive emotion present in depression cases because it makes enforcing the shift near impossible. This exhibits how emotion preferences and emotion regulation are so connected because disruptions at any stage will extend emotional dysfunction, not only for those with depression.

## Conclusion

Emotion preferences - being what people want to feel and why - are deeply connected with emotional regulation, emotional intelligence and psychopathology. Emotion preferences shape the way people experience and control their emotions in a variety of contexts. The emotions people seek usually align with goals, values and personality traits that inevitably differ between people. Such variation in emotion preferences has become clear in the case of psychopathology, such as those with MDD or anxiety, where individuals often struggle to engage with positive emotions and have a tendency to invite negative emotions. Understanding how emotion preferences and emotion regulation interact grants valuable insight into psychological science as such factors influence emotional and cognitive wellbeing. Further exploration of these concepts in research can lead to more effective psychological intervention, designed to improve emotional regulation and ensuring that our emotions align with personal goals and needs.