OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# PlanetPhysics/Higgs Boson a Neutral Scalar Particle
## Higgs boson

The following is a link to a \htmladdnormallink{simplified demonstration using $Mathematica^{TM}$ for the generation of the Higgs boson}{http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TheHiggsParticle/}, a (hypothetical) fundamental, neutral scalar particle $H^{0}$ which is supposed to be detected `soon' by one of the two Tevatron, particle accellerators presently in operation.
The oversimplified simulation is in the form of a color animation with the $Mathematica^{TM}$ Player (which is also a free download that does not save however). The simulated experiment seems to indicate that unless the available energy is not greater than about 120 GeV the Higgs boson is not readily observed. Feynman diagrams for the generation of the Standard Model Higgs boson are also shown in this demo.
The potential for discovering the scalar Higgs boson is recently discussed for the CMS experimental setup. Other hypothetical particles,`neutralinos', "could also emerge from high--energy collisions at the Large Hadron Collider in Europe or the Tevatron collider in the United States. Supersymmetry theories predict that neutralinos are closely related to the well-known carriers of the electroweak force--photons and (W,Z) bosons--and also to Higgs bosons. Whether the LHC will produce neutralinos, and what the experimental signatures of these particles look like, depends on how neutralinos interact with ordinary matter. If the LHC experiments discover neutralinos, a main goal will be to measure the relationship between neutralinos and the electroweak force carriers. This will allow theorists to calculate the amount of dark matter produced in the big bang and how it relates to the dark matter observed throughout the universe today" (cf. Gordon Kane of the University of Michigan in a downloadable pdf).
According to the current Standard Model theory, various particles are supposed to acquire mass only via their interactions with the neutral scallar Higgs boson, $H^{0}$. (A Nobel prize has already been predicted for such a hypothetical discovery that would close the gap between the current Standard Model theory and experimental, High energy physics. There have already been unconfirmed rumors of Higgs bosons generated at the Fermilab Tevatron in US.)
# PlanetPhysics/Herbert Daniel Landahl
## Herbert Daniel Landahl

is an American mathematical biophysicist who was born in Fancheng, China, on April 23, 1913. He obtained with Magna Cum Laude his AB degree at St. Olaf College in 1934, and then earned this SM in Physics at the University of Chicago in 1936. He then became very interested in mathematical biophysics and was the world's first PhD student to graduate in Mathematical Biophysics at the University of Chicago in 1941 under the supervision of Professor Nicolas Rashevsky, the Founder of Mathematical Biophysics and Mathematical Biology.

### Academic career

He worked at first as a Research assistant in the Psychometrics Laboratory at the University of Chicago (1937-39), and transferred to change his research to the field of mathematical biophysics as a Research Assistant in the Department of Physiology between 1939 and 1942. After graduation in 1941 with a PhD in Mathematical Biophysics, he was able to continue as a Research Associate of Professor Nicolas Rashevsky bewteen 1942 and 1945. He was then promoted in rapid succession to a tenured track Assistant Professorship in 1945, and to a tenured position of Associate Professor and full Professor of Mathematical Biology between 1948 and 1958. In 1945 he co-authored with Scott Alston Householder a fundamental book on the "Mathematical biophysics of the central nervous system." (The Principia Press, 1945). He became a full Professor of Biophysics in 1964 and continued to work as full professor at the University of Chicago (UC) until 1968 when he was lured by the University of California at San Francisco (UCSF) after the former UC president declined to promote him to the Chair of the Committee for Mathematical Biology as Nicolas Rashevsky's successor upon the latter's planned retirement in 1969. As a result of the insuing disagreement between Rashevsky and the UC president, Nicolas Rashevsky resigned from his UC position in 1968 and moved to Ann Arbor in Michigan. Dr. Landahl took up his new position of full Professor of Biophysics and Biomathematics in 1969 at UCSF where he became a Professor Emeritus in 1980.

### Research Interests

Dr. Landahl's research interests were, and are, focused on the dynamics of neural networks and the central nervous system (CNS). He also studied the biophysics of cell division, biological effects of radiation, population interactions in ecology, biological clocks and insulin biosynthesis.

### The Society for Mathematical Biology Leadership

Dr. Landahl cofounded with George Karreman and Anthony Bartholomay "The Society for Mathematical Biology" (SMB), and served as SMB's first Vice-President between 1972 and 1982. He also served between 1973 and 1981 as the Chief Editor of the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology--the main journal of SMB.

### Note

This entry is based in part on the content of a different GNU Licensed website entry by the same author that may be subsequently even further modified, altered, or updated in its contents.
# PlanetPhysics/Hereditary Category

Let ${\mathcal {C}}$ be a locally small ${\mathcal {A}}b3$-category. A subcategory ${\mathcal {A}}$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$ is called hereditary if it verifies the following condition: if $Y$ is an object in a full subcategory ${\mathcal {F}}$ of ${\mathcal {C}}$, then any subobject of $Y$ is also in ${\mathcal {F}}$.
# PlanetPhysics/Hermite Equation

The linear differential equation ${\frac {d^{2}f}{dz^{2}}}-2z{\frac {df}{dz}}+2nf=0,$ in which $n$ is a real constant, is called the Hermite equation .\, Its general solution is\, $f:=Af_{1}\!+\!Bf_{2}$\, with $A$ and $B$ arbitrary constants and the functions $f_{1}$ and $f_{2}$ presented as\\
\quad $f_{1}(z):=z+{\frac {2(1-n)}{3!}}z^{3}+{\frac {2^{2}(1-n)(3-n)}{5!}}z^{5}+{\frac {2^{3}(1-n)(3-n)(5-n)}{7!}}z^{7}+\cdots \!,$\\
\quad $f_{2}(z):=1+{\frac {2(-n)}{2!}}z^{2}+{\frac {2^{2}(-n)(2-n)}{4!}}z^{4}+{\frac {2^{3}(-n)(2-n)(4-n)}{6!}}z^{6}+\cdots$\\
It's easy to check that these power series satisfy the differential equation.\, The coefficients $b_{\nu }$ in both series obey the recurrence formula $b_{\nu }={\frac {2(\nu \!-\!2\!-\!n)}{\nu (nu\!-\!1)}}b_{\nu \!-\!2}.$ Thus we have the radii of convergence $R=\lim _{\nu \to \infty }\left|{\frac {b_{\nu -2}}{b_{\nu }}}\right|=\lim _{\nu \to \infty }{\frac {\nu }{2}}\!\cdot \!{\frac {1\!-\!1/\nu }{1\!-\!(n\!+\!2)/\nu }}=\infty .$ Therefore the series converge in the whole complex plane and define entire functions.
If the constant $n$ is a non-negative integer, then one of $f_{1}$ and $f_{2}$ is simply a polynomial function.\, The polynomial solutions of the Hermite equation are usually normed so that the highest degree term is $(2z)^{n}$ and called the Hermite polynomials.
# Fluid Dynamics of Fibrous Structures

Fluid flow through fibrous structure is a critical topic for students of textile engineering. They encounter various types of fluid flows of practical significance in their professional life. Dyeing of yarn and woven media, cleaning and washing of cloth, air flow through nonwoven filter media, non-newtonian flow of polymer during fiber extrusion are some examples of fluid flow involving fibrous structures. Course involves basics of fluid mechanics, introduction to porous media flow, air flow through fibrous structure, liquid flow through fibrous structure, absorbency of fibrous structure and special topics.our
Course is designed for graduate level textile engineering students but any one who is interested to learn transport phenomenon involving fibrous structure should benefit from this course. Basic mathematics, calculus, algebra and prior knowledge of fluid mechanics is recommended.
# Fluid Mechanics for MAP/Energy Considerations

>back to Chapters

### Losses and Energy consideration

* Velocity profiles for laminar (upper) and turbulent (lower) states at the same mass flow rate
# TESOL/Emotions
## Key sentences

| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How do they look? | He has a (emotion) look on his face. |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she look when (event?) | She got (emotion). |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she seem? | She seemed (emotion). She looked (emotion). |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| What expression did she have? | She (collocation). |

### Drills

Say these sentences without looking.
He has a (emotion) look on his face. :
| emotion | sentence |
| surprised | He has a surprised look on his face. |
| bored | He has a bored look on his face. |
| happy | He has a happy look on his face. |
| worried | He has a worried look on his face. |
How did she look when (event?) :
| event? | sentence |
| he proposed? | How did she look when he proposed? |
| she opened her present? | How did she look when she opened her present? |
| she saw the ghost? | How did she look when she saw the ghost? |
| she saw the traffic jam? | How did she look when she saw the traffic jam? |
She got (emotion). :
| emotion | sentence |
| excited | She got excited. |
| upset | She got upset. |
| worried | She got worried. |
| scared | She got scared. |
She seemed (emotion). :
| emotion | sentence |
| happy | She seemed happy. |
| pleased | She seemed pleased. |
| interested | She seemed interested. |
| bored | She seemed bored. |
She (collocation). :
| collocation | sentence |
| wore a grin | She wore a grin. |
| flashed a smile | She flashed a smile. |
| turned up her nose | She turned up her nose. |
| lit up | She lit up. |

## Example

Practice this conversation.
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How do they look? | He has a (surprised) look on his face. |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she look when (he proposed?) | She got (excited). |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she seem? | She seemed (happy). |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| What expression did she have? | She (wore a grin). |
Change partners. Use your imagination and change the sentences.

## Exercise

Use your imagination. Make your own conversation.
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How do they look? | He has a ... look on his face. |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she look when ... | She got .... |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| How did she seem? | She seemed .... |
| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| What expression did she have? | She .... |
Change partners. Use your imagination and make another conversation.

## Practice

| Asking about emotions | Describing emotions |
| Ask your partner how someone felt when they: opened a present failed a test broke up with their boyfriend or girlfriend won a game | Describe how they felt and what facial expression they had. |

## Further study

* English lesson topics
# TESOL/English preposition combinations

Remembering the correct preposition combinations is a difficult task second-language English learners. Usually a verb phrase takes only one or two prepositions and other combinations are incorrect. Learning them is a matter of memorization.
# TESOL/English sentence structure

Special:Prefixindex/TESOL/English sentence structure/
# TESOL/English proficiency levels
### Beginner

This stage involves building fluency with essential, everyday English. There is a basic stock of about 2000 words that the student must practice using until they can use fluently. The student must gain a number of stock phrases, and must be able to make questions.
In practical terms, this student aims to be able to survive in an English-speaking environment.
Resources: Category:Beginner English

### Intermediate

This stage involves learning to navigate more complicated situations like apologies, negotiations over price and so on, or giving an opinion or disagreeing politely. At this stage fluency in basic English is not a problem but students need support with more complicated grammar like past participles or new uses of familiar structures.
In practical terms, this student aims to be comfortable in a variety of everyday situations in an English-speaking environment.
Resources: Category:Intermediate English

### Advanced

This stage involves developing control of language so that a student can moderate the level of politeness or strength of their language appropriate to the situation. The student should be able to judge the meanings of unknown words from context or by analogy with previously learned language. At this stage students can start practicing using English in formal situations like meetings at work or formal ceremonies like weddings. Their vocabulary should include not just everyday English but vocabulary usually used in writing. This student should understand common idioms and be able to manipulate them.
In practical terms, this student aims to be able to participate and take an active role in a business meeting by volunteering ideas, explaining their logic, and politely agreeing and disagreeing with colleagues.
Resources: Category:Advanced English
# TESOL/Dictation exercises

A dictation exercise is a type of exercise used in foreign language teaching including TESOL where students receive spoken input and must hold it in short-term memory and then reproduce it in writing.

## Purpose

Dictation exercises can be used effectively as a consciousness-building activity in the ESL classroom. They help learners focus on certain areas of English and provide feedback on accuracy. For example, students can listen for the words other than nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in the teacher's recitation of a passage to build consciousness of those words.

## Example

The teacher reads this.
   In my house, Christmas is a happy time. Everyone sits around the Christmas tree and we exchange presents. My favorite part of Christmas is decorating the Christmas tree. I love the Christmas lights.
The students are given a worksheet like this beforehand:
   __ __ house, Christmas __ _ happy time. Everyone sits ____ __ Christmas tree ___ __ exchange presents. __ favorite part __ Christmas is decorating __ Christmas tree. __ love __ Christmas lights.
Usually the teacher pauses after each phrase and reads each sentence twice, but the teacher may read faster or only read once to challenge stronger students.
As the teacher is reading, the students fill in the blanks.

## Exercises

Tip: use the tab key to go to the next box quickly.

### "House with Nobody in it"

This is a reading of "House with Nobody in it" (1914) by Joyce Kilmer.
# TESOL/Describing objects - elementary
## What does it look like?

* It's plain white.
* It's made of cloth.

## Key Language
### Patterns

* striped listen to "stripe" (help·info)
* plain listen (help·info)
* checkered
* dotted listen (help·info)

### Materials

* cloth ( listen (help·info))
* wooden ( listen (help·info))
* plastic ( listen (help·info))
* leather ( listen (help·info))
* metal ( listen (help·info))
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Magazine Section/PD pathogenesis map
## Mapping Parkinson's pathogenesis - all of it!

The pathogenesis of Parkinson's is so complex, how can you understand it? So many complex molecular pathways are involved - synaptic and mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired protein degradation, alpha-synuclein pathobiology, neuroinflammation and so on. A map would be handy.
But a map is exactly what a joint Luxembourgian/Japanese team has come up with. It is simply called the PD Map and it shows in one, very large interactive diagram all the molecular pathways that have been found to be involved in Parkinson's pathogenesis. By clicking a button you can see how the pathways are perturbed in the Parkinsonian condition; the expression of some proteins and other entities are suppressed and others are overexpressed and this is shown by the symbols that represent them on the map turning red or green.
Enabling a better understanding of the processes underlying Parkinson's by presenting them in a graphical form is the aim of this relatively new project which is impressive already. To complete it, the team are relying on 'crowd sourcing' where experts from anywhere in the world can add new material and fill in the gaps.
Unless you are an expert molecular biologist with a good grasp of bioinformatics, don't go straight to the PD map itself but read the recent paper on it first. The paper describes the power of this concept - which links 'objects' on the map to external references, such as PubMed, and databases. It consolidates into one, overall, comprehensive scheme all those areas of research conducted in the silos that tend to be insulated from each other. The potential is clear. The links between different areas of interest are laid out. This picture - and it is a complex one - is worth a few thousand words.
Understanding the map is not easy at first because it uses the Systems Biology Graphical Notation (SBGN). You need to understand what all the various symbols and labels mean to make sense of it. The PD map is a Process Description diagram created with graphical symbols from the Process Description language. This is just one of the three SBGN graphical languages used for creating three different types of diagram: Process Description, Entity-Relationship and Activity Flow.
The map itself is very much work in progress. And so it should be while the puzzle of Parkinson's itself remains work in progress. Yet an impressive start has been made to gathering together the wealth of detailed progress that has been made in teasing out the perturbations that Parkinson's wreaks on the biochemical functioning in and between cells.
A brief note on the PD Map project is in Progress and Prospects: A pathogenesis Map
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Monitoring Parkinson's Disease/Measurement of Parkinson's Disease Progression/What is PD?

The Wikipedia entry for Parkinson's disease says that "the most obvious symptoms are motor-related, including tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability".
But also in its first paragraph it indicates that there are also many non-motor symptoms of this "degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that impair motor skills, cognitive processes, and other functions."
Therefore an adequate description of the disease and the characteristics of its progression must recognise that it involves the degeneration of centres beyond merely those that control movement. Indeed the loss of dopamine signalling and the appearance of movement disorders due to the degeneration of the cells of the substantia nigra are believed to be a comparatively late stage of the disease. "..Recent evidence of Lewy body pathology in other neuronal populations preceding nigral involvement suggests that the preclinical phase may be much longer." The authors of reference 2 cite evidence of impairment of a variety of areas of both the central and peripheral nervous systems, perhaps on occasion as early as 20 years before motor symptoms appear, that give rise, amongst other things, to constipation, anxiety disorders, rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (RBD), anaemia, olfactory impairment and depression.
The characteristic pathology of the affected parts of the nervous system, whether central or peripheral, involves the aggregation of the protein alpha-synuclein.. This suggests that Parkinson's disease is more usefully understood in terms of its extensive alpha-synuclein pathology rather than the overt symptoms in which movement dysfunction tends to take centre stage. (But see and)
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Pathogenesis

< Back to: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
This page is an introduction to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. It will introduce the consensus as it is currently emerging about how the disease starts and develops at the cellular level.
The topics and subpages will elaborate on these ideas and reference the evidence for them.

## Genetics

"Defects in SNCA [Gene ID: 6622] have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease."
"A heterozygous guanine to cytosine mutation at the first base of codon 389 in MAPT [GeneID: 4137] is identified in a case of juvenile frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism."

## Related pages

< Back to parent page: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
Subpages:
    Current Parkinson's Paradigm
    PD pathogenesis map
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Pathogenesis/Current Parkinson's Paradigm/Inflammation

A general account of the involvement of inflammation in Parkinson's from different perspectives including the involvement of the innate and adaptive immune systems, the role of microglia, the relation to the reactive oxygen species and apoptotic substances generated in the inflammatory response and the pro-inflammatory properties of alpha-synuclein oligomers and its oxidised and nitrated derivatives.
Also the potential use of anti-inflammatory substances as a disease modifying therapy.
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Monitoring Parkinson's Disease

< Back to: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
This will be an overview of the topic of measuring the progression of Parkinson's, how it is attempted, the difficulties involved in improving the techniques and why it is important.

## Background

An accurate,reliable and universally acceptable method of measuring Parkinson's Disease has yet to emerge. Such a system is important as it will:-
* provide a basis for diagnosis;
* enable the detection of pre-symptomatic patients;
* allow the efficacy of prescribed therapies to be tested;
* facilitate the compilation of disease progression histories for individual patients;
* form a basis for testing new therapies;
* eliminate current cases of misdiagnosis.

## Research

2009
Valeo has reviewed the scope for finding PD biomarkers and identifies the following candidates:-
* Hyposmia testing (loss of smell)
* SPECT scans (to show dopamine reduction)
* Heart rate variability
* EKG reading of REM sleep disorder
* Breath tests for molecular markers
* Saliva tests of alpha synuclein levels
2012
Haas et al have carried out an overview of PD biomarker research.
   The best outlook for premotor PD biomarkers relies heavily on the rapid and reliable identification of premotor biomarkers with independent validation of biochemical markers the clinical cohort most likely to develop PD.

## Related pages

< Back to: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
Sub pages:
    Biomarkers, Measurement of Disease Progression
# Programming Fundamentals/Files/Python3
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Python3 compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* InterviewBit
* paiza.IO
* Programiz
* PythonTutor
* Python Fiddle
* repl.it
* RexTester
* Trinket
* TutorialsPoint
* Python Online
* Python Playground
* LabEx

## See Also

* Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3
# Programming Fundamentals/Functions/Block
## Try It

Go to Blockly Demo or use your own Block compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Blockly
* Gameblox
* Micro:bit
* Scratch
* Snap
* Tynker

## See Also

* Blockly
# Programming Fundamentals/Functions/C++
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own C++ compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* C++
* Wikibooks: C++ Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Files/Ruby
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Ruby compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Ruby Programming