OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# English-Pinyin/"A" is used when the following word could be any of a certain type

"A" is used when the following word could be any of a certain type.
dang suir'zhe de ciryuu keeyii shih moou zhoong leihxirng zhong de rehnher yi zhoong shir shiiyohng "A".
# English-Pinyin/1G

1G refers to the first generation of wireless cellular technology (mobile telecommunications).
1G zhii de shih dih yi daih wurxiahn fengwo jihshuh (yirdohng diahnxihn).
# English-Pinyin/A baby cat is called a kitten

A baby cat is called a kitten.
Niarnyouh de māo bèi chengweir xiǎomāo.
# English-Pinyin/A basic computer consists of three main parts

A basic computer consists of three main parts; input/output, processor and memory.
jibeen jihsuahnji your san geh zhuuyaoh buhfehn zuucherng; shuruh/shuchu, her chuuliiqih.
# English-Pinyin/1G is the analog telecommunications standards

1G is the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications.
1G shih 20 shihjih 80 niarndaih yiinruh de mornir diahnxihn biaozhuun, yizhir chirxuh daoh beih 2G shuhzih diahnxihn quudaih.
# English-Pinyin/2G

2G is short for second-generation cellular technology.
2G shì dì èr dài fēngwō jìshù de suōxiě.
# English-Pinyin/3G

3G, short for third generation, is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology.
3G, dih san daih de suoxiee, shih dih san daih wurxiahn yirdohng diahnxihn jihshuh.
# English-Pinyin/4G

4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G.
4G shih jih 3G zhihouh de dih sih daih kuandaih shoouji waangluoh jihshuh.
# English-Pinyin/5G performance targets high data rate

5G performance targets high data rate, reduced latency, energy saving, cost reduction, higher system capacity, and massive device connectivity.
5G xìngnéng de mùbiāo shì gāo shùjù sùlǜ, jiǎnshǎo yánchí, jiéshěng néngyuán, jiàngdī chéngběn, tígāo xìtǒng róngliàng hé dà guīmó shèbèi liánjiē.
# English-Pinyin/5G

5G is the technology of the latest generation (the fifth generation) of mobile communication.
5G shì zuìxīn yīdài (dì wǔ dài) yídòng tōngxìn jìshù.
# Forbidden Kingdom (strategic simulation)/Issues Key

In Forbidden Kingdom (Strategic Simulation), the gamemaster maintains the secrecy of the Issues Key, which he/she uses to calculate the effects of voting decisions on the stability vs. regime change factors of Face, Authority, Wealth, and Popular Mood (Populace). Note that the estimates provided to the players/teams are just that: estimates. The actual effects of decision making may be different, just as in real life. A rating in any category of -5 during the course of the simulation forces regime change. A score above +5 remains at +5.
SCORING EXAMPLE: If Choice A for a particular round would result in a score of -1 0 -2 4, this means that the Face marker loses one point, Authority is unchanged, Wealth loses two points, and Populace gains four points.

## Consultative Legislatures - Issues Key
### Year 1

Internet Access
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** 0 0 –1 –1
* Freer Access (Choice B)
** –1 –1 1 2
Private Property Rights: Investigate Corruption and Restore Lands
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** –1 –1 1 2
* No Investigations (Choice B)
** 0 0 0 -1

### Year 2

Nuclear Energy: Fix Location for Highly Enriched Waste (HEW) Facility
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** 1 1 –1 1
* Money Better Spent (Choice B)
** 0 0 1 0
People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN): Fleet Modernization
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** 2 1 –2 1
* Money Better Spent (Choice B)
** 0 –1 2 1

### Year 3

Independence Referendum Passes on Taiwan
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** -3 –2 2 -2
* Confrontation (Choice B)
** 2 2 –2 1
Currency: Basket of Funds
* Support Party Line (Choice A)
** -1 0 –1 -1
* Risk of Price Hikes (Choice B)
** 0 1 –2 1
# Force systems

Part of the Statics course offered by the Division of Applied Mechanics, School of Engineering and the Engineering and Technology Portal

## Lecture

Force is a component of dynamics, which describes the causes of motion. Dynamics is in turn part of Newtonian Mechanics in the large field of Physics. Force systems are also the starting point of engineering analysis.

### Force Vectors

A force vector is a force defined in two or more dimensions with a component vector in each dimension which may all be summed to equal the force vector. Similarly, the magnitude of each component vector, which is a scalar quantity, may be multiplied by the unit vector in that dimension to equal the component vector.

### Moment

For a system wherein a rigid body experiences a force F at a orthogonal distance L from a fixed point, the moment M is the quantity (oddly enough of the same units as energy) defined by the force multiplied by the length of distance between the fixed point and the point where the force is applied. The direction of the moment is perpendicular to the force ecotro and the length, using the right hand rule.
In the event that a force impacts the rigid body at an angle other than a right angle ${\vec {F}}=F\angle \alpha =F_{x}+F_{y}$, the moment is determined by the component of the force vector ${\vec {F}}$ that is orthogonal to the length L.
The general case in three dimensions can be calculated with the cross product. Do note that the order of the distance vector ${\vec {r}}$ and the force $F$ does matter in cross products as opposite order will change signs.
The components of a moment vector is the moment around the respective axis, following the right hand rule.
Example:
Example: Force F is incident on the end of a rigid body of length L at an angle A degrees from the central axis of the body x (Hint: draw a free body diagram).

### Couple

A couple is a pair of equal and opposite force vectors that are some distance apart and that act upon the same body, thus causing a rotation. Imagine that force $F_{1}\$ and force $F_{2}\$ are incident at two locations along a rigid body of total length $L\$ at positions $a\$ and $b\$, where $a\ +b=L$. (Hint: draw a free body diagram)
In 3D the same rule applies, using that ${\vec {M}}={\vec {r}}_{1}\times {\vec {F}}_{1}+{\vec {r}}_{2}\times {\vec {F}}_{2}={\vec {r}}_{1}\times {\vec {F}}_{1}-{\vec {r}}_{2}\times {\vec {F}}_{1}=({\vec {r}}_{1}-{\vec {r}}_{2})\times {\vec {F}}_{1}$ which means that the moment will be the same around any point in the system.

### Resultant

Any system of forces may be reduced to a system of components and a resulting moment.

## Assignments

Activities:
* Create an activity
Readings:
* Peruse the appropriate sections of b:Statics
Study guide:
* Wikipedia article:Force System
* Wikipedia article:Vector
* Wikipedia article:Force Vector
* Wikipedia article:Moment
* Wikipedia article:Couple
* Wikipedia article:Resultant
# Forcing algebra/Characteristic 0/Superheight/Remark

In characteristic zero, the plus closure behaves very differently compared with positive characteristic. If $R$ is a normal domain of characteristic $0$, then the trace map shows that the plus closure is trivial, $I^{+}=I$ for every ideal $I$. This implies also that if $R$ is a two-dimensional normal local ring of characteristic $0$ and $I$ an ${\mathfrak {m}}$-primary ideal and $f\in R$ an element with $f\notin I$, then the extended ideal ${\mathfrak {m}}B$ inside the forcing algebra $B$ has superheight $1$. If moreover $f$ belongs to the solid closure of $I$, then $D({\mathfrak {m}}B)$ is not affine and so by fact its ring of global sections is not finitely generated.
# Forbidden Kingdom (strategic simulation)/metrics
### 2012-2013

| Metrics | Total | Daily Peak |
| April, 2012 | 22 | 3 |
| May, 2012 | 39 | 3 |
| June, 2012 | 40 | 3 |
| July, 2012 | 33 | 3 |
| August, 2012 | 38 | 3 |
| September, 2012 | | |
| October, 2012 | | |
| November, 2012 | | |
| December, 2012 | | |
| January, 2013 | | |
| February, 2013 | | |
| March, 2013 | | |
| Total | 22 | 3 |

### 2011-2012

| Metrics | Total | Daily Peak |
| April, 2011 | 71 | 26 |
| May, 2011 | 41 | 4 |
| June, 2011 | 45 | 5 |
| July, 2011 | 63 | 7 |
| August, 2011 | 36 | 3 |
| September, 2011 | 29 | 5 |
| October, 2011 | 32 | 5 |
| November, 2011 | 38 | 4 |
| December, 2011 | 28 | 3 |
| January, 2012 | 46 | 5 |
| February, 2012 | 30 | 4 |
| March, 2012 | 31 | 5 |
| Total | 490 | 7 |
# Meta-analysis/To do

This page is for listing tasks to be completed for the meta-analysis learning resources. Anyone can help, but in practice this is essentially a to do list currently for and by Jtneill:
* Create a template for a proposal for a meta-analytic study
* Create a list of dedicated meta-analysis software, with pros and cons
* Create/find a list of experimental design/quality criteria (e.g., from Campbell and Stanley)
* Make a list of typical criteria used to judge study "quality"
* Link to electronic copies of exemplar meta-analyses
* Find an article for example coding
* Add a link to an example database
# Mesoscopic Physics/Mathematics for Mesoscopic Physics

Here you will (hopefully) find brief descriptions of and study guides to math topics like: random matrices, Lie groups and symmetric spaces, supermathematics, semiclassical analysis/geometric asymptotics, statistical mechanics, etc.
Brief explanations of specific technical terms can be found in the Mesoscopic Physics Glossary.
# Mesoscopic Physics/Mesoscopic Physics Glossary/Boltzmann Distribution

Given a quantum system with energy eigenvalues $E_{n}$, in equilibrium the probability of finding the system in state $n$ is given by the Boltzmann distribution,
$p_{n}={1 \over Z}\exp(-{E_{n} \over k_{B}T})$,
where $Z$ is the partition sum that makes the distribution normalized.
In terms of the system's density matrix, this is equivalent to saying
${\hat {\rho }}={1 \over Z}\exp(-{{\hat {H}} \over k_{B}T})$,
where ${\hat {H}}$ is the system's Hamiltonian.
# Mesoscopic Physics/What is Mesoscopic Physics
## Meaning of the name "Mesoscopic Physics"

"Meso" refers to length scales intermediate between microscopic (single atoms) and macroscopic scales (where the usual classical, bulk behaviour takes over). This regime was first identified as interesting in the study of phase transitions, where new phenomena occur when the correlation length of fluctuations becomes similar to the system size. Later, the development of small (micrometer sized) metallic or semiconducting structures in the computer industry prompted researchers to ask what happens when electrons move in these small spaces. Three effects become crucial:
* Fluctuations (of charge, current, resistance etc.) become important, since 'self-averaging' is less effective if there are only a small number of particles
* Interactions become more important, as the Coulomb repulsion in these tightly confined spaces may overwhelm the thermal energy at sufficiently low energies
* Quantum interference effects show up, and can be used to realize devices such as interferometers
Often, one has to deal with the interplay of all three of these phenomena. Quantum mechanics and statistical averaging procedures are important ingredients in describing such "mesoscopic systems". --FlorianMarquardt 12:30, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

## A brief history of the field

(Describe some highlights in chronological order)
# Mesoscopic Physics/Learning Mesoscopic Physics
## Textbooks on Mesoscopic Physics

* S. Datta, "Electronic Transport in Mesoscopic Systems", Cambridge Univ. Press 1995. - very didactic, covering the more elementary topics (but nothing on shot noise, quantum dots etc.)
* Y. Imry, "Introduction to Mesoscopic Physics", Oxford Univ. Press 1997 (2nd ed: 2002). - quite advanced, from one of the founding fathers of the field (maybe a little too sophisticated for a first course)
* Dittrich et al., "Quantum transport and dissipation", Wiley-VCH 1998. - contains selection of modern topics, written by respective experts
* F. Haake, "Quantum Signatures of Chaos", Springer 2006 (2nd edition) - a wealth of material on wave chaos, random matrix theory, and semiclassics; very readable
* K. Efetov, "Supersymmetry in Disorder and Chaos", Cambridge Univ. Press 1996 - monograph on the technique of supersymmetry that is used to discuss disordered and chaotic systems, from its inventor in this context

## Relevant textbooks on physics in general

* A. Altland and B. Simons, "Condensed Matter Field Theory", Cambridge Univ. Press 2006 - techniques for treating many interacting particles etc.; well liked by students

## Textbooks on Mathematics

* S. Helgason, "Differential Geometry, Lie Groups, and Symmetric Spaces", American Math. Society 2001 - advanced

## Reviews

* Beenakker and van Houten: "Quantum Transport in Semiconductor Nanostructures", Solid State Physics 44, 1 (1991) - download from cond-mat/0412664 - old, but very pedagogical, and a lot on scattering theory, disordered systems and Quantum Hall Effect

## Lecture notes

* Florian Marquardt, "Lecture Notes on Mesoscopic Physics (2006)", contains (incomplete) notes, links to original papers, and problem sets
# Mesoscopic Physics/Physics Prerequisites

This is a brief list of topics you should learn about before even turning to mesoscopic physics proper. These are things that physics students learn during their courses on quantum mechanics (QM I and II), thermodynamics and statistical physics, and electrodynamics. However, since we have selected only the subset that comprises the bare essentials you need to know, the amount of this material is much smaller than you might expect.

## Basic material from a first quantum mechanics course

* Schrödinger equation for one particle (time-dependent/-independent)
* Energy levels as eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian operator (Hamiltonian (Wikipedia)), and energy eigenstates
* Free evolution, wave packets (useful for semiclassics!)
* Heisenberg's uncertainty relation

## More advanced material to deal with many particles and thermodynamic equilibrium

* Boltzmann distribution, partition sum
* Density matrix
* Basis in a many-body Hilbert space ("occupation numbers")
* Fermi-Dirac distribution, chemical potential, Fermi surface
* Second quantization

## External pointers

* "List of basic physics topics (Wikipedia)"
* "List of basic mathematics topics (Wikipedia)"
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/Catamarca

Catamarca is a province in Argentina, located in the north-west of the country. The capital is San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca. It is 70 per cent mountains. This makes Catamarca a great place for adventure tourism. Catamarca has important tourist attractions: the snowy peaks of the Andes, well-known and promoted under the name of “six thousand” and its chain of lakes. The Antofagasta de la Sierra department has beautiful landscapes. Another attraction is the bath of Fiambala.

### Campo de piedra pomez

This fascinating tour is located 63 km. from the town of Antofagasta and 10 km. from the town of El Peñon. It presents large size fields of pumice, which resemble a sea of white rock with pink ridges. Here, the strong wind descending from the Andes has carved into the rocks creating the most diverse forms, corridors or "avenues" and all kinds of fascinating sculptures. Witness of the intense volcanic activity in the region since immemorial time, Golf Pumice is a unique landscape, like another planet. It is irresistible to anyone who enters the attractive territory of “La Puna”. The minimum height of these circuits is 3,000 meters, and rises to more than 4,000 m, so it is essential to drive in appropriate vehicles (you can reach the town of El Penon in common vehicles, but then you must arrange excursions and experienced guides with 4 × 4 trucks). Pumice is purely igneous in origin and is produced from an imposing explosion of volcanic strata, known geologically as the Plinian type. A pumice field looks like a glaciar, and is originated from the silica white powder ash coming from volcanic eruption.
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/Chubut (province)

Chubut is a province in the Argentinian Patagonia in the south of the country. Rawson is the capital city but the town with the largest number of inhabitants is Comodoro Rivadavia. Chubut has a unique geography that includes the sea, beaches, valleys, mountains and lakes. The territory can be divided into three distinct regions: the mountains, the central plateau and the Atlantic coast; each with its particular attractions. The major cities on the coast are Rawson, Puerto Madryn and Puerto Pirámides. Excellent roads link the coast with the mountains, so you can easily get to the towns of this region: Esquel, Lago Puelo or Trevelin among others.

## Cities
### Esquel

It is a city northwest of the province of Chubut. It is rich in wildlife and it is a major tourist attraction. The most visited places are: the National Park “Los Alerces”, the ski center “La Hoya” and “La Zeta” lagoon.

### Gaiman

Gaiman is a nineteenth century Welsh colony. It is near Rawson, in the province of Chubut, Argentina. The first Welsh colonies arrived on the Patagonian coast in 1865. They came from Wales on the Mimosa ship. They settled in the lower valley of Chubut river. The Welsh colonist David D. Roberts was the first inhabitant in the land called Gaiman in 1874. This word is a Tehuelche word which means “sharp stone”. In the town there are many traditional Welsh tea houses,which offer tourists exquisite cakes and delicious biscuits with Welsh tea.

### Puerto Madryn

It is considered the diving capital of the country. It is a modern and cosmopolitan city that offers everything a visitor may need from museums, shops and beaches, to whale watching and sports of all kinds.

### Puerto Pirámides

It is a stop no tourist can miss on their trip to the Península Valdés. The reproduction and delivery of the southern right whale is a show that nature offers every year from June to December. Killer whales can be seen between February and May, while dolphins and Commerson’s dolphins, all year round. Also you can see lions and elephant seals, penguins, cormorants and territorial wildlife.
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/Jujuy
## Cities
### La Quiaca

La Quiaca is a city of northwest Argentina, north of the province of Jujuy . It is on the border with Bolivia. It is located 290 km from capital of the province San Salvador de Jujuy in the north end of the Humahuaca Valley. This city is considered the most northern city of Argentina. The average annual temperature is 25 degrees. La Quiaca has traditional and attractive festivals to worship Mother Earth Pachamama and outdoor activities can be done naturally like mountaineering and other adventure sports. There are a lot of restaurants; ethnic cuisine isn´t very expensive and it´s very nice. The hostel La Candelaria is very cheap and fantastic, it is to recommend.

## Miscellanea
### Quebrada de Humahuaca

Quebrada de Humahuaca is in the province of Jujuy, Argentina. This mountain valley is in the northwest of the Andean region. It is considered a natural access to the high plains, which was used since Pre-Columbian times. Beside the Quebrada de Humahuaca´s road, the Grande River spreads from north to south. From San Salvador de Jujuy to La Quiaca, there are many small towns such as Purmamarca, Tilcara, Humahuaca. The Unesco made the whole of Quebrada de Humahuaca a World Heritage Site in 2003. People in the Quebrada de Humahuaca celebrate carnival and pay tribute to Pachamama (Mother Earth).

### Salinas Grandes

In the Province of Jujuy and very close to Purmamarca, you can visit “Salinas Grandes”. It is the largest salt desert in the country. It is located at an altitude of 4.000 meters and it covers an area of around 12.000 hectares of a dazzling white colour. It is believed that they are the remains of an ancient sea. Thousands of tourists visit them every year because they are considered to be one of the most unusual natural landscapes in the world. You can cross them by car or by bus. Nearby you can find a little and picturesque town called “Barrancas” with the typical geography of the Puna de Atacama. There is no green vegetation here because the land is very arid. It has a population of only 200 inhabitants who live in houses made of adobe that blend into the landscape. Their typical food is “llama casseroled” with potatoes and aromatic herbs. The locals do craftwork in wood, black ceramic and even salt. There are also archeological remains in the area with a great variety of rock art designs.
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/Corrientes (province)
## Cities
### Loreto Village

This is in Argentina, in the province of Corrientes. There are five thousand inhabitants in it. This name is in honour for the Italian Virgin. The first inhabitants were Guaraníes (local native Americans), Spaniards and priests. Loreto was founded three times. The first was in 1610, in province of Misiones. The second was in 1631, and in 1817 - due to the attacks of Portuguese bandits - the village was moved to the Parana's River coast, in Corrientes. The Guaranies learned to crave. They were inspired by the advice of Jesuits. The carving of the Virgin of Loreto was made by the guaranies. It is more of 300 years old. The original image is thin. The image has the physonomy of a Guarani woman. These inhabitants left different images of saints. There are eighty, in fact, and there are revered. They are in a little building called oratorio.There are many oratorios. They are little and humble churches situaded next of the houses and people pray there. The most modern houses have personal altars inside them. They are full of images of saints and pictures. There is another curiosity in the village. It is a pilgrimage site for the people from Entre Rios. Once a year people go to visit the Virgin. She is the Patron Saint of the Air Force of Argentina.
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/La Rioja (province)

It is in the North- West of Argentina. In the spring, the weather is sunny and there is Zonda wind. In the summer, the weather is warm and rainy. There you can visit the Valle de la luna, Talampaya, Cuesta de Miranda and Famatina. In the city of Chilecito you can visit the Joaquin V. Gonzalez house. You can also visit Anillaco and see the wineyards. In December it is the Poncho festival. Some typical dishes are: goat, empanadas, locro (stew made with potatoes, sweet potatoes and meat) and cheese of goat with "cayote" jam. You can get regional products: nuts, olives, vines and sweets for souvenirs.

## Cities
### Chilecito

Chilecito is a small city that is located in the province of La Rioja, Argentina. There are 40.000 people and it is a very beautiful city . It is surrounded by the mountain range Famatina and Velazco that make a nice landscape. Its productive activity is centered on vine, nuts and olives and the derivate. You Can visit the cuesta de Miranda as one de most beautiful places in the region and you can research the history of our peoples.
# Escuela de Lenguas UNLP/About Argentina/Tourist Attractions/Entre Ríos (province)
## Cities
### Gualeguaychú

It is a beautifully medium sized city on the Gualeguaychu River, in the south of the province of Entre Rios. It is about 200 years old. It is near Uruguay River, which is polluted by the paper industry located in the neighbouring country. In summer many people go to its beaches and attend the famous carnival. You can go fishing all year long. It has got good weather conditions.

### Paraná

It´s an old city of Argentina. It is a provincial capital next to Paraná river. It has a beautiful park on the coast of the river and a cliff. Also, it has an important cathedral and an exciting night life.