# Evaluating Information

—Fact or fiction?

## Introduction

Because we are flooded with information, some accurate, some not, it is helpful to be able to accurately evaluate the truth-value of information.
Brandolini's law reminds us that “The amount of energy needed to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude bigger than that needed to produce it”. Learn to recognize, avoid, and dispose of nonsense. It is useful to be able to navigate the DIKW pyramid.
This course focuses on evaluating information that is presented as factual and informative.
Enjoy any works of fiction you find entertaining or amusing. Indulge opinions on fashion and matters of taste. Enjoy and reflect on intellectually honest arguments and debates on matters of controversy, while keeping in mind that the best story often wins.
Do not be fooled by false, misleading, or deceptive information that is represented as being objective and factual.
Whether you hunted down the information, or the information hunted for you, it is wise to determine if the information is factual, or if you are being misled. Facts are our friends!
The Wikiversity course Information literacy and researching skills covers similar topics and may be a useful supplement to this course.

## Objectives

The objective of this course is to help students identify misleading or deceptive information that is represented as being objective and factual.
This course has no prerequisites, and all students are welcome. Several companion courses are available that can help students gain additional background or bolster their understanding of various concepts and techniques useful in evaluating information.
These include:
* Facing Facts — Embracing Reality
* Evaluating Journalism Standards — Seeking reliable information sources
* Intellectual Honesty — Accurately communicating true beliefs
* Virtues/Good Faith – The virtue of truthfullness
* Forming Beliefs — Evaluating what you accept as true
* Knowing how you know
* Seeking True Beliefs —Excellence in the Quest for Knowledge
* Evaluating Evidence — Seeking Reality
* Navigating Social Proof —Going along to get along
Study these companion courses any time they may be helpful. Specific companion course suggestions appear in relevant sections throughout this course.

## Motivations toward true beliefs

Unless you are motivated to choose true beliefs, nonsense is as valuable to you as factual information.
The intellectual virtues are motivations toward true beliefs. Various researchers have identified a variety of intellectual virtues.
To avoid nonsense, work to develop and practice the intellectual virtues.

### Assignment

* Read the essay Benefits of True Beliefs.
* Study the Reasons to seek true beliefs section of the Wikiversity course Seeking True Beliefs.
* Study the Importance of Truth section of the Wikiversity course Facing Facts.
* Study the Intellectual Virtues section of the Wikiversity course Seeking True Beliefs.
* Work to develop and practice the intellectual virtues.

## Fact or Fiction?

In a world flooded with information, distinguishing fact from fiction has become a critical skill. Accurate, factual, representative, and objective information is essential for making informed decisions, fostering trust, and maintaining healthy societies. Yet, false, misleading, and deceptive content—misinformation and disinformation—has proliferated, eroding the boundaries between reality and fabrication.
Navigating this complex landscape requires understanding the characteristics of reliable information, recognizing propaganda tactics, and building digital literacy skills to authenticate and verify the content we consume.
This section of the course explores these themes, providing tools to differentiate fact from fiction and safeguard our understanding of truth.

### Characteristics of Accurate, Factual, Representative, and Objective Information

Reliable information possesses several defining characteristics that distinguish it from false or misleading content. Recognizing these traits is the first step in evaluating the credibility of any source.
1. Accuracy
* Accurate information is factually correct and verifiable through independent sources.
* It is free of errors, contradictions, or distortions.
* Accurate content provides supporting evidence, such as data, citations, or firsthand accounts, to back its claims.
2. Factuality
* Factual information is grounded in objective reality, based on representative evidence rather than opinions, emotions, or speculation.
* Facts are observable, measurable, and often repeatable in nature (e.g., scientific findings or documented historical events).
3. Representativeness
* Representative information fairly reflects the subject or situation it describes, avoiding cherry-picking data or presenting selective narratives.
* It accounts for the broader context, ensuring that conclusions are not drawn from isolated or atypical examples.
4. Objectivity
* Objective information avoids bias, honestly presenting all honest sides of an issue without favoring a particular perspective.
* It uses neutral language, refrains from emotional manipulation, and prioritizes clarity over persuasion.
Together, these qualities form the foundation of credible and trustworthy information. Sources that exhibit these characteristics empower audiences to think critically and form informed opinions.

### Characteristics of Misinformation and Disinformation

In contrast, misinformation and disinformation lack the qualities of credible information, often aiming to deceive, manipulate, or mislead.
1. Misinformation
* Definition: False or inaccurate information shared without harmful intent.
* Examples include rumors, misunderstood data, or outdated information.
2. Disinformation
* Definition: Deliberately false information created to deceive or manipulate audiences.
* Disinformation is often used to influence political opinions, promote agendas, or undermine trust in institutions.
Red Flags of False Information:
* Emotional Language: Exaggerated or sensational tones designed to provoke anger, fear, or outrage.
* Lack of Evidence: Claims unsupported by data, sources, or citations.
* One-Sided Arguments: Presenting only one perspective while ignoring counterarguments or alternative interpretations.
* Manipulated Media: Altered images, videos, or charts that misrepresent reality.
* Anonymity or Hidden Authorship: Sources with unclear, false, or misleading attribution or credentials.
Understanding these traits is essential for recognizing and avoiding unreliable information.

### Propaganda Tactics: Identification and Avoidance

Propaganda uses psychological and rhetorical tactics to shape public perception and behavior, often blurring the lines between fact and fiction. These tactics exploit cognitive biases, emotions, and social dynamics to achieve their goals.
1. Common Propaganda Tactics
* Bandwagon Effect: Encouraging people to adopt an idea because "everyone else is doing it." The Wikiversity course Navigating Social Proof elaborates on this.
* Fear Appeals: Exploiting fear to push an agenda or justify extreme actions.
* Name-Calling: Attacking opponents with derogatory labels to discredit them.
* False Dilemmas: Presenting a complex issue as a binary choice, ignoring nuance or alternatives. The Wikiversity course Recognizing Fallacies elaborates on this and other fallacies.
* Repetition: Repeating false claims until they appear credible through familiarity (the "illusory truth effect").
* Glittering Generalities: Using vague but emotionally appealing phrases that lack specific meaning.
2. Identifying Propaganda
* Evaluate Language: Look for emotionally charged words or exaggerated claims.
* Analyze Intent: Ask, “What is the purpose of this message? What are they trying to achieve?”
* Check Sources: Verify the credibility of the organization or individual promoting the message.
3. Avoiding Propaganda
* Question Assumptions: Challenge oversimplified narratives and consider alternative viewpoints.
* Seek Diverse Perspectives: Avoid echo chambers by consulting a range of sources.
* Focus on Facts: Prioritize evidence-based arguments over emotional appeals.
By recognizing and resisting propaganda tactics, individuals can protect themselves from manipulation and make more informed decisions.

### Building Digital Literacy

In the digital age, misinformation and disinformation spread rapidly through social media, websites, and other online platforms. Building digital literacy—the ability to critically evaluate online content—is essential for distinguishing fact from fiction.
1. Authenticating Authorship
* Check for clear attribution: Who wrote the content? Are they a credible expert? Are they Intellectually honest?
* Look for contact information, credentials, or affiliations that establish the author’s authority.
* Be wary of anonymous content, as it often lacks accountability.
2. Spotting Fakes
* Identifying Fake News:
** Examine the website: Does it have a professional layout, or is it riddled with ads and spelling errors?
** Investigate headlines: Does the headline sensationalize or exaggerate the content?
** Cross-check claims: Compare the content with reputable sources to verify accuracy.
* Spotting Fake Accounts:
** Check profile details: Fake accounts often have limited activity, generic profile pictures, or recently created profiles.
3. Verifying Images and Videos
* Reverse Image Search:
** Use tools like Google Images or TinEye to check whether an image has been altered or used out of context.
* Metadata Analysis:
** Examine metadata (e.g., file creation dates) to confirm when and where a photo or video was taken.
* Analyze Visual Cues:
** Look for inconsistencies in lighting, shadows, or proportions that may indicate manipulation.
4. Verifying Data and Statistics
* Trace Data to Its Source:
** Navigate primary, secondary, and tertiary sources skillfully.
** Look for original research, reports, or studies. Avoid relying on secondary summaries that may misinterpret findings.
* Evaluate Methodology:
** Consider how the data was collected and whether it is representative of the population or topic it addresses.
* Beware of Cherry-Picked Data:
** Check for omitted context or selective presentation of statistics.

### The Role of Skepticism and Critical Thinking

Skepticism and critical thinking are essential tools for navigating the modern information landscape. They allow individuals to question, evaluate, and validate the information they encounter.
1. Adopt a Questioning Mindset
* Ask Key Questions:
** Who created this content, and why?
** What evidence supports these claims?
** Are there alternative explanations or perspectives?
2. Cross-Check and Verify
* Avoid relying on a single source. Consult multiple, independent sources to corroborate information.
* Doubt Rumors. Rumors are unverified information circulating among people, especially without solid evidence. They are unreliable sources of information. Be diligent in verifying rumors before passing them on, or allowing them to influence your beliefs. Verify information before passing it on, including likes reposting, and forwarding on social media.
* Favor Primary Sources. Seek sources that are as close as possible to the event being reported. Avoid hearsay. Consult the original research papers to verify claims made in news releases or subsequent reporting.
* Several organizations work to check factual claims made by media outlets. Consult these services regularly to assess the accuracy of the information you are receiving.
3. Reflect on Your Biases
* Recognize how your own cognitive biases may affect your interpretation of information. Strive to remain objective and open to evidence-based arguments.

## Assignment

* Study the Responsible Journalism Standards section of the Wikiversity course Evaluating Journalism Standards.
* Determine if the content you are reading meets these standards for accuracy and objectivity.
* Favor content provided by reliable sources. The Wikipedia policy on Reliable Sources provides helpful guidance.
* Complete the Wikiversity course Navigating Social Proof.
** Navigate Social Proof accurately.
* Complete the Wikiversity course Evaluating Evidence.
** Evaluate evidence accurately.
* Complete the Wikiversity course Knowing How You Know.
** Know how you know.
* Complete the Wikiversity course Seeking True Beliefs
** Seek True Beliefs

## Assignment

Three heuristics, called razors, can help evaluate and cast doubt on various conspiracy theories. Apply each of these three razors to assess the credibility of any proposed conspiracy theory and use them to cut through the nonsense.
* Occam’s razor—paraphrased as “The simplest explanation is usually the best one”—is a problem-solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements.
* Halon’s razor states: “Never attribute to malice that which is adequately explained by stupidity.”
* Hitchens’s razor states: “What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence.”

## Conclusion

In an era of information abundance, separating fact from fiction is both a challenge and a necessity. By understanding the characteristics of accurate, factual, representative, and objective information, individuals can build a foundation for credible knowledge. Recognizing propaganda tactics, fostering skepticism, and developing digital literacy skills empower us to navigate misinformation and disinformation effectively. The pursuit of truth demands vigilance, critical thinking, and a commitment to verifying what we consume and share. Only by cultivating these habits can we ensure that our decisions and beliefs are informed by fact, not fiction.

## Further Reading

Students wishing to learn more about evaluating information may be interested in reading the following books:
* Wilson, Edward Osborne (March 30, 1999). Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Vintage. pp. 384. ISBN 978-0679768678.
* Pinker, Steven (September 28, 2021). Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters. Viking. pp. 432. ISBN 978-0525561996.
* Frankfurt, Harry G. (January 30, 2005). On Bullshit. Princeton University Press. pp. 67. ISBN 978-0691122946.
* Frankfurt, Harry G. (October 31, 2006). On Truth. Knopf. pp. 112. ISBN 978-0307264220.
* Burton, Robert (March 17, 2009). On Being Certain: Believing You Are Right Even When You're Not. St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 272. ISBN 978-0312541521.
* Ariely, Dan (September 17, 2024). Misbelief: What Makes Rational People Believe Irrational Things. Harper Perennial. pp. 320. ISBN 978-0063280434.
* Wolpert, Lewis (July 17, 2008). Six Impossible Things Before Breakfast: The Evolutionary Origins of Belief. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 256. ISBN 978-0393332032.
* Sunstein, Cass R. (December 23, 2014). Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter. Harvard Business Review Press. pp. 272. ISBN 978-1422122990.
* Tavris, Carol; Aronson, Elliot (October 20, 2015). Mistakes Were Made (but Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. Mariner Books. pp. 400. ISBN 978-0544574786.
* Snyder, Timothy (September 17, 2024). On freedom (First edition ed.). New York: Crown. ISBN 978-0-593-72872-7.
* Haidt, Jonathan (February 12, 2013). The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. Vintage. pp. 528. ISBN 978-0307455772.
* Andersen, Kurt (September 5, 2017). Fantasyland: How America Went Haywire: A 500-Year History. Random House. pp. 480. ISBN 978-1400067213.
* McIntyre, Lee (February 16, 2018). Post-Truth. The MIT Press. pp. 240. ISBN 978-0262535045.
* Tsipursky, Gleb; Ward, Tim (May 29, 2020). Pro Truth: A Practical Plan for Putting Truth Back Into Politics. Changemakers Books. p. 271. ISBN 978-1789043990.
* Wilczek, Frank (January 12, 2021). Fundamentals: Ten Keys to Reality. Penguin Press. pp. 272. ISBN 978-0735223790.
* Galef, Julia (April 13, 2021). The Scout Mindset: Why Some People See Things Clearly and Others Don't. pp. 288. ISBN 978-0735217553.
* Rosling, Hans (April 3, 2018). Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About the World--and Why Things Are Better Than You Think. Flatiron Books. pp. 341. ISBN 978-1-250-10781-7.
* Hayes, Christopher (2025). The sirens' call: how attention became the world's most endangered resource. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-593-65311-1.
I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research.
* Verified: How to Think Straight, Get Duped Less, and Make Better Decisions about What to Believe Online, by Mike Caulfield
* The Made-Up Mind: The Meaning of Error in an Age of Certainty: Adventures in the Margin of Error, by Kathryn Schultz (Paperback)