# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Antisocial behaviour in children

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Tommy's story
* Tommy, a 46-year-old male (e.g. see figure 1), has a history of disregarding societal rules and engaging in aggressive behaviou[spelling?].
* He has been arrested multiple times for theft, and assault. When confronted, he shows little concern, often saying, “Rules are for people who don’t know how to take what they want.”
* Tommy struggles in personal relationships, relying on manipulation and deceit to achieve his goals. He rarely expresses guilt or remorse, dismissing others’ reactions as “overly dramatic.”
* Impulsive by nature, Tommy frequently quits jobs without notice due to frustration with authority. His quick temper and tendency to escalate conflicts into physical altercations further hinder his daily life.
This represents the manifestation of antisocial behaviour in adult everyday life. The question to consider is why Tommy, in adulthood, is motivated to behave in this way and what are the factors that have led the developmental trajectory of his antisocial behaviour?
This chapter answers these questions as it explores the developmental trajectory of antisocial behaviour from toddlerhood into adolescence. This chapter focuses on; [grammar?] the influence of personal, familial, and social risk factors in the development and maintenance of antisocial behaviour in children, and the way in which these factors affect and are affect[grammar?] by emotional, social and cognitive development.
* Focus questions:
* What is antisocial behaviour?
* What are the influences of familial, social and trait risk factors in motivating antisocial behaviour in children?
* What role does emotion play in motivating antisocial behaviour in children?

## Antisocial behaviour

Antisocial behaviour (ASB) can be characterised as the persistent pattern of actions that deviate from normal behaviours that can harm or show a blatant disregard for the well-being and rights of others, manifesting in a range of ways including; aggression, defiance, hostility, impulsivity, and deceitfulness (Calkins & Keane, 2009; Cilulla et al., 2020). The aetiology of antisocial behaviour ASB is multifaceted and involves a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors risk, resource and protective factors (Otto et al., 2021). The developmental trajectory of ASB moulded as result of the interplay of these components[grammar?].
Understanding childhood development is crucial to comprehending the origins of ASB, as this period lays the foundation for emotional regulation, social skills, and moral understanding. Disruptions to a child social, emotional and cognitive development through critical periods, such as infancy, toddlerhood, childhood and adolescence, provide foundations for developmental cascade of ASB that is likely to persist in adulthood.
ASB presentation in childhood are associated with cognitive impairments as well as adverse consequences and health outcomes in adulthood such as;[grammar?] low educational achievement, drug and alcohol dependency, criminality, psychological maladjustment and mental health comorbidity such as depression and anxiety (Stickle & Frick, 2002; Brennan et al., 2017). In addition [grammar?] childhood ASB are associated with clinical diagnoses such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and, conduct disorder (CD), with childhood characterised by antisocial behaviour premorbid condition for antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) (e.g. see figure 2.) in adulthood (Otto et al., 2021).

## Familial risk factors

Familial risk factors associated commonly associated with the developmental trajectory of ASB in children include;[grammar?] family conflict, coercive or hostile parenting, inconsistent discipline, unhealthy family functioning, family climate, abuse and neglect, and separation from biological parents (Otto et al., 2021).

### Coercive parent-child interactions

Research has emphasised the influence of coercive parent-child interactions on the developmental trajectory of ASB (Johnson et al. 2017) . Coercion theory posits that coercive parent-child interactions, characterised by harsh, inconsistent, and punitive parenting practices create a cycle of escalating conflict in which children learn maladaptive behaviours through negative reinforcement (Granic & Patterson, 2006). These coercive cycles begin when a child's misbehaviour elicits a punitive response from the parent, leading to increased hostility and further maladaptive behaviours from the child.
In the context of coercive parent-child interaction, negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is strengthened because it allows the child to avoid or escape an unpleasant situation. For example, if a child is given a harsh demand to complete a chore and responds by yelling or becoming aggressive, the parent might back off or reduce the demand to avoid further conflict (eg., see figure 3). In this scenario, the child’s disruptive behaviour (i.e the yelling or aggression) is reinforced as it successfully terminates the unpleasant experience (the task or the parent’s demand). From this negative reinforcement, a positive feedback loop is produced where the child learns that aggression, noncompliance, or disruptive behaviour can be an effective strategy for gaining control over their environment or negating negative affect, thus contributing to escalating externalising behaviours over time.[factual?]
The parent and child are mutually shaped to engage in aversive behaviour through a combination of operant and classical conditioning, coercive interactions involving the interplay between;[grammar?] the child’s behaviours, parental response type and, parental modelled behaviour (see Table 1) (Lunkenheimer et al., 2016). In this way, coercion theory aligns with social learning theory, which holds that children acquire behaviours not only through direct reinforcement but also by observing and modelling the behaviour of others, particularly caregivers (Bandura, 1977). In the context of coercive parent-child interactions, when a parent models the use of aggression, withdrawal, or threats in response to challenging behaviour, may result in the child replicating such in their own social interactions, including with their caregiver[grammar?].
Table 1. Parent response type, definition and associated impact[factual?]
| Parent Response Type | Definition | Impact |
| Punitive Response | Harsh punishments such as yelling, physical discipline | Escalates aggression as negative attention reinforces that child's behaviour |
| Inconsistent Discipline | Unpredictable enforcement of rules and consequences | Leads to confusion and encourages tha child to test boundaries. |
| Passive Response | Ignoring the child's behaviour, giving in to demands, or failing to set clear boundaries | Reinforces negative behaviour by allowing the child to achieve their desired outcome |
| Positive Reinforcement and Support Responses | Rewarding desirable behaviour, consistent and nurturing discipline | Helps children understand acceptable behaviour, creates a secure environment |

#### Toddlerhood and early childhood

During toddlerhood (ages 1 to 2) children engage in autonomy-seeking behaviours, such as noncompliance and resistance to parental authority, which are typical and adaptive components of their developmental process of asserting independence (Ponzetti et al., 2023; Housman, 2017). If coercive parent-child interactions dominate in this period, children may learn that these behaviours are functional and effective strategies for achieving desired outcomes becoming ingrained overtime (Granic & Patterson, 2006).

#### Early childhood

Early childhood (ages 3 to 5) is a critical period for the development of self-regulation, social and emotional competency, and the emergence of sociomoral reasoning, as children continue to test boundaries and explore their autonomy in an expanding social world (Housman, 2017). If the coercive patterns persist, the child's developmental trajectory can take a maladaptive turn as they may fail to develop adaptive coping skills and instead develop ASB patterns. Instead of learning emotion regulation or prosocial problem-solving strategies, they may increasingly rely on aggressive or noncompliant tactics to navigate interpersonal challenges, undermining the child’s capacity for prosocial engagement and peer relationships, and increasing the likelihood rejection by prosocial peer rejection (e.g. see figure 4) (Granic, & Patterson, 2006; Smith et al., 2014).

#### Middle Childhood and adolescence

The effects of coercive parenting on the developmental trajectory of ASB become particularly evident as children progress through middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) and adolescence (ages 12 to 18). By this time, behavioural patterns established in early childhood may become more pronounced and generalised across different contexts, with the presentation of persistent externalising behaviours, such as chronic noncompliance, aggression toward peers, emotional dysregulation and difficulties with authority figures (Stievenart et al., 2019). These behaviours reflect the maladaptive coping mechanisms that were reinforced during formative years that have now persisted and compounded in response to new social challenges. The effects of this developmental cascade are well documented with longitudinal data correlating childhood ASB with serious adolescent delinquent behaviours and aggression, with coercive interactions identified as mechanism by ASB emerges and stabilises over time (Dishion et al, 2010; Granic & Patterson, 2006)[grammar?].

### Parental emotion socialisation behaviour (EBMs)

The developmental trajectory of ASB in children and adolescence is significantly influenced by parental emotion socialisation behaviours. There are four core mechanisms (categorised as active/directed or passive/undirected, and characterised as supportive or unsupportive) by which parents influence the emotional development of their children;[grammar?] reactions to emotional displays, discussion of emotions, emotion coaching, and emotional expressiveness (Johnson et al, 2021).
Parental emotion socialisation behaviour[grammar?] that are characterised as active and unsupportive include;[grammar?] hostile, dismissive or critical reactions to child displays of emotion, avoidance of discussions on emotions, and emotion coaching informed by maladaptive parent emotion related beliefs (see table 2.) These mechanisms are associated with maladaptive emotional development in children, including difficulties in identifying, understand, interpreting and regulating emotions, increasing the likelihood of externalising behaviours and difficulties in navigating social cues and situations (Zhang et al., 2020; Spinrad et al., 2021).
A meta-analysis by Johnson et al. (2017) identified the passive mechanism of emotional expressiveness and its influence on child emotional development to be more ambiguous. An unsupportive characterisation of this mechanism may look like modelling of excessive, or inappropriate emotional responses (e.g., frequent anger or emotional withdrawal) which may create confusion for children, hindering their ability to process and regulate emotions, and an [grammar?] increasing the likelihood of externalising behaviours in other social context (see here for further explanation of each mechanism).
Table 2. Parent related beliefs, impact and potential behavioural outcome[factual?]
| Parents emotion-related Belief | Impact on child's emotion processing and regulation | Potential behavioural outcomes |
| Emotions should be suppressed or controlled | Discouraging emotional expression = emotion suppression, impairing emotional processing and regulation. | increased internalising problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalising behaviours (e.g., aggression, defiance). |
| Emotions are inherently negative or dangerous | Encouraging unrestricted emotional expression without regulation = emotion dysregulation and impulsivity. | Emotion suppression, dysregulation, and difficulty managing emotions, leading to antisocial behaviours. |
| Emotions are controllable through rationality | Encouraging unrestricted emotional expression without regulation = emotion dysregulation and impulsivity. | Impaired emotional intelligence, difficulties in developing adaptive coping strategies, and challenges in emotional expression. |

### Family climate

Family climate refers to the overall atmosphere within a family, [grammar?] when this climate is characterised with serious and persistent conflict, poor communication, lack of support, and emotional distress there is a high likelihood of ASB (Otto et al. 2021). Family climate is associated with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), which refer to a broad spectrum of harmful exposures and conditions experienced by children, of which [grammar?] are often recurrent and chronic (e.g see figure 5) (Kalmakis, 2013). ACEs can induce a state of toxic stress in children which has been shown to disrupt children’s brain structure and development, particularly during critical periods of growth (Teicjer & Samson, 2016). Consequently altering emotional regulation, psychological resilience and overall cognitive functioning (Morgan et al., 2021)[grammar?].
* Tommy's story
* Remember Tommy? Tommy is now just six years of age.
* In Tommy's family he has his mother and father. His family climate is characterised as highly volatile with poor communication and low cohesion. From infancy through to adolescence Tommy is continually exposed to family violence perpetrated by his father, towards his mother. He experiences physical abuse in early childhood and emotional neglect.
* Coercive parent-child interactions dominate throughout his early life and his attachment with his mother is described as insecure. His fathers[grammar?] parental emotion socialisation behaviours are characterised as unsupportive, and believes that emotions should be suppressed.
* As he ages, Tommy struggles with emotional regulation and impulse control. In school Tommy struggles to follow directions and his aggression towards classmates leaves him with few close friends.
Quiz

## Social risk factors

Social risk factors in the form of arrested sociomoral development, reactive aggression and, positive [grammar?]emotional association to antisocial acts with peers are further evidenced to motivate ASB in childhood[improve clarity].

### Sociomoral development

Childhood is of critical importance for [grammar?] in the development of social skills including sociomoral; emotions, reasoning, and behaviours. Social competence, including adequate sociomoral capabilities, is critical for creating and maintaining relationships and adopting prosocial behaviours (Morasse et al., 2022). Inadequate sociomoral development hence is associated with significant challenges in social interactions and increased ASB (Eisenberg et al., 2015)
Sociomoral development encompasses the gradual progression of children's understanding of moral and social issues, enabling them to make moral judgments (Morasse et al., 2022). This developmental process occurs over time and illustrates how children evolve from egocentric perspectives to more complex reasoning that incorporates principles of justice, rights, and social norms (Dahl & Killen, 2018). At age six or seven children are commonly able to attribute complex emotions, such as guilt or shame, to moral transgressors which demonstrates a capability to understand sociomoral events, indicating a capacity to;[grammar?] make moral judgments, develop empathy and perspective-taking skills, anticipate consequences (Malti & Krettenauer, 2013). Prior to this capacity children grapple with the complexity of moral reasoning, for example, at four or five years old children can cognitively understand acts of victimisation as wrong however they do not consistently attribute negative emotions following moral transgressions, instead they tend to report that transgressors will experience positive emotion because they have satisfied their own interests (Moore et al, 2024).

### Aggression

* Define reactive aggression through General Aggression Model (GAM)(e.g. see figure 6).
* Identify hostile attribution bias as key cognitive factor underpinning reactive aggression.
* Relationship mutually reinforcing i.e hostile attribution bias affects cognitive appraisals, threat perception, triggering emotional arousal, reactive aggression. Aggressive response often then receiving negative feedback from environment i.e rejection or retaliation, bias reinforced.
* Positive emotions linked to reactive aggression maintenance also, i.e some people experience satisfaction or empowerment, rewarded for ASB, undermining prosocial behaviour (Moore et al., 2024)

### The role of positive emotions

* Peer influence on ASB heightened during adolescence, role of positive emotions in reinforcing ASB.
* Explain the Dishion deviancy training model i.e ASB in children learned and reinforced through peer interactions that provide positive reinforcement. Includes, laughter and humour, attention and increased social status (Dishion et al., 2010). Maintenance of self esteem and increased social status.
* Self efficacy: protective factor in resisting peer pressure, related to decrease in ASB
* Additionally, Moore et al., (2024) positive emotion in planning, participating in, and/or discussing antisocial acts with peers.
Quiz
* Tommy's story
* As a child Tommy was rejected by his prosocial peers. He struggled with understanding the perspective of others.
* As an adolescent Tommy associates with antisocial peers, they relate and enjoy engage in high risk, thrill seeking behaviours often at the cost of others. He falls behind academically. Tommy seems to perceive threat in more places that most others and is quick to become reactively aggressive. Tommy has been arrested several times now for property damage and assault.

## Trait risk factors

At a salient risk of severe and persistent antisocial behaviour is a subgroup of children presenting with Callous and unemotional traits (CU) and/or Conduct disorder (CD).

### Callous and unemotional traits

CU traits in children refer to a specific set of characteristics marked by reduced empathy, reduced guilt, callousness, shallow emotions and uncaring behaviour (Blair et al., 2014). CU trait onset and development attributed to attributed to a combination of factors, though dominate emphasis support's strong heritability and parenting influence (Frick et al, 2014; Waller et al., 2013). Early expression of CU behaviours can be observed in early childhood, when children begin to demonstrate patterns of emotional engagement and empathy, as such, indicators may include;[grammar?] low emotional sensitivity, impaired affective empathy, abnormalities in the processing of punishment cures, errors in emotional recognition, and reduced caring about others or behavioural consequences (Waller & Hyde, 2017).
Children with CU traits are often less responsive to traditional disciplinary approaches as they are less sensitive to punishment or fear based interventions (Carrol et al., 2017). Early intervention and multidisciplinary approaches to treatment are most effective, research Parent-child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) with an emotion focus component, emotion recognition training and reward behavioural interventions (rewarding prosocial behaviour) (Pisano et al., 2017; Frick et al., 2014).

### Conduct disorder

The aetiology of CD is complex resulting from convergence of physiological, psychological and environmental factors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health (DSM-5) (2013), adds a specifier, 'with limited prosocial emotions', referring to children with CU trait presentation. This specifier identifies a specific subgroup of children with both CU and CD, such are associated with more adverse adolescence outcomes and increased risk of psychopathy in adulthood (Pisano et al., 2017). When CD is accompanied by CU traits, it predicts a high risk of chronic antisocial behaviours overtime, with estimates suggesting 25% of girls and 40% of boys with a CD diagnosis will likely meet the criteria of APSD in adulthood (Black, 2015).
* Tommy's story
* As a child Tommy displayed chronic and persistent antisocial behaviours and a disregard for others. As an adult his partners have describe him as emotionally shallow, unempathetic and callous.
* Tommy wonders he was born this way or if it was how he was raised?
* As an adult Tommy has been diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD).
Quiz

## Conclusion

The developmental trajectory of ASB is influenced by the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors risk, resource and protective factors. Familial risk factors;[grammar?] coercive parent-child interactions, unsupportive parental emotion socialisation behaviours, and family climate motivate ASB in early childhood, which without intervention, produce developmental cascade effects in later life[grammar?]. Social risk factors;[grammar?] arrested sociomoral development, reactive aggression and, positive emotional association to antisocial acts through antisocial peers, further motivating ASB. Further, if underpinned by callous and unemotional trait disposition, children are at risk for chronic ASB across the lifespan.
In recognising that these risk factors intersect with early development of emotional, social and cognitive development in childhood, early intervention targeting the fostering of resource and protective factors is necessary to mitigate early risk factors. Promotion of adaptive development in early childhood, motivating children toward prosocial (as opposed to antisocial) behaviours[grammar?].