# Chapter 5: Cosmic Expansion and the Growth of Celestial Bodies
## Introduction

The Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) suggests that celestial bodies do not remain static but gain mass-energy over time due to an external influx. This process is not only responsible for planetary growth but may also play a role in the cosmic expansion of the universe.
This chapter explores:
* How CIT explains planetary growth through mass-energy influx.
* The connection between cosmic expansion and the energy influx.
* Geophysical evidence from Earth’s tectonic activity.
* How these principles apply to stars and galaxies.

## 5.1 Planetary Growth Through Mass-Energy Influx

Traditional planetary science assumes that planets formed early in the Solar System’s history and have remained the same size. However, CIT suggests that:
* Planets continue to grow by absorbing external energy.
* This process happens over geological timescales.
* The mass increase follows a predictable rate based on the influx.
At the center of the diagram is the origin of the Earth, approximately 4.5 billion years ago. The concentric circles represent different geological periods, with time progressing outward. The Cambrian Period began 542 million years ago, marking a significant transition in Earth's history. To accurately reflect the passage of time, the spacing between circles decreases outward, as geological periods become progressively shorter. The inner circles represent vast time spans of hundreds of millions to billions of years, whereas the outer circles correspond to much shorter periods, sometimes just a few million years. The Holocene, the most recent epoch, covers only the last 10,000 years, highlighting how geological time has been subdivided into increasingly finer intervals. To maintain proportionality, the spacing of the circles should visually reflect the actual duration of each period, with smaller increments for more recent epochs.
A key relation in CIT is:
${\frac {dM}{dt}}=\Phi _{\text{influx}}$
where:
* ${\frac {dM}{dt}}$ is the rate of mass increase.
* $\Phi _{\text{influx}}$ is the energy influx per unit time.
This process explains:
* The Earth's expanding ocean floors.
* Planetary differentiation and core heating.
* Volcanism and tectonic activity.

## 5.2 The Link Between Cosmic Expansion and CIT

In modern cosmology, the expansion of the universe is attributed to dark energy. CIT proposes an alternative explanation:
* The universe expands because mass-energy influx affects spacetime structure.
* Galaxies and clusters are continuously growing, not just moving apart.
* The observed redshift may have an additional component related to energy influx interactions.
This suggests that the Hubble constant (H₀) may not be a simple function of velocity but also an effect of mass increase over time.

## 5.3 Geophysical Evidence: Plate Tectonics and Planetary Evolution

Earth provides direct evidence of planetary growth, including:
* Expanding ocean floors, where new crust is continuously formed.
* Volcanism and mantle convection, which could be fueled by external energy influx.
* Gravitational anomalies, indicating mass redistribution over time.
These observations suggest that Earth is not a static system but influenced by an ongoing energy process.
Similar processes could be occurring on:
* Mars (evidence of past volcanism).
* Jupiter’s moons (active tectonics on Europa and Io).
* Exoplanets with unusual density variations.
The study of planetary evolution is deeply connected to geophysical processes that shape celestial bodies over time. Traditional Plate Tectonics, which describes the movement of Earth's lithosphere through mantle convection, has been the dominant model for explaining the formation and evolution of continents, ocean basins, and geological structures. However, recent discoveries and alternative theories suggest that planetary expansion and multi-directional crustal growth may also play a role in shaping planetary bodies.

### Exoplanets with Unusual Density Variations

Observations of exoplanets have revealed significant density variations that challenge existing models of planetary formation. Some exoplanets exhibit unexpectedly low densities, while others show densities higher than predicted by standard planetary formation models. These anomalies suggest that planetary bodies may experience gradual expansion due to internal and external processes, such as material accretion, thermal expansion, or cosmic influx * NASA Exoplanet Archive, 2023.

### 5.3.1. Seafloor Spreading – A Step Toward Understanding Multi-Directional Crustal Growth
#### 5.3.1.1. Introduction: From Seafloor Spreading to Multi-Directional Growth

Seafloor spreading is a well-established geological process that explains the creation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges. First mapped by Marie Tharp in the mid-20th century, these ridges were found to be continuous chains of underwater mountains, forming divergent plate boundaries where molten material rises from the mantle, creating new crust * Heezen & Tharp, "Physiographic Diagram of the World’s Ocean Floor," 1977..
This discovery was a major breakthrough, leading to the widespread acceptance of Plate Tectonics. However, with modern high-resolution ocean mapping, new observations challenge the simplicity of this model.
Instead of seafloor spreading occurring only along central ridges, recent satellite and sonar data suggest that multi-directional seafloor spreading (MDSS) may be occurring at a larger scale. This raises new questions:
Are fracture zones just inactive scars of past motion, or are they also active sites of expansion?
Does the Earth’s crust expand in multiple directions, rather than just ridge-centered growth?
Could this new evidence reopen the discussion on Expansion Tectonics, a theory dismissed decades ago?

#### 5.3.1.2. Seafloor Spreading: The Traditional Model

The current geological consensus describes seafloor spreading as follows:
New oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges (e.g., the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise).
Plates move apart, creating space for magma upwelling, which solidifies into new crust.
As plates diverge, old crust is subducted at trenches, ensuring that Earth's surface area remains constant * U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), "The Dynamic Earth," 2012.
This model explains continental drift, the formation of ocean basins, and the motion of tectonic plates over millions of years. However, it assumes a static Earth radius and a complete recycling of crust through subduction.

#### 5.3.1.3. The Emerging View: Multi-Directional Seafloor Spreading (MDSS)

Recent data suggests that seafloor spreading may not be limited to linear ridge expansion. Instead, there is evidence of multi-directional crustal growth:
Fracture zones, previously considered inactive, show signs of extensional activity.
Seafloor ridges and faults sometimes exhibit perpendicular expansion, rather than just spreading along the main ridge.
Regions of unexpected crustal growth appear in mid-plate locations, not just at plate boundaries * NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, "Global Marine Geophysics Database," 2021..
These observations indicate that seafloor spreading may be a more isotropic (multi-directional) process, rather than strictly ridge-centered. If true, this challenges the assumption that all new crust formation is balanced by subduction.

#### 5.3.1.4. MDSS and Expansion Tectonics: Revisiting an Old Idea

During the mid-20th century, Expansion Tectonics proposed that Earth's radius has been increasing over time, causing continents to drift apart. This theory was rejected due to:
A lack of observational evidence at the time.
The dominance of Plate Tectonics, which explained continental drift with subduction rather than expansion.
However, modern ocean floor mapping and planetary geology provide new evidence that was unavailable when Expansion Tectonics was dismissed:
Marie Tharp’s original maps already hinted at multi-directional rift structures, but were interpreted under Plate Tectonics.
New bathymetric imaging reveals rifting patterns that do not fully align with classical subduction-spreading balance.
Other planetary bodies (like Europa and Enceladus) show evidence of expanding crust, suggesting that planetary surfaces may change over time in ways not fully explained by current models * NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, "Global Marine Geophysics Database," 2021..
If MDSS represents an active process, it raises a fundamental question: Is Earth still growing? If so, could this support alternative models like Expansion Tectonics or even the Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT), which suggests an external influx of mass and energy affecting planetary structure?

#### 5.3.1.5. Possible Evidence of MDSS on Continents

While seafloor spreading has been the primary focus of tectonic research, there are signs that multi-directional expansion might also occur in continental crust. Examples include:
The African Rift System: The East African Rift is actively diverging, but satellite imagery suggests secondary extensional features perpendicular to the main rift.
The Midcontinent Rift (North America): A massive rift system, once considered inactive, now shows signs of complex past and present movement.
Australia and South America: Structural patterns in satellite imaging suggest possible multi-directional stress patterns in continental crust * Geological Survey of Canada, "Crustal Deformation in Ancient Rift Systems," 2020..

#### 5.3.1.6. Conclusion and Open Questions

MDSS introduces new possibilities for understanding planetary crustal dynamics. If seafloor spreading is truly multi-directional:
Does this challenge the assumption that subduction fully balances crust formation?
Could this provide new evidence for planetary expansion, reopening the discussion on Expansion Tectonics?
How does MDSS fit within the Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)? Could it be linked to external mass influx contributing to planetary growth?
While mainstream geology continues to support Plate Tectonics, these new observations suggest that Earth's evolution may be more complex than previously thought. Further research, using high-resolution ocean mapping, satellite geodesy, and planetary comparisons, may help resolve these questions.