OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Physics for beginners/16-quantum mechanics

* 1s
* 2s
* 2p
* 3s
* 3p
* 4p
Shown above are the real part of the Schrödinger wave functions for hydrogen. The frequency of oscillations are not accurate in that the higher energy states will oscillate at a higher frequency.

#### Announcements

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## CONTENTS

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# Physics for beginners/08-light

Each subpage is devoted to a chapter of Matthew Raspanti's original work. Click the image of the pdf file shown to the right to read the chapter.
* This is how white light gets refracted by a prism.
* Red light diffracted by two slits (top) and by five slits (bottom)
* Diffraction by a small circular hole
* Computer simulation of diffraction by a rectangle. Remarkably, the height of the rectanglular hole is greater than its width.

#### Announcements

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## CONTENTS

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# Physics for beginners/09-electromagnetism

* The electric field lines caused by one positive charge in the center surrounded by three metal shapes. Note the concentration of electric field lines at a corner of the rectangle.
* The magnetic field lines circling a wire loop that carries an electronic current.
* The magnetic field lines inside and outside a magnet

#### Announcements

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## CONTENTS

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# Physics for beginners/10-a puzzling inconsistency

Study this diagram carefully and you will see why Galileo and others assumed that observed velocitys add: The 40km/hr (kilometers/hour) train is shown at two different times, at 1PM to the left, and 40km away at 2PM when it is near a different clock (no timezones have been crossed!).
The man runs on top of the train at 10km/hr. It seems reasonable to infer that the man has moved 50km in one hour (i.e., 50km/hr). This true only to the extent that the train is moving much slower than the speed of light (light moves about a million ($10^{6}$) times faster than sound.
Mathematically, this model for relative motion is the equation:
    $\underbrace {{\vec {v}}_{M\mid E}} _{\text{50 km/h}}=\underbrace {{\vec {v}}_{M\mid T}} _{\text{10 km/h}}+\underbrace {{\vec {v}}_{T\mid E}} _{\text{40 km/h}},$
where:
    ${\vec {v}}_{M\mid E}$ is the velocity of the Man relative to Earth,
    ${\vec {v}}_{M\mid T}$ is the velocity of the Man relative to the Train,
    ${\vec {v}}_{T\mid E}$ is the velocity of the Train relative to Earth.

#### Announcements

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## CONTENTS

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# Physics for beginners/13-general relativity
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# Physics for beginners/14-inside the atom

Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903 for discovery of the radioactive elements polonium and radium. Even today, the Curies provide inspiration for popular culture and textbook discussions of science. This photograph was circulated during the 1960s as publicity for an educational television program about the discovery of radium.

#### Announcements

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## CONTENTS

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# Primitive function/Shifted argument/Exercise

Let $f\colon \mathbb {R} \rightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\mapsto f(x)$, be a continuous function, and let $F(x)$ be a primitive function for $f(x)$. Show that $F(x-a)$ is a primitive function for $f(x-a)$.
# Primitive function/Shifted value/Exercise

Let $f\colon \mathbb {R} \rightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\mapsto f(x)$, be a continuous function and let $F(x)$ be a primitive function for $f(x)$. Show that $F(x)+cx$ is a primitive function for $f(x)+c$.
# Primitive function/Square root of x^2-1/Example

We determine a primitive function for ${\sqrt {x^{2}-1}}$, using the hyperbolic functions $\sinh t$ and $\cosh t$, for which the relation $\cosh ^{2}t-\sinh ^{2}t=1$ holds. The substitution
    $x=\cosh t{\text{ with }}dx=\sinh tdt$
yields
    $\int _{a}^{b}{\sqrt {x^{2}-1}}\,dx=\int _{\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,a\,}^{\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,b\,}{\sqrt {\cosh ^{2}t-1}}\cdot \sinh t\,dt=\int _{\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,a\,}^{\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,b\,}\sinh ^{2}t\,dt\,.$
A primitive function of the hyperbolic sine squared follows from
    $\sinh ^{2}t={\left({\frac {1}{2}}{\left(e^{t}-e^{-t}\right)}\right)}^{2}={\frac {1}{4}}{\left(e^{2t}+e^{-2t}-2\right)}\,.$
Therefore,
    $\int _^\sinh ^{2}u\,dt={\frac {1}{4}}{\left({\frac {1}{2}}e^{2u}-{\frac {1}{2}}e^{-2u}-2u\right)}={\frac {1}{4}}\sinh 2u-{\frac {1}{2}}u\,,$
and hence
    $\int _^{\sqrt {x^{2}-1}}\,dx={\frac {1}{4}}\sinh(2\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,)-{\frac {1}{2}}\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\,.$
Due to the addition theorem for hyperbolic sine, we have $\sinh 2u=2\sinh u\cosh u$, and therefore this primitive function can also be written as
    ${\begin{aligned}{\frac {1}{2}}{\left(\sinh {\left(\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}\cosh {\left(\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}-\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}&={\frac {1}{2}}{\left({\sqrt {\cosh {\left(\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}^{2}-1}}\cdot x-\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}\\&={\frac {1}{2}}{\left({\sqrt {x^{2}-1}}\cdot x-\,\operatorname {arcosh} \,x\,\right)}.\end{aligned}}$
# Primitive function/e^x x^2+1 over (x+1)^2/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative (primitive function) of the function
    $e^{x}\cdot {\frac {x^{2}+1}{(x+1)^{2}}}.$
# Primitive function/e to the power sqrt(x)/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative (primitive function) of the function
    $e^{\sqrt {x}}.$
# Primitive function/Rational function/3x-5 over (x^2+2x+7)^2/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative (primitive function) of the function
    ${\frac {3x-5}{(x^{2}+2x+7)^{2}}}.$
# Primitive function/f (at^2+bt+c) with primitive functions/Exercise

Let $I$ be a real interval and let
    $f\colon I\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
be a continuous function with antiderivative $F$. Let $G$ be an antiderivative of $F$ and $H$ an antiderivative of $G$. Let $a,b,c\in \mathbb {R}$. Determine an antiderivative of the function
    ${\left(at^{2}+bt+c\right)}\cdot f(t).$
# Primitive function/Rational function/7x^6-18x^5+8x^3-9x^2+2 over x^7-3x^6+2x^4-3x^3+2x-5/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative (primitive function) of the function
    ${\frac {7x^{6}-18x^{5}+8x^{3}-9x^{2}+2}{x^{7}-3x^{6}+2x^{4}-3x^{3}+2x-5}}.$
# Primitive function/Roots/Via primitive function of inverse mapping/Exercise

Let $n\in \mathbb {N} _{+}$. Determine an antiderivative of the function
    $\mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} _{+},x\longmapsto x^{1/n},$
using the antiderivative of $x^{n}$ and the theorem about integration of inverse function.
# QB/AstroPlanetaryScience

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# QB/AstroMars

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# QB/AstroLunarphasesAdvancedB

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# QB/AstroMercury

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# QB/AstroPluto and planetary mass

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# QB/AstroKepler

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# QB/AstroMirandaTitan

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# QB/AstroPtolCopTycho

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# QB/AstroLunarphasesSimple

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# Python Concepts/Quizzes

Python quiz

## Test quiz

To familiarize yourself with the quiz interface try the following short quiz. Note your score gets listed right after the submit button.

## Individual quizes

* Introduction
* Installation
* Running
* Basic data types
* Functions & classes
* NumPy & Co.
# Python Concepts/Quizzes/Introduction

Python quiz — Introduction: It is sometimes said that Python is a very readable language. So if you have some previous experience with a programming language you might be able to guess and answer the following questions even though you haven't learnt Python. The Python prompt with the command from an interactive Python session is indicated with ">>>".
# Python Concepts/Quizzes/Installation

Python quiz — installation: There are multiple programs that allow you to run a Python program.
# Python Concepts/Quizzes/Running

Python quiz — running
# Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Optimism/measuring optimism

Measuring Optimism
Dispositional optimism is often assessed using self-report questionnaires such as the revised version of the Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) and the Optimism & Pessimism Scale (Dember et al., 1989; as cited by Peterson, 2000). The LOT-R is designed to assess whether respondents generally expect outcomes in their lives to be positive or negative (Peterson, 2000). Click here and take the LOT-R yourself!. The Optimism & Pessimism Scale is similar, yet provides independent scores for optimism and pessimism under the view that they are not two traits constituting the two ends of the same spectrum, but are two independent constructs which are moderately to strongly related (Forgeard & Seligman, 2012). As we will see, the debate of whether pessimism and optimism are bi-polar opposites is still an important discussion in the literature.
Explanatory style is also typically measured with self-report questionnaires. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) is the most commonly used, and presents respondents with hypothetical events and asks them to provide "the one major cause" of each event if it were to happen to them. The respondents then rate each cause along the dimensions of internality, stability, and globality. The ratings are then combined, with bad-event ratings and good-event ratings kept independent (Peterson, 2000). Another common procedure called the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE) uses naturally occurring written or spoken material. Researchers identify explanations for bad events, "extract" them from the material, and present them to judges who rate them along the scales of the ASQ (Peterson, 2000). An advantage of this technique is that any spoken or written material can be used, so that material gathered early in long-term studies can be compared to individuals long-term outcomes (Peterson, 2000).
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# Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Optimism/Potential benefits of unrealistic optimism

The benefits of unrealistic optimism for success
Research indicates that unrealistic optimism may actually be beneficial when used in the service of higher efforts and standards (Peterson, 2000). According to Zhang and Fishbach (2010), some individuals engage in counteractive optimism, where they purposely make unrealistically optimistic predictions when anticipating obstacles to their goals. A counteractive-optimist will anticipate obstacles that could hinder the completion of an important task, and reason that, having identified these obstacles, they will attain their goal better or faster. Once they have identified these potential obstacles, they will impose a more challenging deadline on themselves, and expect better performance from themselves. In this way, unrealistic optimism can help people to strive for higher standards and maintain adequate levels of motivation (Zhang & Fishbach, 2010). An experimental study by Zhang & Fishbach (2010) supports the theory of counteractive optimism. Participants were required to complete anagram tasks, half of whom were asked to make predictions about their performance. Of these participants, half were also told that the task would be difficult (high-obstacle condition) and half were told it would be easy (low-obstacle condition). It was found that participants who anticipated the task to be difficult predicted that they would perform better compared to their peers, which in turn, increased their task persistence.
References: Zhang, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2010). Counteracting obstacles with optimistic predictions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(1), 16–31.
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# Radiation

Def. a polar chargomagnetism separating or dividing from another is called a ray.
Def. the "shooting forth of anything from a point or surface, like the diverging rays of light; as, the radiation of heat" is called radiation.
Here is a theoretical definition:
Def. "an action or process of throwing or sending out (splitting) a ray in a line, beam, or stream of small cross section" is called radiation.

## Chargomgnetism

Electronorthism, protosouthism, protonorthism or electrosouthism result. Interference both constructive and destructive can occur increasing or reducing the number of polar chargomagnetism. Interaction can also produce a separation speed or speed of division. Interaction of polar chargomagnetism where the charge portion most closely interacts with the charge portion produces a chargon effect. Interaction of polar chargomagnetism where the magnetism portion most closely interacts with the magnetism portion produces a magneton effect. Interaction of polar chargomagnetism where the magnetism portion most closely interacts with the chargism portion produces a spinon effect.

## Physics

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium, which includes:
* electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ)
* particle radiation, such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), proton radiation and neutron radiation (particles of non-zero rest energy)
* acoustics or acoustic radiation, such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves (dependent on a physical transmission medium)
* gravitational radiation, that takes the form of gravitational waves, or ripples in the curvature of spacetime
# R to R^3/(2,3,4) and (5,-2,-1)/Affine-linear mapping/Exercise

Determine the affine-linear map
    $\alpha \colon \mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{3}$
such that $\alpha (0)=(2,3,4)$ and $\alpha (1)=(5,-2,-1)$.
# Race (classification of human beings)

This psychology resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
# Radiation/Airborne/Quiz

Airborne astronomy is a lecture of the radiation astronomy department that may be included in courses like principles of radiation astronomy.
You are free to take this quiz at any time.
Once you’ve read and studied the lecture itself, the links contained within the article/lecture and listed under See also, External links, you should have adequate background to to get 100 %.
Enjoy learning by doing!

## Hypotheses

* Airborne astronomy from sufficient altitude should be able to almost replace sounding rockets.