# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Negativity bias

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Scenario
* Figure 1. An individual experiencing negativity bias will fixate on and be more affected by negative stimuli than positive or neutral stimuli.
* You have just finished studying a challenging chapter of a book. As you close the pages, you think to yourself, "this book is really confusing". Although you enjoyed and understood previous chapters, they are overshadowed as your mind fixates on this one challenging section. You decide to put the book away, concluding, "I can't do it".
Negativity bias is a psychological phenomenon and a form of cognitive bias. It explains the systematic tendencies to focus on and be more impacted by negative stimuli than positive or neutral stimuli of similar magnitudes (see Figure 1). It can manifest in several ways including negative potency, steeper negative gradients, negativity dominance, negative differentiation, and contagion[explain terms]. Its formation is thought to have evolutionary roots and research has shown the importance of certain brain regions and cognitive processes. This chapter is for all the pessimists and anyone who finds their mind drifting to negativity at times. It explains why negativity bias occurs, its many impacts on behaviour, mental well-being, and relationships, and how it can be overcome by working towards positivity.
* Case study: River
* River is an Environmental Science student who recently completed an important exam. He felt confident throughout most of the exam, answering questions thoroughly. However, he struggled with the last question about pollution, a topic he had not studied. River left the exam room feeling defeated despite his strong performance on the other questions. His mind is fixated on his poor answer, overshadowing his overall success. He now frequently checks the pending results page, expecting to see a failing grade.
* Focus questions:
* What is negativity bias?
* Why does negativity bias occur?
* What are the impacts of negativity bias?
* How can negativity bias be overcome?

## Introduction to negativity bias

[Provide more detail]

### Cognitive bias

Cognitive biases are systematic psychological tendencies that influence human cognition and behaviour by altering judgement, perception, and decision-making (Korteling et al., 2023).

### Negativity bias

Negativity bias is a form of cognitive bias. It is a systematic tendency where negative stimuli, including experiences, emotions, and information, have greater impact on psychological states and processes than positive or neutral stimuli (Rozin & Royzman, 2001).

## Components of negativity bias

Research has identified multiple factors in negativity bias: negative potency, steeper negative gradients, negativity dominance, negative differentiation, and in combination with other biases (Rozin & Royzman, 2001). When experiencing negativity bias, one or more of these components may be present.

### Negativity dominance

Negativity dominance explains how negative information dominates interpretation when stimuli are ambiguous (see Figure 2). Therefore, any positive or neutral stimuli present are overshadowed.[factual?]

### Negative differentiation

Negative differentiation involves negative stimuli being more complex compared to positive events. Consequently, they require greater cognitive resources to process and minimise their consequences. As these experiences are complex and processed in detail, they are more intense and memorable.[factual?]

### Negative potency

Negative potency refers to negative stimuli being perceived as more impactful and distinctive than positive or neutral stimuli of similar magnitudes.[factual?]

### Steeper negative gradients

Steeper negative gradients occur when emotional and physiological responses to negative stimuli become more intense as their perceived impact and proximity increase, compared to positive stimuli.[factual?]

### Interactions with biases

Negativity bias is often experienced in combination with other cognitive biases (Vaish et al., 2008). This includes attentional bias, which causes people to give more attention to negative stimuli compared to positive or neutral stimuli. Negativity bias can also be experienced in combination with memory bias, resulting in negative experiences leaving a stronger impression on memory (Baumeister et al., 2001). This leads to quicker and more vivid recall of these events. Additionally, individuals affected by negativity bias may experience loss aversion, a bias that describes the displeasure of losses and the preference for avoiding such losses. The impact of a loss is greater than a gain, even when they are of similar magnitudes (Nagaya, 2023).

## Causes of negativity bias

Research[factual?] has suggested potential evolutionary, cognitive, biological, and developmental explanations for negativity bias. Negativity bias may arise from innate survival mechanisms, cognitive processes, neurological structures, genetics, and environmental factors.

### Evolutionary adaptation

Evolutionary adaptation is theorised to play a crucial role in the development of negativity bias. It can be considered an innate survival mechanism, evolving from the need to be cautious of potentially threatening situations. People who showed greater sensitivity to negative stimuli were more likely to survive and reproduce (Baumeister et al., 2001). For instance, individuals who associated loud noises with potential threats were more likely to respond accordingly to avoid danger, thereby increasing their chances of survival.

### Cognitive

Cognitive causes of negativity bias are varied. One factor includes the frequency with which stimuli occur, specifically the low occurrence of negative stimuli and the repeated recall and processing of negative information. As positive stimuli occur more frequently, negative stimuli are more prominent when they do occur. Additionally, it has been suggested[factual?] that elaborative rehearsal plays a role. Specifically, people process negative information more frequently, deeply, and in greater detail (Rozin & Royzman, 2001). These factors lead to better encoding and recall of the memory. For example, if an individual typically has positive and neutral social experiences, a negative conversation will be more distinctive. This conversation may be thought about and analysed repeatedly. Consequently, when presented with opportunities for social interaction, the negative conversation is remembered. Another factor includes the higher demand on cognitive loads to process negative stimuli. It is theorised that they [who?] hold greater informational value and complexity, thereby requiring more attention, resources, and cognitive processing compared to positive stimuli (Baumeister et al., 2001). As the cognitive load increases, it leads to stronger recall and more persistent and detailed memories. Problem-solving may play a role in this, as negativity requires greater problem-solving, which involves the use of cognitive resources to deal with threats and minimise damage (Baumeister et al., 2001). For example, being licked by a dog requires little complex processing and problem-solving, while a dog that aggressively barks demands more attention and resources to deal with the associated physical and emotional responses. Additionally, it [what?] requires problem-solving to minimise the threat of an aggressive dog and any possible harm, such as being bitten. Mental health may also be a contributing factor. Conditions linked to negativity bias include depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and stress (Braund et al., 2019; Webb et al., 2023; Martin-Romero & Sanchez-Lopez, 2023; Carlisi & Robinson, 2018). This suggests that individuals with certain mental health conditions may be more vulnerable to negativity bias. An individual with anxiety may find themselves more focused on negative aspects compared to someone without this condition.

### Biological

Negativity bias has been linked to biological processes, including neurology and genetics. Neurological research highlights the role of brain structures in negativity bias. Notably, the amygdala is more active when responding to negative stimuli compared to other stimuli (Vaish et al., 2008). This is likely because the amygdala handles the processing of emotional stimuli and the detection and response to threats. Its responses to emotional information are typically rapid and intense, heightening the impact of negative stimuli. Specifically, it has been theorised that the amygdala interacts with the subcortical brain circuits to regulate negativity bias. The dorsal prefrontal–amygdala circuit promotes negativity bias, while ventral prefrontal–amygdala circuit inhibits it (Carlisi & Robinson, 2018). Additionally, it has been suggested that negativity bias occurs in early processing stages, specifically during evaluative categorisation (Ito et al., 1998). Positive, neutral, and negative stimuli have been evaluated using event-related potentials, findings showed that negative stimuli caused a stronger emotional processing response than other types, indicating that emotional processing of negative stimuli was intense. Genetics may also contribute to negativity bias. The 5-HTT-LPR gene [explain?] interacts with the serotonin transporter, which regulates serotonin levels[factual?]. Individuals with the short allele variant have lower serotonin levels and are more susceptible to negativity bias. In contrast this bias is less prominent in individuals with the long allele variant (Williams et al., 2009).

### Developmental

Negativity bias may have developmental and environmental ties. Research has shown that negativity bias is present in infants by 12 months of age (Vaish et al., 2008). Notably, early experiences likely play a significant role, as infants do not show signs of negativity bias within the first few months of life[factual?]. The range-frequency hypothesis suggests negativity bias emerges in infants as positive interactions become common, thereby becoming the neutral point (Vaish et al., 2008). The impact of negative interactions is heightened, therefore negative interactions stand out and demand greater attention and resources. Consider an infant who is regularly smiled at by their caregiver. These positive interactions are frequent, so the infant begins to view them as normal. Consequently, when the caregiver frowns at the infant, the negative interaction will stand out.
Review your knowledge
Which brain structure works with subcortical brain circuits to regulate negativity bias?
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Thalamus
Cerebellum :

## Impacts of negativity bias

Negativity bias alters how we think about ourselves, others, and the environment, leading to varied impacts. It can have both positive and negative effects on an individual's mental health, decision-making, relationships, and adaptation.

### Decision-making

Worrying about potential negative outcomes can hinder decision-making processes by making it difficult to decide promptly and confidently (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984). A strong focus on negative information can affect judgement, leading to decisions based on fear or pessimism rather than balanced reasoning (Baumeister et al., 2001). Additionally, negativity bias can result in poor strategic planning, as planning becomes overly conservative, leading to missed opportunities and limited growth (Lerner et al., 2004). Consider an individual deciding to go on vacation, they focus on potential problems such as bad weather and navigational issues, leading them to cancel a vacation that could have been enjoyable. However, negativity bias can also improve decision-making. It causes an individual to consider potential risks and negative outcomes, leading to cautious and deliberate decision-making (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984). Focusing on negativity can also motivate an individual to seek improvement and avoid repeating mistakes, thereby developing new skills and personal growth (Carver & Scheier, 1998). Negativity bias can also improve problem-solving, as being more attuned to negative information can lead to thorough analysis and effective critical thinking (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984). For instance, an individual who focuses on negligent drivers while on the road may choose to drive more cautiously and strictly adhere to road rules to avoid the risk of an accident.

### Mental health

Negativity bias impacts mental health in various ways. Ongoing reflection on negative experiences may create a cycle of worry and helplessness which impacts physical and mental health and well-being (Segerstrom and Miller, 2004). Specifically, this may lead to stress, anxiety and depression (See Figure 3). Negativity bias may also lead to lower self-esteem as being focused on flaws and failures rather than successes reinforces feelings of inadequacy, which can damage self-esteem and self-worth (Beck, 1976). Negativity bias can also stifle creativity and innovation, as an individual may be reluctant to try new ideas due to fear of failure or criticism (Baas et al., 2008). Consequently, motivation and morale are reduced. For example, a student with a negativity bias may doubt their intelligence, stress over assignments, be less motivated to study, and experience test anxiety. However, negativity bias may have a positive effect on mental health as it can increase resilience. Acknowledging negativity can provide valuable lessons and allow people to learn from past mistakes (Baumeister et al., 2001). Therefore, overcoming negative experiences can build stronger coping mechanisms and resilience, fostering personal growth and adaptability (Bonanno, 2004). For instance, a student who always focuses on negative feedback may recover more quickly from it than a student who does not.

### Interpersonal relationships

Negativity bias can have consequences for interpersonal relationships, including social withdrawal and isolation (Baumeister et al., 2001). People with a strong negativity bias may withdraw from social interactions due to fear of negative judgments, criticism, and rejection. Consider an individual who is criticised by a stranger and complimented by another, the negative comment overshadows the positive. Consequently, the individual fears further criticism and limits their communication with others. Negativity bias can also create emotional distance, making it difficult to build and maintain heathy relationships (Gottman & Levenson, 1992). Increased conflict may contribute to this as focusing on negative aspects can escalate minor disagreements into major conflicts. Focusing on the faults and negative behaviours of others can cause tension, conflict, lack of co-operation, and ruin trust within relationships (Gottman & Levenson, 1992). Additionally, positive behaviours and contributions might be overlooked or undervalued, resulting in feelings of being unappreciated (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). For example, if an individual focuses on their partner never giving them gifts while overlooking other thoughtful actions, it may lead to their partner feeling unappreciated and cause conflict within the relationship. However, negativity bias may also enhance relationships. Paying attention to negative feedback can improve interpersonal relationships by addressing and resolving conflicts. For example, if an individual notices their partner used a poor tone during a conversation and brings it up, it may lead the partner to apologise and foster better communication in the future.

### Adaptation

Negativity bias may enhance survival as caution protects against physical and emotional threats (Nesse, 2005). Specifically, negativity bias can lead to increased awareness and precaution, thereby reducing errors and accidents as people become more careful and prepared (Baumeister et al., 2001). For instance, when walking in the dark, an individual with a negativity bias may be more alert and walk directly to their car, reducing the risk of harm. However, negativity bias can lead to risk aversion, which is an exaggerated fear of harm and potential losses (Kahneman & Tversky, 1984).
Review your knowledge
What is NOT an impact of negativity bias on mental health?
Causes anxiety
Causes depression
Increases resilience
Increases motivation :

## Overcoming negativity bias

Negativity bias serves a useful purpose, but in excess it can become problematic. There are numerous methods which may be successful in combatting negativity bias, including interventions, mindfulness and positivity, and social support.

### Interventions

Interventions can be used to counterbalance negativity, reinforce positivity, and build psychological resilience. An effective treatment for negativity bias is cognitive-behavioural therapy as negative thinking patterns responsible for negativity bias are addressed and changed through therapy (Beck, 1976). Additionally, the use of cognitive reappraisal strategies and optimistic thinking may be beneficial in combatting negativity bias (Gross & John, 2003; Conversano, 2010). Consider an individual who has received mixed performance feedback from their boss, they acknowledge the positive comments and view the negative feedback as constructive, helping them to grow. Additionally, reflection and visualising positive outcomes, combined with planning for implementation, can be helpful as they improve emotional responses and reduce the impact of negative stimuli (Oettingen et al., 2001). For example, an individual preparing to give a presentation might visualise themselves speaking confidently and the process running smoothly.

### Mindfulness and positivity

Mindfulness practices, such as guided meditation and emotion regulation, can help people manage negativity bias by reducing negative thought patterns, the focus on these patterns, and their impact (Kiken & Shook, 2014). Specifically, gratitude journaling can be utilised as a method to reduce negativity bias by observing all aspects instead of focusing on negativity (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). For example, an individual journalling their experiences about a class throughout the semester, with a focus on positivity, may look at all aspects when receiving mixed feedback instead of focusing on the negative. Additionally, individuals experiencing negativity bias should strive for positive stimuli exposure, as seeking out and engaging in positive experiences broadens an individual's range of thoughts and behaviours (see Figure 4). This allows physical, intellectual, social, and psychological resources to be built, making it a useful way to counteract negativity bias (Fredrickson, 2001). Consider an individual who focuses on negative aspects of social engagements, they intentionally try to interact with friends and family, thereby building positive experiences, perspectives, and behaviours to help combat negativity bias when it occurs.

### Social support

Strengthening social relationships can lessen the impact of negative events and work as a coping mechanism for negative emotions (Cohen & Wills, 1985). For instance, after a negative event an individual can seek out a friend to find comfort. Friends can provide new perspectives, offer positivity, and cater to your unique needs as they know well.
* Case study: River
* River seeks advice from a friend who has been in a similar situation. They discuss his worries, and she shares her insights, reassuring him that many students likely found the question challenging. She points out the hard work he has put into his studies, reminding him that this effort will be reflected in the results. River feels comforted by her words, and the new perspective puts him at ease. When he checks the pending results page again, he feels calmer and more confident about his performance.

## Conclusion

Negativity bias is a form of cognitive bias, psychological systematic tendencies that affect people cognitively and behaviourally. Specifically, negativity bias causes people to be more impacted by negative stimuli than positive or neutral stimuli of similar magnitudes. Negativity bias can manifest in several ways, including negativity dominance, negative differentiation, negative potency, steeper negative gradients, and in combination with other biases. The prominent theory behind negativity bias is evolutionary adaptation, evolving as a survival mechanism, however brain regions and cognitive processes likely play significant roles. Negativity bias can impact mental health, decision-making, interpersonal relationships, and adaptation. If impacts become harmful, negativity bias should be addressed with strategies that reduce negative thinking and promote positivity, including mindfulness practices, professional interventions, seeking out positive stimuli, and social support. Negativity is a natural part of life, experienced daily and often beyond control. However, by understanding it, people can become better equipped to manage its effects.