# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Groups and individual motivation enhancement

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Case study:
* Eleanor, Britney and Janette are all in the second year of their Economics degree and have been grouped together to complete an assignment. All three girls have been struggling to work together due to conflicting approaches, holding them back from completing the assignment.
* Eleanor doesn’t care much for this class and prefers to spend her time doing other things and has only made very minor contributions to the assignments and ignores communication attempts from the other two girls.
* Britney, on the other hand, has taken full control and completed around 70% of the assignment without consulting her other group members. Britney is concerned about her GPA and doesn’t want her grades compromised by Eleanor and Janette and prefers to complete the work herself.
* Janette feels bitterness towards Eleanor for her pathetic contributions to the group assignment. Janette wishes to do well in this class, but not to the same extent as Britney. Janette suspects Eleanor will get in trouble for not making enough contributions to the assignment and doesn’t want to give Britney or the Unit Convenor an opportunity to accuse her of not making enough of a contribution. This has led to Janette making moderate contributions to the assignment here and there to ensure her efforts are notable enough to prevent repercussions.
Have you ever thought about why some individuals work well in groups and others do not? Or perhaps why some groups are able to achieve their end goals and other groups fall apart? Or maybe why some group dynamics are great and other groups don’t get along at all?
This chapter answers these questions. It begins by exploring some different psychological theories to explain the interactions between individual motivation and groups. Some characteristics or norms of groups are then identified to assist in explaining group dynamics. Following on[awkward expression?], some threats to group dynamics and individual motivation are observed, while also providing some solutions to these issues. Finally, some practical applications and areas for future research are provided. All of which should help determine how group dynamics impact individual motivation[grammar?]
* Focus questions
* What psychological theories explain individual motivation in groups?
* How do group dynamics influence motivation?
* How can we improve individual motivation?
* What are the practical implications?

## Psychological theories to enhance group motivation

There are a number[vague] of psychological theories that suggest ways in which motivation can be enhanced within groups. Examples include Social Identity Theory, Self Determination Theory, and Goal Setting Theory.

### Social identity theory

Social identity theory suggests that people derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from the groups in which they are a part of (Scheepers & Ellemers, 2019). It also suggests that people wish to distinguish themselves from others based on this group membership (Harwood, 2020).
Social identity theory can assist in explaining increases in individual motivation in groups as when an individual aligns themselves in a group they also align themselves with the groups’ values and goals, motivating the individual to participate and contribute to the same degree as their fellow members. Individual motivation can be further boosted when the group receives positive feedback and achievements as individuals are likely to perceive group successes as their own.

### Self-determination theory

Self-determination Theory is a broader theory that discusses how an individual's personality and levels of motivation are dependent on their social environment (Legault, 2020) (see Figure 1 of a group working well as a team). This theory suggests that in order to achieve a good quality of life with high levels of motivation, there are three main psychological needs that need to be met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2012). Self-determination theory can be helpful in explaining enhancements in individual motivation in a group in each of these three psychological needs:
* Autonomy - Autonomy assists individuals in making them feel responsible for their individual contributions to their group. This can make individuals take more pride in their contributions and consequent group successes.
* Competence - When individuals are working in groups it creates an environment where people feel encouraged to ask questions, solidify their understanding of topics and receive crucial feedback. All of this can help an individual feel competent in their contributions to the group, consequently improving their motivation.
* Relatedness - When individuals feel connected to their group members it leads to greater collaboration and commitment to group goals. This leads to stronger bonds between group members which can increase individual motivation.[factual?]

### Goal setting theory

Goal setting theory suggests that if people set goals that are specific, challenging, and achievable, they will increase their motivation (Locke & Latham, 2006). Goal setting is a very clear and simple method for increasing motivation that anyone could implement, whether as an individual or in a group.[factual?]
When a group sets goals it pushes the members to contribute to uphold their contribution which leads to greater engagement and effort generally from everyone involved. Furthermore, group members are more likely to be motivated towards achieving the goal when they view the goal as significant[factual?]. Individual members of a group can also set their own goals within their group. This can assist individuals in challenging themselves and enhancing their motivation as they want to take on new responsibilities or learn new things which can provide a sense of accomplishment when they meet these goals.[factual?]

### Social loafing

Another psychological theory of motivation is not one that increases it, but decreases it. This theory is known as social loafing. It is the phenomenon that occurs when people put less effort into group tasks than they would in an individual activity (Karau & Hart, 1998). It is thought that this as a result of people seeing their contributions as unneeded, too costly, or unrewarded (Karau & Williams, 1995). Whilst it does occur relatively regularly, there are ways in which it can be reduced (Simms & Nichols, 2014) (see following case study).
* Figure 2. Teacher in front of class
* Case study:
* Jaden is doing a group assignment with Cadyn and Brayden. All of the boys feel that because they are working in a group, they will not have to put in as much effort as they would if they were completing it by themselves. They all think that the others will pick up the slack!
* After noticing this, their teacher has researched ways to try and discourage social loafing (see Figure 2). She found that increasing personal responsibility is a good way to do this, and has now decided to make a section of the assignment individually graded. She also introduced mandatory group work sessions for the class to work on their assignments in order to increase group interaction which has also been shown to decrease the effects of social loafing.
Based on the case study at the beginning, which psychological theory are the following girls demonstrating?
1
Britney:
Social Loafing
Goal Setting Theory
Social Identity Theory
2
Janette:
Social Loafing
Goal Setting Theory
Social Identity Theory :

## Roles of norms and peer influences

[Provide an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-headings]

### Groupthink

Groupthink is a phenomenon occurring in groups where there is an overwhelming desire for conformity and unanimity, as a result group members accept the general consensus of their group. This compromises individual decision making as people are often hesitant to project their opinion due to fears of non-conformity with the group. The Bay of Pigs[Add link to relevant Wikipedia page] is an example of where groupthink led to a negative outcome.[grammar?]
8 symptoms of groupthink:
* Belief of group invulnerability
* Rationalisation of behaviour
* Belief in morality of the group
* Stereotyping outgroup members
* Pressure for conformity
* Self-censorship of doubts
* Perception of unanimity
* Existence of self-appointed mind-guards
(Janis, 1982)
* Case Study: Bay of Pigs
* Irving Janis coined the term ‘groupthink’ in 1972 in response to the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. In this circumstance, President John F. Kennedy and his advisors were inclined to remain cohesive in their decision making during the Cold War. This led to all the group members dismissing critical warnings signs and limited them expressing their opinions about potentially aversive outcomes. The pressure within the group silenced potential doubts. This led to Kennedy’s group overestimating their likelihoods of success and underestimated the effects opposing forces. This resulted in a failed invasion for the U.S., many casualties and served as a prime example of consequences arising from groupthink.
Groupthink can have both a positive and negative influence on individual motivation enhancement. Groupthink can assist in facilitating collaboration by teaching groups how to be cohesive and encourage individuals to feel like a key part of the decision making process which can increase their confidence when contributing in future projects. However, groupthink can be detrimental as it can discourage individuals from expressing their opinions due to pressures to conform to the group. Additionally, groupthink restricts the amount of ideas thrown around which reduces the chance of the optimal outcome being discovered prior to the consensus.[factual?]

### Cohesion impacts

Group cohesion refers to the dynamics of a group and their tendency to be united in the pursuit of certain objectives while satisfying their member’s needs. When a group has high cohesiveness it usually indicates the members’ interests are aligned and they exhibit similar levels of motivation. If a groups’ level of cohesion is strong it can assist in developing self-efficacy in individuals which can encourage them to contribute to their groups’ objectives. In other words, when a cohesive group is functioning effectively and is performing well it can motivate the individuals within the group to continue performing to a high degree. Overall, cohesive group environments can instigate positive motivation within individuals.[factual?]

### Peer pressure

Peer pressure can be defined as the influence or pressure from other people (or peers) to act in a certain way. Peer pressure is often intimidating in nature and has the potential to be positive or negative.[factual?]
Peer pressure can have a positive influence on people by encouraging productivity in individuals as many people struggle to be productive in the absence of incentives. Peer pressure can act as a motivator in some circumstances by encouraging positive academic achievements or increasing a worker’s productivity. However, peer pressure can also be detrimental to an individual’s motivation when it is perceived as intimidating or when it impedes on a sensitive aspect of an individuals’[grammar?] life such as pressure to look a certain way. When this kind of peer pressure exists it can reduce an individual’s feelings of competence and consequently, their motivation.

## Intra-group conflicts

[Provide more detail]

### Types of conflict

Intra-personal conflict is defined as any internal conflict arising in the self. Intra-personal conflict has the potential to hinder group performance as it often manifests into forms of emotional reactivity which is projected onto group members. Emotional reactivity can include but is not limited to verbal abuse, threats, triggers and emotional projection (see Figure 3).[factual?]
Intra-group conflict occurs when there are perceived incompatibilities or differences in a group of individuals when attempting to make a decision (Amason et al, 1995).
Jehn et al.[factual?] indicates there are three types of conflict that occur within groups (see Table 1). When one of these types of conflict is present it has the capacity to impact the overall functioning of the group, and it decreases group viability (or the ability of team members to be satisfied while working together). Table 1 demonstrates the three types of conflict that occur intra-personally in groups according to Jehn et al:
Table 1: Conflicts Occurring within Groups[factual?] :
| Relationship Conflicts | Disagreements related to personal issues rather than the task, relationship conflicts usually result in low group viability. Typical examples include gossip, political views and social events. |
| Task Conflicts | Disagreements arising from group members regarding the organisational structure or how the task is being performed. Task conflicts can be beneficial when it relates to innovative tasks but in most other circumstances it decreases group performance, individual motivation and satisfaction. |
| Process Conflicts | Disagreements regarding task delegations and logistics about how the task should proceed. Usually arises when it is unclear about who is responsible for what or some people take charge or leadership of the group. |
(Jehn's three types of group conflict)

### Impacts of conflict on motivation

Groups are often social networks that have a common goal or responsibility they aim to achieve, [grammar?] these groups are ineffective at reaching their aims or goals when members are not content with the groups’ functioning. When animosity towards members in a group occur, it translate into lower satisfaction in team experiences. This has additional repercussions on individual motivation as it impacts an individual’s decision to engage in team projects, undertake further training and be motivated in general.[factual?]
Intra-personal conflict, according to Hede[factual?], is one of the most critical hinderances on group performance and satisfaction. This is because when individuals feel as though members of their group are upset with them as a result of emotional projection, it can make individuals not want to participate and lower their motivation.[factual?]
Intra-group conflict has the potential to reduce individual self-esteem and lower the ability of individuals to trust their members and immediate environment. This concept is known as self-verification theory and has the potential to lower individual motivation as they lose respect for their opinions and abilities which impacts the overall performance of the team (Swann et al, 2004).
Conflict occurring in groups almost never has a positive impact on group or individual motivation. Therefore, it is important for groups to recognise the types of conflict as they occur so they can implement the appropriate conflict resolutions as outlined below.[factual?]

### Conflict resolution

Effective conflict resolution needs to manage the associated conflict in a way that meets the needs of all individuals involved and does not resort to dominance. Christie et al, 2001 outlines the four basic principles that underlie any effective conflict resolution:
* Conflict resolution is cooperative
* The solutions sought are integrative and meet the needs of all parties
* Understand all the parties relationship and perspective on the conflict
* Utilises non-violent processes
Goleman's 2 x 2 [what?] Matrix implements this idea as demonstrated below.
Goleman's 2 x 2 [what?] matrix model:
David Goleman’s 2 x 2 [what?] matrix model (see Figure 4) as a form of conflict resolution relies on the idea of mismanaged emotions and misunderstandings within groups. Goleman’s model is made up of four quadrants that assist individuals in understanding conflicts intra-personally and within groups, and subsequently resolving them.
Other effective strategies for conflict resolution:
* encouraging individuals to learn their emotional triggers
* encouraging the develop of emotional intelligence within groups
* allow interventions from other team members in the event of a conflict
* conduct debriefs following conflicts to learn from the experience (Stein 1998)

## Applications and future directions

[Provide more detail]

### Practical applications

Implementing the discussed theories and ideas have a number of practical applications:
Workplace - Motivating individuals in the workplace in[spelling?] vital for efficiency and productivity, particularly when working in teams. Strategies like self-determination theory and fostering team cohesion can boost productivity, job satisfaction, innovation, and personal growth. Leaders can also use conflict resolution and address issues like social loafing to resolve tension and maintain motivation.
Group assignments - Increasing individual motivation in university group assignments is another practical application of these theories. Groups and individuals a part of these groups can use the goal-setting theory to set goals for themselves regarding what aspects of the assignment will be completed and to what standard. Intra-group conflict is also a common feature of group assignments so being able to identify when it exists can assist the group members to implement effective conflict resolution procedures.
Team sports - Team sports are a common feature of attempts to increase an individual's motivation. A primary benefit of team sports on individual members' motivation includes it creates a sense of cohesion between team members and increases individual senses of self-efficacy, building a sense of self-efficacy and confidence between all the players. Being a part of a team can contribute to the social identity theory, which provides an individual derives a sense of identity and increased self-esteem from being a part of a group (see Figure 5).

### Future directions

While many key ideas have been discussed in relation to enhancing individual motivation in groups and addressing issues that reduce motivation in groups there are still a number of gaps present in research regarding individual motivation in groups[factual?]. Some of these areas for future research include:
* Examining biological and neuroscientific angles to explain body and brain mechanisms behind individual motivations as this could lead to more effective interventions and strategies
* Reviewing cultural differences between groups and investigating whether this has an effect on individual motivations, this could assist in developing more culturally diverse strategies to improve individual motivations
* Studying the effects of new technology, particularly AI, and differentiating both its positive and negative effects on individual motivation within groups
[factual?]
While areas for future research are not limited to these ideas, they provide a good starting point on where developments regarding individual motivation in groups could take place.

## Conclusion

This chapter addresses a [vague] number of theories and ideas regarding individuals[grammar?] motivation in groups and ways to enhance it. Social identity theory suggests people derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from the groups they align with. Self-determination theory provides individual’s motivation is achieved through three needs, autonomy, competence and relatedness. Goal setting theory suggests if people set specific, challenging and achievable goals their motivation will increase. Social loading is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals are motived[spelling?] to contribute less to group tasks when they view their contributions as too costly, unneeded or unrewarded.
The roles of norms and peers influences and explored groupthink, cohesion impacts and peer pressure were considered. Groupthink occurs when overwhelming desires for unanimity in groups leads to individuals being fearful to express their opinions due to fears of non-conformity. Cohesion impacts refer to group dynamics and tendencies for groups to be united. Peer pressure is defined as influences or pressure from others to act in a certain way.
The different types of intra-group conflict according to Jehn which include relationship, task and process conflicts. The implications of conflict on group and individual motivation were then discussed. Finally, different principles to resolve conflict were provided, including Goleman’s 2x2 matrix.
Some practical applications of these ideas were provided and some areas for future research were outlined. As a result of addressing these areas the questions regarding how group dynamics can enhance individual motivation have been answered.