# Criminology/Module 5
## Intro to Trait Theory

Two divisions of trait theories:
* One that stresses biological makeup
* Stresses psychological functioning
Biosocial trait theories look at the relationship between a wide variety of variables and crime. These variables include neurophysiological/biochemical conditions, arousal, and genetics. Biochemical conditions include diet, hormones, allergies, and environmental contaminants.
Arousal theory: The thrill offenders get from committing crime.
Evolutionary theory: Violent offenses are driven by evolutionary factors.
Psychological traits emphasize psychological aspects of crime, including intelligence, personality, and criminal behavior. This comes from Sigmund Freud, behavioral theory, social learning theory, cognitive theory, and the psychological characteristics of persona and intelligence.
The two major implications for public policy relating to crime prevention that trait theories have:
* Primary prevention programs are crime prevention programs that focus on the treatment of personal problems before they turn into a crime.
* Secondary prevention programs that provide treatment and support after the crime has occurred.

## Cesare Lombroso

FATHER OF CRIMINOLOGY, ORIGINS OF TRAIT THEORY
Views: Certain groups of people may not be as highly evolved as others, crime was biological, criminal atavism (possessing "criminal" genetic traits; can be identified by their looks, such as a receding chin).
Influenced by Darwinism.
Sociobiology (contemporary trait theory): Behavior will adapt to the environment in which it evolved. Drug use may push certain 'criminal traits' out from a person.
Biosocial theory: Assumes that the cause of drug use behavior can be found within a child's physical/biological makeup.

## On Criminal Man

Lombroso's book, On Criminal Man (1861), and stated that criminals have a 'unique' look. Including:
* Really short/tall
* Small head, large face
* Receding hairline
* Small/sloping forehead
Based on observation. We went from demonology --> somatotype theory (muscular people are more prone to being a criminal vs. endomorphs and ectomorphs).

## Biological Theories

Essentially trait theories, argue that behavioral choices are a function of an individual's mental and physical makeup. Choices made are because of uncontrollable personal traits.
Biosocial theories focus on the association between biological makeup, environmental conditions, and antisocial behaviors. Most research efforts are focused on:
* Biochemical factors - How body chemistry governs behavior and personality? (Lead/PCB exposure)
* Neurological dysfunction
* Genetic influences
Biological theories of addiction suggest that people become addicted to chemical substances due to biological predispositions (drug addiction = 'communicable' disease'). They believed that drugs were toxins that were built up in the body and damaged bodily organs, therefore resulting in addiction.

## Neurochemical and Biogenetic Explanations

Children who suffer from neurological deficits at birth are more likely to become involved in abusing drugs as they become adults.
Protein peptides are replaced by opiates, to which soon becomes a normal state of the bran when abusing drugs regularly. Withdrawal is usually accompanied with depression and under-arousal because the brain fires less dopamine after it recieves a "dopamine-overload" message.
Some people inherit genetic predispositions that lead to aggression/drug abuse, including antisocialness and mental disorders.
Studies of family criminality can't separate between nature and nurture all too well. Studies show that MZ (identical) tiwns have similar behavior patterns compared to DZ (fraternal) twins. Adoptees support the connection between genetics and behavior, as they are similar to their biological parents in many ways. This even applies to the tendency of falling into alcoholism.

### Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities and delinquency have a positive correlation. 2 possible explanations:
* Susceptibility rationale: Connection is because of side effects of LD (impulsiveness).
* ADHD: Inappropriate traits (bad attention span) is tied to dsyfunctionality. More common in boys than girls. Results in poor grades, usage of illicit drugs/alocohol/cigarettes, and trouble with the law. Artificial bias is created because it is not necessarily ADHD that causes this, but the treatment to kids with ADHD that causes this connection to be made.

## Psychodynamics

Psychoanalytic theories range from identifying the cause of addiction from abnormal personality developments to personality adjustments. Addiction is a "sickness" resulting from bad development processes that took place during childhood.
Sigmund Freud is the originator for psychodynamic theories. Criminals are a product of poor personality development in early life. Personality consists of...
* The id - pleasure-seeking
* Ego - Opposite of Id.
* Superego - "Moral rules of society"
When one has disorders/abuses drugs, individuals may experience anxiety and fear when the id dominates (these experiences are known as psychotics, which is characterized by hallucinations). Psychosis can be in the form of schizophrenia.
Traumatic experiences in childhood can lead to psychological difficulties, such as impulsiveness and drug abuse.
* Penis Envy - Young girls obsess over not having a penis. Being obsessed means that they turn to "masculine", harmful ways out of the misery (drug abuse, for example). Lesbianism was also considered a "harmful cope" at the time. Getting over penis envy entails obsessing over their appearance to appease men.
* Identity Crisis by Erik Erikson... a time where a youngster is in conflict with themselves and are tasked to fight their impulsive. Those that fail this stage usually fall into crime/can't deal with their depression/oppressive impulses.

## Victim Characteristics

Personality theorists suggest that drug abusers have personalities that are different from non-drug abusers.
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck identified a number of personality traits that encapsulates and states that the avergae delinquent has their own unique persona, just like other people in the general population.
Hans Eysenck believed that extroverts are impulsive, high in neuroticism, and are anxious/emotionally unstable. This may be self-destructive.
Family dsyfunction is the main cause of anti-social personalities. They usually violate the boundaries of other people.

## Skinner, Pavlov, Piaget, and Kohlberg

Behavioral theories believe that personality is learned through interactions with different people. This was developed by John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and work from Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov's classical conditioning serves as the foundation for behavioral theory. Skinner changed the basis of behavior in that behavior is reinforced when the subject is rewarded (operant conditioning).
* Primary reinforcers - Pleasurable activities, such as eating good food.
* Secondary reinforcers - Objects that are pleasurable due to associations (praise).
* Negative reinforcers - Reinforcing effects that comes from a painful/punishing condition (narcotics).
Cognitive theory focuses on mental processes and one's interpretation of the world. Jean Piaget is the founder of the cognitive theory. He reasons that the judgement processes develop in an 'orderly' fashion through shifts in moral judgements. Younger children know right vs. wrong from their parents, while older children see right and wrong through their own reasoning.
Lawrence Kohlberg came up with 3 stages of moral development and suggested a significant difference between the criminal and the law-abiding citizens' viewpoint of the law. Criminals don't respect the law while law-abiding citizens see the law as a supplement to their living.