OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Latin I/Basics Lesson 1

Salvēte omnēs! (Hello everyone!)
If you are one of the many interested in learning the ancient and beautiful Latin language, here is a starter lesson for you.
As you will see from the words below, many Latin words will be familiar to you, from English (like femina - feminine) or French (femme, la, or le). This will help you with Latin.
As you can see, Latin has an incredibly flexible word order within sentences. It makes up for this flexibility with a very rigid and absolute requirement for the correct grammatical endings for nouns and verbs, as becomes very obvious within the first few days of study. This is precisely why it makes it easier to learn with online tools. Making Grammar-learning mistakes into a game automatically makes it fun and is a fantastic resource to add to any learning situation.

## Vocabulary

Each lesson we will give you some words that you will learn for the sentence practice.
Start with these.
| English | Latin | Notes |
| girl | puella | |
| woman | fēmina | |
| boy | puer | |
| man | vir | Either is acceptable; homō has a more universal usage (human) as opposed to vir (biologically male human) |
| man | homō | Either is acceptable; homō has a more universal usage (human) as opposed to vir (biologically male human) |

## Phrases

| Latin | English | Notes |
| | | All phrases |
| ūnus puer | one boy | |
| ūna fēmina | one woman | introducing the adjective unus,a,um to mean one, modifying a masculine or feminine noun |
| illa puella | that girl, THE girl | Latin doesn't have article adjectives but may use demonstrative adjectives/pronouns for a similar purpose or to add emphasis -- do not worry too much about it until later, though |
| ille homō | that man, the man | |
| ille vir | that man | |

## Sentences

| Latin | English | Notes |
| | | All sentences |
| Sum fēmina | I am a woman I am the woman. | |
| Ego fēmina sum. | I am a woman I am the woman. | Introducing subject pronoun Ego = I and the flexible word order of Latin sentences. |
| Vir sum | I am a man I am the man. | |
| Ego sum puer Sum puer Puer sum. | I am a boy. | |
| Puella sum. | I am a girl. | |
| Ille homō sum. | I am that human being I am that man. | |
| Sum illa fēmina | I am that woman. | |
| Sum ūna puella Ūna puella sum Ego ūna puella sum Ego sum ūna puella Ego sum puella ūna. | I am one girl. | |

## Practice

Practice and learn the words and phrases in this lesson :
| Step one | First learn the words using this lesson: Basics Lesson one |
| Step two | Next try learning and writing the sentences using this: Sentences lesson one or use this AI prompt |
| Note that the Memrise stage covers the content for all the lessons in this section ||
You can try these sentences on Memrise. Thanks for reading and... Habeātis bonam fortūnam!
# Latin I/Basics Lesson 2

Salvēte omnēs! Welcome back to Latin for Wikiversity. Here you can peruse a new lesson in Latin, in a simple format. If you would like to catch up, you can find a directory of lessons, a classified vocabulary list, and Memrise courses at the links on the right.
Here is a second lesson for those of you interested. Latin has no article adjectives. Enjoy!

## New vocabulary

| Latin | English | Notes |
| mālum, i | apple | |
| is, ea, id | he, she, it | as subject pronoun |
| tū | you | singular, as subject pronoun) |
| edit | he eats/ she eats | |
| es | you are | |
| est | he is/ she is/ it is | |

## Review vocabulary

| Latin | English |
| puella, ae | girl |
| puer, ī | boy |
| fēmina, ae | woman |
| vir | man |
| homō, hominis | man |
| sum | I am |

## Sentences

| Latin | English | Audio (Classical) | Notes |
| | | All sentences together | All sentences together |
| Mālum | apple/ an apple/ the apple | | |
| Puer est. | He is a boy. | | |
| Edit. | He eats./ She eats. | | |
| Is puer est. | He is a boy. | | notā bene - Subject pronouns are infrequently used in Latin, since every verb contains an ending that indicates person and number. But it's probably useful to introduce them at this point as an optional part of a sentence, especially when used with nouns that are gender-specific. |
| Is edit. | He eats. | | |
| Puella est. | She is a girl. | | |
| Puella edit. | The girl eats. | | |
| Ea est puella. | She is a girl. | | |
| Fēmina es. | You are a woman. | | |
| Tū es fēmina/ Tū fēmina es. | You are a woman. | | |
| Es vir. | You are a man. | | |
| Est vir. | He is a man. | | |
| Ea fēmina est. | She is a woman. | | |
| Is est vir. | He is a man. | | |
| Vir mālum edit. | The man eats an apple. | | notā bene - This is our first sentence with a direct object, but we dodge the difficulty of inflecting nouns into the accusative case for now, since neuter nouns like mālum are the same in both nominative and accusative case. Also note that conventional Latin word order is SOV, with the verb at the end, but this is by no means a rule of syntax and is frequently ignored. The real trick is to learn to pay close attention to the endings of nouns and verbs. |
| Fēmina mālum edit. | The woman eats the apple. | | |
| Homō est. | He is a man. | | remember there are two commonly used nouns for man. |
| Puella es. | You are a girl. | | |
| Puella edit mālum. | The girl eats an apple. | | |
| Mālum est. | It is an apple. | | "Malum est" means "It is bad," and "Mālum malum est." means "It is a bad apple," but let's wait for a future lesson for that! |

## Practice

Practice and learn the words and phrases in this lesson :
| Step one | First learn the words using this lesson: Basics Lesson one |
| Step two | Next try learning and writing the sentences using this: Sentences lesson one; or this AI lesson prompt |
| Note that the Memrise stage covers the content for the first three lessons ||
We hope you've enjoyed this basic Latin lesson. Gratiās vōbīs agō!
# Latin I/Pronunciation Stress

This is the last bit of general guidance before you get stuck in. Once you know the short and long vowels, dipthongs, it's quite easy.
Don't worry about getting this absolutely right at the start though. You can revisit it as you go on.

## Basic rules

In Latin, the stress on a word is placed on only one of two syllables: the one before the last syllable (the penultimate syllable, or penult), or the one before that (the antepenultimate syllable, or antepenult).
Rule One: stress the penult if the syllable is long.
* If the vowel in the penult is long or a diphthong, the syllable is long, so the stress goes on the penult.
* The penult syllable is long, if it is made long by consonants.
** If the vowel is followed by x, z, (ks and dz) or any other two consonants,
** Double consonants like 'cc' or 'nn' count in this rule
* However, stop consonants (b, c, d, g, p, t) followed by a liquid consonant (l, r) belong to the next syllable, so don't make the penult long. These are sounds like -tro, -tri or -cle See the examples below.
Rule two: if the penult is short, stress the antepenultimate syllable, the one before the penult.
Here are some examples. We will mark the stressed syllable with bold type!
| pa•pa | Eu•rō•pa |
| fi•gū•ra | per•sō•na |
| pan•thē•ra | hal•lū•ci•nā•tus |
| me•mo•ri•a | si•mi•lis |
| pa•ra•dox•us | fun•dā•men•tum |
| ū•ni•cor•nis | cal•ci•trō |

## How to stress

Stress does not change the length of the vowel. Stress the vowel either by giving it more force (ie, making it a bit 'louder') or by raising the pitch of your voice slightly (use a 'higher' note) – this practice might account for Latin's 'musicality' mentioned by Classical authors.

## More about syllables

You may want to revisit this topic later to understand how syllables break in Latin, which will make it clearer how and when syllables are stressed.

## Other guides

* This guide is a simplified version of Wikibooks Latin's guide to pronunciation.
# Introduction to Latin/Apposition
## Apposition

An appositive is a noun explaining or defining another noun. In Latin, an appositive will have the same case, usually the same number, and usually the same gender as the noun it explains or defines.
A few examples:
Cicero consul saepe declamabat. - Cicero, the consul, often made speeches. (consul is in apposition with Cicero)
Amo Lesbiam, puellam meam. I love Lesbia, my girl. (puellam meam is in apposition with Lesbiam)

## Read This

The following link links to a short piece written by a Latin professor from Middlebury College. It is written for the beginning student and addresses how one should approach learning Latin as a foreign language. It is an interesting read, and I hope that you consider the validity in learning how to 'think like a Roman.'
Beginning Latin
# Introduction to Latin/Second Declension Neuters
## The Neuters of the Second Declension

Below is a chart displaying all endings of the neuter nouns of the second declesion. All rules for case use are the same as those of the 1st declension.
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | -um | -a |
| Genitive | -i | -orum |
| Dative | -o | -is |
| Accusative | -um | -a |
| Ablative | -o | -is |
| Vocative | -um | -a |
Distinctive endings for the neuters of the second declension only appear in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative cases, and they exist in this fashion: For the Singular:
* Nominative: um
* Accusative: um
* Vocative: um
There is a noticeable pattern in these endings. The same pattern follows for the plural endings.
* Nominative: a
* Accusative: a
* Vocative: a
# Introduction to Latin/Second Declension Nouns and Adjectives
## Second Declension

Like the 1st Declension, the 2nd Declension consists of 'stem + ending'. However, the 2nd Declension has different endings and a different stem. The genders of the 2nd Declension are masculine and neuter (not feminine).
Generally, the nominative singular of masculine 2nd Declension nouns ends in either -us, -er, or -ir; the neuter nominative singular ends in -um.
So let's go ahead and learn the 2nd Declension.

## 2nd Declension Masculine Endings

| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | -us/er | -i |
| Genitive | -i | -orum |
| Dative | -o | -is |
| Accusative | -um | -os |
| Ablative | -o | -is |
| Vocative | -e/er | -i |
Notes: 1) for nouns ending in '-er' or '-ir', the vocative singular is the same as the nominative; 2) the stem of each noun is attained from the genitive singular form (just like in the 1st Declension):

## 2nd Declension Neuter Endings

| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | -um | -a |
| Genitive | -i | -orum |
| Dative | -o | -is |
| Accusative | -um | -a |
| Ablative | -ō | -is |
| Vocative | -um | -a |
Notes: 1) In all neuter nouns (not just 2nd Declension; neuter nouns in other declensions will be encountered later on in this course), the nominative and accusative have the same form in both numbers; 2) Notice that the vocative in both numbers has the same form as the nominative.
PLEASE BE AWARE THAT THE BRITISH SYSTEM GOES LIKE THIS- NOM. ACC. GEN. DAT. ABL.

## Declining Some Nouns

Now that we know the appropriate endings, we can decline any 2nd Declension noun, right?
Let's give it a try:
Hortus, horti (m.) - garden
* Stem = hort- which we can see from the genitive singular in the dictionary entry
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | hortus | horti |
| Genitive | horti | hortorum |
| Dative | horto | hortis |
| Accusative | hortum | hortos |
| Ablative | hortō | hortis |
| Vocative | horte | horti |
Now let's try this noun:
puer, pueri (m.) - boy
| Case | Singular | Plural |
| Nominative | puer | pueri |
| Genitive | pueri | puerorum |
| Dative | puero | pueris |
| Accusative | puerum | pueros |
| Ablative | puerō | pueris |
| Vocative | puer | pueri |
# Introduction to Latin/Simple Grammatical Concepts
## A Little Grammar

Some of you may already be perfectly familiar with the following grammar information. These concepts will be necessary in order to complete the first (and subsequent) units, so make sure you know this stuff before moving on.

## The Sentence

A normal sentence can be divided into various parts of speech.
NOUN - person, place, or thing (or the NAME of a person, place, or thing)
VERB - describes the subject's activity/state of being
ADJECTIVE - modifies a noun
ADVERB - modifies a verb
Hopefully you all are familiar with these very basic concepts already, so I'm not going to go into any more detail. (If you aren't, please feel free to contact a teacher for help).
Direct/Indirect Object
The direct object in a sentence receives the direct action from the verb.
For example: The hoplite carries the shield.
The indirect object receives the action from the verb indirectly.
For example: The hoplite gives a shield to the man.
Indirect objects will often be attached to a 'to/for' in English.
Transitive/Intransitive Verbs
Verbs, among other things, can be transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb can take a direct object.
For example: The hoplite carries the shield.
An intransitive verb cannot take a direct object.
For example: The man smiles.
* There will be further grammar provided as you progress through the lessons, but for now this will suffice.

## Exercises

A. Point out the direct object and indirect object in each English sentence. (Note: There are not necessarily both a direct and indirect object in each sentence.)
1. I love you.
2. The farmer harvested his field today.
3. Scipio is baking a cake.
4. Scipio baked his grandma a cake.
5. The soldier gave flowers to the girl.
6. I wanted to tell you a story.
7. Lucius always buys cookies for his daughter Rosa.
8. The sailor sailed to the island and found some buried treasure.
9. Marcus likes to play the lyre for his girlfriend, who loves music of all kinds.
10. We need to go to the store and find her some clothes for her vacation.
B. State whether each verb is transitive or intransitive.
1. I love you.
2. Scipio is baking a cake.
3. Let's go to the city.
4. I was born in Ostia.
5. The criminal was borne across the county-line.
6. The book is read by you.
7. You are reading a book.
8. The earth orbits around the sun.
9. The crowd quickly gathers at the festival.
10. I moved all of my belongings to my new house when I moved to Germania.
* If anyone wants an answer key, let me know and I will provide one.
# Latin stream/A2

A2 Latin is a continuation of the Latin A level after AS. The A level is a qualification in Britain and is divided into two parts, AS and A2.
The course objective is to become proficient in and around classical Latin, with a working vocabulary without requirement of a vocabulary list. By studying classical texts by Roman authors, the student should develop a love of literature, particularly classics, and engender a perpetual interest. It should also develop within the student a wide knowledge of Ancient Rome, with its customs, history, and life.
The course materials laid out below will hopefully eventually enable any autodidactic student to study towards an A grade in the overall A level. Teachers may also find the resources helpful.

## Intended Materials

* Lesson by lesson plans outlining the course that may be consumed at will.
* Guides to Pompeii, Herculaneum and Hadrian's wall, outlining their relevancy and points of interest.
* A recommended reading list.
* Worksheets to encouarge students to think about certain aspects of the course.
* Notes on exam formats and techniques.
# Latin stream/Conjugations

In Latin, verbs are said to be conjugated. Conjugation is the method Latin uses to add the subject of simple sentences to the verb itself. This lesson will show how conjugations work.

## Conjugations

In English sentences can be split into subject, verb, and object. An example of this is the simple sentence 'They love you'. 'They' is the subject of the sentence, the person, group or thing performing the action. 'Love' is the verb, the thing being done. 'You' is the object, the person, group, or thing that is being acted on. English normally follows the predictable pattern of subject, verb, object. As an exercise pick up any English book and try to identify the subject, verb, and object of some sentences.
A Roman faced with the sentence 'They love you' would be very confused as to who was giving the love, and who was receiving it. The reason for this is that Latin has a much more flexible word order than English. The information that is encoded in word order in English is encoded by changing the ending of words in Latin. This means the personal pronouns used in English ( I, we, you, they ) are merged into the end of the verb in Latin. The Latin word for love is conjugated below.
| Person | Single | Plural |
| First ( I ) | amo | ama-mus |
| Second ( You ) | ama-s | ama-tis |
| Third ( He/She/It/They ) | ama-t | ama-nt |
The part of the word to the left of the hyphen ( ama ) is called the stem of the word. The part to the right is called the end. All verbs are conjugated with more or less the same pattern so you don't have to worry about having to remember 6 times the number of words! The reason the first person singular does not look like it contains the stem is because the original word was "amao", but was shortened to "amo" after time. This has happened in all verb conjugations.
In our example sentence 'They love you' a third person plural is performing the action to the word we want is 'amant'. The word for you is 'tu,' and is declined to 'te' in the accusative (see Declensions), so the sentence 'They love you' could be written in Latin as 'amant te'. The following table demonstrates every conjugation of the word 'amo'.
| English | Latin |
| I love you | amo te |
| You love you ( where the first You is a single person ) | amas te |
| She loves you | amat te |
| He loves you | amat te |
| It loves you | amat te |
| We love you | amamus te |
| You love you ( where the first You is a group ) | amatis te |
| They love you | amant te |
# Latin stream/Declensions

In Latin, not only is word order used to indicate what role a noun plays in a sentence or clause, but also what is called a declension and case. A case tells the speaker or reader what the noun does or is doing, and the declension of the noun decides how the case will look. In Latin, there are five declensions, and seven cases to use. This lesson will (hopefully someday) show all of them.

## Grammatical Cases and Declensions

Many languages use different cases to show the relation of the word in a sentence. In Latin, the nouns, adjective and pronouns change their form depending on how they are used in a sentence. This form change is called a case. Although Old English also had this feature, it has mostly been lost during the transition into Modern English. However, a few English pronouns still exhibit this feature (i.e., "I"↔"My"↔"Mine"↔"Me" are all first-person singular pronouns).
A lot of languages change the ending of a word based on what case it is in. Latin, German, Russian, Finnish, Hungarian, and Greek are good examples of this. The word's meaning changes as its ending is modified to conform with its case's ending. For example, puella means ‘girl’, while puellae means “girls”, "girl's" or “of the girl”. Sometimes in Latin, endings of different cases coincide, forcing one to interpret the meaning based on the context of the word.
There are seven cases that are used in the Latin language: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Ablative, Vocative, and Locative. The last two, Vocative and Locative, are relatively rare compared to the other five, and the Locative case is actually only used with a few select words. The case is the most important part of the noun (besides its actual meaning). Cases define exactly how the noun is used in the sentence. Here are the cases and their uses:
| Case | Use |
| Nominative | Normally expresses the subject of a clause Can sometimes be used to show the predicate complement |
| Genitive | Shows possession; usually translated with the preposition “for,” the suffix “-'s,” or the word "of." |
| Dative | Used with the indirect object in the sentence; translated with “to” or “for” |
| Accusative | Normally denotes the direct object Can be used in prepositional phrases with prepositions other than “ab,” “cum,” “de,” “ex,” “in,” “pro,” “sine,” and “sub” |
| Ablative | Shows the object of the prepositions “ab,” “cum,” “de,” “ex,” “in,” “pro,” “sine,” and “sub” (and some rare others) Can also be used in special phrases without prepositions |
| Vocative | Noun of direct address; used when calling someone or something directly |
| Locative | Expresses location, but only used with certain words |
Several languages, such as Latin, encorporate declensions into their grammar. Latin has five of them, all of which will need to be learned in order to become proficient in the language. Fortunately, the last two declensions aren't very common, and you will probably not need to know them for everyday use. Declensions will be covered in detail in the following sections.

## See Also

First Declension Second Declension
# Latin stream/Present Participles

This is the Present Participles lesson, part of Humanities >> Classics>> Latin !
This lesson is intended for England's GSCE Higher Latin

## Present Participles

Present Participles are adjectives which come from verbs. A Latin present participle describes an action which is going on at the same time as the main verb. They cannot be used as nouns, unlike gerunds.
In English e.g.:
* a loving father
* a warning notice
* the ruling monarch
* the listening bank
English adds ~ing to the verb to make it a participle.
In Latin e.g.:
* amans gen. amantis (loving)
* monens gen. monentis (warning)
* regens gen. regentis (ruling)
* audiens gen. audientis (hearing)
To form the present participle in Latin, take the verb's present stem+ ns, -ntis. They are conjugated the same as third-declension adjectives. Present participles function like adjectives and must agree with a noun or pronoun in gender, case and number.

## Translation

A Latin participle may be translated:
* by one word in English; e.g.:
ambulans in via, puellam vidi.
walking in the street, I saw a girl
* by two words; e.g.:
ambulans in via, puellam vidi.
while / when walking in the street, I saw a girl.
* by more than two words in a clause; e.g.:
ambulans in via, puellam vidi.
As/while I was walking in the street, I saw the girl. In this case, the verb of the subordinate clause (was walking) reflects the verb of the main clause (saw) in the translation. Since the main verb is perfect (past tense), the action of walking also has to have started some time in the past.
* Casus obliqui
Note that the present participles also appear in other cases then the nominative case.
- The present participle in the dative case: "Dicit ambulanti se puellam videre"
He told the person who was walking, that he saw a girl.
- The present participle in the genitive case: "Vidit asinum ambulantis"
He saw the donkey of the walking person.
# Latin stream/Second Declension

Latin nouns are divided into five declensions, plus irregulars. Most second declension nouns are of the masculine gender. The second declension endings are as follows in the singular: Our example word will be: vir, viri, m. Man.
| Case | Example | Ending |
| Nominative | Vir | -r or -us |
| Genitive | Viri | -i |
| Dative | Viro | -o |
| Accusative | Virum | -um |
| Ablative | Viro | -o |
Here is the plural:
| Case | Example | Ending |
| Nominative | Viri | -i |
| Genitive | Virorum | -orum |
| Dative | Viris | -is |
| Accusative | Viros | -os |
| Ablative | Viris | -is |
Common second declension masculine nouns: Ager, agri, m. field
Gladius, gladii, m. sword
Oculus, oculi, m. eye
Puer, pueri, m. boy
Servus, servi, m. slave
Now, second declension also accommodates neuter nouns, but the endings are slightly different. Neuter nouns are as the declension given above, with the following exceptions (using Pilum, -i, n. javelin, as an example word):
| Case | Example | Ending |
| Nominative (sing.) | Pilum | -um |
| Nominative (plural) | Pila | -a |
| Accusative (plural) | Pila | -a |
Common second declension neuter nouns:
Bellum, belli, n. war
Periculum, periculi, n. danger
Regnum, regni, n. kindgom
saxum, saxi, n. rock
Note that the nominative and accusative forms are the same in both the singular and the plural.

### See Also

Declensions
First Declension