OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Informal learning activities/TpcFrr/GHcc

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# Informal learning activities/Twn

Twn
This inserts a link to the country or area, in this case Taiwan, into a Places & Buildings or Buildings and Places item.
# English Law/Contract/Formation

* English Contract Law
* FORMATION

## Introduction

There are three essential elements to determine whether a contract has been formed:
* Offer and acceptance
* Intention to create legal relations
* Consideration
The exact meaning of each of these concepts has been refined by courts through a series of cases, and this process is ongoing with the advent of new technology such as the internet and blockchain technology adding extra capabilities to contracts, and also adding in extra complication to some aspects of contracts.
A contract is any agreement which the law recognises as being enforceable. While subjectively it is not always clear when people have agreed, contract law takes the view that when one person objectively consents to a bargain, they will be bound.
However, not all agreements, even if they are relatively certain in subject matter, are considered enforceable. There is a rebuttable presumption that people do not wish to later have legal enforcement of agreements made socially or domestically.
The general rule is that contracts require no prescribed form, such as being in writing, except where statute requires it, usually for large deals like the sale of land.
In addition and in contrast to civil law systems, English common law carried a general requirement that all parties, in order to have standing to enforce an agreement, must have brought something of value, or "consideration" to the bargain. This old rule is full of exceptions, particularly where people wished to vary their agreements, through case law and the equitable doctrine of promissory estoppel.
Moreover, statutory reform in the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 allows third parties to enforce the benefit of an agreement that they had not necessarily paid for so long as the original parties to a contract consented to them being able to do so.

## Elements of formation

Following on from this page are the subpages about the elements needed for a contract to be formed:
* Offers
* Agreement
* Certainty
* Consideration
* Promissory estoppel
* Privity
# English Law/Equity and Trusts

Equity and trusts is a unique branch of English law that focusses on bringing balance to the legal system, particularly the common law.
# English Law/European Union/Case guide

* European Union Law
* CASE  GUIDE
* This short guide is intended to help you understand the structure of EU law cases. Unlike the judgments of English courts, the judgments in EU cases have just a majority decision, often a lot shorter than English cases. Thus there is no indication of dissenting opinions. The way that EU cases are structured should make it easier to dissect and examine the cases. The best way to find judgments in EU cases is at Curia.Europa.eu, with case numbers e.g. C-408/01. Please note that cases which involve similar facts are likely to be merged for the purposes of judgment. Examples of such "joined cases include C-585/08 and C-144/09.
* Learning note
* After you have read this guide, have a look at the case studies to see how much you have understood.
* Legal framework
* This explains the relevant law for the issues contained in the case, with references to international treaties (which the EU might be party to), European treaties, secondary legislation and national law.
* Case facts
* This is a crucial section which explains why the case was begun, the parties involved in the case, and what type of legal process has occurred before the case e.g. preliminary enforcement action by the European Commission.
* Questions
* This section comprises the legal questions that the national court is asking the Court of Justice to provide answers to. The questions are formatted with numbers to clarify each question.
* Reasoning
* In this section the Court of Justice provides detailed answers to the questions being asked of it, often laying them out under separate subheadings. On occasion the Court may decide to merge answers or even to not answer a question (often because of similarity of the facts).
* Operative part (the answers)
* The most crucial section is where the Court gives clear, short answers to the questions of the case. This is essentially a summary of the reasoning given above but see below.
* Summary
* In order to comprehend the summary section, it is necessary to have read the facts and questions. It is only more recent judgments that include a summary of the most important parts of the reasoning, with the reference to specific paragraphs,
* Numbered paragraphs
* More recent judgments use numbered paragraphs although this has not always been the practice. This assists case citations where an article might need to point to the exact paragraph to highlight specific legal points. It is somewhat similar to the use of page numbers to reference journal articles.
* Costs
* Costs are a minor point as far as understanding EU law is concerned.
# English Law/History

The legal system of England and Wales is as much a product of its history as it is of logic and planned design. It has been in a state of constant evolution for almost 1,000 years and it still changes daily. For this reason, there are concepts in English law that on the face of them make little sense without understanding the social and historical context in which they developed. In this article, the history of the English legal system will be briefly described in chronological order. It is important knowledge for a student of English law and will make much of the learning on this course a lot easier.
# English Law/Contract/Promissory estoppel

The doctrine of promissory estoppel holds that when one person gives an assurance to another, the other relies on it and it would be inequitable to go back on the assurance, that person will be estopped from doing so: an analogue of the maxim that nobody should profit from their own wrong (nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans). An early example is Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co in which the Law Lords held that a tenant could not be ejected by the landlord for failing to keep up with contractual repairs because starting negotiations to sell the property gave the tacit assurance that the repair duties were suspended. Similarly, in Central London Properties Ltd v High Trees House Ltd Denning J held that a landlord would be estopped from claiming normal rent during World War II because of an earlier assurance that half rent could be paid until end of the war.
Hence, promissory estoppel could circumvent the common law rule of Foakes, but is deemed incapable of raising an independent cause of action, so that one party may only plead that another party is estopped from enforcing their strict legal rights as a "shield", but cannot bring a cause of action out of estoppel as a "sword". Yet, where an assurance concerns rights over property, a variant "proprietary estoppel" does allow a claimant to plead estoppel as a cause of action. So in Crabb v Arun District Council, Mr Crabb was assured he would have the right to an access point to his land by Arun District Council, and relying on that he sold half the property where the only existing access point was. The council was estopped from not doing what they said they would. A number of commentators including P.S. Atiyah, have called for the doctrine of consideration to be abandoned, based on the complex logic used to reach simple decisions, leaving the basic requirements of agreement and an intention to create legal relations. Such a move would also dispense with the need for the common law doctrine of privity.
# English Law/Intellectual Property

Intellectual Property (IP) is an umbrella term that relates to the different ways in which the law protects and regulates creative outputs. There are many different types of IP that can protect different aspects of creativity. For example: copyright, moral rights, design rights, patents, trade marks, and trade secrets.

## Copyright

Copyright protects things such as books, films, music, photographs. In fact it protects any original literary, artistic, dramatic, or musical works, as well as sound recordings, broadcasts and typographical arrangements.

## Moral Rights

Moral rights are a special set of rights which belong exclusively to authors of literary, dramatic, musical or artistic works and to the directors of a film. They include the right to be identified as the author (as long as the author or director asserts their rights); and the right to prevent or object to the derogatory treatment of their work.

## Design Rights

Design rights protects the appearance, the shape and/or configuration of objects – so how your product looks for example. Design rights arise automatically and can also be registered.

## Patents

A patent protects inventions. There are certain criteria that the invention has to reach in order to be patentable: It must have utility – meaning it must have practice use, it must be novel – so, it is different from what is already available, and it must have an inventive step – this means that it has to have a level invention that cannot be simply deduced by a person with average knowledge of the particular field.

## Trade Marks

A trade mark protects brand names, logos and slogans. It is a distinctive sign used to differentiate the product or service between identical or similar goods and services offered by different producers or services providers.

## Trade Secrets

Trade secrets can protect ideas, know-how and commercial information that is confidential, usually by way of a non-disclosure agreement.
# English-Chinese/Mackerel species typically have vertical stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails

Mackerel species typically have vertical stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails.
鲭鱼的背部通常有垂直条纹和深叉的尾巴。
# English-Chinese/Mackerels are pelagic fish, found in both temperate and tropical seas

Mackerels are pelagic fish, found in both temperate and tropical seas. Most mackerel live along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment.
鲭鱼是浮游鱼类，在温带和热带海域都有发现。 大多数鲭鱼生活在海岸或海洋环境中。
# English-Chinese/Mainland Southeast Asia

Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia east of India and south of China that is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east.
大陆东南亚，也被称为印度支那半岛或印度支那，是印度东部和中国南部的东南亚大陆部分，西与印度洋接壤，东与太平洋接壤。
# English-Chinese/Mackerel typically have vertical stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails

Mackerel typically have vertical stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails. They are superb swimmers, but are often eaten by larger predators such as cod, sharks and dolphins.
鲭鱼的背部通常有垂直条纹和深叉的尾巴。 它们是一流的游泳者，但经常被鳕鱼，鲨鱼和海豚等大型食肉动物吃掉。
# English-Chinese/Malaysia

Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. It is divided into two parts by the South China Sea. Its west part is on the Malay Peninsula. Its east part is on the northern part of the island of Borneo. Kuala Lumpur on the Malay Peninsula is its capital.
马来西亚是东南亚的一个国家。它被南中国海分为两部分。它的西部在马来半岛。它的东部在婆罗洲岛的北部。马来半岛的吉隆坡是它的首都。
# English-Chinese/Mackerels are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment

Mackerels are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment.
鲭鱼存在于温带和热带海域，大多生活在沿海或海洋环境中的近海。
# English-Chinese/Magnetic field

The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which there is magnetic force. Moving electric charges can make magnetic fields. Magnetic fields can usually be seen by magnetic flux lines. At all times the direction of the magnetic field is shown by the direction of the magnetic flux lines.
磁场 是 磁体周围的 区域，其中 存在 磁力。移动电荷 可以 产生 磁场。通常 可以 通过 磁通线 看到 磁场。在 任何时候，磁场的 方向 都由 磁通线的 方向 表示。
# English-Chinese/Magnetism

In physics, magnetism is a force that can attract (pull closer) or repel (push away) objects that have a magnetic material like iron inside them (magnetic objects). In simpler words, it is a property of certain substances which pull closer or repel other objects.
在 物理学中，磁力 是 一种 可以 吸引（拉近）或 排斥（推开）具有 像 铁 一样的 磁性 材料（磁性 物体）的 物体的 力量。简单来说，它是 某种 物质的 特性，可以 拉近 或 排斥 其他 物体。
# English-Chinese/Magnets have an attraction to metal

Magnets have an attraction to metal.
磁铁对金属有吸引力。
# English-Chinese/Macular degeneration

Macular degeneration is a medical condition which may result in blurred or no vision in the center of the visual field. Early on there are often no symptoms. Over time, however, some people experience a gradual worsening of vision that may affect one or both eyes. While it does not result in complete blindness, loss of central vision can make it hard to recognize faces, drive, read, or perform other activities of daily life. Visual hallucinations may also occur and these do not represent a mental illness.
黄斑退化 是 一种 医学状况，可能 导致 视野中心 模糊 或 无视力。早期 通常 没有 任何 症状。然而，随着 时间的 推移，一些人的 视力 逐渐 恶化，可能 会 影响 一只 或 两只 眼睛。虽然 不会 导致 完全 失明，但 中心视力的 丧失 可能会 导致 很难 识别 人脸，驾驶，阅读 或 进行 其他 日常生活 活动。幻视 也 可能 发生，并不 代表 精神疾病。
# English Law/Introduction
## An Introduction to the law of England and Wales

The legal system of England and Wales includes the courts, tribunals, legal aid, procedures and the people who work to administer the whole system, such as judges, solicitors, barristers, magistrates and clerks.
Although the law may seem complex and hard to understand, it governs the daily life of every single person in the land, as well as regulating commercial relationships and business decisions around the world. The legal system of England and Wales is often referred to as the Common Law. This is generally understood to be a system in which the courts decide on legal principles and how they should be interpreted according to the social conditions of the time. This is in contrast to Civil Law systems, which rely much more heavily on statutes passed by legislative bodies, where courts have a much less decisive say in how laws are applied. Another major legal system is found in the Sharia Law, which draws its basis from the Koran and administers the law based on the principles that it sets out to govern social and economic relationships in the Islamic world.
In practice, every legal system is complex and nuanced. The common law relies on a combination of statute and precedent, set out in often in an uncodified way, which makes its application a specialism that requires significant training.
# English Law/System

It is vital that students have a good understanding of the English legal system.
# English Law/The Rule of Law
## Introduction

Put simply, the Rule of Law is the idea that a society should function according to a system of rules. Along with Parliamentary Sovereignty, it is one of the foundational pillars of the UK constitution.
The phrase 'rule of law' was popularised by the jurist and constitutional theoretician A. V. Dicey in the nineteenth century, which was a period when states around the world were grappling with how to balance industrialisation and increasingly urban populations with the need for effective and efficient systems of governance. The impact of European colonialism was also being felt, with many questioning the limits of state power and the authority that the state had to interfere with the rights and property of the individual.

## Dicey's Three Elements of the Rule of Law

In Dicey's Introduction to the Study of the Constitution (1885), the author sets out three elements which make the Rule of Law the basis of the UK's unwritten constitution.

### No Arbitrary Law

In Dicey's view, there could be no punishment for an act not forbidden by the law enforced by the ordinary courts of the land. Therefore, there can be no punishment issued by the executive or legislature. Punishment is reserved for the courts after a finding of guilt.
This is a restriction on the ability of the executive to arbitrarily detain and punish those who it sees as a threat, a common feature of authoritarian regimes.

### Equality Before the Law

In his second element of the rule of law, Dicey set out the idea that nobody is exempt from the law, regardless of rank or status. The citizens of the state are subject to the same laws as those who run it.

### The Ordinary Law of the Land is the Constitution

Rather than a written constitution setting out the rights of citizens, Dicey's view that, in the UK at least, these rights are better protected through ordinary law. Where a risk of a breach of a fundamental right is present, it is the job of the ordinary law of the land to guard against it rather than a constitutional document. This was seen as a more effective form of protecting rights, as courts can enforce the law in specific areas much more powerfully than they can apply abstract constitutional principles.
# English Law/Intellectual property

This is the Course page for Intellectual Property law in England and Wales.
* Confidentiality
** Trade secrecy
* Copyright
* Passing off
* Patents
* Trademarks
# English Law/Skills

The skills needed on an English law course, or any legal course, relate to not just your understanding of legal systems, but also to a wide range of personal skills needed to both understand the law, and to effectively apply it.
It is normal at the start of a law degree to feel like you do not possess these skills, or are not good enough at them, and you will never be good enough. But keep persevering. With practice, you can develop many of these skills yourself. Aim to incorporate regular, small bursts of practice into your daily routine, and you will hopefully start to see results quite soon.
Each skill contains suggestions on how to practice outside of a formal educational environment, but you should think of ways to develop your skills in ways that suit your individual circumstances.

### Curiosity

This is possibly one of the key skills in a legal course, and also in a subsequent legal career. Having enquiring mind will keep you motivated to continue learning your subject, and help to stave off the boredom that many feel as they are reading what, to many, will feel like a dry and boring legal text.
# English Law/Statute List

* A
* B
* C
* D
* E
* F
* G
* H
* I
* J
* K
* L
* M
* N
* O
* P
* Q
* R
* S
* T
* U
* V
* W
* X
* Y
* Z

## C

* Companies Act 1985
* Companies Act 1989
* Companies Act 2006
* Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986

## I

* Insolvency Act 1986

## L

* Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2000

## P

* Partnership Act 1890
# Game Maker

Game Maker was written by Mark Overmars, a professor of the University of Utrecht, partly as a teaching aid for his students. It is gaining recognition as a useful teaching tool in primary and secondary schools because of its easy entry and sophisticated scripting language. It is particularly useful for primary students and secondary students as a task which is both challenging and relevant.
It is believed that wikiversity can use such software to create non-standard learning environment.

## Wikiversity the game

* Currently working on a demo version of a RPG based walkthough of wikiversity

## Ideas

* 5th grade game project:
** Pick a topic
** Divide into 5 groups
*** Sounds
*** Backgrounds
*** Sprites
*** Story
** Have kids create material for each section
** Put material back together as a game that teaches kids about a topic

### Official links

* Yoyogames - official website and game database.
* Game Maker Pages - download link, part of official website.
* Game Maker Community - official forums.
* The Game Maker's Apprentice - official book website.
# Game mechanics/Area Enclosure

Area Enclosure is a game mechanic where players surround as much area as they can by placing or moving pieces. Go is the oldest and most famous Area Enclosure game.
Area Enclosure games differ from those using than Area Control / Area Influence because players develop areas on a gridded board as they play, whereas in Area Control / Area Influence the areas are pre-defined with players competing to see who can control the most.

## Links to Boardgame geek

* Area Enclosure

### Games using Area Enclosure

* San Gimignano
# Game mechanics/Area Movement

Area movement is a mechanism used in board game design. It is characterised by having a game board divided into areas of varying shapes and sizes. Players can move pieces into and out of each area in any direction provided the areas are adjacent or connected.
However, Area Movement is arguably an alternative way of presenting Point to Point Movement, as the areas act as "points" with implicit "lines" connecting each area to their adjacent areas.

## Links to Boardgame geek

* Boardgamegeek: Area Movement

### Games using Area Movement

* 1830: Révolution Belge
* Imperial 2030
* Navegador
# Game Theory

Game Theory is an approach to the study of agent behavior in a multi-agent environment. Game Theorists, either: - recommend a setup of incentives to guide the behavior to a desirable outcome, - or study a setup of incentives to predict the outcome.
It was created by Hungarian-American physicist, engineer and mathematician John von Neumann.
Agents decide their conduct mindful of their objectives. The most common objective is utility maximization.
Agents might decide simultaneously, which gives rise to "strategic games" or one after another, in a specific order, which gives rise to "extended games".
At decision time, agents might be certain or uncertain about the environment, as well as the incentives guiding other agents. Under the condition of perfect certainty, the game would be called a game of "perfect information," and a game of "imperfect information" otherwise.
# Game mechanics/Area Control & Area Influence

Area Control and Area Influence are mechanisms used in board game design. Typically area control is awarded to the player who has most or a majority of pieces in any given area. In this way, it can be viewed as a sub-category of Auction/Bidding as players can increase their "bids" for any specific area by placing more pieces there.

## Links to Boardgame geek

* Boardgamegeek: Area Control/Area Influence

### Games using Area Control & Area Influence

* AufRUHR!
* Age of Empires III: The Age of Discovery
* Imperial 2030
* Liberté
* El Grande
# Game mechanics/Auction & Bidding

Auction and Bidding are mechanisms used in board game design. The player have the opportunity to bid for items, usually with money. This can be done in a number of ways:
* Japanese auction Players take it in turns to bid for the item. Once a player pass on a bid, they may not re-enter the auction. Example: Power Grid
* First-price sealed-bid auction Players decide what their bid is to be and then all reveal simultaneously. Example: AufRUHR!

## Links to Boardgame geek

* Boardgamegeek: Auction & Bidding

### Games using Area Control & Area Influence

* AufRUHR!
# Korean/Words

* Koreans may not know how good a language they use.
* This project is to show such ignorance lexically.
* ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ -ㄱ-ㄲ-ㄴ-ㄷ-ㄸ-ㄹ-ㅁ-ㅂ-ㅃ-ㅅ-ㅆ-ㅇ-ㅈ-ㅉ-ㅊ-ㅋ-ㅌ-ㅍ-ㅎ- 말+/말씀+/물+/불+ a2z/Basics/News/Notes/Table/Legend/Sandbox

## 아래아

Though uniquely outlawed of the original vowels, the so-called arae-a need be written to study Korean words better. The easiest way may be writing it as "ㅡ" while italicizing the syllable. The grave accent (`) shall stand for the arae-a in romanizing.

### Examples

* 해무리 (haemuri, "solar halo")
** 햇무리 (haetmuri)
** 희무리 (h`i-muri)
** 희ㅅ모로 (h`i-t-moro)
** 흿모로 (h`it-moro)
* 한데 (hande)
    흔듸 (h`n-d`i)
* one place
* open air
* together

### See also

* Korean/Words/Demonstratives
* Korean/Words/Romanization
* Korean/Words/Hotspots
* Korean/Words/Illusion
* Korean/Words/Story
* Korean/Words/Sandbox
* Korean/Words/Xternals

### Templates

* Korean/Words/naviBar
* Korean/Words/pageHead
* Korean/Words/pageTail

### External links

* wikipedia: Chengyu
* wikipedia: Sajaseong-eo
* Structure of four character idioms

### See

    Korean/Legend
* ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ