OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Literature/1936/Lewin

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Excerpts

* We have come to see that in investigations of this kind [of unified psychology] we must deal with persons as wholes to a much greater extent than in the psychology of sensation. In the psychology of sensation the individual's ideals, ambitions, and his social relationships play no role at all or only a subordinate one. But an experimental investigation of needs, of action, or of emotions cannot be carried out without taking into account the characteristics of the person, his momentary state, and his psychological environment.  This shows again that the concepts of which psychology is now in need have to meet the requirements which we suggested above: the system of concepts must be broad enough to be applicable to the most primitive bodily behavior as well as to the emotions, thought processes, values, and social relationships. It must be capable of representing these processes not as single isolated facts but in their mutual dependence as expressions of a concrete situation involving a definite person in a definite condition. These concepts must unify without undue simplification; they must include both person and environment, both law and individual case.  These requirements can be fulfilled only if one turns from the prevailing methods of "abstractive classification" and tries to build constructive concepts. (pp. 5-6)

## Wikimedia
### w: Lewin's Equation

* Lewin's Equation, B=ƒ(P,E), is not actually a mathematical equation representing quantifiable relationships but rather a heuristic designed by psychologist Kurt Lewin. It states that Behavior is a function of the Person and his or her Environment. The equation is the psychologist's most well known formula in social psychology, of which Lewin was a modern pioneer. When first presented in Lewin's book Principles of Topological Psychology, published in 1936, it contradicted most popular theories in that it gave importance to a person's momentary situation in understanding his or her behavior, rather than relying entirely on the past.
| w: Situated cognition w: Situated learning | w: Behaviorism w: Contextualism w: Social psychology |

## Chronology

* Lewin, Kurt (1936). Principles Of Topological Psychology. Munshi Press, 2007. $^{[^]}$
* Korzybski, Alfred (1933). Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics. 5th ed., Institute of General Semantics, 1994. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1929/Sapir $^{[^]}$
* Malinowski, Bronislaw (1923). "The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages." Supplement to: Ogden & Richards (1923), pp. 296-336. $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1937

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Events

* Beginnings in Documentation
   ASIS&T was founded on March 13, 1937, as the American Documentation Institute (ADI), a service organization made up of individuals nominated by and representing affiliated scientific and professional societies, foundations and government agencies. Its initial interest was in the development of microfilm as an aid to information dissemination. ADI compiled an impressive record of achievement in its early years: development of microfilm readers, cameras and services; fostering negotiations and research which resulted in the so-called "gentleman's agreement" covering the photo duplication of copyrighted materials; establishment of programs for the storage and reproduction of auxiliary publications in support of journal editors; operation of an Oriental scientific literature service during World War II; support of interlingua, an early rival of Esperanto, to foster international science communications; and co-sponsoring of the 1958 International Conference on Scientific Information.
   — History of ASIS&T http://www.asis.org/history.html

## Subpages

* Literature/1937/Davis $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1937/Stapledon $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1937/Williams $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1937/Palmer

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Citations

* Richard C. Smith (2005). Teaching English as a Foreign Language, 1936-1961: Selected Papers. Routledge. -- http://books.google.com/books?id=h8gwZAgNQZYC

## Wikimedia

| w: Basic English | w: English language learning and teaching |

## Related works

* Harold E. Palmer & Albert S. Hornby (1937). Thousand-word English: what it is and what can be done with it. G.G. Harrap & Company, Ltd. $^{[^]}$
* Ogden, C. K. (1930). Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar. London: Paul Treber. $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1936

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Subpages

* Literature/1936/Ayer $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1936/Keynes $^{[^]}$
* Lewin, Kurt (1936). Principles Of Topological Psychology. Munshi Press, 2007. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1936/Lovejoy $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1936/Merton $^{[^]}$
* Richards, I. A. (1936). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press. $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1936/Richards

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Chronology

* Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. $^{[^]}$
* Ortony, Andrew, ed. (1979). Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge University Press. 2nd. ed. 1993. $^{[^]}$
* Sacks, Sheldon, ed. (1978). Critical Inquiry, vol. 5, no. 1 (Special Issue: On Metaphor), University of Chicago. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1975/Becker $^{[^]}$
* Ricoeur, Paul (1975). The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language. Robert Czerny, Kathleen McLaughlin & John Costello, trans., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1962/Black $^{[^]}$
* Black, Max (1954). "Metaphor." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 55, pp. 273-294. $^{[^]}$
* Richards, I. A. (1936). The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press. $^{[^]}$
* Empson, William (1930). Seven Types of Ambiguity, 2nd ed., London: Chatto & Windus, 1949. $^{[^]}$
* Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$

### Further Readings

* Geoffrey Leech (1969). A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry
* Geoffrey Leech (1969). Towards a Semantic Description of English.
* Frank Laurence Lucas (1955). Style.
* Metaphor: Theories including a number of external links.
# Prime numbers

A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that cannot be formed by multiplying two or more smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number.
To test for whether a number n is prime, test whether the number is divisible by all integers from 2 to the square root of n.
This method trial division is very slow and can improved by other methods such as the AKS primality test.

## Readings

* Wikipedia: Prime number
* Wikipedia: Generating primes

## Multimedia

* YouTube: Prime Numbers and Composite Numbers
* YouTube: Prime Numbers - Sieve of Eratosthenes

## Activities

* Review MathsIsFun: Prime and Composite Numbers. Create a list of prime numbers less than 100.
* Review MathsIsFun: Prime Numbers Chart and Calculator. Compare your list of prime numbers less than 100 for accuracy. Use the prime number calculator to find a prime number greater than 1000.
* Review Wikipedia: Generating primes and ExtendOffice: How to Generate Prime Numbers in Excel. Use Excel to create your own prime number generator.
* Review Wikipedia: Generating primes and Prime number generators. Write your own program to generate prime numbers.

## Resources

* Prime number generators

## See Also

* Wikipedia: Prime number
* Wikipedia: List of prime numbers
* MathsIsFun: Prime Numbers Lists
# Primitive function/1 over square root x + square root x+1/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative for the function
    ${\frac {1}{{\sqrt {x}}+{\sqrt {x+1}}}}.$
# Primitive function/5x^3+4x-3 over x^2+1/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative of the function
    ${\frac {5x^{3}+4x-3}{x^{2}+1}}$
through partial fraction decomposition.
# Prime numbers/Prime number generators

This code is used on Python3.
The purpose of tqdm is to provide a nice progressbar for progress. It can be removed by replacing the second-to-last with
and removing the first line.
# Primitive function/1+3 sixth root x-2 over third root (x-2)^2 - square root x-2/Exercise

Determine an antiderivative (primitive function) of the function
    ${\frac {1+3{\sqrt[{6}]{x-2}}}{{\sqrt[{3}]{(x-2)^{2}}}-{\sqrt {x-2}}}}.$
# Primitive function/1 over 1- x^2/Fact/Proof

    ${\begin{aligned}{\left({\frac {1}{2}}\cdot \ln {\frac {1+x}{1-x}}\right)}^{\prime }&={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot {\frac {1-x}{1+x}}\cdot {\frac {(1-x)+(1+x)}{(1-x)^{2}}}\\&={\frac {1}{2}}\cdot {\frac {2}{(1+x)(1-x)}}\\&={\frac {1}{(1-x^{2})}}.\end{aligned}}$
# Prime numbers/Infinity/Fact/Proof

We assume that the set of all prime numbers is finite, say $\{p_{1},p_{2},\ldots ,p_{r}\}$ is a complete list of all prime numbers. We consider the number
    $N=p_{1}\cdot p_{2}\cdot p_{3}\cdots p_{r}+1\,.$
This number can not be divided by any of the prime numbers $p_{i}$, since the reminder of $N$ by division through $p_{i}$ is always $1$. Hence, the prime factors of $N$, which exist due to fact, are not contained in the given set. This is a contradiction.
# Primitive function/4x^2-3x+2/Value 3 at 5/Exercise

Determine a primitive function for
    $f(x)=4x^{2}-3x+2\,,$
whose value at $3$ equals $5$.
# Prime numbers/Program/Only addition/Exercise

Write a computer-program (in pseudocode) which decides for a given natural number $n\geq 2$ whether $n$ is a prime number or not.
The initial configuration is
    $(n,0,0,0,0,0,0,\ldots )$
with $n\geq 2$. The program is supposed to print "$n$ is a prime number“ or "$n$ is not a prime number“ and then stop.
# Server-Side Scripting/Iteration/Python (FastAPI)
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Python (FastAPI) to create a test environment.

## See Also

* FastAPI
# Server-Side Scripting/Iteration/PHP
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into the following free online development environment or use your own PHP compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* PHPFiddle
* Repl.it
# Server-Side Scripting/Iteration/Python (Flask)
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into the following free online development environment or use your own Python (Flask) compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Repl.it

## See Also

* Flask
# Server-Side Scripting/Key-Value Databases/Go
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Go to create a test environment.
# Server-Side Scripting/Key-Value Databases/Node.js (Express)
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Node.js (Express) to create a test environment.
# Server-Side Scripting/Iteration/Go
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Go to create a test environment.
# Server-Side Scripting/Iteration/Node.js (Express)
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Node.js (Express) to create a test environment.
# Server-Side Scripting/Introduction/Ruby
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into the following free online development environment or use your own Ruby compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Repl.it

## See Also

* Ruby
# Rational numbers/Comparing/573 by -1234 and -2007 by 4322/Exercise/Solution

Multiplication yields
    $573\cdot 4322=2476506{\text{ and }}1234\cdot 2007=2476638.$
Therefore
    ${\frac {573}{1234}}\leq {\frac {2007}{4322}}\,$
and so
    $p={\frac {573}{-1234}}={\frac {-573}{1234}}\geq {\frac {-2007}{4322}}=q\,.$
# Rational functions/Real numbers/Introduction/Section

Next to the polynomial functions, the simplest functions are the rational functions.

## Definition

For polynomials $P,Q\in \mathbb {R} [X]$, $Q\neq 0$, the function
    $D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,z\longmapsto {\frac {P(z)}{Q(z)}},$
where $D$ is the complement of the zeroes
$Q$
# Rational numbers/1 over 60/Representation with pure denominators/Exercise

Find a representation of the rational number $1/60$ as a sum of rational numbers, such that every denominator is a power of a prime number.
# Rational functions/Q/Computing example/Exercise

Compute in $\mathbb {Q} (X)$ the following expressions.
* The product
    ${\frac {2X^{3}-5X^{2}+X-1}{X^{2}-2X+6}}\cdot {\frac {X^{2}+3}{5X^{3}-4X^{2}-7}}.$
* The sum
    ${\frac {4X^{3}-X^{2}+6X-2}{X^{2}-4X-3}}+{\frac {X^{2}-3}{3X^{2}+5}}.$
* The inverse of
    ${\frac {6X^{3}-9X^{2}+5X-1}{X^{4}-4X^{3}+3X^{2}-8X-3}}.$
# Rational functions/Field/2/Introduction/Section

The polynomial ring $K[X]$ is a commutative ring, but not a field. However, we can construct a field which contains the polynomial ring with the help of the so-called formal-rational functions, in a similar way as we can construct the rational numbers $\mathbb {Q}$ from the integers $\mathbb {Z}$. For this, we define
    $K(X):={\left\{{\frac {P}{Q}}\mid P,Q\in K[X],\,Q\neq 0\right\}}\,,$
where we identify, like in $\mathbb {Q}$, two fractions ${\frac {P}{Q}}$ and ${\frac {P'}{Q'}}$, whenever
    $PQ'=P'Q\,$
holds. In this way, the field of rational functions (over $K$) arises.
The formal expression $P/Q$ can be considered as a function in the following way.

## Definition

Let $K$ be a field. For polynomials $P,Q\in K[X]$, $Q\neq 0$, the function
    $D\longrightarrow K,z\longmapsto {\frac {P(z)}{Q(z)}},$
where $D$ is the complement of the zeroes
$Q$
Next to the polynomial functions, the simplest functions are the rational functions.
# Rational functions/Examples/Sketch/Exercise

Sketch the graph of the following rational functions
    $f=g/h\colon U\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,$
where each time $U$ is the complement set of the set of the zeros of the denominator polynomial $h$.
* $1/x$,
* $1/x^{2}$,
* $1/(x^{2}+1)$,
* $x/(x^{2}+1)$,
* $x^{2}/(x^{2}+1)$,
* $x^{3}/(x^{2}+1)$,
* $(x-2)(x+2)(x+4)/(x-1)x(x+1)$.
# Rational numbers/Advanced Study

A rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction ${\frac {p}{q}}$ of two integers, a numerator p and a non-zero denominator q.

## Examples

* ${\frac {1}{2}}$
* 5
* 0.2
Notice the number 5 in second example! It is because all numbers are divisible by 1 and at such it is actually ${\frac {5}{1}}$ but it is more convenient to write it as 5. Note Though all numbers are divisible by 1 some numbers are considered irrational ie they cannot be represented in the form ${\frac {a}{b}}$ also note that it impossible to have a number with 0 as the denominator (b must not be equal to 0 in ${\frac {a}{b}}$).

## Operations Involving Rational Numbers
### Addition

${\frac {a}{b}}$ + ${\frac {c}{d}}$ = ${\frac {ad+bc}{cd}}$

### Subtraction

${\frac {a}{b}}$ - ${\frac {c}{d}}$ = ${\frac {ad-bc}{cd}}$

### Multiplication

${\frac {a}{b}}$ • ${\frac {c}{d}}$ = ${\frac {ac}{bd}}$

### Division

${\frac {a}{b}}$ ÷ ${\frac {c}{d}}$ = ${\frac {a}{b}}$ • ${\frac {d}{c}}$ = ${\frac {ad}{bc}}$.

## See Also

* Portal: Mathematics
* Wikipedia: Rational number
* MathsIsFun: Rational Numbers
# Rational numbers/Comparing/573 by -1234 and -2007 by 4322/Exercise

Determine which of the two rational numbers $p$ and $q$ is larger:
    $p={\frac {573}{-1234}}{\text{ and }}q={\frac {-2007}{4322}}.$
# Refresher/SDLC/Algorithms
### Presentation

| Construction - Part 4 | Algorithms | Data Structures | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Data Structures |
* Even number if (number % 2 == 0)
* Odd number if (number % 2 != 0)
* X is power of 2 if ((x != 0) && ((x & -x) == x))
* Middle item of a string LinkedList: mylist.ElementAt(mylist.Count/2)
* Regular expression in C#: Regex Replace FormatWith in correct syntax
* Sample recursive solution: private void ExpandNode { foreach (TreeViewItem node in Nodes) { ExpandNode(node); } }
* SortedList: mySL = new SortedList; mySL.Add(key1,value1);
* Hashtable: openWith = new Hashtable; openWith.Add("txt","notepad.exe");
* Hashtable speed: faster than SortedList
* String reversal: private static string rwr(string argSource, int argLen) { if (argLen == 1) return argSource; else return rwr(argSource.Substring(1, argSource.argLength-1),--argLen) + argSource[0].ToString; }
* Find duplicate value: map int array to HashTable
* Travelling salesman problem: a special case of the Traveling purchaser problem
* Traveling purchaser problem: route with minimum combined cost of purchases and travelling given marketplaces, travel costs, available goods and their prices
# Refresher/SDLC

This is a refresher course for those who need to review basic knowledge of Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC).

## Basic Concepts

* Key development models: waterfall, spiral, evolutionary and agile
* Key development phases: planning, implementation and deployment
* Key planning activities: gathering, analyzing and estimating requirements
* Key implementation activities: coding, testing and documenting
* Key deployment activities: installation, customization and maintenance

## FAQ

* Effective use of a BA can give waterfall an advantage.
* Audit proof means that agile is not an option.
# Refresher/SDLC/Abstract and Interface
### Presentation

| Construction | Abstract and Interface | Delegate and Polymorphism | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Delegate and Polymorphism |
* Abstract class (in C++, pure virtual method): blueprint for a class without any implementation and thus cannot be instantiated
* Abstract class methods: not all must be abstract, some can be concrete
* Abstract class required: when at least one of the methods in the class is abstract
* Abstract method: require non-abstract derived classes to provide their own implementation of this method
* Interface class: an abstract class with public abstract methods all of which must be implemented in the inherited classes
* Interface class methods: all must be abstract and public and thus accessibility modifiers not needed
* Multiple interfaces: can be inherited
* Namespace class: classes are declared inside a namespace
# Symbology/Keller
### The case of Helen Keller

@ Wikipedia: Helen Keller
When 19 months old, Helen Keller became blind and deaf, and eventually dumb, so helplessly and hopelessly handicapped especially from the communication point of view. Nevertheless, Anne Sullivan began to teach almost 7-year old Helen Keller how to communicate by spelling words, one letter after another, into Helen’s little palm. After a month of frustration, Helen Keller thrillingly learned to have namely WATER the idea in mind such that coupled w-a-t-e-r the spelling on the one hand with water the object on the other. This was her, and perhaps is our, beginning of learning! And this must demonstrate the advantage of the triadic over dyadic nature of learning as well as speaking and hearing.
* ↑ See "the beginning of wisdom" Ogden and Richards mentioned in favor of interpretation.
# Symbology/Terminology
### Terminology
#### Symbology (disambiguation)

* Symbology concerns the study of symbols
* Symbology may also refer to:
** Semiotics, study of signs and symbols
** Symbolism (disambiguation), use of symbols to represent ideas and emotions
** Symbology, a fictional academic discipline of which the character Robert Langdon is a professor

#### "Science of Symbolism"

* quoted from the subtitle of Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$
* "Symbology" may at least serve as a shorthand symbol standing for the "science of symbolism" as coined by the celebrated authors (1923).
* "Symbology" may well be worth a synonym to:
** Saussure's "semiology,"
** Welby's "signifies," and
** Peirce's "semiotics" in vogue.
* Neither "symbology" nor "symbolism" is in vogue in the sense Ogden and Richards would prefer.
* "Symbology" or "science of symbolism" may be defined as symbol to stand for the special paradigm Ogden and Richards have founded to influence studies on the influence of symbols upon thoughts.
# Symbology/Introduction
### Introduction by Umberto Eco

       to the 1989 impression of Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$
Are Ogden and Richards highly celebrated? Surely, for instance, by a celebrated semiotician, Umberto Eco, who "founded and developed one of the most important approaches in contemporary semiotics, usually referred to as interpretative semiotics," In the Introduction to the 1989 impression of The Meaning of Meaning (1923), Eco wrote that "it was undoubtedly a seminal book, whose merit was to say certain things very much in advance of its time; and indeed many of its promptings have not yet been completely accepted by scholars.*" In the footnote he added: "*For confirmation of the work's importance we need only glance at its five prefaces: a book that has gone through so many editions and updatings has obviously aroused impassioned interest."
In agreement with Ogden and Richards, Eco sees "our whole experience as an interaction with signs, and this interaction as an activity of interpretation, is today one of the 'hot' issues of the semiotic debate." Accordingly, Eco as a specialist in "interpretative semiotics" quotes as follows:
   Throughout almost all our life we are treating things as signs. All experience, using the word in the widest possible sense, is either enjoyed or interpreted (i.e., treated as a sign) or both, and very little of it escapes some degree of interpretation. An account of the process of Interpretation is thus the key to the understanding of the Sign-situation, and therefore the beginning of wisdom. It is astonishing that although the need for such an account has long been a commonplace in psychology, those concerned with the criticism and organization of our knowledge have with few exceptions entirely ignored the consequences of its neglect. (pp. 50-51)
The shortest, hence perhaps the most piercing, paragraph may be: "To read The Meaning of Meaning is not then to learn to speak in a 'perfect' way, but rather to learn what it means to speak in an imperfect way." Hence, the question of interpretation matters so vitally in life.
* ↑ to come