# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Multiple selves theory, motivation, and emotion

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Imagine this...
* Figure 1. Reflecting on the multiple versions of yourself as you look in the mirror.
* You wake up one morning with a sense of clarity, feeling an unusual surge of motivation. As you look in the mirror, you see not just one reflection, but multiple versions of yourself, each representing different aspects of your identity. One version is the early-rising gym goer, starting the day with a structured routine. Another is the hard-working student, organising and planning the tasks of the semester. Yet another is the social being, eager to connect with friends and family (see Figure 1).
* As you step out into the world, you begin to wonder: How do these different selves coexist within you? How do they shape your interactions with society? How well do you truly know these different aspects of yourself?
The concept of the self has been long explored in research, building our understanding of identity across many disciplines of psychology (Baumeister, 1987). Traditionally, the self has been viewed as singular, where our motivations and emotions are experienced from a unified whole (Lester, 2012). However, contemporary psychologists have expanded this notion to include the concept of self-schemas, cognitive structures that help us to organise and interpret information about ourselves (Markus, 1977). Self-schemas are dynamic and dependent on context, reflecting the diverse and multi-layered disposition of our identities (Markus, 1977).
Building on from self-schemas, the theory of multiple selves advocates the idea of having a collection of distinct, psychological processes in the mind (Lester, 2012). Each self represents different aspects of our identity, which is activated in various situations and social contexts (Markus & Nurius, 1986). This book chapter uses psychological science to explore key aspects of multiple selves theory by exploring how multiple selves influences our motivational and emotional responses, reviewing the benefits of having multiple selves, and addressing the challenges that arise from having multiple versions of the self.
* Focus questions:
* How does psychological theory about multiple selves explain motivational and emotional impacts?
* How does the concept of multiple selves enhance personal growth and adaptability in various life contexts?
* What are the potential psychological and practical challenges associated with managing multiple selves?

## How does psychological theory about multiple selves explain motivational and emotional impacts?

There are many psychological theorists that have attempted to describe the concept of 'multiple selves', with each theory demonstrating a similar idea of one's multidimensional self-concept in relation to human behaviour (Lester, 2012). This section explores three key seminal theories that analyse the idea of multiple versions of the self, and the effect of these theories on motivation and emotion.

### The actual self and ideal self

Rogers' (1951) theory on the 'actual self' and the 'ideal self' is a key aspect of his humanistic approach to psychology. The actual self reflects how an individual sees themself in this very moment, embracing a person's self-esteem and self-image (Rogers, 1951). The ideal self reflects who an individual hopes to be, encompassing a person's aspirations, goals and values (Rogers, 1951). Rogers' (1951) believed that when the two selves overlap, an individual experiences 'congruence', leading to positive motivational and emotional wellbeing. If there is a gap between the two selves, a person experiences 'incongruence', leading to unhappiness and dissatisfaction (Rogers, 1951). Possessing an ideal self can motivate an individual to pursue and achieve one's goals and aspirations (see Figure 2).
With Rogers' theory often discussed and applied across psychological research, many have applied his humanistic theory to motivation and emotion. Hu et al. (2019) created a literature review on the true self, an adaptation of the actual self, and how it is expressed in the online world. Described as an extension of the original concept, the true self is seen as a critical part of an individual's self-concept that represents a person intrinsically (Hu et al., 2019). Results indicated that the true self may be more easily expressed online, rather than in face-to-face situations (Hu et al., 2019). Interacting online and expressing your 'true self' can positively impact one's emotional wellbeing, therefore enhancing self-esteem. In addition, Shi et al. (2016) examined the neural areas that activate during incongruence - the ventral striatum and the dorsal striatum, areas that involve the need for reward. These brain regions are also linked with negative affect, supporting the idea that incongruence can lead to emotional distress (Shi et al., 2016). Collectively, aligning one's actual self with their ideal self can enhance motivation and emotional wellbeing, encouraging goal-making and reducing emotional strain.

### Ego states

Berne (1958) developed the idea of 'ego states' as part of his theory Transactional Analysis (TA). Based off Freud's psychoanalysis, Berne (1958) suggested that an individual's personality is divided into three separate ego states: the parent, the adult, and the child. The description and function of the three states are presented below (see Table 1). Berne (1958) believed that the ego states interacted with each other, providing the opportunity for one to resolve internal conflicts that occur within the self.
Table 1. Berne's Three Ego States
| | Description | Function |
| Parent ego state | contains internalised attitudes, behaviours and feelings from parents/parental figures seen as nurturing/supportive or critical/controlling. | influences response to situations decision-making based on learned behaviours and values. |
| Adult ego state | operates in the present processes information and problem-solving. | assesses situations based on facts decision-making based on present (no influence from past experiences). |
| Child ego state | feelings, thoughts and behaviours that are reflected from childhood seen as spontaneous/creative or fearful/dependent. | influences emotional responses decision-making based on past experiences or needs that are unmet. |
(Berne, 1958)
The concept of 'ego states' and Berne's TA theory has been applied widely in psychological science to understand motivational and emotional impacts. For example, Vos and Rign (2022) conducted a meta-analysis that found TA treatments had a significant positive effect on ego states, enhancing motivation and leading to healthier emotional responses. These findings indicated that individuals who participate in TA treatment can lead to a healthy and balanced union of ego states, where decision-making can align with needs and goals of the self (Vos & Rign, 2022). Additionally, Rahiman and Kodikal (2024) investigated how ego states influence banker's productivity and organisational skills in the workplace. This study found that the banker's had higher levels of a child ego state, impacting their motivation by taking less initiative in their work (Rahiman & Kodikal, 2024). A high child ego state can also lead to emotional stress and burnout due to unmet needs. Taken together, understanding and balancing ego states can enhance both motivation and emotional wellbeing.

### Possible selves

The theory of 'possible selves' represents a person's idea of what they might be, what they would like to be, and what they fear they will become (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Markus and Nurius (1986) believed our possible selves generate a link between motivation and cognition, where our past experiences are compared with our future behaviour in relation to goals, fears and hopes (see Figure 3). Our possible selves motivate us by comparing our 'desired' future self with our 'feared' future self, prompting us to take action on aligning our goals with our desired outcomes (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Even though possible selves are considered separate to 'now' selves, Markus and Nurius (1986) believed all selves are connected.
The concept of 'possible selves' has been applied to various settings to identify the impact of motivational and emotional experiences. For example, Corte et al. (2020) completed a systematic review that analysed how possible selves influence health behaviours in adolescents. Most of the identified studies looked at health-risk behaviours, where adolescents with a 'negative possible self' participated in high-risk behaviours to cope with their fears of the future (Corte et al., 2020). Possessing a negative possible self can create fear and anxiety, leading to a lack of motivation to envision a positive future self. Similarly, Schubert et al. (2020) conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the impact of future imagination and affect. The results indicated that a future imagination, whether positive or negative, can impact affective wellbeing (Schubert et al., 2020). All in all, future-oriented thinking can either boost or reduce motivation, influencing goal-making and future outcomes.
Scenario
"Now, I am a Doctor of Philosophy, but I could be a gym enthusiast, a rock climber, a blogger, or the parent of two children."
Which theory of multiple selves best describes the scenario above?
Possible selves
Ego states
The actual self :

## How does the concept of multiple selves enhance personal growth and adaptability in various life contexts?

* Imagine this...Figure 4. Engaging in personal passions, such as camping, is a part of balancing the ideal self.
* As a young professional, you envision different versions of yourself: the now self, focussed on your studies and career growth; the future self, aspiring to be a psychologist; and the ideal self, balancing work, family and personal passions. Each self provides unique insights and skills, allowing you to thrive in various life contexts (see Figure 4).
* What hidden potentials will you uncover as you navigate your multiple selves? How will you integrate these selves to thrive in your daily life?
Numerous studies have explored the benefits of embracing multiple selves, using psychological science to identify how the various facets of one's identity can aid in achieving goals and reaching personal fulfilment in life (Ng et al., 2021). This section explores how possessing a multiple self can benefit in personal growth and adaptability across different life contexts.

### Personal growth

Researchers have hypothesised that embracing multiple versions of the self can be beneficial for enhancing personal growth. For example, Zamorano-Garcia et al. (2023) conducted a meta-analysis exploring the positive effects of the physical self in children and adolescents, identifying how a positive physical self-concept can improve the overall self. Results indicated that children and adolescents with a positive physical self not only displayed resilience and motivation towards their goals, but also showed improvements in their self-perceived physical appearance and competence (Zamorano-Garcia et al., 2023). Having a positive physical self-concept can also close the gap between the ideal self and the actual self, leading to goal-achieving and a healthy lifestyle (Rogers, 1951). Comparably, Ng et al. (2021) analysed the relationship between multiple selves and life satisfaction. The results indicated that having multiple versions of the self can predict life satisfaction, as long as a person perceives their multiple selves as compatible and connected (Ng et al., 2021). These findings are similar to the theory of Markus and Nurius (1986), who believed all selves should be seen as connected. When reflecting on oneself, considering the bigger picture and the interplay of multiple selves can lead to personal growth, positively impacting motivational and emotional experiences.

### Adaptability

Understanding the multiple versions of the self can significantly enhance adaptability in various life contexts. For example, Gaither et al. (2015) explored how possessing multiple social identities can enhance creativity and problem-solving skills. The results indicated that individuals, whether multiracial or monoracial, demonstrated greater creativity when reminded that they have multiple social selves (Gaither et al., 2015). Embracing multiple selves encourages one to analyse problems from different perspectives and adapt more easily to various life contexts. These findings closely relate to the theory of possible selves, where cognition and motivation are linked, integrating our culture and history with our decision-making (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Additionally, Belk (2016) analysed how technology has transformed the self, where individuals can express different versions of their identity through an online world. Belk (2016) found that one's self now included the contribution of others through comments, likes and shares via online platforms. Furthermore, Belk (2016) identified that the self was now more than simply the physical body, but an extension through digital platforms where personal memories can be stored and viewed. Being able to integrate one's multiple selves on an online platform can create a connected and adaptable self-concept. By integrating the different selves online, the ideal self and the actual self can overlap (Rogers, 1951). Taken together, embracing the many versions of the self can lead to adaptability in various life situations.
What is a key factor that can enhance personal growth and life satisfaction when considering multiple selves?
Viewing multiple selves as separate and distinct
Perceiving multiple selves as compatible and connected
Ignoring the interplay of multiple selves :

## What are the potential psychological and practical challenges associated with managing multiple selves?

* Imagine this...Figure 5. The stress of navigating your multiple selves can impact your emotional wellbeing.
* By day, you're a hard-working research assistant. By night, a devoted mother. On weekends, you're a motivated student, and at dawn, a frequent gym goer. But beneath your composed exterior lies a web of psychological stress and dilemmas (see Figure 5).
* How do you cope when you start to lose motivation? How do you manage your emotional exhaustion? What hidden struggles do you face as you navigate your multiple selves?
There is extensive research that analyses the challenges of having multiple selves, such as conflicts in decision-making and role confusion (Dzinovic, 2020). This section outlines the psychological and practical difficulties in managing the multiple aspects of our identity.

### Psychological challenges

The psychological challenges associated with managing multiple selves are highlighted in research on Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT), a therapeutic approach that promotes self-acceptance (Bell et al., 2021). Bell et al. (2021) explored the use of CFT in treating depression, focusing on differentiating the multiple selves to address emotional strain. Results indicated that multiple selves can sometimes lead to conflicting emotions and motivations, making it difficult to differentiate between the emotions that arise from each self (Bell et al., 2021). These challenges demonstrate the child ego state, where emotional responses are based on childhood experiences, a time when identifying specific emotions was challenging (Berne, 1958). CFT can support individuals in regulating and integrating their emotions, reconnecting the multiple selves to achieve emotional wellbeing. Similarly, Asano (2019) analysed how emotions are explored during CFT, specifically through the concept of multiple selves. Asano (2019) observed that confusion and rumination occurred when participants did not combine their many emotional selves, leading to internal conflict. These challenges can lead to the development of a negative possible self, a state filled with fear and anxiety where goals seem unattainable (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Taken together, psychotherapy can support individuals in facing their psychological challenges, helping them to integrate and accept their multiple selves.

### Practical challenges

Researchers have analysed the difficulties that arise in real situations when managing multiple selves. For example, Dzinovic (2020) explored the internal conflict within the self between 'dominant voices' and 'resistant voices'. Dzinovic (2020) described dominant voices as ambitions and expectations within society, whereas resistant voices were described as personal desires. This case study focused on adolescents balancing these two voices, where one part of the self could easily dominate the other (Dzinovic, 2020). Dzinovic (2020) found the students experienced internal struggles, conflicting goals and emotional conflicts. This dispute between selves is similar to the parent ego state, making decisions based on values, and the child ego state, making decisions based on unmet needs (Berne, 1958). Developing self-awareness of the multiple selves, or voices, can support navigating motivations and emotions more effectively. Comparably, Landers et al. (2024) investigated emotions of the self, specifically shame and guilt, and compared the nature of these emotions across two different cultures. Landers et al. (2024) found that these two emotions were provoked at different times; guilt appeared when the self was attempting to minimise harm towards others, and shame appeared when one wanted to reduce damage to the self. This evidence was found across both cultures, suggesting that managing multiple selves occurs in people across differing cultural contexts (Landers et al., 2024). Experiencing guilt and shame can create internal conflict within the self; similar to Berne's (1958) theory, the two selves are considered separate yet interact. All in all, managing multiple selves requires balance, where individuals need to find ways to satisfy the needs of multiple selves without compromising motivation and emotional wellbeing.
What is one of the psychological challenges associated with managing multiple selves?
Difficulty in achieving physical well-being
Confusion and rumination when selves are not integrated
Increased motivation and goal attainment :

## Conclusion

The concept of multiple selves greatly impacts our motivational and emotional experiences, as explored through various psychological theories and empirical studies. Exploring the interactions among various aspects of the self leads to a deeper understanding of how internal conflicts influence our motivations and emotions. Seminal theories about multiple selves, such as Rogers' (1951) theory on the 'actual self' and the 'ideal self', illustrate how internal conflicts can lead to an incongruent gap between the selves. Similarly, Markus and Nurius' (1986) theory on the 'possible selves' creates a link between our past experiences and our future behaviour. Finally, Berne's (1958) 'ego states' describe three selves that require interaction to resolve internal conflicts.
The benefits of multiple selves promote personal growth and adaptability. A positive physical self-concept enhances resilience and motivation (Zamorano-Garcia et al., 2023), while perceiving multiple selves as connected predicts life satisfaction (Ng et al., 2021). Integrating multiple selves boosts creativity and problem-solving (Gaither et al., 2015), aiding adaptability in various contexts. Additionally, managing multiple selves presents both psychological and practical challenges. Psychologically, individuals may experience conflicting emotions and motivations, as highlighted by research on CFT (Bell et al., 2021; Asano, 2019). Practically, balancing issues within the self can lead to internal struggles and emotional conflicts (Dzinovic, 2020).
In conclusion, understanding and managing multiple selves is an ongoing journey. By developing self-awareness and balancing competing selves, one can effectively enhance motivational and emotional wellbeing. This not only fosters personal growth and adaptability, but also leads to a more fulfilling and balanced life.