# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Temporal motivation theory

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Have you ever had a really important exam coming up - one that could significantly impact your future? You understand how crucial it is to pass, and you're confident in your ability to understand the content if you just put in the effort. Only when you sit down to study, something keeps stopping you from making the most of your time (see Figure 1)? As you begin you find yourself distracted by almost anything else. You find yourself checking your phone constantly, cleaning your room and even reorganising your wardrobe. Even though you are aware of how important this exam is you keep putting it off to do other things that provide you with immediate satisfaction?
Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) is a psychological framework that explains how time-related factors influence motivation. Developed by Piers Steel and Cornelius J. König in 2006, TMT integrates elements from various motivation theories to provide a comprehensive understanding of why people procrastinate, how they prioritise tasks, and what drives them to complete certain activities (Steel & König, 2006). TMT argues that motivation is shaped through the interaction of expectancy, value, delay and impulsiveness. It explains that decision-making and procrastination are driven by decreased motivation when rewards are delayed, particularly in impulsive individuals, leading to a preference for short-term satisfaction over long-term goals. For a deeper understanding of student motivation, see the book chapter on student motivation theories.
This book chapter explains TMT and its influence on decision making, highlighting its significance in practical everyday applications. It explains the relevant psychological theories and frameworks that underpin TMT and its influence on decision making. Understanding TMT is crucial not only for enhancing productivity for individuals but also for designing effective strategies in education, occupational management and goal-setting.
* Focus questions
* How does time influence motivation and therefore decision-making?
* What is the relationship between TMT and decision making in different aspects of one's life?
* How does TMT influence procrastination tendencies in educational and workplace settings?

## Temporal Motivation Theory

TMT is a psychological framework developed by Piers Steel and Cornelius J, König in 2006, that explains how time-related factors influence motivation. It achieves this by integrating concepts from expectancy value theory, need theory and prospect theory (Steel & König, 2006). According to TMT, motivation increases when individuals have greater confidence in their ability to achieve a desired outcome (expectancy) and when that outcome is perceived as valuable. This suggests that when individuals believe they can succeed and see real world value in what they are trying to accomplish, they are more motivated to take action (Steel et al., 2018). Conversely, TMT suggests that motivation tends to decrease when there is a delay before the reward is received, particularly for those who are sensitive to such delays (impulsiveness) (Steel et al., 2018). The theory emphasizes the complex interplay between these key factors.
As a meta-theory, TMT combines empirically validated aspects from previous motivational theories, making it a thorough approach to understanding how various elements interact to shape our motivation and understand procrastination and decision-making. It suggests that when individuals feel highly confident about completing a task and view that task as valuable, their motivation increases, leading to reduced procrastination (Steel et al., 2018). For example, if a person is motivated to become fit and lose weight (see Figure 2), their expectancy of successfully working out and the value they place on their health can enhance their motivation. However, high impulses for junk food, and the perception of a long delay in seeing results may lead to procrastination, making it more difficult stay committed. This understanding can be particularly beneficial in educational, professional and health settings, where motivation may be crucial for success.
Additionally, TMT highlights the effects of task aversiveness and reward delay. If a task is perceived as hard or the reward is far off, motivation decreases, especially among highly impulsive individuals who may favour immediate rewards over long-term goals[factual?]. By delaying a task, individuals attempt to think less and put in less effort (Bok et al., 2024). This procrastination allows the individual to avoid feelings of stress and the need to work until it becomes inevitable. As deadlines approach, motivation often experiences a surge[factual?]. This increase is driven by a sense of urgency and the shortening time frame, which can prevent tendencies to procrastinate[factual?].
Ultimately, TMT offers valuable insights into the processes of motivation, procrastination and decision making. By understanding the factors that influence motivation, individuals can develop strategies to make better decisions to enhance their focus and productivity, particularly when facing challenging tasks or long-term goals. The framework encourages a proactive approach to goal setting and task management, encouraging individuals to utilize their motivation more effectively.

### The TMT Formula

A simplified formula has been developed to explain and demonstrate TMT: Motivation = Expectancy x Value / Impulsiveness x Delay.
As both Expectancy and Value increase, so does the individuals[grammar?] motivation to complete the task. (Ruth Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023). Conversely, the higher the impulsiveness and the longer the delay, the lower the motivation becomes (Ruth Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023).
Quiz yourself!
1. Which of these does NOT influence Temporal Motivation theory?
Expectancy
Value
Self-efficacy
Delay :

## Integration with Other Theories

TMT is a meta-theory, which combines the core principles and ideas of a number of other theories, including;

### Expectancy Value Theory (EVT)

Expectancy Value Theory (EVT) suggests that achievement related choices are motivated and driven by the individuals[grammar?] expectation of success and the value they place relative to the task, the two dimensions work alongside one another to determine how much effort an individual will invest into the process (Shang et al., 2022). For example, if a student was to find a task particularly challenging, their expectancy for success would be lower, leading to a decrease in overall motivation (see Figure 3). The model further separate [missing something?] into four components. These include attainment value (the importance of doing well), intrinsic value (enjoyment personally), utility value (usefulness for future goals) and cost (competition with other goals) (Leaper, 2011)[grammar?]. EVT provides a framework for understanding the motivation across various contexts including career development, educational institutes and personal growth. TMT uses key [which?] components of EVT to explain motivation.

### Need Theory

Need theory, originating from Murray's (1938) system of needs, suggests that intrinsic needs drive behaviour and motivation by directing individuals towards actions that satisfy those needs (Anderson, 1988). These needs include primary and secondary, with key secondary needs including the need for affiliation, power and achievement (Anderson, 1988). The strength of these needs influences behaviour, as the theory suggests that individuals tend to act on their most critical needs. TMT integrates these key concepts of by emphasizing how need intensity and external factors shape motivation over time, demonstrating how changing need states and the urgency created by these circumstances can impact decision-making and motivation in a variety of contexts (Steel & König, 2006).

### Prospect Theory

Prospect Theory, also known as Cumulative Prospect Theory, is a key theory that describes how people make decisions when facing uncertainty, where a risk may be involved and the different outcomes are unknown (Tversky & Kahneman, 1992). The theory suggests that people see gains and losses differently, often placing a heavier value on experiencing losses. When given two choices, one being a potential gain and the other a potential loss, people are more likely to choose the option that emphasises the gains (Tversky & Kahneman, 1992). TMT utilises key concepts from prospect theory by suggesting that people's motivation to act a particular way is influenced by their perception of potential gains and losses over time. This framing can therefore affect individuals[grammar?] decisions and the urgency in these choices, as individuals may prioritise tasks that minimise perceived losses over those that increase potential gains (Steel & König, 2006). For example, individuals are more likely to avoid an uncertain investment that could lead to a loss, even if there is a chance for a bigger gain, because of the fear of losing what they already have (see Figure 4).

## What is Decision-Making?

Decision-making refers to cognitive processes that involve selecting a course of action from two or more options. These options can range from relatively clear to very complex. This process takes into account an individuals[grammar?] goals, values and their available information (Wang & Ruhe, 2007). Effective decision-making is crucial for achieving objectives, solving problems, and managing resources and people effectively. It also plays a vital role in assessing risks, adapting to change and achieving success, particularly in today's unstable environments in which both organisations and individuals operate today (Nadolna & Beyer, 2021).
There are a number of psychological theories and frameworks that underpin individuals[grammar?] ability to make decisions, a prominent theory mentioned in the literature is;

### Dual-process Theory

Dual-process theory is a psychological framework that suggests that decision-making involves two distinctive systems of thinking. System 1 is described as operating unconsciously and relies on intuitive and quick responses, often based on past experiences. While, system 2 engages in more analytical and deliberate thinking, using controlled attention and working memory (Djulbegovic et al., 2012)[grammar?]. This theory explains how people make decisions by explaining the different cognitive mechanisms involved, and how these mechanisms can be used to make more effective decisions. The Dual-process theory provides an explanation to understand the individuality of human reasoning, emphasising that decision making is influenced by the interplay between intuitive and reflective thought processes (Bellini-Leite, 2022)

## How does TMT Influence Decision-Making?

After looking at the psychological theories regarding TMT and its key components as well as the psychological underpinning of decision making, the influence of TMT on decision making can now be discussed.

### Task Prioritisation and Temptation Control

TMT explains that people are more motivated to choose and make decisions regarding the tasks that will provide them with immediate rewards over those with delayed outcomes. This means when individuals are faced with multiple decisions, [grammar?] they might prioritise those that offer quicker gratification, even if the long-term, benefits of another task are greater (Steel et al., 2018). For example, someone who is trying to eat healthier may see the immediate pleasure of junk food as more rewarding than the long term benefits of healthy eating, leading them to choose the junk food despite their future goal. TMT can therefore be used to enhance task prioritization by redirecting focus to the urgency of deadlines, as well as suggesting that cognitively redirecting an individuals[grammar?] attention away from temptation (e.g., junk food) has the ability to decrease procrastination and increase motivation (Steel et al., 2018). This refocusing helps in managing impulsiveness but also informs an individuals[grammar?] decision making by encouraging prioritisation of high-value tasks that align more with their own goals.

### Time-management and Procrastination

TMT explores decision-making in regards to procrastination and time management (see Figure 5), explaining that the longer the delay before receiving a reward, the less motivated people will be to actively work on that task. It explores the idea that decisions are delayed until the deadline approaches the delay decreases, suddenly increasing the individuals[grammar?] motivation (Bok et al., 2024). TMT suggests that individuals consciously evaluate dislikes, future incentives, as well as time delay's[grammar?] before making the decision to perform the task. For example, a student may leave studying for an important exam until a few days before due to the longer timeframe, but as the exam approaches, pressure increases their decision to study and prioritise passing the exam. Steel et al.[grammar?] (2018) meta-analysis on self-regulatory failure suggests that TMT can be used to increase productivity and decrease procrastination by revealing several self-regulatory technique's[grammar?] (e.g. energy regulation and goal attention control). Their results conclude that in order to deal with procrastination in a more effective way, individuals and future research should focus on how time influences decision-making.

### Goals

TMT influences decision-making by shaping how individuals choose and pursue goals. TMT suggests that motivation increases as deadlines or the finishing product approaches, causing procrastination for those who struggle with distant goals. Additionally, TMT explains intention-action gap, which suggests that individuals fail to follow through with plans and actions, often reversing their preferences as deadlines approach. This results in people delaying their efforts until the last minute, impacting their decision-making and ability to meet deadlines effectively (Steel et al., 2018). By understanding this dynamic and the effect of TMT and decision making on goals individuals can introduce strategies to reduce procrastination levels, for example breaking larger tasks and goals into smaller more manageable ones can create a sense of urgency and make progress more visible (Steel, 2007).

### Effort Allocation

Finally, TMT influences decision-making by determining the amount of effort a person will produce when completing a task or behaviour. It suggests that when faced with a task individuals think about two things; how likely they are to succeed and how rewarding the task will be (expectancy and value) (Steel et al., 2018). If the task is viewed as valuable and there is a strong likelihood for success, an individual is more likely to choose it over another task. Conversely, if they believe they will fail and/or the reward is minimal they will be more inclined to choose to avoid it or put less effort in (Steel & König, 2006). Consequently, this influences their decision-making regarding how to allocate their time. For example, if in an individual has decided to train for a marathon (see Figure 6), according to TMT they will weigh their chances of success against the value of completing the race. If they believe they will be successful and find completing it meaningful, they're more likely to make decisions that commit to a training regiment, if not, they may avoid the effort altogether.

## Applications

TMT has the potential to improve the way individuals make decisions and therefore improve productivity and goal achievement across multiple domains.
TMT emphasises the importance of breaking down long-term goals into smaller, short-term goals that provide instant gratification or rewards. This approach involves individuals feeling that tasks are more manageable and urgent, therefore increasing there[grammar?] motivation to complete them.
Consider Jason from the case study as an example, splitting his larger future tasks into smaller ones, will not only increase his productivity, but reduce stress ultimately leading to better decision making. Educational setting[grammar?] should also incorporate TMT into assessment schedules to encourage students to avoid last minute cramming. By spacing out assessment task[grammar?] and providing regular activities that engage with content, as this encourages students to make decisions that overall improve their academic performance (Bok et al., 2024).
TMT also has clinical implications. This is evident in a study conducted by Ruth Netzer Turgeman and Pollak (2023) who revealed that individuals diagnosed with Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often procrastinate, and that the combination impulsiveness and expectancy explain the association. The study found that ADHD symptoms (see Figure 7) significantly and positively correlated with levels of procrastination, impulsiveness and task aversiveness and negatively correlated with expectancy. This suggests that TMT can be used in the treatment and management of ADHD individuals by tailoring interventions to focus on helping prioritise focus on the long-term benefits of a task and perceive the task completion as more attainable (Ruth Netzer Turgeman & Pollak, 2023).
Case Study: Influence of TMT on decision making - Samantha's Journey to 5km
Samantha has set a goal to run 5 kilometres without taking a break by the end of the year. She is looking forward to the challenge, but is finding it hard to stay committed and consistent with her training. How can Samantha apply Temporal Motivation Theory to her goal in regards to;
Expectancy?
Samantha will determine how likely she is to succeed based on her previous running experiences and her fitness level, if she feels uncertain about completing the distance her motivation will decrease. To boost her expectancy she could consult with a personal trainer who can help her create a training plan which may increase her confidence in her goal.
Value?
Samantha needs to place value on her goal in order to stay motivated. To make the decision to continue running and stay motivated, she needs to see it as a way to better herself and improve her health.
Delay?
Samantha's timeline of her goals influence her overall motivation and decision making. Setting her goal for the end of the year means Samantha may experience a decrease in motivation due to the distance between now and her goal. According to TMT Samantha should set smaller goals, such as running 1km without stopping by the end of the month, to provide more immediate rewards.
Impulsiveness?
There will be times that Samantha will feel tempted to skip a training session to see her friends or catch up on a TV show. According to TMT Samantha should recognise this and use a scheduling app or other strategy to reinforce her commitment to her goal and resist impulses. :

## Conclusion

TMT influences decision-making by explaining how individuals prioritise their tasks and therefore manage their time based on expectancy, value, delay and impulsiveness. TMT explores why people procrastinate, particularly when tasks or goals are distant or perceived as less rewarding, and how they can improve their approach to make more effective and beneficial decisions.
TMT provides insight into how time influences motivation and ultimately decision making by suggesting that the longer the delay before receiving a reward, the less motivated people will be to actively work on a task or behaviour.
A primary way TMT influences decision making in all aspects of human life is through task prioritisation. The theory suggests that individuals are more likely to choose tasks that offer them more immediate and satisfying rewards, and this can lead to less than optimal decisions where short-term gratification is a higher priority than the more beneficial but further away outcomes. Through the understanding of this, individuals and groups can attempt to make a conscious effort to adjust their decision-making process to better suit their long term objectives.
The key message to take from the understanding of TMT and decision-making is that the perception of time has a large influence on an individuals[grammar?] motivation and decision-making across a range of contexts. Understanding how, and managing expectancy, value, delay and impulsiveness has the potential to increase productivity, personal growth and make aspects of ones's life easier.