# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping for educators

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Case study: Emily
* Figure 1. An example of teacher and students' interaction in the classroom.
* Emily is a 33-year-old middle school teacher who has generally had a positive rapport with students. Lately, she has been experiencing significant distress due to occupational violence in her classroom. One of her students named Mike, became increasingly disruptive during the lessons. When Emily enforced classroom rules, Mike responded aggressively and threatened her with physical violence. Once, Mike pushed Emily, causing her to fall and sustain minor injuries. Emily feels threatened and unsafe in her own classroom after faced several incidents. Additionally, Emily has started to experience growing conflicts with colleagues as her stress levels have risen, which further exacerbated her anxiety.
* Emily has been having trouble falling asleep and began having vivid nightmares. She felt increasingly unsafe and has become withdrawn, even around colleagues with whom she previously has good relationships with. These issues have significantly affected Emily’s emotional well-being and job performance. As a result, she is now considering resigning due to fear of her declining mental health and strained relationships with colleagues are impairing her effectiveness as a teacher.
All workers have the right to a safe and healthy workplace. While there are implemented policies and a range of resources aimed to keep workers safe, harassment, bullying and exposure to violence contributing to nearly 40% of mental illness claims at work.[Use APA style citation]. This alarming statistic highlights the pervasive nature of workplace violence and its severe impact on workers’ mental health, which underscore the urgent need to address this issue.
By integrating psychological theories and current research, this book chapter fosters a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by educators and emphasises the importance of creating safe and supportive educational environments (see Figure 1). The chapter also explores the emotional impacts and consequences of occupational violence on educators, and offers evidence-based coping strategies to enhance educators' well-being and professional effectiveness.
* Focus questions:
* What is occupational violence?
* What psychological theories explain occupational violence?
* What are the sources of occupational violence in educational settings?
* What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence?
* What strategies can help educators to cope with occupational violence?

## Introduction to occupational violence

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### What is occupational violence?

Occupational violence (OV) refers to any action, incident or behaviour of aggression, abuse, or assault that occurs in the workplace. OV is a serious concern across different industries, thus understanding OV is crucial for maintaining a safe work environment.

### Types of occupational violence

OV is a complex phenomenon characterised by a range of behaviours that can occur in isolation or simultaneously, which affecting individuals at different levels, from physical to the emotional, psychological and relational (Jevtic et al., 2014; Berlanda et al., 2019). Different types of OV are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
Types of Occupational Violence
| Types of Occupational Violence | Description |
| Physical Violence | Assaults, hitting, pushing that can cause physical injuries (see Figure 2). |
| Emotional Violence | Verbal abuse, insults or threats that do not lead to physical injury (Carmi-Iluz et al., 2005). |
| Psychological Violence | Bullying, harassment, and intimidation that affect an individual’s cognitive functioning and mental health. |
| Relational Violence | Verbal abuse, such as yelling and shouting, spreading rumours and exclusionary behaviour to undermine interpersonal relationships within the workplace (Lansford et al., 2012). |

## Theoretical foundation of occupational violence

Why does OV occur? There are many factors that increase the risk of OV. This section will explain the theoretical foundation of OV.

### Frustration-aggression theory

Frustration-aggression theory is a theory of aggression introduced by Dollard et al. (1939), [grammar?] it states that frustration often leads to aggressive behaviour. This theory emphasises the role of external factors of stress in generating aggression, which provides a framework for understanding how OV can arise from the interplay between frustration and aggressive responses. In the context of OV, the theory explains aggressive behaviours as a result of frustrating events.. The presence of various stressors can negatively impact the organisational climate, which leads to stressful workplace climate. For instance, unresolved frustrations that prevent individuals from achieving their goals, such as excessive workloads and conflicts with peers or supervisors. This stressful environment can elicit employee’s negative feelings such as psychological discomfort and blocking of professional goals, which in turn can result in aggressive behaviours towards their colleagues or subordinates. Accordingly, when individuals are unable to meet their goals, they experience frustration, resulting in aggressive acts directed at those nearby (see Figure 3). Additionally, this framework often describes predator-type workplace bullying, where the victim is unintentionally near the aggressor, who displaces their anger onto them.

### Social learning theory

Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory proposed that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and reinforcement within their social environment. This theory provides an explanatory model to aggression, which describes aggression as behaviour that causes psychological or physical harm to a person (Bandura, 1973). Bandura explains this behaviour as a result of continuous interaction between the individual and environment through observation or direct experience.
* The Bobo Doll Experiment
* Figure 4. Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo doll experiment between 1961 to 1963 to test his theory of social learning. He studied children's behaviour after observing an adult model's aggressive behaviour toward a Bobo doll.
* The Bobo Doll experiment highlights the role of modelling in behaviour acquisition and the influence of environmental factors on behaviours. It demonstrated that aggression can be learned through social contexts.
* A group of children watched adults interacting with a Bobo doll aggressively, whereas the other group of children were exposed to a non-aggressive model who played in a quiet and subdued manner before being given the opportunity to play with the doll themselves. The findings showed that children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to replicate that aggressive behaviour. Besides, if the adult role model is punished for the performed aggressive behaviour, children are less likely to imitate the behaviour. In contrast, positive reinforcement or non-reinforcement led to increased aggression in children (see Figure 4).
The experiment emphasised the importance of understanding the mechanisms behind behaviour, particularly in shaping attitudes and actions in various social settings. OV against educators can be understood through social learning theory, which emphasises the role of observation and reinforcement in shaping behaviour. According to the theory, individuals often model or imitate the behaviour of others within the workplace. The exposure to aggressive behaviour in the workplace can lead to similar behaviours among employees. For example, the supervisor uses intimidation and aggression to control their team, subordinates might imitate these behaviours, believing them to be acceptable or effective (Freire & Pinto, 2022). Additionally, students may model aggressive behaviours they witness in peers, families or social media, perceiving such actions as acceptable if they observe positive outcomes for aggressive acts. Consequently, the notable negative impacts of student violence towards educators are reported, especially from aggressive behaviours (Stevenson et al., 2022). Therefore, creating a supportive school culture and promoting violence prevention and management strategies are important to reduce violence against educators.

## Understanding occupational violence in educational settings

The alarming prevalence and statistics of OV on school educators underscore the urgency of addressing this issue. Understanding and identifying various factors that contribute to OV will be the first step in preventing and coping with OV.

### Prevalence and statistics

Recent surveys have demonstrated an increasing frequency of OV incidents. According to The Australian Principal Occupational Health, Safety and Wellbeing Survey (2020):
* 48.5% school leaders having been exposed to Threats of Violence or Physical Violence.
* 31.3% of school leaders having been exposed to both Threats of Violence over the last 12 months.
* 29.0% of school leaders reported being exposed to either Threats of Violence or Physical Violence from parents.
* 7.4% of school leaders reported being subject to both Threats of Violence and Physical Violence from parents.
* An alarming increase in the number of school leaders who have been subjected to Threats of Violence (37.9% in 2011, and 51.0% in 2019), and Physical Violence (27.3% in 2011, and 42.2% in 2019).
According to Australian Teachers' Perceptions of Their Work (2022), there were 24.5% of teachers felt unsafe at work, primarily due to student behaviour and violence, parent abuse, and negative relationships with staff and leaders. This figure has increased by 5.6% over three years.
According to Australian Catholic University’s annual Australian Principal Occupational Health, Safety, and Wellbeing Survey (2024), offensive behaviours towards principals escalated in 2023, with 48% subjected to physical violence and 53.9% experiencing Threats of Violence. Notably, of those reporting physical violence, a staggering 96.3% was at the hands of students.

### Sources of occupational violence

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#### Student violence against teachers

Teacher-directed violence (TDV) can significantly affect educators’ professional decisions, contributing to increased burnout, decreased work engagement and are associated with a range of mental health issues (Bass et al., 2016; Woudstra et al., 2018). Studies have illustrated a troubling prevalence of violence against teachers (Espelage et al., 2013; Longobardi et al., 2019; Reddy et al., 2018).
The [which?] study investigates the prevalence of TDV in Western Australia primary and secondary teachers found that 67.9% of teachers had experienced TDV at least in the past two years (Lowe et al., 2020). Harassment was the most common reported type of violence (64.3%), followed by physical offenses (33.9%). Obscene remarks were the most frequently reported form of violence, affecting 60.7% of teachers and had the highest occurrence rate of 33.9% for those experiencing it frequently. Stevenson et al. (2022) found half of the responses from 369 ACT government primary school staff reported OV from students on at least a weekly basis. Only 11% of participants never experiencing OV. Physical aggression was the most concerning form of violence, with 87% of participants reported experiencing physical aggression, 41.5% facing such behaviour at least weekly. Abusive language was the most frequent form, affecting 60.1% of staff at least weekly, followed by other threatening behaviour (43.4%), physical aggression (41.5%), and bullying or harassment (20.2%). Teachers reported encountering bullying incidents that were often poorly resolved, and described how these experiences impacted them both personally and professionally (Burns et al., 2020). This alarming statistics indicate a call to action on create a safe workplace for educators.

#### Parental violence toward teachers

Badenes-Ribera et al. (2022) investigated the prevalence of violence directed against teachers by parents found that teachers experience a wide range of violence types, including offensive remarks (15%), slander (9%), intimidation (6%), shouting and insult (4%), and other forms of violence such as public humiliation and physical attacks (<3%). The results suggest that teachers appear to most commonly experience non-physical forms of parent-generated violence.

#### Colleagues and supervisors

Collegial conflict and workload have been lined   to workplace victimisation (McMahon et al., 2017; Martinez et al., 2016). Research have[grammar?] found a positive correlation between negative interpersonal relationships and instances of workplace victimisation (Arnetz et al., 2018; João da Silva & Saldanha Portelada, 2019). Bullying by supervisors or coworkers can lead to significant negative outcomes, such as feelings of loneliness and isolation, which can reduce commitment and passion for work (João da Silva & Saldanha Portelada, 2019). Additionally, excessive workloads have negative consequences for teachers, including heightened emotional exhaustion and reduced job satisfaction, motivation, commitment, and performance (Firdaus et al., 2019; Huyghebaert et al., 2018). Thus, addressing collegial conflict and managing workloads is essential for creating a healthier and more supportive teaching environment, which ultimately reducing the risk of workplace victimisation among educators.

#### External factors

Research indicates that schools situated in communities with lower socioeconomic status and higher residential crowding face an increased risk of TDV (Payne et al., 2003). This highlights the influence of external environmental factors on school safety and the well-being of educators. McMahon et al. (2020) utilised a social-ecological framework to assess factors related to TDV from individual, school, community and society levels (see Table 2).
Table 2.
Social-ecological Framework in Understanding of Teacher‐directed Violence[factual?]
| Levels | Factors |
| Individual | Teacher’s behaviour, classroom management strategies. Supervision, discipline and instructional management. Positive classroom environment. |
| School | School policies, school resources. Administrative support. |
| Community | Parental school involvement, parent-child relationships. Community services. |
| Society | Societal perceptions of teachers. Public policies, state and federal laws. |

## Emotional impacts and Consequences on educators

Stress is a feeling of overwhelmed or challenged, which affects both the mind and the body. Short term experience of stress can be a positive force that motivates individuals to perform well. However, stress becomes unhelpful when it continues over a prolonged period, and this is how cumulative stress ultimately leads to burnout. Workplace bullying has negative impacts upon burnout, resilience and well-being (Lang et al., 2022). Educators who experience OV often endure significant emotional strain, feeling stressed, scared, and insecure (Ribeiro et al., 2022). This emotional strain can be triggered by direct violence, such as verbal abuse or physical attacks, as well as by the ongoing fear of such incidents. Such strain negatively impacts mental health, making it difficult for educators to concentrate, manage their emotions, or effectively perform their teaching duties.
Prolonged exposure to stress can lead to burnout, characterised by emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion (Ribeiro et al., 2022). Occupational burnout (see Figure 5) resulting from chronic workplace stress, causing issues at the personal, professional, family, and social levels (Maslach et al., 2012). Psychological symptoms associated with burnout include issues with attention, memory problems, anxiety, and frustration. In the long run, consequences of OV may impact individual’s sense of self, confidence in abilities, and capacity to maintain social connections.
Moreover, OV is associated with a reduction in job satisfaction. Job satisfaction refers to the positive or negative evaluative judgments people make about their jobs (Weiss, 2002). Studies have shown that exposure to OV significantly increases levels of burnout, which is associated with teachers’ motivation, job satisfaction, and self-efficacy regarding their work (Pihl-Thingvad et al., 2019; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011). Findings suggest that burnout can lead to decreased job performance and contribute to higher rates of turnover and intention of leaving the profession among educators. Additionally, OV can have negative consequences on educator's sense of self-efficacy and wellbeing (Burns et al., 2019). Low self-efficacy could cause poor classroom management, increase violence, bullying, stress and burnout (Maran & Begotti, 2020). Thereby, this is a challenging cycle that needs to be addressed, which is crucial for promoting the well-being of educators and the effectiveness of educational environments.

## Coping mechanisms and strategies for educators

OV in educational settings poses significant challenges for educators, affecting their mental health, job satisfaction, and overall effectiveness. This section will help individuals to improve mental and emotional well-being by understanding the principles of transactional analysis and social support.
Transactional model of stress and coping [grammar?] aims to help people cope with stressful situations by using appraisal to evaluate harm, threat and challenges (Lazaurus[spelling?], 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). This framework emphasises the dynamic interaction between individuals and their environments through cognitive appraisal, including primary appraisal and secondary appraisal, and coping strategies, including problem-focused and emotion-focused approaches. Primary appraisal involves determining the relevance and how individuals perceive the situations. Secondary appraisal involves evaluating individual’s ability to cope with the situation and perceived resources, such as social support. Ultimately, cognitive appraisal directly influences the coping process (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). Coping arises from appraisal that the demands of an event exceed personal resources and is motivated by the emotional response to harm and threat (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). Problem-focused coping involves actively addressing the source of stress, whereas emotion-focused coping aims to manage emotional responses to reduce the stress.
This model also highlights the role of social support. According to social support theory, interpersonal relationships and social connections are important in managing stress and promoting wellbeing. Studies have shown that organisational social support plays a crucial role in mitigating the negative impacts of work-related violence and threats in employees. It may reduce the intension to leave and moderate the negative effects of work-related violence on employee well-being, depression, job satisfaction, and organisational commitment (Leather et al., 1998; Courcy et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2013). Besides, depressive symptoms following work-related violence or threats can be mitigated by prolonged social support (Andersen et al., 2023). A study found that purposeful debriefing with colleagues was the most helpful and frequently used source of support in coping with OV for educators (Stevenson et al., 2022). Another study emphasised that effective administrative support, including instrumental and emotional support, is crucial for promoting a positive school environment and increasing job satisfaction (McMahon et al., 2017). Overall, social support is essential for educators facing OV as it provides emotional support and practical resources that enable them to cope more effectively with stressors.
Quiz
Which of the following are effective coping strategies for coping with occupational violence? Select all correct answers.
Seeking support from colleagues
Reporting the incident to management
Ignoring the incident and moving on :

## Conclusion

Occupational violence (OV) is a serious issue within educational settings. By understanding the types, sources and its psychological underpinnings through theories such as frustration-aggression theory and social learning theory, we have gained insight into why these behaviours occur, how they impact educational environments and the well-being of educators. In particular, emotional impacts on educators, including stress and burnout, and negative consequences such as reduced self-efficacy and job satisfaction, are attributed to the experience of OV.
Addressing this issue is essential for fostering a safe and supportive work environment. This book chapter also explores the Transactional model of stress and coping that navigates stressors through effective problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies; and Social support theory, which highlights the importance of providing emotional and practical support to enhance educators' resilience, job satisfaction, and overall commitment.