# Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Figure 1: Depiction of Ted the VDT[Rewrite to improve clarity]
* Ted’s case: A profile of VDT traits
* Ted (see Figure 1) displays a strong need for external admiration, which serves as a defense response to protect his fragile self-esteem. His motivation is largely shaped by a fear of abandonment and a desire for approval. However, his emotional volatility and impulsive tendencies often sabotage his efforts to maintain close relationships and a stable sense of self-worth. When Ted's emotional needs are unmet, he reacts impulsively, frequently resorting to maladaptive and self-destructive behaviours to cope with feelings of rejection and inadequacy.
* Ted exemplifies an individual with VDT personality traits, characterised by vulnerable narcissism, secondary psychopathy and borderline personality.
The vulnerable dark triad (VDT) significantly influences both motivation and emotion. These [which?] traits drive motivation through avoidance goals, dependence on external validation, and fear of failure, while simultaneously contributing to emotional instability and negative affect. Effective treatments for individuals with VDT traits should focus on managing emotional triggers and reframe[grammar?] motivation for healthier self-regulation.
Motivation and emotion play a significant role within the VDT traits (vulnerable narcissism, secondary psychopathy and borderline personality). This chapter introduces the VDT traits, sub traits and behaviours that are commonly associated. The motivation section will explain how motivation relates to VDT through avoidance motivation, performance-avoidant goals and extrinsic motivation with a dependency on external validation. The emotional content of this chapter explains how emotional reactivity and instability, negative affectivity and defensive responses shape the VDT. The chapter will then offer key therapeutic approaches to assist the VDT to assist in emotional regulation, enhance self-esteem, and address maladaptive thought patterns.
* Focus questions:
* What is the VDT?
* How does the VDT relate to motivation?
* How does the VDT relate to emotion?
* How can the VDT be helped?

## What is the VDT?

The VDT consists of three personality traits that are both conceptually distinct and overlap as each traits contains malevolent qualities (Paulhus & Williams, 2002) with a callous–manipulative nature (Horowitz, 2011). VDT traits include[factual?]:
* Vulnerable narcissism: characterised by hypersensitivity to criticism, feelings of inadequacy, and a strong desire for validation (Miller & Campbell, 2011).
* Secondary psychopathy: associated with impulsivity, emotional instability, and a tendency toward hostile, reactive behaviours (Skeem et al., 2007).
* Borderline personality disorder (BPD): involves rapid mood swings, emotional volatility and dysregulation, often linked to interpersonal difficulties (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
* The Dark Triad vs the Vulnerable Dark Triad (8 mins)

## Motivation and VDT traits

Motivation within the VDT is heavily influenced by emotional insecurity and avoidance behaviours (Elliot, 2013; Gamache et al., 2023). This section explores how avoidance motivation stems from a need for protection, while extrinsic motivation is driven by the pursuit of rewards and external validation. Individuals with VDT traits often adopt performance-avoidance goals to protect themselves from failure, rejection, and negative social judgments.

### Avoidance motivation

Avoidance motivation is an energised drive that promotes behavioural action to seek positive stimuli or avoid negative stimuli, such as failure, rejection, or criticism (Miller et al., 2019). In individuals with VDT traits, particularly vulnerable narcissism and secondary psychopathy, this type of motivation is pronounced due to heightened sensitivity to emotional pain and social rejection.[factual?]
VDT traits are also liked to impulsivity, which manifests in both similar and distinct ways across traits. A model of impulsivity relevant to VDT includes four key dimensions (Miller et al., 2010):
* urgency (difficulty resisting urges in negative emotional states)
* lack of perseverance (tendency to give up easily when tasks are challenging or boring)
* lack of premeditation (failure to evaluate actions before acting)
* sensation seeking (interest in pursuing risky or stimulating activities)
Research categorises BPD and secondary psychopathy as high urgency, low premeditation and perseverance (Miller et al., 2008). Individuals with secondary psychopathy exhibit avoidance motivation driven by impulsivity and emotional instability (Skeem et al., 2007). Overall, this combination leads to impulsive decision-making, such as withdrawing from commitments or sabotaging relationships, to avoid emotional distress in the short term (Miller et al., 2019).
On the other hand, vulnerable narcissism is not directly linked to premeditation and perseverance, but is associated with high urgency, as these individuals tend to act impulsively in negative emotional states to protect themselves from feelings of inadequacy (Hendin & Cheek, 1997). Their fragile self-esteem often compels them to avoid situations where weaknesses could be exposed or where they may face criticism (Miller et al., 2019; Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). This avoidance is driven by a deep-seated fear of failure and rejection, which motivates them to avoid risk and confrontation. Rather than pursuing challenge or growth-oriented goals, they focus on preventing scenarios where they might be perceived as inadequate (Miller et al., 2019).

### Expectancy theory of motivation

John Atkinon's[spelling?] expectancy x value model of achievement (1964, as cited in Reeve, 2018) provides further insight into how motivation operates in VDT individuals. This theory suggests that individuals are motivated by two systems: one that drives them to pursue success and another that pushes them to avoid failure. The model consists of three components:
* the strength of a person’s need for achievement (Ms)
* the perceived probability of success (Ps)
* the incentive value of success (Is).
Individuals with VDT traits often adopt a tendency to avoid failure (Taf) rather than pursuing success (Ts), as their primary motivation is to avoid negative stimuli like failure or criticism. However, when the perceived chance of success (Ts) outweighs the fear of failure (Taf), VDT individuals may engage in difficult tasks with greater attention, effort, and persistence (Pang, 2010).
Overall, avoidance motivation in VDT individuals is primarily fuelled by a desire to protect themselves from emotional harm. This leads them to adopt avoidance-based goals and behaviours, limiting their personal growth and success. However, when expectations of success are higher, they may be more inclined to engage in difficult activities, which could lead to growth and achievement.

### Performance-avoidance goals

Performance-avoidance focuses on avoiding negative evaluations and failure, rather than striving for success or mastery (Reeve, 2018). Research suggests that individuals driven by performance goals seek external validation and aim to outperform peers and avoid negative judgments (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Reeve, 2018). Unlike mastery-orientated [missing something?], which are grounded in intrinsic motivation and the pursuit of personal achievement, performance-avoidance goals stem from a desire to evade failure (Reeve, 2018).
For individuals with VDT traits, particularly those with vulnerable narcissism and secondary psychopathy, performance-avoidant goals are more prevalent due to their heightened sensitivity to criticism and fear of failure (Bonfá-Araujo & Schermer, 2024). Vulnerable narcissists adopt these goals to protect their fragile self-esteem, avoiding situations that might expose their inadequacies (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). This mirrors avoidance motivation, where the focus is on avoiding negative emotional states – such as shame and humiliation – rather than pursuing growth (Gamache et al., 2023). For those with secondary psychopathy, emotional instability and impulsivity drive the adoption of avoidance-oriented goals. Their primary motivation is to avoid emotional distress and negative feedback, often leading to procrastination, withdrawal, or self-sabotaging to prevent failure (Skeem et al., 2007). VDT individuals, performance-avoidance goals stem from a fear of failure and rejection (see Figure 2)[grammar?]. These goals prioritise self-protection over growth, limiting personal achievement and reinforcing maladaptive behaviour patterns.

### Extrinsic motivation and dependency on external validation

Extrinsic motivation refers to behaviour driven by external rewards, such as recognition, approval, or social status. The self-determination theory suggests four types of extrinsic motivation arranged on a continuum:
* external regulation (incentives, consequences)
* introjected regulation (avoid guilt, boost self-esteem)
* identified regulation (value, sense of importance)
* integrated regulation (value congruence) (Reeve, 2018).
For individuals with VDT traits, particularly vulnerable narcissism, external and introjected regulation plays a crucial role in shaping motivation. Rather than being driven by intrinsic goals (e.g., personal growth or self-improvement), those with VDT traits often seek external validation and approval to compensate for their fragile self-esteem and avoid emotional distress (see Figure 3) (Miller & Campbell, 2011).
* What is Self Determination Theory? (7 mins)
In individuals with vulnerable narcissism, extrinsic motivation is pronounced. Their need for approval drives them to pursue activities that offer external affirmation of their self-worth (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). The motivation to engage in tasks often hinges on the anticipation, recognition, or validation they expect to receive. For example, as these individuals are highly sensitive to negative feedback, they may withdraw and avoid situations that could expose them to criticism (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). This reliance on external feedback means their self-worth fluctuates depending in the opinions of others (Cain et al., 2008).
In contrast, individuals with secondary psychopathy tend to be impulsive and driven by immediate gratification and external rewards such as power and money (Skeem et al., 2007). Research shows that this trait is highly sensitive to external rewards, prioritising outcomes like social status over internal satisfaction (Newman & Lorenz, 2003). Similar to achievement motivation, those with secondary psychopathy may also seek external validation or engage in risky behaviours to avoid emotional distress, including shame or rejection (Hicks et al., 2004).
While BPD is not typically associated with extrinsic motivation, individuals may display behaviours that appear extrinsically motivated. During manic episodes, for instance, individuals may become highly energised and motivated to pursue goals, sometimes leading to success or reward (Johnson, 2005). Additionally, impulsive decisions made in pursuit of external rewards are common (Swann et al., 2009) but these behaviours are usually a result of mood instability rather than extrinsic motivation.
In summary, extrinsic motivation in VDT individuals is primarily centred on securing validation, power, or rewards from others, reflecting their reliance on external measures to feel competent or successful.

## Emotion in the VDT

Similar to motivation, emotion plays a central role in the expression of VDT traits which manifests through emotional reactivity, negative affect, and defensive responses. Emotional reactivity and instability are marked by heightened sensitivity and impulsivity, leading to exaggerated emotional responses and poor regulation. This emotional volatility often results in persistent negative affect, such as anxiety, irritability, and shame, which undermines motivation and well-being. Additionally, emotional defensiveness is common across all VDT traits and use strategies like aggression or withdrawal to protect themselves and avoid emotional pain. These patterns have a negative result and reinforce maladaptive behaviours which hinders emotional growth.[factual?]

### Emotional reactivity and instability

Emotional reactivity and instability significantly influence how individuals with VDT respond to stimuli, creating challenges in regulating emotions and increasing the likelihood of maladaptive coping mechanisms. Vulnerable narcissists exhibit emotional hypersensitivity to criticism and insults, which can trigger feelings of shame and resentment that threaten their fragile self-esteem (Bonfá-Araujo & Schermer, 2024; Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). In response to perceived insults, they often react defensively (Miller et al., 2019), leading to maladaptive behaviours such as withdrawal, passive-aggressiveness or self-pity (Hendin & Cheek, 1997; Zeigler-Hill & Besser, 2013). This trait contributes to emotional volatility and a propensity for emotional dysregulation, where minor events evoke disproportionate emotional responses (Miller & Campbell, 2011).
Similarly, individuals with secondary psychopathy are emotionally reactive, especially in situations involving frustration, perceived threats, or failure (Skeem & Cooke, 2010). Their emotional instability manifests through impulsive behaviours aimed at reducing negative emotions, such as anger or distress (Miller & Lynam, 2003). Their impulsive decision-making often stems from an inability to manage or modulate strong emotions effectively (Skeem et al., 2007). Secondary psychopathy is also associated with low emotional regulation, leading to frequent mood swings and erratic emotional responses (Hicks et al., 2004).
In contrast, emotional instability is a core feature of BPD, often manifesting as rapid mood swings, intense emotional reactions, and difficulty returning to emotional baseline after an upset (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Like vulnerable narcissism, individuals with BPD experience emotional dysregulation. Their emotional responses are heightened and prolonged, leading to overwhelming feelings of sadness, anger, and anxiety when triggered (Gunderson et al., 2018). These feelings frequently result in impulsive or self-destructive behaviours (Miller et al., 2010). Their emotional reactivity is frequently linked to fears of abandonment and relationship instability, which further exacerbates emotional dysregulation (Gunderson et al., 2018).

### Negative affect

Due to heightened emotional sensitivity and difficulty managing emotions, individuals with VDT traits are prone to negative affect (see figure 4), including anxiety, irritability and anger, which impairs motivation and goal-directed behaviours (Miller & Widiger, 2019). In contrast to positive affect, which is associated with feelings of enthusiasm and optimism (Reeve, 2018), VDT individuals experience frequent negative emotions that reinforce maladaptive behaviours (Miller & Widiger, 2019). Vulnerable narcissists are particularly sensitive to criticism, experiencing shame, depression, and anxiety when their self-esteem is threatened (Gamache et al., 2023; Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). Similarly, secondary psychopathy is characterised by emotional instability, leading to irritability and impulsive behaviours aimed at escaping distress (Bonfá-Araujo & Schermer, 2024). In BPD, emotional volatility manifests as intense mood swings, chronic negative affect, and difficulties in relationships, further aggravating feelings of abandonment (Miller et al., 2010).

### Defensive responses

Emotional defensiveness is common across all VDT traits, especially when the individual's self-worth is threatened. They may react with hostility or passive-aggression, which further alienating themselves from long-term goals [grammar?] (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). This defensiveness protects their fragile sense of self and protects them from emotional pain.
In vulnerable narcissists, it stems from inadequacy and low self-esteem, leading to defensive reactions such as withdrawal, passive-aggression, or denial (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010). They may also blame others to maintain a sense of superiority while protecting their fragile ego (Miller & Campbell, 2011; Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010).
Secondary psychopaths, with high emotional reactivity, display defensiveness through aggression (see figure 5), manipulation, or blame-shifting (Skeem et al., 2007). Their impulsivity often results in risky behaviours to avoid emotional distress or perceived threats to their self-image (Hicks et al., 2004).
Individuals with BPD, characterised by emotional instability, exhibit defensiveness through emotional volatility and impulsive behaviours to avoid rejection (Gamache et al., 2023; Linehan, 1993). These individuals may devalue others to protect themselves from feelings of rejection (Linehan, 1993). They also may engage in defensive self-harm or impulsive behaviours, attempting to regulate overwhelming emotions or gain attention from others (Gamache et al., 2023).
Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal theory posits that individuals cognitively evaluate life events by determining whether they are beneficial, harmful or threatening to their wellbeing. When wellbeing is compromised, these appraisals can amplify emotional responses. VDT individuals tend to interpret life events through a lens of potential harm or threat. This pattern of appraisal may trigger emotions like guilt, shame and anger (Skeem et al., 2007). Consequently, their emotional defensiveness not only reinforces their maladaptive behaviours but also hinders their ability to effectively cope with emotional challenges or develop healthier emotional regulation strategies.
* What is Cognitive Appraisal theory (3 mins)

## Helping people with VDT traits

Helping people with VDT traits requires a nuanced approach, as these traits involve emotional instability, insecurity, and maladaptive coping strategies. Psychological interventions should focus on providing a client-specific approach focusing on emotional regulation, enhancing self-esteem, and addressing maladaptive thought patterns.
CBT is a therapeutic approach that focuses on the individuals’ impaired cognitive processes, and functioning to promote well-being (Kazantzis et al., 2018). The primary goal of CBT is to reduce distress and improve functioning through a therapeutic relationship centred on client-specific-in-session processes (e.g., expressed empathy and guided reflection), coupled with core treatment techniques, such as emotional and cognitive reappraisal (e.g., challenging cognitive distortions) (Hayes & Hofmann, 2017).
Therapeutic techniques target both motivational and emotional components, such as maladaptive thought patterns and emotional regulation. These techniques also address schemas, which may contain unhealthy core beliefs about the self and others (Beck et al., 1979). Maladaptive behaviours are a core aspect of the VDT. CBT addresses the VDT’s distorted thought processes related to their self-worth, failure, and rejection by identifying, challenging and reappraising these beliefs (Kazantzis et al., 2018). It can reduce dependency on external validation and shift motivation from avoidance-based to approach-based goals.
Moreover, CBT assists individuals with VDT traits by enhancing emotional regulation. This therapeutic approach helps them recognise and manage emotional triggers, reducing emotional reactivity (Kazantzis et al., 2018). As a result, impulse control improves and emotional instability lessens.
Research consistently supports the effectiveness of CBT in addressing emotional dysregulation and self-sabotaging behaviours, particularly in individuals prone with emotional instability (Beck & Haigh, 2014; Kazantzis et al., 2018). This is highly relevant for those exhibiting VDT traits. While individuals with VDT are often emotionally and motivationally volatile, structured therapeutic interventions, such as CBT, can support the VDT individual to improve their emotional and behavioural outcomes (see Figure 6).

## Quiz

Test your knowledge and answer the following questions about the VDT and related concepts of motivation and emotion!
1
Motivation and emotion play a central role within the VDT.
True
False
2
Which of the following motivational incentives does not align with the VDT?
Immediate gratification with external rewards
External validation
Personal growth
3
Mastery skills and intrinsic motivation are associated with the VDT traits.
True
False
4
Which of the following emotional components is not commonly associated with VDT traits?
Emotional dysregulation
Avoid feelings of shame and rejection
Positive affect
5
When seeking to help a VDT individual, a health professional should focus on enhancing self-esteem, emotional regulation and address maladaptive thought patterns.
True
False :

## Conclusion

Motivation and emotion are deeply intertwined within the VDT traits, encompassing vulnerable narcissism, secondary psychopathy and borderline personality. Individuals with VDT traits are primarily motivated by avoidance motivation, shaped by their need to protect themselves from failure, criticism and rejection. This avoidance leads to extrinsic motivation, where validation, power, and external rewards are sought to compensate for their fragile sense of self-worth.
Similarly, emotional instability is a hallmark of VDT traits, manifesting as heightened emotional reactivity, persistent negative affect, and defensive responses. These emotional patterns, like motivational tendencies, are largely avoidance-based, with maladaptive behaviours emerging as self-protective mechanisms. By reacting defensively and impulsively, VDT individuals may limit personal growth and reinforce negative behaviours.
However, despite the unhealthy coping mechanisms associated with VDT traits, effective treatments exist. Psychological interventions such as CBT can help individuals build self-esteem and reframe maladaptive thought patterns. Through therapy, these individuals can develop healthier ways to manage their emotions and motivations, fostering personal growth and well-being.