OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Analogies for Sustainable Development/Brain as collective action

“It’s hard to tell which you is the real one. The chorus of voices makes you feel like you’re not one person but many. The truth is, you are many. You are a population… When you think, you engage in group-think.”
David Rosenbaum,

## Quote Bank

Rosenbaum (2014):
“Many aspects of experience, or possibly all aspects of experience, reflect the goings-on of multiple brain regions acting as a population.”
“But like conglomerates of amoebas or fungi, populations of neural demons have emergent properties, and that is where things get interesting.”
“The way [neurons] express cooperation, mechanistically, is through excitation, and the way they express competition, mechanistically, is through inhibition. If a neuron is friends with another neuron, it excites that other neuron.”
“Much as there are dominance hierarchies in nature—pecking orders among poultry, for example—there are dominance hierarchies in the brain. The idea that neural ensembles dominate other neural ensembles is widespread in neuroscience.”
“it’s good for neurons to team up with other neurons. Teaming up is important because the neural ecosystem has a limited supply of oxygen, glucose, and other needed materials. Individual neurons benefit from joining up with other “like-minded” neurons—that is, neurons tuned to similar functional events—just as we humans tend to do better if we join with others than if we go it alone.”
“If it’s a jungle in there, shouldn’t neurons just inhibit their neighbors as much as possible? Shouldn’t neurons be as aggressive as possible all the time, suppressing their neural neighbors as fiercely as they can? ….Neurons need to be on good terms with other neurons with whom they have connections. If you’re a neuron, you need input to get activated. It won’t serve you well over the long run to deflate all the neurons with whom you have ties because, through their activity, they might promote your own future functioning. Biting the neural hand that feeds you won’t help you over the long run.”
“ask yourself what kind of neuron you’d like to be. If your main priority is survival, you’d want to be a neuron that fires often. You’d want excitement that occurs fairly regularly but not nonstop, for that could exhaust you. And you would not want to be endlessly isolated or interminably inhibited, for then your draw on metabolic resources could get dangerously low.”
Wilson (2007):
“just as the mind of an individual is not contained within any single neuron or hormone, a social insect colony has a mind that is not contained within any single insect.”
“It is the pattern of social interactions that creates the wisdom of the hive, just as it is the pattern of neuronal and hormonal interactions that creates the wisdom of a single individual organism.”
# Animal Phyla/Echiura

* Echiura
* Name Meaning: Spine tail
* English Common Name: Spoon worms
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Set of hooks at posterior end
* Approximate number of species described: about 140

## Quiz

* Echiura Quiz
# Animal Phyla/Bryozoa

* Bryozoa
* Name Meaning: Moss animals
* English Common Name: Moss animals, sea mats, bryozoans
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles
* Approximate number of species described: about 5,000 living species

## Natural History

All bryozoans are aquatic filter feeders. They are usually sessile, attaching themselves to rocks or plants. All but one genus is colonial. Most bryozoans are marine, only one Class has freshwater species.

## Taxonomy

There are three Classes currently recognized within the Phylum Bryozoa.
* Phylactolaemata
* Stenolaemata
* Gymnolaemata

## Anatomy

Bryozoans are soft-bodied invertebrates. They possess a lophophore surrounding the mouth. Several short tentacles with cilia are on the lophophore, which save in the water to direct water into the mouth for feeding.

## The Fossil Record

Bryozoans do not appear in the fossil record until the Ordovician (488.3 - 443.7 million years ago). They are soft-bodied and fossils are rare. It's possible they live prior to that time.

## Quiz

* Bryozoa Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Bryozoa on Wikipedia
* Bryozoa at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
* Bryozoa from Encyclopedia of Life
* Bryozoa at Tree of Life
# Animal Phyla/Chordata

* Chordata
* Name Meaning: Cord
* English Common Name: Chordates
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Hollow dorsal nervous chord
* Approximate number of species described: about 100,000+

## Natural History

Chordates occur in most habitats on Earth.
Their natural history is as varied as they are diverse. They range from sedentary tunicates, to birds with near global migratory routes. They eat everything from organic particles suspended in water, to blue whales (the largest animal living). Most are ectothermic (relying on the environment to regulate their body temperature), but many are endothermic (with internal temperature regulation).
They are such a diverse group, it's not really possible to put together a simple expression of their natural history.

## Taxonomy

Partly because of their ready availability to study, the chordates have a rather complicated taxonomy and is frequently revised. The list below is one version that should give an overview of the diversity within the Phylum.
Phylum Chordata
* Group Cephalochordata
** Family Pikaiidae (an extinct group considered to be among the earliest chordates, it isn't readily placed within the hierarchy)
** Class Leptocardii
*** Order Amphioxiformes (lancets)
* Group Olfactores
** Subphylum Tunicata (tunicates, filter-feeding chordates)
*** Class Ascidiacea
*** Class Thaliacea
*** Class Larvacea
* Clade Craniata
** Class Myxini (hagfishes)
** Class Hyperoartia (lampreys)
** Class Vertebrata (vertebrates, including humans)

## Anatomy

Chordates have a notochord, a rod of cartilage inside of the body. They also have dorsal neural tube, which develops into a spinal cord in most subgroups. Additionally, chordates have pharyngeal slits along part of the throat. The slits may only be present in the embryonic animal, and develop to form gills in fish.
All chordates have an anus, and a post-anal tail, which is a body part that extends past the tail at the posterior end of the animal.
Though all have bilateral symmetry, the form of some chordates is not alike at first glance. In general form, the tunicates, for instance, appear somewhat blob-like, especially compared to many tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals).

## The Fossil Record

Chordates have a long and diverse fossil history. The earliest known chordate fossil is 525 million years old, from the Cambrian from China.
Fossil chordates have been found on all continents. Many have bony skeletons and fossilize well.
Chordate fossils include representatives of very well known groups, including dinosaurs, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

## Quiz

* Chordata Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Chordate on Wikipedia
* Chordata on Tree of Life
* Chordata on Encyclopedia of Life
# Animal Phyla/Cnidaria

Cnidaria
* Name Meaning: Stinging nettle
* English Common Name: Coelenterates, cnidarians, sea anemones, jellies, hydra
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Cnidocytes (stinging cells)
* Approximate number of species described: about 11,000

## Natural History

All species are aquatic, most are marine. Most are predators, even if not energetic ones. They rely primarily on currents and chance to bring food to them, though some jellies are surprisingly active on their own.
Most species have an early planktonic phase, then drop to a substrate of some kind. They may attach to rocks, plants, or whatever else is on the bottom. The body-form of this phase is called a polyp. Sea anemones are cnidarian polyps.
In the jellies (familiarly if incorrectly called "jellyfish"), as it grows the crown of tentacles of the polyp releases to swim freely. This body form is a medusa. It is essentially a very short, swimming polyp, with the tentacles generally oriented downward.

## Taxonomy

The Phylum Cnidaria includes one subphylum and seven classes. The Anthozoa do not have a designated subphylum.
** Class Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals)
* Subphylum Medusozoa (jellies and hydrozoans)
** Class Cubozoa (box jellies, sea wasps)
** Class Hydrozoa (hydroids, hydra-like animals)
** Class Polypodiozoa (parasites)
** Class Scyphozoa (true jellies)
** Class Staurozoa (stalked jellies)
** Class Myxozoa (parasites)

## Anatomy

The bulk of Cnidarian bodies consist of mesoglea, a jelly-like substance, between two layers of living tissue that is usually only one cell thick. The mesoglea is non-living.
There are two basic body forms: a medusa (which are free-swimming, like sea jellies) and polyps (which attached to a substrate of some kind).
The unattached end of the polyp, and the "lower" end of a medusa, is a ring of tentacles with specialized cells called cnidocytes. The mouth is central to the ring. The cnidocytes capture prey either by stinging with harpoon-like "darts" or by being sticky. The darts remain attached by a tether to the tentacle, allowing the cnidarian to draw in the prey. The stinging cnidocytes are called nematocysts.
Cnidarians maintain their body structure by holding in water, forming a hydrostatic skeleton.

## The Fossil Record

The earliest generally recognized fossil animal is a Cnidarian. It dates from around 580 million years ago.
Being soft-bodied, cnidarians other than corals fossilize very poorly.

## Quiz

* Cnidaria Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Cnidaria at Wikipedia
* Cnidara at the Encyclopedia of Life
* Cnidaria at the Tree of Life
* Jelly Cam at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Live images of Sea Nettles roughly 7am to 7pm Pacific Time (UTC -8).
# Animal Phyla/Ctenophora

* Ctenophora
* Name Meaning: Comb bearer
* English Common Name: Comb jellies, Ctenophores
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia
* Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species

## Natural History

All species are marine and almost all are free-swimming. They are found around the world, and grow up to 2 meters (6 feet) in length.
Comb-jellies are difficult to study because most species are extremely soft-bodied and don't survive capture intact. A few coastal species are a bit tougher, and are regularly displayed in aquaria. Most of what we know about them comes from these species.
All adult ctenophores are predators. The juveniles of two species are parasites, otherwise they too are predators. Some are bioluminescent.

## Taxonomy

The Phylum Ctenophora is divided into two living orders:
* Order Tentaculata (ctenophores with cilia)
* Order Nuda (ctenophores without cilia)

## Anatomy

Ctenophora are the largest animals to move by the use of cilia. The cilia are present in lines, called combs. A few deep-sea ctenophorans lack combs.
Like cnidarians, their bodies consist mostly of mesoglea, a non-living substance. Unlike the cnidarians, their body wall contains two layers of cells instead of one. Their internal anatomy consists of a mouth, pharynx, stomach, and an internal set of canals.

## The Fossil Record

Having a soft body, the fossil record of the Ctenophora is spotty and limited. The earliest known is 520 million years old.
They are present in the Burgess Shale.

## Quiz

* Ctenophora Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Ctenophora at Wikipedia
* Ctenophora at the Encyclopedia of Life
* Ctenophora at the Tree of Life
# Animal Phyla/Echinodermata

* Echinodermata
* Name Meaning: Spiny skin
* English Common Name: Echinoderms
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Five-fold radial symmetry, mesodermal layer, calcified spines
* Approximate number of species described: about 7,000 living species and 13,000 extinct ones

## Natural History

As adults, echinoderms are radially symmetrical marine animals. They occur at most depths within the ocean, and none are terrestrial or occur in freshwater. Additionally, all are predators.
They can reproduce asexually or sexually. Most species studied can also regenerate even a majority of their body. Essentially, if you chop up a sea star, you get more sea stars. Larval echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical.

## Taxonomy

The Phylum Echinodermata includes 2 extinct and 3 living subphyla. The living subphyla include a total of 5 classes.
* Subphylum Homalozoa (extinct)
* Subphylum Crinozoa
** Class Crinoidea
** Class Edrioasteroidea (extinct)
** Class ?Arkarua (extinct)
** Class Cystoidea (extinct)
** Class Rhombifera (extinct)
* Subphylum Asterozoa
** Class Ophiuroidea
** Class Asteroidea
* Subphylum Echinozoa
** Class Echinoidea
** Class Holothuroidea
** Class Ophiocistioidea (extinct)
** Class Helicoplacoidea (extinct)
* Subphylum Blastozoa (extinct)

## Anatomy

Echinoderms are radially symmetrical, usually with five point symmetry. In many-armed species this is usually show in multiples of five. They have two sides - an oral (mouth) side, and an aboral (opposite the mouth) side. These replace the ventral and dorsal orientation of vertebrates.
They are covered calcareous plates which arise from the mesoderm. Theses plates are made of calcite crystals, and have a sponge-like interior structure.
Echinoderms have a water vascular system which move nutrients around the body, and powers the tube-feet, allowing the animal to move. The system is open to the outside through a special pore called a madreporite.

## The Fossil Record

Arkarua,from Precambrian Australia, may be the oldest known echinoderm. Echinoderms are certainly established by the Lower Cambrian about 500 million years ago. Because of their hard calcareous plates, they are well represented in the fossil record.

## Quiz

* Echinodermata Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Echinoderm at Wikipedia
* Echinodermata at Encyclopedia of Life
* Echinodermata at Tree of Life
# Animal Phyla/Cycliophora

* Cycliophora
* Name Meaning: Wheel carrying
* English Common Name: Symbion
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Circular mouth surrounded by small cilia
* Approximate number of species described: at least 3

## Natural History

The three species of Cyclophora live on the bodies of lobsters.
They are filter feeders. Adult males lack a digestive system. The digestive system of the females changes to form part of the reproductive system to release larvae.
They can reproduce sexually or by budding.

## Taxonomy

The Phylum Cyclophora consists of three species, all currently assigned to the genus Symbion.
* Symbion americanus Obst, Funch & Kristensen, 2005
* Symbion pandora Funch & Kristensen, 1995
* and one other known not yet described

## Anatomy

Symbion are bilateral, and sac-like.
The body consists of an buccal funnel, an oval trunk, a posterior stalk, and adhesive disc. The disc attaches the animal to it's lobster host (see image).

## The Fossil Record

There is no known fossil record.

## Quiz

* Cycliophora Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* Symbion is the page covering the Phlyum at Wikipedia
* Cyclophora at Encyclopedia of Life
* Cyclophora at Tree of Life
# Animal Phyla/Chaetognatha

* Chaetognatha
* Name Meaning: Longhair jaw
* English Common Name: Arrow worms
* Major distinguishing characteristics: Chitinous spines either side of head, fins
* Approximate number of species described: about 100 modern species

## Natural History

Most species of Chaetognath are plaktonic. Some attached to algae or other substrate. They are hermaphroditic, having both male and female parts.
All species are predatory. They may rise and fall in the water column on a daily cycle.

## Taxonomy

There is one class containing two orders.
* Class Sagittoidea
** Order Aphragmophora
** Order Phragmophora

## Anatomy

All species are transparent or translucent. They have three body parts, a head, trunk, and tail. The trunk has a pair of fins which help the animal move about in the water.
They have sharp hooks or spines on the head which allow them to grab prey.
They rise and fall in the water column using ammonia-filled vacuolated cells in the trunk.

## The Fossil Record

Chaetognaths have been described as fossils of the early Cambrian Period, though that identification has been challenged. They almost certainly appear by the Pennsylvanian.

## Quiz

* Chaetognatha Quiz

## References and Further Reading

* ↑ Morris, Simon Conway. 2009. The Burgess Shale Animal Oesia is not a Chaetognath: A Reply to Szaniawski (2005). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54(1):175-179.
* Chaetognatha on Tree of Life
* Chaetognatha on Encyclopedia of Life
* Chaetognatha on Wikipedia
# BCP/Polygonum perfoliatum

Polygonum perfoliatum
| Search for Polygonum perfoliatum on commons) Wikipedia • Commons • Wikibooks (horticulture) • Wikibooks (subject) • Wikispecies • Fruit and seed clock | Profile for Polygonum perfoliatum (Devil's Tearthumb) Identifying Characteristics Habit:sprawling vineFoliage:simple, alternate, deltoid, grayish Recent Logs --SB_Johnny | 10:37, 5 September 2007 (UTC) (view all logs) |
Global data:
Regional data: Southeastern Pennsylvania: (invasive or naturalized) September
Additional images:
# BCP/Polygonum arifolium/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Polygonum arifolium (Halberd-leaved Tearthumb). If you saw this plant blooming today (or sometime within the last 3 days), you can help improve the bloom clock by logging it. Just click on "edit" next to the Recent Logs heading, add *~~~~ (an asterisk followed by four tildes) on a new line just below the last signature, and then click "save page". This will add your signature and the date to log the plant.
Please make sure you've signed up on the contributors' page so that we can know the location of the plant you saw blooming and use your contribution to create a flora for your region! When you're done, you can go back to one of the main pages and find logs of other flowers you might have seen today.

##### Recent Logs

* --SB_Johnny | 10:21, 12 August 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:17, 31 August 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:34, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 07:04, 27 September 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:53, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

##### Archived Logs

(If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
* (no archived logs yet)
# BCP/Polygonum pensylvanicum/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for Polygonum pensylvanicum (Pennsylvania Smartweed). If you saw this plant blooming today (or sometime within the last 3 days), you can help improve the bloom clock by logging it. Just click on "edit" next to the Recent Logs heading, add *~~~~ (an asterisk followed by four tildes) on a new line just below the last signature, and then click "save page". This will add your signature and the date to log the plant.
Please make sure you've signed up on the contributors' page so that we can know the location of the plant you saw blooming and use your contribution to create a flora for your region! When you're done, you can go back to one of the main pages and find logs of other flowers you might have seen today.

### Logs
#### 2007 Logs

* --Jomegat 18:31, 6 Aug 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 16:10, 12 September 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 02:35, 14 September 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 09:55, 15 September 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 23:06, 21 September 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 17:22, 25 September 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 07:48, 2 October 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 17:06, 3 October 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 17:23, 8 October 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 18:17, 15 October 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 23:15, 30 October 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 23:09, 1 November 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:03, 2 November 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 22:59, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

#### 2008 Logs

* Jomegat 17:27, 27 June 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 23:11, 1 July 2008 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:22, 14 July 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 02:41, 15 July 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 17:14, 22 July 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 19:45, 26 July 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 00:52, 2 August 2008 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 11:13, 3 August 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 01:17, 17 August 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 20 August, 2008
* Jomegat 01:07, 31 August 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 23:42, 4 September 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 22:42, 10 September 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 20:08, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
* Jomegat 18:08, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

#### 2009 Logs
##### Recent Logs

* Jomegat 00:22, 15 July 2009 (UTC)
* Jomegat 00:47, 22 July 2009 (UTC)
# BCP/Polygonum perfoliatum/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Polygonum perfoliatum (Devil's Tearthumb). If you saw this plant blooming today (or sometime within the last 3 days), you can help improve the bloom clock by logging it. Just click on "edit" next to the Recent Logs heading, add *~~~~ (an asterisk followed by four tildes) on a new line just below the last signature, and then click "save page". This will add your signature and the date to log the plant.
Please make sure you've signed up on the contributors' page so that we can know the location of the plant you saw blooming and use your contribution to create a flora for your region! When you're done, you can go back to one of the main pages and find logs of other flowers you might have seen today.

##### Recent Logs

* --SB_Johnny | 10:37, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

##### Archived Logs

(If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
* (no archived logs yet)
# BCP/Polygonum sagittatum/Logs

This page contains recent bloom logs for the plant Polygonum sagittatum (Arrowleaf Tearthumb). If you saw this plant blooming today (or sometime within the last 3 days), you can help improve the bloom clock by logging it. Just click on "edit" next to the Recent Logs heading, add *~~~~ (an asterisk followed by four tildes) on a new line just below the last signature, and then click "save page". This will add your signature and the date to log the plant.
Please make sure you've signed up on the contributors' page so that we can know the location of the plant you saw blooming and use your contribution to create a flora for your region! When you're done, you can go back to one of the main pages and find logs of other flowers you might have seen today.

##### Recent Logs

* --SB_Johnny | 11:51, 4 August 2007 (UTC)
* --Jomegat 00:07, 15 August 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:12, 31 August 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 10:31, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
* --SB_Johnny | 07:43, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

##### Archived Logs

(If there are more than 5 signatures under the recent logs heading, move the oldest logs to under this heading (generally leave the 3 most recent).
* (no archived logs yet)
# BCP/Polygonum arifolium

Polygonum arifolium
| Plant in flower Wikipedia • Commons • Wikibooks (horticulture) • Wikibooks (subject) • Wikispecies • Fruit and seed clock | Profile for Polygonum arifolium (Halberd-leaved tearthumb) Identifying Characteristics Habit:Rambling vineStem:Covered in short barbsLife Cycle: Annual Recent Logs --SB_Johnny | 10:21, 12 August 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 10:17, 31 August 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 10:34, 1 September 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 07:04, 27 September 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 10:53, 29 July 2008 (UTC) (view all logs) |
Global data:
Regional data: Southeastern Pennsylvania: (native) July, August, September
Additional images:
# BCP/Polygonum sagittatum

Polygonum sagittatum
| Inflorescences Wikipedia • Commons • Wikibooks (horticulture) • Wikibooks (subject) • Wikispecies • Fruit and seed clock | Profile for Polygonum sagittatum (Arrowleaf tearthumb) Identifying Characteristics Recent Logs --SB_Johnny | 11:51, 4 August 2007 (UTC) --Jomegat 00:07, 15 August 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 10:12, 31 August 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 10:31, 1 September 2007 (UTC) --SB_Johnny | 07:43, 2 October 2007 (UTC) (view all logs) |
Global data:
Regional data: Southeastern Pennsylvania: (native) August, September, October New Hampshire: August
Additional images: