OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Literature/1975/Putnam/215

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Author
### w: Hilary Putnam

* Putnam, along with Saul Kripke, Keith Donnellan, and others, contributed to what is known as the causal theory of reference. In particular, Putnam maintained in The Meaning of "Meaning" that the objects referred to by natural kind terms -- such as tiger, water, and tree -- are the principal elements of the meaning of such terms. There is a linguistic division of labor, analogous to Adam Smith's economic division of labor, according to which such terms have their references fixed by the "experts" in the particular field of science to which the terms belong. So, for example, the reference of the term "lion" is fixed by the community of zoologists, the reference of the term "elm tree" is fixed by the community of botanists, and the reference of the term "table salt" is fixed as "NaCl" by chemists. These referents are considered rigid designators in the Kripkean sense and are disseminated outward to the linguistic community.

## Wikimedia
### w: Twin Earth

| w: Semantic externalism | w: Causal theory of reference |

## Chronology

* Literature/1981/Putnam $^{[^]}$
* Gibson, Jame J. (1977). "The Theory of Affordances," pp. 67-82. In: Robert Shaw & John Bransford, eds. Perceiving, Acting, and Knowing: Toward an Ecological Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. $^{[^]}$
* Chisholm, Roderick (1976). Person and Object: A Metaphysical Study. London: G. Allen & Unwin. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1976/Dummett $^{[^]}$
* Grice, Paul (1975). "Logic and Conversation," pp. 41-58, in: Cole, Peter & Jerry L. Morgan eds. (1975). Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3: Speech Act. New York: Academic Press. $^{[^]}$
* Hacking, Ian (1975). Why Does Language Matter to Philosophy? Cambridge University Press. $^{[^]}$
* Percy, Walker (1975). The Message in the Bottle: How Queer Man Is, How Queer Language Is, and What One Has to Do with the Other. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. $^{[^]}$
* Putnam, Hilary (1975). Mind, Language and Reality, Philosophical Papers Vol. 2, Cambridge University Press. $^{[^]}$
* Putnam, Hilary (1975). "The Meaning of 'Meaning'," in: Putnam, Hilary (1975), Mind, Language and Reality, Cambridge University Press,* pp. 215-271. $^{[^]}$
* Quine, Willard (1960). Word and Object. MIT Press. $^{[^]}$
* Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group. $^{[^]}$
* Black, Max (1954). "Metaphor." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 55, pp. 273-294. $^{[^]}$
* Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell Publishing. $^{[^]}$
* Strawson, Peter (1950). "On Referring." Mind, vol. 59, no. 235, pp. 320-344. $^{[^]}$
* Ryle, Gilbert (1949). The Concept of Mind. University Of Chicago Press. $^{[^]}$
* Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$
* Russell, Bertrand (1905). "On Denoting." Mind, vol. 14, pp. 479-493. $^{[^]}$
# Esper/rp/uv

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Esper', English, Esperanto. :
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# Esper/rp/ux

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# Esperanto

Welcome to the Department of Esperanto at Wikiversity, part of the Center for Foreign Language Learning and the School of Language Studies.

## Introduction

Esperanto is a constructed language that was published in 1887 by L. L. Zamenhof with the intention for it to become the language of international communication. Although it has not yet achieved this ambitious goal, Esperanto is by far the most successful constructed language. It is much easier to learn than any typical natural language and learning it has a positive effect on learning more languages. This course aims to take the learner from the basics through all the intricacies of the language.

## Course

Completion status: Been started, but most of the work is still to be done. :
Vocabulary :
Grammar :
16 Grammar Rules :
Idioms :
Irregularities :
Root chart :
Additional Wikimedia resources :
Textbook at Wikibooks :
Article at Wikipedia :
Word index at the English Wiktionary :
The Esperanto Wiktionary :
The Esperanto Teacher at Wikisource :
Dr. Esperanto's International Language at Wikisource :
* Lesson 1 — Pronunciation, parts of speech, noun basics, article, a few personal pronouns, present tense
* Lesson 2 — Pronunciation (repetition), adjective basics, verb basics, personal pronouns, introduction to affixes (mal-)
* Lesson 3 — Adverbs, ĉu, the suffixes -ulo and -ino, the ending -n, and counting
* Lesson 4 — Basic derivation
* Lesson 5 — Imperatives, introduction to correlatives
* Lesson 6 — Derivation with prepositions; Theme: Locations (incl. -ejo and -ujo), directions, and movement (incl. dis-)
* Lesson 7 — Theme: Family (incl. bo-, ge-, pra-, vic-, and eks-)
* Lesson 8 — Derivation using numerals
* Lesson 9 — Advanced derivation; Theme: Time
* Lesson 10 — Theme: Food
* Lesson 11 — Theme: Home
* Lesson 12 — Theme: The body
* Lesson 13 — Theme: The history of Esperanto
* Lesson 14 — Theme: Communication
* Lesson 15 — Theme: Weather and geography
* Lesson 16 — Theme: Work and occupations?
# Esper/rp/ut

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# Esper/rp/uz

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# Esper/rp/us

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# Esper/rp/uy

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# Esperanto/Answers

This page is an index of the answer pages of the Esperanto course.
* Lesson 1:
** Esperanto/Lesson 1/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 1/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 2:
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#mal- with adjectives
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#mal- with others
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 3:
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#Numbers
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#mal-
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#-ulo and -ino
** Esperanto/Lesson 3/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 3/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 4:
** Esperanto/Lesson 2/Answers#Affixes
** Esperanto/Lesson 4/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 4/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 5:
** Esperanto/Lesson 5/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 5/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 6:
** Esperanto/Lesson 6/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 6/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 7:
** Esperanto/Lesson 7/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 7/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 8:
** Esperanto/Lesson 8/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 8/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 9:
** Esperanto/Lesson 9/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 9/Answers#English–Esperanto
* Lesson 10:
** Esperanto/Lesson 10/Answers#Esperanto–English
** Esperanto/Lesson 10/Answers#English–Esperanto
# MDLD/lower integral

Start=lower integral Target=Bounded interval/Real function/Lower integral as supremum of step integrals from below/Definition
# MDLD/linearly dependent

Start=linearly dependent Target=Vector space/Linearly independent/Finite index set/Definition
# MDLD/linearly independent

Start=linearly independent Target=Vector space/Linearly independent/Finite index set/Definition
# MDLD/local (R extremum)

Start=local (R extremum) Target=Real function/Local maximum and minimum/Definition
# MDLD/local extrema (R)

Start=local extrema (R) See=local extremum (R) MDLD/local extremum (R) Target=Real function/Local maximum and minimum/Definition
# MDLD/local extremum (R)

Start=local extremum (R) Target=Real function/Local maximum and minimum/Definition
# MDLD/linear system

Start=linear system Target=System of linear equations/Set of variables/Homogeneous and inhomogeneous/Definition
# MDLD/mappings

Start=mappings See=mapping MDLD/mapping Target=Mapping/Definition
# MDLD/logarithms to base

Start=logarithms to base Target=Logarithm/Base/Via fraction/Definition
# MDLD/mapping

Start=mapping Target=Mapping/Definition
# Liberté (game)/Educational use

Liberté
Back
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use
Next :

## Historical learning

One of the prime areas this game can used for is historical learning.
* This Chart of personalities can be used to learn about historical personalities of the French Revolution
# Liberté (game)

Liberté
Back
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use
Next :
# Liberté (game)/Mechanics

Liberté
Back
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use
Next :
Liberté uses a number of game mechanics:

## Hand Management

Hand Management

## Area Control/Area Influence

Area Control/Area Influence

## Victory points

Victory points are awarded for the number of inflence blocks of particular factions collected during each election, for leading an army in battle and having the most influence in certain provinces in the 3rd and 4th turns.
# Liberté (game)/Reviews

Liberté
Back
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use
Next :

## Videos

      * Calandale play through 1
      * Calandale play through 2
      * Calandale play through 3
      * Calandale Review

## Links

      * Liberté on Boardgamegeek
      * Review by Hiew Chok Sien 邱卓成], April 14, 2011
      * Review by La Tana dei Gobin in Italian
      * Review by Paul Evans Oct/Nov 2002
# Liberté (game)/Theme

Liberté
Back
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use
Next :
The theme of Liberté is the French Revolution from the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789 to the Directory and General Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup d’état in 1799.

## Personalities

The game utilises a number of Personality Cards which represent actors in the French Revolution. These people are identified with a specific region and faction, are given a strength between 1 and 3, and may have one or more additional attributes: Sans Culottes, General, Canon.
* Chart of the personalities

## Provinces and Regions

The game board is divided into 6 regions and 27 Provinces. This has been developed for game purposes and does not relate to the geographical areas either used before the Revolution or afterwards. There were 40 provinces. Since 1982 France has been administratively divided into 27 regions, however six of these are outside Metropolitan France
# Liberté (game)/personalities

Liberté
Game Overview
· Theme
· Mechanics
· Reviews
· Educational use :
# Liberté (game)/personalities/metrics
### 2012-2013

| Metrics | Total | Daily Peak |
| April, 2012 | 62 | 6 |
| May, 2012 | 14 | 3 |
| June, 2012 | 11 | 2 |
| July, 2012 | 5 | 1 |
| August, 2012 | 17 | 8 |
| September, 2012 | | |
| October, 2012 | | |
| November, 2012 | | |
| December, 2012 | | |
| January, 2013 | | |
| February, 2013 | | |
| March, 2013 | | |
| Total | | |

### 2011-2012

| Metrics | Total | Daily Peak |
| October, 2011 | 28 | 27 |
| November, 2011 | 4 | 1 |
| December, 2011 | 89 | 35 |
| January, 2012 | 54 | 18 |
| February, 2012 | 14 | 3 |
| March, 2012 | 38 | 15 |
| Total | | |
# Measure Theory/Introduction to the Course
## Introduction to the Course
### Content

* Lebesgue measure
* Lebesgue integration
* Differentiation and Lebesgue integration
* $L^{p}$ spaces

### Prerequisites

* A strong foundation in real analysis (such as that found in Rudin's Principles of Mathematical Analysis).
* We will use some ideas, briefly, from probability theory, statistics, set theory, and others. However, if you have a strong foundation in real analysis, then it should be easy to learn what you need from these subjects as they come up. We will not use them extensively, so it should not be necessary to study them in advance of taking this course.
# Measure Theory/Integral Product Bound and Triangle Inequality
## The L$^p$ Product Bound

Now recall that the point of obtaining the real product-to-sum bound from the previous lesson,
    $ab\leq {\frac {a^{p}}{p}}+{\frac {b^{q}}{q}}$ for any $a,b\in {\mathbb {R}}^{+}$ and $1<p$ and $q=p^{*}$
was in the hope of obtaining a bound on an integral of the form $\int _{E}|fg|$.
* Exercise 1. Integral Product Bound
* The following result is often called Hölder's inequality.
* Let $1<p$ and $q=p^{*}$ and then let $f\in L^{p}(E)$ and $g\in L^{q}(E)$.
* Prove that $\int _{E}|fg|\leq \|f\|_{p}\cdot \|g\|_{q}$.
* Hint: In many cases of a normed vector space, it is easier to prove a claim first for vectors of unit norm, and then relate this result to the space of all vectors. In this case, that approach can help to simplify the proof. So start by assuming that $\|f\|_{p}=1=\|g\|_{q}$, in which case your goal is to prove
* $\int _{E}|fg|\leq 1$.
* Now apply the sum-to-product bound.
* When you have finished that, you now need to let $f,g$ have any norm at all. Consider first the case that either f or g has norm equal to zero, which should be straight-forward.
* Next consider that their norms are both not zero and consider the normalized vectors ${\frac {|f|}{\|f\|_{p}}},{\frac {|g|}{\|g\|_{q}}}$. Argue that these two vectors now each have norm equal to 1 and then apply your result from before.
* Then with a little bit of manipulation, infer the desired result.
* Exercise 2. The Conjugate Function
* Let $1\leq p$ and let $f\in L^{p}(E)$. Define $f^{*}$ to be the function which "complements" f with respect to the $L^{p}(E)$ norm. What I mean by that is that we take $f^{*}$ to be a function which makes the equation
* $\|f\|_{p}=\int _{E}f\cdot f^{*}$
* come out correct. The function $f^{*}$ which does so, is sometimes called the conjugate of f.
* 1. Prove that $f^{*}=\|f\|^{p-1}\cdot {\text{sgn}}(f)\cdot |f|^{p-1}$.
* 2. Prove that $f^{*}\in L^{q}(E)$.
* 3. Show that $\|f^{*}\|_{q}=1$.

## The Triangle Inequality

Finally we are in a position to prove the triangle inequality for $\|\cdot \|_{p}$.
* Exercise 3. The L$^p$ Triangle Inequlity
* This theorem is sometimes called Minkowski's inequality.
* For $f,g\in L^{p}(E)$ prove that $\|f+g\|_{p}\leq \|f\|_{p}+\|g\|_{p}$.
* Hint: From $|f+g|^{p}$ split off a single factor of $f+g$ and then use this to distribute the multiplication and then the integration. What is left should be a conjugate function for $f+g$. Continue from there.
* Exercise 4. L$^p$ Is Complete
* Recall that one of the most important properties of $L^{2}(E)$ which we proved, was its completeness. The proof of its completeness was by way of a theorem for normed vector spaces which applies just as well to $L^{p}(E)$ at this point.
* Show that the proof for $L^{2}(E)$ completeness is exactly the same proof for $L^{p}(E)$ completeness, mutatis mutandis.
# Federal Writers' Project – Life Histories/2018/Fall/Section 3

This project is associated with English 105i.003 at the University of North Carolina.

## Project

Using the archives at the University of North Carolina's Wilson Library, students examined the life of one individual profiled by the Federal Writers' Project. These individuals ranged from farmers to fisherman to thieves and well beyond. Using FWP interviews,students not only documented the life of these individuals, but also examined the social, political, and cultural contexts surrounding each individual's life during the Great Depression. Below are the links to the student projects.

## Life Histories

Special:Prefixindex/Federal Writers' Project – Life Histories/2018/Fall/Section 3/
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Part I/Exercise sheet 30

    Exercises
    Hand-in-exercises
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Part I/Exercise sheet 29

    Exercises
    Hand-in-exercises
# Orthodox Christianity stream

History
Almost two thousand years ago, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, came to earth and founded the Church, through His Apostles and disciples, for the salvation of man. In the years which followed, the Apostles spread the Church and its teachings far; they founded many churches, all united in faith, worship, and the partaking of the Mysteries (or as they are called in the West, the Sacraments) of the Holy Church.
The churches founded by the Apostles themselves include the Patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome. The Church of Constantinople was founded by St. Andrew, the Church of Alexandria by St. Mark, the Church of Antioch by St. Paul, the Church of Jerusalem by Sts. Peter and James, and the Church of Rome by Sts. Peter and Paul. Those founded in later years through the missionary activity of the first churches were the Churches of Sinai, Russia, Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and many others.
Each of these churches is independent in administration, but, with the exception of the Church of Rome, which separated from the others in the year 1054, all are united in faith, doctrine, Apostolic tradition, sacraments, liturgies, and services. Together they constitute and call themselves the Orthodox Church.
The teachings of the Church are derived from two sources: Holy Scripture, and Sacred Tradition, within which the Scriptures came to be, and within which they are interpreted. As written in the Gospel of St. John, "And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world could not contain the books that should be written" (John 21:20). Much teaching transmitted orally by the Apostles has come down to us in Sacred Tradition.
The word Orthodox literally means right teaching or right worship, being derived from two Greek words: orthos (right) and doxa (teaching or worship). As the false teachings and divisions multiplied in early Christian times, threatening to obscure the identity and purity of the Church, the term Orthodox quite logically came to be applied to it. The Orthodox Church carefully guards the truth against all error and schism, both to protect its flock and to glorify Christ whose body the Church is.
An astonishing number of religious groups today claim to be the successors of the early Church. A yardstick for truth is needed by which to compare what the Church originally believed and practiced with what these groups proclaim. Certainly we all have the right to believe whatever we choose. But it is also just good sense to be acquainted with the options before we make our final choices.
It is our hope that this outline of our beliefs will help introduce you to the Christianity espoused and instituted by the Apostles of Jesus Christ. This is the yardstick of truth by which our choices in Christianity need to be measured.
# Orthoptic clinical practice

This subject will introduce you to the orthoptic clinical setting. It is a beginning level placement subject that includes a one week clinical placement where theories and investigative and management procedures can be applied under the supervision of a qualified professional.

## Intended Learning Outcomes

* Communicate appropriately and effectively with patients and their families to the level of a novice
* Translate technical orthoptic and ophthalmic information into practical advise for patients.
* Perform appropriate clinical investigation for differential diagnosis which is informed by a comprehensive case history and ongoing clinical findings.

## Assessment

* Edit Wikipedia
* Video Presentation
* Practical Exam
* Clinical Placement Attendance
* Reflective Journal

## Learning Management System

Students enrolled in this subject are directed to the Orthoptic Clinical Practice A Learning Management System website.
# Orthogonal reflection/Hyperplane/Eigenspaces/Example

For an orthogonal reflection of $\mathbb {R} ^{n}$, there exists an $(n-1)$-dimensional linear subspace $U\subseteq \mathbb {R} ^{n}$, which is fixed by the mapping and every vector orthogonal to $U$ is sent to its negative. If $v_{1},\ldots ,v_{n-1}$ is a basis of $U$ and $v_{n}$ is a vector orthogonal to $U$, then the reflection is described by the matrix
    ${\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\cdots &\cdots &0\\0&1&0&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\ddots &\ddots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &0&1&0\\0&\cdots &\cdots &0&-1\end{pmatrix}}$
with respect to this basis.
# Orthoptic and ophthalmic investigations

The aim of this resource is to provide a compilation of tests and investigations used by orthoptists for the purpose of investigating ocular problems.
* Vision
* Stereopsis
* Strabismus
* Perimetry
* Anterior and posterior segment investigation
* Ocular imaging
# Oscillators
## Theoretical oscillators

Def.
"a tuned electronic circuit used to generate a continuous output waveform", or
a "pattern that returns to its original state, in the same orientation and position, after a finite number of generations"
is called an oscillator.
# General knowledge

The intention of this set of courses is to give to you the set of knowledge which would make you "educated". The courses are not about in depth knowledge, but about important concepts about nature, society and arts which every educated person should know.

## Natural sciences

Natural science is the term used to apply to the non artificial sciences. Often used to describe only the environmental sciences, but for the purpose of this article it will be used to refer to all the natural sciences. This is a very broad and diverse topic, but this will cover the basics.
* Earth science
* Basic physics
* The biological sciences
* Basic astronomy
* Chemistry

## Society

Simply put, society is any large group of people who live together, usually ruled by the same people or in the same situation to one another. Members of a society often have similar beliefs, morally, religiously or politically, and benefit one another while simultaneously depending on each other.