# Digital Media Concepts/Brunei Rainforests

Brunei is located on the north east of the island of Borneo in South East Asia; it is situated around the South China Sea and Malaysia. It is estimated that 70% percent of Brunei’s land area is covered with forest.
Around 75% of Brunei’s forests are tropical rainforests, which is composed mostly of old growth forests. There are seven types of tropical rainforest in Brunei: mangrove forests, peat swamp forests, freshwater swamp forests, kerangas or heath forests, beach-type forests, mixed-dipterocarp forests, and montane forests. Among these types, the most abundant type of rainforest in Brunei is the mixed dipterocarp forest.
Brunei’s tropical rainforests are rich in biodiversity and some of the species can only be found there. Although diverse and rich in species, there is endangerment to many of the wildlife due to deforestation. Despite the rising threats to the Brunei rainforests, conservation efforts are taking place by non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and laws and regulations enforced by the Brunei government.

## Types of Tropical Rainforest in Brunei

The two categories of rainforest in Brunei are the hill forests and the swamp forests. Hill forests are forests that located in higher altitudes and are drier grounds. Among hill forests are: kerangas or heath forests, mixed-dipterocarp forests, and montane forests. On the other hand, swamp forests are prevalent in low-lying areas and are often impacted by tidal water or flooding. Forests in Brunei that are considered swamp forests include: mangrove forests, peat swamp forests, freshwater swamp forests, and beach-type forests.

### Hill Forests
#### Mixed-Dipterocarp Forests

The most prevalent type of forest in Brunei is the mixed-dipterocarp forests, making up around 41% of Brunei’s forest. There are three different forms of mixed-dipterocarp forests in Brunei that are categorised by geographical location: the lowland association, hill forest, and highland mix.
| Type of Mixed-Dipterocarp Forest | Forest Composition | Location in Brunei |
| Lowland forests | low-density mixed-dipterocarp | It is found in the low terrain of Labi hills, Ladan hills, Andulau Forest Reserve, and Temburong forests. |
| Hill forests | It is similar to the lowland type, but denser. | The hills of Labi, Ladan, Andulau, and Temburong areas. |
| Highland forests | Contain non-dipterocarp trees, which are not usually found in the lowland forests. Dipterocarp trees are prevalent in the upper canopy, but most trees in the highland forests are medium-sized. | Found over 800 meters above sea level in the mountain ridges at Retak and Tudal of Temburong district. |

#### Heath Forests

Heath forests are mostly found along the Brunei coastlines; for example, in the Brunei-Muara and Tutong districts. It is estimated that around 3000 hectares of heath forests are located in Brunei. The types of vegetation in Brunei heath forests vary and there are many species present of which are rare in other habitats.
| Type of Heath Forest (type classified by plant species or geographical area) | Characteristics of each Heath Forest | Location in Brunei |
| Belait forests | Grown along river terraces, which are relatively flat with areas where there are large amounts of peat. Species present are: 'Alan' (Shorea albida), 'kapur paya' (Dryobalanops rappa), 'keruntum' (Combretocarpus rotundatus), 'jelungan' (Aglaia rubiginosa), and 'semundu' (Parishia maingayi). | Belait district. |
| Upland Kerangas forests | Grown on mountainous areas | Bukit Peradayan, Bukit Patoi, Bukit Biang, Bukit Telugong, Bukit Gelagas, and Gunong Pagon priok. |
| 'tulong' (Agathis borneensis) forests | No information | Bukit Puan, Badas and Sungai Mau areas. |
| 'kapur paya' (Dryobalanops rappa) forests | Located between the peat swamp forest and the kerangas forest. | Anduki Forest Reserve. |

#### Montane Forests

The Temburong district in Brunei is the only location that contains montane forests. There are two types of montane forests: lower montane and upper montane. There are differences in tree species, composition of soil, and altitude between montane forests in Brunei.
| Type of Heath Forest (type classified by plant species or geographical area) | Characteristics of each Montane Forest |
| Mixed montane forests (lower altitudes) | They occur at areas around 910 meters to 1,280 meters above sea level. The soil composition is sandy-like and clay. |
| Oak forest (higher montane altitudes) | Found in steep areas at an elevation of around 1,200 and 1,550 meters. The soils are peaty. |
| Rhodoendrons (higher montane altitudes) | Found at elevation of around 1,070 to 1,830 meters. Other plant species include Dacrydium beccarii, Phyllocladus hypophyllus, Syzygium bankase, and Calophyllum nodosum. |
| 'tulong' (Agathis endertii) forests | Found in areas at around 700 to 1,220 meters above sea level. The soil is sandy and has a fine texture. |
| Shorea coriacea forests | Found in areas at around 910 to 1,100 meters elevation. It has the same soil composition as the ‘tulong’ forests, where ‘tulong’, along with Shorea coriacea is one of the dominant species. |

### Swamp Forests
#### Mangrove Forests

The mangrove forests, predominantly located in the inner Brunei Bay, covers around 18,418 hectares. According to the Forestry Department of Brunei: “The mangrove forest is further classified based on the dominant plant species, as follows: Bakau, Nyireh Bunga, Linggadai, Nipah, Nipah Dungun, Pedada, and Nibong”.
| Plant Species of Mangrove Forests | Characteristics of each Mangrove Forest | Location in Brunei |
| ‘bakau minyak' ( Rhizophora apiculata ) forests | No available information | Temburong District. |
| 'Nyireh bunga' ( Xylocarpus granatum ) forests | They are usually found with the Rhizophora apiculata species or in dry areas. | Selirong and Labu Forest Reserves. |
| 'Linggadai' ( Bruguiera gymnorrhiza ) forests | Found along rivers. | Temburong mangrove forests. |
| ‘nipah' palm ( Nypa fruitcans ) forests | Grow “along river banks and riparian zones in the coastal areas” (5). | Pendaruan, Temburong, and Labu Rivers in the Temburong District, and along the Tutong and Belait Rivers. |
| ‘nipah dungun' (Heritiera globosa) forests | They grow in areas of high concentration of salt in rivers. | Found along the Temburong and Labu Rivers. |
| 'pedada' ( Sonneratia caseolaris ) forests | Occurs in parts of rivers with silt deposits. | Kuala Labu and Temburong. |
| 'nibong' ( Oncosperma tigillarium ) forests | Grow in small patches and are closer to land along rivers. | No available information |

#### Beach-Type Forests

The beach type forest in Brunei is found along the coastline between Muara and Tutong, and west of Kuala Belait where the most pervasive species of trees are “'ru laut' (Casuarina equisetifolia), the sea hibiscus or 'baru-baru' (Hibiscus tiliaceus), 'nyatoh laut' (Pouteria obovata) and 'putat laut' (Barringtonia asiatica)”.

#### Peat Swamp Forests

After mixed-dipterocarp forests, peat swamp forests are the most prevalent type of forest in Brunei Darussalam: it covers 15.6% of Brunei's total land area. The largest peat swamp forest is found in the Belait district of Brunei.
| Type of Peat Swamp Forests | Characteristics of each Peat Swamp Forest | Location in Brunei |
| Mangrove-peat swamp forests | This forest contains species of mangrove and semi-mangroves. | No information |
| 'Ramin-Pulaie' forests | 'ramin' (Gonystylus bancanus) and 'pulaie' (Alstonia pneumatophora) are the dominant species. | No information |
| 'jongkong' (Dactylocladus_stenostachys) forests | Contains pure ‘jongkong' trees. | Tutong river |
| 'terantang' (Campnosperma coriaceum) forests | It is the “early development stage of peat swamp forests” in Brunei. | Tutong and Brunei-Muara districts |
| 'alan' (Shorea albida) forests | This type of forest contains mostly canopy trees. The ‘alan’ species considered an endangered species by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. | Belait drainage |
| 'Padang keruntum' (Combretocarpus rotundatus) forests | Trees are sparse and the swamp area is visible. | Sungai Pandaruan and Sungai Mendaram |

#### Freshwater Swamp Forests

There are about 12,668 hectares of this type of forest in Brunei. Most of the fresh water swamp forests in Brunei are located in the Belait District's rivers and along the Belait River from Kuala Balai. Freshwater swamp forests grow on alluvial rivers. Along the Belait river, there is a medium density of mixed-dipterocarps trees, which are also tall.

## Biodiversity

Brunei has a high species diversity of flora and fauna. “Brunei has 5,000 species of vascular plants with 2,000 tree species”; about 121 mammal species in the country where half of them are rodents; an estimation of around 471 species of birds; 50 reptile species and 98 species of amphibians; and “around 103 freshwater fish species”.
Brunei’s tropical rainforest contains rare species. The proboscis monkey, found only on the Borneo island, is found in Brunei’s mangrove forests, coastal lowland forests, peat swamp forests, and freshwater swamp forests. They are known for their large nose, which is used for attracting mates and to produce a warning sound when threatened. Similarly, the clouded leopard can only be found in Sumatra and Borneo. It is the largest wildcat species in Brunei and is distinguished by the patches on its fur and its large fangs. Other unique species found in the Brunei rainforest is the rhinoceros hornbill and helmeted hornbill, the pangolin, the sun bear or beruang, and “a species of miniature palm tree, Licuala” in Brunei's Sungai Ingei forests.
* 2014 Borneo Sun Bear
* 2014 Borneo Rhinoceros Hornbill
* Pangolin borneo
* Proboscis monkey in the Island of Borneo
* Borneo clouded leopard
* Bornean Slow Loris
* Green crested lizard in Borneo

## Biodiversity Loss
### Endangered Ecosystems and Species

A study done in 2014 of the Belait peat swamp forests found endangered species of flora and fauna. This was especially true for the habitats: Alan Batu peat swamp forest, Kerangas, and Kerapah, whilst also being endangered ecosystems on their own. The Alan forests are considered to have a large amount of endangered species because the Shorea albida that composes its canopy is considered to be an endangered species by the IUCN Red List. The Alan forest itself is considered a critically endangered ecosystem according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Ecosystems. On the other hand, the “Kerangas and Kerapah areas have the highest diversity of threatened species in the study”.
In the study, flora and fauna species were found to be endangered:
| Flora and Fauna | Number of Endemic Species to Borneo | Number of New Species Found for Brunei | Number of Endangered/ Vulnerable Species | Number of Critically Endangered Species | Total Species Recorded |
| Flora | 16 | 0 | 6 | 5 | 202 |
| Dragonflies | 14 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 77 |
| Fish | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 52 |
| Amphibians | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 21 |
| Reptiles | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 23 |
| Birds | 9 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 194 |
| Bats | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 19 |
| Mammals | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 28 |

### Causes of Biodiversity Loss

Causes of biodiversity loss in Brunei's rainforests include deforestation and poaching.

#### Deforestation

Brunei’s deforestation rate was one of the lowest in Southeast Asia with an average annual rate of change of 0.5% recorded from 2005 to 2010. The building and development of infrastructure is one of the contributors of deforestation; for example, increases in the building of houses, shopping malls, schools, roads, and buildings like hospitals. Deforestation causes habitat loss; therefore, a decrease in ecosystem, habitat, and species diversity.

#### Poaching

Poaching occurs in Brunei’s rainforests. Species that are poached includes the proboscis monkey, the clouded leopard, and the Hawksbill sea turtles. The Hawksbill sea turtles’ eggs are poached and sold, whilst the clouded leopard’s skin, teeth, and other body parts.

## Conservation of Brunei's Rainforests and Biodiversity

“The national forest reserves constitute 41% of the country’s total land area and are protected by law.” A quarter of this is designated as unexploitable in order to conserve the forests.
In 1986, a wildlife conservation and management scheme was added to Brunei Darussalam’s Master Plan by the Town and Country Planning Department commissioned. In 1989, the Forest Department enacted the new National Forestry Policy. The plan that was developed from this policy was a forest protected areas system, which helps promote sustainable use of forests in Brunei.
Most of the forest types in Brunei are protected: “the forests of Ulu Temburong (Batu Apoi); the peat swamp forests of the Belait River system (Ulu Mendaram); the mangroves of Brunei Bay; Tasek Merimbun (an area of freshwater and peat swamps); the Bukit Batu-Sungei Ingei area; and the coastal kerangas forests”. The forests in Brunei are categorised into five different types in terms of how they are used: protection forest, production forest, recreational forest, conservation forest, and national park.
Deforestation in Brunei has been low because most of the population live along the coast and most economic development has focused on fossil fuels. Timber extraction is strictly controlled by the Brunei Forest Department: collecting timber for local consumption is allowed, but large areas of deforestation and timber export is not allowed.
Brunei also participates in the Heart of Borneo Initiative by WWF, established in 2007, that includes Indonesia and Malaysia. The aim of this programme is to conserve biodiversity and promote sustainable forest and land use. also has a local NGO called 1Stop Brunei.