# Moral Reasoning/Moral Issues

Use this list of moral issues to test the consistency, robustness, and usefulness of your moral reasoning. Justify your answers based on your written description of your moral reasoning. Consider using Socratic methods to explore the questions posed here.
* Capital Punishment—also known as the death penalty—is a government-sanctioned practice whereby a person is killed by the state as a punishment for a crime.
** Is capital punishment effective in protecting public safety?
** Is capital punishment an effective deterrent?
** Is capital punishment satisfying to crime victims?
** Is capital punishment cost effective?
** Is capital punishment morally justified?
* Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life to relieve pain and suffering. Consider:
** Voluntary euthanasia which is currently legal in some countries.
** Non-voluntary euthanasia (patient's consent unavailable) is currently illegal in all countries.
** Involuntary euthanasia (without asking consent or against the patient's will) is also currently illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder.
** Consider human euthanasia, and non-human animal euthanasia.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is euthanasia morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does it matter who bears the costs of sustaining the life or performing the euthanasia?
** Is the distinction between active and passive euthanasia morally significant?
** Does the moral status of euthanasia depend on the legal status of euthanasia?
* Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population by excluding certain genetic groups judged to be inferior, and promoting other genetic groups judged to be superior.
** How would it be decided who is permitted to reproduce and who is restricted or prohibited from reproducing?
** Under what circumstances, if any, is eugenics morally justified?
** Within what scope, if any, is eugenics morally justified?
* Sex education is the instruction of issues relating to human sexuality, including human sexual anatomy, sexual activity, sexual reproduction, safe sex and birth control, sexual health, reproductive health, emotional relations and responsibilities, age of consent, and reproductive rights. Use your moral reasoning to answer the following questions.
** At what age is it appropriate to teach children and young adults each of the topics listed above?
** Should this instruction be included as part of public-school education? Should some or all of a sex education curriculum be mandated? Should parents be able to exempt their children from all or part of this education?
* Pornography is the portrayal of sexual subject matter for the exclusive purpose of sexual arousal.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is creating, distributing, or consuming pornography morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for pornography to be restricted by government regulation?
* Sexual activity is the way humans experience and express their sexuality.
** What, if any, sexual practices are not morally justified?
** Under what circumstances, if any, are sexual practices morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for sexual activity to be restricted by government regulation?
* Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is prostitution morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for prostitution to be restricted by government regulation?
* Contraception is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is contraception morally justified?
** Under what circumstances, if any, is it morally justified to restrict access to contraception?
** Are distinctions among various approaches to contraception morally relevant?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for contraception to be restricted by government regulation?
* Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it can survive outside the uterus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an induced abortion.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is abortion morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of abortion depend on the legal status of abortion?
** Is it morally justified for abortion to be restricted by government regulation?
* Infidelity is a violation of a couple's assumed or stated contract regarding emotional and/or sexual exclusivity.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is infidelity morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
* Conceiving a child results in important life changes for the mother, the father, and the new-born child when taken to term. The child does not consent to being born, and in cases of scarce resources or unfit parenting, the child may have a difficult, if not tragic life.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is conceiving a child morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for conception to be restricted by government regulation?
* Buying or selling human organs is the trade of human organs, tissues, or other body products, usually for transplantation. There is a worldwide shortage of organs available for transplantation, yet commercial trade in human organs is currently illegal in all countries except Iran.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is organ trade morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of organ trade depend on the legal status of organ trade?
** Is it morally justified for organ trade to be restricted by government regulation?
* What, if any, moral issues pertain to land ownership?
** What is the basis for land ownership?
** What are the benefits of land ownership?
** What would be a fair basis for owning land?
* Genetic Engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is genetic engineering morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of genetic engineering depend on the legal status of genetic engineering?
** Is it morally justified for genetic engineering to be restricted by government regulation?
* Synthetic biology applies several disciplines to build artificial biological systems for research, engineering and medical applications. Synthetic biology involves designing and constructing biological modules, biological systems, and biological machines or, re-design of existing biological systems for useful purposes.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is synthetic biology morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of synthetic biology depend on the legal status of synthetic biology?
** Is it morally justified for synthetic biology to be restricted by government regulation?
* Eating meat is consuming animal flesh as food. Although humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the question of whether it is right to eat animal flesh is among the most prominent topics in food ethics. People choose not to eat meat for various reasons such as concern for animal welfare, the environmental impact of meat production, and health considerations. Some argue that slaughtering animals solely because people enjoy the taste of meat is morally wrong or unjustifiable.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is eating meat morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of eating meat depend on the legal status of eating meat?
** Is it morally justified for eating meat to be restricted by government regulation?
* Burning coal destroys a non-renewable resource and creates pollution.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is burning coal morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of burning coal depend on the legal status of burning coal?
** Is it morally justified for burning coal to be restricted by government regulation?
* Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves, or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is considered private differ among cultures and individuals.
** On what moral basis, if any, can it be decided what information is private and what information is public?
** Under what circumstances, if any, can a person or organization be compelled to reveal information they regard as private?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** When, if ever, are governments morally justified in protecting private information or in disclosing private information?
* Smoking Marijuana
** Under what circumstances, if any, is smoking marijuana morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of smoking marijuana depend on the legal status of smoking marijuana?
** Is it morally justified for smoking marijuana to be restricted by government regulation?
* Lying is making an assertion that is believed to be false, typically used with the purpose of deceiving someone.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is lying morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Is it morally justified for lying to be restricted by government regulation?
* Violence is "the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy".
** When, if ever, is it morally justified to use violence?
** What moral reasoning guides the level of violence that is warranted in each case?
* War is a state of armed conflict between states, governments, societies and informal paramilitary groups, such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, aggression, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is waging war morally justified?
** Who gets to make the decision, and under what circumstances?
** Does the moral status of waging war depend on the legal status of waging war?
** Is it morally justified for waging war to be restricted by national or international government regulation?
* Torture is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on a person for reasons such as punishment, extracting a confession, interrogation for information, or intimidating third parties.
** Is torture an effective method for obtaining reliable information?
** Under what circumstances, if any, is torture morally justified?
* Trespass is encroachment upon the person or property of another. Trespass to the person includes assault, battery, or false imprisonment. Trespass to goods includes intentional interference with the owner’s possession of personal property. Within common law trespass to land involves the wrongful interference with one's possessory rights in real property.
** Think broadly about encroachment upon the person or property of another. What actions can be morally regarded as trespass? These actions may or may not be regarded as trespass according to various laws.
** Under what circumstances, if any, is trespass morally justified.
** Does the moral status of trespass depend on the legal status of trespass?
* Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment. Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where possible, to repair damage and reverse trends. Environmental exploitation—failures to protect the environment—are various forms of trespass. For example, pollution is the dispersal of waste products onto properties that are typically unowned by the polluter. When species are caused to go extinct, future generations are denied experiencing those species.
** Describe various forms of environmental exploitation as forms of trespass.
** Do we have a moral obligation to protect the environment?
* Human Rights are moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behavior and are regularly protected as natural and legal rights in municipal and international law. They are commonly understood as inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being" and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin, or any other status. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is one of the most widely recognized suites of human rights.
** Do we have a moral obligation to protect and preserve human rights, worldwide?
* Universal Basic Income is a periodic cash payment delivered to all on an individual basis without means test or work requirement.
** Is there moral obligation to create a universal basic income?
* True Beliefs are beliefs that correspond to reality.
** Do we have a moral obligation to choose true beliefs?
* How do we evaluate the moral status of a lucky person compared to an unlucky person?
** Read this story of chance consequences.
* A nuclear weapon is an explosive device—typically a bomb--that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions. A nuclear device no larger than a conventional bomb can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation.
** Were we morally justified in developing nuclear weapons?
** Were we morally justified in dropping nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II.
** Were we morally justified to continue production of nuclear weapons after World War II?
** Do we have a moral obligation to reduce nuclear weapons stockpiles?
** Do we have a moral obligation to abolish all nuclear weapons?
* Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity.
** Were we morally justified in developing nuclear power plants?
** Are we morally justified in continuing the use of nuclear power plants?
** Are we morally justified in continuing to produce nuclear power plants?
** Do your answers depend on the type (fission or fusion) of reactor, or the generation (design era) of the nuclear power plant?
** Do you consider nuclear powered submarines as having a different moral status than nuclear power?
* A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
** Were we morally justified in creating genetically modified organisms?
*** Does your answer differ considering plants or animals, food or non-food uses?
** Are we morally justified in continuing to create genetically justified organisms?
** Is it morally preferable to distribute or to withhold golden rice?
** What, if any, genetically modified organisms are we morally obligated to prohibit, withhold, create, or distribute?
* Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. Several gene therapies are under development, in clinical trials, or approved for use.
** Is the development of gene therapies morally justified?
** Is the use of gene therapies (in humans) morally justified?
** What moral limits—if any—are there to the use of gene therapies in humans or other organisms?
* COVID-19 vaccine mandates have been enacted by numerous states and municipalities in the United States, and by private entities during the pandemic. Some see this as an abridgment of personal freedoms, others see this as necessary to protect public health.
** Are COVID-19 vaccine mandates morally justified?
** Does your freedom to refuse vaccination prevail over my freedom from pandemic infection?
** Are there practical and safe alternatives to vaccine mandates that transcend the conflict between pro-vaccine and anti-vaccine positions?
* Voting is a method by which a group, such as a meeting or an electorate, convenes together for the purpose of making a collective decision or expressing an opinion usually following discussions, debates or election campaigns.
** If you have the opportunity to vote in a political election, do you have a moral obligation to cast your vote?
** If you choose to cast a vote, do you have a moral obligation to become civically engaged and study the issues and candidates before casting your vote?
* Philanthropy, charitable giving, and volunteering are all forms of altruism undertaken with the goal of doing good. How do you decide:
** What organizations to contribute to?
** How much to contribute?
** Whether to contribute money, goods, expertise, time, or services?
** How do you know if you are doing the most good you can?
* Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. What, if any limitations on free speech are morally justified?
** Consider conversations, advertisements, public announcements, propaganda, social media, printed materials, the village green, parades, and other formats and forums.
** Is it morally justified to limit hate speech, disinformation, misinformation, harmful content, disparaging comments, sexually explicit content, inducements to engage in harmful or addictive behavior, incitement to violence, classified information, or other forms of speech?
** What actions or artifacts constitute speech? Consider spoken or written words, art forms such as poetry, music, performances, video, photographs, visual arts, monetary contributions, demonstrations, protests, and other forms of expression or influence.
** Is it morally relevant to distinguish between speech (the message) and reach (how many people are exposed to or influenced by the information)?
** What if any moral distinction is there between censorship and any other limitation on free speech?
** What if any moral distinction is there between privacy and censorship?
** Is there any moral distinction between banning the speaker or banning the speech?
** What moral or practical principles pertain to granting or denying a speaker access to platforms such as news coverage, social media accounts, podcasts, lecture halls, participation in events such as parades, pageants, and public or private assemblies?
* What would you do if faced with this passenger’s dilemma?You are a passenger in a car driven by a close friend, and he hits a pedestrian. You know that your friend was going at least thirty-five miles per hour in a zone marked twenty. There are no witnesses. Your friend’s lawyer says that if you testify under oath that your friend’s speed was only twenty miles per hour then you would save your friend from any serious consequences. What would you do?

## Government Policy Issues

ChatGPT provided this list of government policy issues. While these are not purely moral issues, policy decisions often depend in part on moral reasoning.
* Economic Policy: This encompasses a range of policies related to taxation, public spending, trade regulations, labor laws, monetary policy, and financial regulations. The aim is to promote economic growth, stability, and equitable distribution of resources.
* Healthcare Policy: Policies in this area focus on ensuring access to quality healthcare, healthcare system organization, insurance regulations, public health initiatives, and medical research funding.
* Education Policy: Education policies deal with issues such as curriculum standards, funding for schools and universities, teacher training, access to education, and measures to address achievement gaps and promote educational equity.
* Environmental Policy: These policies aim to address environmental challenges such as climate change, pollution, conservation, and sustainable development. They encompass regulations on emissions, energy sources, waste management, and protection of natural resources.
* Social Welfare Policy: This involves policies related to poverty alleviation, social safety nets, income redistribution, unemployment benefits, housing assistance, and programs for vulnerable populations, such as the elderly, children, and disabled individuals.
* Criminal Justice Policy: Policies in this area include laws and regulations related to crime prevention, law enforcement, the judicial system, sentencing guidelines, prison reform, and rehabilitation programs.
* Immigration Policy: Immigration policies determine rules and regulations for the entry, residence, and citizenship of immigrants. They address issues such as border control, visa programs, refugee and asylum policies, and integration measures.
* Foreign Policy: Foreign policies encompass a country's strategies and approaches to international relations, diplomacy, trade agreements, defense alliances, humanitarian interventions, and global cooperation on various issues.
* Technology Policy: In an increasingly digital and interconnected world, technology policies cover areas such as internet governance, data privacy, cybersecurity, intellectual property rights, innovation incentives, and regulation of emerging technologies.
* Social Justice Policy: These policies aim to address systemic inequalities and promote fairness and equal opportunities for all individuals, regardless of race, gender, religion, or socioeconomic background. They may include anti-discrimination laws, affirmative action, and measures to combat systemic biases.
* Infrastructure Policy: This includes policies related to the development and maintenance of physical infrastructure such as transportation networks (roads, bridges, public transit), communication systems, water and sewage systems, and energy infrastructure.
* Energy Policy: Energy policies focus on the production, distribution, and consumption of energy. They encompass decisions regarding renewable energy promotion, energy efficiency measures, fossil fuel regulations, nuclear power, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
* Housing Policy: Housing policies address issues related to affordable housing, housing subsidies, rental regulations, homelessness prevention, urban planning, and zoning laws.
* Consumer Protection Policy: These policies aim to safeguard consumers' rights and interests by regulating product safety, advertising practices, fair competition, financial services, and consumer redress mechanisms.
* Civil Rights Policy: Civil rights policies focus on protecting and promoting individual freedoms and equal rights. They include policies on voting rights, anti-discrimination measures, LGBTQ+ rights, gender equality, and protection of marginalized communities.
* National Security Policy: National security policies encompass measures taken to protect a nation's sovereignty, defend against external threats, counter terrorism, intelligence gathering, cybersecurity, and defense spending.
* Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policies involve decisions on taxation, government spending, budgeting, and debt management to ensure economic stability, fiscal sustainability, and long-term growth.
* Science and Technology Policy: These policies address issues related to scientific research funding, technology development, innovation ecosystems, STEM education, and the ethical implications of scientific advancements.
* Transportation Policy: Transportation policies focus on planning, regulating, and improving transportation systems, including public transit, road networks, aviation, railways, and maritime transportation.
* Privacy and Data Protection Policy: These policies address the collection, storage, and use of personal data by governments, corporations, and other entities, aiming to protect individuals' privacy rights and ensure data security.
It is important to note that these policy areas are interconnected, and decisions in one area can have significant impacts on others. Government policymakers often grapple with finding balanced solutions that consider various stakeholders and long-term implications.

## Grand Challenges

The Grand challenges represent the most difficult and most important problems facing the people of the world. Clear moral reasoning is necessary, but not sufficient to solve these problems. As you read through this list of Grand challenges, use your moral reasoning to set priorities and suggest solutions.
* ↑ Denworth, Lydia (January 26, 2021). Friendship: The Evolution, Biology, and Extraordinary Power of Life's Fundamental Bond. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 320. ISBN 978-0393541502.