OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Limitations of Scientific Research

In many fields of science, accepted theories and models cannot, by their very nature, be quantified or observed (i.e. lacking empirical evidence). Many of these theories are also in dispute within the field.
The best example lies with quantum mechanics. Many facets of quantum mechanics are merely mathematical models explaining the behaviour and interaction between subatomic particles. One of the major stumbling blocks in quantum mechanics lies within one its' fundamental theories: Quantum superposition (all particles exist in all states at the same time). There are many interpretations of this, the standard being: Copenhagen interpretation. This states, basically, that the act of measuring (or observing) the state of a particle collapses the superposition effect, altering it's state to the value defined by the measurement. This shows that the superposition effect, while being one of the most widely accepted and fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, can never actually be observed.
Another good example for this is in the field of Paleontology. One of the fundamental pillars used for the reconstruction of fossils, especially the picturisation of what the animal looked and behaved like, is that we must use what we see today as our basis for rebuilding the past.
Take the example of the Megalodon. From only a handful of teeth and vertebre, paleontologists can tell us that the Megalodon was, basically, a 20m long Great White with similar structure and behavioural patterns. The teeth of a megalodon are similar in shape to that of a Great White so it has been assumed that it's morphology and behaviour are similar (although because the teeth are larger, it's prey would be larger). While this may be accurate, it may also be completely wrong (there is strong support for the theory that megalodon and great whites are not related, the latter being a descendant of the broad-tooth Mako shark. The only real clue that we have towards the size and behaviour is that many bones of large whales have been found with tooth marks almost identical to that of the megalodon. However, there is no evidence, other than it's similarity to the great white's, that the teeth and vertebre even came from a shark and not some other animal which happened to have similar dentition and spinal structure.
In other words, the evidence and modelling that we have in these cases, while compelling, is insufficient to enable us to reliably prove the conclusions that we have made. Or, probably more accurately, the conclusions drawn cannot be reliably disproven with current methodology and technology.

## History

This article was previously posted on the Creation / Evolution page and rejected for Original Research. There are holes in the arguments made which need filled in and I hope that, with our combined effort, these can be filled.
# Sindarin
## Unit Summary

* Course code: ALE-U-EDH1
* Suggested Prerequisites:
* Time investment:
* Assessment suggestions:
* Faculty: Humanities
* School: Language and Literature
* Department: Tolkien Languages
* Stream: Elvish stream
* Level:

## Course Contents and Goals

This course will provide you with a complete knowledge of Sindarin, most spoken in Middle-Earth of the languages invented by Tolkien. This language is more or less the version devised in the Lord of the Rings (see the problem of the canon).

## Learning materials

The following are principal learning devices used in this course, to which every lesson refers. Other materials may be required from time-to-time and their links will be provided in each lesson.

## Textbooks for this course

| This course is structured to follow, as soon as praticable, this learning material, considered the reference textbook of the Course : Pedin Edhellen by Thorsten Renk (version 1.2) — references are made to the English version as E#R | Reading |

## Lessons

* Lesson 1
# Sindarin Lesson 1

"Quotes" are English [Brackets] are Sindarin

## The Definate and Indefinate Articles

There is no actual word that explicitly means "A" or "An", instead the words are implied.
To say "the" the word is [i] before singular nouns or [in] before plural nouns. Before consonants, the article changes the sound, but this will not be discussed until Chapter 3.

## The Genitive

To say that A owns B you can simply juxtapose the two words, [B A]. This is often done with names, but can always be done even with no names.
You can also insert the word [en] before singular nouns or [enan] before plural nouns. They are often definate, so "the" can be implied. It CAN be used with names, but this is rare.
[nan] and [nia] can be used instead of [en] and [enan] respectively, but this is rare. Before consonants, [nan] and [nia] change the sound, but this will not be discussed until Chapter 3.
# Simulation

A simulation is a way of seeing a thing happen without it actually taking place in the same way. A simulation can be used to predict what might happen without doing it, in case it is dangerous or too expensive or difficult. It can also be used to show people what will happen next, or what happened in the past. It can also show what people believe is happening in a place or time where it is impossible to know what really happens.
There are research institutions just devoted to simulations, like, e.g., The George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation or NEES.
Simulations are very useful all over the world, because in a simulation things can be controlled that might not be easy to control in real life. They can use or smaller versions of an object or system for testing or practice. They can often use smaller versions of things, like space ships or rooms, to simulate the real thing. They can also use a safer thing in place of a thing that is dangerous, like when astronauts practice in a swimming pool rather than in outer space. Astronauts also practice in simulations of the moon before they went and landed there, and in simulations of spaceships that move the way real spaceships do, so they can get used to it. Simulations often use computers or television. Computers are used to make simulations of what a spaceship's route might be on the way to the moon, to help plan the mission.
# Sin^3-1 over 4 sin/-90 degree to 90 degree/Curve behavior/Exercise

Discuss the behavior of the function
    $f\colon [-{\frac {\pi }{2}},{\frac {\pi }{2}}]\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto f(x)=\sin ^{3}x-{\frac {1}{4}}\sin x,$
concerning zeros, growth behavior, (local) extrema. Sketch the graph of the function.
# Sin 1 over x/Primitive function/Consider x^2 cos 1 over x/Exercise

We consider the function
    $f\colon \mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,t\longmapsto f(t),$
with
    $f(t)={\begin{cases}0{\text{ for }}t=0,\\\sin {\frac {1}{t}}{\text{ for }}t\neq 0\,.\end{cases}}\,$
Show, with reference to the function
    $g(x)=x^{2}\cos {\frac {1}{x}}\,,$
that $f$ has an antiderivative.
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/How to handle a lack of information

There may be a "lack" of information about some book chapter topics. This can make the writing more challenging, but also more adventurous and potentially more rewarding. Availability of information will be taken into account for marking purposes. However, it is still necessary to address the theory and research marking criteria by identifying and using the top academic sources about the topic. Where there may be a lack of theory and research about the specific topic it is necessary to broaden the lens to draw from the most closely related areas.
Examples of chapters which handle a lack of information well:
* Body image flexibility (2020)
* Equanimity (2020)
* Indigenous Australian psychologist motivation (2020)
* Nature deficit disorder (2020)
* Nightmares and emotion (2020)
* Transgenerational trauma (2020)
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables

Tables can be an effective, efficient way of organising and presenting information.

## Examples

An example of a captioned table is provided in Table 1. Each table should be referred to at least in the main body text. Another example is provided in the book chapter template.
Table 1 Ways to Cultivate Awe in Daily Life
| Strategy | Try it yourself |
| Connect with nature | Take an awe walk (GGSC) |
| Consume awe-inspiring media | Watch a Ted Talk or listen to a podcast Watch an awe-video (GGSC), or choose from this YouTube playlist Watch a flashmob (YouTube, 5:40 mins) |
| Engage with the arts | Read an awe story (GGSC) Visit a museum or gallery Experience live music |
| Savour experiences of awe | Look at photos, talk to other people, or write about awe (GGSC) |

## Examples of chapters which make effective use of tables

* Organisational change motivation (2019)
* Stimming motivation (2019)
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Word count

It is possible to write a top-quality book chapter within the maximum word count - that is the challenge.
Almost always, chapters can be significantly improved, rather than weakened, in the process of reducing the word count.
If you are having difficulties complying with the word count guidelines, consider these strategies:
* Reduce introductory material (e.g., summarise and provide links to more dedicated resources such as other book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages) so that the chapter concentrates on the main topic (i.e., directly answers the question in the sub-title).
* Reduce breadth of coverage (e.g., focus on the top 2 or 3 theories).
* Reduce depth of coverage (e.g., avoid overly indepth coverage of unnecessarily specific aspects of the topic).
* Remove weasel words - a lot of sentences can be shortened and improved (e.g., try the Hemingway app].
* Be selective about the citations and references (e.g., only include the best sources; avoid over-citation (e.g., multiple citations per point).
* Renegotiate the topic so that it is more specific (i.e., less territory to cover).
* Move some content into subpages (which don't count in the overall word count, but also doesn’t count for marking purposes).
* Use an AI text summariser - these tools can help to learn sorting the wheat from the chaff and to clarify key messages.
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marker notes
## Marking and feedback process

* Read and review each allocated chapter, based on the:
** Chapter guidelines
** Marking criteria
** Check word count (see length in guidelines) - Suggested tool (Google Chrome Extension). Ignore any any words over 4000 for marking purposes.
** Check the page's history. For marking purposes, use the last version prior to submission - but if only minor changes are made after submission, just use the latest version.
* Do some copyediting of the chapter, to indicate suggested changes (e.g., by adding Clarification templates).
* Add feedback on the chapter's Wikiversity talk page, using {{MEBF/2018}}. Feedback should include:
** Comments in relation to each marking criterion (Theory, Research, and Written expression). For each marking criterion, include:
*** at least one main aspect which is done well
*** at least one recommendation and/or suggestion for improvement
** Style of comments:
*** Avoid use of 2nd person (you/your - e.g., "you could have added more theory") and comment instead about the chapter in 3rd person e.g., "the depth and breadth of coverage of theoretical aspects of the topic could be improved"
*** Comment in the future tense (about improvements that could be made) rather than the critiquing the past (which cannot be changed).
** Avoid indicating actual or even approximate grade - comments belong on Wikiversity, whereas marks go on Moodle
* In the LMS marking rubric, allocate a mark for each of the three criterion (theory, research, written expression). A total will be created automatically. No need to add comments - these should be on the Wikiversity talk page.
* Moderation
** After marking several chapters, seek feedback from the unit convener.
** Seek moderation from the unit convener for chapters which are below Pass-level.
* If in doubt about anything, or wanting a second opinion about a chapter, contact the unit convener.

## Social contribution

* Social contribution are summarised on user pages.
* Marks and comments will be provided separately by the unit convener.
* Template:MEBF

## Optional

Ideally, but optionally, the process of marking should also involve:
* Editing the chapter page to:
** Standardised title casing and layout
** help illustrate and indicate areas for possible improvements - e.g., insert clarification templates.
** add categories
* Create a pearl of wisdom for each chapter and add it to the pearls of wisdom chapter.
* Add commonly repeated feedback to general feedback
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve

Any chapter can be improved, but some have been specifically flagged for improvement.
As you edit these pages and resolve the issues, the corresponding clarification templates should be removed.
Summarise and link to the changes you made on your user page under the heading Social contributions.
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Writing tips
## Style

* Write concisely; weed out weasel words. Engaging in the discussion forum and X can help to develop skills for writing efficiently.
* Each paragraph should communicate one key idea in three to five sentences
* Shorter sentences are usually better than longer sentences
* Use 3rd person perspective (e.g., "it") rather than 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you")
* Use active (e.g., "This chapter focuses on ...") rather than passive (e.g., This chapter will focus on ..." voice.
* Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic comment, as slang, or as an invented or coined expression; use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" (APA 7th ed., 2020, p. 159).
* Use correct capitalisation (e.g., theory names should not be capitalised)
* Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten.
* "People" is usually a better term than "individuals"

## Spelling

* Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour; fulfillment vs. fulfilment)

## Grammar

Make correct use of:
* Commas, including serial commas
* Ownership apostrophes (e.g., individuals vs. individual's vs individuals').
* That vs. who
* Affect vs. effect
# Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions
## Overview

Social contributions are assessed by reviewing the summaries provided on Wikiversity user pages in a section titled "Social contributions". The better the link and summary of each contribution, the more likely it is that the marker can understand and reward your contributions.
No marks will be awarded if:
* there is no summary of the contribution on the user page and/or
* the summary does not link to direct evidence of the contribution

## Examples

Examples of user pages which provide effective summaries of each user's social contributions:
* User:U3083764#Social contributions
* User:U3096454!#Social contributions
* User:Ccgmjb#Social contributions
* User:Uu3148421#Social contributions
* User:Jbboys#Social contributions
* User:U3100481#Social contributions

## How to add direct links to contributions

Although there is no standard format, here is a suggested way of summarising each contribution:
* Use a numbered list
* Provide date/time
* Briefly summarise the contribution
* Provide a direct link that shows the actual changes (or the exact discussion post or #emot24 tweet) e.g., 13:40, 18 October 2013: Added a new section and wrote a paragraph about the Theory of Planned Behavior and Theory of Reasoned Action to the health behaviour chapter. This way, the marker can quickly understand when and what kind of contribution was made and, with a single click, see exactly what changes were made. How to do this:
** Go to the page you edited and click "View history" (towards top-right)
** Select the left radio button (for the version of the page before you edited) and the right radio button (for the version of the page after you edited)
** Click "Compare selected revisions"
** Copy the website address from the browser's address bar
** Go to your user page. Click "Edit". Insert an external link in the "Social contributions" sections, pasting the website address. This link will provide direct access to the comparison between the page before and after your contribution. This also works for contributions to discuss pages.
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Present Tense

Beber in the Present Tense :
| bebo | bebemos |
| bebes | bebéis |
| bebe | beben |
# Spanish/Verbs/caminar
## A quick note about verbs

* How we regularly talk is in the indicative mood. It is used to state something seen as a fact.
* The subjunctive is a mood used to express desires, doubts, emotions and the unknown. This is NOT a tense! More info about the Subjunctive can be found here.
* The imperative mood is just commands (: It is used to tell someone what to do. For this reason, there is no yo form in the imperative!
* If you don't know which mood to use, just use indicative!

## Definition

to walk
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Future Tense

Beber in the Future Tense :
| beberé | beberemos |
| beberás | beberéis |
| beberá | beberán |
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Preterite Tense

Beber in the Preterite Tense :
| bebí | bebimos |
| bebiste | bebisteis |
| bebió | bebieron |
# Spanish/Verbs/cambiar
## A quick note about verbs

* How we regularly talk is in the indicative mood. It is used to state something seen as a fact.
* The subjunctive is a mood used to express desires, doubts, emotions and the unknown. This is NOT a tense! More info about the Subjunctive can be found here.
* The imperative mood is just commands (: It is used to tell someone what to do. For this reason, there is no yo form in the imperative!
* If you don't know which mood to use, just use indicative!

## Definition

to change
# Spanish/Verbs/cambiar/Definition

to change
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Past Subjunctive

Beber in the Past Subjunctive :
| bebiera | bebiéramos |
| bebieras | bebierais |
| bebiera | bebieran |
**Please note: There are two past subjunctive conjugations! The table above depicts the series of endings most widely used today, but below you'll find the other conjugation. The conjugation below is mostly found in older Spanish literature. **
Beber in the Past Subjunctive (option 2) :
| bebiese | bebiésemos |
| bebieses | bebieseis |
| bebiese | bebiesen |
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Imperfect Tense

Beber in the Imperfect Tense :
| bebía | bebíamos |
| bebías | bebíais |
| bebía | bebían |
# Spanish/Verbs/beber/Present Subjunctive

Beber in the Present Subjunctive :
| beba | bebamos |
| bebas | bebáis |
| beba | beban |
# Prosocial behavior

This psychology resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
Prosocial behavior consists of behaviors which are judged to be of social benefit to a particular community, communities, or value system. Behaviors judged to be destructive, on the other hand, are generally considered to be antisocial behaviors.

## Definitions

   "voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals" (Eisenberg & Mussen 1989, p. 3)

## Examples

| Barn raising is an example of prosocial behaviour. | Sharing fish; an example of prosocial behaviour. |
| Blood donation is an example of prosocial behaviour. | ISAF soldier helping an Afghan kid, 2005. |
| The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is the largest privately-run philanthropic foundation in the world. It aims to spend all of its US$39 billion in the next 100 years. | Gandhi writing, 1942. Gandhi inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Is civil disobediance prosocial or antisocial? |
| The Parable of the Good Samaritan is a Christian story about compassion which has had significant cultural influence. | Mother Theresa - was she genuinely altruistic? |
# Propositional logic/Tautology/Distributive law/Truth table/Exercise

Prove, with the help of truth tables, that the following statements are tautologies.
* ${\left(\alpha \wedge {\left(\beta \vee \gamma \right)}\right)}\longleftrightarrow {\left(\alpha \ \wedge \beta \right)}\vee {\left(\alpha \wedge \gamma \right)}$.
* ${\left(\alpha \vee {\left(\beta \wedge \gamma \right)}\right)}\longleftrightarrow {\left(\alpha \vee \beta \right)}\wedge {\left(\alpha \vee \gamma \right)}$.
# Propositional logic/Universally valid/1/Exercise

Show that the propositional expression
    ${\left(r\rightarrow {\left(p\wedge \neg q\right)}\right)}\rightarrow {\left(\neg p\rightarrow {\left(\neg r\vee q\right)}\right)}$
is always valid.
# Prosocial behavior/Keywords
## Keywords

* Keywords alphabetically (with definitions)
* Keywords by category (no definitions)
# Propositional logic/Tautology/Truth table/Exercise

Prove, with the help of truth tables, that the following statements are tautologies.
* $(\alpha \wedge \alpha )\leftrightarrow \alpha$.
* $\alpha \wedge \beta \rightarrow \alpha$.
* $\alpha \rightarrow {\left(\beta \rightarrow \alpha \right)}$.
* ${\left(\alpha \rightarrow {\left(\beta \rightarrow \gamma \right)}\right)}\rightarrow {\left({\left(\alpha \rightarrow \beta \right)}\rightarrow {\left(\alpha \rightarrow \gamma \right)}\right)}$.
* ${\left(\alpha \rightarrow \beta \right)}\leftrightarrow (\neg \alpha \vee \beta )$.