OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Should the United States have started Iraq war in 2003?

In 2003, U.S. together with allies, especially the U.K., started a war against Iraq. From the perspective of the time point before the war, should the U.S. have started the war?
Limitation: Many more points from the linked procon.org analysis could be added. Nonetheless, two perhaps most salient are covered: weapons of mass destruction and oil.

## The United States should have started Iraq war in 2003
### Arguments for

* Pro There was information about Iraq developing weapons of mass destruction, a category that includes chemical weapons, biological weapons and nuclear weapons. One should thwart such developments before it is too late. (For instance, one should neutralize Hitler's Nazi Germany before it starts a war, e.g. upon its march into Rhineland.)
* Pro Spreading democracy to Iraq and freeing Iraqi citizens from the tyrannical dictator Saddam Husein is a good thing.
** Objection Spreading democracy--if that can be done and maintained--is far from being a sufficient reason to attack a country.
** Objection If that were any concern then why did the US leave its Kurdish allies for dead in 1975?

### Arguments against

* Con Preemptive war in the absence of an actual threat against the preemptively attacking countries is questionable.
* Con Taking official rationales with appropriate grain of salt and looking at underlying objectively existing interests, especially economic interests, it seems too likely that the real reason for going to war was control and access to oil/petroleum, and waging war over that is not morally justifiable.
# United Kingdom Law/Reform/Great Reform Bill

This page is an attempt to collate into a workable document a number of proposals for reform of items of legislation in the UK.

## Contributing

Please be specific when adding suggestions for reform, The table headings for each section is indicative of what suggestions should include:
* Clause - A numbering which should be incremented if adding a new proposal.
* Legislation - Ideally the short form title and year for specific Primary legislation (typically the Act of Parliament), or title, year and sequence number for secondary legislation (typically Statutory Instruments or Regulations) which contains the laws, regulations or provisions to be repealed. If you are able to assist by clarifying the title in existing proposals, please do so.
* Portion - The portion of the legislation to be reformed. If you are able to assist other contributors by making explicit the specific section a proposal refers to, please do so.
* Wording - The wording of the reform, the text to remove, amend or insert.
* Reasoning - A brief explanation or justification as to why this bill should be concerned with reform of the legislation
in question.

## The Bill
### Preamble

A bill to reform and revise a number of statutory measures in the United Kingdom.

### Extent, commencement, transitional provision and short title

(1) This Act extends to England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. (2) An amendment or repeal contained in this bill shall have the same extent as the Act or instrument or relevant part of the Act or instrument to which the amendment or repeal relates (ignoring extent by virtue of an Order in Council). (3) This Act comes into force at the end of the period of six months beginning from the date of Royal Assent. (This provision will give time for public and private sector organisations to adjust to the many reforms in this Act) (4) A Minister of the Crown, or two or more Ministers of the Crown acting jointly, may by order make transitional, transitory or saving provision in connection with the coming into force of any provision of this Act. (5) An order under subsection (4) is to be made by statutory instrument. (6) This Act may be cited as the Reform Act 2012.

### Applicability to Devolved assemblies

This bill shall neither add to nor subtract from the devolved powers of the National Assembly for Wales, the Scottish Parliament or the Northern Ireland Assembly.
# United Kingdom Law/Reform/Great Reform Bill/Debate

Please engage in a discussion about the Great Reform Bill. What are the pros and cons of reforming the measures listed? Please sign your edits by including --Sfan00 IMG 13:39, 31 October 2011 (UTC) after your comment.
# Real exponential series/By x^n/Unbounded/Exercise

Prove that the real exponential function defined by the exponential series has the property that for each $d\in \mathbb {N}$ the sequence
    ${\left({\frac {\exp n}{n^{d}}}\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$
diverges to $+\infty$.
# Real exponential function/Via series/Definition

The function
    $\mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \exp x:=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}},$
is called the (real) exponential function.
# Real function/Continuity in a Point/General/Definition

Let $D\subseteq \mathbb {R}$ be a subset,
    $f\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
a function, and $x\in D$ a point. We say that $f$ is continuous in the point $x$, if for every $\epsilon >0$, there exists a $\delta >0$, such that for all $x'\in D$ fulfilling $\vert {x-x'}\vert \leq \delta$, the estimate $\vert {f(x)-f(x')}\vert \leq \epsilon$ holds. We say that $f$ continuous, if it is continuous in every point $x\in D$
# Real function/Continuous/Addition, multiplication, inverting/Fact

Let $D\subseteq \mathbb {R}$ be a subset and let
    $f,g\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
be continuous functions.
    $f+g\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto f(x)+g(x),$
    $f-g\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto f(x)-g(x),$
    $f\cdot g\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto f(x)\cdot g(x),$
are continuous. For a subset $U\subseteq D$ such that $g$ has no zero in $U$, also
    $f/g\colon U\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto f(x)/g(x),$
# Real exponential function via exponential series/Introduction/Section
## Definition

For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, the series
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}$
$x$
So this is just the series
    $1+x+{\frac {x^{2}}{2}}+{\frac {x^{3}}{6}}+{\frac {x^{4}}{24}}+{\frac {x^{5}}{120}}+\ldots .$

## Theorem

For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, the exponential series
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}$

### Proof

For $x=0$, the statement is clear. Else, we consider the fraction
    $\vert {\frac {\frac {x^{n+1}}{(n+1)!}}{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}}\vert =\vert {\frac {x}{n+1}}\vert ={\frac {\vert {x}\vert }{n+1}}\,.$
This is, for $n\geq 2\vert {x}\vert$, smaller than $1/2$. By the ratio test, we get convergence.
$\Box$
Due to this property, we can define the real exponential function.

## Definition

The function
    $\mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \exp x:=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}},$
is called the (real)
The following statement is called the functional equation for the exponential function.

## Theorem

For real numbers $x,y\in \mathbb {R}$, the equation
    $\exp {\left(x+y\right)}=\exp x\cdot \exp y\,$

### Proof

The Cauchy product of the two exponential series is
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }c_{n},$
where
    $c_{n}=\sum _{i=0}^{n}{\frac {x^{i}}{i!}}\cdot {\frac {y^{n-i}}{(n-i)!}}\,.$
This series is due to fact absolutely convergent and the limit is the product of the two limits. Furthermore, the $n$-th summand of the exponential series of $x+y$ equals
    ${\frac {(x+y)^{n}}{n!}}={\frac {1}{n!}}\sum _{i=0}^{n}{\binom {n}{i}}x^{i}y^{n-i}=c_{n}\,,$
so that both sides coincide.
$\Box$

## Corollary

The exponential function
    $\mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \exp x,$
* $\exp 0=1$.
* For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, we have $\exp {\left(-x\right)}=(\exp x)^{-1}$. In particular $\exp x\neq 0$.
* For integers $n\in \mathbb {Z}$, the relation $\exp n=(\exp 1)^{n}$ holds.
* For every $x$, we have $\exp x\in \mathbb {R} _{+}$.
* For $x>0$ we have $\exp x>1$, and for $x<0$ we have $\exp x<1$.
* The real exponential function is strictly increasing.

### Proof

(1) follows directly from the definition. (2) follows from
    $\exp x\cdot \exp {\left(-x\right)}=\exp {\left(x-x\right)}=\exp 0=1\,$
using fact. (3) follows for $n\in \mathbb {N}$ from fact by induction, and from that it follows with the help of (2) also for negative $n$. (4). Nonnegativity follows from
    $\exp x=\exp {\left({\frac {x}{2}}+{\frac {x}{2}}\right)}=\exp {\frac {x}{2}}\cdot \exp {\frac {x}{2}}={\left(\exp {\frac {x}{2}}\right)}^{2}\geq 0\,.$
(5). For real $x$ we have $\exp x\cdot \exp {\left(-x\right)}=1$, so that because of (4), one factor must be $\geq 1$ and the other factor must be $\leq 1$. For $x>0$, we have
    $\exp x=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n!}}x^{n}=1+x+{\frac {1}{2}}x^{2}+\ldots >1\,$
as only positive numbers are added. (6). For real $y>x$, we have $y-x>0$, and therefore, because of (5) $\exp {\left(y-x\right)}>1$, hence
    $\exp y=\exp {\left(y-x+x\right)}=\exp {\left(y-x\right)}\cdot \exp x>\exp x\,.$
$\Box$
# Real exponential series/Unbounded/Exercise

Prove that the real function defined by the exponential
    $\exp \colon \mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \exp x,$
has no upper limit and that $0$ is the infimum (but not the minimum) of the image set.
# Real function/Continuity in a point/Characterization/Fact

Let $D\subseteq \mathbb {R}$ be a subset,
    $f\colon D\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
a function and $x\in D$ a point. Then the following statements are equivalent.
* $f$ is continuous in the point $x$.
* For every convergent sequence ${\left(x_{n}\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$ in $D$ with $\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }x_{n}=x$, also the image sequence ${\left(f(x_{n})\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$ is convergent with limit $f(x)$.
# Real exponential function/Representation/Continuation/Remark

There is another way to introduce the exponential function $x\mapsto a^{x}$ to base $a>0$. For a natural number $n\neq 0$, one takes the $n$th product of $a$ with itself as definition for $a^{n}$. For a negative integer $x$, one sets $a^{x}:=(a^{-x})^{-1}$. For a positive rational number $x=r/s$, one sets
    $a^{x}:={\sqrt[{s}]{a^{r}}}\,,$
where one has to show that this is independent of the chosen representation as a fraction. For a negative rational number, one takes again the inverse. For an arbitrary real number $x$, one takes a sequence $q_{n}$ of rational numbers converging to $x$, and defines
    $a^{x}:=\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }a^{q_{n}}\,.$
For this, one has to show that these limits exist and that they are independent of the chosen rational sequence. For the passage from $\mathbb {Q}$ to $\mathbb {R}$, the concept of uniform continuity is crucial.
# Real exponential functions/Growing behavior/Remark

For a real exponential function
    $y(x)=a^{x}\,,$
the relation
    $y'={\left(\ln a\right)}y\,$
holds, due to fact. Hence, there is a proportional relationship between the function $y$ and its derivative $y'$, and $\ln a$ is the factor. This is still true if $a^{x}$ is multiplied with a constant. If we consider $y$ as a function depending on time $x$, then $y'(x)$ describes the growing behavior at that point of time. The equation $y'={\left(\ln a\right)}y$ means that the instantaneous growing rate is always proportional with the magnitude of the function. Such an increasing behavior (or decreasing behavior, if $a<1$) occurs in nature for a population, if there is no competition for resources, and if the dying rate is neglectable (the number of mice is then proportional with the number of mice born). A condition of the form
    $y'=by\,$
is an example of a differential equation. This is an equation for a function, which expresses a condition for the derivative. A solution for such a differential equation is a differentiable function which fulfills the condition on its derivative. The differential equation just mentioned are fulfilled by the functions
    $y(x)=ce^{bx}\,.$
# Real function/Continuity in a point/Characterization/Fact/Proof

Suppose that (1) is fulfilled and let ${\left(x_{n}\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$ be a sequence in $D$ converging to $x$. We have to show that
    $\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }f(x_{n})=f(x)\,$
holds. To show this, let $\epsilon >0$ be given. Due to (1), there exists a $\delta >0$ fulfilling the estimation property (from the definition of continuity) and because of the convergence of ${\left(x_{n}\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$ to $x$ there exists a natural number $n_{0}$ such that for all $n\geq n_{0}$ the estimate
    $d(x_{n},x)\leq \delta \,$
holds. By the choice of $\delta$ we have
    $d(f(x_{n}),f(x))\leq \epsilon {\text{ for all }}n\geq n_{0},$
so that the image sequence converges to $f(x)$.
Suppose now that (2) is fulfilled. We assume that $f$ is not continuous. Then there exists an $\epsilon >0$ such that for all $\delta >0$ there exist elements $z\in D$ such that their distance to $x$ is at most $\delta$, but such that the distance of their value $f(z)$to $f(x)$ is larger than $\epsilon$. This holds in particular for every $\delta =1/n$, $n\in \mathbb {N} _{+}$. This means that for every natural number $n\in \mathbb {N} _{+}$, there exists a $x_{n}\in D$ with
    $d(x_{n},x)\leq {\frac {1}{n}}{\text{ and with }}d(f(x_{n}),f(x))>\epsilon .$
This sequence ${\left(x_{n}\right)}_{n\in \mathbb {N} }$ converges to $x$, but the image sequence does not converge to $f(x)$, since the distance of its members to $f(x)$ is always at least $\epsilon$. This contradicts condition (2).
# Software testing
## Software Testing Concepts

The name itself explains itself nicely. Imagine writing a school paper. What if you yourself had prepared the question for the paper, answered the question in a paper you had written, and finally you corrected the paper. I bet you would have given yourself full marks.
Testing of a particular product is especially encouraged to be done by an independent body/person who is not directly associated with the development of product itself. This gives the tester an unbiased view for testing the product thoroughly. Although I am writing these notes just for software testing the same principle applies to product testing for any industry, be it software or anything else from pencils to airplanes.

## Why Testing is important ?

Testing plays a very important role in knowing how well the product has been built to match the required specifications. Just think on these two lines:
    Have you built the product right
    Have you built the product Rightly
Thinking over these two statements will give you the feeling that these are two questions that need to be answered if you want to insure the Quality of the product (software in this case). One question emphasizes on building the right product while the other emphasizes on laying down stringent processes so that you build the product right.
One question refers to building a product to meet the specific requirements , while other shows the road to build that product in a right manner. That is how the concept of Quality Assurance and Quality Control has come into picture. Quality Assurance builds a strong frame work of processes to build the right product, while Quality Control thoroughly checks/validates it to ensure it is working properly as per its functionality.

## Timely

Testing is very important concept. The reason I stress Timely is because a stitch in time saves nine :) The earlier you find a bug, the sooner you can fix it and the eventually lesser components of the product are affected. Imagine building a mega story building and realize that you haven't tested enough in the process of building. Imagine you reach the construction of the 10th floor and you realize there is a problem with the 1st floor. You will have to find a hiding place for yourself very soon if you land up in such situation. Try and map this with the process of software product development and you will realize the importance of timely identification and resolution of a bug.

## Levels of testing

* Unit Testing, also known as Component Testing
* Integration Testing, also known as Component Integration Testing (CIT)
* System Testing
* System Integration Testing
* Acceptance Testing
Regression Testing may be cited as a separate level of testing, but is more accurately an activity which is performed at all levels of testing, where the goal is prove that new changes have not broken any existing (and previously tested) pieces of functionality in the system.

## Resources

* Overview
* Introduction
* History of testing
* Design technique
* Laboratory course
* Interaction
* Test tools
* Glossary
* Literature
* Results
* Meeting place
# Software testing/Literature

On this page you find literature, which is mentioned in the course. Also there are external links, which deal with topics in software testing.

## Literature
### B

* BCS SIGIST - British Computer Society Specialist Interest Group in Software Testing: Standard for Software Component Testing, , Working Draft 3.4, 27. April 2001. (design techniques)

### G

* D. Gelperin, B. Hetzel: The Growth of Software Testing. CACM, Vol. 31, No. 6, 1988, ISSN 0001-0782. (time phases in testing)

### I

* IEEE Std 610.12-1990: IEEE Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology, (Revision and redesignation of IEEE Std. 729-1983), February 15, 1991, Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers and the American National Standards Institute.
* IEEE 1044-1993: Standard Classification for Software Anomalies., The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, USA, 1994, ISBN 1-55937-383-0. (here: page 1: anomalies)

### L

* G. T. Laycock: The Theory and Practice of Specification Based Software Testing. PhD Thesis, Dept of Computer Science, Sheffield University, UK, 1993, freely available PDF version. (time phases in testing)

## external links

* opensourcetesting.org - a large collection of open source test tools and an active forum.
# Software review blank page

| Review by Robert Elliott Tux Paint - Macintosh version I am reviewing the Macintosh OS X version. There are versions for a dozen other operating systems. While this is a program for kids, it has some unique features useful for filmmakers. In the future, Wikiversity will create templates and stamps so this program can be used for rapid thumbnail storyboarding. Anyone interested in filmmaking should immediately download this free program. It is fun! | Uses at Wikiversity Film School Thumbnail Storyboarding Having fun!!! |
| Review by Robert Elliott Tux Paint - Macintosh version I am reviewing the Macintosh OS X version. There are versions for a dozen other operating systems. While this is a program for kids, it has some unique features useful for filmmakers. In the future, Wikiversity will create templates and stamps so this program can be used for rapid thumbnail storyboarding. Anyone interested in filmmaking should immediately download this free program. It is fun! | Rating Four Stars For filmmakers who want to create thumbnail storyboards, a set of templates (for the various frame sizes) and stamps (for the various poses of human figures) still need to be created. |
# Software testing/Glossary

Template:Navigation:Topic:Software testing

### Anomaly

    In software testing an anomaly is everything that differs from expectation. This expectation can result from a document or also from a persons notion or experiences. Also an anomaly can be a feature or an usability problem, because the testobject may be correct regarding the specification - but it can be improved. Another possibility for an anomaly is that a tester executed the testcase wrong and therefore the expected result is also wrong.
    see here for more info.
    (see IEEE 1044-1993: Standard Classification for Software Anomalies., page 1, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, USA, 1994, ISBN 1-55937-383-0)
    For the United States Department of Defense (DoD) an anomaly in test is an event that occurs outside the scope of the test, but affects the test. For example, a lightening strike knocks out the power or a tester uses the wrong test plan. Unexpected test results which indicate a system weakness are called deficiencies. Initially, all unexpected results are viewed as deficiencies until analysis shows they are anomalies. For example, if power is suddenly cut off to the entire neighborhood resulting in an abnormal end to testing, analysis must show the power outage was not caused by the system under test before it is labeled an anomaly.
    See DoDI 5000.02: Operation of the Defense Acquisition System and many service-specific instructions on deficiencies; there are no DoD documents on anomalies because they are of no value by DoD definition.

### Software

    Is more than just source code. There belongs also: programs, procedures and documentation, and data for the concerning processing on a computer system. We (the tutors of this course) count also any testware.
    (see IEEE 610-1990: The collection of computer programs, procedures and data, together with possibly associated documentation necessary to understand, install and use it.)

### Testware

    Including any kind of products, which is helpful for testing. Especially persons from the testing field produce these:
    test plans, test cases, test reports, anomaly reports, input files/scripts for test tools, ...
    They all should be reusable and therefore managed by configuration management.
# Software testing/Laboratory course

With these exercises you can deepen your learned knowledge so far (If not, please tell us here, what we can improve - there is always something to improve).

## Exercises for doing Alone

Here you can learn in your own speed, e.g.
   * Examples which you can work through
   * Videos/tutorials for watching
   ** e.g. usage of test tools

### Introduction into White Box Design Techniques
#### Graphic Display of Algorithms in a Source Code

In the following tutorial you will see, how the appropriate graph to a source code looks like. In detail: With the tool jGRASP there is created for the Java source code MergeSort.java from the Wikiversity course algorithms and data structures (Algorithmen und Datenstrukturen) the CSD (Control Structure Diagram).
Reason of this Tutorial: To show you, how fast such a graph can be created. It should show you that there is nothing complicated behind this - with a tool this is done automatically and easy. Here you can see the Shockwave-Tutorial <- German version (I will create an English version soon) and still under review (condition: Shockwave-Player).

## Online-Sessions with Tutors

Is still under creation
Goal: Together we will test example applications, about 30-50 minutes team-sessions
Advantages:
   * You can ask immediately
   * And you can get immediate feedback on your approach
Participants and tutors agree on a date (especially over different countries/timezones needed)
At the beginning:
   * Only with telephone (e.g. skype)
   * We will use an application which everybody has on his/her PC (e.g. notepad) and which everybody knows (at the beginning this is helpful - later we will also do new applications, so learning new terrain - we all are researchers).
Later - If there are problems with communciation, editing - we can add boards, remote access,...
example session:

## Other Collaborations

Besides learning in this course here, please also try to apply your knowledge elsewhere. You will learn or did learn already, how to test. So, here some places, to be active:
* Everywhere
or perhaps:
* Wikiversity Game Design, e.g.
** Game Creation Guidelines/Testing
** Games in Development/Liberal Diplomacy
** A Hands-On Introduction to Game Design and Production Processes
** Game Critiques
* Wikiversity: Website Performance Test Plan
* academia.wikia.com: Journal of Computer Science and Software Engineering
* Wikipedia