# Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Overchoice, motivation, and emotion

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Figure 1. Man struggling to choose between three different cups.
* Have you ever been standing in a grocery store and looking to purchase a box of cereal, but there seems to be a million options and you are not sure where to start, or looking at your closet and thinking how do I have all these clothes and also have nothing to wear. This phenomena is called over-choice.
This psychological concept looks at the theory that when individuals are presented with a greater number of choices there is an increased challenge in decision-making and a therefore a decrease in the satisfaction gained from the chosen option This chapter explores the phenomenon known as "over-choice." This chapter dives into the concept itself, its closely related theories, and the potential effects that over-choice brings. Among these theories are the self-determination theory, analysis paralysis, and the presentation of choices. We will also be examining case studies that highlight the intersection of the over-choice theory with modern examples. All of these elements will contribute to addressing the question of how over-choice effects[grammar?] motivation and emotion.
* Focus questions
* What is over-choice?
* How can over-choice be combated?
* How does over-choice impact motivation and emotions[grammar?]

## Over-choice and the brain

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#### The amygdala.

An important aspect when looking at psychological theory is the interrelationship between the brain, its different functions and the psychological theory presented. In this case, over-choice and the amygdala, which have been closely linked. The brain is full of complex and important structures, [grammar?] this includes the amygdala, although small, this powerhouse structure is closely associated with emotional processing[factual?]. This includes the survival technique of the fight or flight process. Fight or flight is when the brain is under increased levels of stress or fear, the amygdala releases the hormone adrenaline, which then causes the body to go in to the natural instinct to either flee from the dangerous situation or to fight the threat, [grammar?] some common emotions that result are anxiety, aggression or fear. (Weymar and Schwabe, 2016).
The amygdala is activated during emotionally stimulating events, whether this be pleasant or not pleasant. When the brain has an overwhelming availability of choice, the amygdala is then activated and expresses feelings of anxiety and becomes overwhelmed[factual?]. This then impairs the brains ability to make a single decision, which results in no choice being made or if one is, there is an increased chance of feeling disappointment with the results. (Dutta and Mandal, 2021)
The brain enjoys having the option of choice and different options often can result in feeling like there is freedom of choice, although there becomes a point where the brain is unable to compare and evaluate all the different options. (Dutta and Mandal, 2021). This then causes increased stress and inability to make a decision.
* Case Study : The Jam Experiment
* This experiment was conducted by Lyengar and Lepper, 2000. They hypothesised that if there was increased options to choose from, in an everyday item like jam, the likelihood that the participants would leave the store empty handed, increased significantly. This is due to the consequence of having too much choice. In this experiment, a testing table was set up in a grocery store, the table either displayed a small assortment of 6 different types of jam, or a large assortment of 24 different types of jam. Every customer who approached the table was offered a $1 coupon off the item that was purchased. The experiment found that although more customers approached the table with the large assortment of jam, only 3% followed through with a purchase. The smaller assortment of jam initially attracted less people, but of this smaller group up to 30% of these customers followed through with the purchase. The authors deemed the overall findings to coincided with the choice overload theory, that when people are offered too many options, it increases the probability of no purchase being made. (Schenibehenne , Greifeneder and Todd, 2010)

#### Cognitive and psychological consequences of over-choice

When the brain remains in a perpetual state of fight or flight, it can negatively affect cognitive function. Prolonged stress leads to memory impairment, cognitive confusion, diminished sleep quality, an elevated risk of developing high blood pressure, and a potential for weight gain due to increased eating, reduced exercise, and poor sleep quality (Reutskaja Lyengar, Fasolo, & Misuraca, 2020).
Furthermore, choice overload can result in negative psychological effects from the discomfort and uncertainty associated with decision-making. Emotional consequences that may occur include heightened anxiety, bursts of anger, intense feelings of fear and dread, and reduced self-confidence. Over the long term, chronic stress can elevate the likelihood of burnout and increase the susceptibility to anxiety and depression (Chernev and Goodman, 2015
* Feature Question 1: What is over-choice?
* A: Over-choice occurs when the mind is confronted with an excessive number of options. Rather than facilitating a decision, this amount of choices can subject the brain to elevated stress levels, resulting in a sense of overwhelm due to the sheer volume of options available. This can ultimately lead to either hasty decisions with a higher likelihood of dissatisfaction or an inability to make any choice at all, resulting in no resolution.(Dutta and Mandal, 2021)

## Theories

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#### Anaylisis [spelling?] paralysis

Analysis paralysis is a concept that describes what happens when individuals are confronted with an overwhelming number of choices, rendering them incapable of making a decision or reaching a resolution. Many situations leading to analysis paralysis are often labeled as overly complex, or the fear of making the wrong choice can impact decision-making altogether. There are three distinct types of decision paralysis: analysis process paralysis, decision precision paralysis, and risk uncertainty paralysis (Roberts, 2010).
In the context of choice overload and the decision-making process, the first type, analysis paralysis, occurs when the mind is presented with too many options. Faced with this array of choices, the brain tends to overanalyse, struggling to grasp the full understanding of consequences, [grammar?] this is often resulting in a complete standstill in the decision-making process (Roberts, 2010).[for example?]
The second type of paralysis associated with choice overload is decision paralysis. In this scenario, the individual is once again confronted with an extensive number of options, leading to a state of uncertainty about where to begin. This typically triggers intense emotional reactions and halts the decision making processes (Roberts, 2010).[for example?]
The third type, risk uncertainty paralysis, when this occurs in the over-choice process, it makes it incredibly difficult to compare the informed risks associated with each decision. Consequently, individuals find themselves unable to make a decision (Roberts, 2010).[for example?]

#### Customers[grammar?] satisfaction and over-choice

In general, the probability of customer satisfaction tends to decrease as the number of choices presented increases[factual?]. To a certain extent, increases the options available has a positive effect on the customer, providing more options leads to the feelings of freedom of choice, which in turn would lead to greater satisfaction from the customer. However, over-choice plays a significant role in impacting the customers decision-making.
Over-choice triggers an emotional response characterised by a sense of being overwhelmed[factual?]. Even if a decision is eventually made, the initial feelings of happiness and satisfaction are often followed by feelings of regret and uncertainty regarding whether the right choice was made[factual?]. As a result customer satisfaction tends to decline after each shopping experience[factual?]. There is an increased probability that no purchase will be made, and the customer will leave empty-handed (Dutta & Mandal, 2021).

#### Choice presentation:

Choice presentation involves the examination of how the human brain processes a range of different options and attempts to ease the information overload. It also explores how alterations in the presentation of choices can affect decision-making and reduce the risk of decision paralysis (Álvarez, Rey, & Sanchis, 2014).
The format in which choices are presented can significantly influence the likelihood of arriving at an informed decision. When choices are presented in a more chaotic manner, it increases the chances of over-choice and therefore impacts decision-making[factual?]. On the other hand, when larger sets of choices are presented in an organised and uncluttered , it tends to remove some of the challenges associated with decision-making, particularly when compared to presenting large sets of choices in a disorganised manner (Townsend & Kahn, 2014).
* Feature Question 2: How is over-choice combated?
* A: A strategy to combat choice overload involves examining the manner in which choices are presented and its influence on decision-making. Ensuring a clear and organised presentation can reduce the likelihood of overwhelming the mind and enhance the reception of information regarding all available choices (Townsend & Kahn, 2014)

## Motivation, emotion and over-choice

Over-choice has a significant influence both cognitive processes in the brain and the physiological responses in the body. The way over-choice affects motivation can vary depending on whether a person's objectives stem from intrinsic or extrinsic sources of drive. Intrinsic motivation centers on internal desires, while extrinsic motivation hinges on external factors such as rewards (Reiss, 2012). When examining the relationship between over-choice and motivation, it is important to consider Self Determination Theory (SDT). This theory looks at that three fundamental psychological needs must be fulfilled to facilitate personal growth and development: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is an individual's ability to make choices and willingly endorse their actions, competence relates to skillfulness and the capability to meet necessary requirements, and relatedness involves the need to feel connected to others (Beymar and Thomson, 2015). The feeling of control over one's choices increases the feeling of personal agency, which, in turn, guides actions towards achieving well-defined goals. Over-choice can disrupt this sense of control, which negatively impacts the progress in one's personal pursuits. Over-choice can have adverse effects on emotions, leading to episodes of anxiety, anger, fear, or discomfort (Chernev and Goodman, 2015). It can also diminish individuals' confidence in making future choices.

## Case study: Over-choice and its effects on online daters satisfaction with selected partner

A compelling example of how the phenomenon of over-choice manifests in modern society can be observed in the context of online dating and its potential impact on overall satisfaction with the chosen partner. In 2016, Tong, Hancock, and Slatcher conducted a study examining three distinct dating platforms with varying formats. These platforms included Match.com, which uses a 'seen-and-screen' format, eHarmony, which is known for its algorithm-based approach, and OkCupid, which combines elements of both 'seen-and-screen' and algorithmic matchmaking. The study aimed to investigate whether the influence of algorithms observed in online shopping and media consumption over the past two decades also extends to online dating (Tong, Hancock, and Slatcher, 2016).
The findings of the study revealed that as participants were presented with larger sets of dating profiles to choose from, satisfaction levels exhibited a diminishing trend, forming a U-shaped curve. Participants tended to prefer having a selection of between 20 to 50 profiles, as exceeding this range led to a decline in both their satisfaction with their choices and various drawbacks such as memory confusion and increased cognitive load due to the multitude of profiles. These factors made it more challenging for participants to recall specific details about the profiles they had reviewed (Tong, Hancock, and Slatcher, 2016). In summary, the results indicated that online daters do not derive greater enjoyment from having an increased amount of options when it comes to potential partners. Instead, an excess of choices often resulted in decreased decision-making and an increase in mental burden throughout the dating process. Overall the expanded pool of applicants decreased the likelihood that participants would be motivated to pursue a relationship solely through the matching and sorting process of different dating profiles (Tong, Hancock, and Slatcher, 2016).
* Feature Question 3: How does over-choice impact motivation and emotion:
* A: Over-choice results in persistent stress on the brain, leading to consequences for both motivation and emotion. When confronted with over-choice, there is the increased frequency of emotional outbursts characterised by anger, anxiety, and fear, this is primarily due to the body remaining in a constant state of fight or flight (Chernev and Goodman, 2015). The impact of over-choice on motivation can be seen as it significantly diminishes an individual's sense of autonomy. Feeling overwhelmed can obstruct the sense of control, therefore affecting motivation towards both intrinsic and extrinsic objectives (Beymar and Thomson, 2015).

## Conclusion

This chapter look [grammar?] at over-choice being a [say what?] is the psychological theory that occurs when the mind is confronted with an excessive number of options. Rather than facilitating a decision, this amount of choices can subject the brain to increased stress levels, resulting in a sense of overwhelm due to the sheer volume of options available. This can ultimately lead to either hasty decisions with a higher likelihood of dissatisfaction or an inability to make any choice at all, resulting in no resolution.(Dutta and Mandal, 2021)
This is strongly linked with negative cognitive effects of motivation and emotion. Some theories that interlink with over-choice include choice presentation, which is how the brain process over-choice and how it may reduce the likelihood of developing over-choice depending on how information is presented to the brain. (Townsend & Kahn, 2014). Analysis paralysis which looks at the impact of decision making, when individuals are confronted with an abundance of options, this includes decision paralysis, risk uncertainty paralysis and analysis paralysis. (Roberts, 2010) and customer satisfaction, this is how when there is the increased choice, it overall decreases a customers satisfaction and decreases the probability of purchasing an item. (Dutta & Mandal, 2021)
There are cognitive and psychological impacts that over-choice has on the brain included increased probability of developing mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression, as well as increased levels of anger and overall feelings of fear and anxiety[factual?]. Some cognitive impacts that over-choice has on the brain arememory [spelling?] impairment, cognitive confusion diminished sleep quality and more. (Reutskaja Lyengar, Fasolo, & Misuraca, 2020).
Overall the impact that over-choice has emotion is decreased influence about intrinsic motivation and can impact the feeling of control that one may have over their choice. This impact of personal agency, can disrupt this sense of control, which negatively impacts the progress in one's personal pursuits. Over-choice can have adverse effects on emotions, leading to episodes of anxiety, anger, fear, or discomfort (Chernev and Goodman, 2015). It can also diminish individuals' confidence in making future choices.