OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Global-scale temperature patterns and climate forcing over the past six centuries

### Tree Ring Data Says Humans are Causing Global Warming

By measuring tree rings we can estimate temperatures for the past 600 years and show that human pollution is causing the world's temperature to rise.

### Methods

Data was collected from several sources all around the world and compared. All the data gathered provide evidence of climate change, which greatly increased as human generations and CO2 output increases.
There are three rules outlined in this article. The first is that all trees that can tell temperature of times past. The second is that the trees don't need to be all from the same region, as they are all affected by the same atmosphere. The third rule is that time and trees are linear.
Northern Hemisphere and Arctic temperatures were studied and three species of "eleven tree-ring width chronologies" were used for that study.As a result, the times when temperature was at at higher mark, the tree rings were larger.

### Results

There is global warming after the 20th century.
Due to studies done in the northern latitudes of North America, it has been proved that temperature is the dominant reason as to why tree grown is limited, especially in areas of high latitude.
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Global warming and long term climatic changes: a progress report.

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Global warming and long term climatic changes: a progress report.

### Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases have little impact in the warming of the earth.

CO2 is the major studied gas that is responsible for the heating of our planet. Humans contribute to the CO2 production but in comparison, the environmental contributions are higher in volume compared to the humans. The increase of concentration of those gases in the atmosphere accelerates the rate of climate change.

### Methods

The scientists took several different measurements including the comparison of the emissions of CO2 produced by people and by the natural environment, used the mathematical equation to demonstrate the negligible effect that humans have on temperature, gave credible examples of natural sources of gargantuan CO2 emissions and also showed that methane plays an equal or greater role in global warming than CO2. The human level of CO2 was 5.7 billion tonnes a year and the volcano activity releases 20 to 23 billion tonnes of CO2 a year.

### Results

Most of the CO2 that is caused by humans is absorbed by living matter (plants, for example, need CO2 to survive). The CO2 that is released by underwater volcanoes is absorbed by the ocean water. When temperatures rise, the water evaporates, and the CO2 is therefore released back into the atmosphere. Since the CO2 levels that are caused by natural processes are 50-60 times higher than the levels caused by humans, humans cannot be completely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
The researchers took the equation ∆T = (T*a*∆p)
After plugging in T=288 K, a =0.1905, and ∆p=1.48•10^-4 atm into the equation, the result was ∆T= 8.12•10^-3K.
The implication of this is that the increase in the surface temperature of the earth at sea level elevation caused by human CO2 contributions will be < 0.01 K, which is tiny in comparison to the natural ﬂuctuations of the global temperature.
Global surface temperatures are linked with solar activity. The earth absorbs more radiation due to higher solar activity. The result is hotter temperatures on earth and warming of the atmosphere. Over time scientists have concluded that the historical scale shows that carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is due to the radiation of the sun. The temperature changes causes the greater concentration of carbon dioxide.
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Global warming and human activity: A model for studying the potential instability of the carbon dioxide/temperature feedback mechanism,Ecological Modeling.
### Global Warming & Human Activity

There is a link between carbons released due to human activity and a shift in the global climate.

### Method

The method used for the purpose of this study is control theory. It uses system identification techniques to find the transfer functions that assume the potential measurement of the system. In this study, four black-box models are combined and linked in a feedback loop structure. Two types of data were used in the study; both measured and reconstructed data according to the time series being considered (1610-2004). The methods used for gathering data between the time periods of 1610 and 1856 included tree ring and ice core collection and therefore included reconstructed data. For the time period between 1857 and 2004, more measurable and instrumental processes were used to gather data relating to temperature, carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration, anthropogenic carbon dioxide emission and solar irradiance. The focus of the study was to test the stability of the carbon dioxide-temperature feedback structure and the influence of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions on the transfer system.

### Results

By starting with a basic feedback structure between carbon dioxide and temperature and using a feedback model to describe the relationship between anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, global temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide it was concluded that anthropogenic carbon dioxide has become a significant factor in global warming. The study also warns that the instability of the feedback structure between carbon dioxide and temperature has reached a critical level, and that the carbon dioxide due to human activity has disrupted the equilibrium to the effect that possible repercussions for global warming are unpredictable and unknown at the current level of instability.
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Space observations of cold-cloud phase change

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Space observations of cold-cloud phase change

### Points Made

The increased effects of cloud glaciations due to dust aerosols is causing the greenhouse effect, however the increased reflectivity of the clouds has proven to be equal on both sides, so the net thermal effect is relatively the same keeping the system in equilibrium.
The dust from the clouds is causing the sun to reflect off of the clouds instead of being retained inside the clouds. The sunlight reflects back onto the ground and into space.

### Methods

A satellite survery and LIDAR observations were used to evaluate previous computer models, and update prior assumptions.

### Results

Previous assumptions were deemed to be inaccurate, and new data suggests that cloud reflectivity on the solar side of the clouds is proportional to the earth side cancelling out any negative effects.
Primarily, the consideration of the effect on dust particulate aerosols on ice nucleation in supercooled cloud fractions showed that as dust aerosols increased, the supercooled water particles condensed into ice crystals which created thinner clouds. These thinner clouds led to a decrease in cloud albedo which compensated for the increased albedo due to the dust particles themselves.
This effect was seen most drastically in nations with large amounts of released aerosols such as China, India and Brazil where the supercooled cloud fractions were much lower than the rates in a non-contaminated sample taken from Antarctica.
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A critique ofGlobal tracking from SO2 clouds from the June 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruptions.

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A critique ofGlobal tracking from SO2 clouds from the June 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruptions.

### Mount Pinatubo Eruption Caused Climate Change

A sulfur dioxide cloud from the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 was released into the stratosphere.It caused what is believed to be the largest aerosol disturbance of the stratosphere in the twentieth century. Three years after the eruption, the Earth's surface witness a climate change of 1.3 degrees.
# Controversies in Science

Controversies:
* Water fluoridation
* Was there a mitochondrial Eve?
* What killed the dinosaurs?
* RNA world vs metabolism first
* Are humans causing global warming?
* nuclear power greener?
* recycling
* big bang
* panspermia
* LHC black hole risk?

## template

{{subst:Critique of article}}
Template:Critique of article
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Corrections to the Mann et. al.(1998) proxy data base and northern hemispheric average temperature series

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Corrections to the Mann et. al.(1998) proxy data base and northern hemispheric average temperature series

### Hockey Stick Graph is Wrong

The data used to construct the hockey stick graph contains many errors that together create an incorrect graph that artificially shows a steep climb in temperature since the industrial revolution

### Results

The calculations done to produce the “hockey stick” graph have two major flaws. The first being that there were inconsistencies in the inclusion and exclusion of data sites. Secondly, outliers in the collected data were left unexplained despite their variance from the mean.
# Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Are humans causing global warming/A Critique of Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent

### Global Warming is Already Happening

Data that was researched has indicated that global warming was already happening in the past and humans are not solely the cause. Irregular climate from the past has already affected the physiology and distribution of some species..

### Methods

Scientists have conducted studies where intensive monitoring has occurred over an extended period. The patterns from many plants, marine animals, and aphids were taken into affect..
# Generic Conventions

Generic Conventions are the features shown by texts that allow them to be put into a specific genre. For example almost all Westerns use the Iconography of cowboy hats, six shooters, horses and spurs to place them in their genre. Similarly Situation Comedies will often have canned laughter, a few specific and long-running characters and locations and will have several catch-phrases.
Generic conventions are very useful to producers and audiences alike. Producers can attract a specific target audience by making it very explicit what genre the text falls into. Audiences can easily identify a genre of text and choose to consume it or not.
Generic conventions also determine what category the text is i.e. print and non-print and because of this people can either hear the Genre and/or read the Genre
# Genes/Expressions

Gene expressions is a suite of genes, and their isoforms, that appear to be biochemically involved in the appearance of a trait.

## Gene IDs

"The minimum set of data necessary for a gene record, therefore, is: a unique identifier, or GeneID, assigned by NCBI; a preferred symbol; and either defining sequence information, map information, or official nomenclature from an authority list."
"A unique GeneID is assigned to each new record. There are currently two number generators being used by Gene; one that is assigning values in the range of 7,000,000 – 99,999,999 and another that is assigning values > 100,000,000. Thus the sequence of GeneIDs is expected to have gaps."

## Funding

The Cure Brain Cancer Foundation is planning to provide grants of up to $200,000 each to encourage innovative new research. "The Innovation Grant will address this gap by funding higher-risk, big ideas and allow researchers to explore new projects that could improve brain cancer survival, which has barely improved in more than 30 years."
"The Innovation Grant will provide up to $200,000 over two years to researchers with new ideas, including those who work in areas outside of brain cancer."
"It will also enable researchers to produce proof-of-concept data, and establish whether ideas are feasible for ongoing funding."
"Applications for the Innovation Grants are now open and close on 7 July."

## Hypotheses

* The transcription of each gene, or its isoforms, is an opportunity to influence under or over expression.
* Like simvastatin, the product of some genes that may produce harmful effects can be muted by a biochemical that uses up some of the gene product before it produces unhealthy levels of that product.
* Gene expressions can be altered such as with the birth control pill that alters the apparent hormone balance to appear as if the woman is pregnant so as to prevent pregnancy.
# Genetics/12p13.31

Human chromosome region 12p13.31 region contains six genes: CD69, CLEC2D, CLECL1, KLRB1, LOC374443, OVOS. Deletions of this region of the human chromosome have been linked to multiple myeloma.
# Genes/Expressions/Spaceflights

Gene expressions is a suite of genes, and their isoforms, that appear to be biochemically involved in the appearance of a trait.
Space travel changes the way genes are expressed.
"NASA’s Twins Study preliminary results have revealed that space travel causes an increase in methylation, the process of turning genes on and off, and additional knowledge in how that process works."
"Some of the most exciting things that we’ve seen from looking at gene expression in space is that we really see an explosion, like fireworks taking off, as soon as the human body gets into space. Chris Mason, Ph.D., of Weill Cornell Medicine, said. “With this study, we’ve seen thousands and thousands of genes change how they are turned on and turned off. This happens as soon as an astronaut gets into space, and some of the activity persists temporarily upon return to Earth."
"This study represents one of the most comprehensive views of human biology. It really sets the bedrock for understanding molecular risks for space travel as well as ways to potentially protect and fix those genetic changes."
The image on the right shows the loss of bone mass apparently due to long-term microgravity on the International Space Station. "[A]stronauts, on average, lost roughly 11 percent of their total hip bone mass over the course of their mission."

## Gene IDs

Gene ID: 249 ALPL alkaline phosphatase, liver/bone/kidney, alias bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP).
Gene ID: 348 APOE apolipoprotein E, one isoform (the gene itself). "The protein encoded by this gene is a major apoprotein of the chylomicron. It binds to a specific liver and peripheral cell receptor, and is essential for the normal catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein constituents." per NCBI entry. Intact osteocalcin (iBGP).
Gene ID: 1277 COL1A1 collagen type I alpha 1, i.e., type 1 procollagen propeptide, procollagen C-telopeptide.
Gene ID: 5741 PTH parathyroid hormone.
Gene ID: 7415 VCP valosin containing protein.
Gene ID: 9370 ADIPOQ adiponectin, C1Q and collagen domain containing, i.e., free and bound deoxypyridinoline.

## Hypotheses

* The transcription of each gene, or its isoforms, is the opportunity to influence under or over expression.
# Genetic control in drosophila patterning
## Readings

* Study guide:
* Wikipedia article: Morphogenesis

## Genes Required for Embryonic Patterning
### Identification of Embryonic Patterning Genes

The genes required for embryonic patterning were identified by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus through use of random saturation mutagenesis experiments. Mutations that caused abnormal array of cuticle structures and embryonic lethality were kept for study. The screen below was used to identify second chromosome mutations that effect embryonic patterning.
The * marks a chromosome treated with mutagen, it does not necessarily mean a mutation has occurred. If there are no white eyed progeny, this is a lethal mutation. Eggs were collected and cuticle was analyzed for pattern defects.
Balancer chromosomes like CyO have multiple inversions and a dominant visible marker. Sy suppressing recombination, they keep linked mutations together and allow mutagenized chromosomes to be followed. CyO is also homozygous lethal and will kill unwanted homozygous flies in the G$_2$.
A chromosome carrying a dominant temperature sensitive (DTS) mutation is also used here to kill unwanted flies in the G$_2$.
It was discovered that two classes of mutations affect embryonic patterning: maternal effect and zygotic letha mutations. The screen identified 120 genes in the total genome that are zygotically essential for embryonic pattern formation.

### How is the pattern established?
#### Maternal effect genes

For maternal effect genes, the genotype of the mother determines the phenotype of the offspring. Maternal genes initiate anterior/posterior pattern.
female m/m x +/+ male ---------> all mutant embryos
female m/+ x m/+ male ---------> no mutant embryos
35 maternal effect genes were identified that are required for normal embryonic patterning. Maternal effect gene products are transported into egg from germline nurse cells.

#### Bicoid

Bicoid RNA is transcribed in nurse cells of the ovary. Nurse cells dump their contents into the anterior of the oocyte; bicoid RNA sticks at the site where it enters the oocyte. After egg laying, bicoid protein is synthesized, and diffuses to make a gradient in the anterior 70% of the embryo.
The bicoid protein is a transcription factor that promotes the transcription of the gap gene hunchback in the anterior part of the embryo.

#### Posterior Pole Plasm

The posterior pole plasm is a classic example of a localized, maternal cytoplasmic determinant. Transplantation of pole plasm showed that it is sufficient for the formation of functional pole cells.
At least two RNAs (oskar and nanos) and two proteins (vasa and staufen) are localized in the pole plasm in polar granules. Like bicoid RNA, nanos RNA is localized through binding of its 3' UTR to a pole of the oocyte (the posterior pole). After fertilization, nanos RNA is translated and the nanos protein forms a gradient that allows abdominal development. Unlike bicoid, nanos proteins act post-transcriptionally. Nanos protein destroys maternal hunchback RNA which would otherwise block abdominal development.
# Gunnison, Colorado

This is an School Project. Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.

## Gunnison, Colorado on Wikiversity

This page is intended as a Learning resource for Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Public Library in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Leslie Savage Library of Western State College at Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Colorado Historic Newspapers, Colorado State Library and Colorado Historic Society
/Default/Skins/Colorado/Client.asp?Skin=Colorado&AW=1341185526089&AppName=2
This page is primarily interested in Education resource for Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Colorado Department of Education
    Western State College in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Gunnison Watershed RJ1E School District in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
       Public Schools in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
       Non Public Schools in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
This page is collectively seeking information on Geology resource in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    U.S.D.S. Soil Survey Gunnison
    Uranium in Gunnison and Saguache Counties.
    Pre-Cambrian[factual?] artifacts in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Gunnison River Valley, Gunnison Basin, Gunnison National Forest, Gunnison Wilderness
This page looks forward to Cartographic resource pertaining to Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    John Williams Gunnison surveys
This page pursues History resource related to Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Denver & Rio Grande in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Hisorical Societies in Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
This page reserves space for Future resource from Gunnison, Colorado, U.S.A.
    Gunnison County, Colorado, U.S.A.
    City of Gunnison Planning Commission, Chamber of Commerce, Home Rule (governance)
Annotations
* ↑ Pre- historic evidence which will be presented in an archeologically pleasing style.
* ↑ Further references to paleo-anthologies, and other ologies.
* ↑ Minutes to the meeting which discussed the feasability of Orsch to occupy the upper floor of Gunnison Arts Center.
# Gymnastics/Acrobatics

Acrobatics is usually understood as
* a kind of physical exercises;
* a kind of performing arts;
* a sport.
Acrobatics requires extraordinary balance, agility and motor coordination. Acrobatic skills were known still in ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome and China. Since XXVIII century, acrobatic performance has been popular in circuses of Europe.

## Other pages

* Rhythmic gymnastics
* Equilibrioception
* Trampolining
# Gymnastics/Rhythmic

Rhythmic gymnastics (short:RG) is a sport in which individuals or teams of competitors (generally five) manipulate one or two apparatus: rope, hoop, ball, clubs, and ribbon. Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation. The victor is the participant who earns the most points, determined by a panel of judges, for leaps, balances, pirouettes, flexibilities, apparatus handling, execution, and artistic effect.
International competitions are split between Juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth; and Seniors, for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth. Gymnasts typically start training at a very young age and those at their peak are typically in their late teens or early twenties. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, and Grand-Prix Tournaments.

## Other websites

* Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (English) / (French)
* Rhythmic Gymnastics (English) / (German)
* The Art of Gymnastics - The Israeli site of Rhythmic Gymnastics (English)
* Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics
* More on rhythmic gymnastics
# Gymnastics/Trampolining

Trampolining is a competitive Olympic sport in which gymnasts perform airborne acrobatics while bouncing on a trampoline. These can include simple jumps in the pike, tuck or straddle position to more complex combinations of forward or backward somersaults and twists.
There are two related competitive rebound sports: synchronized trampoline and double mini-trampoline. The currently accepted basic format for individual trampoline competitions usually consists of two or three routines, one of which may involve a compulsory set of skills. The skills consist of various combinations of somersaults, shaped bounces, body landings and twists performed in various body positions.

## History

In the early 1930s, an American gymnast George Nissen observed trapeze artistes performing tricks when bouncing off the safety net. He made the first modern trampoline in his garage to reproduce that net on a smaller scale and used it to help with his diving and tumbling activities. It was the beginning of a new sport.
In the USA, trampolining was quickly introduced into school physical education programs and was also used in private entertainment centers. Since trampolining became an Olympic sport in 2000, many countries have started developing programs for producing very competitive athletes.

## Other websites

* Directory of Trampoline Clubs worldwide at DMOZ
* Everything about trampolining and acrobatic sports