# Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Ageing and motivation

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

* Case study 1
* Sarah, a 68-year-old retired teacher, has been struggling to find motivation. Previously, Sarah had always been goal-oriented in her career, but after retirement, she found it challenging to maintain the same level of motivation in her daily life. To remedy this lack of purpose, Sarah decided to join a local community group and began to volunteer at a nearby school. Soon Sarah found that her motivation had increased; instead of being driven by career-related goals, she was driven by social engagement and giving back to her community. This case provides an example of how motivation may change with age and transform from extrinsic goals, such as career advancement, to more intrinsic goals, like personal fulfilment and community involvement.
The transition from the vibrant ambitions of youth to the serene introspection of later years unveils a compelling interplay between age and motivation (Carstensen, 1992). Each life milestone, like the challenging shift to retirement, subtly alters our motivational fabric. This process can be better understood through the lens of theories on age-related motivation. Intrinsic motivation often retains its essence despite the evolving external circumstances associated with aging (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the meantime, social norms, molding our motivations and self-worth, usher individuals from broad youthful pursuits to a deeper focus on relationships, health, and emotional well-being (Carstensen, 2006). This narrative displays the human spirit's adaptability and resilience in facing age-related challenges (Ryff, 1989). Moreover, exploring psychological theories illuminates the nuanced dialogue between the passage of time and the evolution of motivations, offering a framework to understand the multifaceted dynamics at play, and inviting individuals to embrace the evolving dance of desires and drives spun by aging and motivation (Baltes, 1997).
* Focus questions:
* What is the relationship between motivation and age?
* How does the perspective on motivation evolve as individuals transition from youth to older age?
* What psychological theories best elucidate the dynamic interplay between aging and evolving motivations?
* How do theories elucidate the evolving dynamics of aging and motivation?
* How can the understanding of the brain's adaptability and plasticity reshape social perceptions about cognitive capacities during the senior years?

## The relationship between motivation and ageing

The relationship between motivation and ageing is intricate and deeply intertwined with the evolving tapestry of human experience. As humans traverse the journey of life, the interplay between motivation and ageing surfaces in nuanced ways.
Motivation, fundamentally the catalyst propelling our actions (Lai, 2011), it [grammar?] is essential to power people forward and help them achieve. Motivation can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation attributable to an individual's internal desires and passions. It's an authentic drive, where individuals engage in pursuits for the inherent satisfaction and the fulfillment they derive from them (Deci et al., 1999). On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is anchored in external incentives and the perception of other members of society. It's the force that pushes individuals to act in hopes of obtaining a reward, avoiding a penalty, or receiving social acknowledgment.
Aging, on the other hand, is a complex, multidimensional process encompassing biological, psychological, and social changes (Campisi & d'Adda di Fagagna, 2007). Biologically, it signifies a progressive decline in physiological functions such as muscle strength, bone density, and cellular capabilities (Lopez-Otin et al., 2013). Psychologically, aging may influence cognitive capacities, but it also bestows individuals with a richness of experiences, wisdom, and potentially enhanced emotion regulation (Carstensen et al., 2011). Consequently, as individuals age, there's often a perceptible shift in values, preferences, and motivational drivers (Carstensen, 2006).
Incorporating both realms, as one matures, motivations often evolve. While younger individuals might be largely driven by extrinsic factors like social recognition (Vallerand, 1997), aging might tilt the balance towards intrinsic motivations anchored in personal satisfaction and the joy of experience (Ryan et al., 2019). This shift can be attributed to the accumulation of life experiences, evolving personal values, and a growing realization of the transient nature of external rewards in the face of life's impermanence (Carstensen, 1992).
Moreover, subjective age can play a pivotal role in shaping motivations. An individual who feels younger might be more motivated to embark on new learning experiences, seek challenges, or pursue active lifestyles, reflecting the motivations commonly associated with youth. On the contrary, someone feeling older than their actual age might prioritize stability, safety, or health-related activities (Kastenbaum et al., 1972).
To encapsulate, the relationship between motivation and ageing is a dance of evolving perspectives and shifting priorities, beautifully captured by the ebbs and flows of human experience across the lifespan.

## Theories on age-related motivation

The interplay between aging and motivation is multifaceted and deeply rooted in our understanding of human behavior. As people age, their life perspectives, values and beliefs change due to unique life experiences. Consequently, they adjust their life gals and sources of motivation to reflect these changes (Isaacowitz et al., 2021). This transformative journey shapes how one perceives challenges, navigates life's various stages, and cultivates a renewed sense of purpose. In essence, while aging can bring about changes in what drives us, it also offers a unique opportunity to discover fresh inspirations and rekindle latent passions.
Table 1.
Differences Between key theories on age-related motivation
| Theory | Key Concepts & Definition |
| Self-determination theory | Focuses on intrinsic human tendencies for growth. Emphasizes three innate needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Prioritization of these needs may change with aging. |
| Selective optimization with compensation theory | Outlines adaptive strategies for aging. Encompasses principles of selection (prioritizing activities), optimization (maximizing potential), and compensation (adapting to limitations). |
| Socioemotional selectivity theory | Explores the relationship between perceptions of time and motivations. As perceived time becomes limited, there's a shift from seeking novelty to focusing on emotional satisfaction. |
| Activity theory | Highlights the intrinsic relationship between active participation in meaningful activities and well-being during aging. Maintaining or replacing activities from earlier life stages is crucial for successful aging. Advocates for physical, cognitive, emotional, and social engagement for a holistic well-being. |

### Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000), underscores the human intrinsic propensities for growth. People inherently gravitate towards environments that satisfy their innate needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). As individuals age, The realisations of each domain of the SDT change as a person ages, particularly within the contexts of changing priorities and capacities (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).
Autonomy: The inherent need to be the author of one's life, becomes particularly salient for older individuals. They often find themselves navigating a world that may inadvertently restrict their choices. Drawing upon their accumulated wisdom, older adults often resist such constraints, seeking avenues to maintain autonomy and express their identities (Ryan et al., 2019). This pursuit is not just about maintaining control but is deeply interwoven with their sense of self-worth and self-understanding (Vallerand, 1997).
Competence: As people mature, the pursuit of competence — the desire to interact effectively with one's environment — transforms. Younger individuals might seek achievement in competitive domains, but the elderly often channel this need into arenas where they can experience fulfillment within their current capacities. Activities such as gardening, mentoring, or art become mediums to harness their life's wisdom, offering them a sense of purpose and mastery (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).
Relatedness: Rooted in the need for meaningful connections, relatedness emphasizes the value humans place on warm, intimate relationships. Aging individuals prioritize the depth over breadth in their relationships, seeking authentic engagements over fleeting ones. The shift towards valuing deeper connections can be explained by the socioemotional selectivity theory, which suggests that as people perceive their time as limited, they prioritize emotionally meaningful interactions (Carstensen, 1992).
In conclusion, the journey of aging brings with it shifts in priorities and needs, but the foundational elements of SDT remain pertinent across the lifespan. Through the lens of SDT, one can gain a profound understanding of the dynamic interplay between intrinsic motivations and external factors, especially in the realm of aging. Integrating various psychological perspectives, such as those offered by Baltes and Baltes (1990) and Carstensen (1992) enriches our understanding of the aging process within the broader context of human motivation.
The universality of SDT's principles, especially in aging contexts, warrants scrutiny. Cultural norms and societal expectations can influence perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. As Baltes & Baltes (1990) and Carstensen (1992) suggest, aging dynamics are multifaceted. Integrating SDT with these insights, while valuable, may risk oversimplifying the intricate tapestry of aging motivations.

### Selective optimization with compensation theory

Aging is a multifaceted journey, marked by shifts in cognitive, physical, and social domains. One of the seminal frameworks that offer insights into this complex transition is the Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) theory, conceptualized by Baltes and Baltes (1990). This model delves deep into the adaptive strategies individuals employ to navigate the changes they encounter during their later years.
At the heart of SOC is the principle of selection (Baltes & Baltes, 1990). As individuals age, they naturally prioritize certain activities over others due to altered capabilities or evolving interests (Freund & Baltes, 2002). For instance, an elderly musician might gravitate towards composing rather than undertaking physically demanding concert performances, ensuring energy is directed towards pursuits that are both meaningful and achievable.
The aspect of optimization in the SOC framework emphasizes maximizing potential in chosen endeavors (Baltes & Smith, 2003). It revolves around dedicating resources, time, and effort to augment performance or proficiency in selected areas. An illustrative example might be an older athlete who, while no longer competing at top-tier levels, continues to refine specific skills, to gain a sense of satisfaction from the practise process itself.
Compensation, the final facet of this model, embodies adaptability (Baltes & Baltes, 1990). As challenges or limitations emerge, individuals devise alternative strategies to persist in their engagement. For instance, a passionate hiker who, due to physical constraints, pivots to nature photography, thus allowing immersion in nature without physical rigor.
The SOC theory stands as a guiding principle, elucidating the adaptive strategies older individuals employ to navigate the vicissitudes of aging. It's a testament to the enduring adaptability and vitality of the human spirit, which continually seeks meaning, engagement, and fulfillment. This perspective challenges traditional views on aging, emphasizing not just the challenges but the innovative approaches older individuals take to find joy, purpose, and motivation in their evolving journey (OpenAI, 2023).
While the SOC theory illuminates the adaptive strategies in aging, it may not capture the full spectrum of experiences across diverse socio-economic and cultural landscapes (Kahana & Kahana, 2003). Reliance solely on this model might overlook the nuances of aging in marginalized or underrepresented populations (Walker, 2005).

### Socioemotional selectivity theory

The socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) offers a profound lens into the interplay between our perceptions of time and their implications on motivation and behavior, especially as individuals age. Rooted in the foundational work by Carstensen (1992, 2021), this theory posits that as people age and perceive their time as limited, they prioritize goals that are emotionally salient and foster meaningful relationships, rather than those oriented towards future achievements and external rewards.
As one's time horizon narrows with the progression of age, there's a shift from seeking novel experiences and broad knowledge acquisition towards activities that evoke immediate emotional satisfaction. While younger individuals may be propelled by the allure of new experiences, exploring unfamiliar terrains, and amassing a broad spectrum of information, older adults tend to derive deeper satisfaction from familiar settings, cherished relationships, and experiences that resonate with their emotional core (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005).
This pivotal transition is not merely a consequence of aging per se, but rather an adaptive strategy that optimizes emotional well-being in the face of diminishing time horizons. It underscores the wisdom that often accompanies aging—a keen understanding of the transient nature of life and the significance of savoring moments that genuinely matter.
Moreover, SST sheds light on the profound emotional regulation strategies of older adults. They often exhibit a heightened capability to focus on the positive, distancing themselves from negative experiences, and gravitating towards situations that enhance positive affect (Mather & Carstensen, 2005). This intrinsic drive towards emotional equilibrium and well-being inherently aligns with the principles of motivation, reinforcing the idea that even in the twilight years, humans are deeply motivated, albeit by different, more emotionally resonant goals (OpenAI, 2023)..
In essence, the SST elegantly encapsulates the evolutionary arc of human motivation across the lifespan. It emphasizes the adaptability of the human spirit, which, even amidst the inevitabilities of aging, seeks avenues of emotional enrichment, fulfillment, and contentment (OpenAI, 2023).
While SST elucidates emotional preferences in aging, critics argue that it may be overly deterministic, suggesting age predetermines shifts in goals without considering individual variability or socio-cultural influences (Löckenhoff, 2011). Additionally, relying solely on SST could oversimplify the multifaceted nature of aging motivations (Berg & Upchurch, 2007).

### Activity theory

The activity theory posits a robust paradigm underscoring the intrinsic relationship between active participation in meaningful activities and overall well-being, especially as one ages. Rooted in the pioneering work of Havighurst (1963), this theory posits that an individual's self-worth, happiness, and cognitive health are inextricably linked to their degree of active engagement with their environment.
Central to the activity theory is the premise that maintaining or replacing activities from earlier life stages is pivotal for successful aging (Rowe & Kahn, 1997). These endeavors could range from recreational pursuits, vocational engagements, or social interactions. As one transitions from middle age to the golden years, the nature of these activities may change, but the intrinsic value they offer remains undiminished (Morrow-Howell et al., 2003). An older individual might transition from a full-time career to volunteer work, which although different in nature, still provides a deep sense of purpose and accomplishment.
Furthermore, an active lifestyle, as emphasized by the activity theory, is not just about physical engagement. It envelops cognitive, emotional, and social facets of life. Social activities, for instance, play a pivotal role in combating feelings of isolation and fostering a sense of belonging. Engaging in intellectual activities, on the other hand, can sharpen cognitive faculties, reinforcing the age-old adage – "use it or lose it" (Menec, 2003).
Carstensen (2021) supports this by suggesting that older adults who immerse themselves in purposeful activities exhibit higher levels of well-being, resilience, and life satisfaction. Such active engagement becomes a buffer against potential adversities of aging, such as health decline or loss of loved ones.
In conclusion, the activity theory offers more than just a perspective; it presents a roadmap for aging gracefully. It underscores the profound idea that regardless of age, humans have an innate need to feel productive, connected, and purposeful. As the fabric of society evolves, understanding and implementing the tenets of this theory become ever more critical in addressing the holistic well-being of the aging demographic.
While the Activity Theory underscores the importance of continuous engagement in old age, critics argue it may inadvertently pressurize elderly individuals to remain active, potentially leading to burnout or feelings of inadequacy when they can't (Lemon et al, 1972). Also, it might oversimplify aging by not addressing inherent age-related constraints (Stowe & Cooney, 2015).

## The effect of ageing on motivation

The process of ageing invariably brings about transformative changes in our motivational landscapes. As the sands of time pass, what once drove our ambitions and pursuits undergoes a profound metamorphosis, leading to an evolved set of desires and objectives that are more aligned with our revised life contexts. Within professional spheres, retirement beckons a reevaluation of purpose, while social motivations pivot towards deeper, more meaningful connections. Simultaneously, an enhanced emphasis on health and well-being emerges, coupled with a rejuvenated pursuit of intellectual enrichment. Understanding these dynamic shifts is crucial, not only for the elderly but also for society at large, to facilitate pathways that optimize well-being, contentment, and holistic integration for our senior population (OpenAI, 2023)..

### Pivoting priorities

As the chronological pages turn, ageing not only marks the passage of time but also signifies a transformation in one's outlook towards professional goals and ambitions (Erikson, 1980). This transformation is not just a byproduct of biological ageing but a manifestation of accumulated experiences, wisdom, and changing priorities. With retirement looming or already in effect, the traditional 9-to-5 framework often ceases to define one's identity. This phase, rather than signifying a cessation of activity, becomes a nexus of rejuvenation and redefinition (Havighurst, 1963).
For many retirees, it's a golden opportunity to breathe life into dormant dreams, ones that perhaps took a backseat during the peak of their careers (Lachman, 2006). Whether it's pursuing an art class, writing a book, or travelling to previously uncharted territories, the possibilities are as vast as one's imagination (Baltes & Baltes, 1990). Yet, for others, the urge to contribute to society remains strong. This cohort finds purpose in community services, mentoring the younger generation, or delving into consultancy roles that leverage their years of expertise, reflecting the principles of self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
The multiplicity of paths that retirees embark upon serves as a testament to the rich tapestry of human desires and motivations. Even as age might dictate a slower pace, the hunger for purpose, connection, and legacy remains unabated. Carstensen's insights (2006) echo this sentiment suggests that while the avenues of professional engagement might shift with age, the core human need for purpose and meaningful contribution remains unwavering.
In essence, the latter chapters of one's professional life, rather than being pages of closure, can indeed be passages of profound exploration, enrichment, and epitomes of a life well-lived. Ageing, thus, is not about winding down but about embracing new beginnings with zest, wisdom, and an unquenchable spirit of discovery (OpenAI, 2023).[factual?]
* Case study 2
* After 35 years as a Vice President in a multinational bank, Eleanor retired at 68. However, inspired by Carstensen's (2006) research on aging and purpose, she channelled her love for gardening into a local herb business. Additionally, she combined her banking knowledge with volunteering, teaching financial literacy to young adults, reaffirming that age can pivot priorities, but motivation remains undiminished (OpenAI, 2023).

### Bonding and belonging

The journey of ageing, with its inherent challenges and reflections, profoundly reshapes how individuals navigate their professional ambitions (Erikson, 1994). Each passing year, layered with experiences and insights, offers a renewed perspective on what truly matters in the professional realm. Central to this evolution is the transition to retirement. Contrary to popular belief, for a vast majority of the elderly, retirement doesn't signify an end. Instead, it heralds a new beginning, a phase rife with opportunities for introspection, rejuvenation, and exploration (Wang, 2007).
Freed from the daily grind and stringent schedules of their working years, retirees find themselves at a crossroads. They're presented with the luxury of time and the choice of direction. Many embark on a journey of self-discovery, immersing themselves in passions and interests that might have taken a backseat during their more hectic years (Havighurst, 1963). Whether it's rekindling an old hobby, learning a new skill, or even diving into the arts, the spectrum of pursuits is vast and varied (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).
However, the desire for purpose and meaningful engagement remains a strong undercurrent (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Numerous retirees, driven by this intrinsic motivation, find solace in volunteer work or assume roles in part-time capacities, aligning more with their personal values than monetary compensation (Vaillant, 2007). Their choices, though diverse, underscore a universal human theme: the indefatigable drive for a life rich in meaning, purpose, and impactful contributions, regardless of age.
Carstensen's work (2006) resonates deeply with this narrative, emphasizing that the essence of human motivation doesn't diminish with age. Instead, it transforms, adapts, and finds new channels of expression. As traditional professional identities fade into the background, a new chapter unfolds—one where contribution, passion, and purpose meld seamlessly, redefining the contours of professional motivation in the golden years (Nimrod, 2007).
* Case study 3
* Martha, a 67-year-old retiree, once a dedicated banker, utilized her newfound freedom to pursue pottery, a long-forgotten passion. While mastering the art, she started offering free workshops to local youth. This not only revitalized her sense of purpose but also fostered community ties, exemplifying purposeful aging beyond conventional work (OpenAI, 2023).

### Pursuit of wellness:

In the journey of life, ageing uniquely reframes our motivations towards health and well-being. Growing older accentuates the focus on vitality, not just as a physiological measure, but as a profound interplay of mental and emotional vibrancy (Lavrusheva, 2020). This shifting paradigm emphasizes proactive health management, with exercise transitioning from mere physical activity to a ritual of self-care and dietary habits evolving from fleeting indulgences to conscious nourishment choices.
This emphasis on health is not just about responding to ageing's physiological nuances; it intertwines with the goals of autonomy and holistic wellness (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The proactive approach towards one's health is often rooted in desires: the desire for independence, to stave off potential chronic disease, and a yearning to savor the richness of life's experiences actively.
Lavrusheva's research on vitality underscores this trend, suggesting that the notion of vitality extends beyond physical health, encapsulating a holistic sense of well-being that ageing individuals increasingly seek (Lavrusheva, 2020). Ryff further elaborates on presenting the multifaceted nature of well-being in the context of ageing (Ryff, 1989). Thus, the narrative of ageing unfolds not just as a story of added years to life but as a richer tapestry of adding life to those years, where health, vitality, and purpose intertwine in the pursuit of holistic wellness.
* Case study 4
* At 68, Jane felt the void post-retirement. Inspired by Lavrusheva's vitality-centric ageing approach (2020), she embraced Tai Chi for its meditative and physical benefits, adopted a nourishing plant-based diet, and initiated community reading sessions. Jane's journey embodies ageing as an active pursuit of holistic wellness, intertwining health, vitality, and purpose (OpenAI, 2023).

### Intellectual drive

Ageing, contrary to common misconceptions, doesn't equate to an inevitable descent into cognitive decline. In fact, the senior years can unfurl as a renaissance period teeming with intellectual vigor and curiosity (Park et al., 2002). This phase, for many, becomes a conduit for renewed cognitive pursuits, opening doors to expansive learning and fresh challenges (Schaie, 1996). Rather than being passive recipients of time, seniors often find themselves actively seeking avenues for cognitive enrichment, be it through reading, attending lectures, joining discussion groups, or even mastering new technologies (Czaja et al., 2006).
A significant propellant for this is the emerging recognition of the brain's plasticity and adaptability. Ageing brains are not static but remain malleable, able to learn and adapt (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Modern educational psychology underscores the transformative power of continuous cognitive engagement in bolstering mental sharpness (Hertzog et al., 2008). Activities that challenge the mind, from learning a new language to picking up a musical instrument, have demonstrable benefits in enhancing cognitive resilience and delaying potential age-related cognitive challenges (Baltes & Kliegl, 1992).
Schunk and DiBenedetto's work (2020) elucidates this further, shedding light on the synergistic interplay between motivation and cognitive function. Their research emphasizes that motivation, far from being a static trait, can be nurtured and cultivated. By understanding the dynamics of self-efficacy and setting achievable goals, seniors can harness their intrinsic motivation, propelling them towards meaningful intellectual endeavors.
In essence, the senior years, when viewed through the lens of intellectual potential, emerge not as a period of decline, but as an epoch ripe with opportunities for growth, exploration, and cognitive rejuvenation. The innate human thirst for knowledge and understanding doesn't wane with age; it merely seeks new horizons to conquer, continually enriching the tapestry of life.
* Case study 5
* Margaret, 72, recently retired as a librarian, dispelled the myth of ageing leading to cognitive decline by enrolling in a Spanish language course. Embracing her senior years as a period for intellectual growth, she exemplified the power of continuous learning. Guided by intrinsic motivation and her love for exploration, she became fluent within a year, showcasing the potential of ageing brains (OpenAI, 2023).

## Conclusion

The ageing process, often riddled with societal misconceptions of decline, is an unfolding journey of renewed vigor, exploration, and adaptability. The confluence of motivations, from the pursuit of intellectual passions to the embrace of holistic well-being, illustrates the vast potential within the senior years. Supported by real-world narratives and buttressed by the academic wisdom of Lavrusheva (2020) and Schunk & DiBenedetto (2020), it's evident that ageing isn't a period of passive resignation but a vibrant chapter marked by introspection, growth, and proactive engagement.
Our understanding of ageing, deeply enriched by psychological theories such as those presented by Baltes and Baltes (1990), challenges us to dismantle traditional perceptions and recognize the profound adaptability and resilience intrinsic to the human spirit. This perspective invites society, institutions, and individuals to foster an environment where ageing isn't merely endured but celebrated and optimized.
In personal realms, the findings of Deci & Ryan (2000) and their exploration of motivations across age beckon introspection and an embrace of the evolving dance of desires and drives spun by time. By understanding and respecting the changing dynamics of ageing and motivation, we are empowered to craft a life trajectory that is both fulfilling and meaningful, enriching not only our own journeys but also the communities we inhabit. The ageing narrative, echoing the sentiments of Carstensen (1992), thus emerges as an ode to the boundless potential of the human spirit, urging us to cherish, nurture, and optimize every phase of our existence (OpenAI, 2023).