OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Esperanto/Key Concepts

We shall be adding various Key Concepts that we shall be using.

## Resource-Based Learning

Resource-based learning (RBL) is an approach to pedagogy in which actively involves students, teachers and resource providers in the application of a range of resources (both human and non-human) in the learning process. It is claimed that this approach offers a flexible structure to learning such that the learner can develop as a learner according to their "varied interests, experiences, learning styles, needs and ability levels". The RBL approach focuses on the resources available to the learners and how the learners interact with these resources. This leads to an interest in the uses of technology to support and develop a learning environment.

### Background

The exigencies of the Second World War impelled the training of large numbers of both military and civilian staff, and in the United Kingdom this led to the adoption of B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning as a strategy for achieving the requisite behaviour modification. By the 1950s and 1960s these stimulus-response methods were introduced into education, but were seen as being to mechanical. The response was a move to more cognitivist and constructivist approaches. In 1966 the Nuffield Foundation introduced the Resources for Learning project. This involved the teacher introducing a problem, the pupils formulating an hypothesis and then the pupils designing and carrying out an experiment. Kim Taylor an ex-headmaster soon took over as Director of the project. However experience soon showed that a more instructional approach was better at being effective. This led to greater reliance on instructional design. This involved consideration of the scientific principles of pedagogy as well as attention to the equipment to be used to present the resources, which was seen as having managerial implications. Kim Taylor wrote Resources for Learning, (1971), which predicted significant changes if resource-based methods were to be effectively deployed. One of the issues he highlighted was that as a modern economy created pressure for a universalised education, which would require a shift away from "teacher-as-craftsman" as the situation would generate a significant short-fall in teachers. The "Nuffield solution" involved a transition from a craft-based model of teaching to a more industrial approach where greater attention is paid to the managerial effectiveness and the quality of the educational resources.
# Esperanto/Key Concepts/Black Box

The term "black box" is a convenient and figurative expression to portray a piece of apparatus which converts an input into an output. (Weiner 1948). It is useful when discussing a system at a certain level of abstraction at which the details of what goes on "under the bonnet" - i.e the actual mechanisms within the black box would only confuse the discussion.
   The child who tries to open a door has to manipulate the handle (the input) so as to produce the desired movement at the latch (the output); and he has to learn how to control the one by the other without being able to see the internal mechanism that links them. In our daily lives we are confronted at every turn with systems whose internal mechanisms are not fully open to inspection, and which must be treated by the methods appropriate to the Black Box.
   — W. Ross Ashby, An Introduction to Cybernetics, 1956
# Esperanto/Key Concepts/Resource-Based Learning

Resource-based learning (RBL) is an approach to pedagogy in which actively involves students, teachers and resource providers in the application of a range of resources (both human and non-human) in the learning process. It is claimed that this approach offers a flexible structure to learning such that the learner can develop as a learner according to their "varied interests, experiences, learning styles, needs and ability levels". The RBL approach focuses on the resources available to the learners and how the learners interact with these resources. This leads to an interest in the uses of technology to support and develop a learning environment.
* 1 2 "Information Literacy & Learning". Prince Edward Island Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. Prince Edward Island Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
* ↑ Esch, Edith. "Resource-based learning". LLAS. Centre for languages, linguistics and area studies. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
# DevOps/Container-Orchestration

Container Orchestration is a term that defines the automated configuration, coordination, and management of Containers. There are different solutions for Container Orchestration software such as Kubernetes, Nomad or managed services such us AWS EKS, AWS ECS or AWS Fargate.
# DevOps/Container/runc

runC, a container runtime that implements their specification and serves as a basis for other higher-level tools. runC was first released in July 2015 as version 0.0.1 and it is included in RHEL 8.0 (2019) as a Docker replacement.
runC-like container runtime shares a single kernel instance across all containers in contrast to Clear Containers.
# DevOps/Ansible/manage AWS infrastructure using Ansible
## Configuration

Configure your computer for use Ansible to manage your Amazon AWS infrastructure.
* 1) Install aws cli, python, apt-get install python-pip and python pip boto
* 2) Install Ansible, macOS: brew install ansible
* 3) Configure your local aws cli installation to allow you to make operation on your AWS infrastructure.
Installation one line: apt-get install awscli python-pip ansible && pip install boto

## Basic Operations

* Start a AWS EC2 machine:
We will use ansible EC2 module. Create a new file, for example aws_start_machine.yml. Put your instance_ids and region values, (execute aws ec2 describe-instances to obtain them or aws ec2 describe-instances | grep InstanceId to obtain only InstanceIds) and execute your newly created script,
Example. Start and already created EC2 instance. aws_start_ec2server.yml file:
    (Remember just to use spaces and not tabulator for your YML file)
Getting information from a AWS machine:
Example aws_status_ec2server.yml file:
# DevOps/Container

Linux Container virtualization is an os-level virtualization technology based in Linux kernel cgroups and namespaces features. Docker containers are available since 2013 and runC was first released in July 2015 as version 0.0.1.

## Containers Technology Timeline

* 2007 Cgroups v1 was added into the Linux kernel (cgroups version 1).
* 2012 OpenShift Origin the open source codebase used in the OpenShift PaaS released
* 2011 Openshift platform is launched based on Linux containers
* 2013 Docker launched
* 06/2014 Kubernetes launched
* 2015 runC released
* 05/2019 Red Hat remove docker from RHEL 8 and includes runC

## Tools

* Buildah, building containers.
* Podman, running containers.
* Skopeo, sharing/finding containers.
* runc container management tool from Open Container Initiative

## containerd

containerd is an industry-standard container runtime.

## Activities

* Understand the differences between runc, containerd and docker. https://medium.com/@alenkacz/whats-the-difference-between-runc-containerd-docker-3fc8f79d4d6e
# DevOps/Docker/Docker Engine release notes

and Docker CE or Docker EE releases.
* October 1, 2014: Docker Engine 1.3 launches, and introduces docker exec command.
* August 1, 2014: Docker Engine 1.2
# DevOps/Container Registry

Container Registry is a software that enables container image storage and management. Different Container Registry are available such as AWS ECR, Google Cloud Container Registry, Jfrog Docker Registry, GitLab Container registry or Docker Hub.

## Docker

A Docker registry is a repository for Docker images. Docker clients connect to registries to download (docker pull) images for use or upload (docker push) images. A Docker Registry HTTP API is available to facilitate distribution of images to the docker engine with support for image verification, resumable push and pull operations and layer deduplication.
Docker Registries can be public or private. Two main public registries are Docker Hub and Docker Cloud. Docker Hub is the default registry where Docker looks for images. Docker registries also allow the creation of notifications based on events.

## ECR

AWS ECR is a managed container registry service from AWS available since December 2015 with tagging (see docker tag) support from December 2018

## Gitlab Container registry

Gitlab Container registry supports different storage backends such us local mounted filesystem or Microsoft Azure Blob Storage, Google Cloud Storage, AWS S3, OpenStack Swift Object Storage or Aliyun OSS.

## Activities

* Use public docker hub container registry to download and run you first image
* Install GitLab and enable container registry in: /etc/gitlab/gitlab.rb
# DevOps/Consul

Consul, first released in April 2014, providing distributed KV storage, DNS-based service discovery, RPC, and event propagation. Consul runs as a single binary.
# DevOps/Docker/Dockerfile

Dockerfile is a text file where you define instructions used to create your Docker images, check official Dockerfile Reference documentation: https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/
For creating this file with instructions usually called Dockerfile you can use the following keywords:
* ADD
* ARG
* CMD, for executing containers. https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#cmd
* COPY
* ENTRYPOINT: https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#entrypoint
* ENV
* EXPOSE
* FROM
* HEALTHCHECK
* LABEL
* ONBUILD
* RUN: https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#run
* SHELL
* STOPSIGNAL
* USER
* VOLUME
* WORKDIR

## Activities

* Learn differences between RUN and CMD or ENTRYPOINT: https://stackoverflow.com/a/25150809
* Read Understand how CMD and ENTRYPOINT interact https://docs.docker.com/engine/reference/builder/#understand-how-cmd-and-entrypoint-interact
# Exponential series/Real/Definition

For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, the series
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}$
is called the exponential series in $x$.
# Exponential function/R/Taylor series/Exercise

Determine the Taylor series of the der exponential function for an arbitrary point $a\in \mathbb {R}$.
# Exponential function/R/Zero/Linear approximation/Exercise

Determine the linear approximation (including the remainder function $r(x)$) for the exponential function $\exp x$ in the zero point.
# Exponential function/Secants/Intersection point/Exercise

Let
    $f(x)=a^{x}\,$
be an exponential function with $a\neq 1$. For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, the line defined by the two points $(x,f(x))$ and $(x+1,f(x+1))$ has an intersection point with the $x$-axis, which we denote by $s(x)$. Show
    $s(x+1)=s(x)+1\,.$
Sketch the situation.
# Exponential series/K/Estimate for remainder/Exercise

For $N\in \mathbb {N}$ and $z\in \mathbb {C}$ let
    $R_{N+1}(z)=\exp z-\sum _{n=0}^{N}{\frac {z^{n}}{n!}}=\sum _{n=N+1}^{\infty }{\frac {z^{n}}{n!}}\,$
be the remainder of the exponential series. Prove that for
    $\vert {z}\vert \leq 1+{\frac {1}{2}}N\,$
the remainder term estimate
    $\vert {R_{N+1}(z)}\vert \leq {\frac {2}{(N+1)!}}\vert {z}\vert ^{N+1}\,$
holds.
# Exponential series/Real/Absolute convergence/Fact/Proof

For $x=0$, the statement is clear. Else, we consider the fraction
    $\vert {\frac {\frac {x^{n+1}}{(n+1)!}}{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}}\vert =\vert {\frac {x}{n+1}}\vert ={\frac {\vert {x}\vert }{n+1}}\,.$
This is, for $n\geq 2\vert {x}\vert$, smaller than $1/2$. By the ratio test, we get convergence.
# Exponential series/Real/Elementary properties/Fact/Proof

(1) follows directly from the definition. (2) follows from
    $\exp x\cdot \exp {\left(-x\right)}=\exp {\left(x-x\right)}=\exp 0=1\,$
using fact. (3) follows for $n\in \mathbb {N}$ from fact by induction, and from that it follows with the help of (2) also for negative $n$. (4). Nonnegativity follows from
    $\exp x=\exp {\left({\frac {x}{2}}+{\frac {x}{2}}\right)}=\exp {\frac {x}{2}}\cdot \exp {\frac {x}{2}}={\left(\exp {\frac {x}{2}}\right)}^{2}\geq 0\,.$
(5). For real $x$ we have $\exp x\cdot \exp {\left(-x\right)}=1$, so that because of (4), one factor must be $\geq 1$ and the other factor must be $\leq 1$. For $x>0$, we have
    $\exp x=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n!}}x^{n}=1+x+{\frac {1}{2}}x^{2}+\ldots >1\,$
as only positive numbers are added. (6). For real $y>x$, we have $y-x>0$, and therefore, because of (5) $\exp {\left(y-x\right)}>1$, hence
    $\exp y=\exp {\left(y-x+x\right)}=\exp {\left(y-x\right)}\cdot \exp x>\exp x\,.$
# Exponential series/R/Estimate for remainder/Exercise

For $N\in \mathbb {N}$ and $x\in \mathbb {R}$ let
    $R_{N+1}(x)=\exp x-\sum _{n=0}^{N}{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}=\sum _{n=N+1}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}\,$
be the remainder of the exponential series. Prove that for
    $\vert {x}\vert \leq 1+{\frac {1}{2}}N\,$
the remainder term estimate
    $\vert {R_{N+1}(x)}\vert \leq {\frac {2}{(N+1)!}}\vert {x}\vert ^{N+1}\,$
holds.
# Exponential series/Real/Absolute convergence/Fact

For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, the exponential series
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {x^{n}}{n!}}$
# Exponential series/Real/Elementary properties/Fact

The exponential function
    $\mathbb {R} \longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \exp x,$
* $\exp 0=1$.
* For every $x\in \mathbb {R}$, we have $\exp {\left(-x\right)}=(\exp x)^{-1}$. In particular $\exp x\neq 0$.
* For integers $n\in \mathbb {Z}$, the relation $\exp n=(\exp 1)^{n}$ holds.
* For every $x$, we have $\exp x\in \mathbb {R} _{+}$.
* For $x>0$ we have $\exp x>1$, and for $x<0$ we have $\exp x<1$.
* The real exponential function is strictly increasing.
# Financial Accounting/T-accounts
## Required readings

* Debits and credits

## Summary

* As we read in a previous section, for every accounting entry we make, there must be another entry (or series of entries) made to another account. More specifically, debits and credits must be in balance.
* The concept of debits and credits is very important and will be the foundation of your accounting skills. Even accounting professionals still think in terms of debits and credits. These foundation principles are very important to master.
* At this point, we will start using T-accounts to master the debits and credits. In modern accounting systems, T-accounts are no longer used, however, they are very useful in explaining bookkeeping concepts.
* The following diagram will help explain the concept. Remember from our normal balance reading in the 5th session that assets and expenses have a normal debit balance and liabilities, equity and revenues have normal credit balances. It is common convention to put debits on the left, and credits on the right. Let's take a look at these in T-account format:

## Examples

We will go through some examples using the T-accounts to illustrate how these debits and credits work. Keep in mind that accounting software will not use the T-accounts, these are just used for illustrative purposes. These are highly effective, however, to learn your debits and credits.
* Debby starts a bakery. She borrows $4,000 from her father to purchase an oven and some inventory (flour and other ingredients) to start making bread, cupcakes and other baked goods:
* Debby purchases an oven for $3,000 cash and $500 worth of ingredients on credit and leaves $1,000 for incidentals:
* Debby sells bread to a local restaurant on credit for $500. Using her cost accounting skills, she calculates that this bread costs $40 to make. We will move $40 worth of inventory (ingredients) from assets to cost of goods sold since she no longer has these ingredients available to make more bread. They have now become expenses.
* A month goes by. In that month Debby collects $500 from her restaurant customer, pays $500 for her inventory that she had bought on credit and sells $2,000 worth of baked goods with a cost of $150 and receives an electricity bill for $175.

## Problems

* Waiting for contributors

## Solutions

* Waiting for contributors
# Financial Accounting/Terminology
## Introduction

Part of learning a new profession is learning the jargon associated with it. Accounting is not unique in this regard. In this course, and in practice, there are many terms that are used that the listener is expected to know. The following is a list of some of the more common lingo that will get you by with basic bookkeeping and provide a foundation for future accounting concepts. You can always use your favorite search engine to find any definitions we have not covered here.

## Basic Terminology

We will go over some of the basic terms that you will start seeing right away and that you need to be familiar with. As the sessions and courses progress, new terms will be introduced and defined at that time. As we get into intermediate and advanced accounting, some of the terms below can be defined even further (e.g. asset).
* Asset - something that is owned that can be converted into cash (or is cash) or for the purpose of operations. Examples: cash, accounts receivable, land, truck.
* Accounts receivable - represents amounts owing from customers for products delivered or services rendered.
* Liability - represents obligations to others for products delivered, services rendered or monies loaned.
* Accounts payable - represents amounts owing to suppliers for products delivered or services rendered.
* Equity - what is left over after what you owe (liabilities) is subtracted from what you own (assets). Essentially the owner's residual interest in the company.

## Basic Accounting Formula

Assets=Liabilities+Equity
Hint: Foundation to everything in accounting know it backwards forwards and side to side.
Liabilities=Assets-Equity
Assets-Liabilities=Equity
# Financial and Legal Costs/Activities

| Unit 4.8-Financial and Legal Costs | Introduction | Bank Charges | Insurance Premiums | Export Credit Insurance | Legal Fees | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 4.1 | Unit 4.2 | Unit 4.3 | Unit 4.4 | Unit 4.5 | Unit 4.6 | Unit 4.7 | Unit 4.8 | Unit 4.9 Return to Trade Finance Module 4: Payment Methods |

## Activity

Based on the available methods of payment for international transactions, identify the costs associated with each. Using the following scenarios, identify which methods of payment make sense to use and which do not make sense from cost perspective only:

### Scenario A

Order Value - 2,000,000 Profit Margin – 40% Currency - USDollars Your role – Exporter

### Scenario B

Order Value – 15,000 Profit Margin – 60% Currency – Euro Your role - Exporter

### Scenario C

Order Value – 250,000 Profit Margin – 30% Currency – Japanese Yen Your role – Importer

### Scenario D

Order Value – 75,000
Profit Margin – 50% Currency – US Dollars Your role - Importer
# Financial and Legal Costs/Assessment

| Unit 4.8-Financial and Legal Costs | Introduction | Bank Charges | Insurance Premiums | Export Credit Insurance | Legal Fees | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 4.1 | Unit 4.2 | Unit 4.3 | Unit 4.4 | Unit 4.5 | Unit 4.6 | Unit 4.7 | Unit 4.8 | Unit 4.9 Return to Trade Finance Module 4: Payment Methods |
# Financial and Legal Costs

| Unit 4.8-Financial and Legal Costs | Introduction | Bank Charges | Insurance Premiums | Export Credit Insurance | Legal Fees | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 4.1 | Unit 4.2 | Unit 4.3 | Unit 4.4 | Unit 4.5 | Unit 4.6 | Unit 4.7 | Unit 4.8 | Unit 4.9 Return to Trade Finance Module 4: Payment Methods |

## Unit 4.8-Financial and Legal Costs

Since an international manager is often responsible for a departmental budget, he/she must know costs of the operation. Even if an international manager has no budget responsibilities, it is important know what the costs are for related financial and legal support in order to measure successful performance. The key to being successful in this area is to understand what costs may be incurred and what specifics need to be requested from the appropriate service provider. It would impossible to provide specific costs in this context since every situation, company, and country will be different.

### Unit Objective

The goal of this material is to introduce you to the financial and legal costs related to the financial aspects of international business transactions, including the ways each affects the profitability of such a transaction. By the end of this unit you will be able to
* identify applicable financial costs.
* identify applicable legal costs.

### Unit Outline

* Introduction
* Bank Charges
* Insurance Premiums
* Export Credit Insurance
* Legal Fees
* Summary
* Resources
* Activities
* Assessment
Correlation: Materials from this unit correlate with NASBITE CGCP's Knowledge Statement 04/04/08: Knowledge of related financial and legal costs (e.g., bank charges, insurance premiums, legal fees)
# Financial Accounting/Session 3

INTRODUCTION TO DOUBLE-ENTRY BOOKKEEPING

   ## Knowledge Base 1

   After this chapter you should be able to explain your understanding of:
   * the term accounting and its use
   * how various transactions affect the principal items in the accounting equation
   * the history of accounting
   * the relationship between accounting and bookkeeping
   * relationships between the equation and article positions of the balance sheet
   * how to present and explain the accounting equation
   * who the users of accounting are and what information they may be interested in
   * capital, assets, debtors, liabilities and creditors and their differences
THE ACCOUNTING EQUATION AND BALANCE SHEET
In simple terms the accounting equation will help you determine what transactions need to be placed where in the bookkeeping records using the old double entry system. Many people refer to them as “T” accounts, which graphically shows what the “books” look like on paper. As time has progressed, we have devised more inventive and invaluable tools to maintain the accounting systems and bookkeeping records methods. However, no method would be useful without a sound knowledge and understanding of the accounting equation or balance sheets. Accounting has been described as a method of quantifying and communicating economic information to allow informed decisions to be made by its users based on available information. This all amounts to what value of currency units are placed in various columns to balance the monetary transactions of trade and arranging the order of the transactions in such a way that they make sense to decision makers. By the same token, they should represent an honest and true statement of standing as at the time they were recorded. Accounting is not mathematics. Just because you can perform integral calculus, does not mean you are an accountant, and just because you master the Reducing Balance Method does not mean you are a mathematician. Accounting and Maths are two separate disciplines, although being a bit of a mathematician does help in accounting practice too. So long as you can perform the the four primaries of Maths (add, subtract, multiply and divide) without a “Japanese Brain” - a calculator, then you are sure to manage the basics with ease.