OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Buddhism/Geographical Expansion
## Geographical Expansion of Theravada Buddhism

The focus of this module is on the inception and spread of Theravada Buddhism. This is especially so in the countries of South East Asia. The main emphasis on the following aspects:
* The Geographical Expansion of Buddhism in the Pre-Asokan period;
* Buddhism Emergence as a World Religion During the Reign of Emperor Asoka;
* The Spread of Theravada Buddhism in South India and in the Regions of South East Asia (e.g. Myanmar, Thailand);
* Religious Intercourses between Theravada Buddhist Countries; and
* Contemporary Theravada Buddhism.

## Recommended Reading:

* History of Theravada Buddhism in South East Asia - K. L. Hazra
* Thai Buddhism - Kenneth E. Wells
* Buddhism in Myanmar; A Short History - Roger Biscoff, Wheel Publications
* Buddhist India - Rhys Davids

## Coursework

You are invited to do the exercise below. Using Google Map, or any other mapping platform, trace the extend of the Asokan Empire. Notice where the geographic limitations and the terrain (mountains and rivers) and what role they played in the spread of military conquest.
Investigate: what caused Asoka to have a change of heart and embrace Buddhism?
# Buddhism/Introduction
## Introduction to Buddhism

Welcome to the introductory courses. Many of us had heard of Buddha or Buddhism in one way or another. There are quite a lot of misconceptions about Buddhism. It is the intention of this introductory course to guide you through a general understanding of Buddhism.
You may want to be introduced to the subject matter by reading about the Buddha or historic Buddha and how Buddhism started. An overview of the history will be helpful for students attending this course. Another insight is to review the timeline of Buddhism.
The Buddha referred to his teachings simply as Dhamma-vinaya or "the doctrine and discipline". Many people have tried to categorise the teachings in various ways, trying to fit them into prevailing molds of cultural, philosophical and religious thought. Buddhism, arguably, is best viewed as an ethical system or that of a systematic social education. The system provides a guide to a way of life that leads to a very specific goal. In that way, Buddhism possesses some aspects of both religion and philosophy. Buddhism is an education by Buddha. Many masters have indicated that Buddhism neither fall in religion nor philosophical field.
There are many schools in Buddhism, and further divisions and subdivisions of the schools. You may refer to them here. It is important to bear in mind that only a few schools survived today, which will be covered in the Diploma in Buddhism course.
Of interest, it's noted that Buddhism had spawned a whole genre of Buddhist art, especially evolving from aniconic phase where there is a conscious avoiding direct representations of the Buddha. It was around the 1st century AD that Buddhist Art entered an iconic phase or that with direct representations of the Buddha.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is ty^2/Exercise

Determine all the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'=ty^{2},\,y>0,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is y/Exercise

Determine all the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'=y\,,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# Differential equation/Inhomogeneous linear/Separable variables/y' is ty+t/Exercise

Determine the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'=ty+t\,$
by using the approach for
a) inhomogeneous linear equations,
b) separable variables.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is t^3y^3/Exercise

Determine all the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'=t^{3}y^{3},\,y>0,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is exp y/Exercise

Determine all the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'=e^{y}\,,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is ty^2 over t^2-1/Exercise

Find a solution for the ordinary differential equation
    $y'={\frac {t}{t^{2}-1}}y^{2}\,$
with $t>1$ and $y<0$.
# Differential equation/y' is y/Exercise

Find all the solutions for the ordinary differential equation
    $y'=y\,.$
# Differential equations

Differential equations serve as mathematical models of physical processes. This course is intended to be an introduction to ordinary differential equations and their solutions. A differential equation (DE) is an equation relating a function to its derivatives. If the function is of only one variable, we call the equation an ordinary differential equation (ODE). Equations relating the partial derivatives (See: Vector calculus) of a function of several variables are called partial differential equations (PDEs). Ordinary differential equations are much easier to solve than partial differential equations, so these will be our main focus.

## Syllabus

* Introduction to ordinary differential equations.
** Ordinary Differential Equations
** Slope Fields
* First-order equations
** Introduction to First Order Linear Differential Equations
** Separable differential equations 50%
** Exact differential equations 25%
** Homogeneous differential equations 25%
** Integrating factors 25%
** Change of variables 25%
* Higher-order linear equations
** Linear homogeneous differential equations 25%
** Linear inhomogeneous differential equations 25%
** Laplace transforms 25%
** Power series solutions 25%
* Introduction to nonlinear equations
** Stability problems in 1D/
** Stability problems in 2D/
** Approximate solutions to differential equations
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is 1 over sin y/Exercise

Determine all the solutions to the differential equation
    $y'={\frac {1}{\sin y}}\,,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# Differential equation/Separable variables/y' is ty/Exercise

Solve the differential equation
    $y'=ty\,$
using the theorem for differential equations with separable variables.
# COBOL/Strings
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Strings compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* JDoodle
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* TutorialsPoint: COBOL
* GnuCOBOL Manual
# COBOL/Building and Running a Native IDE

If you wish to use an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that runs on your computer rather than the simpler but more limited web-based systems follow the instructions given here. Although this is more difficult than using the web-based system, it is more flexible, more extensive, and better represents production systems.
Source code must be compiled before it can be run. Several COBOL compilers are available; this course will use GnuCOBOL in the examples.

## Assignment

Download and install the GnuCOBOL system and use it to compile and execute the Hello World program by following these steps.
* Download GnuCOBOL from: https://sourceforge.net/projects/open-cobol/
** For Windows 10, it may be easiest to use the link at: https://launchpad.net/cobcide/4.0/4.7.6/+download/OpenCobolIDE-4.7.6_Setup.exe
* Install OpenCobolIDE and run it.
* Cut and paste the Hello World source code into the editor window. (The editor window may already contain a similar program. You can use that, adapt that, or overwrite it.)
* Save the program (File / Save As) to your computer as file type .cbl
* Ensure the file name does not include any spaces. For example it is acceptable to name the program HelloWorld.cbl or Hello_World.cbl but Hello World.cbl will not work. This is essential because the system treats spaces in the program name as representing a new parameter.
* Ensure the “Executable” option is selected under the hammer symbol in the toolbar.
* Use the Circular arrows symbol to build the executable. Note the “compiler” tab in the logs section of the IDE should indicate the build is up-to-date. The issues tab should not be identifying any problems.
* Use the green arrow symbol to run (execute) the program. Inspect the Output tab in the Logs section. It should contain the “Hello world” string; the intended output of the program.
* Note that this IDE is column-sensitive. Read and follow the column significance information. This often requires adding six or seven spaces to the start of each program line before it can be complied in this environment.
# COMT

Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) is an enzyme that degrades catecholamines such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
* Norepinephrine degradation. Catechol-O-methyltransferase is shown in green boxes.
* Specific reactions catalyzed by COMT include:
* Dopamine → 3-Methoxytyramine
* DOPAC → HVA (homovanillic acid)
* Norepinephrine → Normetanephrine
* Epinephrine → Metanephrine
* Dihydroxyphenylethylene glycol (DOPEG) → Methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol (MOPEG)
* 3,4-Dihydroxymandelic acid (DOMA) → Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA)
* Dopamine degradation.
* The COMT gene is located on human chromosome 22
* where it codes for multiple proteins including a membrane-bound form (MB-COMT) and a soluble form (S-COMT) which are expressed in the brain. These proteins are involved in the termination of dopaminergic neurons in the prefrontal cortex.

## The Val108/158Met polymorphism

In addition to coding for multiple isoforms, the COMT gene itself is also polymorphic. There is a common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) located on codon 108 of the soluble form and codon 158 of the membrane bound form (Val108/158Met). This polymorphism results in the substitution of Valine (Val) for Methionine (Met). Individuals who are homozygous for the Met allele exhibit preserved levels of dopamine compared to individuals who are homozygous for the Val allele.
Associations have been reported between the Val108/158Met polymorphism and performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) in healthy adults. Individuals who have more copies of the Met allele make fewer preservative errors on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test but are more likely to suffer from borderline personality disorder. 9% of Kenyans, 31% of Caucasians and 27% of South-west Asians are homozygous for the Met allele.
# COPD Examination
## Before you start some definitions

Emphysema - dilation and destruction of air spaces distal to bronchioles
Chronic bronchitis - airway narrowing and mucous production
* chronic cough
And now a stepwise approach to the OSCE examination
1. Knock on the door, walk in and introduce yourself. Wash hands and make sure the patient is comfortable then begin the examination.

## General

* ABCs
** as a general rule, if the patient can talk to you their airway and breathing are okay
* LOC
* Pulse rate
* Respiratory rate, rhythm and depth
* Effort of breathing
** Use of accessory muscles - sternocleido mastoid, pec minor
*** arms braced on knees or table
** speaking in full sentences
** Pursing of lips
** Nasal flaring
** Paradoxical abdominal breathing
** Sweating
** Tracheal tug

## Inspection

* Look for cyanosis
** Central - look at lips, oral mucosa and tongue
** Peripheral - nails, hands and feet
* Look at fingers for cigarette tar stains
* Shape of chest
** Chest wall deformities or trauma
** Asymmetries of shape or movement
** Barrel chest has increased AP diameter - common in COPD
* Look for intercostal, subcostal and supraclavicular indrawing

## Palpation

* Feel for tracheal position and presence of a downward tug
* Feel for range and symmetry of movement on inspiration - decreased range with hyperinflated lungs of COPD
* Feel for tactile fremitus - decreased in COPD

## Percussion

* Percuss anterior and posterior, comparing left to right - hyperresonance with COPD
* Estimate diaphragmatic excursion by noting the difference in the level of dullness on percussion with inspiration and expiration - normal is 5-6cm, but is decreased with hyperinflated lungs of COPD

## Auscultation

* listen to each of the five lung lobes and compare findings between sides
** Air entry - decreased in COPD
** Adventitious sounds
*** wheezes, crackles, other
*** generalized versus localized
*** loud vs soft

## Differences between emphysema and chronic bronchitis on exam
### Inspection

* emphysema: pink puffer (SOB and tachypnea), hyperinflation, SOBOE, respiratory distress
* chronic bronchitis: blue bloater, cyanotic, peripheral edema (RVF), mild SOB post cough

### Percussion

* emphysema: hyperresonant, decreased diaphragmatic excursion
* chronic bronchitis: normal

### Auscultation

* emphysema: decreased breath sounds, no egophony
* chronic bronchitis: crackles and wheezes

## CXR

* hyperinflated lungs with flattened diaphragms
* retrosternal airspace
* heart shadow long and narrow or enlarged if RVF/cor pulmonale
* may see bullae with emphysema

## ABGs

* both have decreased PaO2 and increased PaCO2 (retainers) (low pH) but chronic bronchitis is worse than emphysema.

## CBC

* Hct normal in emphysema, increased in Chronic bronchitis

## PFTs

* Emphysema
** TLC increased (barrel chest)
** RV increased
** VC decreased
** FEV1 < 50%
** DLCO decreased (because alveoli destroyed)
* Chronic bronchitis
** TLC normal
** RV slightly increased
** VC slightly decreased
** FEV1 < 50%
** DLCO slightly decreased or normal
* cor pulmonale if FEV1 < 25%
# Collaborative play writing/A Yorkshire Tragedy/Act 5

Act 1. Scene 1. A room in Spruce's house
Enter Oliver and Spruce
# Collaborative play writing/Aglaura

Aglaura
Dramatic characters (14)
The duke
Aglaura, mistress to the duke
Orbella, wife to the duke
Arnaud, older brother to the duke
Paul, younger brother to the duke
Thomas, son to the duke
Ziriff, brother to Aglaura
Jacques, courtier
Jacqueline, sister to Jacques
Sementhe, lover of Jacques
Lenu, servant to Ziriff
Leveller, rebel knight
Disgruntled, rebel knight
Chafing, rebel knight
The duke's guardsmen
Time: 17th century
Place: France
Act_1
Act_2
Act_3
Act_4
Act_5
# Collaborative play writing/A Yorkshire Tragedy/Act 4

Act 4. Scene 1. The duke's palace
Enter Master Clutch and a page
# Collaborative play writing/Cardenio

The following text is based on Double Falsehood (1727) by Lewis Theobald, an adaptation of the lost "The History of Cardenio" by John Fletcher and William Shakespeare (1613). Only a small part of the original version of the play, perhaps 1%, sounded like either of the 17th century authors. The purpose of the project is to make it more Shakespeare-like, or at least more Fletcher-like. At the present moment, the entire play has been redone and sounds much more like an 17th century work. The names of most of the characters have been changed back to the original version of the story, namely the Cardenio episodes (chapters 24, 27, 28, 29, and 36) in Miguel de Cervantes' "Don Quixote" (1605 and 1615).
Cardenio
Dramatic characters (14)
Cardenio
Luscinda
The duke of Osuna
Fernando, his elder son
Rodrigo, his younger son
Violante
Bernardo, father to Luscinda
Camillo, father to Cardenio
Fabian, Camillo's brother
Giraldo, servant to Fernando
Ancianida, duenna to Violante and then Luscinda
Master of the goats
A goatherd
Laurencia, an abbess
Servants
SCENE. The province of Andalusia in Spain
TIME: Early 17th century
Act_1
Act_2
Act_3
Act_4
Act_5
# Collaborative play writing/A Yorkshire Tragedy/Act 3

Act 3. Scene 1. The duke's palace
Enter the duke and Master Clutch
# English-Chinese/In the alphabet, "B" is after "A"

In the alphabet, "B" is after "A".
在 字母表 中，“B” 在 “A” 之后。
# English-Chinese/In the short term, it is a good idea to clean the mouth with salt. But in the long term, too much salt intake can be harmful

In the short term, it is a good idea to clean the mouth with salt. But in the long term, too much salt intake can be harmful.
在短期内，用盐清洁口腔是个好主意。 但从长远来看，过多的盐摄入可能是有害的。
# English-Chinese/In those at higher risk the evidence for screening with ECGs is inconclusive

In those at higher risk the evidence for screening with ECGs is inconclusive.
在风险较高的人群中，心电图筛查的证据尚无定论。
# English-Chinese/In preliminary research, beetroot juice reduced blood pressure in hypertensive people

In preliminary research, beetroot juice reduced blood pressure in hypertensive people.
在初步研究中，甜菜根汁降低了高血压患者的血压。
# English-Chinese/In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer

In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer.
在一些文化中，母乳喂养儿童通常需要三到五年，而这段时间可能更长。
# English-Chinese/In spite of objections

In spite of objections, the committee granted approval for the project.
尽管有异议，但委员会批准了该项目。
# English-Chinese/In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption

In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption.
在安静的醒着中，大脑负责身体能量消耗的20％，因此这种减少对整体能量消耗有显著影响。
# English-Chinese/In some schools, A is a very high grade

In some schools, A is a very high grade.
在一些学校，A是很高的成绩。
# English-Chinese/In the binary system, 0 or 1 is called a bit

In the binary system, 0 or 1 is called a bit.
在 二进制 系统 中，0 或 1 称为 数位。
# English-Chinese/In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization

In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization.
在 一些 物种中，无籽 是 单性结实的 结果，其中 果实 没有 受精。
# Elements of Chemistry
## The Elements of Chemistry

Elements are substances of one atom. (e.g. - silver, helium) Compounds are substances of more than one atom. (e.g. - water, methane) The periodic table is a table with all the known elements. There are metals, gases, and metalloids.
These elements are divided into groups. Here are the groups:
* Noble Gases
* Alkali Metals
* Alkaline Earth Metals
* Transition Metals
* Group 4
* Group 5
* Group 6
* Halogens
* Lanthanoids
* Actinoids
Here is a list of the elements:

## A

* Actinium (Ac)
* Aluminum (Al)
* Americum (Am)
* Antimony (Sb)
* Argon (Ar)
* Arsenic (As)
* Astatine (At)

## B

* Barium (Ba)
* Beryllium (Be)
* Bismuth (Bi)
* Bohrium (Bh)
* Boron (B)
* Bromine (Br)

## C

* Cadmium (Cd)
* Caesium (Cs)
* Calcium (Ca)
* Californium (Cf)
* Carbon (C)
* Cerium (Ce)
* Chlorine (Cl)
* Chromium (Cr)
* Cobalt (Co)
* Copper (Cu)
* Curium (Cm)

### D

* Darmstadtium (Ds)
* Dubnium (Db)
* Dysprosium (Dy)
# Elements of terminology/Quiz

Elements of terminology is a course, an outgrowth of the dominant group original research project. It is also a lecture about the elements of terminology.
Try this quiz to see if your native knowledge is already top-of-the-line or better. You are free to take this quiz at any time and as many times as you wish.
It is part of Wikiversity's dedication to learning by doing.
To improve your scores, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under See also, External links, and in the terminology resources template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.
As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.
Suggestion: Have the lecture available in a separate window.
To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.
Enjoy learning by doing!

## Hypotheses

* Terminology elements are commonplace.
# Elementary matrices/Multiplication from right/Action/Exercise

Describe what happens when a matrix is multiplied from the right by an elementary matrix.
# Elementary matrices/Introduction/Section
## Definition

Let $K$ be a field and let $M$ be a $m\times n$-matrix over $K$. Then the following manipulations on $M$ are called elementary row operations.
* Transpositions of two rows.
* Multiplication of a row with a scalar $s\neq 0$.
* Addition of $a$ times a row to another row.

## Definition

Let $K$ be a field. We denote by $B_{ij}$ the $n\times n$-matrix, with entry $1$ at the position $(i,j)$ and entry $0$ everywhere else. Then the following matrices are called elementary matrices.
* $V_{ij}:=E_{n}-B_{ii}-B_{jj}+B_{ij}+B_{ji}$.
* $S_{k}(s):=E_{n}+(s-1)B_{kk}{\text{ for }}s\neq 0$
* $A_{ij}(a):=E_{n}+aB_{ij}{\text{ for }}i\neq j{\text{ and }}a\in K$
In detail, these elementary matrices look as follows.
    $V_{ij}={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0\\\vdots &\ddots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &0&\cdots &1&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\cdots &\cdots &1&\cdots &\cdots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &1&\cdots &0&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0&1\end{pmatrix}}\,.$
    $S_{k}(s)={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0\\\vdots &\ddots &\ddots &\vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &1&0&\cdots &\cdots &0\\0&\cdots &0&s&0&\cdots &0\\0&\cdots &\cdots &0&1&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0&1\end{pmatrix}}\,.$
    $A_{ij}(a)={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0\\\vdots &\ddots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &1&\cdots &a&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\cdots &\cdots &\ddots &\cdots &\cdots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &1&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &\cdots &0&1\end{pmatrix}}\,.$
Elementary matrices are invertible, see exercise.

## Lemma

Let $K$ be a field and $M$ a $n\times n$-matrix with entries in $K$. Then the multiplication by elementary matrices from the left with $M$ has the following effects.
* $V_{ij}\circ M=$ exchange of the $i$-th and the $j$-th row of $M$.
* $(S_{k}(s))\circ M=$ multiplication of the $k$-th row of $M$ by $s$.
* $(A_{ij}(a))\circ M=$ addition of $a$-times the $j$-th row of $M$ to the $i$-th row ($i\neq j$).

### Proof

$\Box$
Elementary row operations do not change the solution space of a homogeneous linear system, as shown in fact.
# Elementary matrices/Invertible/Explicit/Exercise

Prove that the elementary matrices are invertible. What are the inverse matrices of the elementary matrices?
# Elementary row operations/Column rank constant/Exercise

Show that the elementary operations on the rows do not change the column rank.
# English-Chinese/Watercress fertilized with human feces can breed parasites such as liver flukes

Watercress fertilized with human feces can breed parasites such as liver flukes.
用人类粪便施肥的西洋菜会滋生寄生虫如肝吸虫。
# English-Chinese/Watercress is rich in vitamin K, vitamin A, vitamin C, riboflavin, vitamin B6, calcium, and manganese

Watercress is rich in vitamin K, vitamin A, vitamin C, riboflavin, vitamin B6, calcium, and manganese.
西洋菜富含维生素K，维生素A，维生素C，核黄素，维生素B6，钙和锰。
# English-Chinese/We're here just about every week

We're here just about every week.
我们几乎每周都在这里。
# English-Chinese/We breathe air to live

We breathe air to live.
我们呼吸空气来生存。
# English-Chinese/Ways of cooking chicken

Chicken can be prepared in a vast range of ways, including baking, grilling, barbecuing, frying, and boiling, among many others, depending on its purpose.
根据其目的，鸡肉可以通过多种方式制备，包括烘焙，烧烤，BBQ，煎炸和水煮等。
# English-Chinese/We are going home at 5pm

We are going home at 5pm.
我们下午5点回家。
# English-Chinese/We have an agreement with the teacher

We have an agreement with the teacher. If we have to do homework, we can go home early.
我们与老师达成了协议。 如果我们要做作业，我们可以早点回家。
# English-Chinese/We have over two hundred men

We have over two hundred men, but not all of them had the problem.
我们有两百多人，但并非所有人都有这个问题。
# English-Chinese/Watercress is a rapidly growing, aquatic or semi-aquatic, perennial plant native to Europe and Asia, and one of the oldest known leaf vegetables consumed by humans

Watercress is a rapidly growing, aquatic or semi-aquatic, perennial plant native to Europe and Asia, and one of the oldest known leaf vegetables consumed by humans.
西洋菜是一种快速生长的水生或半水生多年生植物，原产于欧洲和亚洲，是人类消费的最古老的叶子蔬菜之一。