OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Selected topics in finite mathematics/Condorcet criterion

vteModule 1: Graphs and Optimization :
vteModule 2: Logic, Arguments, and Voting :
vteModule 3: Mathematics in money and ?? :
[Give a very very brief overview of the criteria?]

## Objectives

To satisfy the Condorcet criterion, a candidate that is favored to beat ever other candidate in a pairwise race wins. Therefore, if a candidate can defeat every other candidate, then they should win.

## Details

[State the definition of the criteria?]
[Rephrase the criteria into if-then form?]
[Give a prose-explanation of the criteria?]

## Examples

The Condorcet method satisfies the Condorcet criteria. Indeed, this is its namesake: if a candidate wins all pairwise races, that candidate wins by the Condorcet method.
Sequential pariwise elections also satisfies the Condorcet criterion. In particular, suppose A wins in all pairwise races. Then as soon as A comes up in the agenda, A will win every [pairwise] race until declared the winner.

## Nonexamples

Plurality fails to satisfy the Condorcet criterion. Consider the following election. A wins in all pairwise elections, but instead B wins by plurality.
| 1st choice | A | B | C |
| 2nd choice | B | A | A |
| 3rd choice | C | C | B |
| Number of votes | 2 | 3 | 2 |
Borda count fails to satisfy the Condorcet criterion. Consider the following election. One on one A wins all pairwise races. However, in this election as it is, B wins.
| 1st choice | B | E | D |
| 2nd choice | C | A | A |
| 3rd choice | F | B | B |
| 4th choice | A | C | E |
| 5th choice | E | D | C |
| 6th choice | D | F | F |
| Number of votes | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Sequential runoffs fail to satisfy the Condorcet Criterion. Consider the following election. Indeed one on one A could defeat either candidate. But in the election as a whole, A is eliminated first.
| 1st choice | A | B | C |
| 2nd choice | B | A | A |
| 3rd choice | C | C | B |
| Number of votes | 2 | 3 | 3 |

## Homework

[Create two elections: one which satisfies the criteria and one which does not?]
[You can add the solution to the problem here!]
[You can add the solution to the problem here!]
# Selected topics in finite mathematics/Construction

This page is meant to keep a list of everything in the course that currently needs attention. If you see something that needs attention but can't do it right now, list it here. If you're looking for ideas to work on, try browsing this list.
* Add Content
** Create Learning Objectives
** Describe the topic
** Make an example
** Find relevant pictures/graphs
* Proofread and make corrections
* Add wikilinks
Below is a template for a making a table on Wikiversity. You can use this for creating example elections. For more information on tables, see Wikipedia:Help:Table.
The table's caption :
| Column heading 1 | Column heading 2 | Column heading 3 |
| Row heading 1 | Cell 2 | Cell 3 |
| Row heading A | Cell B | Cell C |
| 1st choice | 1a | 2b | 1c |
| 2nd choice | 2a | 2b | 2c |
| 3rd choice | 3a | 3b | 3c |
| Number of votes | 10 | 5 | 8 |
# Selected topics in finite mathematics/Approval voting

vteModule 1: Graphs and Optimization :
vteModule 2: Logic, Arguments, and Voting :
vteModule 3: Mathematics in money and ?? :
[Give a very very brief overview?]

## Objectives

The goal here is to determine the winner in an individual election based upon who has the most votes.

## Details

Approval voting is a voting scheme where each voter marks whether or not they approve of each candidate, instead of ranking the candidates. The candidate that has the highest approval is declared the winner.
[Give a prose-explanation approval voting?]

## Examples

100 people have approval of three candidates as shown below. An "X" means they approve. Who will be elected?
| Candidate 1 | X | | X | X |
| Candidate 2 | | X | X | X |
| Candidate 3 | X | X | X | |
| Number of Ballots | 40 | 25 | 20 | 15 |
Candidate 1: 75
Candidate 2: 60
Candidate 3: 85
The majority of the 100 people are satisfied with Candidate 3. Because candidate 3 has the highest approval, they are the winner.

## Nonexamples

[Give some non-examples of approval voting?]

## Homework

* Suppose three candidates are in an election. 70% of the population would be satisfied with candidate A, while 60% would be satisfied with candidate B, and 50% would be satisfied with candidate C. Using approval voting, which candidate would win?
* Solution
* [You can add the solution to the problem here!]
* Compare approval voting to plurality. What advantages does approval voting have? What disadvantages does approval voting have?
* Solution
* [You can add the solution to the problem here!]
| A | X | | X |
| B | X | X | |
| C | | X | X |
| D | X | | X |
| Number of votes | 4 | 3 | 3 |
* Consider the approval table above. Who wins, under approval voting?
* Solution
* [You can add the solution to the problem here!]
# Selected topics in finite mathematics/Bin Packing

vteModule 1: Graphs and Optimization :
vteModule 2: Logic, Arguments, and Voting :
vteModule 3: Mathematics in money and ?? :
Bin packing in this course refers to the following problem: given a list of weights and bins all with the same capacity, how many bins are needed to pack all of the objects into the bins?

## Objectives

* Learn techniques to solve the bin-packing problem: place all of the objects in bins and use the least number of bins.

## Details

Bin Packing refers to finding the minimum number of bins required to place a sequence of objects. Each bin will be the same size, but the objects placed in them can vary in size. Commonly the of the objects is referred to as weight. Two algorithms that attempt to answer this question are:
First-Fit - packing bins by placing an object from a sequence into the first bin it will fit into
First-Fit Decreasing - reorganizing the sequence of objects (from largest to smallest), and then placing each object in the first bin it will fit into
Note that these algorithms may not use the fewest number of bins, that is, they're examples of heuristic algorithms.

## Examples

Suppose that objects of the following weights must be placed into bins that can hold 50 units: 10, 12, 14, 15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 25, 25, 30, 35, 45. Then one valid packing is:
Bin 1: 10, 12, 14
Bin 2: 15, 15
Bin 3: 15, 20
Bin 4: 25, 25
Bin 5: 30
Bin 6: 35
Bin 7: 45

## Homework

* Using the First-Fit algorithm, pack the following weights into bins of size 100: 20, 30, 40, 20, 50, 60, 40, 30, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 60, 70, 60.
* Using the First-Fit Decreasing algorithm, pack the following weights into bins of size 100: 20, 30, 40, 20, 50, 60, 40, 30, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 60, 70, 60.
* Is the First-Fit algorithm guaranteed to use as few bins as possible? Why or why not?
* Is the First-Fit Decreasing algorithm guaranteed to use as few bins as possible? Why or why not?

## Homework Solutions

3. It is not guaranteed to use the minimal amount of bins because although some items would fit better in specific boxes, and more items later on in the sequence may be able to fit, in first fit, it is imperative that you use the first fitting item in the sequence and do not go over the given set-point.
# Selected topics in finite mathematics/Eulerian cycles

An Eulerian Cycle is a cycle in a graph which contains every edge.
vteModule 1: Graphs and Optimization :
vteModule 2: Logic, Arguments, and Voting :
vteModule 3: Mathematics in money and ?? :

## Objectives

Use every edge exactly once.

## Details

A graph is connected if there is a path between any two vertices. If in a graph every vertex has an even number of edges incident upon it, the graph will have a Eulerian cycle.
A graph has an Eulerian Cycle if and only if all vertices have even numbers of edges. If a graph can't make an Eulerian Cycle, the process to make it a Eulerian Cycle is called Eulerizing.
A eulerian cycle is especially useful when trying to optimize paths and routes. For example, these cycles would be used when designing routes for trash collection, checking parking meters etc. Using a Eulerian cycle would allow one to save time by only walking down each street or pathway one time.

## Examples

* The graph given in figure E1 is an Eulerian graph. Its edges are labelled with an Eulerian Cycle: A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J-K

## Nonexamples

* In figure E1, A-B-C-I-H-K is not an Eulerian cycle because it misses an edge (several, in fact).

## FAQ

Q: How do you know where to place new edges when you are trying to Eulerize an graph?
A: Add edges to all the vertices with odd degree, until every vertex has even degree. There are multiple ways to Eulerize a graph, some will be more efficient than others.

## Homework

* Find an Eulerian cycle in the graph given in figure H1.
# Psycholinguistics/Components of Speech/Learning Exercise Answer Key
### Answer Key
#### Part 1

1. a) A minimal pair occurs if words differ on only one contrastive unit. b) Allophone are variations of the same phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word.
2. Catch - Cash
* These two words are a minimal pair and differ only the presence of the t​͡ʃ​ in 'catch' vs. ʂ in 'cash'
3. Persist - Missed
* These two words are neither a minimal pair or an example of an allophone.
4. Liege – Lease
* These two words are a minimal pair and differ only /s/and /ʒ/. However the pronouciation of ‘liege’ can also be said as /lidʒ/ in which case this would not be an example of a minimal pair or an allophone.
5. Messed – Confessed
* These two words are neither a minimal pair or an example of an allophone.
6. ‘p’ – punctuate/compromised
* These two forms are allophones in English. The ‘p’ in ‘puntuate’ is aspirated and the ‘p’ in ‘compromised’ is not, however this does not create a meaningful contrast in English and they are therefore allophones.
7. Soot - Suit
* These two words are a minimal pair and differ only on the phonemes /ʊ/ and /u/.
8. /l/ – let/tell
* These two forms are allophones in English. The /l/’ in ‘let’ is considered to be a clear /l/ and the /l/ in ‘tell’ is considered a velarised /l/, however these do not create meaningful contrast in English and are therefore allophones.
9. Match - Attach
* These two words are neither a minimal pair or an example of an allophone.
10. Beige - Bays
* These two words are a minimal pair and differ only /ʒ/ and /z/.

#### Part 2 - ASL

1.
| Distinctive Features | ASL Term |
| hand configuration | Designator (Dez) |
| place or location of sign | Tabula (Tab) |
| direction of movement of the sign | Signation (Sig) |
| orientaion | |
2.
| | ASL sign for 'boy' | ASL sign for 'woman' | ASL sign for 'man' |
| Location | forehead | chin/chest | forehead/chest |
| Movement | touch | down | down |
| Palm Orientation | down | to the side | down |
a) None of the above examples are an example of a minimal pair.
3. Home – Yesterday
* These two signs are a minimal pair that differ only on the hand configuration.
4. Soon – Train
* These two signs are a minimal pair that differ only on hand configuration.
5. ASL signs Know – Think
* These two signs are a minimal pair that differ only on hand configuration.
For more American Sign Language (ASL) resources check out Lifeprint.com. All images belong to Lifeprint.com.
# Social Enterprise

The concept of a Social Enterprise has several contradictory defintions
* As defined by the British treasury: A social enterprise is a business with primarily social objectives whose surpluses are principally reinvested for that purpose in the business or in the community, rather than being driven by the need to maximise profit for shareholders and owners.
* As defined by Emes using fuzzy categories:
Economic criteria:
   * continuous activity of the production and/or sale of goods and services (rather than predominantly advisory or grant-giving functions).
   * a high level of autonomy: social enterprises are created voluntarily by groups of citizens and are managed by them, and not directly or indirectly by public authorities or private companies, even if they may benefit from grants and donations. Their shareholders have the right to participate ('voice') and to leave the organisation ('exit').
   * a significant economic risk: the financial viability of social enterprises depends on the efforts of their members, who have the responsibility of ensuring adequate financial resources, unlike most public institutions.
   * social enterprises' activities require a minimum number of paid workers, although, like traditional non-profit organisations, social enterprises may combine financial and non-financial resources, voluntary and paid work.
Social criteria:
   * an explicit aim of community benefit: one of the principal aims of social enterprises is to serve the community or a specific group of people. To the same end, they also promote a sense of social responsibility at local level.
   * citizen initiative: social enterprises are the result of collective dynamics involving people belonging to a community or to a group that shares a certain need or aim. They must maintain this dimension in one form or another.
   * decision making not based on capital ownership: this generally means the principle of 'one member, one vote', or at least a voting power not based on capital shares. Although capital owners in social enterprises play an important role, decision-making rights are shared with other shareholders.
   * participatory character, involving those affected by the activity: the users of social enterprises' services are represented and participate in their structures. In many cases one of the objectives is to strengthen democracy at local level through economic activity.
   * limited distribution of profit: social enterprises include organisations that totally prohibit profit distribution as well as organisations such as co-operatives, which may distribute their profit only to a limited degree, thus avoiding profit maximising behaviour.
# Social Media/Editing a Mediawiki

   * Wikimedia Foundation
   * Wikispaces and PB Wiki
   * Examples of large public wiki projects
   * Wiki Cheat Sheet
   * Create a User page
   * Wikipedia policies and etiquette
   * Create a User page
   * Start your assignment
# Snapshot journal/teaching and learning research
## Snapshot research project

This page will document the research conducting around Snapshot, focusing on teaching and learning practice. Keywords:
* e-assessment
* authentic assessment
* student engagement
* student retention
# Soccer/Skills
## Nutmeg

Nutmeg is the style of kicking the ball, dribbling the ball, or even shooting the ball (at times) through someone's leg. It's a popular skill in which is used a lot. In order to perform a successful nutmeg, you need to pay attention to the opponent's legs. Then as soon as the opponent's legs spread out, quickly tap, kick, or shoot the ball through the opponent's legs. Many famous soccer players, such as Ronaldinho, Cristiano Ronaldo, and Messi use this type of skill, and the skill is commonly used in matches.

## Bicycle Kick

The art of doing a 360 degree circle, the goal is to kick the ball upwards. This type of kick is used by many famous soccer players, such as Cristiano Ronaldo and Diego Costa. It is advised that experienced players who knows how to do this and have done it before do it in the playing field. If an inexperienced player who does not know how to do this does it on the field, he'll fail, and thus result in serious injuries, or even in rare cases: death. That is why it is advised for players to only do it if they know how to do it and have done it before to do it on the field. You'd like to do this trick? It is advised to have a good partner/someone who knows how to do this help you while you do this. Make sure if you "Fail", you'll land on something easy/soft, such as a bed, mattress, or carpet.
# Social Media/An anthropological introduction to YouTube

* Michael Wesch, An anthropological introduction to Youtube - Video 56min. July 2008
* Tracky Birthday and My Tube Lickr
* Memes
* Youtube stars
* Youtube's business model
* Why people leave Youtube
# Social Media/Bookmarking and tagging

* Jon Udell: Heavy Metal Umlaut
* Looking at Delicious
* Set up a Delicious account
* Save and share bookmarks
# Sanskrit Language
## Courses

2 years with each level as quarter 3 years with each level as semester

### First Level

* Introduction to Sanskrit
** Sanskrit as an embodiment of Reality
** Introduction to Devanagari
*** The calligraphy
*** About pronunciation
*** Vowels
*** Consonants
*** Compound consonants
*** Romanized Sanskrit
**** Capitalization vs. doubling
** Examples from sacred texts
* Sanskrit grammar
** Declination of verbs
** Case of nouns
** Combining rules: Sandhi
* Sanskrit Grammar: Sutras of Panini
* Pandits and tradition
** The teacher/pupll relationship
** Maintaining accuracy through the centuries
** The six vedangas
* Readings from sacred texts
** Bhagavad Gita
** Rig Veda: Mandalas 1, 9, and 10
** Upanishads
# Same-sex marriage

Same-sex marriage (also known as gay marriage) is marriage between two people of the same biological sex and/or gender identity. Legal recognition of same-sex marriage or the possibility to perform a same-sex marriage is sometimes referred to as marriage equality or equal marriage, particularly by supporters. The legalization of same-sex marriage is characterized as "redefining marriage" by many opponents.

## Views
### Views against same-sex marriage

* Same-sex marriage is not natural, as to what most people who are anti-gay give the reason.
* Most reasons is that they do not have a baby, when a man and a women have sex, the women usually becomes pregnant, and gives birth naturally (usually). Here, if a man and a man (especially) or a women and a women get married, they cannot give birth to a baby, but some solutions to this problem is to adopt a baby, which everyone gives a reason too.
* Marriage has been defined as between a man and a woman for millennia.
* Marriage goes against certain religious beliefs.

### Views in favor of same-sex marriage

* Same-sex relationships are prevalent in many species and therefore same-sex marriage is not unnatural.
* People can marry whomever they want, its not usually fair for other people to not let themselves marry to whomever they want to.
* Procreating is not a requirement for marrying someone (especially since infertile different sex couples can marry) and therefore same-sex couples should be able to marry even if they cannot reproduce with each other.
* If interracial couples being denied the right to get married because of their respective races is considered discrimination, then same-sex couples being denied the right to get married because of their respective genders should be considered discrimination as well.
* Not all marriages are religious in nature, and some religions actually accept same-sex marriage, so same-sex couples should be allowed to get married.
* Marriage is a human right and there is no valid reason to exclude same-sex couples from it.
# Sampling (statistics)/Example/Shere Hite - American sexology

Shere Hite conducted a famous survey of American male-female relations in the early 1980's.
* Shere Hite ‘doyenne of sex polls’
* Media furors & worldwide attention
* 127-item questionnaire about marriage & relations between sexes
* Sample: 4500 USA women, 14 to 85 years
* Conclusion: Society and men need to change to improve lives of women
Some of Hite’s findings about American women
* Only 13% married for 2+years were still in love
* 70% married for 5+ years were having affairs...usually more for 'emotional closeness’ than sex
* 76% of these women did not feel guilty
* 87% had a closer female friend than husband
* 98% wanted “basic changes” to love relationships
* 84% were emotionally unsatisfied
* 95% reported emotional & psychological harassment from their men
Some of the critical comments "She goes in with prejudice & comes out with a statistic."
* "The survey often seems merely to provide an occasion for the author’s own male-bashing diatribes."
* "Hite uses statistics to bolster her opinion that American women are justifiably fed up with American men."
Hite's response rate & selection bias
* 100,000 questionnaires were sent to a variety of women’s groups (feminist organisations, church groups, garden clubs etc.)
* 4,500 replied (4.5% return rate)
* “We get pretty nervous if respondents in our survey go under 70%. Respondents to surveys differ from nonrespondents in one important way: they go to the trouble of filling out what in this case was a very long, complicated, and personal questionnaire.” - Regina Herzog, University of Michigan Institute for Social Research
Lessons from Hite's male-female relations survey
* Sample size – it's not how big, it's how representative
* Objectivity – watch out for manipulating the survey questions and results interpretation to suit your personal conjectures
# Sandbox Server/Jan Luca

User:Jan Luca:
I want to host on the Sandbox-Server source-files(Open-Office-Draw etc.) and wanted to use for development my skript I hosted on the Toolserver. I can also help to expand the server with installing new software or make advertising in other Wikiversitys. Jan Luca 19:09, 15 February 2009 (UTC)
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Exponential series/R/Estimate for remainder/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 12.29
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Exponential series/Real/Elementary properties/Fact/Factreferencenumber

Corollary 12.9
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Exponential series/Real/Functional equation/Fact/Factreferencenumber

Theorem 12.8
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Field/Binomi/Fact/Factreferencenumber

Theorem 4.11
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Field/General distributivity law/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 4.22
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Field/Uniqueness of inverse element/Fact/Proof/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 4.3
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Flat function/Polynomial in 1 over x times exp -1 over x/Limit for x to 0/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 17.17
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Field/Basic properties/Fact/Factreferencenumber

Lemma 5.5
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Field/Basic properties/Rules for sign/Fact/Proof/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 4.4
# Mathematics for Applied Sciences (Osnabrück 2023-2024)/Flat function/Polynomial in 1 over x times exp -1 over x/Derivative/Exercise/Exercisereferencenumber

Exercise 17.16