OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Publication bias

Educational level: this is a tertiary (university) resource.
Completion status: this resource is ~25% complete.
Publication bias arises from the tendency for researchers, editors, and companies to handle the reporting of experimental results that are positive (i.e., they show a significant finding) differently from results that are negative (i.e. supported the null hypothesis) or inconclusive.
This page provides an undergraduate-level introduction to the problem of publication bias. :

## Two counter-acting biases

* Low Power: under-estimation of real effects
* Publication Bias or File-drawer effect: over-estimation of real effects

## What is publication bias?

* Publication of results depends on their nature and direction.
* Studies that show significant effects are more likely to be published.
* Type I publication errors are underestimated to the extent that they are: “frightening, even calling into question the scientific basis for much published literature.” (Greenwald, 1975, p. 15)

## Funnel plots

* A scatterplot of treatment effect against study size.
* Precision in estimating the true treatment effect increases as N increases.
* Small studies scatter more widely at the bottom of the graph.
* As studies become less precise, results should be more variable, scattered to both sides of the more precise larger studies … unless there is publication bias.
* In the absence of bias the plot should resemble a symmetrical inverted funnel.
* If there is publication bias this will cause meta-analysis to overestimate effects.
* The more pronounced the funnel plot asymmetry, the more likely it is that the amount of bias will be substantial.

## File drawer effects

* Tendency for non-sig. results to be ‘filed away’ (hidden) and not published.
* of null studies which would have to ‘filed away’ in order for a body of significant published effects to be considered doubtful.

## Countering the bias

* Journal Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis
# Pull-ups

A pull-up is a kind of exercise that uses the weight of the body (body weight) to make a person stronger. To do this exercise, one should hold something that is high above the head with one or both hands so the person's body is hanging free under it in order to pull oneself up and stop when the chin is above the hands. This mostly helps the back muscles but also uses the muscles on top of the arms (biceps) and stomach (abdominals). It is an exercise that does not need any sophisticated equipment except some sort of bar a person can hold on.
Many different ways to position the wrists and hands are used. Some call them all different exercises, but they are actually similar. Some kinds of pull-ups use additional weights on a belt to make the exercise harder.
Those who use bad form on this exercise will kick with their legs or jump and jerk with the legs to help the motion. Good form is to hold the low parts of the body still and use only the arms to pull the body up.
# Pulmonology

Respiratory Medicine is a diverse specialty of medicine encompassing the study of the lungs and airways, their anatomy, physiology, and disorders.
Pulmonology is the field of medicine that deals with diseases associated with the lung and respiratory tract. Physicians specialized in this field are called Pulmonologist.

### Learning Outcomes

This specialty has many learning outcomes and can be classified as follows:

#### Knowledge

Basic Knowledge
* Anatomy of the Lungs and airways
* Physiology of the lungs and airways
Disorders of the upper airway
* Laryngitis
* Upper respiratory tract infection
Disorders of the lower airway and pulmonary disease
* Aspergillosis
* Asthma
* Bronchiectsis
* Bronchiolitis
* Bronchiolitis Obliterans
* Bronchitis
* Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
* Cor Pulmonale
* Cystic Fibrosis
* Lower respiratory tract infection
* Lung Contusion
* Goodpasture's Syndrome
* Pulmonary eosinophilia
* Pulmonary Fibrosis
* Lung Cancer
* Occupational lung disease
* Pneumothorax
* Pulmonary Embolism
* Pulmonary oedema
* Pulmonary hypertension
* Respiratory failure
* Sarcoidosis
* Severe acute respiratory syndrome
Pleural Pathology
* Haemothorax
* Pneumothorax
* Empyema
* Pleural Effusion
* Mesothelioma
* Pleurisy
Chest wall cancer
* Benign Neoplasms
* Malignant Neoplasms

#### Skills

Proficient learning in this specialty will allow the student to achieve skills in the following areas:
History Taking
* Breathlessness
* Chest Pain
* Pleuritic Pain
* Cough
* Hemoptysis
* Hoarseness
* Sore Throat
Examination
* General Examination
* Respiratory Examination
* Cardiovascular Examination
Analysis of Investigations
* Chest X-ray
* Pulmonary Function Tests
* Arterial Blood Gases
OSCE's
Therapeutic Interventions
* Respiratory Gas Therapeutics
* Hyperinflation Therapies
* Pulmonary Rehabilitation
* Smoking Cessation
* Hyperinflation Therapies
* Mechanical Ventilation
* Patient Education

#### Case Based Learning

Respiratory Case 1
# Pulmonology/Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is a multi system granulomatous disorder affecting predominantly young adults although may affect adults of any age. It is particularly likely to affect the respiratory tract where it may cause mediastinal lymph node enlargement , and granulomatous inflammation of alveoli (air sacs). In a minority of cases it may lead to progressive thickening and fibrosis of alveolar septa, and hence impaired gas exchange. Symptoms of sarcoidosis include cough, dyspnoea (shortness of breath) and occasionally chest pain. Other manifestations of sarcoidosis include granulomatous inflammation of the liver, cardiac conduction abnormalities, painful skin lesions (erythma nodosum), and eye disease (uveitis). Treatment is usually only provided where significant impairment is present. Standard treatment is based on the use of corticosteroids (prednisone or prednisolone).
# Solar System, technical/Jupiter

Jupiter is a gaseous astronomical object in orbit around the Sun.

## Planets

"In antiquity the classical planets were the non-fixed objects visible in the sky, known to various ancient cultures. The classical planets were therefore the Sun and Moon and the five non-earth [[planets] of our solar system closest to the sun (and closest to the Earth); all easily visible without a telescope. They are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn."
# Solar System, technical/Sun/Quiz

Sun is a lecture and an article about an entity, source, and/or object observed on or near the surface of the Sun with radiation astronomy.
You are free to take this quiz based on the Sun. Once you've read and studied it, the links contained within, and listed under See also, you should have adequate background to score 100 %.
Enjoy learning by doing!
# Python Concepts/Introduction and Setup/MacOS Installation

These instructions will help you install Python on a MacOS machine, and is part of the Introduction and Setup lesson.
Checking for an Existing Python Installation
Many versions of MacOS come bundled with Python installed, but it is usually an obsolete Python 2 release. That is why you should take extra care following the steps below to determine if Python is already installed on your machine. Open the terminal app and type python --version. Compare your output to the cases outlined below:
If the command outputs "Python 3.x" (version number >= 3.0):
Example:
Python 3.10.5
You already have a recent version of Python installed! Return to the lesson.
If you get "command not found" or similar:
Example:
zsh: command not found: python
You don't have Python installed. Continue to Installation.
If the command outputs "Python 2.x" (version number < 3.0):
Example:
Python 2.7.18
This is where things get complicated. See, you have Python 2 installed, but that's an obsolete version that is no longer supported. Try typing python3 --version instead. If that gives you a version above 3.0, return to the lesson. If not, install Python as normal below.
Either way, keep in mind that during the course, you will always need to use the python3 command instead of the python command. This ensures you are using the correct version of Python.
Installation
Installing Homebrew
MacOS, unlike most Linux distributions, has no official package manager built-in. Luckily, you can install a very popular one called Homebrew, which is how you will obtain Python and keep it up to date. Run the following command to install Homebrew:
/bin/bash -c "$(curl -fsSL https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Homebrew/install/master/install.sh)"
You may be prompted by Terminal to install "command-line tools" when you run the above command. Allow it to install, restart your computer, and run the above command again.
The command will walk you through the installation process. Pay close attention to additional instructions it may provide you. Type your password if prompted for it. After you install Homebrew, restart your computer and proceed to the next section.
Installing Python
After you have Homebrew installed, installing Python is only one command away! Open terminal and type:
brew install python3
This may take one or two minutes depending on your machine. After the command completes, verify the installation was successful by running python --version (or python3 --version). Congratulations, you have installed Python!
If you want to update Python at any time, all you need to do is run brew update and then brew upgrade python3. :
Return to Introduction and Setup :
# Python Concepts/Glossary

This Programming Language resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
* Contents:
* Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
* A
* Array
* Arrays are sequences similar to lists, except that the type (and size) of each element in the array is constrained. For example, see bytearray below.
* B
* BDFL
* Stands for Benevolent Dictator For Life. Guido van Rossum is the BDFL of Python.
* bytearray
* An array in which each element is an int x that satisfies 0 <= x <= 0xFF. bytearrays have special significance because they can be written to disk in binary mode.
* C
* C
* A popular programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1972.
* CPython
* The original Python implementation written in C.
* D
* E
* F
* G
* Guido van Rossum
* A Dutch computer programmer who's best known for creating the Python programming language.
* H
* IDLE
* Stands for Integrated Development Environment. It comes bundled with a CPython installation by default.
* I
* J
* Jython
* A python implementation written in Java. Python code can be compiled to Java bytecode and it can easily interact with Java code and libraries.
* K
* Keyword Argument
* An argument that doesn't follow a special, predefined order and is defined with a keyword.
* L
* M
* N
* O
* P
* Positional Argument
* An argument that follows a special, predefined order that isn't defined with a keyword.
* Pythonic
* Something that follows the idioms of Python.
* Q
* R
* S
* T
* U
* Unpythonic
* Something that doesn't follow or goes against the idioms of Python.
* V
* W
* X
* Y
* Z
Resource type: this resource is a glossary.
Completion status: this resource is a stub, which means that pretty much nothing has been done yet.
Course Home Page :
# SPICE/2 Resistor Parallel Circuit

* {{{1}}}
* {{{2}}}
* {{{3}}}
# SPICE/2 Resistor Series Circuit

* {{{1}}}
* {{{2}}}
* {{{3}}}
# SPICE/3 Emitter NPN

created in LTspice/Switcher CAD III(could be template/tag)

## Description

| bad fuse image | This part requires SPICE code to back it for functionally. |
(todo image of not gate pointing to 5V thing at top) A standard NPN transistor with 3 emitters

## Code Listing

3innpn.asy
# SPICE/4 Emitter NPN

created in LTspice/Switcher CAD III(could be template/tag)

## Description

| bad fuse image | This part requires SPICE code to back it for functionally. |
(todo image of not gate pointing to 5V thing at top) A standard NPN transistor with 4 emitters

## Code Listing

4innpn.asy
# SPICE/NAND 2 Input TTL

created in LTspice/Switcher CAD III(could be template/tag)

## Description

| bad fuse image | This schematic would need some work before it can be simulated in SPICE and is untested on Breadboard. |
The internal schematic of a standard TTL 2 input NAND gate

## Dependances

* SPICE/VCC 5V
* SPICE/2 Emitter NPN

## Code Listing

NAND.TTL.asc
# SPICE

SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is an open-source, circuit simulation program used to analyze and predict the behavior of analog and digital electronic circuits.

## Readings

* Wikipedia: SPICE

## Parts

* 2 Emitter NPN
* 3 Emitter NPN
* 4 Emitter NPN
* VCC 5V

## Schematics

* 1 Resistor Circuit
* 2 Resistor Parallel Circuit
* 2 Resistor Series Circuit
* 3 Resistor SPP Circuit
* 4 Resistor SPSP Circuit
* NAND 2 Input TTL
* NOT TTL
# SPICE/1 Resistor Circuit

* {{{1}}}
* {{{2}}}
# SPICE/2 Emitter NPN

created in LTspice/Switcher CAD III(could be template/tag)

## Description

| bad fuse image | This part requires SPICE code to back it for functionally. |
(todo image of not gate pointing to 5V thing at top) A standard NPN transistor with 2 emmiters

## Code Listing

2innpn.asy
# SPICE/3 Resistor SPP Circuit

* {{{1}}}
* {{{2}}}
* {{{3}}}
* {{{4}}}
# SPICE/4 Resistor SPSP Circuit

* {{{1}}}
* {{{2}}}
* {{{3}}}
* {{{4}}}
* {{{5}}}
# Server-Side Scripting/Arrays/PHP
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into the following free online development environment or use your own PHP compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* PHPFiddle
* Repl.it
# Server-Side Scripting/Arrays/Go
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Go to create a test environment.
# Server-Side Scripting/Arrays/Node.js (Express)
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Node.js (Express) to create a test environment.
See Server-Side Scripting/Strings and Files/Node.js (Express) for app.js content.
# Server-Side Scripting/Arrays/Python (Flask)
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into the following free online development environment or use your own Python (Flask) compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Repl.it

## See Also

* Flask
# Serpens X-1/Quiz

Serpens X-1 is a stand-alone lecture, an outgrowth of the X-ray astronomy original research project. It has been included in the course X-ray astronomy/Course.
Try this quiz to see if your native knowledge is already top-of-the-line or better. You are free to take this quiz at any time and as many times as you wish. It is part of Wikiversity's dedication to learning by doing.
To improve your scores, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under See also, External links, and in the {{radiation astronomy resources}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.
As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.
Suggestion: Have the lecture available in a separate window.
To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.
Enjoy learning by doing!

## Hypotheses

* Serpens X-1 is the most dramatic of the detected X-ray sources in the error region of the original Serpens XR-1.
# Server-Side Scripting/Arrays/Python (FastAPI)
## Try It

See Server-Side Scripting/Routes and Templates/Python (FastAPI) to create a test environment.

## See Also

* FastAPI
# Series/n^2 over 2^n/Convergence/Exercise

Prove that the series
    $\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {n^{2}}{2^{n}}}$
# Server-Side Scripting

Server-side scripting is a technique used in web development which involves employing scripts on a web server which produce a response customized for each user's (client's) request to the website. Scripts can be written in any of a number of server-side scripting languages that are available. Server-side scripting is distinguished from client-side scripting where embedded scripts, such as JavaScript, are run client-side in a web browser, but both techniques are often used together.
This course comprises 14 lessons on server-side scripting. Each lesson includes a combination of Wikipedia and Internet-based readings, YouTube videos, and hands-on, interactive learning activities. Examples are provided using a variety of server-side scripting languages.
Most server-side scripting environments support two approaches. One is to use some type of HTML template file with script code interspersed to generate variable data. The other is to use code to generate all HTML results. This course introduces template files, but many of the examples follow the code generation approach to focus on server-side scripting concepts.

## Preparation

This is a third-semester, college-level course. Learners should already be familiar with introductory web development concepts, including HTML, CSS, and JavaScript programming. Database management experience is necessary toward the end of the course.

## Lessons

* Introduction
* Routes and Templates
* Requests
* Iteration
* Strings and Files
* Arrays
* Associative Arrays
* Internet Data
* SQL Databases
* Document Databases
* Key-Value Databases
* Cookies and Sessions
* REST API
* Testing

## See Also

* Internet Fundamentals
* JavaScript Programming
* Database Management
* Wikipedia: Server-side scripting
# PlanetPhysics/Andre Bloch

Andr\'e Bloch (1893 - 1948) French mathematician perhaps best known for Bloch's theorem on holomorphic disks.
(He is not to be confused with Felix Bloch who was a Swisss-American theoretical physicist who introduced certain highly symmetric wave functions, now called "Bloch waves", that describe electron distributions in crystalline metals, and a corresponding theorem on eigenfunctions of periodic particle wavefunctions that hold only for crystalline materials as later proved by P.W. Anderson and Sir Neville Mott).
In 1914, Andr\'e Bloch briefly served in the French Army during World War I. Three years later, Bloch killed three relatives and was confined to a mental institution.
From there he collaborated by mail with other important mathematicians such as Jacques Hadamard and George P\'olya.
In 1948, Bloch was awarded the Becquerel Prize.
[more to come]... (Preliminary version prepared by PrimeFan.)
# PlanetPhysics/Applications of Newton's Laws of Motion
### Examples of Applications of the First Two Newton's Laws of Motion

1. An ariplane during constant speed flight at a constant altitude as an illustration of {\mathbf Newton's First law}:
"Objects in motion tend to stay in motion, and objects at rest tend to stay at rest unless an outside force acts upon them" : see here an airplane illustration of Newtonian Dynamics from NASA.
Wings over Mars Flight Animations 2. An airplane taking off by increasing its thrust force after it has started from rest is an example of an application of {\mathbf Netwon's Second Law}:
"The net force on an object is equal to the product of its mass and its acceleration" , or mathematically
$\sum {\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}}$; see also the above pictorial example of an airplane or a rocket taking off from NASA's Glenn Research Center, and movies/simulations demonstrating quantitatively the first two laws.

### An Application Example of Newton's Third Law

3. A movie of a rocket in flight provides a good example of the Third Newton's Law in action:
"Every force has an exactly equal opposing force, or reaction."
In the above movie example of a rocket moving upwards, the sum of the thrust force of rocket's exhaust gases and the air friction that are pointing downwards equals the reaction force pushing the rocket upwards. In vacuum, a rocket-- unlike an old propeller airplane -- will continue its motion at accelerated speed as long as it has fuel, precisely because of the Third Law of Newton; on the other hand, the propeller of an old airplane would not be pulling the airplane in vacuum even if it had plenty of fuel and its propeller was rotating at very high speed. A turbo--jet plane would however still function in vacuum based on reaction just like the rocket by being pushed forward by the reaction equal to the thrust of its exhaust gases.
See also :
4. Apollo 11 40th anniversary
5. A 659Mb Mars beta Flight Simulation from NASA
# PlanetPhysics/Andrew John Wiles
## Sir Andrew John Wiles

(born in 1953) is a British mathematician who proved Fermat's last theorem. It was Fermat's last theorem that inspired Wiles to go into mathematics at an early age.

### Education

He studied at Oxford University, and later at the University of Cambridge, England. At present he is a professor at Princeton University.

### Proof of Fermat's last theorem

After Kenneth Ribet suggested there might be a connection between the famous Fermat problem and the Taniyama-Shimura-Weil conjecture, Wiles decided to focus entirely on that connection. The preliminary attempt he made at a proof that he presented in 1993 was incomplete, but Wiles and his former student Richard Taylor were able to fill in the gaps of the proof. This was after Wiles turned 41, and thus he was no longer eligible for the fields medal, but he received several other awards and prizes in recognition, such as the Royal Medal and the Clay Research Award. He was knighted in 2000 by H.M.S. Queen Elizabeth II.
Subsequently, the Clay Mathematics Institute asked him to write the official problem description of the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture for the Millennium Problems.
(Initial entry was prepared by PrimeFan, with additions made by several co-authors; this is a further updated version with several significant changes).
# PlanetPhysics/Animated Representation of 4D Space
## 4D-animated representation:
### Ocneanu's Octacube Animation

Ocneanu's octacube animation and existing three-dimensional solid sculpture employed for the animation were described as follows.
Description of the `Octacube': "The subject of the projection is a regular 4-dimensional solid of intermediate complexity, which Ocneanu calls an ""octacube." It has 24 vertices, 96 edges and 96 triangular faces, which enclose 24 three-dimensional "rooms." Windows cut in faces allow the viewer to see within the structure, the same way that a window in a cubic room opens to the inside of the cube. Physically, the sculpture is a giant puzzle of 96 triangular pieces cut from stainless steel and bent into spherical shape; (a quote attributed to the octacube's inventor, Professor Adrian Ocneanu).
Note: The following is an example of a hand-drawn `mathematical diagram' by Alex Grothendieck around 1970 (perhaps a `dessin d'enfants' ? , or is it a 2D representation of an $n$-dimensional real space by Alex's `doodle' drawing ?)
*Click on the dessin d'enfants, blue text above, to link to the web site that has the downloadable images.