# Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Dark tetrad and emotion

* Multimedia presentation (3 min)

## Overview

Have you ever experienced or cross[grammar?] paths with a manipulative individual? Someone who derives gratification from devising schemes and takes pleasure in the anguish of others[grammar?]? Even if you have not directly engaged with such individuals, these traits are probably not entirely foreign to you. These are some questions that drive researchers to delve into the less favourable aspects of personality as a potential explanation for vindictive behaviour (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). There is a strong correlation between the dark tetrad personality traits and an increased likelihood of participating in criminal activities, causing social unrest, and exhibiting diminished emotional empathy (Paulhus et al., 2021).
* What is the dark tetrad?
* How do these personality traits link to empathy?
* Do these traits exhibit emotional intelligence?[Rewrite to improve clarity]

## Dark tetrad traits

The dark tetrad is a psychological theory of personality, [grammar?] it encompasses four personality constructs with negative associations: Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy, and sadism. O’Boyle and Forsyth’s (2012) depiction of the “darker side of human nature,” portray malevolent qualities in individuals who possess these personality traits. Each of these traits share common characteristics including manipulative behaviour, a lack of empathy, self-centredness, superficial charm, and a tendency towards antisocial behaviour (Mededovic & Petrovic, 2015). Whilst all four dark tetrad traits describe individuals’ inclinations towards cruel behaviours and the exploitation of others, each trait is distinguished by a unique profile.

### Narcissism

Narcissists exhibit a deceptive disposition, emphasising their abilities in maintaining a false appearance. They prioritise the preservation of a favourable reputation and possess adeptness in changing to diverse social environments (Whittle, 2022). Individuals displaying elevated narcissistic traits demonstrate a consistent set of behaviours that indicate an inflated sense of self-importance, frequently seeking validation and recognition (Okoye, 2023). Narcissists, despite projecting confidence and displaying egocentric behaviour, possess a delicate sense of self-worth that can be easily harmed by even the most minor forms of criticism (Okoye, 2023). Narcissists may exhibit emotional distress, aggravation, and dissatisfaction when they do not receive the admiration or preferential treatment they desire. Individuals afflicted with this disorder often exhibit a deficiency in their capacity to comprehend or demonstrate concern for the emotions of others (Okoye, 2023).

### Psychopathy

Psychopathy is often display[grammar?] antisocial behaviour as a result of a neuropsychiatric disorder (Cleckley, 1951). They exhibit deficiencies in emotional responses and have difficulty controlling their behaviour. Additionally, they are responsible for a disproportionate amount of criminal activity (Anderson & Kiehl, 2014). Psychopaths with higher severity exhibit characteristics such as absence of remorse, superficial charm, manipulative conduct, and absence of empathy (Michels & Schulze, 2021). On average, approximately 1 percent of individuals exhibit severe psychopathic traits. However, recent research indicates that nearly 30 percent of people possess varying degrees of psychopathic traits (Michels & Shulze, 2021). Their manipulative behaviour and manner of interacting with others have a significant detrimental effect on the individual's personal life, professional endeavours, and social connections (Anderson & Kiehl, 2014). Psychopaths, unlike sadists, do not derive pleasure from deliberately causing harm to innocent individuals (Cleckley, 1951).

### Machiavellianism

Machiavellian personalities possess manipulative and strategic tendencies, employing their skills to achieve their desired objectives. Individuals presenting Machiavellian traits typically display a lack of concern for the emotions of others and may employ deceitful and exploitative behaviours to further their own interests (Marie, 2021). When interacting with these individuals, they display charm and communicate effectively, but there is consistently a feeling of emotional detachment, a noticeable lack of empathy. Machiavellians possess a distinctive trait of environmentally adaptable impulse control, enabling them to engage in antisocial behaviours when the advantages outweigh the drawbacks. This attribute serves as a distinguishing factor between Machiavellians and psychopaths (Gayle & Crawley, 2023).

### Sadism

Sadism is the fourth component of the dark tetrad. Sadistic individuals derive pleasure from inflicting pain or humiliation on others (Foulkes, 2019). They not only exhibit heightened sensitivity to others' suffering, but also derive enjoyment from it. Sadism is frequently associated with cruel actions and is closely linked to psychopathy, often found in individuals who engage in torture and murder[factual?]. Nevertheless, there exists a less severe yet more widespread occurrence of individuals with sadistic tendencies in their daily lives (McCarthy-Jones, 2020).

## Empathy

Empathy is the ability to understand and share the emotional experiences of others, either on a cognitive or affective level (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). There is ongoing scholarly debate about whether traits associated with 'dark' personalities are correlated with cognitive and affective empathy (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). It is crucial to investigate the correlation between empathy and the personality traits encompassed by the dark tetrad, as they are associated with reduced capacity for empathy (Clarke, 2023). Cognitive empathy, also known as perspective taking, is linked to comprehending the emotions of others and understanding their thought processes (Pajevic et al., 2018). Affective empathy refers to the capacity to comprehend and partake in someone else's emotion without experiencing emotional arousal oneself (Clarke, 2023). The exploration of empathy in relation to dark tetrad traits is a core feature in distinguishing the emotional capabilities of individuals exhibiting socially aversive behaviours.

### Cognitive and affective empathy

Empathy is a broad concept that has found contradicting findings within the dark tetrad traits. A study by Pajevic et al. (2018) reported all dark tetrad personalities to be adversely linked with affective empathy. Meanwhile, indicators of cognitive empathy were associated with both narcissism and Machiavellianism traits. Whilst there is a lack of research on sadism many suggest it is negatively correlated with both cognitive and affective empathy (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). Due to its problematic interaction with social skills, sadism is negatively connected with affective empathy (Whittle et al., 2022). Some scholars have argued that sadists have intact cognitive empathy, which allows them to effectively harm others.
Research has found a positive correlation between narcissistic personalities and cognitive empathy (Pajevic et al., 2018). It has also been observed that individuals with narcissistic personalities can exhibit empathetic behaviour in specific circumstances (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). This is exemplified by the fact that narcissistic individuals often exhibit diminishing[grammar?] in proficiency in tasks related to emotional recognition (Whittle et al., 2022). The theoretical framework for narcissism encompasses empathetic manipulation. Where individuals seek to elicit strong emotional responses to gain sympathy or exert control over others (Gayle & Crawley, 2023)[grammar?]. Narcissists, who possess the capacity to comprehend and anticipate the actions of others may employ these abilities to manipulate others for their own malicious advantage (Clarke, 2023).
Individuals who have high levels of psychopathic tendencies typically have detrimental effects on social relationships, acting cruelly and callously with intent to cause harm to others. Consequently, this leads to deficiencies in cognitive empathy (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). Machiavellians on the other hand, exhibit a degree of inconsistencies, as they possess an ability to utilise cognitive empathy (Ali et al., 2009). Ali et al.[grammar?] (2009) study found Machiavellianism was positively correlated with the capability to identify emotions in emotion recognition tasks even after controlling for other personality traits.

#### Facial emotions

Wai and Tiliopoulos (2012) found a favourable link between sad emotions in a facial recognition and identification task and persons who scored highly on narcissism, primary psychopathy, and Machiavellianism. This shows that they were affected by affective desensitisation and discordance, as evidenced by their lack of emotional reaction and inconsistent behaviour in response to these stimuli. Positive emotions were also expressed by primary psychopaths in reaction to facial indications of anger and terror. Additionally, it was found that Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy were related to having unfavourable feelings towards happy expressions.
When it comes to identifying emotions, people with primary psychopathy and Machiavellianism qualities typically score poorly, whereas narcissistic individuals perform well (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). However, later research demonstrated that, with the exception of narcissism, which did not demonstrate any link with affective empathy, dark tetrad characteristics showed a negative correlation with both affective and cognitive empathy (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). There may be a problem in that studying static photos makes it impossible to evaluate the minute variations in micro-expressions that are necessary to effectively identify emotions in facial expressions (Ali et al., 2009). An alternate theory holds that affective empathy, not cognitive empathy, is related to the ability to perceive emotions in facial expressions. Given the advancements gained in this study, additional research on sadism should be done in the future as there is currently a dearth of studies on this particular area (Wai & Tiliopoulus, 2012).

## Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation refers to the deliberate action’s[grammar?] individuals undertake to effectively manage and exert control over their emotions in order to respond to various stimuli, situations, and events (Doré & Oschsner, 2015). Highly effective emotion regulation involves the ability to identify and understand one's own emotional reactions. The concept encompasses a fusion of internal and external processes that are accountable for the examination, evaluation, and adaptation of emotional responses (Thompson et al., 2008). This prompts the enquiry of how individuals with dark tetrad personality traits manage their emotions. Gómez-Leal et al. (2022) propose that maladaptive strategies of emotional regulation are linked to dark tetrad traits.

### Process of emotion regulation

Walker et al. (2022) presents a process model of emotional regulation adapted from Gross (1998) model (see Figure 2). The model highlights cognitive reappraisal as a process that involves changing one's thoughts and focusing on antecedents, while expressive suppression is described as a process that involves modifying one's response to emotions. Emotion regulation processes are categorised based on the five distinct time points at which they can take place. According to prevailing theories of emotion, emotion is a sequential process that occurs over time, influenced by assessments of how important internal and external stimuli are to an individual's objectives (Tull et al., 2020). This model exemplifies the process of cognitive reappraisal.
| Situation selection | Situation modification | Attention deployment | Cognitive reappraisal |
| Cody employs situation selection by actively choosing situations that can enhance his self-esteem and ego. He places himself in situations where he can receive praise and admiration. | To manipulate others and further his goals, Cody modifies the situation. For example his colleagues have noticed his change in behaviour after the promotion but characterised him as charming when they first met. | Cody uses attention deployment by focusing on his own interests and achievement while ignoring the emotional cues and needs of his colleagues (maintaining narcissistic self-image). | When confronted with his manipulative actions, Cody employs cognitive change by rationalising his behaviour. Minimising the impact of his actions on others, perceiving their suffering as unimportant or even deserved[grammar?]. |

#### Cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression

Cognitive reappraisal is a commonly employed technique for regulating emotions. This procedure entails interpreting an important emotional experience in order to change its meaning and elicit stronger emotions (Wang & Yin, 2023). For instance, by reinterpreting a situation, one can effectively reduce or change to re-evaluate a situation and the repercussions of this (Cutuli, 2014). Cognitive reappraisal is frequently used to diminish negative emotions although, it can be used to regulate emotion positively and negatively (Walker et al., 2022). Expressive suppression is a method for emotion regulation involving a reduction in both positive and negative emotion, which involves modifying facial expressions (Walker et al., 2022). Expressive suppression is a response modulation method that aims to change an emotional state's physiological, behavioural, and experiential components (Tull et al.,). The purpose of expressive suppression is to prevent someone from expressing an already-established emotional response, such as keeping one's genuine emotions from another person. If a superior belittles you in front of your coworkers, for instance, you could try to disguise your anger and humiliation (Walker et al., 2022). Due to its earlier occurrence in the emotion regulation process, cognitive reappraisal has a greater capacity to alter the trajectory of emotions compared to expressive suppression.

##### Dark tetrad emotion regulation

Individuals with high levels of grandiose narcissism were more flexible in coping with negative emotions than people with high levels of vulnerable narcissism; including coping flexibility, expressive suppression, and cognitive reappraisal (Walker et al., 2022). When their self-esteem is threatened, people with high levels of narcissism respond by trying to stabilise themselves by undervaluing others or hiding their own flaws, which causes cognitive reappraisal (Walker et al., 2022). This enables narcissists to uphold their own sense of worth and keep their levels of positive emotions. Additionally, depending on the particular situation, narcissists can successfully suppress their feelings (Cutuli, 2014). In instances where individuals want to control the impressions they make on others, those who demonstrate susceptible narcissism may use expressive suppression to hide their emotions.
According to the Machiavellian viewpoint, social interactions are simply transactions with the satisfaction of one's personal needs serving as the sole or primary goal (Walker et al., 2022). A detached and cynical worldview, with little focus on ideological or moral ideals, best describes this point of view (Marie, 2021). The effect of group leaders with Machiavellian traits displayed a sense of control over their subordinates in order to further their own goals. As those with high Machiavellian traits are driven by strategic outcomes and are less likely to let their emotions hinder their pursuit of goals (Cultuli, 2014). This implies Machiavellianism is associated with less emotional intensity. However, contradicting empirical evidence indicates that those with high levels of Machiavellian traits experience more intense emotions (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). Additionally, those who possess this tendency think strategically about how to gain further power, such as Machiavellian’s[grammar?] have a strong connection to cognitive planning and emotional planning (i.e., cognitive reappraisal; Walker et al., 2022). Intense emotions are also experienced by Machiavellians, but they are unable to be expressed, pointing to a connection between this and expressive suppression (Walker et al., 2022).
Particularly in the case of primary psychopathy, psychopathy is associated with a deficiency in emotional regulation (Cultuli, 2014). Individuals exhibiting primary psychopathy may find it difficult to control and regulate their emotions, with any efforts in doing so may end in failure (Walker et al., 2022). Although there is a theory that suggests psychopathy is distinguished by poor emotional functioning, it is argued that this impairment is more likely caused by a failure to start the regulating processes than by a lack of self-regulatory abilities (Gayle & Crawley, 2023). In order to make a positive impression, this activity suggests a desire to repress undesirable negative emotions. The failure to control emotions may result from a response to the emotion rather than from an attempt to control the emotion's antecedent (Gómez-Leal et al., 2009).
According to Gough (2016), sadistic influences have been characterised as perverse empathic responses to others. Where people are aware of other people's emotions and react with joy rather than concern[grammar?]. Sadists frequently exhibit decreased empathy because they place more blame on the victim out of heightened sadistic enjoyment (Sassenrath et al., 2023). As sadists struggle to control their emotions and exhibit socially undesirable behaviours, emotional dysfunction is similar to psychopathy (Walker et al., 2022).

## Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the capacity of individuals to effectively manage emotions, including comprehension, application, and the control of their own emotions as well as those of others (Nagler et al., 2014). Increased social support, greater accomplishment, and fewer interpersonal conflicts are all typically associated with high emotional intelligence (Austin et al., 2007). Despite the fact that emotional intelligence is typically highly respected and seen as a positive talent, the notion of emotional intelligence highlights the negative features and dysfunctional nature of dark tetrad traits in interpersonal relationships (Gough, 2016). In this context dark tetrad traits are frequently engaged in emotional manipulation to control both others[grammar?] and their own emotions (Austin et al., 2007). To attain their desired outcome emotional skills are strategically utilised to manipulate others through their self-centred and self-fulfilling behaviours (Nager et al., 2014). Consequently, these individuals employ an exploitative social style, often at the expense or with disregard for the well-being of others (Nagler et al., 2014).

### The dark side of emotional intelligence

The dark tetrad's prominent trait, narcissism is closely related to several facets of socio-emotional intelligence (Nagler et al., 2014). It indicates that narcissists exert a conscious effort to maintain their exaggerated perception of themselves by acting grandiosely towards other individuals. With the exception of emotion regulation, Machiavellianism showed an unfavourable link with the socio-emotional intelligence scale. Machiavellian tendencies often rationalise their exterior thinking before emotional concerns (Austin et al., 2007). Narcissism and Machiavellianism significantly impact emotional intelligence tests in their pursuit of a desire to appear socially desirable (Austin et al., 2007). Contrarily, psychopathy is commonly linked to a lack of understanding and control over the feelings of others, which could potentially illustrate why psychopaths are typically viewed as cold and evil (Hyde et al., 2020). Despite the paucity of studies on sadism, research has shown that those who score higher on sadistic traits tend to have higher levels of strategic emotional intelligence (the capacity to strategically manage and regulate emotions) and better emotional management skills (Hyde et al., 2020).

## Conclusion

As this field of research develops, a deeper knowledge of dark personality traits and their impact on society enable us to comprehend why some people harm others and receive pleasure from their suffering. To comprehend the underlying mechanism of the dark tetrad characteristics, understanding how these features are acquired, maintained, and related to cognitive emotional, and behavioural patterns is essential. In terms of empathy, individuals high in dark tetrad traits may struggle to recognise and comprehend the needs and feelings of others facilitating them to exploit and emotionally manipulate others around them. They lack affective empathy in terms of emotional responsiveness and compassion that typically guides people to care for the well-being of others. Dark personalities strategically utilise cognitive reappraisal to downplay the emotional impacts of their actions on others and rationalise their behaviour. Thus, prioritise their self-interest and achieve their goals at the expense of others[grammar?]. Understanding these emotional deficits, manipulation tactics and cognitive reappraisal is essential to formulating prevention measures to foster healthier emotional and interpersonal functioning in such individuals.