OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Overview of Musculoskeletal Anatomy/Lesson 1

Overview of Musculoskeletal Anatomy :
| Lesson: | Lesson 1 |
| Level: | Undergraduate |
| Suggested Prerequisites: | Introduction to Regional Anatomy |
| Time Investment: | 30mins |
| Assessment Methods: | Quiz |
| Portal: | Science |
| School: | Biology/Medicine |
| Division: | Anatomy |
| Department: | Regional Anatomy |
| Lesson Coordinator: | Doctorbee (talk) |

## Skull

The skull, also known as the cranium, contains 22 bones. There are two sets of bones in the skull: eight cranial and fourteen facial bones.

### Cranial Bones

There are eight cranial bones. They form the cranial cavity, which functions to hold and protect the brain.
* Frontal (1)
* Parietal (2)
* Temporal (2)
* Occipetal (2)
* Sphenoid (1)
* Ethmoid (1)
* Inferior nasal conchae (2)
* Vomer (1)

#### Frontal Bone

* Lateral and posterior views of the frontal bone
There are two portions to the frontal bone: horizontal portion and vertical portion.
* Horizontal portion is also known as pars orbitalis and consists of two thin triangular plates, the orbital plates and ethmoidal notch, which form the vaults of the orbital and nasal cavities respectively. There are two surfaces to the pars orbitalis.
** The inferior surface is smooth and has a depression called lacrimal fossa on the lateral part. The lacrimal fossa houses the lacrimal gland, which secrete tears. There is a depression near the nasal part, and it is called the fovea trochelearis, where the obliquus oculi superior muscle attaches. This muscle is one of the muscles involved in the rolling of the eyes.
** The superior surface has depressions and contain the convolutions of the frontal lobes of the brain and the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries. The superior surface also contains ethmoidal notch, which separates two orbital plates.
* Anterior view of the frontal bone
* Posterior view of the frontal bone
* Vertical portion is also known as squama frontalis. It corresponds with the forehead region. There are two surfaces to the squama frontalis as well: external surface and internal surface.
** External surface of the squama frontalis
# Overview of Cell Biology/Evolution of the Cytoskeleton
## Readings

* Study guide:
* Wikipedia article: The Cytoskeleton

## The Cytoskeleton

The Cytoskeleton consists of several different systems called filamentous polymers:
Critical concentration (C$_c$): If concentration of monomer < C$_c$, no polymerization occurs. If concentration of monomer > C$_c$, polymerization occurs.
Some cytoskeletal polymers are polar and have structural directionality. Due to this directionality, proteins can be transported along the polymer.

### Mutants

FtsZ$^{(-)}$ mutants fail to undergo cytokinesis or cell division at restrictive temperatures
MreB$^{(-)}$ mutants of normally rod shaped bacteria assume a spherical shape
CreS$^{(-)}$ mutants of normally crescent shaped bacteria assume a rod shape
ParM$^{(-)}$ mutants fail to segregate plasmids between daughter cells
# Overview of Cell Biology/Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Cells
## Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Cells
### The Fibroblast

Dynamic structures containing actin are involved in cell migration. One model cell type used on the study of cell locomotion is the fibroblast, a connective tissue cell. The front of the fibroblast regularly extends thin sheet-like processes called lamellipodia, which is organized as a meshwork, and thin needle-like projections called microspikes or filopodia, both of which are filled with actin filaments and organized in parallel bundles. Fibroblasts also contain cables of actin called stress-fibers which help facilitate cell adhesion and contraction.
Actin filaments in the lamellipodia, filopodia, and stress fibers are oriented with their barbed (+) ends facing the membrane.

### The Leading Edge of the Cell Nucleates Actin Polymerization

The behavior of actin filaments in the lamellipodia of fibroblasts can be traced by microinjecting the cells with fluorescently labeled actin. Actin filaments are thought to be nucleated by the Arp2/3 complex in conjunction with activated WASP family proteins.

### Retrograde flux and Depolymerization

After actin filaments are nucleated at the leading edge of the fibroblast, the entire network of filaments flux backwards towards the interior of the cell in a process called retrograde flow. Cofilin is thought to be the major actin depolymerizing activity at the leading edge. The action of ADF/cofilin can be inhibited by LIM-kinase.

### Listeria monocytogenes

The comet tails of Listeria monocytogenes drive motility. Listeria has a protein called ActA which functions like WASP family proteins and recruits the Arp2/3 complexes of the host. Listeria comet tail formation and motility requires actin, the Arp 2/3 complex, profilin, capping proteins, and cofilin. Listeria motility can be reconstituted in cell cytoplasmic extracts containing these purified proteins.

### Rho GTPase Proteins

'Rho proteins are part of the Ras superfamily of proteins which bind and hydrolyze GTP.
Active GTP in its bound state can interact with effector molecules. GDI (guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor) stabilizes the Rho-GDP form.

### Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 Regulation

Microinjection of Rho-GTP causes the formation of stress fibers.
Microinjection of Rac-GTP causes the formation of lamellipodia.
Microinjection of Cdc42-GTP causes the formation of filopodia.

### WASP

Was is one of the effectors of the Rho family that is most studied. WASP is activated by Cdc42. WASP is always present in an inactive, autoinhibited form in the absence of Cdc42-GTP. The GTPase binding domain (GBD) of WASP binds to Cdc42-GTP and this induces a comformational change which opens the molecule, exposing the WCA region (on the C-terminus). The WCA region interacts with Arp2/3 and action and begins the process of nucleation.
# Overview of Cell Biology/Muscle Contraction
## Skeletal Muscle

A motor nerve action potential spreads down transverse tubules and then passes to the sarcoplasmic reticulum which release stored Ca$^{2+}$.

### Troponin/Tropomyosin Regulate Contraction

Myosin and Actin invitro binds and hydrolyzes ATP, even in the absence of Ca$^{2+}$. Myosin will not bind thin filaments in muscle unless Ca$^{2+}$ is present.
Thin filaments contain Troponin and Tropomyosin which prevent myosin binding in the absence of Ca$^{2+}$.
Tropomyosin is a rod shaped protein with multiple molecules that bind the head of the actin filament to the tail. It is a continuous chain along the thin filament and prevents myosin-binding to the thin filament. In the presence of Ca$^{2+}$, troponin moves tropomyosin out of the way.
Troponin is a complex of three proteins (Troponin-T, Troponin-C and Troponin-I). Troponin-T mediates tropomyosin binding. Troponin-C mediates Ca$^{2+}$ binding. Troponin-I is the inhibitor protein.
In the absence of Ca$^{2+}$, Troponin-T and Troponin-I are positioned so that myosin cannot move down actin filament. If Ca$^{2+}$ is present, it binds to Troponin-C and induces a comformational change which allows myosin to move down the actin filament.
Cardiac Muscle resembles skeletal muscle in its structure and in regulation of actin-myosin interactions and muscle contraction.

## Smooth Muscle

Actin and myosin are much less organized in smooth muscle when compared to skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is regulated by cytosolic Ca$^{2+}$ concentration like in skeletal muscle. Unlike in skeletal muscle, it is initiated by the phosphorylation of one of the two myosin light chains. Phosphorylarion allows myosin to interact with actin.
At high enough concentrations, Ca$^{2+}$ binds calmodulin. The Ca$^{2+}$-calmodulin then binds and activates myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). MLCK the phosphorylates the regulatory light chains which activates myosin and allows it to bind actin.

## External Links

* (http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/movies/actin_myosin.html) (Movie)
# Overview of Cell Biology/Actin and Myosin
## Readings

* Study guide:
* Wikipedia article: Myosin

## Myosins

Myosins are mechanochemical enzymes and motor proteins that function through ATP hydrolysis.

### Myosin Structure

Myosin is composed of heavy chains and light chains. The heavy chains have head, neck and tail domains. The head domain binds actin and has ATPase activity. The neck domain provides an attachment point for regulatory and essential lightchains such as calmodulin. The tail domain differs between myosins and determines the specific properties of each myosin.

#### Myosin II

Myosin II has a long α-helix tail which forms a dimer with another Myosin to create a coiled-coil dimer. The tails also mediate polymerization into bipolar thick filaments.

#### Myosin I

Myosin I has a short tail which does not assemble into filaments. Some Myosin I proteins have membrane binding sites and can move organelles into the cell.

### Myosin Motility and ATP hydrolysis

Myosin motility is coupled to ATP hydrolysis. Most myosins move toward the (+) end of the filament. Myosin VI, however, moves towards the (-) end.

#### Myosin Cross-bridge Cycle

(1) Rigor: The ATP binding site is empty and myosin is tightly bound to actin
(2) ATP binding: The ATP binding cleft closes upon ATP binding and the actin binding cleft opens, which weakens the actin-myosin bond.
(3) ATP hydrolysis: The ATP molecule is hydrolyzed to ADP and P$_i$ and the myosin head moves to a new position.
(4) P$_i$ release: This step is also referred to as the power stroke. The actin fliament is moved relative to the myosin filament
(5) ADP release: myosin is restored to original rigor state.

### Muscle Cell and Sarcomere Structure

Skeletal muscle have a regular internal structure and the muscle fivers of skeletal muscle (myofibers) are enormous cells that contain multiple nuclei. Muscle fibers are composed of individual contractile bundles called myofibrils. Each myofibril consists of small contractile units called sarcomeres.
Thin filaments are composed of actin filaments, CapZ, tropomodulin, tropomyosin, troponin, and nebulin. Thick filaments are composed of myosin II. Protease can cut myosin into the S1 and tail (motor) domains. The isolated tails can make filaments alone. Thick filaments are bipolar. They are 5 main parts to these CapZ and a-actinin mediate binding of the (+) end of actin to the Z disk.
The (-) ends of actin are capped by tropomodulin.
Nebulin wraps along the length of the filament.
Titin connects the ends of myosin thick filaments to the Z-disk and extends along the filaments to the M-line (½ the length of the sarcomere).

#### The Sliding Filament Model of Contraction

The sarcomere shortening caused by myosin filaments sliding past actin filaments with no change in the length of either filament. Because the myosin filament is bipolar, it pulls the thin filaments and Z-disk towards the center of the sarcomere, causing sarcomere shortening.

## External Links

* http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/movies/actin_myosin_gif.html (3D Animation: Myosin Crossbridge Cycle)
# Overview of Musculoskeletal Anatomy

In this course, we will explore the musculoskeletal anatomy. This course has been divided into seven lessons, each taking up to one hour each. The sidebar in each of the lessons will help you understand the prerequisites for the lesson, estimate time for completion of the lesson, and level of the course. There will be a quiz after the end of each of the lessons. This course is designed for students with prior learning in regional anatomy. However, students that do not have prior knowledge can also find the lessons as each of the lessons have summarizing points.

### Lesson List

ATP mentor training/completion-legend-sidebox
Lesson 1
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the head and neck
Lesson 2
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the thorax
Lesson 3
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the back
Lesson 4
       An introduction to the muscles of the abdomen
Lesson 5
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the pelvis and perineum
Lesson 6
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the upper limb
Lesson 7
       An introduction to the bones and muscles of the lower limb
Parent Department
# Joint Entrance Examination/AIEEE 2009/Q078 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Reply to the thread, posted by 164.100.170.4
Thread post
Additional notes
SOLUTION:[1]
According to enstein photo electric equation
hc/λ-φ =Kmax
⇒ (3.10 eV – 1.68 eV) = Kmax
⇒ Kmax = 1.42 ev
These comments, along with the notes on the left, were contributed by 164.100.170.4 05:58, 24 September 2009 (UTC) :
Reply to the thread, posted by 164.100.170.4
Thread post
Additional notes
SOLUTION:[1]
According to enstein photo electric equation
hc/λ-φ =Kmax
⇒ (3.10 eV – 1.68 eV) = Kmax
⇒ Kmax = 1.42 ev
These comments, along with the notes on the left, were contributed by 164.100.170.4 05:59, 24 September 2009 (UTC) :
# Joint and conditional probability

Suppose that outcome can be either of events A or B (but never both) with probabilities 0.4 and 0.6 correspondingly in case event X happens. If mutually disjoint to X, event Y occurs instead then probabilites of A-B distribute evenly, like .5 and .5. These data can be summarized in a Markov matrix:
${\begin{matrix}&X&Y\\A&P(A|X)&P(A|Y)\\B&P(B|X)&P(B|Y)\end{matrix}}\quad =\quad {\begin{matrix}&X&Y\\A&.4&.5\\B&.6&.5\end{matrix}}$
Here, P(A|X) stands for probability of event A provided that X has occurred. A|X generally denotes a conditional probability of event A under condition X.
Note that the sum of columns adds up to 1 since their entries represent mutually exclusive events.
Now, suppose that X can occur with probability .8 and Y has probability of .2. We multiply the first unit/column with .8 and second with .2 so that the joint distribution breaks down into
       1 * .8 + 1 * .2 = 1 * (.8 +.2) = 1 * 1 = 1 = 1 * .8 + 1 * .2 = (.4 + .6) * .8 + (.5+.5)/5 = (.32 + .48) + (.1 + .1)
where first parenthesis is a sum of event probabilities under X and .1 + .1 are probabilities under event Y
This can be represented again by matrix again
${\begin{matrix}&X|_{P(X)}&Y|_{P(Y)}\\A&P(A\land X)&P(A\land Y)\\B&P(B\land X)&P(B\land Y)\end{matrix}}\quad =\quad {\begin{matrix}&X|_{P(X)}&Y|_{P(Y)}\\A&P(X\land A)&P(Y\land A)\\B&P(X\land B)&P(Y\land B)\end{matrix}}\quad =\quad {\begin{matrix}&X|_{.8}&Y|_{.2}\\A&.32&.1\\B&.48&.1\end{matrix}}$
Note that columns now add up to .8 and .2 correpsondingly whereas all table adds up to .8+.2 = 1. We have got a 2-dimensional distribution of probability. In every cell we have the joint probability of pair of events occurring, e.g. P(A∩X) = .32. The probability of conjunction A∩X is less than the probability of components (A|X) and X alone because probability under X, probability of every column, added up to 1 in the conditional probability table but it adds to P(X) ≤ 1 in the joint distribution table.
This fact, that column $P(A_{1}\land X_{i})+P(A_{2}\land X_{i})+\ldots =P(X_{i})$ adds up to marginal probability of the column X$_i$, that is a probability that randomly drawn event ends up in the column i, enables us to recover the conditional probabilities. We just need to divide every $P(A_{j}\land X_{i})$ in the column i by P(X$_i$):
       ${\begin{bmatrix}P(A|X)\\P(B|X)\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}P(A\land X)\\P(B\land X)\end{bmatrix}}{1 \over P(X)}={\begin{bmatrix}.32\\.48\end{bmatrix}}{1 \over .8}={\begin{bmatrix}.4\\.6\end{bmatrix}}$
The relationship
       $P(A\land X)=P(X)\cdot P(A|X)$
is a basis for famous w:Bayes' theorem $P(X)\cdot P(A|X)=P(A)\cdot P(X|A)$ because we can symmetrically condition the probabilities within the rows by probabilities of observing the rows:
       ${\begin{bmatrix}(.32+.1)/p_{a}\\(.48+.1)/p_{b}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1\\1\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}(.32+.1)/.42\\(.48+.1)/.58\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}.76+.24\\.83+.17\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}P(X|A)+P(Y|A)\\P(X|B)+P(Y|B)\end{bmatrix}}$
That is, conditional probability P(X|A) = .76.
# Mesoscopic Physics/Introduction to Mesoscopic Physics
## Meaning of the name "Mesoscopic Physics"

"Meso" refers to length scales intermediate between microscopic (single atoms) and macroscopic scales (where the usual classical, bulk behaviour takes over). This regime was first identified as interesting in the study of phase transitions, where new phenomena occur when the correlation length of fluctuations becomes similar to the system size. Later, the development of small (micrometer sized) metallic or semiconducting structures in the computer industry prompted researchers to ask what happens when electrons move in these small spaces. Three effects become crucial:
* Fluctuations (of charge, current, resistance etc.) become important, since 'self-averaging' is less effective if there are only a small number of particles
* Interactions become more important, as the Coulomb repulsion in these tightly confined spaces may overwhelm the thermal energy at sufficiently low energies
* Quantum interference effects show up, and can be used to realize devices such as interferometers
Often, one has to deal with the interplay of all three of these phenomena. Quantum mechanics and statistical averaging procedures are important ingredients in describing such "mesoscopic systems". --FlorianMarquardt 12:30, 31 August 2008 (UTC)
# Mesoscopic Physics
## Purpose of this study guide

This project will comprise hints for mathematicians who want to become knowledgeable in the field of mesoscopic physics, including a list of prerequisites, pointers to useful textbooks and lecture notes, as well as some brief explanations of basic physical concepts. Conversely, physicists will we able to find out which topics in mesoscopic physics are connected to mathematical concepts, and find some explanations of these concepts (or pointers to those). The level we assume is that of a beginning graduate student in either mathematics or physics.
This resource has been set up by people working in the German 'collaborative research center' SFB TR/12 (funded by the German science foundation). That research network comprises physicists and mathematicians working on "Symmetries and Universality in Mesoscopic Physics". This involves, for example, applying modern mathematical methods to analyze the transport of electrons through micrometer-scale semiconductor structures, and related topics.
If you want to see an example of the kind of research originating there, try the article by Heinzner, Huckleberry, and Zirnbauer on "Symmetry Classes of Disordered Fermions" (arxiv:math-ph/0411040).
This study guide was started on August 31, 2008. Please bear with us as we construct these pages... If you have any suggestions for how to organize the material, or which features to introduce, visit our "Discussion" page and join the brainstorming session!
--FlorianMarquardt 11:41, 31 August 2008 (UTC)

## Your help is needed!

This is supposed to be a community project! The first place where you can contribute with a minimum of effort is in the "Mesoscopic Physics Glossary", where you could help with a very brief definition of a term or two. This will take no more than 5 or 10 minutes, even if you have never worked on any "wiki" before !

## The study guide

First, read our general brief "What is Mesoscopic Physics". Then, get to know which basic physical concepts you should master before learning about mesoscopic physics: "Physics Prerequisites". Next, find a list of useful learning material (textbooks, lecture notes etc.) on the topic itself: "Learning Mesoscopic Physics". Finally, browse our "Mesoscopic Physics Glossary" for getting to know the jargon of physicists and mathematicians. Note that mathematical mesoscopic physics involves quite a lot of different subdisciplines of mathematics. For an overview, have a look at our " Mathematics for Mesoscopic Physics". There you will find brief outlines of relevant math topics, suggestions on how to study them, and pointers to their use in mesoscopics. This should complement the short nontechnical definitions in the Glossary.
Have fun!
# Merits review (law)

'Merits review' is when a reviewer re-makes the decision under review.
For example, in Australia, if the Commissioner of Taxation assesses your taxable income at $100,000 and disallows an objection against that assessment, you can apply to the Administrative Appeals Tribunal ('AAT') for merits review. The AAT can decide for itself, based on any evidence before it, what your taxable income should be (whether that it higher or lower): Taxation Administration Act 1953 (Cth), Part IVC.
Merits review is distinguished from 'judicial review', where the reviewer (usually a court) can only overturn the decision under review if it was invalid (not merely wrong). Judicial review checks that the original decision-maker applied the right principles and applied them rationally to the evidence available at the time. The key distinction is that, under judicial review, the reviewer must accept the original decision-maker's conclusions on questions of fact and the original decision-maker's exercise of a discretion.
('Discretion' means that, given a particular set of laws and evidence, a decision-maker could validly make any one of a range of decisions; there is no one right answer. An example of discretion is when a criminal court sentences an offender. The sentence will be upheld on appeal unless it fell outside the range of reasonable answers, even if the appeal court thinks that a different answer within the range would have been more appropriate.)
A reviewer under judicial review may be empowered to, upon finding a relevant error in the decision under review, re-make the decision, or they may only be allowed to remit (send back) the decision to the original decision-maker with instructions about what principles to follow and how to avoid making the same error again.
Back to merits review, depending on the legislation that authorises the review, the reviewer may be able to take into account new evidence, or they may have to confine themselves to the evidence that was before the original decision-maker. The legislation under which the original decision was made may also affect whether facts which arose after the original decision was made are relevant or not.
In summary:
* under judicial review, the reviewer must uphold the decision under review, even if they think a different decision would have been better, unless there is a flaw in the process by which the original decision-maker made the decision;
* under merits review, the reviewer can start from scratch and decide what the right decision should be (which may or may not be the same as the original decision-maker's decision); they can form their own view of the facts and exercise their own discretion.
# Mergers and Acquisitions/The Deal Cycle

Welcome to M&A and the Deal Cycle, M&A 5200. This course is designed to introduce the student to essential concepts and cycles of mergers and acquisitions.

## Suggested Reading
### The Art of M&A Due Diligence

* M&A Ukraine
# Mergers and Acquisitions/The Due Diligence Process

Welcome to The Due Diligence Process, M&A 5400. This course is designed to introduce the student to essential concepts and practices of Due Diligence within Mergers and Acquisitions.
# Mergers and Acquisitions/Transactional Due Diligence

Welcome to Transactional Due Diligence, M&A 5410. This course is designed to introduce the student to Transactional Due Diligence - analysing the transaction's (aquisition agreement's) design and structure against securities, tax and accounting regulations.