OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Music theory

Composition is an exciting venue to explore and, here, you can find courses on the elements of music and how to use them as building blocks to write your own music.

## Courses and resources
### Introductory Courses

* Introduction to music
* Fundamentals of Music
* Beginners Music Theory
* Understanding music
* Music Appreciation
* Harmony
* Beginning Composition
* Fixed media composition

### Music Theory Sequence

* Music Theory I
* Music Theory II
* Music Theory III
* Music Theory IV

## Readings and learning media
### Media

* Analysis of backing vocals

### External

* Music Theory on Reddit - Learn about and discuss music theory on Reddit
# Musical direction

Wikiversity welcomes most types of learning materials that are not encyclopedia articles, textbooks, or source texts. Please note that Wikiversity is not a place for duplication of other Wikimedia projects.
Wikiversity has adopted a "learn by doing" model for online education and encourages the creation of learning activities for Wikiversity participants. Everyone is invited to help add useful content to Wikiversity. If you need help learning how to add content, see the editing tutorial and Welcome, newcomers. Visit the Colloquium if you have any questions.
# Musical direction/Introduction

* Introduction
* Introduction- Why?- The Immortal Question Answered
* As a Musical Director for numerous Musical Theatre companies and productions, I have often attempted to research into techniques, tactics, and knowledge on the subject of Musical Directing in Musical Theatre. Of course, this being a very specific field, there is little useful knowledge around. This is partly because of it being a very specific field, as fore-mentioned, but this lack of educational resources for Musical Theatre Music Directors (we'll refer to them as MD's) may also be caused by the wide range of knowledge needed to MD (musically direct) a full-throttle, leg-kickin' musical. The MD must be fluent in not only Musical knowledge (reading the score, interpreting the score, etc.) but also in the theatrical aspect. In fact, many MDs have been actors/actresses at one point or another, or have worked as Directors or Assistant Directors of theatrical productions. This cannot be stressed enough. A familiarity in theatre is completely necesarry in order to succeed as an MD in musical theatre.
* This course will attempt to train MDs in Musical Theatre with all the knowledge needed. However, some basic knowledge is needed before the start of this course. You must be fluent in basic music theory, and must be able to, at the least, play notes on the piano. You also should have general theatre experience, however this is not required.
* Most of all.. HAVE FUN! This course is intended to be fun and exciting!
# Natural logarithm/Real/Via exponential function/Definition

The natural logarithm
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \ln x,$
is defined as the inverse function of the real exponential function.
# Natural logarithm/Derivative/Fact

The derivative of the natural logarithm
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \ln x,$
    $\ln \!'\colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto {\frac {1}{x}}.$
# Natural logarithm/Functional equation/Bijection/Continuity/Monotonicity/Fact

The natural logarithm
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \ln x,$
continuous strictly increasing function, which defines a bijection between $\mathbb {R} _{+}$ and $\mathbb {R}$. Moreover, the functional equation
    $\ln(x\cdot y)=\ln x+\ln y\,$
holds for all
$x,y\in \mathbb {R} _{+}$
# Natural logarithm/Derivative/Fact/Proof/Exercise

Determine the derivative of the function
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
# Natural logarithm/Functional equation/Bijection/Continuity/Monotonicity/Fact/Proof

This follows from fact, fact, fact and fact.
# Natural Language Processing
## Introduction

Natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial intelligence and linguistics. It studies the problems of automated generation and understanding of natural human languages. Natural language generation systems convert information from computer databases into normal-sounding human language, and natural language understanding systems convert samples of human language into more formal representations that are easier for computer programs to manipulate.
The field is divided in two major categories:
* Speech Recognition and generation, and
* text interpretation and generation.
The technologies needed for both are very different, "speech" being addressed normally by Electronic or Telecommunications Engineers, while "text" being more addressed by Computer Scientists. Additionally, Speech recognition and speech generation are normally architectured as a layer over a Text recognition / generation engine.
To follow a course on NLP, you must know about Formal languages and Grammars, and be able to program fluently. For the practicals, you must learn a Logic programming language; Prolog is recommended. A rule based programming language can serve as well, although it perhaps is more difficult to master.

## Document Decomposition

If you look on this text above
* the document consists of sections,
* each section consists of paragraphs,
* each paragraph consists of sentences,
* each sentence consist of words and
* words consist of characters/symbols.
Furthermore the text contains more information we could identify, e.g. a header or links. In general a document can contain other document elements images, audio, video or interactive elements like forms or geometric construction that can be manipulated by the reader.

## Abstract Syntax Tree

A tree can represent the decomposition of text into substructures. The decomposition of text into sections is e.g. the top level of an Abstract Syntax Tree (AST).

## Learning Activities

* (Abstract Syntax Tree) Draw the top level of the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) that decomposes this text into sections,
* (Language Section Decomposition) Look into specific languages like HTML, Markdown, Latex, ... and identify syntax elements that are available to determine headers in a texts,
* (Regular Expression) write a regular expression e.g. in Javascript that extracts headers (e.g. "Introduction") and the level of the header (i.e. section, subsection, ... )
** in HTML the level 1 is defined with h1, h2, ... tags, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2
   * in Latex the levels are defined with \section{...}, \subsection{...}, ... command, e.g. for section header "introduction" and a subsection "My Subsection" with the level 2 are defined in Latex with the following commands
# Natural logarithm/Derivative/Fact/Proof

As the logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function, we can apply fact and get
    $\ln '(x)={\frac {1}{\exp '(\ln x)}}={\frac {1}{\exp(\ln x)}}={\frac {1}{x}}\,,$
using fact.
# Natural logarithm/Inverse function to real exponential function/Introduction/Section
## Definition

The natural logarithm
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \ln x,$
is defined as the inverse function of the

## Theorem

The natural logarithm
    $\ln \colon \mathbb {R} _{+}\longrightarrow \mathbb {R} ,x\longmapsto \ln x,$
continuous strictly increasing function, which defines a bijection between $\mathbb {R} _{+}$ and $\mathbb {R}$. Moreover, the functional equation
    $\ln(x\cdot y)=\ln x+\ln y\,$
holds for all
$x,y\in \mathbb {R} _{+}$

### Proof

This follows from fact, fact, fact and fact.
$\Box$
# Programming languages
### Contents

Programming languages are the method used to instruct a computer in how to accomplish a task.
A programming language is a collection of operators and instructions, with specific rules or syntax regarding how the instructions are placed together. Various operations can be combined in an almost infinite number of ways to achieve the tasks we want the computer to perform.

### Low-Level Languages

Some programming languages are bound to a particular set of hardware, commonly called Low-Level languages. Low-level languages will consist of a very small amount of abstraction to no abstraction from the computers set architecture. This language is able to covert to machine code, without the need of an interpreter. It will run the program straight on the processor. Typically, low-level languages are simple and will run very quickly. An example of a low-level language is Assembly, where the target is for a particular CPU instruction set. See Wikipedia: Low-level programming language for more information.

### High-Level Languages

Other languages are more abstract from the hardware, and are known as High-Level languages. High-Level languages will consist of a large amount of abstraction from the computers set architecture. A lot of the time, High-Level languages will use natural language aspects, which makes it easier to use and can automate areas found in the computing systems. This language can make the development of programs simpler and significantly easier to understand, compared to a Low-Level language. An example of a high level language is Java. See Wikipedia: High-level programming language for more information.

### Other Information

Early generations of computer languages were mostly procedural in nature. Theory taught that code should be logically divided, but left that division up to the programmer. More recently, Object Oriented languages have become more prominent. These languages encourage a more logical division of code.
One thing that should be noted is that programming languages are tools, and every tool has its strengths and weaknesses. While a high level language isolates a programmer from hardware, the programmer loses the ability to directly control that hardware. Choosing the right tool for a problem is very important.

### Questions for self-test

* Next lesson
* Back to course contents

### Multimedia

* YouTube: The First Programming Languages
* YouTube: Low-Level vs High-Level Programming Languages
* YouTube: Machine Code and High Level Languages using Interpreters and Compilers

### See also: programming languages

Category:Programming languages - An overview of many different languages
* Ada
* Assembly
* Bash
* C
* C++
* Go
* Haskell
* Java
* JavaScript
* Lua
* mKR
* Pascal
* PowerShell
* Processing
* Prolog
* Python
* Rust
* Smalltalk
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Atypical Parkinsonism/Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD)

< Back to: Atypical parkinsonism
   Corticobasal Degeneration is a neurological disease, the symptoms of which can be difficult to distinguish from Parkinson's Disease

## Background

CBD is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by nerve cell loss and atrophy (shrinkage) of multiple areas of the brain including the cerebral cortex and the basal ganglia. It is a progressive, incurable and largely untreatable condition, the causes and pathology of which have yet to be determined
Onset is generally around the age of 60 and an average fatal outcome is 8 years. Typical symptoms include bradykinesia, freezing, impaired balance, rigidity, muscle jerks, visual and cognitive impairment, swallowing problems and speeh impediments. Many patients lose the ability to walk.

## Research

2011
Mastrolilli et al reviewed the diagnostic criteria for CBD.
   Molecularly CBD is a taupathy, characterised by accumulation of abnormal ﬁlamentous inclusions of hyperphosphorylated tau-protein in neurons and glia, similarly to Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), and some forms of frontotemporal dementia with Parkinsonism. This molecular overlap, especially with PSP is very argued, and whether they are the extremities of the spectrum of a single disorder or two diﬀerent disorders with a similar genetic predisposition is not clear.

## Further Reading

1997
Litvan, I.; Agid, Y.; Goetz, C.; Jankovic, J.; Wenning G.K.; Brandel, J.P.; Lai, E.C.; Verny, M.; Chaudhuri,K. Ray; McKee, A.; Jellinger, K; Pearce, R.K.B. and Bartko,Abstract J.J. Abstract Neurology 48 (1) 119-125.
Accuracy of the Clinical Diagnosis of Corticobasal Degeneration- A Clinicopathologic Study.
http://www.neurology.org/content/48/1/119.short
2011
Ana Herrero Valverde, Ana; Sónia Costa, Timoteo, Ângela; Timoteo, Ginestal, Ricardo and Pimental, José. Full Text Case Rep. Neurol. 3(2): 185–190.
Rapidly Progressive Corticobasal Degeneration Syndrome
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3177789/?tool=pmcentrez
Today
   Use the following links to query the PubMed, PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases using the Search terms:- CBD diagnosis.
   This will list the latest papers on this topic. You are invited to update this page to reflect such recent results, pointing out their significance.
Pubmed (abstracts)
Pubmed_Central (Full_Text)
Google_Scholar

## Related Pages

< Back to: Atypical parkinsonism
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Atypical Parkinsonism

< Back to: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
   A range of overlapping neurological conditions with similar symptoms gives rise to frequent diagnostic problems.

## Background

The following table identifies some common neurological disorders, their 'trademark' pathological characteristics, and the parts of the CNS affected
| Condition | Pathology | Neurology |
| Alzheimer's disease | Amyloid plaques, Neurofibrillary tangles | Cerebral cortex, Hippocampus,Basal nucleus of Meynert |
| Corticobasal degeneration | Ballooned neurons with tau inclusions | Cerebral cortex,Basal ganglia |
| Lewy body dementia | Lewy bodies | Cerebral cortex, Basal ganglia, Basal nucleus of Meynert |
| Multiple system atrophy | Alpha-synuclein inclusions | Hindbrain structures involved in balance and autonomic functions |
| Parkinson's disease | Lewy bodies | Substantia nigra, Dorsal nucleus of vagus,Basal nucleus of Meynert |
| Progressive supranuclear palsy | Neurofibrillary tangles | Cerebral cortex, Basal ganglia, Spinal cord, Midbrain |
| Vascular dementia | Vascular infarctions, | Cerebral cortex, Hippocampus |

## Research

1992
Hughes et al re-evaluated 100 patients diagnosed prospectively by a group of consultant neurologists as having idiopathic Parkinson's disease .
   In 24 cases without Lewy bodies, diagnoses included progressive supranuclear palsy, multiple system atrophy, Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimer-type pathology, and basal ganglia vascular disease. The retrospective application of recommended diagnostic criteria improved the diagnostic accuracy to 82%. These observations call into question current concepts of Parkinson's disease as a single distinct morbid entity.
2003
Yekhief et al evaluated the use of MRI scans in the diagnosis of PD and PD+ syndromes.
   The “cortical” score distinguished CBD and PSP from MSA with a fair PPV (>90%). The PPV of the “putaminal” score was high (70%) for the differential diagnosis of MSA with PSP and CBD. The “midbrain” score was significantly higher in PSP and CBD compared to MSA. These results are in accordance with the underlying pathology found in these disorders and demonstrate that a simple MRI scoring procedure may help the neurologist to differentiate primary causes of parkinsonism in everyday practice.

## Related pages

< Back to parent page: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
Subpages:
    MSA, PSP, DLB
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Atypical Parkinsonism/Essential-Tremor

< Back to: Atypical parkinsonism
   Essential Tremor (ET) is a movement disorder which is sometimes diagnostically confused with the resting tremor which is a signature symptom of PD.

## Background

This tremor affects the upper limbs initially and can spread to other parts of the body. It occurs when there is ongoing muscular activity unlike the PD tremor, which occurs at rest. It can be brought on or intensified by psychological stress. The frequency is from 4 to 12 Hz.

## Research

2008
Louis evaluated the epidemiology of ET.
   The development of PD has often been described in ET patients. In recent studies, ET patients were 2–4 times more likely to develop PD (that is, ET plus PD) when compared to persons without ET. ET-like action tremor is more common in PD families than control families , further supporting the links between ET and PD, and postmortem studies have now shown that a subset of ET patients has brainstem (mainly in the locus ceruleus) Lewy bodies.
2010
Schwingenschuh et al carried ut a detailed study of a oohort of patients designated as SWEDDs (Scans Without Evidence of Dopaminergic Deficit).
   We used transcranial magnetic stimulation with a facilitatory paired associative stimulation (PAS) paradigm to test if sensorimotor plasticity in SWEDDs resembled the pattern seen in PD, dystonia or ET.....
   ...A combination of re-emergent tremor and highest tremor amplitude in the resting condition was characteristic of PD tremor, while SWEDDs, dystonia and ET subjects had the highest tremor amplitude during action. Both SWEDDs and segmental dystonia patients exhibited an exaggerated pattern of sensorimotor plasticity in response to the PAS paradigm, with spread of excitation to an adjacent hand muscle. In contrast, PD patients showed no response to PAS, and the response of ET patients was no different from controls. Taken together, these results may help differentiate these SWEDDs patients from PD and support our hypothesis that adult-onset dystonia is the underlying diagnosis in this sub-group of patients with SWEDDs.

## Further Reading

Today
   Use the following links to query the PubMed, PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases using the Search terms:- Essential_tremor diagnosis.
   This will list the latest papers on this topic. You are invited to update this page to reflect such recent results, pointing out their significance.
Pubmed (abstracts)
Pubmed_Central (Full_Text)
Google_Scholar
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Atypical Parkinsonism/Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

< Back to: Atypical parkinsonism
   Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) is a neurodegenerative disease with no known cause or cure. In its initial stages it closely resembles Parkinson's Disease and there is scope for misdiagnosis. Its later stages are characterised by other symptoms, notably a poor response to dopamine replacement therapy and difficulties in moving the eyes.

## Research

1986
Litvan et al have set out the clinical criteria to be use in the diagnosis of PSP.
   The criteria specify three degrees of diagnostic certainty: possible PSP, probable PSP, and definite PSP. Possible PSP requires the presence of a gradually progressive disorder with onset at age 40 or later, either vertical supranuclear gaze palsy or both slowing of vertical saccades and prominent postural instability with falls in the first year of onset, as well as no evidence of other diseases that could explain these features. Probable PSP requires vertical supranuclear gaze palsy, prominent postural instability, and falls in the first year of onset, as well as the other features of possible PSP. Definite PSP requires a history of probable or possible PSP and histopathologic evidence of typical PSP.

## Further Reading

Today
   Use the following links to query the PubMed, PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases using the Search terms:- PSP diagnosis.
   This will list the latest papers on this topic. You are invited to update this page to reflect such recent results, pointing out their significance.
Pubmed (abstracts)
Pubmed_Central (Full_Text)
Google_Scholar

## Related pages

< Back to parent page: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
Subpages:
    MSA, PSP, DLB
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Atypical Parkinsonism/Multiple System Atrophy

< Back to: Atypical parkinsonism
   Multiple System Atrophy is a neurological disease which is distinct pathologically from PD but presents with the same symptoms and can result in misdiagnosis.. Its cause(s) are unknown and there is no known cure or effective treatment. Other distinctive features are:-
   * Failure to respond to dopamine replacement therapy;
   * Severe problems with balance, drops in blood pressure and bladder control.
   * Reduced life expectancy (average 7.9 years after onset)
   * Men are more likely to succumb to it than women
   * 80% of patients have to use wheel chairs within 5 years.

## Research

2008
Gilman et al set out the results of a conference which was set up in order to achieve a consensus in the criteria use to diagnose MSA.
2009
Lipp et al used careful measurements of the rate of autonomic failure to distinguish between PD and MSA patients. Their conclusions were:-
   The main findings of this prospective study to date are that functional status (UMSARS_1) and especially certain select autonomic symptom domains (COMPASS_Select) and deficits (CASS; TST%) will distinguish PD from MSA. Additionally, a repeat study in 12 months will further differentiate the two conditions, since MSA is characterized by a much more rapid progression of dysautonomia and functional status. This two-step approach of systematic evaluation at entry and at one year enhances the ability of the clinician to diagnose MSA with greater sensitivity and specificity.

## Further Reading

Today
   Use the following links to query the PubMed, PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases using the Search terms:- MSA diagnosis.
   This will list the latest papers on this topic. You are invited to update this page to reflect such recent results, pointing out their significance.
Pubmed (abstracts)
Pubmed_Central (Full_Text)
Google_Scholar

## Related pages

< Back to parent page: Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research
Subpages:
    MSA, PSP, DLB