OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Haskell/Introduction
## What is Haskell?

According to the Haskell website, Haskell is a[citation needed]
   "polymorphically statically typed, lazy, purely functional language, quite different from most other programming languages. The language is named for Haskell Brooks Curry, whose work in mathematical logic serves as a foundation for functional languages. Haskell is based on the lambda calculus"

## What that means

Practically, this means that experience in other, more traditional programming languages, may not be applicable.
Perhaps the most notable difference is that Haskell is a declarative language. This means that instead of the programmer specifying commands for the computer to execute directly, the programmer describes the data and algorithms for the compiler so that it can then tell the computer what to do. Put another way, the programmer says what things are as opposed to how to do them.
Further, the use of strong static typing may require the programmer to think in terms of types to be effective and efficient, which is often not the case in other languages. However, it is worth noting that despite Haskell's strict type system, it does employ type inference, which takes a significant burden off of the programmer.
In addition to the declarative and type-strict aspects of Haskell, it enforces pure functional programming. The primary benefit of pure functional programming is often called referential transparency. This means that any given function will always produce the same output given the same input. This is useful for reducing cognitive load on the programmer, optimization, safety, and simplicity in program design. Further, Haskell functions do not permit side-effects, such as mutating global state or performing IO.
Finally, Haskell is lazy. This is also called call by need. What this means is that functions will only be evaluated as they are needed. Practically, this lets the programmer use infinite data structures with much greater ease than is possible in more traditional evaluation models.
The novice Haskell programmer may initially see the strictness of the type system as a burden and wonder why Haskell uses it at all. The power of the type system allows for more semantic information to be encoded directly into the source code which allows for the compiler to perform more static analysis than it otherwise could. This increase in static analysis means that Haskell can make more guarantees about safety than most languages, perform aggressive optimization, and provide more meaningful error messages to the programmer.
# Georgian language

Georgian is the official language of the Republic of Georgia. There are approximately 6 million native speakers of Georgian worldwide. The vast majority of Georgian speakers are located in Georgia but significant size communities can also be found in Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Russia. Georgian belongs to the Southern branch of the Caucasian family of languages. Its closest relations are Svan and Megrelian, which are spoken primarily in Northwest Georgia. Georgian possesses a number of dialects but is most commonly grouped into either Eastern or Western dialects. Standard Georgian is based on Eastern dialects. Georgian employs it own unique form for writing. Called Mkhedruli (the military/secular writing), the Georgian alphabet consists of thirty-three letters: 5 vowels and 28 consonants.
Georgian Language Course For Everybody is specially organized for international people, who are interested in learning Georgian Language in Tbilisi and be familiarized with Georgian culture. Staying in our country is an exciting and unique way to learn about Georgian history, culture and traditions. It's a wonderful opportunity to study and practice Georgian conversation.
Georgian Language Course contains: speaking, listening, grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing and special course about Georgian history and culture.
Course is designed both for beginners and peoples with skill of basics in Georgian Language.
Our teachers are all highly qualified, experienced and committed, who take a personal interest in each of our student. All teaching materials and textbooks are provided FREE for every student.
More information, please visit:
# Geosphere

Geosphere (J-eoos-fere) are all of the regions of Earth and the atmosphere (other regions including lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere). You could look into Wikipedia's definition as "The geosphere may be taken as the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere", or the standardized dictionary definition as a lithosphere (same thing at dictionary.com)... or maybe into earth.rice.edu's definition as "The geosphere is considered that portion of the Earth system that includes the Earth's interior, rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that shape the Earth's surface" - or a simplified version of the definition: "The geosphere includes the rocks and minerals on Earth – from the molten rock and heavy metals in the deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches and peaks of mountains. The geosphere also includes the abiotic (non-living) parts of soils, and the skeletons of animals that may become fossilized over geologic time.".
But.. hold up! We've got to define the words at the beginning first in italics! The lithosphere, according to a dictionary-definition, is "the crust and upper mantle of the earth"... while... when we go to a science-related website for a definition (NatGeo), we get "The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the Earth. The lithosphere includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of Earth’s structure". Now, onwards to hydrosphere, we simply get "The hydrosphere is the world of water that surrounds all of us.", but remember! The frozen waters of the planet are the Cryospheres. And, obviously, the atmosphere is the surrounding gases around the Earth (textbook definition).
As you can see with the heaps of definitions and tidbits, the Geosphere is one confusing term. But, in modern text books, the Geosphere are the solid parts of the Earth. Though, it is used as the term, lithosphere, sometimes (as you can see with the dictionary-term definitions).
Make sure to review this article, as there is a lot of information to be memorized! And I hope for you an exciting journey through Earth science!
# Geotechnical engineering

Geotechnical engineering is an important subset of civil engineering dealing with engineering performance of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering uses the principles of soil and rock mechanics to determine:
* subsurface conditions and materials;
* relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials;
* stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits;
* risks posed by site conditions;
which should be used in a process of design of:
* earthworks;
* structure foundations;
and in monitoring of:
* site conditions;
* earthwork and foundation construction.
Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls.
# Geriatric Eye Health

Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness throughout the world (Quillen). Twenty percent of older adults have a cataract and fifty percent of adults after age seventy-four have a cataract (“Vision”). Cataracts become much more common as age increases. Less than five percent of persons under the age of sixty-five (Quillen), twenty percent of older adults, and fifty percent of adults over the age of seventy-four (“Vision”). Each eye has a lens that helps the eye focus images. The lens is made of protein and as a person ages the protein builds up on the lens (Stibich). This causes the lens to appear cloudy or opaque (“Vision”). This cloudiness may make it seem like the person is looking out of a frosted or yellowed window. Besides blurred vision, cataracts are accompanied by other symptoms such as: glare, light sensitivity, poor night vision, double vision, a need for brighter light to read, and fading or yellowing of colors. Cataracts can be detected by an eye care professional, like an optometrist or ophthalmologist (“American”). The progression of cataracts is typically slow (Quillen). Eyeglasses or contact lenses can aid vision if the cataracts have not progressed very far (“Vision”). If the cataracts have progressed, the cataract will need to be removed by surgery to improve vision. Surgery is suggested when the cataract is developed enough to interfere with the persons job or his or her ability to drive, read, or perform other daily tasks comfortably (“American”). Cataract surgery is easily available, safe, and effective in treating cataracts (Quillen). About 1.5 million cataract surgeries are performed each year in the United States. The surgery usually takes less than fifteen minutes and is done under local or topical anesthesia (“Vision”). Cataract surgery is a very low risk procedure. Ninety percent of patients notice improved vision following cataract surgery (Quillen).
American Academy of Opthalmology. (2007). Eye disease on the rise among older Americans, few realize risk [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.aao.org/newsroom/
Quillen, D., M.D. (1999, July 1). Common causes of vision loss in elderly patients. American Family Physician, 60(1), 99-108. Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/1999/0701/
Stibich, M., Ph.D. (2007, May 24). Aging and eye diseases. Retrieved January 18, 2012, from about.com website: http://longevity.about.com/od/healthyagingandlongevity/ a/aging_eyes.htm Vision loss and other eye diseases. (2005, April 1). Retrieved January 18, 2012, from American
# Improvisation
## Overview

The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music by Michael Kennedy (1996) defines Improvisation as a performance according to the inventive whim of the moment, i.e. without a written or printed score, and not from memory. It has been an important element in music throughout the centuries.
Improvisation is something quite interesting and fun to do. It is an amazing ability to be able to sit down at a piano, or whatever instrument, and just play to your heart's content.
However, this ability requires an understanding of music theory, so I suggest that you (the reader) go to the beginner section and read the section on introductory music theory. If you feel that you are comfortable with music theory, then please continue.

## History

In classical music we have what is called a cadenza. A cadenza is an improvization, showing off the virtuosity of the soloist (whether it be a singer, pianist, violinist etc...), which is usually inserted into the final cadence of any section of a vocal aria or solo instrumental movement.

## Improvisation Basics

Basic improvisation relies largely on the accompaning chords. Generally, to basically improvise is to take the notes of the chord being played and mix them up, add a rhythm, and turn them into a melody. Here's an example. Let's say we have a four bar chord progression. C|F|G|C In the first bar you can take the three notes of C, and mix them up. Let's say in this example you play one note per beat, with four beats per bar. It means that you could randomly use C,E or G in an order, which you would make up as you went. In the second bar you could mix up the notes F,A and C in any order, and in third bar using the notes G,B and D. Here is an improvisation. Try playing this on your instrument: C G E C|C F F A|G B D B|C E C C You can mix up the notes in any order to make an improvisation.
# In the Lands of the Romanovs: An Annotated Bibliography of First-hand English-language Accounts of the Russian Empire (1613-1917)/Bibliography of Bibliographies
## Bibliography of Bibliographies

Adelung, Friedrich von, Kritisch-literärische Ubersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700, deren Berichte bekannt sind. St Petersburg: Eggers, 1846. 2 vols.
Babey, Anna Maria, Americans in Russia, 1776-1917: a study of the American travelers in Russia from the American Revolution to the Russian Revolution. New York: The Comet Press, 1938.
Beard, Michael, ‘European travelers in the Trans-Caspian before 1917’, Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, vol. XIII (1972), pp. 590-96.
Bibliothèque impériale publique de St.-Pétersbourg, Catalogue de la section des Russica ou écrits sur la Russie en langues étrangères. St Petersburg, 1873; reprint: Amsterdam: P. Schippers, 1964. 2 vols.
Cliff, David, A Crimean War bibliography in two parts. N.p: Crimean Research Society, n.d.
Cox, Edward Godfrey, A reference guide to the literature of travel, including voyages, geographical descriptions, adventures, shipwrecks and expeditions. Seattle: University of Washington, 1935. Vol. I ‘The old world’.
Crowther, Peter A., A bibliography of works in English on early Russian history to 1800. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1969.
Egan, David R. and Egan, Melinda A., Russian autocrats from Ivan the Great to the fall of the Romanov dynasty: an annotated bibliography of English language sources to 1985. Metuchen, N.J. & London: The Scarecrow Press, 1987.
Howego, Raymond John, Encyclopedia of exploration to 1800. Potts Point, Aus: Hardern House, 2003.
Iakovleva, I.G., Dorevoliutsionnye izdaniia po istorii SSSR v inostrannom fonde GPB: sistematicheskii ukazatel’. Leningrad: State Public Library, 1986.
Nerhood, Harry, To Russia and return: an annotated bibliography of travelers’ English-language accounts of Russia from the ninth century to the present. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1968.
Poe, Marshall, Foreign descriptions of Muscovy: an analytic bibliography of primary and secondary sources. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers, 1965.
Smele, Jonathan D., The Russian Revolution and Civil War 1917-1921: an annotated bibliography. London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002.
Smith, Harold Frederick, American travelers abroad: bibliography of accounts published before 1900. Carbondale: South Illinois University Press, 1969.
Speake, Jennifer (ed.), Literature of travel and exploration: an encyclopedia. New York & London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2003. 3 vols.
Waddington, Patrick, A bibliography of English-language books and pamphlets relating to Russia and things Russian, printed in the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century (1801-1900). Upper Hutt, N.Z.: Whirinaki Press, 2001.
# High School Chemistry/Thermochemistry & States of Matter

Thermochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with how heat energy changes during chemical reactions.
The Law of Conversation of Energy is that energy, the capacity to do work or supply heat, cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one state of matter to another (a hot object to a cooler object). Remember that in an endothermic process, heat is absorbed (feels cold), while in an exothermic process, heat is released (feels hot).
* Heat energy: Represented by "q" is the TOTAL energy released/absorbed (UNITS: J/kJ/cal)
* Enthalpy: Represented by "ΔH" is the energy released/absorbed PER MOLE (UNITS: kJ/mol)
* Thermochemical Equation: A chemical equation that has an "ΔH" (or quantity of heat released/absorbed during a reaction per mole).
* Heat can either be produced, therefore a product, or it can be absorbed, therefore a reactant.
* The heat of reaction represents the quantity of energy is taken for the reaction to occur.
A way to calculate heat released/absorbed in a thermochemical equation is to use the Heat of Formation, which is the amount of energy released to create a substance. Most formations of substances commonly listed are exothermic.
A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1 degree celsius. A joule is a SI unit of heat energy. (CONVERSION FACTOR: 1 cal/4.184 J; This is also water's specific heat value, which is very high)

## Calculating q

q=mCpΔT
* q = heat energy (J)
* m = mass (g or moles)
* Cp = specific heat capacity (J/gC)
* ΔT = T$_f$ - T$_i$ (C)

## Phase Changes

* ΔHfus (molar heat of fusion: melt (s --> l)) = -ΔHsolid (molar heat of solidifiction: freeze (l --> s)
* ΔHvap (molar heat of vaporization: vaporize (l --> g)) = -ΔHcond (molar heat of condensation: condense (g --> l)
# High School German
## Introduction

Welcome to High School German. This course is designed for High School students with no prior language learning experience. The language of the course is German, and learners will build their understanding of German over a four year curriculum.
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. Today, German is the most spoken native language in the European Union. German is the majority language in the DACH countries of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. As of 2012 there were 90,000,000 native speakers of German worldwide
German is also the majority spoken language in South Tyrol in Italy, and the German-speaking Community of Belgium. It is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg and a co-official language in the Opole Voivodeship in Poland.
The German language is most similar to other languages within the West Germanic language branch, including Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Frisian, Low German/Low Saxon, Luxembourgish, and Yiddish.
It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, although they belong to the North Germanic group.
German is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English.
In this course, learners will be taught Standard German otherwise known as Hochdeutsch.

### Citations

* ↑ "Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and their languages" (PDF) (report). European Commission. June 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2015.

# Main Course Sequence

* German I
* German II
* German III
* German IV/AP

# Additional Lessons

In addition to the core curriculum; find links below to lessons tied to holidays, historical events, and cultural products.
* Additional Lessons

## External Dictionaries

* Leo.org - The largest and most detailed traditional English to German Dictionary on the internet
* Linguee.com - a machine learning dictionary that provides contextual examples.

## Verb Conjugations

* Reverso Conjugator - a verb conjugation reference website.

## Grammar

* Grimms Grammar - a Grammar reference guide provided by UT Austin.

## Other German Courses Online

* Nico's Weg - a soap opera based language learning course from the German public broadcaster DW.
* Deutsch im Blick - An OER German 101 college course produced by UT Austin.
vteAdditional German Resources :
# Instructional design/Cognitive behaviors/Understanding Defined

Back to Topic:Instructional Design > Cognitive behaviors > Understanding Concepts > Define > Learn > Teach > Tactics > Try It > Example
Source: Understanding Understanding by Charles M. Reigeluth. Used by Permission.

## What is Understanding?

Understanding is meaningful learning. It is usually contrasted with rote learning (memorization), although it is also distinct from skill application and generic skill application. So, what is the difference between applying concepts and understanding concepts? We saw in Module 3, Concept Classification is a mental skill which requires us to classify instances as being examples or nonexamples of a concept. But for many concepts, classification is not important, or not even possible. The concept of an atom is a case in point. We will probably never need (or be able) to classify actual instances as examples, but we certainly can acquire an understanding of what an atom is.
We saw in Module 3 that there are two major kinds of change relationships: procedures, which are actions performed to achieve a goal, and principles, which are natural changes, including natural processes and cause-effect relationships. Procedures can be learned rotely. You can learn to follow steps successfully without having any understanding of why you are doing what you are doing, nor why what you are doing works. In fact, it is principles which give one that understanding. Behind every procedure, there is at least one principle which explains why it works (although we may not have discovered the principle yet). Hence, it is not procedures which are directly understood, as they are only understood by understanding the principles which underlie them.
Let's consider a principle like the law of supply and demand. To understand the relationship between price and the quantity of a good supplied (by producers) and demanded (by consumers) is to form a mental model which integrates it with what you already know. Each mental model, or cluster of interrelated knowledge, is referred to as a schema.
Understanding is probably the least studied and least understood type of learning within the cognitive domain. Fortunately, it is an area which is currently receiving a lot of attention by learning psychologists.
Click Next to continue.
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# Instructional design/Color Selection for Message Design

* Color Selection for Message Design
| Introduction Unit 1 High- and Low-Keyed Colors Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 2 Warm and Cool Colors Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 3 Color Combinations Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 4 Psychology of Colors Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Final Exam! Final Exam Summary | Introduction Have you ever had trouble deciding which colors to use for your design? In this course, you will be able to learn the effects of colors and color combinations that would enable you to select colors in systematic ways for effective instruction. Course Objectives By learning the contents of this course, you will be able to: Draw upon design principles and theories when selecting colors for instructional media. Justify your color selection using design principles and theories. Make appropriate colors selections according to design objectives. The result will be: A systematic selection of colors for instructional materials. Instructional materials with colors that fit design objectives. Your improved communication skills as a professional. Course Information As you can see in the left menu bar, you will learn to define and identify effects of high- and low-keyed colors, warm and cool colors, color combinations and the psychological effects of certain colors. Each unit has quizzes for you to check your understanding. This course would take approximately 30 minutes to complete. Photos in this course are retrieved from Wikimedia Commons. This course was developed on April 8, 2014, by Kei Tomita, Ph.D. Start the Lesson >> |
# Instructional design/Color Selection for Message Design/Unit1 Definition

* Color Selection for Message Design
| Introduction Unit 1 High- and Low-Keyed Colors Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 2 Warm and Cool Colors Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 3 Color Combinations Definition Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Unit 4 Psychology of Colors Effects Quiz Scenario Quiz Final Exam! Final Exam Summary | Definition of High- and Low-Keyed Colors A key is not only what you carry in your pocket to unlock doors! Key, as it relates to color, is the amount of lightness and darkness. High-keyed colors are often referred to as pastel colors, and low-keyed colors are often referred to as dark colors. Also, in fine art, key is often referred to as value. High-keyed colors = Pastel colors = Light-valued colors; Colors mixed with white (White is the strongest high-keyed color) Low-keyed colors = Dark colors = Dark-valued colors; Colors mixed with black or gray (Black is the strongest low-keyed color) Examples of High-Keyed Colors Examples of Low-Keyed Colors << Introduction | Effects >> |