OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Cosmology/Course

Cosmology is a one-semester Wikiversity course that presents the late twentieth century/early twenty-first century cosmological model, mainly, but not fully, based on general relativity. The course may be used in a traditional university, within the conditions of the free licensing terms indicated at the bottom of this Wikiversity web page. It may be modified and redistributed according to the same conditions, for example, via the Wikiversity and Wikimedia Commons web sites. For similar Wikiversity courses and learning resources on special and general relativity, see Cosmology, Topic:Special relativity and Topic:General relativity.

## Lectures
### PDF presentations

The images used in the PDFs are listed in the image gallery.

### How to use these
#### Teacher
##### classroom mode

These lectures are designed to be used by a teacher in fullscreen mode (e.g. xpdf -fullscreen) using a computer projector (beamer) in a face-to-face, real-life classroom. Internal clickable links at the bottom of the presentations (except for the opening slide) can be used to navigate between key ideas.

#### Student
##### post-classroom desktop mode

After participating in lectures, you may use the pdf files to think through the ideas at your own pace. It is highly recommended that you click on links in the pdf files to read Wikipedia articles that go to more depth and lead in turn to introductory and research-level literature. Using a pdf viewer like xpdf, clicking on a Wikipedia link in the pdf file should open that page in a new panel in a web browser. You may need to view the pdf files in partial screen mode, not fullscreen mode.

##### no-classroom desktop mode

Viewing these pdf's without "classroom" help from someone who knows the subject is unlikely to be enough to learn the subject. But you may try! Possible ways to learn without a face-to-face teacher giving lectures include:
* find others (at least one teacher and preferably several other students) who are willing to wiki-coordinate together - you will need to choose an appropriate resource type, maybe a "workshop"
and wiki-coordinate with a teacher and other students
* ask at the w:Wikipedia:Reference desk/Science
* use the pdf's in parallel to reading the associated Wikipedia articles
* read through the external references listed in the associated Wikipedia articles, in parallel to looking through the pdf here

## Exercises

Exercises using the WIMS system should be made available on WIMS servers in 2014 or 2015.

## Reading list
### In depth

* - George Ellis - Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology - this is a proper scientific approach, i.e. serious philosophy explained in simple (scientific) words
# Cosmic radiation astronomy/Quiz

Cosmic-ray astronomy is a lecture as part of the astronomy course on the principles of radiation astronomy.
You are free to take this quiz based on cosmic-ray astronomy at any time.
To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under See also, External links, and in the {{principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.
As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.
Suggestion: Have the lecture available in a separate window.
To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.
Enjoy learning by doing!

## Hypotheses

* Cosmic rays leave a trail that can be detected.
# Cosmology
## Studies and Essays

* /Dichotomous cosmology, based on the work of Y. Heymann.
* Nonstandard physics/Vortex Science essay by Derenek
# Cosmogony

Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of either the cosmos or universe.
"Developing a complete theoretical model has implications in both the philosophy of science and epistemology."
In astronomy, cosmogony refers to the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used in reference to the origin of the Universe, the Solar System, or the Earth–Moon system.

## Resources

* Cosmogony
* Cosmogony laboratory
* Cosmogony quiz

## See Also

* Wikipedia: Cosmogony
# Cosmological simulations

Computer simulations are a powerful and important tool for understanding the cosmos. A detailed simulation can provide a means for understanding processes which occur on such long time scales (millions or even billions of years) that it is not possible to to observe these events in the universe. Cosmological simulations are used to study galaxy collisions and also the formation of large scale structure in the universe. The introductory lesson below assumes no prior background in astronomy. The advanced lesson requires experience in building computer programs from source code.

## Introductory

Note: The Galaxy Crash applet is no longer available online. See this link to download the code: http://burro.case.edu/JavaLab/
Another online simulation is available at Colliding Galaxies

## Advanced

GADGET was developed from 2000-2005 to run cosmological simulations on massively parallel computers with distributed memory. This older software was selected for this resource due to the fact that the example programs can now be run on a typical personal computer.
GADGET-2
* GADGET-2: A code for cosmological simulations of structure formation - Simulation code for galaxy collisions or for early structure formation in the universe.
   * Installing and Running Gadget-2
   * Running your first SPH simulation
SWIFT
* SWIFT: SPH With Inter-dependent Fine-grained Tasking - Simulation code for galaxy collisions or for early structure formation in the universe, a drop-in replacement of GADGET-2.
Initial conditions
* Starscream: A GPL code for galactic astronomy - Used to generate initial conditions to use with GADGET for galaxy collision simulations.
GPU version
* cuda-gadget - "A modified version of GADGET-2 (Springel 2005) that computes tree forces on GPUs using the CUDA programming interface. Based on G2X by Carsten Frigaard." Version of GADGET-2 for w:GPU hardware.
Visualization
* IFrIT: A general purpose visualization software - For viewing the results of simulations.
Other resources
* Data Files and Public Movies from CAST (Computational Astrophysics) group.
# English-Chinese/Canada is the world's second largest country by area

Canada is the world's second largest country by area, only behind Russia. Canada is renowned for its vast, untouched landscape, and its multicultural heritage. While much of Canada consists of forests, it has more lakes than any other country, as well as the Rocky Mountains, the Prairies, and a sparsely populated archipelago extending into the Arctic.
加拿大是世界上面积第二大的国家，仅次于俄罗斯。 加拿大以其广阔的原始景观和多元文化遗产而闻名。 虽然加拿大的大部分地区都是森林，但它拥有的湖泊比其他任何国家都多，还有落基山脉，大草原和延伸到北极的人口稀少的群岛。
# English-Chinese/Carbon

Carbon is a very important chemical element, with a chemical symbol of C. All known life on Earth needs it. Carbon has atomic mass 12 and atomic number 6. It is a nonmetal, meaning that it is not a metal.
碳 是 一种 非常 重要的 化学元素，化学符号 为 C. 地球上 所有 已知的 生物 都 需要 它。碳的 原子量 为 12，原子序数 为 6，它是 非金属，意味着 它 不是 金属。
# English-Chinese/Cardiovascular disease affects developing countries more

Cardiovascular disease affects low- and middle-income countries even more than high-income countries.
心血管疾病对低收入和中等收入国家的影响甚至高于高收入国家。
# English-Chinese/Cardiovascular disease in a person's parents increases his risk by 3 fold

Cardiovascular disease in a person's parents increases his risk by 3 fold.
一个人父母的心血管疾病使他的风险增加3倍。
# English-Chinese/Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases

Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack).
心血管疾病包括冠状动脉疾病（CAD），例如心绞痛和心肌梗塞（通常称为心脏病发作）。
# English-Chinese/Cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels.
心血管疾病（CVD）是一类涉及心脏或血管的疾病。
# English-Chinese/Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain only oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. They are made up of joined-up sugars. Sugars have the general formula C$_m$(H$_2$O)$_n$, and are also known as saccharides.
Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals.
碳水化合物 是 只 含有 氧，氢 和 碳的 化合物。它们 由 联合糖 组成。糖 具有 通式 C$_m$(H$_2$O)$_n$，也 被称为 糖类。
某些 碳水化合物 是 大多数 生物体中（包括 植物 和 动物）重要的 能量 储存 和 运输 形式。
# English-Chinese/Cardiovascular disease is a kind of diseases of the heart or blood vessels

Cardiovascular disease is a kind of diseases of the heart or blood vessels. Cardiovascular diseases include coronary heart diseases such as angina (heart pain) and myocardial infarction (heart attack).
心血管疾病是一种心脏或血管疾病。 心血管疾病包括冠心病，例如心绞痛（心脏疼痛）和心肌梗塞（心脏病发作）。
# English-Chinese/Canada is the second-largest country

Canada has an area of 9.98 million square kilometers, that is the world's second-largest country by area.
加拿大面积998万平方千米，是世界上第二大面积的国家。
# English-Chinese/Cardiac chest pain is called angina

Cardiac chest pain is called angina.
心脏胸痛称为心绞痛。
# English-Chinese/The airline is based in Toronto

The airline is based in Toronto, but flies all over the world.
该航空公司总部 位于 多伦多，但 飞往 世界各地。
# English-Chinese/The advent of artificial light has substantially altered sleep timing in industrialized countries

The advent of artificial light has substantially altered sleep timing in industrialized countries.
人造光的出现大大改变了工业化国家的睡眠时间。
# English-Chinese/The answer to your question is "no"

The answer to your question is "no".
你的问题的答案是“不”。
# English-Chinese/The average age of death from coronary artery disease in the developed world is around 80 while it is around 68 in the developing world

The average age of death from coronary artery disease in the developed world is around 80 while it is around 68 in the developing world.
发达国家的冠状动脉疾病的平均死亡年龄约为80岁，而发展中国家约为68岁。
# English-Chinese/The act of changing

The act of changing.
If you're gaining weight, you need to make slight adjustments to your food and exercise programme.
改变的行为。
如果你体重增加，你需要对你的食物和锻炼计划做一些调整。
# English-Chinese/The alarm went off and I woke up

The alarm went off and I woke up.
闹钟响了，我醒了。
# English-Chinese/The amount of salt eaten is an important factor of blood pressure levels and cardiovascular risk

The amount of salt eaten is an important factor of blood pressure levels and cardiovascular risk.
食用的盐量是血压水平和心血管风险的重要因素。
# English-Chinese/The addition of 5 more topics will make the meeting very long and boring

The addition of 5 more topics will make the meeting very long and boring.
增加5个议题将使会议变得漫长而沉闷。
# English-Chinese/The army is fighting in Iraq

The army is fighting in Iraq.
军队正在伊拉克战斗。
# English-Chinese/The army fought in Iraq

The army fought in Iraq.
军队在伊拉克战斗。
# Engineering Projects/Car Hack/Howard Community College/Spring2012

p1501kmd
p1501kmd 2
# Engineering Projects/Bridges/Howard Community College/spring2012/p3501jds
### Problem Statement

Create a bridge made out of spaghetti that can hold a vast amount weight.

### Team Members

    Jsnyder6518
    Stevecole888
    Dgilliland

### Summary

We came up with an arch but that arch broke, and it was too unstable. We have a strong hanger design. First we used a decision matrix to decide which design of the arch would work better. We decided that the single-single arch would work out the best. We started to put together the arch but we realized that it would just go straight up in the air, so we had to find the angle at which the noodles would go around the arch. Then we had to make them that angle, it took awhile so we created a board that would hold the noodles so we can sand multiple noodles at once at the same angle. And then we ran out of time.

### Poster

final spaghetti bridge

### Story

For the start of the project we all came up with a design and did a 3d drawing of it, then we split the work up by having one person figure out how to do the hangers another building the arc and another helping the 2 out. The obsticles were getting the right angle, a;so when building the arc getting it to settle and nt fall while the apoxy dried in the time it took to dry and become a glue holding things togethor. The testing that was done was getting the calculation for the angle and then checking to make sure it is the right angle.Also we tested the first arc that was not altered just pasta glued to pasta and it broke under 1 pound of stress. the informal decessions that were made were what to start first which turned out to be the arc. The assumptions were that the ideas would work and everyone would do their part, everyone did their part and the test without apoxy looks like the pasta will now work making an arc that is strong and stable.So the results are that the pasta needs tgo have some of the angle talen off to make a barc with maximum pasta toughing more pasta.

### Decision List

HIGH is good.
| Options | Strength | Total Strength | Time | Total Time | Simplicity | Total Simplicity | Weight | Weight Total | Overall Total |
| Single Arch | 3,2,3 | 80 | 4,4,5 | 28 | 5,5,5 | 15 | 4,5,4 | 126 | 249 |
| Double Arch | 3,4,3 | 100 | 3,3,3 | 18 | 4,5,4 | 14 | 4,4,3 | 99 | 231 |
| Single-Single Arch | 5,5,5 | 150 | 2,3,4 | 18 | 2,2,3 | 7 | 3,3,3 | 81 | 256 |
| | x10 | | x2 | | x1 | | x9 | | |

### Material List

Zetti spaghetti 100

### Software List

1 2 3d by Autodesk
Google Docs
NCH Software

### Time

35 hours and 27 minutes

### Tutorials

insert a component tutorial

### Next Steps

I)Build the actual bridge.
II)Figure out were to attach the hangers to the arch.
III)Sand the noodles.
IV)Build a more stable arch.
V)Put together the hangers.
# Engineering Projects/Car Hack/Howard Community College/Fall2011

       501_Autoengineers
# Engineering Projects/Coanda
## Idea

The Coanda effect is responsible for a remarkable number of counter-intuitive demonstrations. EXAMPLES: - Blowing on a curved piece of paper horizontally causes it to lift up. - A stream of falling water pulls a spoon up. - Blowing between two soda bottles suspended from the ceiling will cause them to get closer not further apart.
Coanda aircraft look exactly like flying saucers. The effect is used to eliminate the common helicopter tail rotor. The Coanda effect is often confused with the Bernoulli effect. Through vortices the Bernoulli and Coanda effects provide a majority of the lift used to sustain subsonic flight.

## Demo Projects

    Coanda Paper Blowing
    Coanda Water Pulling Spoon
    Coanda Blowing between soda bottles
    Coanda UFO
    Coanda Helicopter Tail Model Look for an example of a helicopter dragging its tail in water!

## College/Universities

Howard Community College
# Engineering Projects/Car Hack
## Idea

Cars made since 1996 have a computer with standard connector to talk to a generic electronic device like a cell phone. The computers in most cars are tuned to eliminate customer complaints, and hardly anyone changes the defaults. Wireless can be activated to allow remote control over engine starting, air conditioning, door locks, windows, and checking data like torque, gas mileage, amount of fuel left, etc. Touch screens can display more than just audio and GPS information. There are wiring harness standards that enable any electronics to be modified at the system level.

## Subsystems

    Audio, Radio, Wiring Harnesses
    OBD Standards
    Bluetooth, Wifi Add ons
    Control, Remotes

## Colleges/Universities

    Howard Community College
# Engineering Projects/Car Hack/Howard Community College

       Spring2012
       Fall2011
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/Howard Community College/fall2012

p1-503-flq
p2-503-n
p3-503-cq
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/My work (project cycle)

This is designed for a person working on a project for 4 weeks as part of a 3 credit class. Please copy this form to your user page. Then delete everything in italics when filling out this form.

## Week0 Activities
### Write problem/project Goal

Improve the design of the rubberband gun.

### My First Task

Try to find a way to stabilize the wobbly parts on the gun and attach the motor that will drive it.

## Week1 Activities
### Summary of actual work over first weekend

How is what you did different than what you planned?

### Week1 Narrative

Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend.

### My Second Task

Record what you are planning on doing for the team during the second weekend.

## Week2 Activities
### Summary of actual work over second weekend

How is what you did different than what you planned?

### Week2 Narrative

Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend.

### My Third task

Record what you are planning on doing for the team during the third weekend.

## Week3 Activities
### Summary of actual work over third weekend

How is what you did different than what you planned?

### Week3 Narrative

Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend.

### My Fourth task

Record what you are planning on doing for the team during the final weekend of project work.

## Week4 Activities
### Summary of actual work over fourth weekend

How is what you did different than what you planned?

### Week4 Narrative

Tell a detailed story describing what you did for your team over the weekend.

### Complete Team Page

Fill out the Team Form (should have already copied the form, created the team page, linked to it and started filling it out).
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/Howard Community College/spring2012

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       p1501jds
       p1501kmd 3
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/Howard Community College/spring2012/p1501kmd 3
### Problem Statement

To construct a 10 round rubber band gun

### Team Members

    Kimberly
    Martin
    David

### Summary

Our group started with deciding the model of rubber band guns we were going to try to build for our project. Once we had decided on a model, the 10 round rubber band gun, we all decided it would be best if each of us built our own rubber band gun using the 10 round design to see who's gun gave the best result then we could build on top of that. We each took a sheet of plywood and used different forms of saws (jigsaw, hacksaw, etc.) to cut out the small and precise pieces of the gun. We then all used wood glue, wood pins, screws, etc. to hold the gun together making the final product. All measurements of the gun was taken in millimeters.

### Story

Week 1 - Week one consisted of making a decision of which model of the rubber band gun we were going to build by narrowing down the selection using youtube videos and the website, Rubber Band Gun Models.
Week 2 - Week two, after we had chosen the model in which we were going to design, we all decided it would be best to split up and do our own rubber band guns using the 10 round gun model. Then, whoever gun gave the best result, use that gun to add upon and make better.
Week 3 - Week three consisted of all of us building the rubber band gun out of plywood using the tutorial, 10 round gun, as a guide to build our own.
Week 4 - The final week consisted of us finishing our rubber band guns, testing them, and comparing them to each others.

### Decision List

Out of ten gun each of us selected the top five guns we would like to work on, the best out of 3 won. Then we selected out of those 5, the top 3. Then decided on the final model.

### Material List

* Jigsaw, 1, $20
* Hacksaw, 1, $26
* Plywood, 1 sheet, ?
* Wood Glue, 1, $4
* 1/8" wood pins, 2, $2
* 1/8" drill bit, 1, $4
* power drill, 1, $119
* Sand Paper, 1, $5
* Double wheel grinder shield, 1, $85
* wood screws, 2, $4

### Software List

No software was used in this project.

### Time

38.6 Hours Spent

### Tutorials

10 Round Rubber band Gun Tutorial

### Next Steps

For the next group, we would suggest purchasing the Tamiya's gear from the website and seeing if u can't make our 10 round gun automatic gun compared to a semi-automatic, all u would have to do is rebuild the trigger system and add more cuts to the barrel if u wanted more ten 10 rounds firing.
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/Howard Community College/fall2011/550 JK/Team Weekly Summary Form

Link to project 550_JK team page.
# Engineering Projects/Rubberband gun/Howard Community College/fall2012/p2-503-n
### Problem Statement

Create an automated rubber band gun that loads multiple rubber bands and shoots continuously using a motor attached to a trigger.

### Team Members

Naik
Shin

### Summary

The fist step of the gun is to recreate the machine gun of the last group and find the problems with there design. Then design a new version of the gun with solutions to the problems of the last gun.

### Poster

Put a graphic in wikimedia, include the graphic here or link to it here. The graphic should be suitable for creating a traditional project poster.

### Story

The group is recreating a machine gun rubberband gun that is tested for problems. The solutions are then used to create a new rubberband gun. Naik's task with the new design is add an ergonomic grip, fore grip, and find standardized rubber bands. Shin's job is to improve the smoothness of the firing mechanism and find a way to increase rubber band capacity. A "push" for the project was suggested. The goal was to take a gutted out motor, wiring, and trigger and incorporate that into a neat firing/trigger mechanism.
The rubber band gun was constructed, loosely following the design of the rubber band gun called "machine gun." The only difference in the design was more wood in some places, less in other areas, and the addition of a "trigger" shaped piece of wood. All this resulted in a slightly lighter gun as a whole.
We attempted to used a small motor from a remote controlled car to turn the spool that holds the firing string. The motor did not have enough torque and could not turn the bit (attached to the spool). The idea of using a small motor with a low amperage was abandoned. The new idea was to use a small cordless hand-held drill. The drill was powerful enough.
We had problems with the rubber band getting stuck on the dowel and either breaking or not releasing. To address this, we sanded the dowels down and raised the spool height, in relation to the main barrel.

### Material List

- wood
- wood glue
- screws
- drill bit
- rope
- string
- duck tape
-electric drill http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/thumb/e/e4/2012-11-06_10.16.02.jpg/800px-2012-11-06_10.16.02.jpg

### Software List

The software

### Time

20 hours

### Tutorials

All projects create new tutorials of technical details future participants are going to want to know. They are going to be separate pages that are linked to here.

### Next Steps

The next steps for the project would be to create a rubber band gun with:
- a motor built in.
- rubber bands with least friction, and most stretch.
- a more eye appealing design and colors.
- duck tape an electric hand screw driver to the gun.
# Federal Writers' Project – Life Histories/2021/Spring/Section 87

This project is associated with English 105.087 at the University of North Carolina.

## Project

Students in the course have studied the Federal Writers' Project Papers at UNC's Wilson Library. Each student has chosen an individual to research and record on our class website.

## Life Histories

Special:Prefixindex/Federal Writers' Project – Life Histories/2021/Spring/Section 87/