OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Pragmatics/History/1920s

* Before
* 1600s
* 1700s
* 1800s
* 1900s
* 1910s
* 1920s
* 1930s
* 1940s
* 1950s
* 1960s
* 1970s
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s

## 1920s
### 1921 Russell

* Russell, Bertrand (1921). The Analysis of Mind. London: George Allen & Unwin. $^{[^]}$

### 1921 Sapir

* Literature/1921/Sapir $^{[^]}$

### 1922 Wittgenstein

* Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Frank P. Ramsey & C. K. Ogden, trans., Kegan Paul, 1922. $^{[^]}$

### 1923 Malinowski

* Malinowski, Bronislaw (1923). "The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages." Supplement to: Ogden & Richards (1923), pp. 296-336. $^{[^]}$

### 1923 Ogden and Richards

* Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$
   The root of the trouble will be traced to the superstition that words are in some way parts of things or always imply things corresponding to them, historical instances of this still potent instinctive belief being given from many sources. The fundamental and most prolific fallacy is, in other words, that the base of the triangle ... is filled in. (p. 14-5)
In other words, the symbol is not the symbolized, in short, so as to be aligned with "The map is not the territory" (1933/Korzybski) and the like.
"The influence of language upon thought" (as in the subtitle) varies from man to man, perhaps furthermore from case to case, as Locke suggested. Then, dehumanization would be more or less unwise. No precise or wise symbolism without symbolists. Pragmatics is a must above all.

### 1923 Wells

* Wells, H. G. (1923). Men Like Gods. Cassell and Co., Ltd. $^{[^]}$

### 1926 Piaget

* Literature/1926/Piaget $^{[^]}$

### 1926 Russell

* Russell, Bertrand (1926). "The Meaning of Meaning." Dial, vol.81 (August 1926) pp. 114-121. $^{[^]}$

### 1927 Wells

* Wells, H. G. (1927). The Way the World is Going: Guesses and Forcasts of the Years Ahead. London: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1928. $^{[^]}$

### 1928 Wells

* Wells, H. G. (1928). The Open Conspiracy: Blue Prints For A World Revolution. Doubleday, Doran. $^{[^]}$

### 1929 Magritte

* Magritte, René (1929). The Treachery of Images (La trahison des images). Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California. $^{[^]}$
"This is not a pipe," as translated from the original French caption, is to say that the image is not the imaged.
# Pragmatics/History/1990s

* Before
* 1600s
* 1700s
* 1800s
* 1900s
* 1910s
* 1920s
* 1930s
* 1940s
* 1950s
* 1960s
* 1970s
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s

## 1990s
### 1990 Bruner

* Bruner, Jerome (1990). Acts of Meaning (The Jerusalem-Harvard Lectures). Harvard University Press. $^{[^]}$
   I want to begin with the Cognitive Revolution as my point of departure. That revolution was intended to bring "mind" back into the human sciences after a long cold winter of objectivism. (wiki links)
   — From The Proper Study of Man

### 1990 Blackburn

* Literature/1990/Blackburn $^{[^]}$
   Thoughts are strange things. They have 'representational' powers: a thought typically represents the world as being one way or another. A sensation, by contrast, seems to just sit there. (p. 78)
   — From Mind
   A signpost doesn't in and of itself represent the way to the village. We have to learn how to take it. (p. 78)
   — From Mind

### 1992 Buckland

* Buckland, Michael (1992). "Emanuel Goldberg, Electronic Document Retrieval, and Vannevar Bush's Memex." Journal of the American Society for Information Science, vol. 43, no. 4 (May 1992), pp. 284-294. $^{[^]}$

   #### Abstract

   Vannevar Bush's famous paper "As We May Think" (1945) described an imaginary information retrieval machine, the Memex. The Memex is usually viewed, unhistorically, in relation to subsequent developments using digital computers. This paper attempts to reconstruct the little-known background of information retrieval in and before 1939 when "As We May Think" was originally written. The Memex was based on Bush's work during 1938-1940 developing an improved photoelectric microfilm selector, an electronic retrieval technology pioneered by Emanuel Goldberg of Zeiss Ikon, Dresden, in the 1920s. Visionary statements by Paul Otlet (1934) and Walter Schuermeyer (1935) and the development of electronic document retrieval technology before Bush are examined.
   — From http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/goldbush.html

#### See also

* Pragmatics/History/1940s
* Pragmatics/History/1940s
* Pragmatics/History/1940s
* Pragmatics/History/1940s

### 1994 Popper

* Literature/1994/Popper $^{[^]}$
   Why do I think that we, the intellectuals, are able to help? Simply because we, the intellectuals, have done the most terrible harm for thousands of years. Mass murder in the name of an idea, a doctrine, a theory, a religion -- that is all our doing, our invention: the invention of the intellectuals. If only we would stop setting man against man -- often with the best intentions -- much would be gained. Nobody can say that it is impossible for us to stop doing this.

#### See also

* q: Karl Popper
# Pragmatics/History/2000s

* Before
* 1600s
* 1700s
* 1800s
* 1900s
* 1910s
* 1920s
* 1930s
* 1940s
* 1950s
* 1960s
* 1970s
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s

## 2000s
### 2000 Fodor

* Fodor, Jerry (2000). The Mind Doesn't Work That Way: The Scope and Limits of Computational Psychology. MIT Press. $^{[^]}$
   Over the years, I've written a number of books in praise of the Computational Theory of Mind.... It is, in my view, by far the best theory of cognition that we've got; indeed, the only one we've got that's worth the bother of a serious discussion. There are facts about the mind that it accounts for and that we would be utterly at a loss to explain without it; and its central idea -- that intentional processes are syntactic operations defined on mental representations -- is strikingly elegant. There is, in short, every reason to suppose that the Computational Theory is part of the truth about cognition.
   — From Introduction: Still Snowing (p. 1)

### 2001 Gaiman

* Literature/2001/Gaiman $^{[^]}$ -- Neil Gaiman (2001) Fragile Things
   The more accurate the map, the more it resembles the territory. The most accurate map possible would be the territory, and thus would be perfectly accurate and perfectly useless.
# Pragmatics/History/1950s

* Before
* 1600s
* 1700s
* 1800s
* 1900s
* 1910s
* 1920s
* 1930s
* 1940s
* 1950s
* 1960s
* 1970s
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s

## 1950s
### 1950 Rapoport

* Literature/1950/Rapoport $^{[^]}$

### 1950 Strawson

* Strawson, Peter (1950). "On Referring." Mind, vol. 59, no. 235, pp. 320-344. $^{[^]}$

### 1951 Lewin

* Literature/1951/Lewin $^{[^]}$

### 1952 Hutchins

* Hutchins, Robert, ed. (1952). Great Books of the Western World. Encyclopaedia Britannica. $^{[^]}$

### 1953 Deutsch

* Literature/1953/Deutsch $^{[^]}$

### 1953 Wittgenstein

* Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1953). Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell Publishing. $^{[^]}$

### 1954 Black

* Black, Max (1954). "Metaphor." Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 55, pp. 273-294. $^{[^]}$

### 1954 Chase

* Literature/1954/Chase $^{[^]}$

### 1955 Austin

* Austin, J. L. (1955). How to Do Things with Words. The William James Lectures delivered at Harvard University in 1955, ed. by J. O. Urmson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962. $^{[^]}$

### 1955 McCarthy

* McCarthy, John; Marvin Minsky; Nathan Rochester & Claude Shannon (1955). A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence. $^{[^]}$

### 1956 Whorf

* Literature/1956/Whorf $^{[^]}$

### 1957 Cherry

* Cherry, Colin (1957). On Human Communication: A Review, a Survey, and a Criticism . The M.I.T. Press, 1966. $^{[^]}$
   The suggestion that words are symbols for things, actions, qualities, relationships, et cetera, is naive, a gross simplification. Words are slippery customers. The full meaning of a word does not appear until it is placed in its context, and the context may serve an extremely subtle function -- as with puns, or double entendre. And even then the "meaning" will depend upon the listener, upon the speaker, upon their entire experience of language, upon their knowledge of one another, and upon the whole situation. Words do not "mean things" in a one-to-one relation like a code. Words, too, are empirical signs, not copies or models of anything; truly, onomatopoeia and gestures frequently seem to possess resemblance, but this resemblance does not bear too close examination. A cockerel may seem to say cook-a-doodle-do to an Englishman, but a German thinks it says kikeriki, and a Japanese kokke-kekko. Each can paint only with the phonetic sound of his own language. (p. 10-11)
   — From What Is It That We Communicate?

#### See also

* q: Colin Cherry

### 1957 Osgood

* Literature/1957/Osgood $^{[^]}$

### 1957 Skinner

* Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group. $^{[^]}$

### 1958 Polanyi

* Literature/1958/Polanyi $^{[^]}$

### 1959 Chomsky

* Chomsky, Noam (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior." Language, 35(1): 26-57. $^{[^]}$

### 1959 Gellner

* Gellner, Ernest (1959). Words and Things: A Critical Account of Linguistic Philosophy and a Study in Ideology. London: Gollancz. $^{[^]}$

### 1959 Snow

* Snow, Charles Percy (1959). The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (Rede Lecture). Cambridge University Press, 1959. $^{[^]}$
# Universal Bibliography/Humanities

This part of the Universal Bibliography is a bibliography of the humanities.
See w:Category:Humanities bibliographies and w:Category:Humanities journals

## Metabibliography

* Boehm, Eric H. Blueprint for Bibliography: A System for the Social Sciences and Humanities. (Bibliography and Reference Series). Clio Press. 1965.
* Appel, Livia. Bibliographical Citation in the Social Sciences and the Humanities: A Handbook of Style for Authors, Editors and Students. University of Wisconsin Press. 1949.
* Lorona (ed). A Bibliography of Latin American Bibliographies, 1980-1984: Social Sciences and Humanities. Scarecrow Press. 1987.
* A Bibliography of Latin American and Caribbean Bibliographies, 1985-1989: Social Sciences and Humanities. Scarecrow Press. 1993.
* Hale, Barbara M. The Subject Bibliography of the Social Sciences and Humanities. (International Series of Monographs in Library and Information Sciences, vol 12). Pergamon Press. 1970.
* Phelps, Rose Berenice. Bibliography of the Humanities and Social Sciences: A Book List for Library Science 411. University of Illinois Library School. 1956.
* Information Resources in the Humanities and the Arts. (Libraries and Information Science Text Series). Libraries Unlimited. 6th Ed: 2013.
* Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations: Social Sciences and Humanities. Association of Indian Universities.
* A Catalogue of Publications in the Humanities by American Learned Societies. American Council of Learned Societies. 1932.
* Social Sciences and Humanities in Russia: Annotated Bibliography for ...
* Allworth, Edward. Soviet Asia: Bibliographies: A Compilation of Social Science and Humanities Sources on the Iranian, Mongolian, and Turkic Nationalities. Praeger.
* Aguolu. Nigeria: A Comprehensive Bibliography in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1900-1971. G K Hall. 1973.
* Aguolu. Ghana in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1900-1971: A Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1973.
* Documentation and Bibliographic Control of the Humanities in India.
* A Bibliography of the Archives of the Utah Humanities Research Foundation, 1944-1947.
Annuals:
* British Humanities Index. Library Association.
* Arts & Humanities Citation Index. Institute for Scientific Information.
# Universal Bibliography/Law/Authors

This page is part of an incomplete pan-jurisdictional bibliography of law. This part of the Universal Bibliography is an alphabetical index of authors and editors included in the bibliography of law.
# Python Concepts/Match-case Statement

* Objective
* Learn about Match-case statement
* Learn about case _ (underline)
* Learn about what's the difference between if statement and Match-case statement

## Pseudocodes for Match-case Statement

There are examples of how a Match-case would be in a pseudocode below.
The match statement is initialized with the match keyword creating a block like if-statement and taking a parameter. In the block there are multiple cases using the case keyword and the object that can match with the parameter. If nothing is matched with the parameter case ”_” (underline) is executed.
You can use tuples and lists as parameters, the cases need to have 2 values as the parameter would have.
You can unify cases to do the same action.

## Codes for Match-case statement

The same examples as the pseudocodes but in Python below.
The match statement is initialized with the match keyword creating a block like if-statement and taking a parameter. In the block there are multiple cases using the case keyword and the object that can match with the parameter. If nothing is matched with the parameter case ”_” (underline) is executed.
In this example, I ate 2 apples today. The integer 2 is saved in memory with the name 'number_of_apples', which is variable. In these cases, which one matches with the object 'number_of_apples' where is saved the integer value 2? It's case 2. I ate a pair of apples today.
My coordinates are [1, 2]. In this case, I'm next to my family's old picture.
The input should be a integer, if don't: a error will happen. You will learn how to deal with this case later
The code...
Let's suppose the user chose the number 7, the program will print in the console...
The program will print this because the variable 'number' has the value 7 which matches with the case 4 or 5 or 7, the action is to print "I like this number." string in console.
About the problem in int(input("User, choose a number from 0 to 9: ")), you may don't understand something. The solution is...

## Comparison between If statement and Match-case statement

The first example rewrote with if statement
The second example rewrote with if statement
The third example rewrote with if statement
Let's suppose the user chose the number 7, the program will print in the console...
The code building is different, but the objective is the same.

## Page index

* Previous Lesson: If Statement
* Next Lesson: While Statement
* Course Home Page
# Python Concepts/Navigation

Python
Basic data types
· Operators
· Flow control :
# Python Concepts/PyQt

PyQt is a Python binding of the cross-platform GUI toolkit Qt. It is one of Python's options for GUI programming. Popular alternatives are PySide (the Qt binding with official support and a more liberal licence), PyGTK, wxPython, and Tkinter (which is bundled with Python). Like Qt, PyQt is free software. PyQt is implemented as a Python plug-in.

## Recommended prerequisites

* Python would be good so you know how to work with Python.
* An introduction course to GUI programming.
* Installing and using 3rd party Python libraries.

## Readings

* Wikipedia: PyQt

## External resources

* Instructions?
* Python's website on PyQt4
* A good intro tutorial on PyQt4
* PyQt4 reference guide
# Normalization

A normalization is applied in general on a set of data with numerical values. The set of values have key values describing the aggregated set of numerical values. The key values can be means, deviation value, threshold value for the list. In the context of statistics, normalization of ratings means adjusting values measured on different scales to a notionally common scale, often prior to averaging. For probability distributions, normalization may refer to a linear transformation of the data set to bring the entire probability distributions e.g. to an expectation value of 0 and a variance of 1. This is possible if the variance exists (i.e, is finite). In the case of normalization of scores in educational assessment, there may be an intention to align distributions to a normal distribution.
A different approach to normalization for thresholds can be used in a very simple case for regulatory thresholds e.g. in ecotoxicology. Regulatory thresholds (e.g. provide by risk management agencies or public health agencies) might be different for toxicants in the environment and they might be reduced according to new scientific evidence and the risk assessment.

## Examples

The following examples show normalization with a
* the arithmetic mean,
* the standard deviation or
* regulatory threshold (e.g. threshold for a toxic substance in a product)

### Learning Tasks

Normalize the scores of an assessment of students according to the mean value.
* data $D=(10,40,98,30,50,65,34,59,33,44,55,29)$
* calculate the arithmetic means $\mu$ of the data $D$.
* normalized data $N=(10-\mu ,40-\mu ,98-\mu ,30-\mu ,50-\mu ,65-\mu ,34-\mu ,59-\mu ,33-\mu ,44-\mu ,55-\mu ,29-\mu )$ to means $\mu$. Calculate the arithmetic means of $N$. What is the result.
* What does the normalized vector $N$ tell you as teacher about the assessment?
* Add new values to $D$ or modify the values in $D$ and calculate the arithmetic mean of $N$ again. What do see and why do you get these results?

### Threshold Normalization

In this case the threshold normalized value 3.0 means that the measured value exceeds the allowed threshold value by a factor of 3.
* measure value is 300mg with an allow regulatory threshold of 100mg.
* measure value is 7.5mg with an allow regulatory threshold of 2.5mg.
# Normed polynomial/Intersection point/Cardinality/Exercise

Let $P$ and $Q$ denote different normed polynomials of degree $d$ over a field $K$. How many intersection points may both graphs have at most?
# Nonstandard physics
## The purpose and intent of this field of study

The field of physics is a broad and sometimes controversial topic. Through the course of diligent research and the scientific method, new ideas have come and gone, leading to the acceptance of certain fields of study and cosmological frameworks. It also has led to the rejection of many more.
This is not to say that there are no new or diverging opinions or theories. Many of these theories have but few supporters or do not possess an accepted means to receive peer review and undergo the scientific process. In this category are a list of hypothesis, papers, research projects, and controversial observations which in some way go against the orthodox understanding of the physical world.
As such, students and scientists are encouraged to read these ideas with a discerning mind and an eye towards the key terms of observation, reason, falsifiable claims, and evidence. Do these claims follow the scientific method?
In the talk pages of these articles, the reader is encouraged to add substantive discussions, rebuttals, or even flat out debunking of the ideas presented. This is the best means to ensure the upholding of scientific principles.
Some of these articles claim to be full blown theories, yet it is suggested that the reader view them as hypotheses that are still under the purview of serious scrutiny by the discerning reader to find logical inconsistencies or opposition to established research. Then where it is appropriate, for the reader to add into the talk pages serious reasoned comments about the subject matter being discussed.
A good rule of thumb to observe is: "Only by keeping an open mind can the truth be reached, but don't keep such an open mind as to where your brains fall out."

## Essays

All these pages have now been moved to Physics/Essays subspace.

### Fedosin

Some pages had previously been moved to Physics/Essays/Fedosin as Fedosin had been involved in them. He has now consented to all pages being moved into that essay subspace, where he may verify them, and discuss eventual return, of some of them at least, to mainspace, probably as subpages of other more general resources, either as ordinary subpages or as essays.
In the future, alleged or possible "nonstandard physics" pages should be created or moved to resource subpages as attributed essays, as resources subject to editing for neutrality, or to user space. Nonstandard science pages may otherwise be subject to deletion.
Wherever a page is located, discussion of the content is possible and encouraged. Generally, in user space, the user will have wide discretion over what discussion is allowed. In mainspace essay subpages, any user may comment (as on ordinary mainspace pages), subject only to general Wikiversity policy on civility, etc. As the essay is attributed to a responsible user, that user may object to changes.
A user dissenting from this is free to create a parallel essay, which would generally be neutrally linked from the page supra.
# Normative science

☞ This page belongs to resource collections on Logic and Inquiry.
A normative science is a form of inquiry, typically involving a community of inquiry and its accumulated body of provisional knowledge, that seeks to discover good ways of achieving recognized aims, ends, goals, objectives, or purposes.
The three normative sciences, according to traditional conceptions in philosophy, are aesthetics, ethics, and logic.

## Syllabus
### Focal nodes

* Inquiry Live
* Logic Live

### Peer nodes

* Normative Science @ InterSciWiki
* Normative Science @ Subject Wikis
* Normative Science @ Wikiversity
* Normative Science @ Wikiversity Beta
# Nonprofit management

This area of this wiki is about nonprofit management.

## Content summary

This course will guide individuals through the process of creating a nonprofit. Nonprofit Management will also prepare them to work with members of the organization and the Board of Directors to efficiently and effectively manage the nonprofit.
| Goals This learning project offers learning activities to ____. Create a Mission Statement Decide on a Board of Directors. Decide which Committees will be necessary. Choose a Name for the nonprofit. [Have the board draft several names and vote] Write Articles of Incorporation Draft Bylaws Incorporate with Secretary of State Determine 501(c) status. Apply for a Federal EIN Planning Ahead (Organization Plan) Staff: Employees and Volunteers Budget Federal Tax Status Filing (1023 or 1024) Marketing and Media Relations Internet Presence [Webspoce] Advocacy and Lobbying Concepts to learn include: 501(c) Articles of Incorporation Bylaws | Learning materials Learning materials and learning projects are located in the main Wikiversity namespace. Simply make a link to the name of the lesson (lessons are independent pages in the main namespace) and start writing! You should also read about the Wikiversity:Learning model. Lessons should center on learning activities for Wikiversity participants. Learning materials and learning projects can be used by multiple projects. Cooperate with other departments that use the same learning resource. Wikiversity NPC - participants create a nonprofit corporation that will produce Wikiversity content. ... Readings Each activity has a suggested associated background reading selection. Study guide: External readings Who Really Owns a Nonprofit? Wikipedia readings Wikipedia:Mutual-benefit nonprofit corporation Wikipedia:Religious corporation Wikipedia:Public-benefit nonprofit corporation Wikipedia:Nonprofit organization |
# Nonprofit management/Incorporate with Secretary of State

When this lesson is done you should be able to answer these questions and be ready to register your organization with the Secretary of State.
* What is the name and IRS classification of your nonprofit?
* What state are you incorporating in?
* Does your nonprofit qualify for a state tax exemption? If yes, what is the form number you will use? How many pages long is the application?
* Do you need to obtain a state tax identification number? If yes, what is the form number and how many pages long is it?
* Are you required to register as a charity in your state? What form will you use? How many pages long is the form? What documentation do you need to include?
* Does your state give real or leased property tax exemptions to nonprofits? If yes, which department do you apply to?

## Wikimedia

* w: Taxation in the United States