OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Engineering Projects/Poppit/Howard Community College/Fall2011/501 DE
### Problem Statement

Put the last negotiated problem statement with the instructor or client of the project here.

### Team Members

Put each team members name here with links to their personal page here. Real names do not have to be used.
       User:epcole/enes100/poppit
       User:Truongdat120891/enes100/poppit
10/10 points 1sfoerster 17:52, 7 September 2011 (UTC)

### Summary

Put an overall, one paragraph summary here with links to the team weekly reports.

### Poster

Put a graphic in wikimedia, include the graphic here or link to it here. The graphic should be suitable for creating a traditional project poster.

### Story

Tell a story of the project. Describe how tasks were split up, what the obstacles were, what testing was done, what informal decisions were made, what assumptions were made, what the results were. This is a longer version of the summary with links to all the details collected associated with the project. These links could be to software, links to videos, links to project pages with pictures, etc. Think of the story as a summary of the team weekly reports on one long page rather than a short paragraph like the summary.

### Decision List

List all formal decisions made with links to their documentation such as a decision tree or decision matrix.

### Material List

Figuring out what to purchase, what to build, what everything costs is a huge part of engineering. Typically there is a list of materials in stock, materials that are ordered, materials that should be ordered next time there is money, materials that have not been fully justified. These issues are part of healthy management of the engineering lab but are associated with a particular college. The detail needs to be published in this "Done" form. However in the project root, just a list of materials is necessary.

### Software List

Installing and learning different software packages is part of most engineering project just like the materials list.

### Time

Time estimates and actual time consumed measurements helps justify salaries (grades). The only way to gain respect for estimated project time and costs is to practice.

### Tutorials

Most projects consist of making instructions to jump start the next team, shrink the learning of tools and software to the minimum, advice on where to purchase materials, how to assemble, etc. Tutorials modified or created are described here with links.

### Next Steps

If this is not filled out, the next team may have to repeat each of your steps just to figure out what the next step is. It is best to write this immediately at the end of the project while creating the summary, poster, presentation, and story.
# Ideas in Geometry/Instructive examples/Section 3.2 Problem 7-Using Brahmagupta's Formula

Find the area of the quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle whose sides are of lengths 2, 5, 6, and 3. Explain your work.
Using Brahmagupta's Formula, the area of a quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle is the square root of (p/2-a)(p/2-b)(p/2-c)(p/2-d) where p is the perimeter of the quadrilateral and a,b,c, and d are the side lengths of the quadrilateral.
The perimeter of the quadrilateral is 2+5+6+3=16.
Therefore: area=square root of (16/2-2)(16/2-5)(16/2-6)(16/2-3)= square root of (6)(3)(2)(5)= square root of 180= 6 square root(5)
# Ideas in Geometry/Probability Paradoxes

Topic:Ideas_in_Geometry Sorry I couldn't figure out how to upload my file so I added a page where you can see my work. Click on the link next to my file and it will take you straight to my work. cgonzal4
# Ideas in Geometry/Proofs by Picture II

Topic:Ideas in Geometry
Please click on the following picture to enlarge the image. Please note that there are two pages to the problem and you will need to click on "next page" in order to see the full problem.
# Ideas in Geometry/Section 3.2
## Terms, Theorems, and Components:
### Lattice

The plane of black dots on which the objects are drawn is referred to as a lattice or Lattice (group). A lattice consists of a set of dots which lie in perfect rows and have a distance of 1 to any dot directly above, below, left, or right of itself. The lattice acts as a guide for drawing objects.

### Pick's Theorem

Pick’s theorem is a tool used to determine the area of any object constructed on the lattice.
The formula looks like this: A=b/2+n-1

### Regions

Small region: The red-ish area inside the larger region
Large region: The pink/purple-ish area inside formed on the lattice.
Where:
A = Area (in units^2)
b = The number of lattice points on the border of the object.
n = The number of lattice points inside the object (do not include border points)

## Finding the probability of selecting a random point within the large region which is also contained in the small region:
### Step 1: Find the Area of the Larger Region

By simple counting we can determine that there are 9 border points and 9 internal points.
Now we plug them into Pick’s Theorem:
A = 9/2+9-1
A = 4.5 + 9 – 1
A = 12.5 units^2

### Step 2: Find the Area of the Smaller Region

By counting we can determine that there are 5 border points and 0 internal points.
Now for Pick’s Theorem:
A = 5/2 + 0 – 1
A = 2.5 – 1
A = 1.5 units^2

### Step 3: Find the ratio of the two regions

From Pick’s Theorem, we have determined that the Area of the larger region is 12.5 units^2 and that the Area of the smaller region is 1.5 units^2. This gives us a ratio of 1.5/12.5. We are comparing the amount of space in the smaller portion to the amount of area in the larger region. This helps us compare the area in a simple way.

### Step 4: Find the probability of selecting a random point that is in the large region and the small region

From our ratio, we found that of 12.5 units^2 in the larger region, 1.5 units^2 belong to both the larger region and the smaller region. To determine the probability, we need to compare the chances of picking a point in the smaller region with the availability of the entire region.
Because 1.5 units^2 are contained in the 12.5 units^2, we can say that when selecting a point in the larger area of 12.5, there is a chance we will pick a point in the smaller region of 1.5. So there is a 1.5 chance in 12.5 of selecting a point in the smaller region. Our initial probability is 1.5/12.5. However, mathematicians rarely like decimals contained in fractions for a final answer, so we can increase the numbers by dividing by a common factor of .5. After doing this, we arrive at our final probability of 3/25.

## Final Answer:

In sum, the chance of selecting a point in the larger region that is also in the smaller region is 3/25.
# Ideas in Geometry/Mapping the Globe

The globe is a sphere of outstanding proportions, however these days we can see each and every portion of it up close and personal.
This is done by the use of a technique known as:
# Ideas in Geometry/Proofs by Picture

Section 2.4.3
Proofs Involving Sums

## Formula for a sum of integers
### 1+2+3+4+5+...+n= [ n (n+1) ] /2

==== This picture is meant to show the pattern of infinite sums. If the height of the rectangle is "n", the width of the rectangle is "n+1". This then shows the bottom triangle's area, made up of the light colored circles, is equal to [ n (n+1) ] /2 Therefore proving for any number "n" it's infinite sum will be [ n (n+1) ] /2 ====

## Adding up an infinite number of terms
### Way to show a finite answer for a sum that continues "+...=___"
#### Pictures are used to show the sum.

==== Square shows that with each piece of the equation can fit into the next tiny section of the 1x1 square making the sum of all the pieces is 1 (1/2)+(1/2)^2+(1/2)^3+(1/2)^4+(1/2)^5+...=1
Triangle shows that the shaded region is each piece of the equation. It exaggerates with each layer created in the triangle, the shaded pieces take up (1/3) every time. This shows that the sum of all the pieces would be (1/3) (1/4)+(1/4)^2+(1/4)^3+(1/4)^4+(1/4)^5+...=(1/3) ====
# Ideas in Geometry/Pythagorean Theorem 1

Click on the image below to see the entire document. There are 4 pages that will help you familiarize yourself with the Pythagorean Theorem.
Created by: Katelin Barker Wiki ID: Katelin_Barker90 December 4, 2010
# Ideas in Geometry/Pythagorean Theorem 2

By: Katy Anderson
Click on the picture below to make it bigger. Also, there are two pages, so once you click on it press "next page" to see the second page.
# International Relations/What is International Relations?
## What is International Relations?

International Relations is a branch of Political Science dealing with interactions between actors (typically states) in the international system. There are several schools of thought which claim to provide a theoretical model for International Relations, and therefore understand or even predict the behavior of actors on the world stage. Theories of International Relations can be broadly classified into Rationalist and Constructivist groups.

### The term "International Relations"

The term "International Relations" is used to describe a phenomenon in its broader sense and therefore is wider than "International Politics" which as a term describes exclusively military and political relations.
The term "International Relations" came to existence at a time when "nation" was considered identical with "state". This identification became much more visible during the second part of the 19th century, when the right of every nation to aquire its own government emerged. This right was particularly outlined at the beginning of the 20th century in the League of Nations Charter, in which the term "state" was actually replaced by "nation". Because of the fact that the League Of Nations was the first important international organization this connection between "state" and "nation" was instituted. From this point on and despite the fact that "International Relations" literally refer to relations between nations, the term is widely used to describe the relations between states.
With the creation of international/ multinational organizations came the transformation of the international environment which changed the role of the state. At this point the international organizations are thought to be one of the international actors along with the states. Because of the shift of influence described above, the term "International Relations" may refer to the relations between international organizations. In this context "International Relations" reflect a more limited view as they are mainly about political and military relations known as "high politics" and economic relations known as "low politics".

## Footnotes

* ↑ Kouskouvelis Elias, "Introduction to International Relations" Poiotita, Athens 2004
* ↑ Kouskouvelis Elias, "Introduction to Political Science" Papazisis,Athens 1997, p. 260
* ↑ Ifaistos P. "Theory of International and European Integration", Poiotita, Athens, 1999,p. 256
# International Relations/Liberalism
## Liberalism

Liberalism seeks to defend and protect individuals' personal, civil, social, and economic rights and freedoms. Often, it is categorized by a laissez-faire style of government. There are two different branches of Liberalism: reform liberalism and classical liberalism.
Classical Liberalism: The key points of classical liberalism are private property, open competition, individual rights and freedoms, self-interest, economic freedom, and rule of law. Remember the acronym POISER.
Reform Liberalism: Reform liberalism is quite similar to classical liberalism; both adopt the belief in private property, open competition for a strong economy, individual rights and freedoms, and rule of law. Reform liberals stray from classical liberals with the notion of equal opportunity (the belief that everybody is entitled to good education and healthcare) and also value collective interest.

## History

Classical Liberalism was started in the mid-1700 as a reaction against absolute monarchy, religious persecution, and feudal economical and social constraints.
Reform Liberalism began in the late 1800s. It was a reaction against the effects of unconstrained capitalism and socialist ideas. Some key thinkers of this ideology include J.S. Mill, J. Dewey, J.M. Keynes, and J. Rawls.

## Views

Liberalism in general believes that the rational self interest of people will improve society. It also focuses in limited government, individual rights, free trade, and equality. While both branches of liberalism idealizes these values, they have different views on how those should be achieved. Reform liberalism promotes equality of opportunity and the ability to enjoy rights (positive liberty) as a way to encourage democracy. Government policy should be used to create equality. Classical liberalism discourages government intervention and emphasizes free competition (negative liberty).
# International Relations/The Cold War

The Cold War was a state of tension and distrust between the US and the Soviet Union, without actual fighting. The world "split" into two "camps"/military alliances [Western Europe and NATO vs. Eastern Europe and the Warsaw Pact]. These two countries competed with each other for just about nearly everything; including to spreading their own ideologies [Democracy and Capitalism vs Dictatorship and Communism], being the first into space (space race), having the most nuclear weapons (arms race), and having the best Olympic sports teams. The war was an ideological war something more or less like a mirage, it was just a perceived war in the head.
# International Relations/The term "Power" in International Relations
## "Power" and "Force"

The field of International Relations' preoccupation with war leads to the term 'power' frequently being used as part of a military term; 'airpower,' 'seapower,' 'a nuclear power,' etc. However, it is important to understand that this sort of "power" is, in its use, actually 'force'.
"Power" is generally used with regards to political weight, whether this is backed by military force or by charismatic and economic appeal. Prominently, Joseph S. Nye has labeled these two varieties of power "hard" and "soft" power, respectively and both can be extremely effective in exacting political will. However, when political will is exacted through blunt means, such as extreme military action or oppressive regimen, this is "force." If those parties (whether states, groups or individuals) being affected have no survivable choice except to submit to a political will, then this is not to exact power over them but to use force.
As an example of the difference, if you were walking through a dangerous area of some variety (say a war zone) and you met me, carrying a large arsenal of weaponry, you could decide whether to attempt to join with me to progress through the area together under my protection or to continue on your own then I would be holding power over you. However, if I was to say that you had to proceed with me or else I would murder you, then this would be force.
Force is generally regarded as being less effective in a long-term scenario than power.

## "The Balance Of Power" (BoP)

"The Balance Of Power" is a significant idea amongst the Realist tradition of International Relations theory. Its principle is that no state should be allowed to become so powerful that there is no other state that can rival it; if a number of states are on a parity of power with each other then this can prevent such above powerful state.
Waltz (1979: The Man, State and War)suggests the neo-realist or structural realist idea that states may club together or "bandwagon" in order to balance out the power of a hegemonic state.
# International Relations/International System and Strategic Weapons
## International system and Strategic Weapons

The weapons defined as strategic are the weapons that can determine the outcome of a war par exemple the nuclear weapons and the offensive ballistic missiles. The strategic weapons first appeared in the 20th century and especially after the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings by US. Soon USSR was also able to acquire nuclear technology. This led to an unforeseeable balance of power between the two main actors, the "nuclear balance" or the "balance of terror". Because of the fact that the international system at the time was bipolar, there was a deep and urgent need for stability but at that point this "nuclear balance" created more destabilization
With the end of Cold War several new nuclear powers emerged creating the phenomenon of the "strategic weapons proliferation". Officially, USA, RUSSIA, CHINA , UK, INDIA,FRANCE and PAKISTAN are the countries known to have acquired nuclear weapons and technology up to now.

### Nuclear Weapons

"Nuclear weapons" is the general term which is used in order to define and describe any weapon using nuclear energy and technology. Two types of nuclear weapons exist: the nuclear (atomic bomb) and the thermal-nuclear(hydrogen bomb) The explosive energy of the nuclear weapons is theoretically and practically up to this point unlimited.
The catastrophic results of a nuclear explosion can be divided in two categories:
* The results of the first category are very similar to those caused by an ordinary explosion, only in a largest scale.
* The results of the second category are more characteristic of a nuclear explosion: 1)They produce an intense Χ and Γ type radiation in the first phase of the explosion. 2) The radiation that results from the explosion remains in the lowest layers of the atmosphere along with parts of the destructed targets shaping a mushroom-like figure. 3)An electromagnetic pulse which is especially powerful during the time of the explosion is created as a result of the huge amounts of electromagnetic energy confined in a very small space.
Nevertheless, the nuclear weapons are characterized as weapons of mass destruction because of the longterm biological, psychological, social, economical, and political consequences on human beings but also because of the harsh consequences on the environment.
# International Standard Book Number

The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. Publishers purchase ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.
# International Relations/Classical Realism
## Classical Theories of International Relations
### Classical Realism

Classical Realism derives from the thought of Thucydides, Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Sun Tzu, Carl von Clausewitz, Edward H. Carr, Nicolas Spykman, Hans J. Morgenthau, Henry Kissinger, Z. Brzezinski, S. Huntington.
Key assumptions:
* The international system is anarchic, no true authoritative world government exists.
* Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system.
* International institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little and mostly not independent influence.
* International Law reflects the current balance of power.
* States are rational unitary actors each moving towards their own national interest. They move on a cost- gain axis trying to maximise their gains
* Because of the anarchy of the international system there is a general distrust of long-term cooperation or alliance.
* The overriding 'national interest' of each state is its national security and survival.
* In pursuit of national security, states strive to amass resources.
* States resolve to war on order to achieve high levels of security
* Relations between states are determined by their comparative level of power derived primarily from their military and economic capabilities.
Both Classical Realism and Structural Realism agree on the key assumption that the states are rational actors moving towards their own national interests. The difference between these two theories is that Structural Realism emphasizes on the function and the role of the international system and the way that states interact in it.

## see also

* Thucydides: The Peloponnesian War
# Image segmentation
## What is Image Segmentation?

Image Segmentation is the term used when an image is split up into different regions. This can be a fairly simple task, such as separating the pixels in the image where a black eagle is present from the pixels of the daylight sky. Segmenting camouflaged soldiers in the jungle is a significantly more challenging endeavor..

## Thresholding and the binary image

Image thresholding is one of the most widely used techniques for segmenting an image due to its simplicity. The basic approach is to select an intensity which is our threshold value, and any pixel which has an intensity value above this value is considered to be part of region A and anything below is considered to be part of region B.
The key parameter in thresholding is obviously the choice of the threshold. Several different methods for choosing a threshold exist. The simplest method would be to choose the mean or median value, the rationale being that if the object pixels are brighter than the background, they should also be brighter than the average. In a noiseless image with uniform background and object values, the mean or median will work beautifully as the threshold, however generally speaking, this will not be the case. A more sophisticated approach might be to create a histogram of the image pixel intensities and use the valley point as the threshold. The histogram approach assumes that there is some average value for the background and object pixels, but that the actual pixel values have some variation around these average values. However, computationally this is not as simple as we'd like, and many image histograms do not have clearly defined valley points. Ideally we're looking for a method for choosing the threshold which is simple, does not require too much prior knowledge of the image, and works well for noisy images. A good such approach is an iterative method, as follows:
Another approach is to calculate the new threshold in step 4 using the weighted average of m1 and m2: T' = (||G1||*m1 + ||G2||*m2)/(||G1||+||G2||), where ||Gn|| is the number of pixels in Gn. This approach often gives a more accurate result.
# Image restoration/Image selection
## Image selection
### Priorities

When selecting an image for restoration it is important to begin with clear objectives and realistic expectations. Possible include:
* Providing the best illustration possible for a particular subject, even if the source file is flawed or small.
* Locating an image of superior base quality and potential in order to perform a detailed restortion, for possible featured picture consideration
If the main aim is to illustrate a particular subject, then it will probably be necessary to be flexible about image quality. If the main aim is to restore a high quality image, then flexibility about subject matter is often necessary.
# Image restoration/Software
## Software

Most image restoration is done with two software packages.
* Photoshop: a commercial software program
* GIMP: a free open source program
Both GIMP and Photoshop are capable of yielding good results. The selection of a program depends upon the preference and budget of the user.