OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Abridged timeline of quantum mechanics
## Abridged timeline of quantum mechanics

Author: Guy vandegrift and the parent article editors Field: Physics
# WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Alpha Centauri

This article has been declined for publication by the WikiJournal user group.
It is archived below as a record. Discussion can be viewed here. update record on wikidata

## Alpha Centauri

Author: Parent article editors Field: Physics
# WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Eikonal Approximation and Classical Particle Motion
## Eikonal Approximation and Classical Particle Motion

Author: Guy vandegrift Field: Physics
# WikiJournal of Science/Submissions/Location Hypothesis of Atlantis in the Azores
## Atlantis/Location Hypotheses

Author: RAYLEIGH22 Field: Geology / Geological physics
# Web Science/Part2: Emerging Web Properties/Web Search Ecosystem/Finding the true value of an advertisement/script

How should a Web Search engine or any other publisher come up with a CPC? Of course one could look for demand and try to play around with it. But especially in a Web Search context many keywords that a person searches for will yield very different CPCs. One way of figuring out the CPC is by creating an auction system. The auction system within Google is quite complex but the main Idea can be brought down to a Second Price Auction or Vickery auction.
A Vickrey auction is a type of sealed-bid auction. Bidders submit written bids without knowing the bid of the other people in the auction. The highest bidder wins but the price paid is the second-highest bid. The auction was first described academically by Columbia University professor William Vickrey in 1961.
The second price auction has a very nice property: From a game theoretic perspective the dominant strategy in a Vickrey auction with a single, indivisible item is for each bidder to bid their true value of the item. This property is so easy to prove that we will do it right now:
Let $v_{i}$ be bidder i's value for the item. Let $b_{i}$ be bidder i's bid for the item.
The payoff for bidder i is ${\begin{cases}v_{i}-\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}&{\text{if }}b_{i}>\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}\\0&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}$
The strategy of overbidding is dominated by bidding truthfully. Assume that bidder i bids $b_{i}>v_{i}$.
If $\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}<v_{i}$ then the bidder would win the item with a truthful bid as well as an overbid. The bid's amount does not change the payoff so the two strategies have equal payoffs in this case.
If $\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}>b_{i}$ then the bidder would lose the item either way so the strategies have equal payoffs in this case.
If $v_{i}<\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}<b_{i}$ then only the strategy of overbidding would win the auction. The payoff would be negative for the strategy of overbidding because they paid more than their value of the item, while the payoff for a truthful bid would be zero. Thus the strategy of bidding higher than one's true valuation is dominated by the strategy of truthfully bidding.
The strategy of underbidding is dominated by bidding truthfully. Assume that bidder i bids $b_{i}<v_{i}$.
If $\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}>v_{i}$ then the bidder would lose the item with a truthful bid as well as an underbid, so the strategies have equal payoffs for this case.
If $\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}<b_{i}$ then the bidder would win the item either way so the strategies have equal payoffs in this case.
If $b_{i}<\max _{j\neq i}b_{j}<v_{i}$ then only the strategy of truthfully bidding would win the auction. The payoff for the truthful strategy would be positive as they paid less than their value of the item, while the payoff for an underbid bid would be zero. Thus the strategy of underbidding is dominated by the strategy of truthfully bidding.
Truthful bidding dominates the other possible strategies (underbidding and overbidding) so it is an optimal strategy.
# Web Science/Part2: Emerging Web Properties/Web Search Ecosystem/Metrics for (online) advertisement/script

In online advertisement there are several metrics. They are called CPC, CTR, CR, BR, CPM and CPA and are often confused. We know want to understand how these metrics are defined and which of our stakeholders should pay particular attention to which metric.
The set of metrics can be split into two subsets:
Let us have a deeper look at the first set again:
* The CPM states how much an advertiser has to pay to the ad agency in order to have the advertisement delivered 1000 times to the customers of the website of the affiliated publishers. As in other cases the revenue is usually shared between the ad agency and the respective publishers. This metric is highly motivated from the offline world where it was also used for magazine and television ads. It favors the publisher a lot since he exactly knows how much money he will earn for attracting 1000 page views. On the other side the advertiser has a very high risk. The ad could be unappealing to the customer and not generate any traffic to the advertiser's website.
* On the other hand we have CPA. It states the amount of money the advertiser pays (to the ad agency) if a consumer interacts with an advertisement in a way such that a certain goal on the advertisers website is met. An example could be shopping of an item. In this case the amount of money could be a percentage of the price of the sold item. Drawbacks are the fact that affiliate marketing is complex to realize as it requires tracking technology from the ad agency on the advertisers website. Another one is that there is a high disadvantage for the publisher. Now he carries all the risk. If no one of his users becomes a customer of the advertiser he will not have any revenue.
* The best mix of both worlds seems to be the CPC. In this setting The advertiser pays a certain fee for every click on the advertisement. The publisher still has the risk that no one interacts with the ad by clicking on it but on the other side he gets paid already even if the customer is not subscribing to a service or buying a product from the advertiser. CPC has one big drawback which is click fraud. It is actually even a risk to the ad agency and has to be detected by them. We will discuss this problem in a later unit of this lesson.
So let us turn to the other set of metrics.
# Web Science/Part2: Emerging Web Properties/Web Search Ecosystem/Metrics for (online) advertisement/quiz

An advertiser (online shop) runs an ad campaign to increase his sales. The campaign runs with a CPC of 0.50 Euro and will successfully deliver 2000 Clicks. After the campaign is over he receives the report stating that he had a conversion rate of 2% and a click through rate of 1%.
# What Matters/Flourishing
## Flourishing

Professor Martin Seligman makes his case for flourishing as perhaps the wisest goal for humanity. “Being in a state of mental health is not merely being disorder free; rather it is the presence of flourishing”
Flourishing—increasing our well-being—is characterized by these five elements:
* Positive Emotions—The pleasant life, positive affect, feeling happy,
* Engagement—Flow, getting lost in your work,
* (Positive) Relationships—other people,
* Meaning – Belonging to and serving something bigger than yourself, and
* Accomplishment—completing tasks and projects.
These can be recalled using the mnemonic: PERMA.
Exercises described in the book that can increase well-being include:
* Gratitude Visit—Recall someone who was kind to you but who you never properly thanked. Write out a one-page note thanking them in depth. Visit that person and read the entire note to them.
* Random acts of kindness—Just do something unexpected and kind to others. Seligman bought $10 of penny stamps and handed them out to the people standing in a long line at the post office to save them lots of time and frustration.
* What Went Well (Three Blessings)—Every night for the next week set aside ten minutes before going to sleep. Write down three things that went well today and why they went well.
* Apply your signature strengths—Take the VIA Survey at the AuthenticHappiness.org website to identify your signature strengths. Then find a new way to apply and exercise those strengths.
* Respond Actively and Constructively when hearing something good has happened to someone you care about.

### Assignment:

* Read the book Seligman, Martin (2011). Flourish: A New Understanding of Happiness, Well-Being - And How to Achieve Them. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 978-1857885699.
* Complete the exercises described briefly above and more fully in the book.
* Strive to flourish.

### Suggestions for further reading:

* Seligman, Martin (2011). Flourish: A New Understanding of Happiness, Well-Being - And How to Achieve Them. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 978-1857885699.
* The happy secret to better work, February 2012 TED talk by Shawn Achor
* (Evaluate the book: Thrive: The Third Metric to Redefining Success and Creating a Life of Well-Being, Wisdom, and Wonder )

### References:

* ↑ Seligman, Martin (2011). Flourish: A New Understanding of Happiness, Well-Being - And How to Achieve Them. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 978-1857885699.
# What Matters/Human Rights
### Human Rights

* All human beings are born with equal and inalienable rights and fundamental freedoms.
* In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations has stated in clear and simple terms the rights which belong equally to every person.
* These rights belong to you.
* Read your rights at: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights web page.
** Use this questionnaire to assess the level of human rights in your region.
** Consult the Global Peace Index to learn how peaceful your region is.
** Learn what the Human Rights Watch organization has learned about your region.
** Learn how your region ranks on the Political Terror Scale.
* They are your rights.
* Familiarize yourself with them.
* Help to promote and defend them for yourself as well as for your fellow human beings.
* If you are the victim of oppression—within your family, workplace, community, or nation—it can be very difficult to attain these human rights for yourself. Perhaps this advice on "Responding to Tyrants" can suggest some options available to you.

### Assignment:

* Use this questionnaire to assess the level of human rights in your region.
* Based on your responses to the questionnaire, identify the primary impediments to human rights in your region.
* Imagine living in a different region, where human rights are either better protected (if you live in an oppressed region) or where they are denied (if you are fortunate to live in a region with good human rights protections).
* Complete the questionnaire as if you are living in that other region.
* Based on the questionnaire responses, and the text of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights what action would be most effective in improving human rights in the oppressed region?
* Optionally, complete the course Assessing Human Rights.
# What Matters/Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
### Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, all of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-actualization at the top.

### Assignment:

Study Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Beginning at the bottom of the pyramid, decide which of the listed needs are currently fulfilled for you, and which needs you are pursuing.
# What Matters/Flow
## Flow

Flow is a mental state where you are completely absorbed in your work, you have lost all track of time, and it all flows effortlessly. It refers to the state of gratification we enter when we feel completely engaged in what we are doing. The phrases in the zone, or lost in your work, often refer to flow experiences.
Researcher Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi describes flow as optimal experience.
The experience of flow has several of these characteristics:
* Clear and attainable goals.
* Concentrating and focusing—a high degree of concentration on a limited field of attention. A person engaged in the activity will have the opportunity to focus and to delve deeply into it. People become absorbed in their activity, and their focus of awareness is narrowed to the activity itself.
* A loss of the feeling of self-consciousness, the merging of action and awareness.
* A distorted sense of time, your subjective experience of time is altered.
* Direct and immediate feedback—successes and failures in the course of the activity are apparent, so that behavior can be rapidly adjusted as needed.
* An appropriate challenge, neither too difficult nor too easy—Competency is demonstrated.
* A sense of personal control over the situation or activity.
* The activity is intrinsically rewarding—action becomes effortless.

### Assignment

* Notice when you have just emerged from the flow state.
* Reflect on your experience of flow. Which of the characteristics listed above can you recall occurring during the flow state?
* Reflect on what you were doing and how you entered the flow state.
* Seek out opportunities to enter and enjoy this state of mind.

### Suggestions for further reading:

* Mihaly Csikszentmihályi (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-016253-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=V9KrQgAACAAJ.
# What Matters/Integrity
## Integrity

Integrity is consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy, in that it regards internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs.
Integrity is the decision to act congruently with your well-chosen values.
Live without cause for shame. Be impeccable with your word. Do what you say. Take full responsibility for your actions. Do your best.
Demonstrate allegiance to your well-chosen values through your actions every day.

### Assignment:

* Complete the course on Earning Trust.
* Carefully notice the promises you make, and any expectations you create. Pay attention to the exact words and meaning you convey.
* Notice if each promise is fully kept. Did you say anything that was inaccurate or could be misleading?
* Complete the course on Intellectual honesty. Become intellectually honest. Insist on intellectual honesty.
* Close any gaps between what you say and what you do. Become more trustworthy. Be impeccable with your word. Do what you say.
** Think more, speak less, say more.
* Recall a time in your life when you faced difficulties. Perhaps you reached deep down inside, resolved to do your best, worked hard, stayed focused, and overcame the difficulties. How did that make you feel? Recall another time in your life where you did not do your best. What was the outcome? How did that make you feel?

### Suggestions for further reading:

* Ruiz, Don Miguel (1997). The Four Agreements: A Practical Guide to Personal Freedom. Amber-Allen Publishing. pp. 138. ISBN 978-1878424310.
* Covey, Stephen M .R. (February 5, 2008). The SPEED of TRUST: The One Thing That Changes Everything. FREE PRESS. pp. 354. ISBN 978-1416549000.
* Sullenberger, Chesley B.; Zaslow, Jeffrey (2010). Highest Duty: My Search for What Really Matters. Harper Paperbacks. pp. 368. ISBN 0061924695.
* Bowman, James (2007). Honor: A History. Encounter Books. pp. 382. ISBN 978-1594031984.

### References:

* ↑ Lucaites, John Louis; Condit, Celeste Michelle; Caudill, Sally (1999). Contemporary rhetorical theory: a reader. Guilford Press. pp. 92. ISBN 1572304014.
# What Matters/List of things that matter
## Things that matter

Students of the What Matters course have contributed these descriptions of things that matter most to them. Enjoy these and please feel free to link your own story or description into this list.
* The view from 65
# What Matters/List of things that matter/The view from 65

Embrace love in all of its forms, live with a strong connection to your higher self, laugh loudly and often … with yourself as your main source of amusement.
Eliminate manufactured fear. Root out all messages and warnings of fear instilled within you by parents, teachers, leaders, TV, media and your imagination. Look around you and see the ways you are safe, secure and empowered. Regardless of your circumstances, there is good in your life. See it, acknowledge it, enjoy it and be thankful.
Life is an adventure. There’re opportunities every day to learn new things, meet new people, gain new perspective and explore new ideas … many only appear once. Don’t miss them.
Tell your truth of the moment. (It will evolve as you grow and change.) Be authentic by your definition, not what others cast upon you.
Treat each person you meet as the unique individual they are. Learn something from every person. Notice their eyes; their spirit, their beauty. Acknowledge them with a smile, nod or thought.
Become aware of your negative and judgmental thoughts. Counter them with love. Forgive yourself for actions that have hurt others. Vow to change the behavior. Forgive those who have hurt you because in doing so, you make room for love, laughter and joy.
Remember and honor those who have loved, cherished, protected, guided, taught, and, yes, even those who have pissed you off.
The way I see it, Love is a much better place from which to live a life.
Thank you.
Penny Rice
# What Matters/Find your good work
## Find your good work

And do it faithfully.

### Assignment:

* Read through this mountain of problems list.
* Choose one of these grand challenges to work on where you can make a difference.
* Go make that difference!

### Suggestions for further reading:

* Kidder, Tracy (2009). Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, a Man Who Would Cure the World. Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. 352. ISBN 978-0812980554.
* Mortenson, Greg; David Oliver Relin (2007). Three Cups of Tea: One Man's Mission to Promote Peace . . . One School at a Time. Penguin Books. pp. 349. ISBN 978-0143038252.
* Robbins, Jim (2012). The Man Who Planted Trees: Lost Groves, Champion Trees, and an Urgent Plan to Save the Planet. Spiegel & Grau. pp. 240. ISBN 978-1400069064.
* Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (2008). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. pp. 336. ISBN 978-0061339202.
* (Evaluate: Inspired & Unstoppable: Wildly Succeeding at Your Life's Work! ))
# WikiJournal Preprints/Valproic Acid used in Women of child bearing age with Epilepsy: An Argumentative Essay

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name of image creator, CC-BY 3.0

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# Quantitative MO theory

The chemist's qualitative picture of molecular orbitals can be rigorously derived from a quantum chemical approach. In this section we give a very brief outline of the theory.

## Schrödinger equation

In 1925 Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg independently formulated a general quantum theory. Although the two formulations are mathematically equivalent, Schrödinger presented his theory in terms of partial differential equations and, within this framework, the energy of an isolated molecule can be obtained by the solution of the Schrödinger equation. In its time-independent form, this can be written as:
       ${\hat {H}}\Psi =E\Psi$
where ${\hat {H}}$ is the Hamiltonian operator, $\Psi$ is the wavefunction, and E is the energy of the system relative to the state in which the nuclei and electrons are infinitely separated and at rest.
The masses of the nuclei are much larger and their velocities much smaller than those of the electrons, and it is possible to simplify the solution of the Schrödinger equation by separating it into two parts, one describing the motions of the electrons in a field of fixed nuclei and the other describing the motions of the nuclei. This is known as the adiabatic or Born-Oppenheimer approximation. Molecular orbital theory is concerned with finding approximate solutions to the first part, that is, the electronic Schrödinger equation:
       ${\hat {H}}^{e}\Psi ^{e}=E^{e}\Psi ^{e}$
Each quantity is implicitly a function of the nuclear co-ordinates.

## The orbital approximation

The orbital approximation simplifies the above equation by assuming that each electron is associated with a separate one-electron wavefunction or spin orbital, [chi]. Thus, Hartree proposed that the wavefunction could be expressed simply as a product of spin orbitals, one for each electron:
       $\psi =\chi _{1}(1)\chi _{2}(2)...\chi _{n}(n)\,\!$

## The LCAO approximation

Each spin orbital is actually a product of a spatial function, $\chi _{i}(x,y,z)\,\!$, and a spin function, α or β. The spatial molecular orbitals, $\Phi _{i}\,\!$, are usually expressed as linear combinations of a finite set of known one-electron functions. In the simplest case where these functions take the form of the atomic orbitals of the constituent atoms, this expansion is called a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO):
       $\Phi _{i}=c_{1i}\chi _{1}+c_{2i}\chi _{2}+...c_{Ni}\chi _{N}\,\!$
Qualitatively, this is like saying that the two molecular orbitals in H$_2$ are linear combinations of the 1s atomic orbitals:
Φ$_1$ = 0.5χ$_a$ + 0.5χ$_b$

## One-electron approximations

The simplest way to solve the Schrödinger equation is to treat each electron in isolation from the rest. This "one-electron approximation" leads to Hückel theory and Extended Hückel theory.
| | Computational Chemistry - Navigation | |
| Qualitative MO theory | Fundamentals of Computational Chemistry | Empirical MO methods |
# Quantitative research

Quantitative research uses the scientific method to construct knowledge through operationalisation of variables and utilising statistical procedures to analyse numerical data (Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2010) such as collected via self-report scales, behavioural measures, or physiological measures.
Quantitative research is based on the epistemology of positivism, which assumes that reality is objective, singular, and governed by universal laws. The discovery of these laws is the overarching aim of quantitative research, with the goal of describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling phenomenon (Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2010).
Quantitative research utilises an objective, deductive methodology characterised by structured procedures that collect reliable numerical measurement.