OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Greek Language/Diphthongs

In linguistics, a diphthong is a structure consisting of two vowels, which are pronounced as two phthongs but in the time of one syllable. In modern Greek there are 7 diphthongs, presented in the following table.
| Diphthongs | Pronunciation | Notes |
| αϊ | [ai] | Pronounced like mine or iron. |
| αη | [ai] | Pronounced the same as αϊ. |
| αϋ | [ai] | Pronounced the same as αϊ. |
| οϊ | [oi] | Pronounced like moist or oyster. |
| οη | [oi] | Pronounced the same as οϊ. |
| οϋ | [oi] | Pronounced the same as οϊ. |
| εϋ | [ei] | Pronounced like main or same. |
You may have noticed that most diphthongs look like the two-vowels vowels and combinations ευ and αυ. However, they are distinguished by the fact that over ι and υ there are special signs, similar to the Umlaut of the German language. These signs are called diaeresis (Greek: διαλυτικά) and are always used to separate a vowels' digraph, requiring as a result the independent pronunciation of each vowel the digraph is consisted of.
# Greek Language/Pronunciation and Alphabet

* Alphabet
* Vowels
* Consonants
* Two-letter vowels
* Diphthongs
* Syllable separation
# Greek Language/Syllable Separation

The following rules hold for Modern Greek syllabification:
1. A vowel can be a syllable by itself (usually when two vowels that do not diphthongize are next to each other)
ex: α-έ-ρας, αι-ώ-νας
2. Diphthongs, vowel combinations that are read as single vowels (ει, οι, ου, etc.) and vowel combinations that are read as vowel-consonant (αυ, ευ) are treated as single vowels for syllabification, and thus are never separated
ex: αίσ-χος, ευ-χή, γάι-δα-ρος, ά-πια-στο
3. Series of consonants that are read as single sounds (ντ, γκ, γγ in almost all cases, μπ in most accents) are treated as single consonants and never separated
ex: κά-μπος, ά-ντρας
4. Consonants before the first vowel are grouped with the first vowel and consonants after the last vowel are grouped with the last vowel. ex: ντό-πιος
5. One consonant between two vowels is grouped with the second vowel: ex: για-τί, βρα-βι-ο
6. Two consonants between two vowels are sometimes both grouped with the second vowel, and are sometimes split between the vowels, depending on the consonants. The vowels are grouped together if and only if the two consonants have attestations at the start of other words (ex: τρ is attested in words like τραπέζι and therefore is not split, but ρτ is not and therefore is split)
ex: νε-κτα-ρί-νια (κτίριο) ex: ορ-μή, ελ-πίς
7. Doubled consonants are always separated (really a restatement of rule 6; no Greek words begin with doubled consonants)
ex: άλ-λος, υ-δρορ-ρο-ή
8. Three consonants between vowels are grouped to the right if and only if either the first two or all three consonants are attested at the start of of other words. If they are not attested, then the leftmost consonant is grouped with the proceeding vowel
ex: ε-χθρος (χθές), α-στρa-πή (στρέφω)
ex: εκ-θρο-νί-ζω (θρήνος), αν-θροπος
9. In compound words or words formed with prefixes, a syllable always terminates where the prefix or initial of the compound terminates, unless the prefix or compound has undergone vowel change in its terminal vowel, in which case the word is treated as if it were not a compound.
ex: εξ-έρ-χο-μαι (εξ-), Ελ-λήσ-πο-ντος (Ελλης-)
ex: πα-ρέρ-χο-μαι (παρα-), Φί-λι-πος (φίλο-)
# Greek Language/Consonants

As with the vowels, many Greek consonants are pronounced the same as in Romance languages, especially Italian and Spanish. The main differences between Greek pronunciations and English pronunciations of consonants is that the Greek pronunciations sound lighter, involving palatalization.
Some sounds that are common in other languages simply do not exist in Greek. These sounds are the postalveolar fricatives and affricates: [ʃ] as in "fish," [ʒ] as in "mirage", [tʃ] as in "cheat" and [dʒ] as in "jade". Other common sounds, such as [b], [d] and [ɡ], do exist in Greek, but do not have single letters to represent them. Instead, two letters are used. The sound [b] is represented by μπ (e. g. ball – μπάλα), [d] is written as ντ (e. g. doughnut – ντόνατ) and [ɡ] as γκ (e. g. golf – γκολφ).
There is another sound that exists in English and Greek that does not have its own letter in either language: [ŋ] (ingma), which is the sound ending the word "ring". This sound is much rarer in Greek than in English, but when it shows up, it appears as the combination γχ. Examples: άγχος (anxiety), έλεγχος (checking).

## Categories

Greek consonants are divided into 3 categories according to specific criteria:
* According to their sound
    unvoiced (Greek: άηχα): κ, π, τ, χ, φ, θ, σ, τσ*
    voiced (Greek: ηχηρά): γ, β, δ, ζ, λ, μ, ν, ρ, τζ*, μπ*, ντ*, γκ*
* According to their duration
    instantaneous (Greek: στιγμιαία): κ, π, τ, τσ*, τζ*, μπ*, ντ*, γκ*
    continuous (Greek: εξακολουθητικά): γ, β, δ, ζ, λ, μ, ν, ρ, χ, φ, θ, σ
* According to the part of mouth where they are formed
    labial (Greek: χειλικά): π, β, φ, μπ*, μ
    dental (Greek: οδοντικά): τ, δ, θ, ντ*
    alveolar: σ, ζ, τσ*, τζ*, λ, ρ, ν
    velar: κ, γ, χ, γκ*
* Two-letter consonants
# Greek Language/Two-letter Consonants

Like two-letter vowels, the Greek language is also "equipped" with two-letter consonants (Greek: δίψηφα σύμφωνα), in other words, combinations of two consonants having one sound. The two-letter consonants seem to have been introduced to the language to cover the lack of specific phthongs (sounds), like [b],[d] and [g]. Below is a table presenting the two-letter consonants and some instructions about how to pronounce them.
| Two-letter consonants | Pronunciation | Notes |
| μπ | [b] / [mb] | Pronounced like ball or embassy depending on the place it is in the word; If μπ is situated at the beginning of a word it is pronounced [b], otherwise [mb]. |
| ντ | [d] / [nd] | Pronounced like down or Andes. |
| γκ | [g] / [ng] | Pronounced like goal or angry following the same rule as μπ; [g] at the beginning of the word, [ng] otherwise. |
| γγ | [g] / [ng] | Pronounced the same as γκ, but since there are no Greek words beginning with γγ, just [ng] pronunciation is used. |
| τσ | [ts] | Pronounced like cats or boots. |
| τζ | [dz] | Pronounced like kids or goods. |
# Greek Language/Two-letter Vowels

Apart from the simple vowels of Greek alphabet depicted by one letter, there are also combinations of two vowels pronounced like one sound that is identical to the sound of some of the simple ones. These combinations are called “two-letter vowels” (Greek: δίψηφα φωνήεντα) and have their origin in ancient Greek, when they were pronounced as diphthongs (long vowels with different parts, each of which has different value) but as the language evolved, they were flattened to simple sounds. Diphthongs still exist in modern Greek. The combinations of vowels that are pronounced as diphthongs can be distinguished from those that are pronounced as a single sound.
| Two-letter vowels | Pronunciation | Notes |
| αι | [e] | Pronounced the same as ε. |
| ει | [i] | Pronounced the same as ι, η and υ. |
| οι | [i] | Pronounced the same as ι, η and υ. |
| υι | [i] | Pronounced the same as ι, η and υ. |
| ου | [u] | Pronounced like loot or school. |
Apart from the two-letter vowels listed above, there are also two more structures consisting of two vowels that are called "αυ and ευ combinations" (Greek: συνδυασμοί αυ και ευ). These combinations are pronounced [av] and [ev] respectively, when followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant (e.g. ευανάγνωστος, αύριο) and [af] and [ef] respectively, when followed by an unvoiced consonant (e.g. αυτοκίνητο, κατεύθυνση).
letter
# Greek Language

Greek (Modern Greek: ελληνικά [eliniˈka], elliniká, "Greek", ελληνική γλώσσα [eliniˈci ˈɣlosa], ellinikí glóssa, "Greek language") is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean.

## Lessons

* Alphabet
** Vowels
** Consonants
** Two-letter Vowels
** Two-letter Consonants
** Diphthongs
* Syllable Separation
* Articles
* Pronouns
** Indefinite Pronoun
** Personal Pronoun
** Relative Pronoun
* Auxiliary Verbs
** είμαι - I am
** έχω - I have
** ? - I do
* Simple Verbs
* Forming Simple Sentences

## See Also

* Wikipedia: Greek language
# Greek Language/Alphabet

The Greek alphabet has 24 characters, as opposed to 26 letters in the Roman alphabet. However, Greek has seven vowels, as opposed to the standard five (and sometimes six) of the Roman alphabet. This makes for only 17 Greek consonants, compared with 21 Roman consonants.
| Letter | Name | Name | Pronunciation |
| Letter | Greek | English | Pronunciation |
| Α α | Άλφα | Alpha | [a] |
| Β β | Βήτα | Beta | [v] |
| Γ γ | Γάμμα Γάμα | Gamma | [gh] |
| Δ δ | Δέλτα | Delta | [dh] |
| Ε ε | Έψιλον | Epsilon | [e] |
| Ζ ζ | Ζήτα | Zeta | [z] |
| Η η | Ήτα | Eta | [i] |
| Θ θ | Θήτα | Theta | [th] |
| I ι | Iώτα Γιώτα | Iota | [i] |
| Κ κ | Κάππα Κάπα | Kappa | [k] |
| Λ λ | Λάμδα Λάμβδα | Lambda | [l] |
| Μ μ | Μι Μυ | Mu | [m] |
| Ν ν | Νι Νυ | Nu | [n] |
| Ξ ξ | Ξι | Xi | [ks] |
| Ο ο | Όμικρον | Omicron | [o] |
| Π π | Πι | Pi | [p] |
| Ρ ρ | Ρω | Rho | [r] |
| Σ σ ς (final) | Σίγμα | Sigma | [s] |
| Τ τ | Ταυ | Tau | [t] |
| Υ υ | Ύψιλον | Upsilon | [i] |
| Φ φ | Φι | Phi | [f] |
| Χ χ | Χι | Chi | [ch] |
| Ψ ψ | Ψι | Psi | [ps] |
| Ω ω | Ωμέγα | Omega | [o] |

## Wikimedia

* w:Greek alphabet
# Installing a web server

First you might need a clarification of what a web server is, please refer to web server for details. In the following we will assume, you have got a running computer and you are trying to set up the software environment for serving your web pages. The instructions for installing depend on the type of computer that you are using and which web server do you choose to install, for example Apache or Nginx web server: install Apache web server and install Nginx web server.

### Windows Webserver with XAMPP

This is very straightforward, you simply search for XAMPP on the internet and download the windows installer. Permission problems for Vista have come up, but these are solved by choosing the root of C: drive as the install directory and should be handled for you. It would be beneficial to change it to C:\xampp drive if it isn't already for simplicity. It will also prompt for whether you want to install the Apache web server and mySQL database as services. If you select as a service, the software will be started during the boot; if not, you will need to manually start and stop them from the XAMPP control panel in the program listings every time you need them. Your choice should reflect how much memory and processing power you have. This software package is mainly for sandbox testing of web pages on personal computers, not actual web servers for security reasons.

#### Related resources

w:XAMPP
Windows installer

### Sun Solaris Apache webserver

The Solaris 10 release includes the Apache webserver. (note: a standard Solaris install includes two versions of the Apache webserver; you probably want to use the newer apache2 version.) First, create a configuration file by using the commands:
Then, edit httpd.conf by reading the comments in the file and making the needed changes. The web server is started using the command:
The directory /var/apache2/htdocs is where the web pages are stored.

## Lessons

* Install Apache web server
* Install Nginx web server
# Installing and using Dev-C++

This little article will teach you how to install the latest version of Dev-C++ and how to write a C program in it. This way, you will know how to write C programs, compile, and find the executable.
Dev-C++ is not actually a compiler, but an IDE. The link below is an installation of Dev-C++ which is prepackaged with MinGW. MinGW is the GCC compiler but made for usability in Windows.

## Downloading

Click on this

## Installing

Hit all the next buttons before install Dev-cpp.

## Using Dev-C++

By default Dev-C++ is installed to C:\Dev-Cpp.
Go there and open up the .exe called devcpp.
It should look something like this.

### Creating a Project

To write a program, you have to make the source code files. To do this you create a project.
To create a project you go to File > New > Project.
A dialog will come up asking you what kind of project you would like to make, what you would like to name it, and if you want to compile in C++ or C. There are many project templates for different types of programs. Select the Console Application template and the language you want to compile in is C. Then name the project something. It would be recommended that when you save this project, that you should save it to it's own folder. You should probably make a folder under C:\Dev-Cpp called Projects and then make a folder this project. The reason being wherever you save this project it'll create multiple files and could get cluttered very fast if you do not make a folder.

### Compiling and Executing

Compiling and executing a program is very simple. You can hit F9 to compile and execute or click the button.
If all goes well then a console should come up and display "Press any key to continue..."

### The Interface

There are many features, and the Dev-C++ is pretty easy to understand. There are two important windows that you should know to get you started.
The first is where you actually edit the source code for your programs. It has syntax highlighting and formatting making it easier to read.
The second would be the navigating of your projects and your source code files. This is so you can see how your projects are organized.
# Instinct

This psychology resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
Instinct is the inherent inclination of a living organism toward a particular behavior. The fixed action patterns are unlearned and inherited. The stimuli can be variable due to imprinting in a sensitive period or also genetically fixed. Examples of instinctual fixed action patterns can be observed in the behavior of animals, which perform various activities (sometimes complex) that are not based upon prior experience, such as reproduction, and feeding among insects. Sea turtles, hatched on a beach, automatically move toward the ocean, and honeybees communicate by dance the direction of a food source, all without formal instruction. Other examples include animal fighting, animal courtship behavior, internal escape functions, and building of nests. Another term for the same concept is innate behavior.
# Installing a web server/Nginx web server/Read Nginx release Notes

Read nginx: http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES
Nginx
* Nginx 1.17.4 Bug fix release 24 Sep 2019
* Nginx 1.16 23 Apr 2019 http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES-1.16
* Nginx 1.15.10 26 Mar 2019
** Feature: port ranges in the "listen" directive
* Nginx 1.15.0 05 Jun 2018
** Change: now nginx detects missing SSL certificates during configuration testing when using the "ssl" parameter of the "listen" directive
* Nginx 1.14, 17 Apr 2018 (Default in Ubuntu 18.04)
Nginx Plus
* ↑ http://nginx.org/en/CHANGES-1.14
* ↑ https://www.nginx.com/blog/nginx-plus-r6-released/
# Installing a web server/Apache web server
## Installation Apache2
### Debian GNU/Linux Apache server

Installing the Apache2 web server requires a single command:
If you wish to make a LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP) server you must install PHP and MySQL:

### Ubuntu Server Edition Apache server

The 'htdocs' folder is located in '/var/www'
Installing the Apache2 web server requires a single command with working internet connection in Ubuntu too:
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Born-Haber Cycle
## Born-Haber Cycle

The Born-Haber Cycle is an approach to analyzing reaction energies. It was named after and developed by the two German scientists Max Born and Fritz Haber.
The Born-Haber cycle involves the formation of an ionic compound from the reaction of a metal (often a Group I or Group II element) with a non-metal. Born-Haber cycles are used primarily as a means of calculating lattice enthalpies, which cannot otherwise be measured directly.
The lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change involved in formation of the ionic compound from gaseous ions. Some chemists define it as the energy to break the ionic compound into gaseous ions. The former definition is invariably exothermic and the latter is endothermic.
A Born-Haber cycle calculates the lattice enthalpy by comparing the standard enthalpy change of formation of the ionic compound (from the elements) to the enthalpy required to make gaseous ions from the elements. This is an application of Hess's Law.
It is this latter calculation that is complex. To make gaseous ions from elements it is necessary to atomise the elements (turn each into gaseous atoms) and then to ionise the atoms. If the element is normally a molecule then we have to consider its bond dissociation enthalpy (see also bond energy). The energy involved in removing electrons to make a cation is called the ionization energy. The enthalpy of adding electrons to an atom to make it an anion is called the electron affinity.

### Diagram Explanation

* Atomisation enthalpy of metal (example: lithium)
* Ionisation enthalpy of metal
* Atomisation enthalpy of non-metal (example: fluorine)
* Electron affinity of non-metal
* Lattice enthalpy
The sum of the energies for each step of the process must equal the enthalpy of formation of the metal and non-metal, $\Delta {\text{H}}_{\text{f}}$.
$\Delta {\text{H}}_{\text{f}}={\text{V}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{B}}+{\text{IE}}_{\text{M}}-{\text{EA}}_{\text{X}}-{\text{U}}_{\text{L}}$
$V$ is the enthalpy of vaporization for metal atoms
$B$ is the bond energy
${\text{IE}}_{\text{M}}$ is the ionization energy of metal atom ${\text{M}}+{\text{IE}}_{\text{M}}\to {\text{M}}^{+}+{\text{e}}^{-}$
${\text{EA}}_{\text{X}}$ is the electron affinity of non-metal atom X
${\text{U}}_{\text{L}}$ is the lattice energy
# Materials Science and Engineering/Equations/Physics
## Hall Effect

Electric field due to the separation of charge is the Hall field, $\mathbf {E} _{H}$
In equilibrium, the force from the electric field is balanced by the magnetic force $ev_{d}B$

## Paramagnetism

Relative permeability:
Magnetic susceptibility:
Magnetization vector, M:
Curie's law:
# Japanese carp

Crap is a freshwater bony fish with a bluish-black body, a bluish-black back, a yellowish-white bell and a pair of whiskers on the lips. In Japan, they call crap 'KOI", and the koi is a national symbol of luck and good fortune, and they are respected as such.
In literature and art, they are frequently portrayed as emblems of fortitude and tenacity because of their beauty. Their colours and patterns are pleasing to look at, so Japanese people like to keep koi at home and a garden. Carp is a cold water fish that accumulates strength by swimming against the current. That's why they have been revered as the supreme fish for hundreds of years. A carp is a brave fish that doesn't move like other fish, whether it's hooked or landed, and even lies on the kitchen table without moving. Therefore, they are likened to samurai warriors who do not shy away from the sword.

## Types of Koi

* Taisho Sanshoku – white with black and red patches
* Kohaku – white with red patches
* Showa Sanshoku – black with red and white patches
* Goromo – red and blue coloured scales
* Bekko – white, red, or yellow koi with black patches
* Chagoi – brown or olive-colored koi
* Asagi – blue koi with red and white underbellies
* Ogon – silver koi with gold
* Koromo – white koi with black patches on the scales
* Hikari Moyo – silver koi with patterns on the scales

## Legend of koi

In ancient times, before the beginning of the chronology of this era, thousands of carp swam across the Yellow River. It is said that the colored scales on their muscular backs glistened in the sunlight like millions of living gems. Everyone traveled safely until a school of carp came upon a large waterfall. However, thousands of carp who were tired and exhausted could not bear the strong current and strong descent of the waterfall, gave up and went back down the stream. But exactly 360 carp swam against the current, jumped up the waterfall and continued to fight. Using all his strength, he jumped again and again and kept falling back into the water. Listening to the sound of the carp splashing in the water, the gathered fishermen mocked them for their failed attempts. Lussavdas used their magic to make the falls higher and the currents more violent, swarming the poor carp. However, the carp did not want to give up. They continued to try for a century. In the end, only one fish managed to reach the top of the waterfall in a heroic leap. It is said that God, who saw him at this time, smiled and praised and rewarded the brave carp and turned him into a golden dragon. The carp, which became a golden dragon, soared in the eternal sky and chased the stars to live a happy life. Since then, this waterfall has been called the Dragon's Door, and any carp that manages to climb to the top of the waterfall with a combination of strength and bravery turns into a golden dragon. This is because the carp is a symbol of endurance and invincibility, overcoming obstacles, being the master of one's destiny, fulfilling one's life goals, and achieving success.
# Java

You may be looking for Wikiversity's department of Java at Portal:Java.
There are other resources related to Java at Wikiversity. These include:
* Java Tutorial
* Introduction to Programming in Java
* Learning Java
* Java programming tips
* Advanced Java
* Java Platform, Enterprise Edition
* Java programming notes for Macintosh
# Japanese materials on Wikipedia

< Topic:Japanese/Materials

## Information

* Japanese language
* Gender differences in spoken Japanese
* Category:Japanese words and phrases
* Japanese phonology
** Japanese pitch accent
** Japanese sound symbolism
* Iroha Jiruishō
* Japanese honorifics
** Dono
** Oneesama
** Senpai
** Sensei
** Japanese suffixes
** Japanese titles
** Taikun
* Category:Japanese word games -list of word games

## Writing

* Japanese literature
** List of Japanese classic texts
* Goroawase -numeric substitution of syllables
* Japanese writing system
* Kanbun -explanation
* Emoji
* Gyaru-moji
* Ruby character -also explains how to display

### Romanization

* Romanization of Japanese
* Nihon-shiki Rōmaji
* Hepburn romanization
* Kunrei-shiki Rōmaji
* Wāpuro rōmaji

### Kana

* Kana
* katakana
* Iroha
* Hiragana
* Hentaigana
* Chōon
* Okurigana
* Furigana
* Historical kana usage
* Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
* Gojūon
* Dakuten
* Sokuon
* Yōon

### Kanji

* Jōyō kanji
* kanji
* Kyōiku kanji
* Toyo kanji

## Linguistic

* Japanese language classification
* Classical Japanese language
* Old Japanese
* Sino-Japanese -explains how words from china entered the language
* Rendaku

## Grammar

* Japanese grammar
** Japanese adjectives
*** Adjectival noun
** Japanese consonant and vowel verbs
*** Japanese verb conjugations
** Japanese counter word
** Japanese Possessives
** Japanese particles
*** Topic marker
** Japanese pronouns

## Dialects

* Japanese dialects
** Yokohama Pidgin Japanese
** Nyōbō kotoba -secret language
** Hida dialect
** Kansai-ben
** Nagoya-ben
** Tosa dialect
** Yamagata-ben

## Resources

* Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language -contains link to book
* EDICT -link to dictionary
* WWWJDIC
* ATOK -ime
* Kotoeri -mac os input method
* Kiten -dictionary
* JRPG
* Jimi's Book of Japanese: A Motivating Method to Learn Japanese -interesting learning method
* Learning kanji -how to guide

## Test

* Examination for Japanese University Admission
* Japanese Language Proficiency Test
* Kanji kentei

## Unsorted

* Aizuchi
# JavaScript/Clipboard

Text can be copied to the clipboard in JavaScript using the navigator.clipboard.writeText method. However, to prevent unsolicited copying to clipboard, web browsers only allow it in response to a click or tap by the user.
In the following demonstration, a time stamp is generated, inserted into the text area, and then copied to the clipboard.