OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Philosophy of History/How to Write History Better

Tips On Writing History

## Prof. William E.Leuchtenburg, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

I do not want to be presumptuous because I am certainly not the source of all knowledge on this. As a matter of fact I can boil down everything I know about writing into three sentences:
1. Check every single verb on each page of your manuscript mechanically to eliminate the passive voice, if at all possible.
2. Avoid repeated words, not only in the same sentence or paragraph, but within the entire paper.
3. Make sure your topic sentence is what the paragraph is about.

## Prof. Mary Beth Norton, Alger Professor of American History, Cornell University

1) Read everything aloud to yourself. Such a strategy helps you to "hear" awkward constructions and word repetitions.
2) Do not use weak transitional words and phrases, such as "however" and "we see that. . ."
3) Avoid the "this-it syndrome"--that is, the use of vague terms without obvious referants. Especially avoid the "lonely this," as in "she wanted this above all" or "this is. . ."

## Byron Hollinshead, President, American Historical Publications

One should always look for exactly the right verb to describe an action, rather than picking out any old verb and adding an adjective or adverb to it; e.g. try "stroll" instead of "walk leisurely."

## Will Fitzhugh, Editor and Publisher of The Concord Review

To write history well, make it a practice to read good historical writing. A good place to start would be the essays in The Concord Review.

## Thomas M. Preisser, Professor and Chair, Department of Humanities, Government, and Modern Languages, Sinclair Community College, Dayton (OH)

Make sure your manuscript has a thesis which you develop and support.

## Stephen Webre, Chair, Dept. of History, Louisiana Tech University

1) Write with nouns and verbs. Consider all adjectives and adverbs guilty until proven innocent. Use them only when they make a necessary contribution to meaning. One adverb that fails this test is "very." Avoid it.
2) Keep the noun and verb close together.
3) Place the time reference (for example, the date of the event being discussed), at the beginning of the sentence or the clause.
4) You need a clearly stated thesis, but you also need what Alfred Hitchcock used to call a "MacGuffin." The MacGuffin is the thing the paper is about. Know what it is and do not lose sight of it. If there's something in your paper that's not about the MacGuffin, take it out. Know the difference between a thesis and a MacGuffin.
# Philosophy of History

* Philosophy of History Learning Project
* part of the Schools of History and Philosophy
* Ideas
* Please add ideas for more essays.
* To learn how to contribute an essay,
* go to the following page:
* Wikiversity:Request custodian action
* Essays within this learning project include:
* Civilization, Cultural Diffusion, and Innovation
* Comparative History of Major Developments
* Conflict and Cooperation
* History's Habits of the Mind
* History's Vital Themes and Narratives
* How to Write History Better
* Human Interaction With the Environment
* Patterns of Social and Political Interaction
* Schools of History
* Values, Beliefs, Political Ideas and Institutions
# Philosophy of History/History's Habits of the Mind

Developed by the National Council for History Education and posted with their permission.
Courses in history, geography, and government should be designed to take students well beyond formal skills of critical thinking, to help them through their own active learning to:
* Understand the significance of the past to their own lives, both private and public, and to their society.
* Distinguish between the important and the inconsequential, to develop the discriminating memory needed for a "discerning judgment" in public and personal life.
* Perceive past events and issues as people experienced them at the time, to develop historical empathy as opposed to present-mindedness.
* Acquire at the same time a comprehension of diverse cultures and shared humanity.
* Understand how things happen and how things change, how human intentions matter, but also how their consequences are shared by the means of carrying them out, in a tangle of purpose and process.
* Comprehend the interplay of change and continuity, and avoid assuming that either is somehow more natural, or more to be expected, than the other.
* Prepare to live with uncertainties and exasperating, even perilous, unfinished busines, realizing that not all problems have solutions
* Grasp the complexity of historical causation, respect particularity, and avoid excessively abstract generalizations.
* Appreciate the often tentative nature of judgments about the past, and thereby avoid the temptation to seize upon particular "lessons" of history as a cure for present ills.
* Recognize the importance of individuals who have made a difference in history, and the significance of personal character for both good and ill.
* Appreciate the force of the non-rational, the irrational, and the accidental, in history and human affairs.
* Understand the relationship between geography and history as a matrix of time and place, and as a context for events.
* Read widely and critically in order to recognize the difference between fact and conjecture, between evidence and assertion, and thereby frame useful questions.
# PlanetPhysics/Topic on Major Resources for Mathematics and Mathematical Physics
## Mathematics resources, international institutes and major facilities

This is a new contributed topic on major facilities and resources for mathematics and mathematical/ physics, including computational/supercomputing and theoretical paper web-archiving:
* Princeton Advanced Theoretical Research Institute
* IHES, in Paris, France
* The Cavendish Laboratory,Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, UK
* Supercomputing National Centers, e.g.: NCSA at Urbana, IL
* Beckmann Advanced Research Institute, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
* RAL= Rutherford Appleton Laboratory near Didcot, Oxfordshire
* Max Planck Institute, Germany
* Institute for Theoretical Physics Research, Germany
* Trieste Advanced Theoretical Physics Research Institute
* High-density energy Research Institute, Kyoto, Japan
* CERN, International preprint archives in Geneva
* ANL web-archiving center of mathematical physics/theoretical papers
* National Centers for Nanotechnology, Material Science Centers
* IHEP in Russia
* Institute of Mathematics of the Romanian Academy, in Bucharest, Romania
* XYZ
* XYZ
# PlanetPhysics/Trace

\setcounter{section}{1}
The trace of a matrix $tr(M)$ is the sum of its diagonal elements.
# PlanetPhysics/Topic on Groupoid Symmetries and Duality
### Symmetry groups, groupoids, algebras and duality

This is a new topic by multiple contributors of substantial interest to both mathematicians and mathematical physicists or theoreticians. Any significant content additions are welcome. The following list is open to additions and expansion
* Symmetry and groups #Galois groups and Galois theory
* Symmetry and groupoids: internal and external symmetry
* Galois groupoids
* fundamental groupoid functor #Extensions of Galois theory
* Tanaka-Krein duality
* Grothendieck extension of Tanaka-Krein duality to non-Abelian groups
* Fourier duality
* quantum groups
* Bravais lattices and their symmetry groups
* group representations #matrices and symmetry
* classification of groups and algebras
* `Broken symmetries' in mathematical physics #Classical symmetries
* quantum symmetry and quantum groups
* Extended symmetry and quantum groupoids
* differential equations and symmetry
* Symmetry and duality
* Groups and their dual algebras
* Symmetry, logic and categorical logics
* Symmetry resources: books, web links, conference announcement links, images, and so on
* The algebraic dual of the non-Abelian isospin group $SU(2)$
* SM theory groups, $U(1),SU(2),SU(3),...$
* spinors and symmetry
* Symmetry in quantum gravity and general relativity
# PlanetPhysics/Topic on Physics Resources and Major Facilities
## Physics Resources and Major Facilities

This is a new contributed topic on major facilities and resources for experimental and theoretical physics, including Computational Physics:
* CERN = European High energy physics and TeV (superconducting) Super-collider Research Facility, in Geneva; also one of the most extensive archives of science papers in physics, medical/radiation physics, as well as preprints contributed from all over the world
* ANL = Argonne National Laboratory, at Batavia (45 miles West from Chicago), Illinois
* FNAL= Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory = Fermilab Tevatron, in Chicago, Illinois ( See also: $http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/pdfs/200812/dec_{2}008.pdf$)
* SLAC = SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Synchrotron radiation Facility, at Stanford, CA
* ISIS = Brightest, Pulsed neutron and Muon Source, International Neutron Experiments Facility at Harwell (near Oxford), UK
* DESY in Germany
* Brookhaven National Laboratory
* MIT National High Magnetic fields Laboratory
* ITER= Experimental, International tokamak Fusion Facilities in France and Japan
* British Tokamak Fusion Facility
* Princeton Tokamak Fusion Facility
* Dubna= Russian High Energy Physics Facility
* IHEP in Russia,
* Princeton Advanced Theoretical Physics Research Institute
* The Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, UK
* Max Planck Institute, Germany
* Institute for Theoretical Physics Research, Germany
* Institute Louis Pasteur, Paris
* Trieste Advanced Theoretical Physics Research Institute
* Beckmann Advanced Research Institute for Science and Technology, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
* New Mexico, Extremely High Voltage testing Facility
* National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC
* High-field Nuclear Magnetic resonance (NMR) and MRI Facilities
* High power Laser Facilities
* Advanced Fluorescence and Correlation Spectroscopy Facilities
* ISS= Commercial Fluorescence Microscopy and Frequency domain Fluorescence, Urbana, IL
* Experimental, Research nuclear reactors (RNRs)
* High-density energy Research Institute, Kyoto, Japan
* supercomputer National Centers
* National Centers for Nanotechnology, Material Science
* Institute of Physics, at Magurele - near Bucharest, in Romania
* Institute of Mathematics of the Romanian Academy, in Bucharest, Romania
* XYZ1
* XYZ2
* XYZ3
* XYZn
# PlanetPhysics/Topic on Major Physics Research Projects
### International, Major Physics Research Projects

This is a new contributed topic on international, major physics research projects, including major Computational Physics projects.
* TeV proton -- anti-proton collision experiments, at CERN = European High energy physics and TeV (superconducting) Super-collider Research Facility, in Geneva , The LHC (Large Hadron Collider)
* Atlas International Physics project involving close to 3,000 physicists and engineers
* International neutron Experiments and Projects at ISIS = Brightest Pulsed Neutron Source, International Neutron Experiments Facility at Harwell (near Oxford), UK
* ITER= Experimental, International tokamak Fusion Experiments in France and Japan (May 10 2k5)
* CMS Collaboration uscms.org at the Fermilab in the USA in USA.
* HERA
* Muon Collaboration Experiments Project
# PlanetPhysics/Topological G Space
### Essential Data

Let us recall the definition of a topological group; this is a group $(G,.,e)$ together with a topology on $G$ such that $(x,y)\mapsto xy^{-1}$ is continuous, i.e., from $G\times G$ into $G$. Note also that $G\times G$ is regarded as a topological space defined by the product topology.

## Definition: Topological Group

Consider $G$ to be a topological group with the above notations, and also let $X$ be a topological space, such that an action $a$ of $G$ on $X$ is continuous if $a:G\times X\to X$ is continuous; with these conditions, $X$ is defined to be a topological G-space .
# PlanetPhysics/Topos Axioms

The two axioms that define an elementary topos , or a standard topos , as a special category $\tau$ are:
* {\mathbf i.} $\tau$ has finite limits
* {\mathbf ii.} $\tau$ has power objects $\Omega (A)$ for objects $A$ in $\tau$.
To complete the axiomatic definition of topoi, one needs to add the ETAC axioms which allow one to define a category as an interpretation of ETAC. The above axioms imply that any topos has finite colimits, a subobject classifier (such as a Heyting logic algebra), as well as several other properties.
Alternative definitions of topoi have also been proposed, such as:
A topos is a category $\tau$ subject to the following axioms:
* {\mathbf $\mathbb {T} _{1}$}. $\tau$ is cartesian closed
* {\mathbf $\mathbb {T} _{2}$}. $\tau$ has a subobject classifier.
One can show that axioms i. and ii. also imply axioms $\mathbb {T} _{1}$ and $\mathbb {T} _{2}$; one notes that property $\mathbb {T} _{2}$ can also be expressed as the existence of a representable subobject functor.
# Programming Logic

So you've read through the Introduction to Programming, and you understand the basics of programming, but before you jump into the depths of learning various language syntax rules, there are even more basics that apply to every programming and scripting language. If program code is nothing more than a set of instructions, how does the computer make decisions? A large portion of computer code is contained within logical or conditional statements, and are only executed when certain situations arise.

## Prerequisites
### Required

* Introduction to Programming

### Recommended

* Introduction to Math for computer programming

## Focus

This course is intended to thoroughly teach the principles of programming logic and procedural coding while reinforcing lessons learned in Introduction to Programming while avoiding the complications of any particular syntax. For this reason, the lessons will contain only pseudocode with occasional mathematical calculations.

### Planned Topics

| if - then | if - then - else | equal to | greater than |
| less than | not | and | or |
| nor | xor | goto | break |
| loop | while | until | for - each - next |

## Lessons

* Key Terms
* Variables
* Conditionals and Logic
* Looping
* Code Organization Techniques

## See Also

* Programming Fundamentals
* Computer Programming
* PLC - programmable logic controller
# Programming Logic/Key Terms
## Arguments

    Data or variables that are being sent to another block of code

## Code Block

    A section of code that can usually be pointed to or called from another section

## Comments

    Lines that are ignored by the compiler or interpreter that allow the programmer to explain code that may otherwise be confusing

## Documentation

    See comments

## Iteration

    A series of instructions or actions performed repeatedly until a condition becomes true.

## Logic

    A system of binary decisions that lead to specific code blocks to be executed.

## Procedural

    A way of organizing code so that related tasks are completed together thus allowing code to be re-used, or called from other code areas.

## Procedure Call

    Where one block of code is executed within another. This technique can be used as a way to prevent redundancy and optimize code execution

## Pseudocode

    A way of describing an algorithm using programming conventions in plain English rather than code.
Selection
A fundamental programming construct; it involves a condition followed by actions to be performed whether the condition is true or not.
Sequential
A collection of instructions or actions with are performed in a specific order.
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/R
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own R compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* R (programming language)
* Wikibooks: R Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/Swift
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Swift compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* paiza.IO
* repl.it
* Online Swift Playground

## See Also

* Apple: Swift Programming Language
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/VB.NET
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own VB.NET compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Visual Basic .NET
# Programming Logic/Code Organization Techniques

variable_demo.vb
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/Rust
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Rust compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* repl.it
* RexTester
* rust-lang.org
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Rust
* Rust-lang: Learn Rust
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/Ruby
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Ruby compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Ruby Programming
# Programming Logic/Conditionals and Logic

Conditionals and logic
Let's take the robot idea. You have a set of commands for him. If you tell him anything else other than the commands he knows, he does his "do the locomotion dance"
The commands available are Options 1-4
Remember - if you say anything other than 1, 2, 3, or 4, he will do the locomotion dance.
This means you actually have 5 options: The 4 commands and the "anything else" for a total of 5 options. Each one of these options contains a conditional expression, and an action based upon the result.
An IF statement allows you to program the robot to think about the command, and make the correct decision. Verbally, this might be expressed as "If I say 1, the robot will follow and shine his light. If I say 2, the robot will follow me and play my song. If I say 3, the robot will write down everything I say and store it. If I say 4, the robot will recharge. Otherwise, the robot dances the locomotion."
Each of these expressions can be answered with a TRUE or a FALSE (A Boolean value) if rephrased as "IF it's TRUE that I said 1"... IF it's TRUE that I said 2"... If it's TRUE I said something else..."
Now, each expression has a condition - they MUST evaluate to TRUE or FALSE. Now the robot can be taught to make decisions.
As for the mysterious option 5, we'll just refer to that as an "ELSE" ....
input user (voice recognition command+case_num) ( for (case_num);
) return 0;
___________________________________________________ now scrappy has a definite action to take for any "case" command given to him
assuming his "do the locomotion routine" has a do until condition
and scrappy has voice recognition where he has specific values recorded for those allowed
# Programming Fundamentals/Variables/Python3
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Python3 compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* InterviewBit
* paiza.IO
* Programiz
* PythonTutor
* Python Fiddle
* repl.it
* RexTester
* Trinket
* TutorialsPoint
* Python Online
* Python Playground
* LabEx

## See Also

* Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Lua
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Lua compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* Ideone
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Lua.org: Reference Manual
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/PHP
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own PHP compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* Online PHP
* paiza.IO
* repl.it
* W3Schools

## See Also

* Wikibooks: PHP Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Perl
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Perl compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Perl Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Pseudocode
## See Also

* Pseudocode
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Ruby
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Ruby compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Ruby Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/JavaScript
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own JavaScript compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* Chapman.edu: Online JavaScript Interpreter
* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* JS.do
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it

## See Also

* Wikibooks: JavaScript
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Python3
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Python3 compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* InterviewBit
* paiza.IO
* Programiz
* PythonTutor
* Python Fiddle
* repl.it
* RexTester
* Trinket
* TutorialsPoint
* Python Online
* Python Playground
* LabEx

## See Also

* Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Python Programming
* Wikibooks: Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3
* Youtube: Python For Beginners - How to create an Array and List in Python - Lesson 19 With Examples
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Java
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own Java compiler / interpreter / IDE.
* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* InterviewBit
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint

## See Also

* Wikibooks: Java Programming
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/Flowchart
## Try It
### Free Online Flowchart Tools

* Diagramo
* Draw.io

### Free Downloadable Flowchart IDEs

* Flowgorithm
* LARP
* RAPTOR
* Visual Logic

## See Also

* MathsIsFun: Conversion of Temperature
* Flowgorithm
* Raptor (programming)
# Programming Fundamentals/Arrays/PowerShell
## Try It

Copy and paste the code above into one of the following free online development environments or use your own PowerShell compiler / interpreter / IDE.

### Online

* There are some options, but none are fully functional at this time.

### Windows

* Microsoft:Starting Windows PowerShell

### macOS / Linux

* HowToGeek: How to Install Microsoft PowerShell on Linux or OS X

## See Also

* Microsoft: Getting Started with PowerShell
* PowerShell
# Poetry/Contemporary Poetry
## Content summary

This course covers more contemporary poets (in our definition, a poet that was working into the last half of the 20th century and those working currently. The New York School will be included with this.

## Poets

* John Berryman
* John Ashbery
* Kenneth Koch
* Frank O'Hara
* Ocean Vuong
* Cooper Esteban
* Mandy Pannett
* Usha Kishore
* Joel Allegretti
* Kristina Marie Darling
* Felino A. Soriano
Questions/Suggestions?

## Unit materials

* Study guide:
# Poetry/Epic poetry
## Content summary

This class covers epic poems from the past to the present. There will be translations of the major works in other languages.

## Unit materials

* Study guide:

### Texts
## Poets and Their Works

* Homer
** The Illiad
** Text to The Illiad
** The Odyssey
** Text to The Odyssey
* Beowulf
* Vyasa
** Mahabharata
* John Milton
** Paradise Lost
** Text to Paradise Lost