OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Lava and Pyroclastic Material

Lava is simply defined as molten rock [magma] expelled by an opening/vent [volcano] during an eruption. Lava can also be called "Former-Magma", or a term related to/of magma on the surface. What is "magma"? Magma is defined as Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. Magma ejected out of a volcano is known as lava, and Magma that is cooled down is known as an igneous rock (defined as: Igneous rock is formed when magma cools and solidifies). Nonexplosive eruptions (these eruptions produce relatively calm flows of lava) mostly produce lava, but eruptions can alter between lava and what is known as pyroclastic material, which is material formed when a mixture of hot rock, ash and lava fragments is blasted into the air and hardens [while in the air].

## Lava

Viscosity is how resistant a liquid is to flow. Water has a low viscosity (which means it flows fast) while a milkshake has a high viscosity (which means it flows slow). Similarly, we will review through four basic types of lava. Aa and Pillow Lava have lower viscosity while Blocky Lava and Pahoehoe have high viscosity. Thus, Aa and Pillow Lava flow quickly while Blocky Lava and Pahoehoe flow slowly.

### Types of Lava

* Aa (other spellings: ʻAʻā, aa, aʻa, ʻaʻa, and a-aa) is a form of lava that is named a name resembling a screech due to the painful experience of walking barefoot across this type of lava's surface (introduced by Clarence Edward Dutton, an American geologist and a former soldier). The lava typically erupts at temperatures of 1,000 to 1,100 °C quickly out of the volcano and forms a brittle, jagged, sharp, and spiny crust. Molten lava continues to flow underneath the hike-hazard crust.
* Pahoehoe is a form of lava that means, when translated, "smooth, unbroken lava". This is because Pahoehoe flows quite slowly, somewhat like wax candles. This is because of lava of high viscosity, in which is covered by a wax-like surface (or crust). The glassy surface of Pahoehoe has rounded wrinkles.
* Pillow Lava forms when lava erupts in water (underwater). Pillow lava, though it resembles similar to what we sleep on at night (a pillow), is very hard and lumpy.
* Blocky Lava is cool and hard lava that does not have the capability to travel a long distance form its vent. Blockly lava typically oozes out from a volcano and forms heaps of shard-edged chunks.
# Law school outlines

Law school outlines are study aids written by law school students during final exam preparations. Due to the expansiveness of material covered during a semester for a typical law school class, students must condense their class notes and reading notes into a manageable outline. The outlines focus on key issues with brief case summaries. In addition to outlines prepared by students, commercial outlines exist that are commonly sold in school bookstores. However, outlines drafted by students are often class, professor and semester specific, whereas commercial outlines are typically more general and some are written as a guide for specific textbooks. Law school outlines are often passed down from upper level students who previously took the relevant class, or downloaded from online sites. Often these websites charge for downloads, while a select few offer students an exchange program, where the students can upload their outlines in exchange for download credits. Some sites even allow their users to upload their old outlines and share in the revenues earned from the sales of downloads for those outlines.
# Literature/1975/March/J

March, James G. and Johan P. Olsen (1975). "The Uncertainty of the Past: Organizational Learning under Ambiguity," European Journal of Political Research, 3: 147-171.
# Literature/1975/Fodor

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Wikimedia
### w: Jerry Fodor
### w: Jerry Fodor on mental states

| w: Computational theory of mind w: Cognitive architecture w: Mental representation w: Representationalism w: Computationalism w: Cognitivism w: Innatism | w: Noam Chomsky w: Daniel Dennett w: Philip Johnson-Laird w: David Marr w: Marvin Minsky w: Allen Newell w: Steven Pinker w: Zenon Pylyshyn w: Hilary Putnam w: Roger Schank |
# Literature/1975/Grice

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Wikimedia
### w: Implicature

* Implicature is a technical term in the pragmatics subfield of linguistics, coined by H. P. Grice, which refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied (that is, entailed) by the utterance.
| w: Figure of speech w: Metaphor w: Polysemy w: Parsimony w: Ambiguity | w: Pragmatics w: Speech act |

## Related works

* Searle, John (1975). "Indirect Speech Acts," pp. 59-82, in: Cole, Peter & Jerry L. Morgan, eds. (1975). Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3: Speech Act. New York: Academic Press. $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1975/Hacking I

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Wikimedia

| w: Inductive reasoning | w: Bayesian inference |

## Author
### Related works

* Hacking, Ian (1975). Why Does Language Matter to Philosophy? Cambridge University Press. $^{[^]}$
* Hacking, Ian (1975). The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference. Cambridge University Press. $^{[^]}$
* Hacking, Ian (1972) A Concise Introduction to Logic. New York: McGraw-Hill.
* Hacking, Ian (1965) The Logic of Statistical Inference. Cambridge University Press.
# Literature/1975/Feyerabend

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Reviews

* Amazon
** "This book is a humorous, multi-sided and relentless attack on accepted notions and interpretations of consistency and progress, achieved through a single method (such as rationality or logic), in the area of human knowledge. Feyerabend denies method supremacy over contextual and meaning rich subjective thinking, and marshals the facts of history to establish the lack of any single method or well-defined body (such as science) in the growth of human knowledge."

## Wikimedia

| w: Scientific revolution | w: Paradigm shift |

## Chronology

* Kuhn, Thomas (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press. $^{[^]}$
* Bernal, J. D. (1939). The Social Function of Science. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1975/Kochen

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Contents

* Evolution of Brainlike Social Organs (pp. 1-18)
* Who Should Control Societies (pp. 21- )
* What is Information for Policy Making? (pp. 33- )
* On the Learning Capacity of Large Political Systems (pp. 61-83) by Karl W. Deutsch
* Research on the Utilization of Knowledge (pp. 87-107) by R. G. Havelock
* Internationalization of Scientific and Technical Information Programs: Opportunity and Challenge (pp. 139-152) by A. A. Aines
* The World Brain as seen by an Information Entrepreneur (pp. 155-160) by Eugene Garfield
* Constraints on the Use of Knowledge in Decision Making (pp. 161-169) by Harold D. Lasswell
* Some Aspects of 'World Brain' Notions (pp. 177-203) by Derek J. de Solla Price
* An Ideal Information Access System: Some Economic Implications, by Howard J. Hilton

## Wikipedia

* World Brain, World Encyclopedia
* Global brain
* Small world phenomenon
* DIKW

## Chronology

* Literature/1989/Garfield $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1989/Gordon $^{[^]}$
* Kochen, Manfred, ed. (1989). The Small World: A Volume of Recent Research Advances Commemorating Ithiel de Sola Pool, Stanley Milgram, Theodore Newcomb. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp. (January 1, 1989). $^{[^]}$
* Kochen, Manfred (1987). "How Well Do We Acknowledge Intellectual Debts?" Journal of Documentation, 43 (1): 54-64. $^{[^]}$
* Pool, Ithiel de Sola & Manfred Kochen (1978). "Contacts and Influence." Social Networks, 1, pp. 1-51. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1976/Kochen $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1975/Lasswell $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1975/Russell $^{[^]}$
* Kochen, Manfred (1972). "WISE: A World Information Synthesis and Encyclopaedia." Journal of Documentation, 28: 322-341. $^{[^]}$
* Kochen, Manfred (1969). "Stability in the Growth of Knowledge." American Documentation, 20 (3): 186-197. $^{[^]}$
# Film School:Digital Puppets:Character Animation

Lessons in Digital Puppet Animation Course :
| Introduction: | Introduction to digital puppets |
| Lesson: | Character animation with digital puppets |
| Lesson: | Scenery Generation |
| Lesson: | Compositing characters & scenery |
| Lesson: | Dialog recording |
| Lesson: | Film scoring |
| Lesson: | Film editing |
* Step #1
* Making a movie with Digital Puppets
* Once you finish the basic introduction to filmmaking course, then you can start to make an animated version of the short motion picture "Seduced by the Dark Side".
* I will help you with each step. To make this easier for me, we will all work with the same materials.
| Percy and Son Here is a single figure from 3D Universe which is ideal for this story. | Big Croc and Little Croc Here is a single figure from 3D Universe which is ideal for this story. |
| DAZ Studio is Free DAZ Studio is free so that makes it the official program for this project | Poser Poser is not free but it is a better animation program than DAZ Studio. But free is free so we will use DAZ Studio. |
# Film School:Digital Puppets:Scenery generation

Lessons in Digital Puppet Animation Course :
| Introduction: | Introduction to digital puppets |
| Lesson: | Character animation with digital puppets |
| Lesson: | Scenery Generation |
| Lesson: | Compositing characters & scenery |
| Lesson: | Dialog recording |
| Lesson: | Film scoring |
| Lesson: | Film editing |
* Step #2
* Making the movie sets for digital puppets
* All about the filmmaking courses
* In the first basic filmmaking course (pre-production), the goal is to create an animatic movie from storyboards created using FrameForge 3D Studio for "Seduced by the Dark Side!". The purpose of the animatic is to determine the timing of the final animation. This month hopefully, the first animatic will be completed.
* The next course uses DAZ Studio to create an animated version of the motion picture "Seduced by the Dark Side!"
* DAZ Studio has very limited animation capability... but it is free. Because the animation will not look perfect, we cannot use regular humans for models. Instead, I have tried to find cartoonish figures such as the Penguins or the Bears or the Croc. These models are NOT free but the cost is under $20.
* There are about 15 shots in this movie. Instructions need to be created for each of the shots using DAZ Studio and one of the computer models.
* For the movie "Seduced by the Dark Side!", we need an old person and a young person. With the Penguins or the Bears or the Croc, it is possible to use these figures so that there is a young and an old person.
* Have you found any free models which have a young person and an old person? These figures must look good together. Many of the free versions are only for a young person or only for an older person but not both. Some of the more realistic free models are too hard to create realistic animation for.
* Most of the animation is very simple. But the final shot has a huge theater model. To do this, we will probably use Bryce 5.5 which is free (or I hope it still is free.)
* Then we will composite the animation from DAZ Studio with still images created in Bryce. This save a huge amount of rendering time.
* When you find interesting free 3D figures, please put a rendering or two of the figures at Storyboard Artwork Project/Stamps so I can see them (and so kids with TuxPaint can use them.)
| Percy and Son Here is a single figure from 3D Universe which is ideal for this story. | Big Croc and Little Croc Here is a single figure from 3D Universe which is ideal for this story. |
| Bruce is free DAZ's Bryce version 5.5 is free so that makes it the official program for this project | Vue Vue is not free but it is a better scenery generation program than DAZ's Bryce. But free is free so we will use DAZ's Bryce 5.5. |
# Fillings

* Click to return to School of Dentistry
This is a learning resource about dental fillings.
Caries diagnosis
* Clean tooth (water + air)
* Dry (air)
* Bright light
* Magnification?
* Sharp / Blunt probe (international variation). Better tactile feedback with sharp probe, but more likely to cause cavitation of lesions which were not cavitated before.
* Trans-illumination (caries shows up as shadow)
* X-ray
* Clinical experience. Not an exact science, much variation with regards caries diagnosis from one clinician to the next
Management algorithm
* Active or inactive caries? Soft, sticky – active, hard, smooth – arrested
* Cavitated or non-cavitated? Probe “catching” - cavity
| No carious lesion | | | No treatment |
| Carious lesion | Inactive lesion | | No treatment |
| Carious lesion | Active lesion | Non-cavitated lesion | Non-operative treatment |
| Carious lesion | Active lesion | Cavitated lesion | Operative treatment |
| Existing filling | No defect | | No replacement |
| Existing filling | Defective filling | Ditching, overhang | No replacement |
| Existing filling | Defective filling | Fracture or food impaction | Repair or replacement of filling |
| Existing filling | Inactive lesion | | No treatment |
| Existing filling | Active lesion | Non-cavitated lesion | Non-operative treatment |
| Existing filling | Active lesion | Cavitated lesion | Repair or replacement of filling |
* Non-operative treatment: requires patient education and motivation, fluoride (toothpaste, mouthrinse, topical), plaque control, dietary modification (decrease frequency of sugar)
* If non-operative management is not working, caries will progress
* Dentin cannot remineralize if enamel is present over the dentin
* In the real world, patient's cosmetic concerns often demand restoration even if a cavity is arrested
GV Black classification
* Class I - pit and fissure caries (anterior or posterior teeth)
* Class II - approximal surfaces of posterior teeth
* Class III - approximal surfaces of anterior teeth without incisal edge involvement
* Class IV - approximal surfaces of anterior teeth with incisal edge involvement
* Class V - gingival/cervical surfaces on the lingual or facial aspect (anterior or posterior)
* Class VI - incisal edge of anterior teeth or cusp heights of posterior teeth

## Class I

Minimally invasive operative intervention
* Enamel biopsy (start cavity, if no caries in fissure, abort and fill with fissure sealant)
* Preventative resin restoration (remove enamel caries in fissures, fill with fissure sealant alone, or with glass ionomer/composite then fissure sealant)
# Funds Remittance

| Unit 4.4-Funds Remittance | Introduction | Checks | Banker's Drafts | Electronic Funds Transfers | Money Orders | Cash or Bank Notes | Credit Cards | SWIFT | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 4.1 | Unit 4.2 | Unit 4.3 | Unit 4.4 | Unit 4.5 | Unit 4.6 | Unit 4.7 | Unit 4.8 | Unit 4.9 Return to Trade Finance Module 4: Payment Methods |

## Unit 4.4-Funds Remittance

The following funds remittance tools are used to move funds between buyers and sellers, they are not methods of payment but can be used in conjunction with various methods of payment.

### Unit Objective

The goal of this material is to introduce you to the methods by which funds are remitted for payment of international transactions. By the end of this unit you will be able to identify funds and remittance methods, their risks and characteristics.

### Unit Outline

* Introduction
* Checks
* Banker's Drafts
* Electronic Funds Transfers
* Money Orders
* Cash or Bank Notes
* Credit Cards
* SWIFT
* Summary
* Resources
* Activities
* Assessment
Correlation: Materials from this unit correlate with NASBITE CGCP's Knowledge Statement 04/04/04: Knowledge of methods of funds remittance (e.g., checks, banker's draft, SWIFT transfer.)
# Fundamentals of philosophy
## What is Philosophy?

A student once mused that philosophy is the study of unanswerable questions. While this may be intriguing to some, it holds the possibility of being frustrating and an outright turn-off to many. This statement merits further investigation and consideration. But, luckily for us, the statement is not as true as its author would hope.
Philosophy, famous today for tackling many of the "big questions" in life — questions, indeed, about the whole of life itself: "What is the meaning of life?", "Why are we here?", "What is truth?", etc. — is an attempt to satiate innate human curiosity with human logic and reason.

## Why Study Philosophy?

This is lucky for us, as previously noted, because, through careful reasoning, many of the questions that philosophy long ago considered have found their way into the sciences. As Bertrand Russell, the notable 20th century British philosopher, notes in his work Why Study Philosophy?, the ancient Greeks wrestled with notions of the self, the good life, and other questions that remain unanswered today. But they also considered the Heavens, the mind, and the body.
Such curiousity, inquisition, and discovery has led to the fields of psychology, psychiatry, and astronomy. Russel notes that many questions that once fell into the realm of philosophy have since evolved into full blown sciences.
Many find it fulfilling to devote their life to the acquisition of knowledge through deep thought and reason. As noted on the main page, a philosopher is literally a lover of wisdom.
If you have ever wondered about these topics and questions, then we suggest that you consider investing some time in philosophy. The topics are broad, from ethics to knowledge and the inner workings of the mind, to the defense of anarchism.
# Fundamentals of computational chemistry

This page deals with developing materials related to Computational chemistry
There is a text book being written at b:Computational chemistry and another book on b:Mathematics for chemistry. Both these books contain student exercises.

## Research Project in Computational Chemistry

There is a project with two objectives, 1) to produce some educational molecular level models of wood, lignite and coal, and 2) to produce a review article about molecular level modelling of coal and clean coal processes. The beginnings of the review exist on the the Academic Publishing Wiki [wiki] in Interpretations in the Physical and Computational Sciences.
Contributions are solicited, particularly over which open source modelling code should be used.
For discussion see Talk:Fundamentals of computational chemistry.

## Learning Computational Chemistry by doing

A whole new project on learning computational chemistry is planned to develop from these links to five modules:
* Introduction to molecular modeling.
* Introduction to approximate quantum chemistry.
* Basic qualitative structure activity relationships.
* Introduction to ab initio quantum chemistry.
* Introduction to molecular mechanics and dynamics.
# Funds Remittance/Assessment

| Unit 4.4-Funds Remittance | Introduction | Checks | Banker's Drafts | Electronic Funds Transfers | Money Orders | Cash or Bank Notes | Credit Cards | SWIFT | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 4.1 | Unit 4.2 | Unit 4.3 | Unit 4.4 | Unit 4.5 | Unit 4.6 | Unit 4.7 | Unit 4.8 | Unit 4.9 Return to Trade Finance Module 4: Payment Methods |
# Fundamentals of Neuroscience/Taste and Smell
## Goals

* To learn how sensory systems detect chemicals in the environment
* To learn how olfactory and gustatory signals are created by these systems, and how they interact

## Smell

What links the seemingly disparate senses of taste and smell so closely is that both are, at their most basic level, triggered by the same environmental cues. Both smell receptors and taste receptors are attenuated to detect certain chemicals, and then relay information about the chemical environment to the brain. In the case of olfaction, these chemical molecules are suspended in air and thus labeled as odorants.
After an odorant molecule enters through the nose, it reacts with olfactory receptors attached to a brain structure called the olfactory bulb, which connects to a large number of brain processing regions, including the limbic system. There are several hundred unique types of olfactory receptors, each with a slightly different configuration and thus a slightly different affinity for bonding with any given odorant. Any given conscious perception of smell is the result of an odorant activating a wide yet specific pattern of receptor types at different levels. As a simplified example, the smell of oatmeal can be thought of as the product of the oatmeal releasing a certain chemical odorant (or more accurately, a complex and characteristic fingerprint of diverse chemical odorants) that activates 70% of receptor I cells, 20% of receptor II cells, etc. such that whenever the brain detects that 70% of its receptor I and 20% of its receptor II etc. cells have been activated, it experiences the distinct scent of oatmeal.

## Taste

The taste equivalent to airborne odorants are called tastants, and are found as the chemicals contained in food (or at least anything ingested as food). Taste receptors are found exclusively on the tongue, and like their olfactory counterparts they exist in specific configurations or types, giving rise to a gradation of taste experience. Thus when distinguishing between tastes the same general principle applies: a given tastant will have a greater affinity for certain receptors over others, and pattern of activation that results conveys the individual taste perception.
Not only are the sensory mechanism for smell and taste similar, but in terms of the processing regions of the brain they are highly interconnected. Perhaps this is no better seen than in how a food's physical taste and smell combine and intermingle to give rise to the sensation of flavor. Both also form the basis of powerful psychological associations, such as visceral reactions one has toward a disgusting odor or rotten taste.