OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Computer architecture/Pipelining

This is a lesson in in the course, Computer Architecture, which is a part of The School of Computer Science
* Objective
* Pipelining
* pipelining is basically a type of process in which every thing is organised like a production line.
* Pipelining is a technique of decomposing a sequential process into sub operations with each sub operation being executed in a special dedicated segment that operates concurrently with all other segments. The several computations can be in progress in distinct segments at the same time. The overlapping of computation is made possible by associating a register with each segment in the pipeline.
* Simple way of viewing the pipeline structure is to imagine that each segment consists of an input register followed by a combinational circuit. The output of combinational circuit in a given segment is applied to the input of next segment. A clock is applied to all registers after enough time has elapsed to perform all segment activity. In this way the information flows through pipeline one step at a time.
* Assignments
Completion status: this resource is a stub, which means that pretty much nothing has been done yet.
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# Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 11

Quick links: front; laboratories agenda, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, JOGL template.

## Particle engine

Particles engines can be used to simulate effects such as water, fire, cloud, comet tails, etc.
Each particle can be seen as a billboard (a texture always facing the camera) with several additional properties as:
* physics related:
** The position vector: (positionX, positionY, positionZ)
** The speed vector: (speedX, speedY, speedY)
** The acceleration vector: (accelerationX, accelerationY, accelerationZ)
* display related:
** Color, material, texture, etc.
** Fading and fading factor -- how visible is the particle
* Life: which should be decremented and when it reaches 0 the particle should be destroyed or reused
The physical laws are quite easy:
* at each step we update the speed by using the acceleration and the position by using the speed
** the time is considered constant (usually 1):
* usually the particles go in the opposite direction of their source; thus we could initialize their speed with the speed of the source, but negative
* usually the particles are emitted to form a cone

### Drawing a single particle

Drawing the particle is quite easy. We simply need to draw a QUAD based on the particle position and to apply a texture on it:
Observations:
* usually the number of particles is constant:
** when a particle dies a new one is created. This is usually done by reusing and reinitializing the particle
* the bigger the time variable is, the smaller the number of frames is needed, but the movement is more fragmented
NOTE: In this particular case the particle is not a billboard!

### Calling the Particle engine

Once the Particle class is created we only need to create a few of them and render them on the screen. To do this add in the main (J)OGL application:

## Exercise

* Create a simple particle engine which emits particles only on the OY axis. The camera should be fixed and located at a conveniently distance from the source of the particles. Make each particle a billboard.
* Create a simple scene containing a cube. Inside the cube we have 5 spheres bouncing of the edges. Each time two (or more) spheres touch each other they disappear.
* Gabriel Iuhasz, iuhasz.gabriel@info.uvt.ro
# Computer architecture/Overview of Operating System

This is a lesson in in the course, Computer Architecture, which is a part of The School of Computer Science
* Objective
* Assignments
Completion status: this resource is a stub, which means that pretty much nothing has been done yet.
Previous Lesson
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Course Home Page :
# Computer engineering

Computer engineering is the science of making computers and their parts. Computer engineers are always trying to make new parts smaller and better. Computer engineering is related to Electrical engineering and Computer science. If you study Computer engineering, you learn about the hardware and software of computers. You will learn circuit theory and electronic circuits, too.
Computer engineering is often compared to Computer science. Computer engineering is about computer hardware and some software. Computer science is about computer software only. Computer engineers study Computer engineering, but software engineers study Computer science.
Computer engineering is a difficult major in college, but computer engineers are needed.. Software engineering companies, telecommunications firms, designers of digital hardware, and many other companies hire Computer engineering majors right out of college and pay them well.
Computer engineering students learn about computers and computer related system design and development. The computer related systems are software systems, hardware systems and systems of software and hardware in combination.

## Learning videos

* Gadget Guts: Amazon Echo Dot (2nd Generation)
# Computer cooling system

Computer cooling systems are passive or active systems that are designed to regulate and dissipate the heat generated by a computer so as to maintain optimal performance and protect the computer from damage that will occur from overheating.

## Readings

* Wikipedia: Computer cooling

## Multimedia

* YouTube: Air vs Liquid Cooling

## Activities

* Add hands-on or research activities related to computer cooling systems here...

## Summary

Types of cooling systems:
* Passive
** Heat Sink
* Active
** Air
** Liquid
# Computer graphics/2013-2014

Quick links: front; laboratories agenda, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, JOGL template.

## Classes

The materials for the CG class can be accessed at this page (by Prof. Dr. Dana Petcu (in Romanian)).

## Laboratory agenda

Please consult Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory agenda.

## Laboratory evaluation

During each lab you will be given some problems to solve. At the end each laboratory each student will report his/hers progress. If no significant progress is seen than the student is considered absent. The homework is due on a week by week basis. Each homework assignment must be sent by mail with the following subject: [Grafica] Tema <numar_tema>. E-mails not respecting this subject format will not be taken into consideration. All emails should be sent to iuhasz.gabriel@e-uvt.ro. E-mails received at other addresses will not be taken into consideration.
The lab grade makes up 50% of the final grade.
There are a number of projects that will represent 50% of the laboratory grade. These projects will be detailed in later labs. The rest of the grade for the lab is for the homework assignments.

## Laboratory tools, frameworks and libraries

Please consult Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory tools.
You can find application templates for starting your own JOGL application at the following link: Computer graphics/2013-2014/JOGL-Template.

## Laboratory notes

* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 1
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 2
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 3
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 4
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 5
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 6
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 7
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 8
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 9
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 10
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 11
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 12
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 13
* Computer graphics/2013-2014/Laboratory 14

## Selected References

* OpenGL and JOGL
* NeHe tutorials
* NeHe Java ports
* OpenGL Programming Guide
* OpenGL Reference Manual
* Java OpenGL API project
* Java Bindings for OpenGL -- Demos
* Gabriel Iuhasz, iuhasz.gabriel@info.uvt.ro
# Computer graphics/2013-2014/JOGL-Template

Quick links: front; laboratories agenda, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, JOGL template.

## Complete example

Two example templates are given here. One for scenes using an orthographic projection and one for scenes using a perspective projection. These examples are intended to be used as templates for future JOGL based applications.

### Perspective projection example

* Gabriel Iuhasz, iuhasz.gabriel@info.uvt.ro
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of The Eve Hypotheses: A Genetic Critique and Reanalysis
### Points Made

- Evidence for African origin is ambiguous. Inappropriate tests were used to confirm, and when appropriate tests were done, results could not provide significant support for African origin. - The time of origin was originally calculated without incorporating key sources of error, so there is much uncertainty about when this "Eve" is said to have lived. Despite this uncertainty, it has been found that she was very likely much older than 200 000 years. - The out-of-Africa replacement theory is rejected by cladogram data and nuclear DNA patterns. The data and patterns are consistent with population-expansion events and gene flow.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critque of The Evolution of the mitochondrial D-loop and the origin of Modern Man

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critque of The Evolution of the mitochondrial D-loop and the origin of Modern Man

### Points Made

Often studies will slightly alter the time line of human evolution in order to make it fit several possible theories. Using the widely accepted theory that Humans diverged from chimpanzees 5 million years ago, scientists have found that the emergence of mDNA was during the time of the Homo Erectus. Using the same data with the theory that humans and chimpanzees diverged 7.4 million years ago, the results were still the same. Homo Sapiens of Africia and Neaderthals Of Eurasia's overlapping existence prove that interbredding was unnessacary in the creation of Modern Man

### Methods

Using the Markov clock method, 16 sequences from 14 human and 2 chimpanzee test subjects were aligned and the entire D-loop of all samples was analyzed. Of the 1,135 sites examined 900 were identical and 203 carried nucleotide substitutions showing evolution of the D loop. Using the widely held belief that humans and chimpanzees diverged 5 million years ago, scientists were able to map out all the departures from 14 human mDNA sequences into a tree like model.

### Results

Using the evolution and substitution of the D-loop in mDNA we are able to determine that the emergence of the mitrochondrian was 400,000- 600,000 years ago, during the Homo Erectus period. Organizing the same data in to a DNA family tree we see that African Americans are by themselves on one branch and because of low genetic diversity, the other 13 samples are clustered together on another.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of Molecular clocks: when timesare a-changin'

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of Molecular clocks: when timesare a-changin'

### There is fossil evidence to prove differences between date estimates for the Mitochondrial Eve

There are differences between information presented as "evidence" as to when the Mitochondrial Eve began and where it's origins are
Molecules in the fossils are giving scientists contradictory evidence as to what the actual timeframe of evolution occured. This has been discovered through the mutation of these molecules over lengthy time which masks the actual time period the fossils are expected to be seen based on archeological/paleontological evidence.

### Results

The result is that the molecular study vs. the archeological/paleontological study are inconsistent, meaning it's difficult for scientists to accurately estimate the time frames of these fossils. In conclusion, this proves the differences between date estimates for the Mitochondrial Eve.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of Sample Title

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of Sample Title

### point

my point.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of A complete Neanderthal Mitochondrial genome sequence determined by high-throughput sequencing: A Review

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A Critique of A complete Neanderthal Mitochondrial genome sequence determined by high-throughput sequencing: A Review

### Points Made

Scientists have yet to discover that Neandertals and Humans have interbred due to the lack of mtDNA integration. An analysis of pairwise differences between human mtDNA and Neandertal mtDNA was conducted to support the theory that hominoids came from a single source and were not interbred with Neandertals at any point.
    Physical evidence has been found to support hybridization between ancient human species and modern human species. From the time we split from chimps 5-7 million years ago, skulls have been found showing where hybridization occurred and where it did not. Human species such as Paranthropus and Australopithecus have died out due to newer species evolving. Skulls, stone tools, and evidence of culture gives some insight into the similaries between Homo neanderthalensis, archaic Homo sapein, and Homo sapien sapien.
Cthom4751 (talk) 02:12, 28 March 2012 (UTC)

### Methods

A new method has been designed to improve the retrieval and analysis of ancient DNA. After extracting DNA (100-200mg) from Neandertal bones, in a clean facility, they performed genome sequencing analysis.
This analysis generated 39 million sequences.
From this it was determined that Neandertal mDNA is outside the range of variance seen in human mDNA.
The polymerase chain reaction was cloned and 103-112 clones were sequenced to determine the ratio of Neandertal to modern human mtDNA.

### Results

Analysis of human mtDNA and Neandertal mtDNA found 206 differences, made up of 195 transitions and 11 transversions.
Based off this finding, they have determined that the two groups split 660,000 years ago (+ / - 140,000). They also inferred the possibility that Neandertal had a relatively small effective population.
Figure A shows Human mtDNA in green, Neandertal mtDNA in red and Chimpanzee mtDNA in blue to represent the pairwise sequence differences.
From this data we see that the humans mtDNA pairwise differences are bimodal and the differences range between 2 and 118. In comparison, the differences between Neandertal mtDNA and human mtDNA are between 201 and 234, and is unimodal, not bimodal. This data suggests that Neandertals are not within the same variations as humans.
When comparing HVRI and HVRII only, the differences between human mtDNA and Neandertal mtDNA begin to overlap in HVRI by a larger margin in HVRII (which we can see in Figures B & C). This suggests that mtDNA comparisons are convoluted by multiple substitutions if only viewing these samples, this does not specifically suggest that human and Neandertal DNA overlaps.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Genomics refute an exclusively African origin of humans.

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Genomics refute an exclusively African origin of humans.

### Modern Day Humans Originate From Many Different Sources

Multiregional Evolution suggests that modern day humans originated from many different kinds of species. It has been shown that humans today have many different genetic characteristics, from many different sources. This also means, humans today have come from more than only early African heritage.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans

### Points Made

This article states that new species of Homo sapiens arose out of Africa, which led to the extinction of previous human species. With the analysis of past phenotypes and genetic DNA, there is proof of hybridization. This hybridization led to the modern Homo sapien sapien, which ultimately bred with and wiped out previous species. The date these species migrated out of Africa was proven to be closer to two million years ago, as opposed to other theories stating it was 200 thousand years ago.

### Methods

The Monte Carlo model (a computer simulation program) was used to recreate the migration of early human ancestors out of Africa. The genomes were analyzed in this program to prove the existence of genes being mixed between "archaic" and "modern" species. This hybridization simulation also takes into account the mutations that go along with natural selection from generation to generation.
    The evolution of humans, whether dating hundred of thousands or millions of years, may be far too complex of a history to simplify into a computer simulation program. Though adjustments were made to account for mutations and natural selection, they could only be based on someone's best guess. The debate remains on the existence of a mitochondrial Eve, this points to a lack of data, which is fundamental in creating a computer simulation program.Jstal531 (talk) 02:40, 28 March 2012 (UTC)
    I agree with Jstal531 , computers may be complex and can compute information that a normal human can only dream about; but computers can make mistakes and as said above it is the best guess. Computers software is made by humans and we only know so much therefore the computer can only know so much. So personally a simulation program doesn't give us proper insight to make a educational break through, but just a basic education estimate. Sambo1428 (talk)

### Results

The results of the study show that we share about 80% of DNA with now extinct species of humans dating much farther back than 200,000 years ago as suggested by the theory of mitochondrial eve. A better estimate would be 2 million years ago based on analyzing phenotypes and the DNA of remains found from these species. Non-African descendants show variation in their physical features which suggests these populations aren't first modern population descendants..
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Evidence for mitochondrial DNA recombination in a human population of island Melanesia

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/A critique of Evidence for mitochondrial DNA recombination in a human population of island Melanesia

### Points Made

452 people from the island of Nguna were identified as having separate mtDNA lineages. Their DNA type was found to be a recombination of mtDNA types of individuals in other remote areas which is highly unlikely. The asexual and cloned nature of mtDNA inheritance has resulted in mutations in offspring due to no diversions from common ancestors..
Mutations were proven through phylogenetic analysis of multiple mtDNA lineages.

### Methods

There were three different methods that were used – DNA analysis, Mitochondrial DNA analysis, and phylogenetic analysis of the DNA sequences. There were samples taken from 452 people from 16 different areas. The mitochondrial DNA analysis detected the 9-bp deletion by means of PCR analysis. The phylogenetic analysis is a substation model used to look at the nucleotide frequencies. There was a bootstrap analysis used to see the similarities in the haplotypes combinations I and II, I and III, and also on the combination II and III.
DNA differences cannot be used alone in determining the differences between species as a whole. Our species is not diverse enough to compare the DNA alone. The DNA is basically the same from person to person, with only a few differences. We must consider other factors as well like bone characteristics, etc. Bmina836 (talk) 02:33, 28 March 2012 (UTC)

### Results

The results indicate there human population in the area sampled derives from three main principal mtDNA Lineages.
The 452 individual DNA sequences fell into 175 different mtDNA types which were then divided into three major groups called haplogroups I, II and III. In haplogroup I, 25% of the total sample was found to belong to the 175 mtDNA types. The first lineage had the previously described Polynesian motive and was found mainly in Trobriand Islands near the east coast of PNG, in the Roro and was also present in different in islands of the Vanuatu archipelago. Haplogroup II was found to be the largest group and most diverse of all samples (48%). It was mainly found in PNG highlands and Vanuatu, but the PNG had the most diversity of haplotype. Haplogroup III was the third mtDNA lineage found and was the smallest one of the three. It is found in the highlands of PNG and in Vanuatu.
# Esperanto/Lesson 10

Previous lesson — Main page — Next lesson

## Exercises

Previous lesson — Main page — Next lesson
# Esperanto/Lesson 1/Answers
## Esperanto–English

| Sentence (back) | Translation |
| La infanoj estas en la urbo. | The children are in the city. |
| La suno brilas. | The sun shines. |
| La folioj falas de la arboj. | The leaves fall from the trees. |
| Li estas en la ĝardeno de la domo. | He is in the garden of the house. |
| La infano sidas en la parko. | The child sits in the park. |
| La birdo sidas en la boato. | The bird sits in the boat. |
| Mi sidas en la lito. | I sit on the bed. |
| La birdo flugas en la parko. | The bird flies in the park. |

## English–Esperanto

| Sentence (back) | Translation |
| The man is in the garden. | La viro estas en la ĝardeno. |
| You are in the city. | Vi estas en la urbo. |
| The leaves fall from the trees. | La folioj falas de la arboj. |
| He is in the garden of the house. | Li estas en la ĝardeno de la domo. |
| The child sits in the park. | La infano sidas en la parko. |
| I sit in the boat. | Mi sidas en la boato. |
| He is a human. | Li estas homo. |
# Esperanto/Lesson 13

Esperanto was created in 1887 by Dr. Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof, a Polish-Jewish ophthalmologist. He was born on 15 December 1859, at Bialystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was under the Russian Empire. His mother tongue is unknown because, at the time, Bialystok was a multi-ethnic city of Russians, Poles, Germans, and Jews. He taught Polish, Russian, German, Yiddish, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and the conlang Volapuk.
In 1878, he started to create an international language, known as "Lingwe uniwersala", but his father, Markus Zamenhof, destroyed his work. However, after studying medicine, he resumed his language development and in 1887, published a book called "International language: Introduction and complete textbook" in Russian. He used a pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto as well. When the readers liked the pseudonym, the official name of the language became "Esperanto".