OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans.

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans.

### Points Made

The Monte Carlo simulation shows that the current data has been misinterpreted because the sample size is so small. Mitochondrial DNA can be interpreted and limited just to Africa, however, based under the assumption that there are multi-regions the Monte Carlo simulation shows that this theory is flawed

### Methods

The method used is called the Monte Carlo model which is a computer simulation dispersing individuals. The simulation showed individuals moving at the pace of a parent and child walking together which worked out to 320 km2/generation. There were a total of 101 locations Locations are spaced 115 km apart and distance was approximately 11,500 km, roughly the distance from Ethiopia to China. Each location comprises 100 individuals which simulated the population size to 10,100 individuals. This is the common estimate of the long-term effective population size of humans.
All individuals are represented by a genome. Individuals are divided into three characterized groups such as "modern", "archaic" and "hypbrid." The group they are placed in depends on whether or not they have each of or a combination of alleles in the C genotypal loci.

### Results

Based on this simulation the nulear genome disproves the “Recent Africa Origin” theory because it shows how mtDNA can occur in a multiregional world. This simulation concludes that 80% of homo sapiens nuclear loci (taken from all around the world) have DNA from non-African archaic humans.
# Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/a critique of Human demographic history: refining the recent African origin model

(Review Paper) Cited in Controversies in Science/Was there a mitochondrial Eve?/a critique of Human demographic history: refining the recent African origin model

### Points Made

We are not diverse enough to have come from different origins.
    It is true that relatively speaking genetic diversity between humans is very small but this knowledge alone is not enough to support a mitochondrial eve. We are hybrids of many different breeds of humans that have existed over the last couple million years. Our genomes are so similar because we bred with species that already had very similar DNA to us.
       The diversity of us human is basically not enough points to make one understand that we are from one person back millions of years ago. We should be looking for traits that are similar and the way the human mind work as well as how the generation expands.Bomor394 (talk) 02:48, 28 March 2012 (UTC)
Pdres507 (talk) 01:53, 28 March 2012 (UTC)
Of course we are diverse enough! The skulls found at various locations around the world prove that diversity is present. These skulls undeniably show the physical mutations from generation to generation, thus proving that we are diverse and originate from different origins.Jdzur290 (talk) 02:22, 28 March 2012 (UTC)

### Methods

They used Templeton’s method which is the nested clade analysis (NCA) framework. This method studied the genetic diversity of different human populations by examining their mtDNA, X Y chromosomes, autosomal regions and regular genes.
    The study takes far too many assumptions and liberties to create the results. The model is inefficient because there is too little data to make an accurate finding. The theory is not proven as there is not enough scientific proof.Tlouc287 (talk) 17:06, 13 April 2012 (UTC)

### Results

Due to the restricted nature of the genes examined in Templeton's method, the study concluded that these genes (β-globin [29], MC1R [68], MS205) came from the same geographical region/origin and later branched out to other regions. Humans from Europe, Asia and Africa are all found to have these three genes in common which originated in Africa and were found to link together 52-66 thousand years ago. Therefore, before this linkage point, all humans must have originated from Africa.
# Construction

Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of similar items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on location for a known client. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing; it continues until the project is built and ready for use.

## Resources

Special:Prefixindex/Construction/
* Earthquake engineering

## Readings
### Wikipedia

* Construction
* List of construction trades
# Constructed languages

A constructed language is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, instead of having developed naturally, are consciously devised or invented as a work of fiction. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial languages, planned languages or invented languages and in some cases, fictional languages.

## Languages

* Globasa
* Angos
* Esperanto
* Ido
* Interlingua
* Low Danish
* Klingon
* Landan
* Latonic
* Novial
* Slovio
* Tchiroe
* Tolkien languages
* Lojban

## What a constructed language should be

The first thing to focus in a constructed language shall be the fundament, the base. Endings, the buildup (Shall it be SVO, SOV, VOS or something completely different?), verbs, adverbs, vowels, sounds, nouns and adjectives.
Once you’ve sufficiently built that up, you shall begin slowly on vocabulary. Remember grammar rules and rules of language. Which alphabet shall be used? That is up to you! Build the vocabulary at last, and then you are pretty much done. Remember to learn the language to yourself!
# Construction/Caissons

Foundation designs may require caissons instead of piles. A caisson is a cast-in-place pile formed by drilling a hole, inserting reinforcement, and filling the hole with concrete Caissons are larger in diameter and extend to greater depths than piles. Caissons are used where the building design and/ or soil conditions make pile driving difficult or inadequate. The larger diameter of the caisson allows for greater load-bearing capacity, which means that caissons can be spaced further apart than piles, yet are able to carry more load. Columns, rather than walls, carry the main vertical loads transmitted to the foundation and soil below.The depth of soil penetration needed to support the column loads may not be possible using grouped pile system.Caissons may be used because these large surface area supports the loads.
Caissons are drilled with a crane and drill rig attachment that drills a hole of a specified diameter into the soil. A casing is a metal cylindrical shell that is driven into the ground to restrain compacted soil near the surface, After the casing is inserted into the soil, the remainder of the caisson is drilled through compacted soil to specified depth of the caisson. Once the caisson is drilled to proper depth of the caisson, a rebar cage is set in the hole and concrete is placed to the proper elevation. Casings for deeper holes are constructed of sections that are added as the drilling proceeds.
A belled caisson features a greater bearing area at the base of the caisson. After the caisson hole have been bored to desired depth, a belling tools is attached to the drilling head. The bottom of the hole is then dug out to the bell shape.
# Construction/Drawings & Specifications
## Drawings

To complete a project , a builder requires accurate information about it. This applies weather the project is as simple as a box or as complicated as high-rise office tower.
Information for completing a project is provided by drawings and specifications. Drawings provide building dimensions, materials, and details of construction. Specifications give more detail on construction procedures and standards required for building materials and quality of construction. Simpler buildings, such as houses, may contain the specifications and all other pertinent information on the drawings in the form of notes. The drawings are known as "working drawings". Working drawings are sometimes referred to as "blueprints", a term that's a carryover from the past when all prints had a blue background with white lines and type.

## Specifications

Specifications are instructions on how or what to build. They are descriptive and usually cannot be placed on a drawing.
# Construction/Wood Structures

Framing systems have been developed to construct low-rise residential and commercial buildings. Low-rise buildings are generally three stories or less in height and are regulated by building codes.
A framing system is a basic set of construction procedures used to simplify the building process. For a given system,the same steps are taken regardless of the building's design weather it's a garden shed or a multi million dollar condominium developments.
Platform-frame and/or western frame construction
It's the most common framing system used. In this system of construction, the floor is built first . It's then used as a platform to build the walls.The walls are framed independently from the floors and are typically lifted into place once they're squared and sheathed.
For most buildings, the height of the framed walls is standard 8' 3/4". This gives a ceiling height of approximately 8 feet after the ceiling finish and floor finish are considered. Building material producers use this standard wall height when manufacturing their products.
The common wall stud length of 92 1/4 " is based on standard platform framing, which incorporates a single bottom plate and two top plates
Balloon-frame and/or Eastern frame construction
It's only in special situations because it's very time consuming. Complete balloon framing is now rarely used. In split-level buildings, both balloon-framing and platform-framing are other used together. Balloon -framing may be encounter when older buildings are renovated.
Continuous wall studs extend from the sill plates at the concrete foundation right up to the top of the second-story walls. these studs are approximately 18feet long. Their length requires scaffolding to be set up to install them Studs are installed on at a time. The first-floor joists are supported by the sill on the concrete foundation, and the second-floor joists are resting on a ledger that is let into the balloon-framed walls .
The wall sheathing is installed after the frame has beeen erected. These processes take much longer than platform framing.
Fire stops and/or solid blocking are required at each floor level of ballon-framed buildings. These blocks prevent the stud cavity from acting as a chimney and drawing a fire from a lower floor level into the floor or walls above.
# Construct validity

Construct validity refers to the totality of evidence about whether a particular operationalisation of a construct adequately represents what is intended by the theoretical account of the construct being measured.
Construct validity includes empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. Lines of evidence include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test (including factor analysis and internal consistency) and correspondence between the test measure and the target construct as judged by experts (content validity).
Construct validity is not distinct from the support for the substantive theory of the construct that the test is designed to measure. There are two main approaches to construct validity:
* Convergent validity: Degree to which a measure is correlated with other measures that it is theoretically predicted to correlate with.
* Discriminant validity: Degree to which the operationalisation does not correlate with other operationalisations that it theoretically should not correlate with.
# Construction/Methods
## Create an opening in an existing CMU wall

This lesson will attempt to explain in detail how to create an opening in a Concrete Masonry Wall. There are several ways to accomplish this task. Options for each will be explained and each worker will have to use his best judgement on how to proceed.
* An inspection of the wall where the opening is to be made should be done. Cracks or damaged CMU that decrease the ridgity of the wall should be repaired before any demolition is done. Loose CMU above should be replaced.
* If the area where the opening is to be made has any obstructions they should be removed to prevent damage and obstructions create hazards for workers.
* Plastic screen walls are recommended for dust protection.
* Always use proper circuit breakers and grounded electrical cords if electrical hand tools are being used.
* Gas powered tools should have proper ventilation while in use.

## Safety Guidelines

Demolishing Masonry is, by its nature, a hazardous job. Eye protection, gloves, proper shoes, and hard hats are absolutely mandatory. Scaffolding, and Tools are also very important. Please do not attempt to do this type work without well maintained equipment.
# Conceptual art

Conceptual art is a term that refers to a series of artistic practices developed between the decades of 1960 and 1970 in different countries. It can also be used in a more general way to refer to a certain type of works of art, although they do not belong to this historical period.

## Characteristics

The main characteristic of conceptual art is self-reference. This means that the theme of a conceptual work of art is art itself. Joseph Kosuth, a well-known artist within this tendency, claimed that a work of art is a proposition about art. He stated: “a work of art is a kind of proposition presented within the context of art as a comment on art”. Conceptual artists reacted to formalist tendencies in painting and sculpture, such as abstract expressionism, putting aside visual, morphological and material features and focusing on ideas. They regarded the materiality of a work just as a medium for the idea. For that reason, conceptual art is considered to be the conclusion of the historical process of dematerialization of the work of art.

## Artists

Although many authors believe that conceptual art emerged in USA and Great Britain and then spread to other areas, others argue that it developed simultaneously in different regions, including those regarded as “peripheral” such as Latin America. However, many Latin American artists rejected the “conceptual” label arguing that their art was political and did not share the features of the production of the artistic centres. The main American conceptual artists are Joseph Kosuth, Robert Barry, Douglas Huebler and Lawrence Weiner. Other examples are the members of the British group Art & Language, Terry Atkinson, Michael Baldwin, David Bainbridge, Harold Hurrell, Ian Burn and Mel Ramsden. In Argentina, some of the artists who participated in the Cayc (Centre of art and communication) such as Horacio Zabala, Juan Carlos Romero, Luis Pazos, Víctor Grippo and Carlos Ginzburg are considered to be conceptual.
# Conditional Operator

Welcome! This is a lesson in the Introductory Discrete Mathematics for Computer Science course here at Wikiversity.
Previous lesson: Logical XOR

## Your Next-to-Last Operator!

The conditional operator looks like this: $\to$
It is a dyadic operator.
Perhaps I should explain conditional operators through a story. Let's suppose that Joe Lion is given a wildebeest if he beats Handsome Dan XVII. Thus, $p$ becomes "Joe Lion beats Handsome Dan" and $q$ becomes "Joe Lion is given a wildebeest." The order of p and q are important, and so p and q are given special terms when the conditional operator is used. p is the antecedent. q is the consequent.
There are four possible outcomes in this story:
1. Joe Lion beats Handsome Dan, and is given a wildebeest. (p is true and q is true)
* $p$ $\to$ $q$ is true.
2. Joe Lion beats Handsome Dan, but is not given a wildebeest. (p is true and q is false)
* $p$ $\to$ $q$ is false. In other words, the condition (that Joe Lion is given a wildebeest if he beats Handsome Dan) is violated.
3. Joe Lion does not beat Handsome Dan, yet is given a wildebeest. (p is false and q is true)
* $p$ $\to$ $q$ is true. The conditional statement (that Joe Lion is given a wildebeest if he beats Handsome Dan) has not been violated, because violation only occurs if the antecedent is true.
4. Joe Lion does not beat Handsome Dan, and is not given a wildebeest. (p is false and q is false)
* $p$ $\to$ $q$ is true. The conditional statement (that Joe Lion is given a wildebeest if he beats Handsome Dan) has not been violated, because violation only occurs if the antecedent is true.

## Truth Table for the Conditional.

| $p\,\!$ | $q\,\!$ | $p\to q$ |
| T | T | T |
| T | F | F |
| F | T | T |
| F | F | T |

## Next Lesson

The next lesson is called Biconditional Operator.
# Concomitant Strabismus

In this subject students will build on concepts presented in Binocular Vision and Refraction. Students will develop an understanding of the theoretical concepts of aetiology, investigation, diagnosis and management of concominant strabismus and its sensory anomalies. Using an enquiry-based learning program, students will integrate theoretical concepts with practical instrumentation and clinical techniques to apply optical, orthoptic, medical and surgical management for concomitant horizontal deviations, amblyopia, microstrabismus and disorders of the vergence and accommodative systems in an evidence-based medical context. This subject will equip students to proceed to Incominant Strabismus and Orthoptic Clinical Practice subjects.

## Intended Learning Outcomes

Demonstrate an apporpraite use and application of discipline specific instrumentation to investigate concomitant strabismus and sensory consequences.
Integrate information obtained from a case history and the results of a clinical investigation to differentially diagnose concomitant strabismus.
Using the best available evidence, devise a management plan and explain the prognosis for a patient diagnosed with concomitant strabismus.

## Assessment

The assessment for this subject is as follows:
Two 30 mininute (mid-semester) written examinations (30%)
10 minute Practical/VIVA examination (end of semester) (15%)
2 hour (end of semester) written examination (55%)
Hurdle Requirement: Both the practical examination overall and the 2 hour written examination must be passed in order to gain a pass in this subject.

## Topics & Schedule

Module 1: Clinical Investigations of Concomitant Strabismus Module 2: Pre-operative Investigation of Strabismus
Module 3: Treatment Principles Module 4: Convergence & Accommodation Disorders Module 5: Exo-deviations Module 6: Eso-deviations

## Learning Management System

Students enrolled in this subject are directed to the Concomitant Strabismus Learning Management System website.

## Acknowledgements

This Wikiversity subject website has been developed by Dr Connie Koklanis (BOrth(Hons), PhD) in consultation with Educational Designer Leigh Blackall. Thanks go to previous La Trobe University staff in the Discipline of Orthoptics for their contribution to the material in this subject, including Associate Professor Zoran Georgievski, Dr Julie Green, Linda Santamaria and Danielle Thorburn.
# Concurrency and real-time programming

Concurrency and Real-Time Programming can be defined as the programming discipline dealing with real-time critical software development. At first glance Real-time programming is often associated with the need for efficient computing power and throughput performance. Actually, the main issue for real-time programming is how to design programs that are able to compute and respond according to certain quality attributes (maximum response time, average response time, quality of calculation, precision of calculation, within a certain time frame) in a predictable manner.
In Real-Time Programming there is usually a need to respond to multiple requests in parallel, and with different Real-Time Constraints. The software may have to support a fast time cyclic and demanding control loop, while simultaneously having to respond to asynchronous inputs from the user. To solve programming problems with multiple control loops and simultaneous requests, different Concurrency Programming techniques have been applied.
Programming environments and languages supporting Concurrency Programming are, to mention a few: Ada, RHAPSODY UML with C++, ERLANG, Concurrent C++, C with proper operating system support.
As time criticalness is often a concern, the following languages often disqualify themselves because of unpredictable demanding garbage collection activities: Java, C#.
The following programming languages are normally not suitable for demanding real-time control due to their single-thread processing limitations: Basic, Lisp, Prologue,
But there have been developments in Java which support Real Time programming to some extent. Two reference implementations have been created one is provided by TimeSys and other by Sun Microsystems. They have introduced some new advanced concepts like ImmortalMemory, ScopedMemory, NoHeapRealTimeThreads etc, whose interaction with heap can be controlled or at the best disallowed thereby insulating them from the Garbage Collector and hence establishing themselves as promising potential constructs for efficient real time programming.
# Concepts and their measurement
## Fuzzy concepts

Psychological concepts are typically fuzzy because the boundaries of psychological concepts are not sharp. It could even be argued that psychological concepts such as intelligence, personality, and self-constructs such as self-esteem do not exist per se, but rather that they are constructed. Measurement of psychological constructs, therefore, presents a particular challenge.
In order to measure a fuzzy concept, it is generally a good idea to define the construct as clearly as possible. Then the construct can be more readily operationalised. Once the construct has been operationalised, the measure should be trialled, with analysis of gathered data to assess the measure's reliability and validity. This is the process of psychometric instrument development.