OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The periodic table/Lithium
## Discovery

Lithium was discovered in 1817 by Johann Arfvedson in Stockholm, Sweden. The name is derived from the Greek, λίθος (lithos), meaning stone.

## Quick Facts

| Name: Lithium Symbol: Li Mass: 6.941 Atomic Number: 3 Electron Configuration: [He]2s$^1$ | Classification: alkaline metal CAS Number: 7439-93-2 Appearance: solid silver coloured metal Discovery in: 1817 Key Isotopes: $^7$Li | Density: 0.533 g/L Crystal Structure: cubic Melting Point: 180.5 °C Boiling Point: 1342 °C |

## Uses

Lithium has the highest specific heat capacity of any solid element, and is therefore used in many heat transfer applications. However, it is corrosive and requires special handling. It is used as an alloying agent in the synthesis of organic compounds, and has applications in the nuclear industry. It has a high electrochemical potential so is one of the most widely used battery anode materials. Lithium is also used in special glasses and ceramics. Lithium chloride is one of the most hygroscopic materials known, and is used in air conditioning and industrial drying systems (as is lithium bromide). Lithium stearate is used as an all-purpose and high-temperature lubricant.
Lithium has no known natural biological role. In very small doses it is toxic, but has found a use as lithium carbonate for the treatment for manic depression, although its action on the brain is not fully understood.
Lithium does not occur as the metal in nature, but is found combined in small amounts in nearly all igneous rocks and in the waters of many mineral springs.

## Atomic Data

| Atomic radius: 1.820 Å Covalent radius: 1.3 Å Electronegativity: 0.980 Electron affinity: 59.612 kJ mol$^{-1}$ | Ionisation energies First: 520.221 kJ mol$^{-1}$ Second: 7298.145 kJ mol$^{-1}$ Third: 11815.034 kJ mol$^{-1}$ |

## Supply Risk

Scarcity factor: 5.5 (medium risk)
| Crustal abundance: 16 ppm Reserve base distribution: 49.1% Production concentration: 58.6% | Top 3 countries for mining: Bolivia Chile China | Top 3 countries for production: Australia China Portugal |

## Oxidation States and Isotopes

Common oxidation states: 1
Isotopes
| Isotope | Atomic mass | Abundance (%) | Half life | Mode of decay |
| $^6$Li | 6.015 | 7.59 | | |
| $^7$Li | 7.016 | 92.41 | | |

## Pressure and Temperature Data

Molar heat capacity: 24.86 J mol$^{-1}$ K$^{-1}$
Vapor pressure: 109 Pa at 1000 K

## See Also

* lithium on Wikipedia
* lithium compounds on Wikipedia
# The periodic table/Hydrogen
## Discovery

In 1766, hydrogen was discovered by English philosopher Henry Cavendish in London, UK. Although hydrogen was officially discovered in 1766, scientists previously have been producing hydrogen as early as approximately a century ago - as written by Anglo-Irish chemist Robert Boyle. French chemist Antoine Lavoisier gave the element its name "hydrogen", derived from the Greek 'hydro' (ὑδρο) and 'genes' (γενής) , meaning "water-forming".

## Quick Facts

| Name: Hydrogen Symbol: H Mass: 1.00794 Atomic Number: 1 Electron Configuration: 1s$^1$ | Classification: non-metal CAS Number: 133-74-0 Appearance: colourless gas Discovery in: 1776 Key Isotopes: $^1$H, $^2$H Allotropes: H$_2$ | Density: 0.08988 g/L Crystal Structure: hexagonal Melting Point: -259.1 °C Boiling Point: -252.9 °C |

## Uses

Hydrogen can form an explosive mixture from air. It is currently manufactured from methane gas, but can also be made through the electrolysis of water and aqueous salts. Hydrogen gas is used to make key materials like ammonia, cyclohexane and methanol, which are intermediates in the production of fertilisers, plastics and pharmaceuticals.
Large quantities of hydrogen are used in the Haber process and for the hydrogenation of oils from fats.
Hydrogen is part of the DNA molecule.
Hydrogen is found in the sun and most of the stars, and is the most abundant element in the universe. The planet Jupiter is composed mostly of hydrogen, and there is a theory that in the interior of the planet the pressure is so great that metallic hydrogen is formed from solid molecular hydrogen. On Earth, hydrogen is found in the greatest quantities in water, only being present in the atmosphere in small amounts - less than 1 part per million by volume.

## Atomic Data

| Atomic radius: 1.100 Å Covalent radius: 0.32 Å Electronegativity: 2.200 Electron affinity: 72.7 kJ mol$^{-1}$ | First ionisation energy: 1312.0 kJ mol$^{-1}$ |

## Supply Risk

Unknown

## Oxidation States and Isotopes

Common oxidation states: 1, -1
Isotopes
| Isotope | Atomic mass | Abundance (%) | Half life | Mode of decay |
| $^1$H | 1.008 | 99.988 | | |
| $^2$H | 2.014 | 0.012 | | |
| $^3$H | 3.016 | | 12.31 years | β- |

## Pressure and Temperature Data

Molar heat capacity: 28.836 J mol$^{-1}$ K$^{-1}$

## See Also

* Chemicals/Hydrogens
# TAO/Overview

This page contains links and information to get an quick overview of the resources of the project within Wikiversity.

## Index of all pages starting with TAO

You can get an overview of all pages by following this link.

## Content with subsites (for pdf-Version)

Introduction
Chapter
* subsites 1
* Subsites 2
Chapter
* subsites 1
* Subsites 2

## Categories used

* Category:TAO → all pages belonging to the project.
* Category:TAO Handbook → all pages of the handbook.
# TAO/Organizational issues
## Main Challenge

The main challenge consists in designing learning and research processes that allow key stakeholders to work together to produce meaningful content for a TAO Handbook that is perceived as useful by its target audience. The development of the handbook itself as well as the development of the various learning and research activities contributing to the handbook is structured according to the Design Thinking method. Thus, the development processes was roughly be structured along the following phases. These phases are not linear - they may occur simultaneously and may be repeated.

### Design Thinking

* Understand
* Observe
* Define
* Ideate
* Prototype
* Test
* (Iterate)

### Development process

There will be one overarching development process focusing on the production of the handbook; and there will be a series of development processes focusing each on integrating one key stakeholder group into the Community of Practice, allowing it to produce meaningful content for the Handbook.
# TAO/Participating

Draft Some simple points we like to recommend for participation:
* Everyone can join, there are lots of different roles. See: ...
* There's a special page for input and rough brainstorming. See: ...
* We'd like to get in touch with each other. Get an account so you can be contacted, tell us about your experiences in the project scope. See: ...
* For the modules activities in the handbook we defined moderators. Contact them for questions especially on restructuring the pages.
# TAO/Persona Marianne

Persona description of Marianne, a volunteer instructor for new media courses for older people.

## Personal characteristics

Marianne is a woman of 62 years old, who lives in a village close to Bern. Marianne has worked part-time in the administration of a company in Bern, but is retired since two years. She is married and has four adult children. At her former job, she has gained basic computer skills. However, it was only after her retirement that she got really interested in using the computer to process pictures. By reading books and internet-manuals, she taught herself how to use the program Photoshop and started showing her processed pictures via mail and online photography communities. After some time, friends and family members turned to her with their picture questions.

## Marianne’s goals

Realizing how much she enjoyed not only processing her pictures, but also explaining others how to go about it, Marianne would like to help other older persons to get started with Photoshop and sharing pictures. She also misses the social contacts that she had when she still worked, so she would like to be involved with other people more.

## Barriers regarding these goals

Marianne has never received any didactic training, so she does not know much about how to teach a group of people in an efficient yet pleasant way. Also, she finds it important to take good care of the household and to spend time with her husband, so she does not have much time to invest in the creation of courses. Above all, she does not want to have too many obligations towards the courses, as this reminds her of her working life. Now she wants to be in charge of her agenda.

## Possible solutions to overcome these barriers

Marianne would like to get information about the didactic part of the courses. Also, she rather imagines herself giving courses developed by someone else, than having to create courses from scratch herself. A flexible working plan is a must for her.

## Difficulties to expect

Marianne could be so absorbed be her own experiences with Photoshop, that it could be hard for her to distract the main lessons learned and to transfer these on an abstracted level to her course participants. Also, almost to prove that she knows enough about Photoshop (as an autodidact), she might be tempted to spend too much time on the ex-cathedra teaching, and not provide enough time for practicing. She never had any didactic courses herself, so maybe she does not know how to handle signs of boredom or questions from the participants.
# Theory of Programming Languages/Static Programs

This is a lesson in in the course, Theory of Programming Languages, which is a part of The School of Computer Science
* Objective
* Static Programs
* Assignments
Completion status: this resource is a stub, which means that pretty much nothing has been done yet.
Previous Lesson
Next Lesson
Course Home Page :
# Theory of relativity

The theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: /special relativity and /general relativity. Special relativity applies to elementary particles and their interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.

## Resources

Special:Prefixindex/Theory of relativity/
# Theory of relativity/Fictitious force

For a rectilinear inertial frame a test particle in the absence of a force will remain in a constant velocity state in accordance with Newton's first law of motion
   ${\frac {d^{2}x'^{\lambda }}{d\tau ^{2}}}=0$
However in transforming to a noninertial or more generally curvalinear coordinate system the equation of motion for the test particle in the absence of a real force transforms into
   ${\frac {d^{2}x^{\lambda }}{d\tau ^{2}}}+\Gamma _{\mu \nu }^{\lambda }{\frac {dx^{\mu }}{d\tau }}{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{d\tau }}=0$
Where $\Gamma _{\mu \nu }^{\lambda }$ are the Christoffel symbols. An observer using such coordinates may interpret the test particle's motion with respect to these coordinates as described by it experiencing a force of
   $f_{Fict}^{\lambda }=-m\Gamma _{\mu \nu }^{\lambda }{\frac {dx^{\mu }}{d\tau }}{\frac {dx^{\nu }}{d\tau }}$
So that he may interpret the equation of motion as being the result of a force due to Newton's second law of motion as
   $f_{Fict}^{\lambda }=m{\frac {d^{2}x^{\lambda }}{d\tau ^{2}}}$
This "force" is fictitious in that it can be transformed away by going to a rectilinear inertial frame, so it is called a fictitious force. It is also commonly referred to as an inertial force or force of affine connection. Commonly experienced examples of a fictitious force would be a centrifugal force or the Coriolis force that a spinning observer will observe as acting on free falling test particles.
# Theory of relativity/Equivalence principle

Einstein has been quoted as saying that the happiest thought of his life was the realization that someone in free fall from a height would not feel his own weight. At the weakest level of equivalence this infers an equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass. More generally, he realized then that the free falling observer's local physics would be equivalent to that of an inertial frame and likewise a rocket firing in deep space would experience the same physics as that local to an observer standing on a planet of the same surface g force.
He realized then that gravitation needed be mathematically described the same way as a fictitious force , an effect of noninertial or curvilinear coordinates. Gravitational sources then must impart an intrinsic curvature to the spacetime so that there is no globally rectilinear coordinate system.
In the strongest assertion of equivalence or the general principle of relativity, the general laws of physics do not depend on frame. Tensor equations valid for one frame remain valid for all frames. As such this principle of relativity told him what kind of equations he would need to model the physics of gravitation, tensor equations.
Einstein was able to satisfy these thoughts in modeling gravitation with the tensor equations known as Einstein's field equations, General relativity/Einstein equations, where the properties of matter in the spacetime described by the stress-energy tensor act as a source term in nonlinear second order differential equations for the metric tensor, and motion due to gravitation is described by the geodesic equation, a statement that the acceleration 4-vector is zero, which is also a tensor equation.
# Nonlinear finite elements/Lagrangian finite elements
## Lagrangian finite elements

Two types of approaches are usually taken when formulating Lagrangian finite elements:
* Total Lagrangian:
** The stress and strain measures are Lagrangian, i.e.,they are defined with respect to the original configuration.
** Derivatives and integrals are computed with respect to the Lagrangian (or material) coordinates $(\mathbf {X} )$.
* Updated Lagrangian:
** The stress and strain measures are Eulerian, i.e.,they are defined with respect to the current configuration.
** Derivatives and integrals are computed with respect to the Eulerian (or spatial) coordinates $(\mathbf {x} )$.
The following 1-D examples illustrate what these approaches entail.
Consider the axially loaded bar shown in Figure 1.
* Figure 1. Axially loaded bar
In the reference (or initial) configuration, the bar has a length $L_{0}$, an area $A_{0}(X)$, and density $\rho _{0}(X)$. A tensile force $T$ is applied at the free end. In the current (or deformed) configuration at time $t$, the length of the bar increases to $L$, the area decreases to $A(X,t)$, and the density changes to $\rho (X,t)$.

### Motion in Lagrangian form

The motion is given by
    ${x=\varphi (X,t)=x(X,t)~,~~\qquad X\in [0,L_{0}]~.}$
For the reference configuration,
    $X=\varphi (X,0)=x(X,0)~.$
The displacement is
    ${u(X,t)=\varphi (X,t)-X=x-X~.}$
For the reference configuration,
    $u_{0}=u(X,0)=\varphi (X,0)-X=X-X=0~.$
The deformation gradient is
    ${F(X,t)={\frac {\partial }{\partial X}}[\varphi (X,t)]={\frac {\partial x}{\partial X}}~.}$
For the reference configuration,
    $F_{0}=F(X,0)={\frac {\partial }{\partial X}}[\varphi (X,0)]={\frac {\partial X}{\partial X}}=1~.$
The Jacobian determinant of the motion is (regarding this step, read the Discuss page)
    ${J={\cfrac {A}{A_{0}}}F~.}$
For the reference configuration,
    $J_{0}={\cfrac {A_{0}}{A_{0}}}F_{0}=1~.$
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/C Sharp/Online/Free

* CodeChef
* C# Pad
* .NET Fiddle
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* Rextester
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/Haskell/Online/Free

* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/Fortran/Online/Free

* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* RexTester
* TutorialsPoint
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/COBOL/Online/Free

* JDoodle
* paiza.IO
* TutorialsPoint
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/Clojure/Online/Free

* CodeChef
* Ideone
* paiza.IO
* repl.it
* RexTester
* TutorialsPoint
# Programming Fundamentals/IDE/C/Online/Free

* CodeChef
* GDB Online
* Ideone
* InterviewBit
* paiza.IO
* PythonTutor
* repl.it
* TutorialsPoint
# United States Law/First Year Guide

1L is how lawyers and law students informally refer to the first year of the law school education. Law school education (full time) in the United States is typically 3 years. The first year courses are typically: Contracts, Torts, /Property, Civil Procedure, Criminal Law, and Legal Writing.

## Subjects

* United States Law/Contract
* United States Law/Tort
* United States Law/Property
* United States Law/Civil Procedure
* United States Law/Constitutional
* United States Law/Criminal
* United States Law/Legal Writing

## Law Review

* Wikiversity Law Review
* Writing Competition

## Study Aids

* CALI
* InLawSchool.com - Learn How to Excel in Law School
* LegallyNoted.com LegallyNoted.com is a free online law school note-sharing website where law students can share notes, outlines, strategies, and ask & answer law-related questions
# United States Law/Introduction/Student Guide
## Syllabus
### Introduction

Welcome to Wikiversity Law School Boot Camp. This module aims to give its students the basic tools they will need to tackle law school or informal legal training, with a focus on the Wikiversity American JD Program. After completing this module, it is hoped that you will have a basic understanding of the basic building blocks of American Law and how it is structured and organized. This module will try to blend practical tips with basic legal theories and concepts that will be used over and over again in practically all of your legal education.
This module will occasionally make reference to law review articles and sometimes cases and statutes. Unless otherwise indicated, law review articles will be checked for availability online by Google Scholar.

### How We Figure Out What the Law Is

There are three major sources of American law:
* Statutes (created by the Legislative Branch)
* Cases (created by the Judicial Branch)
* Regulations (created by the Administrative Branch)
For further information on how to write a legal opinion, you should read Prof. Orin Kerr's wonderful article "How to Read a Legal Opinion: A Guide for New Law Students" (The GREEN BAG, An Entertaining Journal of Law, Vol 11, No. 1, p. 51, Autumn 2007).

### Highlighting Tips (for those using paper references)

It is common for law students to use highlighters in many different colors to represent the different parts of a legal opinion. The following scheme is highly suggested for those using highlighters in order to keep the context of the highlighted text clear to the reader.
* Facts: Green
* Rationale: Yellow
* Holding: Red
* Blue: important precedents
* Orange: dissenting opinions
# United States Law/MBE Practice Questions
## NCBEX Sample Questions

* Sample MBE II Feb. 1991
* Sample MBE July 1991
* MBE Attack Plans
* MBE Prep Strategies
* Kaplan PMBR

## Free MBE Practice Questions

* Barprephero
* Rigos Self Assessment Exam
* MBE Answer Sheet
* Exam Overviews

## Civil Procedure

* 6
* 7

## Outlines

http://baroutlines.com/outlines/sample.pdf

## Evidence

* 35 37 38 39 40
* 42
* 66 67
* 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
* 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 96 97 98
* 135
* 140
* 141
* 142
* 143
* 144
* 145
* 146
* 147
* 148
* 149
* 150

## Civil Procedure

* 001

## Real Property
### Adverse Possession

* 51
* 52
* 53

### Joint Tenant- Partition

* 54

### Joint Tenant- Ouster

* 55

### Nuisance

* 56

### Lateral/Subjacent Support

* 58
* 59

### Leasehold Estate

* 60
* 73

### Waste

* 62

### Life Tenant

* 61

### Fixture

* 64

### Equitable conversion

* 68

### Landlord and Tenant Duties

* 69

### Gift

* 70

### Mortgage

* 72
* 71

### Grantor-Grantee Index

* 74

### Easement

* 75
* 80
* 83

### Water Rights

* 77
# United States Law/Copyright

Please see Directions for use for more information.

## Learning Project Summary

* Project code:
* No Prerequisites
* Time investment:
* Assessment suggestions:
** Scholarly Discussions with others about Copyright Law from 1976 onward, and relevant Case Histories: 35%
** An In-Depth Essay about Modern Changes in Copyright in relation to a particular field, technology, or Art: 35%
** Developing course content as you see fit: 30%
* Portal:
** Copyright Law
* School:
** School of Law
* Department:
** Intellectual Property Law Department
* Stream
** United States Copyright Law
* Level:
** Introductory level

## Content summary

In this Learning Project, participants will learn about the state of copyrights in 1976, then about the series of changes that have occured since then. Participants will take time to focus on the Copyright Act of 1976, the effect by the Act on Mass Media and vice-versa, and the recent changes in Copyright law that have been passed. The Senate Report on the Extension Act of 1996 will be read and analyzed in detail, and the effects of the DMCA on our Digital Millenium will be introduced.

## Goals

* Understand the reasons behind the Copyright Act of 1976 and how the Act changed American culture;
* A thorough knowledge of the 1996 Senate report on the Copyright Term Extension Act;
* To recognize the implications of the DMCA.

## Learning materials
### Texts

* b:US Copyright Law
* s:Copyright Act of 1976
* s:Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998
* s:Digital Millenium Copyright Act
* Senate Report on the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1996 (Warning- large HTML page)
* The Digital Millenium Copyright Act (Warning- large HTML page)

### Lessons

* Lesson 1- "'To Promote Progress':" The Institution of Copyright Before 1976.
* Lesson 2- "A Sign of the Times:" The Copyright Act of 1976: Purpose and Content.
* Lesson 3- "The Rise of Mass Media:" Effects of the Copyright Act of 1976 and the New Media Culture.
* Lesson 4- "'No Significant Cost':" The Senate Report on the Copyright Term Extention Act of 1996.
* Lesson 5- "'Effectively Controls Access':" The Digital Millenium Copyright Act.

## Active participants

Active participants in this Learning Group
* AdamG
# United States Law/Criminal

Unlike other subjects, you will spend a fair amount of time reading statutes as well as cases.
# United States Law/Introduction
## Introduction
### Lecture

This is your orientation to Wikiversity 1L Program. 1L is how lawyers and law students informally refer to the first year of the law school education. Law school education (full time) in the United States is typically 3 years. The first year courses are typically: Contracts, Torts, Property, Civil Procedure, Criminal Law, and Legal Writing.
Law school experience can be quite new to many. It has its own logic and jargons. It is your job to get used to those strange terms and rules.
Some reference wikibooks you need to get before you start school.
* Case books
** How to read a Law School Casebook: from LexisNexis.
* Law outlines
* hornbooks
* nutshell
* Treatise

### Assignment

Read a list of law school terminology, e.g., http://www.law.gmu.edu/library/guides/glossary
Read the cases to be discussed and prepare to answer questions about them.
Complete the exercise. Legal Terminology

## Subjects
### Pre-Law

* Legal Writing
* Legal Reasoning
* Law School Boot Camp
* Logic
* Rhetoric

### 1L

* Contracts
* Torts
* Property
* Civil Procedure
* Constitutional Law
* Criminal Law
* Criminal Procedure
* Legal Writing

### 2L

* Evidence
* Criminal Procedure
* Corporations
* Taxation
* Constitutional Law II

### Bar Review

* /MBE Practice Questions
* /Performance Tests

## Extracurricular Activities
### Moot Court

* Moot Court Page
* Statement of Facts
* Statement of the Case
* Court Case
* Appeal brief

### Law Review

* Wikiversity Law Review
* Writing Competition

### Honors

* The Order of the Coif
* Judicial Clerkship

### Other/Miscellany

Legal Clinic
# Collision detection
## Learning goals

* Understand that Ethernet is a non deterministic program
* Be able to reconstruct a collision detection / resolve algorithm
* Understand what happens if two computers send data at the same time
# Web Science/Part1: Foundations of the web/Dynamic Web Content/Handling a post request in a Java Servlet/script

Register.java