OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Object-Oriented Programming

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. It includes concepts such as abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and message passing.
This course is comprised of 11 lessons on applied object-oriented programming. It is an extension of the Applied Programming course, intended to apply the similar programming concepts using an object-oriented approach. Each lesson includes a combination of Wikipedia and Internet-based readings, YouTube videos, and hands-on, interactive learning activities.

## Preparation

This is a third-semester, college-level course. Learners should already be familiar with computer programming. Experience with Internet fundamentals and applied programming is recommended.

## Lessons

* Introduction
* Methods
* Properties
* Validation
* Unit Testing
* Inheritance
* Polymorphism
* GUI Applications
* Web Frameworks
* Internet Data
* Databases
* Project Planning

## See Also

* Object Oriented Software Design
* Theory of Programming Languages: Object Oriented Programming
* Computer Programming
* Applied Programming
* Python Programming
# Object-Oriented Programming/Databases

This lesson introduces databases.

## Objectives and Skills

Objectives and skills for this lesson include:

## Examples

* Python3
# Overview of Cell Biology
## Lectures and Learning Materials

Lesson 1: Evolution of the Cytoskeleton
Lesson 2: Actin Structure and Dynamics
Lesson 3: Actin-Binding Proteins
Lesson 4: Regulation of Actin Dynamics in Cells
Lesson 5: Actin and Myosin
Lesson 6: Muscle Contraction
Lesson 7: Actin in Cell Adhesion and Migration
Lesson 8: Intermediate Filaments and Septins
Lesson 9: Microtubule Dynamics and Organization
Lesson 10: Microtubule-Binding Proteins and Motors
Lesson 11: Mitosis
Lesson 12: Mitosis and Meiosis
# Overcoming pro-aging mindsets/Use Social Media to Hasten the Defeat of Aging

Here is an update from me about my efforts to help hasten the defeat of aging, and about my efforts to help people overcome pro-aging mindsets.
I keep posting about defeat aging to Reddit, Tumblr, Blogger, Medium, Twitter, YouTube, Periscope, Steemit and so forth. I will keep spreading the message on social media that aging must be defeated. I will keep trying to encourage people to read the book Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime by Aubrey de Grey and Michael Rae. I will continue to help people overcome pro-aging mindsets.
I will keep Tweeting to Donald Trump telling him that he should increase funding for radical life extension research, and try to allocate funds to organizations like SENS Research Foundation, Buck Institute for Research on Aging, and Methuselah Foundation. I also Tweet to Senators, Representatives, Governors, celebrities, and influencers, encouraging them to do what is possible to help hasten the defeat of aging. I want to help influencers overcome their pro-aging mindsets.
In late 2016, the musician Steve Aoki hosted a charity event to raise money for Buck Institute for Research on Aging and SENS Research Foundation. We need more celebrities and musicians to host charity events for these organizations. If you know influencers, celebrities, or artists, please encourage them to do what is possible to hasten the defeat of aging. Help those that you know to overcome pro-aging mindsets.
I have committed to donate some money to SENS Research Foundation this month. It is not a lot of money, but if everyone would donate as much money as I do to radical life extension research then there would be plenty of funding for scientific research to stop and reverse human aging.
If you buy products from Amazon, then go to Amazon Smile when shopping. On Amazon Smile, Amazon will donate half of a percent of your eligible purchases to the charity of your choose. Choose to have your donations go to SENS Research Foundation.
We must defeat aging. Nothing is more tragic than aging. Aging kills about 100,000 people each day! Aging is the worst humanitarian crisis that exists. If you can hasten the defeat of aging by just one day, then you can save 100,000 lives.
We can use social media to spread the message of about SENS research and radical life extension research. If you do not already know, SENS stands for Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence, and it is a set of theories about how we can potentially stop and reverse human aging.
Tell journalists and politicians that they should help to hasten the defeat of aging. Journalists can write about regenerative medicine and radical life extension research. Politicians can allocate public funding towards radical life extension research. Tweet to journalists and politicians, email them, call them, speak to them personally if you can. Do whatever you can to help hasten the defeat of aging, and do what you can to help people overcome pro-aging mindsets.
# Overcoming pro-aging mindsets/Social entrepreneurship

This is a learning project about blending social entrepreneurship and benefit corporations with the worthwhile goal of helping individuals to overcome pro-aging mindsets.

## Participants

* Michael Ten
# Overview of Cell Biology/Actin Structure and Dynamics
## Readings

* Study guide:
* Wikipedia article: Actin

## Actin Structure

Actin is separated into lobes by an ATP-Mg$^{2+}$ binding site called an ATPase fold. G-actin is the monomeric unit of actin. F-actin is the polymeric form which is held by noncovalent interactions and is polar. Adding subfragment-1 of myosin II will distinguish the negatively charged end (pointed end) and the positively charged end (barbed end). Each end of the polymer has different functional properties.

## Actin Polymerization

Actin polymerization can be initiated by adding salts. This process is reversible, if the salts are removed, the filament will depolymerize into its monomer form. Actin polymerization can be measured by a wide variety of techniques including lightscattering, a fluorescent tag on the momer, electron microscopy, and centrifugation.
The C$_c$ of actin is 0.2 μM and is also the concentration at which steady state is achieved.

### The polymerization rate of the two ends is different

C$_c$ (+) end = 0.1 μM
C$_c$ (-) end = 0.8 μM
If the free actin concentration is < 0.1 μM, both ends shrink. If the free actin concentration is > 0.8 μM, both ends grow. If the free actin concentration is between 0.1 μM and 0.8 μM, the filament will grow at the (+) end and shrink at the (-) end.

### Drugs affecting polymerization

Phalloidin binds to the interface between subunits in the filaments and prevents filament depolymerization
Cytochalasin binds to the (+) end of actin and prevents elongation. The C$_c$ shifts to that of the (-) end. Cytochalasin is membrane permeable.
Latrunculin binds to monomers, prevents disassembly and also causes polymer disassembly. Latrunculin is membrane permable.
# Overcoming pro-aging mindsets

This is a project about overcoming pro-aging mindsets. Aging kills about 36,000,000 humans each year, and about 100,000 humans each day. Is aging not the biggest problem in the amount of sheer life loss? There are a variety of charitable organizations that are funding and/or engaging in research related to regenerative medicine. There are many doctors and scientists that are working to treat diseases of aging. Some scientists are attempting to actually stop age related damage from occurring to the point that such damage manifests as age related diseases.
Once enough people become aware of the potential possibilities of regenerative medicine, then a social movement may occur in which a significant percentage of citizens will support and then maybe even demand that public research money be devoted to research that significantly lengthen the average human lifespan.

## Discussion questions

* How can you help individuals to overcome pro-aging mindsets?
* How can social media be utilized to help people overcome pro-aging mindsets?
* Why is it so important for politicians, journalists, and influencers to overcome pro-aging mindsets?
* What is the best way to measure the rate at which public awareness of life extension research increases?

## Tracking awareness and education

How can the awareness and support of life extension ideas be tracked? Perhaps this section is a start, a seed, of methodologies to track movement to defeat aging. This might be beneficial for several reasons. By tracking the public awareness of life extension research, it may help inform scientists and those supporting scientists on how best to propel and accelerate research related to aging forward.
On October 20, 2017, a video (Why Age? Should We End Aging Forever?) related to aging was posted to YouTube. It discusses the philosophy and ethics and life extension research. Within 24 hours it already has over 1 million views. The video was also posted to Reddit the same day. On Reddit, with 13 hours it had about 21 thousand net upvotes, and about 3332 comments.
Are more journalists covering topics related to regenerative medicine? Are videos related to the defeat of aging becoming more popular? These questions may be worthwhile to ask.

## Readings
### On Wikipedia

* David Sinclair
* To Age or Not to Age
* Aubrey de Grey
* Rejuvenation Research
* Biogerontology
* SENS Research Foundation

### Books

* Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime

## Events

* 2019-2020 Longevity Conferences

## Sub projects

* Social entrepreneurship

## Essays

* Use Social Media to Hasten the Defeat of Aging
# Overview of Cell Biology/Actin-Binding Proteins
## Readings

* Study guide:
* Wikipedia article: The Arp2/3 Complex

## Actin-Binding Proteins

Assembly of pure actin in vitro is different from cellular actin. F-actin is depolymerized by dilution in a low salt buffer.

### Functions of Actin-Binding Proteins
#### Monomer Binding Proteins

The concentration of G-actin in the cell is about 200 μM (REMEMBER that the C$_c$ of actin is 0.2 μM). Actin is maintainted as a monomer by sequestering proteins such as Thymosin b4 and Profilin.

#### Nucleating Proteins

Nucleating proteins promote polymerization and are usually present in areas that undergo dynamic extension/retration. One key nucleating factor in cells is the Arp2/3 Complex which works in conjuction with the nucleation proting factor family of WASPs. The Arp2/3 and WASP nucleating activity form a filament that is capped at the (-) end of the filament. Another family of nucleating factors are formins, which nucleate in a way that leaves both ends of the polymer free to bind new monomers.

#### Capping Proteins

Capping proteins stabilize filaments by capping to one end and preventing the addition or loss of new subunits.
Examples:
- CapZ caps at the (+) end.
- Tropomodulin binds at the (-) end.
- Tropomyosin binds along the length of the filament.

#### Severing and Depolymerizing Proteins

A protein called ADF-cofilin binds to ADP associated monomers and then severing filaments and acclerating depolymerization of ADP actin from the minus ends. ADF-cofilin proteins are regulated in cells by phosphorylatin via LIM kinase.
During ameboid motility, cytosol flos from the center of the amoeba and turns into a gel when it reaches the front of the cell. The gel is turned to sol by gelsolin which severs actin filaments. After being severing, gelsolin remains bound to the (+) end of the filament. Gelsolin is inactive when Ca$^{2+}$ concentrations in the cytoplasm are low

#### Networking and Bundling Proteins

Proteins with shorter spacers tend to bundle filaments into parallel arrays. Crosslinking proteins tend to have longer spacers and arrange filaments in networks.
Examples of bundling proteins: fascin, villin, fimbrin, α-actinin
Examples of crosslinking proteins: spectrin, dystrophin, filamin

##### Cross-linking at the Plasma Membrane

In muscle cells, cytoskeleton is linked to the membrane by dystrophin. Dystrophin was discovered as the gene mytated in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Dystrophin binds to a membrane glycoprotein complex and stabilizes muscle plasma membrane.
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:lineIntegral

Solutions (pdf) Equations for this chapter Testbank
Only version A of this testbank has been tested.
# Physics equations/08-Linear Momentum and Collisions/Q:oneDcollision

These need to be checked, especially after version A.
Solutions to many wikiquiz questions (pdf)

## Practice quiz

More practice
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:cart1/testbank
## a07energy_cart1_3_v1

* ↑ https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Physics_equations/07-Work_and_Energy/Q:cart1&oldid=1380215
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:lineIntegral/Testbank
## a07energy_lineIntegral_4_v1

* ↑ https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Physics_equations/07-Work_and_Energy/Q:lineIntegral&oldid=1378622
# Physics equations/08-Linear Momentum and Collisions

Q:oneDcollision

#### CALCULUS-based generalization to non-uniform force

Here we use the Riemann sum to clarify what happens when the force is not constant.
If the force is not constant, we can still use ${\bar {F}}\Delta t$ as the impulse, with the understanding that ${\bar {F}}$ represents a time average. Recall that the average of a large set of numbers is the sum divided by the $N$:
       ${\bar {F}}={\frac {\sum _{n}F_{n}}{N}}$
With a bit of algebra, we can turn this into a Riemann sum.
For a collision that occurs over a finite time interval, $\Delta t$, we break that collision time into much smaller intervals $\delta t$. The former might be the collision time between a golf ball and the club, while the latter would be the time interval of an ultra high-speed camera. Note that $\Delta t/\delta t=N$, where $N$ is the number of frames of the camera. Let $F_{n}$ be the force associated with the n-th frame. The discretely defined average force associated with that camera is:
    ${\bar {F}}\Delta t={\frac {\sum _{n}F_{n}}{N}}\cdot \Delta t=\sum _{n=1}^{N}\left[F_{n}\cdot \left\{{\frac {\Delta t/\delta t}{N}}\right\}\cdot \delta t\right]=\sum _{n=1}^{N}F_{n}\cdot \delta t\rightarrow \int _{0}^{\Delta t}F(t)\,dt$
Footnote: This conversion from discrete to continuous math is easy to grasp, although the details are difficult to master: Other examples of this method include:
* Descrete and continuous expection values.
* The Discrete Fourier transform, the Fourier series, and the Fourier transform
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:cart2/Testbank
## a07energy_cart2_3_v1

* ↑ https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Physics_equations/07-Work_and_Energy/Q:cart2&oldid=1380821
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:cart1/history
## This quiz is different because it also runs on GNU Octave

This quiz was one of the first wikiquizzes, created so inartfully using Excel that it was impossible to add to the initial three versions that were used at the time.
The reader may note that this quiz uses scientific notation in exponential form using three digits E001 instead of MatLabs customary E01. This testbank was the first to created by GNU Octave (months after a quiz-making program was written for MatLab). Octave is the open source alternative to MatLab that is more difficult to use because its GUI is not user-friendly. For that reason, as of November 2014, there are no immediate plans to use Octave to develop more wikiquizzes. However at some point, it would be nice if open source tests were written using open source software. (Also, it might be better to use another open source language such as Python or Ruby).
To run this code in Octave, put these two files into one folder and run main.m. For more information visit MATLAB/Octave and MATLAB/Wikiquiz_writer_(MATLAB).
# Physics equations/07-Work and Energy/Q:cart2

Equations for this chapter Solutions(pdf) Testbank
Note: Some bugs in this quiz have been recently corrected. No answer is 100% guaranteed yet.

## Practice quiz

More practice
# PlanetPhysics/Algebraic Topology and Applications Bibliography for Category Theory

This is an extensive, but not intended to be comprehensive, list of relevant, selected references for several areas of both abstract and applied mathematics. A more extensive bibliography on category theory can be found on the web at: Plato, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy web site.

### Literature for the following areas of mathematics:

* algebraic topology,
* Theory of categories, functors and natural transformations,
* Quantum Algebraic Topology,
* N-logic algebraic categories, Topoi and categorical ontology
# PlanetPhysics/Algebraically Solvable Equations Definition

An equation
   ${\begin{matrix}x^{n}+a_{1}x^{n-1}+\ldots +a_{n}=0,\end{matrix}}$
with coefficients $a_{j}$ in a field $K$, is algebraically solvable , if some of its roots may be expressed with the elements of $K$ by using rational operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and root extractions. I.e., a root of (1) is in a field \,$K(\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2},\,\ldots ,\,\xi _{m})$\, which is obtained of $K$ by adjoining to it in succession certain suitable radicals $\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2},\,\ldots ,\,\xi _{m}$.\, Each radical may be contain under the root sign one or more of the previous radicals,
   ${\begin{matrix}{\begin{cases}\xi _{1}={\sqrt[{p_{1}}]{r_{1}}},\\\xi _{2}={\sqrt[{p_{2}}]{r_{2}(\xi _{1})}},\\\xi _{3}={\sqrt[{p_{3}}]{r_{3}(\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2})}},\\\cdots \qquad \cdots \\\xi _{m}={\sqrt[{p_{m}}]{r_{m}(\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2},\,\ldots ,\,\xi _{m-1})}},\end{cases}}\end{matrix}}$
where generally\, $r_{k}(\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2},\,\ldots ,\,\xi _{k-1})$\, is an element of the field $K(\xi _{1},\,\xi _{2},\,\ldots ,\,\xi _{k-1})$\, but no $p_{k}$'th power of an element of this field.\, Because of the formula ${\sqrt[{jk}]{r}}={\sqrt[{j}]{\sqrt[{k}]{r}}}$ one can, without hurting the generality, suppose that the indices $p_{1},\,p_{2},\,\ldots ,\,p_{m}$ are prime numbers.\\
Example. \, Cardano's formulae show that all roots of the cubic equation\; $y^{3}+py+q=0$\; are in the algebraic number field which is obtained by adjoining to the field\, $\mathbb {Q} (p,\,q)$\, successively the radicals $\xi _{1}={\sqrt {\left({\frac {q}{2}}\right)^{2}\!+\!\left({\frac {p}{3}}\right)^{3}}},\quad \xi _{2}={\sqrt[{3}]{-{\frac {q}{2}}\!+\!\xi _{1}}},\quad \xi _{3}={\sqrt {-3}}.$ In fact, as we consider also the equation (4), the roots may be expressed as
   ${\begin{matrix}{\begin{cases}y_{1}=\xi _{2}-{\frac {p}{3\xi _{2}}}\\y_{2}={\frac {-1\!+\!\xi _{3}}{2}}\cdot \xi _{2}-{\frac {-1\!-\!\xi _{3}}{2}}\cdot \!{\frac {p}{3\xi _{2}}}\\y_{3}={\frac {-1\!-\!\xi _{3}}{2}}\cdot \xi _{2}-{\frac {-1\!+\!\xi _{3}}{2}}\cdot \!{\frac {p}{3\xi _{2}}}\end{cases}}\end{matrix}}$
# PlanetPhysics/Algebraic Topology and QAT Bibliography for Categories

This is an extensive, but not intended to be comprehensive, list of relevant, selected references for several areas of both abstract and applied mathematics. A more extensive bibliography on category theory can be found on the web at: Plato, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy web site.

### Literature for the following areas of mathematics:

* algebraic topology,
* Theory of categories, functors and natural transformations,
* Quantum Algebraic Topology,
* N-logic algebraic categories, Topoi and categorical ontology
# PlanetPhysics/An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions
## An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions

1890
Peter Guthrie Tait

### Table of Contents

\htmladdnormallink{Preface: An Elementary Treatise On Quaternions }{http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/PrefaceAnElementaryTreatiseOnQuaternions.html} \\ Preface to the Second Edition: An Elementary Treatise On Quaternions\\
Chapter 1: Vectors and Their Composition \\ Chapter 2: Products and Quotients of vectors \\ Chapter 3: Interpretations and Transformations of Quaternion Expressions \\ Chapter 4: Differentiation of Quaternions \\ Chapter 5: The Solution of Equations of the First Degree \\ Chapter 6: Sketch of the Analytical Theory of Quaternions \\ Chapter 7: Geometry of the Straight Line and Plane \\ Chapter 8: The Sphere and Cyclic Cone \\ Chapter 9: Surfaces of the Second Degree \\ Chapter 10: Geometry of Curves and Surfaces \\ Chapter 11: kinematics \\ Chapter 12: Physical Applications \\ \\ \\ \\ \\
Copying this book will take some time, please let me know if you want to help.
This article and subsequent child entries are Public domain material
# PlanetPhysics/Anabelian Geometry

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## Anabelian Geometry

The area of mathematics called Anabelian Geometry (AAG) began with Alexander Grothendieck's introduction of the term in his seminal and influential report "Esquisse d'un Programme" (1) produced in 1980. The basic setting of his anabelian geometry is that of the algebraic fundamental group ${\mathcal {G}}$ of an algebraic variety $X$ (which is a basic concept in Algebraic Geometry), and also possibly a more generally defined, but related, geometric object. The algebraic fundamental group , ${\mathcal {G}}$, in this case determines how the algebraic variety $X$ can be mapped into, or linked to, another geometric object $Y$, assuming that ${\mathcal {G}}$ is non-Abelian or noncommutative. This specific approach differs significantly, of course, from that of Noncommutative Geometry introduced by Alain Connes. It also differs from the main-stream Nonabelian Algebraic Topology (NAAT)'s generalized approach to topology in terms of \htmladdnormallink{groupoids {http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/GroupoidHomomorphism2.html} and fundamental groupoids} of a topological space (that generalize the concept of fundamental group), as well as from that of \htmladdnormallink{higher dimensional algebra {http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/HigherDimensionalAlgebra2.html} (HDA)}. Thus, the fundamental anabelian question posed by Grothendieck was, and is: "how much information about the isomorphism class of the variety $X$ is contained in the knowledge of the etale fundamental group?" (on p. 2 in $http://www.math.jussieu.fr/~leila/SchnepsLM.pdf$). At this point, stepping down from the general, abstract setting of the Anabelian Geometry it would be useful to consider a specific, concrete example.

### A Concrete Example

In the case of curves, $C$ , these could be either affine (as in Einstein's or Weyl's approaches to General Relativity), or projective , as in a variety $V$. Consider here a specific hyperbolic curve $H$ , that is defined as the complement of $n$ points in a projective algebriac curve of genus $g$ , which is assumed to be both smooth and irreducible, and also defined over a field $K$ (that is finitely generated over its prime field ) such that: $2-2g-n<0$. Grothendieck conjectured in 1979 that the fundamental group ${\mathcal {G}}$ of $C$ , which is a profinite group, determines the curve $C$ itself, or that the isomorphism class of ${\mathcal {G}}$ determines the isomorphism class of $C$ ; this also points towards a conjecture regarding the natural equivalence $\eta$ of their corresponding categories.

### Generalizations

Much more elaborate, generalizations of Grothendieck's Anabelian Geometry are posible by considering higher-dimensional, $pro-l$, $Hom$-- versions, and so on, involving for example fundamental groupoids and fundamental double groupoids (2).