OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# PlanetPhysics/Mass

The mass of an object (for example a particle, a rigid body, or some amount of a gas or fluid) is a quantity assigned to it that specifies, roughly speaking, how much matter the object contains. The concept of mass fulfills two roles. First, it indicates how much force is needed to accelerate the object. Second, the gravitational force between two objects depends on the masses of the objects. These two usages of `mass' are conceptually distinct, but are very closely related.
Mass is often denoted by the letters $m$ or $M$. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). One kilogram is defined as the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram , which is made from an alloy of platinum and iridium and is kept in the Bureau international des poids et mesures in Paris.
In classical mechanics, there are two kinds of mass. The first one, called inertial mass , appears in the best-known version of Newton's second law, $F=ma$. This law says that the force $F$ needed to give an object an acceleration $a$ is proportional to $a$, the proportionality constant being defined as the inertial mass of the object. The other kind of mass, gravitational mass , is the mass occurring in Newton's law of gravitation, $F=GM_{1}M_{2}/r^{2}$. (We use the symbol $M$ to indicate the difference with the inertial mass, $m$.) This equation states that to any object we can associate a quantity $M$, the gravitational mass, such that the gravitational force between two objects with gravitational masses $M_{1}$ and $M_{2}$ at a distance $r$ is proportional to $M_{1}M_{2}/r^{2}$.
Both Galilei and Newton realised it is not a priori clear that the two masses assigned to an object should be equal. It is an empirical fact (tested in many experiments from Galilei's time up to now) that the gravitational mass is always proportional to the inertial mass, and a good choice of units then makes the numerical values of the inertial and gravitational masses always equal to each other.
In general relativity, Einstein's strong equivalence principle is assumed, which says that all experiments must give the same results in every inertial (free-falling) reference system. This implies, among other things, that the inertial and gravitational masses of objects must be equal.
Strictly speaking, one could split the concept of gravitational mass into two distinct concepts, namely those of passive gravitational mass and active gravitational mass . The passive gravitational mass of an object then measures its acceleration due to a gravitational field, while the active gravitational mass measures the strength of The Gravitational Field produced by the object. However, in classical mechanics these two masses are equal because of the symmetry of the law of gravitation together with Newton's third law. In general relativity, where Newton's laws are no longer valid, the strong equivalence principle implies that the inertial mass, the passive gravitational mass, and the active gravitational mass all coincide.
# PlanetPhysics/Mathematical Physics

This is a contributed topic on major areas in theoretical and mathematical physics.

### Mathematical and theoretical physics

Major, suggested areas are:
* Netwon's theory of Gravitation
* photoelectric effect and Einstein's explanation/ formulae
* Einstein's special relativity theory
* Einstein's General Relativity theory
* quantum mechanics;
* quantum field theories (QFT), TQFT and HQFT #algebraic and Axiomatic Quantum Field Theories (AQFT)
* quantum electrodynamics (QED)
* Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)
* quantum gravity (QG)
* quantum automata and Quantum Computing
* non-Abelian gauge theories
* Non-Abelian Quantum Algebraic Topology #Standard Model (SUSY)
* non-commutative geometry in QG and SUSY
* supersymmetry and supergravity theories
* Harmonic oscillator and coupled oscillator theories;
* fluid dynamics and Rheology;
* Kinetic theory of gases and Classical statistical mechanics #quantum statistical mechanics (QS)
* Theories in High energy physics and Elementary particles #Ergodic systems Information theory and Irreversible Thermodynamics #Complex system dynamics (CSD)
* Functional Analysis
* Chaotic Systems and Chaos
* non-Newtonian calculi #Mathematical and theoretical biophysics #Solid-State Theories: Semiconductors, Hall effect,Josephson effect, etc.
* Theories of superconductivity and superconductors
* Symmetry and quantum group theories
* Paracrystals and paracrystal theory
* Theories of Noncrystalline materials and glasses #Theories of Phase Transitions and Symmetry Breaking
* Ax
* Ay
* Az
# PlanetPhysics/Maxim Konsevitch

{\mathbf Dr. Maxim Konsevitch} (b. on August 25th, 1964 in Khimki, Russia), French mathematician since 1999, currently Permanent Professor at IHES, who received the fields Medal in 1995 and the Crafoord Proze in 2008.
His PhD is from the University of Bonn in March 1992.

### Academic and Research Positions:

* 1985--90, Young researcher at the Insitute for Informatics Problems in Moscow
* December 1988, Visiting the "Centre de Physique Th\'eorique", Marseille-Luminy
* March--June 1990, Visiting the Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Mathematik, Bonn
* January--November 1991, at the Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Mathematik, Bonn
* November 1991--January 1992, Visiting Harvard University, USA
* February--September 1992, Visiting the Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Mathematik, Bonn
* octobre 1992-mars 1993, Visiting the Institute for Advanced Study, in Princeton, USA
* April 1993--August 1994, visiteur au Max-Planck-Institut f\"ur Mathematik, Bonn
* July 1993-- August 1995, Professor at the University of California at Berkeley
* Since September 1995, Permanent Professor at l'Institut des Hautes \'Etudes Scientifiques (IHES), AXA Chair for Mathematics
* Since November 1997, Professor of a Special Chair at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA, one month each year.
# PlanetPhysics/Maximum Thermal Efficiency of a Carnot Engine

The maximum thermal efficiency for a Carnot engine operating between the temperatures $T_{c}$ and $T_{h}$ is
   $\epsilon =1-{\frac {T_{c}}{T_{h}}}$
# PlanetPhysics/Mean Translational Kinetic Energy

The mean translational kinetic energy is a result from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and is given by
   $K_{avg}={\frac {1}{2}}m{v^{2}}_{rms}$
A more useful form of this equation is in terms of temperature. Temperature is brought in through the root mean square speed derived in the kinetic thoery of gases
   $v_{rms}={\sqrt {\frac {3RT}{M}}}$
where R is the gas constand
   $R=8.31\,[{\frac {J}{mol*K}}]$
and more to come ...
# PlanetPhysics/Mathematical Structure of Physical Theories

This is a contributed topic on the mathematical structures associated with physical theories. Hopefully, this topic will be of interest to both physicists and mathematicians (as well as logicians and philosopy of science researchers).

## Mathematical and Logical Foundations of Physics
### Physical Theories

* Classical, or Newtonian, mechanics: Kinematics and Dynamics, Netwon's laws of motion
* Classical molecular dynamics
* Classical Thermodynamics and Statistics
* Classical Electromagnetism: Maxwell's theory and Maxwell's equations
* Optics and Spectroscopic Theories
* General and special relativity
* quantum mechanics
* quantum field theories
* Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics
* Axiomatic Quantum Field Theories
* Local Quantum Physics theories
* Statistical Quantum Mechanics
* Standard Model (SUSY)
* Electroweak Theory
* Quantum Chromodynamics
* Quantum Gravity theories
* Strings and Branes theories
* Astrophysics theories
* Chaotic Dynamics and Complex systems theories
* XYZ

### Mathematical structures and fields underlying physical theories

* Calculus and Analytical Geometry
* non-Newtonian calculi
* vector Calculus
* Functional Analysis
* Differential Geometry
* Algebra, matrices and tensors
* category theory
* algebraic topology and non-Abelian algebraic Theory
* noncommutative geometry
* Algebraic Geometry
* Harmonic and Anharmonic Analysis
* Numerical Analysis
* Statistics and Probability Theories
* Model Theory
* Superstructures: supergroups, superalgebras, algebraic supervarieties, super-categories
* XYZ

### Logical structure of physical theories

* Axiomatics and Physical Postulates
* quantum logics
* automata theory and Boolean logic designs
* quantum automata and quantum computers
* many-valued logic Algebra
# PlanetPhysics/Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Field Theories
### Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Field Theories (QFT)
#### QED, QCD, Electroweak and Other Quantum Field Theories

* Quantum chromodynamics or \htmladdnormallink{QCD {http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/LQG2.html}:} the advanced, standard mathematical and quantum physics treatment of strong force or nuclear interactions such as those among quarks and gluons, (or partons and mesons), that have an intrinsic threefold, or eightfold quantum symmetry described by the `quantum' group SU(3) (which was first reported in 1964 by the US Nobel Laureate Murray Gell-Mann and others);
* \htmladdnormallink{quantum electrodynamics {http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/QED.html} QED}: that involves U(1) symmetry, is the advanced, standard mathematical and quantum physics treatment of electromagnetic interactions through several approaches, the more advanced including the path-integral approach by Feynman, Dirac's operator and QED equations, thus including either special or general relativity formulations of electromagnetic phenomena;
* Young--Mills theories;
* Electroweak interactions: SU(2) Symmetry;
* Algebraic Quantum Field Theories (AQFT);
* homotopy quantum field theories (HQFT) and topological QFT's (TQFT);
* quantum gravity (QG) and related theories.

#### Extended Quantum Symmetries

This obviates the need for `more fundamental' , or extended quantum symmetries, such as those afforded by either several larger groups such as $SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)$ (and their representations) in SUSY, or by spontaneously broken, multiple (`or localized') symmetries of a less restrictive kind present in 'quantum groupoids' as for example in weak Hopf algebra representations. More generally, such extended quantum symmetries can be realized as locally compact groupoid, Failed to parse (syntax error): {\displaystyle G_{lc } } unitary representations, and even more `powerful' structures to the higher dimensional (quantum) symmetries of quantum double groupoids, quantum double algebroids, quantum categories/ supercategories in HDA, and/or quantum supersymmetry superalgebras (or graded `Lie' algebras, see- for example- the QFT ref. discussing superalgebras in quantum gravity).
Thus, certain finite irreducible representations correspond to `elementary' (quantum) particles and spin symmetry representations have corresponding quantum obsevable operators, such as the Casimir operators. A well-known case is that of Pauli matrices that are representations of the special unitary group $SU(2)$. Supersymmetry, supergroups and superoperators further expand SUSY to quantum gravity and quantum statistical mechanics.
# Refresher/SDLC/Construction - Part 4
### Presentation

| Delegate and Polomorphism | Construction - Part 4 | Algorithms | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Algorithms |
* Static class: for objectless methods
* Singleton design pattern: interface allowing a class to enforce single instantiation
* Anticipating changing requirements: unit test suites, in-code comments, object-oriented design
* Coding process: study the requirement, figure out an approach, create a unit test, code to pass, commit, pass through code review, refactoring, commit again, internal release, pass through QA challenges
# Refresher/SDLC/Construction
### Presentation

| Technical Design | Construction | Abstract and Interface | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Abstract and Interface |
* How to handle error situations: Identify and unit-test normal error conditions (positive, negative and exception). Wrap all in try and catch blocks, ending in a generic Exception block.
* TDD: tiny cycle repetition of red, green and refector -- failing test script, code to pass, refactor to standards
* XP key principles: rapid feedback, incremental change and assuming simplicity
* Code review: systematic examination of source code through peer review
* Code review tools: style checkers, static checkers, unit-testing suites
* Review forms: pair programming, informal walkthroughs or formal inspections
* Essential tools outside of IDE: version control, scripting languages, google, unit testing frameworks, continuous integration systems
* Safe and fast: basic security, time complexity, then micro improvement
# Refresher/SDLC/Construction - Part 2
### Presentation

| Construction | Construction - Part 2 | Construction - Part 3 | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Construction - Part 3 |
* Abstract class (in C++, pure virtual method): blueprint for a class without any implementation and thus cannot be instantiated
* Abstract class methods: not all must be abstract, some can be concrete
* Abstract class required: when at least one of the methods in the class is abstract
* Abstract method: require non-abstract derived classes to provide their own implementation of this method
* Interface class: an abstract class with public abstract methods all of which must be implemented in the inherited classes
* Interface class methods: all must be abstract and public and thus accessibility modifiers not needed
* Multiple interfaces: can be inherited
* Namespace class: classes are declared inside a namespace
# Refresher/SDLC/Configuration Management
### Presentation

| Maintenance | Configuration Management | Project Management | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Project Management |
* Baseline: the marking of a significant system state where we can go back to
* Freezing: versioning the source code as well as the database
* Under version control: source code, tests, database and other scripts, sample data, documentation, anything changed by developers over time
* Version control systems (VCS): letting team members know who changed what
* VCS Tag: a static snapshot
* VCS Branch: for development outside the trunk
* Changes to Technical Documentation: tracked under VCS, maintained on enterprise wiki
* Redmine: free and open source, web-based project management and bug-tracking tool
* Basecamp: a web-based project-management tool offering to-do lists, wiki-style web-based text documents, milestone management, file sharing, time
* tracking, and a messaging system
* Patch management: what patches should be applied to which systems at a specified time
* New version: pushing forward, shooting for new heights
* New release: pushing backward, aiming for stability
* Text file changes: versioned by line
* Binary file changes: full replacement
# Refresher/SDLC/Data Structures
### Presentation

| Algorithms | Data Structures | Testing | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Testing |
* Structure of a subway system: object classes for railways, stations and trams
* RGB triplet: efficient representation for color value
* Queue: FIFO enqueued then dequeued
* Stack: LIFO pushed then popped
* Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG): a family of specifications of an XML-based file format for two-dimensional vector graphics, both static and dynamic (i.e., interactive or animated)
* C#: personally preferred language for writing complex data structures
* 21 in decimal: 15 in hex or 10101 in binary
* XML for sport competition: <season><seasonstart/><seasonend/><game><gamedate/><team><teamname/><score/></team></game></season>
* Universal Character Set (UCS): a standard set of characters upon which many character encodings are based
* UTF-8 (UCS Transformation Format—8-bit): variable-width encoding to represent every character in the Unicode character set
* Unicode: a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation and handling of text expressed in most of the world's writing systems.
# Refresher/SDLC/Basic Concepts
### Presentation

| Introduction | Basic Concepts | FAQ | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | FAQ |
* Key development models: waterfall, spiral, evolutionary and agile
* Key development phases: planning, implementation and deployment
* Key planning activities: gathering, analyzing and estimating requirements
* Key implementation activities: coding, testing and documenting
* Key deployment activities: installation, customization and maintenance
# Refresher/SDLC/Delegate and Polomorphism
### Presentation

| Abstract and Interface | Delegate and Polomorphism | Construction - Part 4 | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Construction - Part 4 |
* Polymorphism or Delegate: method overloading or method passing
* Late binding: method looked up by name at run-time and exact behavior determined at run-time
* Early binding: method name and signature stored in the virtual method table (v-table) at compile time
* Polymorphism: objects from different types responding to calls by the same name, e.g. operator overloading for addition
* delegate (function pointers in C++): an object encapsulates reference to a method
* multicast delegate: a delegate that points to and eventually fires off several methods
* Delegate: a class -- usable if declared and instantiated
* Delegate use: passed around as a parameter, and invoked by the receiving object
* Delegate example 1: success = MyAddressProvider.HandleCampaign(WhatToDoWithAddresses)
* Delegate example 2: MyMenuItem.Click += new System.Windows.RoutedEventHandlerMyMenuItem_Click)
# Refresher/SDLC/Delegate and Polymorphism
### Presentation

| Abstract and Interface | Delegate and Polymorphism | Construction - Part 4 | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | Construction - Part 4 |
* Polymorphism or Delegate: method overloading or method passing
* Late binding: method looked up by name at run-time and exact behavior determined at run-time
* Early binding: method name and signature stored in the virtual method table (v-table) at compile time
* Polymorphism: objects from different types responding to calls by the same name, e.g. operator overloading for addition delegate (function pointers in C++): an object encapsulates reference to a method
* multicast delegate: a delegate that points to and eventually fires off several methods
* Delegate: a class -- usable if declared and instantiated
* Delegate use: passed around as a parameter, and invoked by the receiving object
* Delegate example 1: success = MyAddressProvider.HandleCampaign(WhatToDoWithAddresses)
* Delegate example 2: MyMenuItem.Click += new System.Windows.RoutedEventHandlerMyMenuItem_Click)
# Refresher/SDLC/FAQ
### Presentation

| Basic Concepts | FAQ | References | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | References |
* Effective use of a BA can give waterfall an advantage.
* Audit proof means that agile is not an option.
# Refresher/SDLC/Functional Design
### Presentation

| Requirements - Part 2 | Functional Design | OOP | List of Topics | This presentation was made possible by Wikiversal/WikiverSuite, which is made possible by your donation. Thank you for your support. | OOP |
* Metaphor: the use of a vehicle (e.g. stage) to visualize a tenor (e.g. the world)
* Design: relationship between users with problems to solve and designers with solutions to offer
* Successful metaphor examples are a menu or a mouse
* Progress bar: reducing the user's perception of waiting
* Dropdown: big list in small space
* Data entry QA measures: show examples, validate entry, check DB, minimize typing, progressive lookup, autocomplete
* Sample prototyping techniques: sequence diagram, UI mockups, and throw-away code
* How to anticipate user behavior: modeling based on usage and prediction based on models
* Access to countless features: menu controls, ribbon interfaces, query language
* Editor for few items of many fields: listbox for items, tab controls for fields
* Editor for many items of few fields: use grid control or add logic for grouping, paging, filtering or autocomplete
* Too many colors: untidy, unprofessional and hard to read
* Web environment: easier to deploy, more collaboration, slower performance
* Desktop environment: harder to deploy, less collaboration, faster performance
# Pillars of Game Development/Parsimony

Part of Board Game Design>Pillars of Game Development

## Parsimony in Game Development

Parsimony is the concept of doing only what is necessary to achieve the desired effect. Through the process of playtesting, refining, and tightening your game design, you hopefully achieve parsimony that makes it easier to understand and enjoy the central theme and mechanics of your game.
# Pillars of Game Development/Theme-Mechanic Balance

The balance between Theme and Mechanic can be thought of as a sliding scale on one axis. Games inevitably fall between the two extremes. Mechanical games entail more abstraction than thematic games, and games with strong theme tend towards simulation. A game that slides all the way to the theme extreme on the scale would be life itself: nothing is more realistic and immersive than reality. A game that represents the mechanical extreme might be Tic-Tac-Toe. It has absolutely no relation to reality: the objective and mode of play are unhinged from reality completely. Given these two extremes, how does a game designer construct the perfect balance for his/her game? The answer lies, in large part, in the question of what the game designer wishes to accomplish in the game design.
Another part of the answer lies in the connection between the mechanic and the theme - they are actually not so opposed as it might appear. For example, a trading game can rely on the "hard" mechanic of sell/buy and negotiation practices without losing intensity in its theme, and the same holds for sport games.
# Pillars of Game Development/Beauty

Much of a game lies in its beauty. Playing a game is an aesthetic experience - just like art, even if different - and it is propelled by our desire of beauty, expressed in the form of fun.
The "toys" should be therefore nice and adequate to the theme: we all know the difference between playing with plastic vs. metal car models or plastic vs. tissue dolls.