OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Thermodynamics/Notes

Fundamental entities in thermodyanics or thermal physics:
entropy
    Measures the number of quauntum states accessible to a closed system. The logical assumption is made that a system state is either accessible or not accessible. The system is assumed to have equal probability of being in any accessible state.
Given g accessible states the entropy is defined as: sigma=log g
       Thus entropy is a function of system energy U, system components or particles N, and the volume V of the system ..... because these three parameters effect g, the number of accessible system states. sigma=log(g(U,N,V)) by definition. Logs are used for math convenience.
Two systems brought into contact can transfer energy back and forth thus increasing the number of possible states accessible to new total system. (g1g2) > (g1 + g2) by asumption and later empirical proof. This is key to 2nd law thermodynamics and law of of entropy always increases. Energy does not flow in ways to decrease the number of possible states accessible to the closed system or the entropy always increases.
    Consider a cooling solution, entropy is decreasing as rock salt solution crystallizes for the solid salt crystal .... but it is not a closed system. Heat is transferring to ambient environment. Total entropy sigma(salt)+sigma(rest of universe)=sigma(universe total) of the perceived universe must be rising or there would be no energy flow.
       This is a fundamental assumption defining energy flow and no credible evidence contradicting it has ever been reliably and reproducibly observed and reported.

## Temperatures

Boltzmann Constant
chemical potential
Gibbs factor
distribution functions
closed system - A system enclosed by a control surface across which nothing relevant to the defined system crosses.
# Thesis

The aim of this page is provide advice and support for thesis-writing.

## Guides

Universities and disciplines usually have their own specific guidelines about the process and requirements for a thesis. Example guides include:

## Purpose

The purpose of a thesis is generally to make an original contribution to academic knowledge and often also to award the author of the thesis with an official 'degree' (or part of a 'degree') where the thesis is undertaking as a learning exercise.

## Thesis sections

In general a Thesis follow an extended variation of an IMRaD structure. Typical sections include:

### Pre-pages

* Title
* Table of contents
* Table of tables
* Table of figures
* Abstract
# Village/Nightlife/Movements/Eigendistribution/Exercise

The nightlife in the village Kleineisenstein consists in the following three opportunities: to stay in bed (at home), the pub "Nightowl“ and the dancing club "Pirouette“. In a night, one can observe within an hour the following movements:
a) $1/10$ of the people in bed go to the Nightowl, $1/12$ go to the Pirouette and the rest stays in bed.
b) $1/3$ of the people in the Nightowl go to the Pirouette, $1/5$ go to bed and the rest stays in the Nightowl.
c) $3/5$ of the people in the Pirouette stay in the Pirouette, a percentage of $8$ go to the Nightowl, the rest goes to bed.
* Establish a matrix, which describes the movements within an hour.
* Kleineisenstein has $500$ inhabitants. Determine a distribution of the inhabitants (on the three locations) which does not change within an hour.
# Vietnamese 1/Introducing Yourself

Xin chào! = Hello!
Tôi tên là ... = My name is ...
Tôi là người Việt Nam = I am Vietnamese
# Vietnamese 1/Visual

This is a lesson for Languages --> Southeast Asian languages --> Vietnamese Language --> Vietnamese Visual

## Visual Lessons

Time spent processing in a native language is time better spent immersing in a foreign language. This project aim is to develop a visual resource using Wiki content.

### Day La Gi?

* Đây là gì?
* Trả lời: Ở đây có một tòa nhà
| Đây là gì? | Ở đâu? |

### O Nha

* Ở đâu? Trả lời: Ở nhà
Cái gì? Bạn đang ở đâu? Có cái gì trên mái nhà?

### Trong Tu Lanh

* Cái này là gì? Trả lời: Cái này là tủ lạnh
Món ăn này là gì?Bánh mì tươi không?Ai gì mang đá?

### Rau

* Món ăn này là gì? Trả lời: Món ăn này rau
Khoai tây là loại rau phải không?

### Bên ngoài

* Bạn đang ở đâu? Trả lời: Tôi đang ở ngoài nhà
Chiếc xe này trên đường xe gì?

### Trên đường đó

* Chiếc xe này trên đường xe gì? Trả lời: Đó là một chiếc xe máy
Xe máy này có thương hiệu gì?

### Trên mái nhà

* Có cái gì trên mái nhà? Trả lời:Trên mái nhà của tôi là một bức tượng
Có bức tượng động vật, phải không?

### Có bức tượng

* Có bức tượng động vật, phải không? Trả lời:Đúng, bức tượng này là một con gà
Gà này nam hay nữ?

### Cuối cùng bị lạc

Ở đâu?

## Vocabulary and Translation

* ↑ Đây là gì? = What is here?
* ↑ Trả lời: Ở đây có một tòa nhà = Answer: Here there is a house/building
* ↑ Đây là gì = What is that?
* ↑ Ở đâu? = Where at?
* ↑ Ở nhà = at home
* ↑ Tủ lạnh = box fridge
* ↑ Bạn đang ở đâu? = Where are you, friend?
* ↑ Có cái gì trên mái nhà? = What's that on the roof?
* ↑ Cái gì? = That's what?
* ↑ Khoai tây là loại rau phải không? = Potato is a type of vegetable, right?
* ↑ Thương hiệu = Brand
* ↑ bức tượng = statue
* ↑ động vật = animal
* ↑ Giới tính (gender): nam hay nữ = male or female
# Viola

The viola is rather similar to the violin, but the body of the instrument is slightly larger and the tone is more mellow. While the viola may not appear in the limelight as often as the violin, it plays an important but subtle part in any musical ensemble, countering the melodies with its richer, deeper harmonies.

## History of the Viola
### Classical Periods

Violas endured a long period of near-muteness during the Baroque period (1600-1750). Composers felt that the instrument was awkward and clumsy. During the 1800's, however, classical musicians such as Berlioz recognised the muscial value violas offered orchestras and composed many viola solos.

## Playing the viola
### Rudiments

Good posture is as important for the viola as it is for the violin. The bow is held in the right hand, the viola in the left. The fingers should be curled gently over the top of the neck of the instrument.

### Strings of the Viola

The strings of the viola are tuned to perfect fifths - from highest to lowest, A, D, G and C, which are an octave higher than the strings on the cello.

### Fingering

* First finger - index finger
* Second finger - middle finger
* Third finger - ring finger
* Fourth finger - little finger

### Positions

The first basic three notes upon a single string, using the first, second and third fingers make up first position, e.g. E, F#, and G on the D string. If the hand moves up one note, so that the first finger is now on F#, this is called second position, and so on. Positions aid the violist in reaching higher notes upon the string, or using vibrato on what usually would have to be an open string. There are eight positions in total.

### Bowing

The bow should be drawn so that it is approximately parallel to the bridge. Beginner violists should practise bowing clear, resonant notes - making sure that they are not bowing two notes at the same time. Violists need to bow more firmly than violinists, given the thickness of the strings.

### Practice Techniques

Beginner violists should remember that solid improvement is easily achievable with regular practice. Twenty minutes a day, five days a week, is a good way to start. Remember, these sessions need to be lengthened with the difficulty of the playing standard.

## Links

* Viola on Wikipedia
This page was requested at Wikiversity:Requests
# Virasoro algebra

The Virasoro algebra, denoted Vir, is an infinite-dimensional Lie algebra, defined as central extension of the complexification of the Lie algebra of vector fields on the circle. One may think of it as a deformed version of the Lie algebra for the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms of the circle. The representation theory of Virasoro algebra is rich, and has diverse applications in Mathematics and Physics.

## Formal Definition

Vir is the Lie algebra over the field of complex numbers with the following generators:
* $d_{n}$ ,with n running through every integer,
* $c$
with the following relations:
* $[d_{n},c]=0$,
* $[d_{m},d_{n}]=(m-n)d_{m+n}+\delta _{m+n}{\frac {m^{3}-m}{12}}c$, with m and n each running through every integer
where $\delta _{m+n}$ is 1 when $m+n=0$ and is zero otherwise.

## Representation Theory

* Oscillator representations
* Verma modules
* Unitary representations
* Topic:Boson-Fermion correspondence
* Topic:Schur polynomials
* Kac determinant formula
* Sugawara construction
* Coset construction
* Weyl-Kac character formula

## Applications

* Topic:KP hierarchy

## See Also

* Topic:Affine Lie algebras
# Internet Protocol
## Learning goals

* To understand Ethernet, TCP/IP and HTTP protocols and be able to apply it to design of API

## Associated units

* get introduced to the concept of an IP-network
* understand that networks can be interconnected
* learn about the importance for decentralization as a design principle
* realize that Local area networks can be fragmented via IP networks
* understand that an IP network as an overlay network is an abstract thing that is not directly reflecting the hardware settings
* understand the notion of an IPv4 address and its components like network and host part
* understand why MAC addresses do not fulfill the requirements of IP addresses.
* get introduced to the notion of an IP router / gateway
* review the definition and concept of an IP network
* understand that IP routing works on the level of IP networks
* understand the concept of subnetting
* review network classes and understand classless inter domain routing.
* get a feeling for the IP header
* get a better understanding of how the protocol works
* understand which header fields are changed while routing
# IP header
## Learning goals

* get a feeling for the IP header
* get a better understanding of how the protocol works
* understand which header fields are changed while routing

## Script

Like the Ethernet, the Internet protocol has IP header and Data parts and is a bit stream - a sequence of 1s and 0s.
Display of the bit-stream: Every 32 bits which are called 32-bit-word or register in a 32-bit architecture. 1) Version Represents the version of Internet protocol. 4bits=24=16 possible values. The version can be 4 or 6 but may be another one. 2) IHL (internet header length) Internet protocol allows this header to have flexible size but it cannot be more than 15 words=15*32=15*4=60 bytes – maximum length 3) DSCP (differentiated services code point) Formally known as the representation of the type of a project. But it was not used too frequently so internet service providers come up with idea of putting priority of IP packages in this field 4) ECN (explicit congestion notification) Is rarely used. But what it really does is if the part of the wire has too much traffic on it at the moment of time this can be put there in this field so then routers might be able to search for other routs to the destination network.
5) Total length -16 bit field -represents the binary length of the package in bytes - up to 65536 bytes are allowed - might not fit into Ethernet frame So when you want to put IP packages inside the Ethernet frames and the IP packages are bigger than the Ethernet frames you might have problems. When you do routing you don’t know what kind of link layer protocols you will use. So at the beginning you use DSL or ISDN and your package might fit link layer protocol. But at some network you can use Ethernet protocol with really small frame size so package doesn’t fit anymore. Internet protocol can solve this problem using fragmentation. 6) Identification Is used for uniquely identifying fragments of original IP datagram.
7) Flags You specify here will can your fragment be fragmented or not.
8) Fragment Offset When you decide that package can be fragmented happens that packages that are being fragmented become an offset. When you have several fragmented offsets what you can do is you can reassemble those packages. 9) Time to live Is a number usually 64 and every time a router forwards the package to the next router this number is decreased by 1. Why do we need it? Let’s assume that router is misconfigured and then IP packages are always forwarded inside a circle but never arrive at the final destination. This would mean that they blow up the network really fast.
10) Protocol Used to identify upper level protocol. 11) Header checksum In the Ethernet you have a checksum for the entire package but here only the header is checked. The Ethernet has already checked if the data is correct but we don’t want any false information inside IP package Header. Because then the package will be routed on the wrong route and this won’t be good.
12) Source IP Address 13) Destination IP Address 14) Options (if IHL > 5) --Jane Kruch (discuss • contribs) 23:12, 2 November 2013 (UTC)
# Web Science/Part1: Foundations of the web/Internet Protocol/Classful IPv4 networks/script

As we have already seen with the Ethernet we can build Local Area Network and those networks will work as the autonomous systems. But there is an essential need to interconnect these networks by creating an overlay network. In order to create this overlay network we need to introduce concept that is called classfull network or classfull IP network. For them we need to introduce the concept of IP address.
For example, in one network each of the computers even thought it already has a MAC Address gets another address which is called an IP Address or IPv4 Address. - this IP address is basically 32 bit integer, so it consists of 4 bytes an each byte is denoted as the number separated with dot (67.68.50.1) and it’s just to make it easier to read.
- what this also means is that each of those number between the dots can be between 0 and 255.
- IP address is supposed to uniquely identify each host on the network and in global Internet. All the IP addresses in the network start with the same number (the same prefix). It’s called network prefix. This prefix is only 1 byte but there are networks with longer prefix. This is a very simple principle of classfull network. So now with all IP addresses in the same network starting with the same network part (67 for example) we’ve got one special IP address (e.g. 67.0.0.0). This IP address will never be assigned to any host in the network. This is reserved to identify network itself. By doing this we introduce some kind of hierarchy. So even so the Internet is still decentralized we need this hierarchy for the routing algorithm to work. Unlike the MAC addresses we can make sure that all IP addresses in the same network start with the same prefix. It will be impossible with MAC addresses due to the fact that MAC address consists of some parts identifying the vendor and just a serial number. What can happen is that similar MAC addresses of Ethernet devices will exist in networks all over the world.
Let’s move to another network. It’s has a larger network part of IP address (141.71.0.0). So in order to interconnect this network and the previous one (67.0.0.0), we need to introduce one further computer which will have 2 network devices. Each network device will be in one of those networks. So what can happen now? If packages are in 67-network and their destination is 141.71-network they can just go to this special computer and it could forward them to the other network. A routing table mechanism is required. After you have connected those 2 networks you can also connect 141.71-network with the similar mechanism by introducing one other computer with 205.34.55-network. And once you have done this packages could actually travel from the 67-network over the 141.71-network to the 205.34.55-network. Those introduced computers are called routers. --Jane Kruch (discuss • contribs) 10:33, 31 October 2013 (UTC)
# Web Science/Part1: Foundations of the web/Internet Protocol/IP header/script

Like the Ethernet, the Internet protocol has IP header and Data parts and is a bit stream - a sequence of 1s and 0s.
Display of the bit-stream: Every 32 bits which are called 32-bit-word or register in a 32-bit architecture. 1) Version Represents the version of Internet protocol. 4bits=24=16 possible values. The version can be 4 or 6 but may be another one. 2) IHL (internet header length) Internet protocol allows this header to have flexible size but it cannot be more than 15 words=15*32=15*4=60 bytes – maximum length 3) DSCP (differentiated services code point) Formally known as the representation of the type of a project. But it was not used too frequently so internet service providers come up with idea of putting priority of IP packages in this field 4) ECN (explicit congestion notification) Is rarely used. But what it really does is if the part of the wire has too much traffic on it at the moment of time this can be put there in this field so then routers might be able to search for other routs to the destination network.
5) Total length -16 bit field -represents the binary length of the package in bytes - up to 65536 bytes are allowed - might not fit into Ethernet frame So when you want to put IP packages inside the Ethernet frames and the IP packages are bigger than the Ethernet frames you might have problems. When you do routing you don’t know what kind of link layer protocols you will use. So at the beginning you use DSL or ISDN and your package might fit link layer protocol. But at some network you can use Ethernet protocol with really small frame size so package doesn’t fit anymore. Internet protocol can solve this problem using fragmentation. 6) Identification Is used for uniquely identifying fragments of original IP datagram.
7) Flags You specify here will can your fragment be fragmented or not.
8) Fragment Offset When you decide that package can be fragmented happens that packages that are being fragmented become an offset. When you have several fragmented offsets what you can do is you can reassemble those packages. 9) Time to live Is a number usually 64 and every time a router forwards the package to the next router this number is decreased by 1. Why do we need it? Let’s assume that router is misconfigured and then IP packages are always forwarded inside a circle but never arrive at the final destination. This would mean that they blow up the network really fast.
10) Protocol Used to identify upper level protocol. 11) Header checksum In the Ethernet you have a checksum for the entire package but here only the header is checked. The Ethernet has already checked if the data is correct but we don’t want any false information inside IP package Header. Because then the package will be routed on the wrong route and this won’t be good.
12) Source IP Address 13) Destination IP Address 14) Options (if IHL > 5) --Jane Kruch (discuss • contribs) 23:12, 2 November 2013 (UTC)
# University of Canberra/Flexible learning

University of Canberra. (2010a). Online courses. Retrieved from http://www.canberra.edu.au/courses-units/flexible-delivery.
University of Canberra. (2010b). What is Winter term? Retrieved from http://www.canberra.edu.au/courses-units/winter-term.
# Universe of discourse

☞ This page belongs to resource collections on Logic and Inquiry.
The term universe of discourse is generally attributed to Augustus De Morgan (1846). George Boole (1854) defines it in the following manner:
* In every discourse, whether of the mind conversing with its own thoughts, or of the individual in his intercourse with others, there is an assumed or expressed limit within which the subjects of its operation are confined. … Now, whatever may be the extent of the field within which all the objects of our discourse are found, that field may properly be termed the universe of discourse. (Boole 1854/1958, p. 42).
# University Edible Landscaping
## Edible Landscaping

Edible landscaping is the conversion of land spaces, especially marginal land spaces such as flowerbeds along a sidewalk, into working spaces growing food producing plant otherwise known as edible plants. This can be achieved through exercising techniques of permaculture where plants are selected to grow with complementary plants while respecting the immediate local environmental conditions. Using topiary and ornamental design with these edible plants also offers the opportunity to convert the otherwise ornamental botanic gardens into productive working spaces. That is, an edible landscape can use techniques of permaculture, which selects plants to grow with complementary plants while respecting the immediate local environmental conditions. Topiary and ornamental designs convert edible plants into ornamental botanic shapes that combine the concept of a botanical garden and food-productive working spaces.
Edible landscaping is not a new idea; edible landscaping dates back well over two thousand years to the hanging gardens of Babylon. The Garden of Eden is also a biblical example. Edible landscaping was also an underlying principle to medieval monastic gardens.
Australian naturist, Bill Mollison created a renewed interest in edible landscaping in the 1970's, through his concept of permaculture. Permaculture is a landscape design technique designed to form harmonious balances between input and outputs.

## University Involvement

Universities as a center of higher learning have an obligatory role in the community to research and introduce edible landscapes.
These edible landscapes are a matter of social justice The majority of food in this country travels 1500 miles to reach a consumer’s plate. The fossil fuels necessary to transport produce this absurd distance creates a massive carbon footprint that contributes to global warming. Additionally, this food is oftentimes grown with hazardous pesticides and herbicides, affecting the health of the farm workers. Edible landscapes can demonstrates that there are alternatives to industrial agriculture. The landscape will spur discussion of current farming practices and sustainable agricultural practices while providing students with food that is grown for the nourishment of body and spirit.
Key benefits of an edible landscape in university
* Edible landscapes can serve as a living landscape for academic exercises
* Edible landscaping is a mater of social justice to allow access of nutritious food to all people.
* Positive mental health.

## List of Universities participating in edible landscaping projects.

* Loyola University Chicago - Project Eden
* University Of Minnesota - UM Edible Landscape
* Scripps College - Food and Sustainability Community Project