OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Hybridization

In chemistry, hybridisation or hybridization (see also spelling differences) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for the qualitative description of atomic bonding properties. Hybridised orbitals are very useful in the explanation of the shape of molecular orbitals for molecules. It is an integral part of valence bond theory. Although sometimes taught together with the valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, valence bond and hybridization are in fact not related to the VSEPR model.

## Historical Development

The hybridisation theory was promoted by chemist Linus Pauling in order to explain the structure of molecules such as methane (CH4). Historically, this concept was developed for such simple chemical systems but the approach was later applied more widely, and today it is considered an effective heuristic for rationalizing the structures of organic compounds.
Hybridisation theory is not as practical for quantitative calculations as Molecular Orbital Theory. Problems with hybridisation are especially notable when the d orbitals are involved in bonding, as in coordination chemistry and organometallic chemistry. Although hybridisation schemes in transition metal chemistry can be used, they are not generally as accurate.
It is important to note that orbitals are a model representation of the behavior of electrons within molecules. In the case of simple hybridisation, this approximation is based on the atomic orbitals of hydrogen. Hybridised orbitals are assumed to be mixtures of these atomic orbitals, superimposed on each other in various proportions. Hydrogen orbitals are used as a basis for simple schemes of hybridisation because it is one of the few examples of orbitals for which an exact analytic solution to its Schrödinger equation is known. These orbitals are then assumed to be slightly, but not significantly, distorted in heavier atoms, like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Under these assumptions is the theory of hybridisation most applicable. It must be noted that one does not need hybridisation to describe molecules, but for molecules made up from carbon, nitrogen and oxygen (and to a lesser extent, sulfur and phosphorus) the hybridisation theory/model makes the description much easier.
The hybridisation theory finds its use mainly in organic chemistry, and mostly concerns C, N and O (and to a lesser extent P and S). Its explanation starts with the way bonding is organized in methane.
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Lewis Structures

Lewis structures, also called Lewis-dot diagrams, are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule, and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently-bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds. The Lewis structure was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced it in his 1916 article The Atom and the Molecule. They are similar to electron dot diagrams in that the valence electrons in lone pairs are represented as dots, but they also contains lines to represent shared pairs in a chemical bond (single, double, triple, etc.).
Lewis's structures show each atom in the structure of the molecule using its chemical symbol. Lines are drawn between atoms that are bonded to one another (rarely, pairs of dots are used instead of lines). Excess electrons that form lone pairs are represented as pairs of dots, and are placed next to the atoms.
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Materials Science

Structure of Crystalline Solids
Imperfections in Solids
Phase Diagrams
Phase Transformations
Metal Alloys
Structures and Properties of Ceramics
Structures and Properties of Ceramics
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Polymer Structures
Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers
Composites
Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Mechanics of Materials
## Mechanics of Materials

Introduction to Elasticity
Tensors
Stress and Strain Tensor
Generalized Hooke's Law
Physical Origin of Elastic Moduli
Composites
Cellular Solids
Viscoelasticity
Continuum Plasticity
Dislocation Mechanics
Mechanism of Low Temperature Plasticity
Continuum Creep Response
Mechanisms of Creep Deformation
# Materials Science and Engineering/List of Topics/Kinetics
## Kinetics

Introduction
Irreversible Thermodynamics
Driving Forces and Fluxes for Diffusion
Self-Diffusion and Interdiffusion
Diffusion Potential
The Diffusion Equation
Diffusion in Crystals
Diffusion in Noncrystalline Materials
Surface Evolution Due to Capillary Forces
Surface Evolution Due to Capillary Forces
Particle Coarsening
Grain Growth
Anisotropic Surface, Diffusional Creep, and Sintering
General Features of Phase Transformations
Spinodal Decomposition and Continuous Ordering
Nucleation
Diffusional Growth
Morphological Stability of Moving Interfaces
Kinetics of Nucleation and Growth Transformations
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Germany

* Alzheimer's Deutsche Alzheimer Gesellschaft
* Epilepsy Deutsche Epilepsie Vereinigung
* Parkinsons Deutsche Parkinson Vereinigung Bundesverband
* General Patients Deutsche Gesellschaft für Versicherte und Patienten
* Mental Health Bundeszentrale fuer Gesundheitliche Aufklaerung (BZgA), Dachverband Gemeindepsychiatrie e.V., Deutsche Gruppenpsychotherapeutische Gesellschaft (DGG)
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Lithuania

* Alzheimer's
* Epilepsy
* Parkinsons
* General Patients
* Mental Health State Mental Health Centre
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Malta

* Alzheimer's Malta Dementia Society
* Epilepsy Caritas Malta Epilepsy Association
* Parkinsons
* General Patients Malta Health Network
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Netherlands

* Alzheimer's Alzheimer Nederland
* Epilepsy EVN, Epilepsie Vereniging Nederland
* Parkinsons Parkinson Patienten Vereniging
* General Patients Netherlands Patient / Consumer Federation
* Mental Health GGZ Nederland, RINO Noord-Holland, Stichting Pandora
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Luxembourg

* Alzheimer's Association Luxembourg Alzheimer
* Epilepsy
* Parkinsons Association Luxembourgeoise de la Maladie de Parkinson
* General Patients
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Ireland

* Alzheimer's Alzheimer Society of Ireland
* Epilepsy
* Parkinsons Parkinsons Association of Ireland
* General Patients
* Mental Health Mental Health Ireland
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Italy

* Alzheimer's Federazione Alzheimer Italia
* Epilepsy Associazione Italiana contro L'Epilessia (AICE)
* Parkinsons Associazioni Italiana Parkinsoniani
* General Patients Cittadinanzattiva
* Mental Health AISME
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Latvia

* Alzheimer's
* Epilepsy
* Parkinsons
* General Patients Latvian Umbrella Body for Disability Organisations SUSTENTO
* Mental Health SKALBES
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Greece

* Alzheimer's Greek Association of AD and Related Disorders
* Epilepsy Greek National Association against Epilepsy
* Parkinsons
* General Patients Consumers' Association of Kavala
* Mental Health Association for the Psychosocial Health of Children and Adolescents (APHCA), Society of Social Psychiatry and Mental Health
# Neurosociety Media Centre/Patients Associations/Hungary

* Alzheimer's Hungarian Alzheimer Society
* Epilepsy
* Parkinsons
* General Patients Hungarian Civil Liberties Union (HCLU)
# Homomorphism space/Total evaluation/Not linear/Remark

Let $K$ denote a field and let $V$ and $W$ denote finite-dimensional $K$-vector spaces. We consider the natural mapping
    $\Psi \colon V\times \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,W\right)}\longrightarrow W,(v,\varphi )\longmapsto \varphi (v),$
where we have the product space on the left. This mapping is not linear in general. We have, on one hand,
    $\varphi (v_{1}+v_{2})=\varphi (v_{1})+\varphi (v_{2})\,$
and, on the other hand,
    ${\left(\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2}\right)}(v)=\varphi _{1}(v)+\varphi _{2}(v)\,,$
so, if we fix one component, we have additivity (and also compatibility with the scalar multiplication) in the other component. In the product space, we have
    $(v_{1},\varphi _{1})+(v_{2},\varphi _{2})=(v_{1}+v_{2},\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2})\,,$
and, therefore,
    ${\begin{aligned}\Psi ((v_{1},\varphi _{1})+(v_{2},\varphi _{2}))&=\Psi ((v_{1}+v_{2},\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2}))\\&={\left(\varphi _{1}+\varphi _{2}\right)}{\left(v_{1}+v_{2}\right)}\\&=\varphi _{1}{\left(v_{1}+v_{2}\right)}+\varphi _{2}{\left(v_{1}+v_{2}\right)}\\&=\varphi _{1}(v_{1})+\varphi _{1}(v_{2})+\varphi _{2}(v_{1})+\varphi _{2}(v_{2})\\&\neq \varphi _{1}(v_{1})+\varphi _{2}(v_{2})\\&=\Psi ((v_{1},\varphi _{1}))+\Psi ((v_{2},\varphi _{2}))\end{aligned}}$
(only in exceptional cases we have $\varphi _{1}(v_{2})+\varphi _{2}(v_{1})=0$).
# Homomorphism space/Linear subspaces/Fact/Proof

(1). It is clear that we have a linear subspace. In order to prove the statement about the dimension, let $U'$ be an direct complement of $U$ in $V$, so that
    $V=U\oplus U'\,.$
Let $u_{1},\ldots ,u_{r}$ be a basis of $U'$. Every linear mapping from $S$ maps $U$ to $0$, and on $U'$ (or on a basis thereof) we have free choice. Therefore
    $S\cong \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(U',W\right)}\,$
and the statement follows from fact.
(2). It is clear that we have a linear subspace. The natural mapping
    $\operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,U\right)}\longrightarrow \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,W\right)}$
of fact is injective in this case. Therefore,
    $T\cong \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,U\right)}\,.$
(3). It is clear that we have a linear subspace. In the finite-dimensional case, let
    $V=V_{1}\oplus V_{2}\,$
be a direct sum decomposition. Due to fact, we have
    $\operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,W\right)}=\operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V_{1},W\right)}\oplus \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V_{2},W\right)}\,$
and
    $H=\operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V_{1},W_{1}\right)}\oplus \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V_{2},W\right)}\,.$
Therefore, the dimension equals
    $\dim _{\left(V_{1}\right)}\cdot \dim _{\left(W_{1}\right)}+\dim _{\left(V_{2}\right)}\cdot \dim _{\left(W\right)}=\dim _{\left(V_{1}\right)}\dim _{\left(W_{1}\right)}+{\left(\dim _{\left(V\right)}-\dim _{\left(V_{1}\right)}\right)}\dim _{\left(W\right)}\,.$
(4). Setting
    $L_{i}={\left\{\varphi \in \operatorname {Hom} _{K}{\left(V,W\right)}\mid \varphi (V_{i})\subseteq W_{i}\right\}}\,,$
we have $L=\bigcap _{i=1}^{k}L_{i}$. Hence, (4) follows from (3).
# Homopolymer vs copolymer

In general, polymers such as PVC are referred to as "homopolymers", as they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit, whereas polymers that consist of more than one monomer unit are referred to as copolymers (or co-polymers).
But frequently all polymers having one repeating unit are considered homopolymers. So homopolymers can include polymers with more than one monomer species. It violates the above definition.
Let we stick to the first definition.
    Homopolymers and copolymers (examples) Homopolymer polystyrene Homopolymer polydimethylsiloxane, a silicone. The main chain is formed of silicon and oxygen atoms. The homopolymer polyethylene terephthalate has only one repeat unit. Copolymer styrene-butadiene rubber: The repeat units based on styrene and 1,3-butadiene form two repeating units, which can alternate in any order in the macromolecule, making the polymer thus a random copolymer.

## Note

Copolymers also can be categorized into,
* Random copolymer
* Alternating copolymer
* Block copolymer
* Graft copolymer
In the schematic figure below, Ⓐ and Ⓑ symbolize the two repeat units.
    Random copolymer Gradient copolymer Graft copolymer Alternating copolymer Block copolymer

## Q&A

* Do homopolymers have multiple species of monomers?
* can we make a copolymer with a one species of monomer?

## Answer

* No, if it has more monomer types then it will be a copolymer. According to the first definition.
* No, by definition copolymer must have more than one monomer species. But one species can be chemically changed to many species and copolymer can be made by it.

## Summary

* homopolymer - one species of monomer
* copolymer - more than one species of monomers

## Activities

* search in internet for copolymer types and their definitions.
# Homothety/Composition/Multiplication of determinant/Exercise

Check the multiplication theorem for determinants of two homotheties on a finite-dimensional vector space.
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs/Instructor notes
## Socratic method

* This tutorial uses the Socratic method to ask students open-ended questions about key concepts related to self-determination theory in relation to basic psychological needs and the taxonomy of extrinsic-intrinsic motivation

## Needs

There are three basic models or ways of organising needs:
* 2-level: Physiological and psychological
* 3-level: Existence, relatedness, and growth (Alderfer)
* 5-level: Physiological, Safety, Belonging & love, Esteem, Self-actualisation (Maslow)

## Basic psychological needs

According to self-determination theory, the basic psychological needs are:
* Autonomy
* Competence - could alternatively be called Mastery (see Pink video in lecture)
* Relatedness - could alternatively be called Purpose (see Pink video in lecture)

## Topic development

* Remind about:
** the timeline (guidelines page shows days and hours remaining) - this is Census Day for a reason; to check-in whether you are on-track to succeed in the unit or consider withdrawing
** submit through UCLearn
** can continue editing afterwards (most recent version before due date will be used for marking purposes)
* Go over the checklist using an example chapter (pick one which has some development randomly from the list of topics and use this as a demo in terms of how well it satisfies the criteria and how it could improve if lacking)
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Time perspective/Instructor notes
## Tips

* When displaying the graphs of results for the ZTPI, zoom the browser so that the graphs are near full screen.

## Timing

* Intro (5 mins)
* ZTPI (10 - 15 mins)
* Theory (5 - 10 mins)
* Scores (5 - 10 mins)
* Video (10 mins)
* Discussion (5 - 10 mins)

## Introduction

* Time travel isn't science - we do it continuously throughout the day
* We use our minds to jump between past, present, and future

## Conclusion

* TP ideal is flexibility - being able to use each TP when it makes sense to do so, but not being locked into an inflexible pattern
* TP is a potentially useful mini-theory for a wide range of contexts

## Chat messages

Tutorial notes for today: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Tutorials/Time_perspective
Complete the 56-item ZTPI: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfoIK9pW-KNtiWsXwa9pFVZiHwR6ioOe6V703Fk7W7YPKjICw/viewform?usp=sf_link
Once you've finished the ZTPI check out The Time Paradox website: https://www.thetimeparadox.com
and The Time Cure website: https://www.thetimecure.com
Watch Zimbardo discuss the psychology of time: https://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_the_psychology_of_time (5 mins)
Restart at: *+6 mins
Questions to consider:
How could your time perspective be improved?
How could time perspective be applied?
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs

Tutorial 04: Psychological needs This is the fourth tutorial for the motivation and emotion unit of study.

## Overview

This tutorial provides an interactive discussion about:
* basic psychological needs
* taxonomy of motivation

## Needs

Brainstorm and discuss:

## Taxonomy of motivation

Discuss:
* Amotivation
* Extrinsic motivation
** External regulation
** Introjection
** Identification
** Integration
* Intrinsic motivation

## Recording

* Tutorial 04 (2024)
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs/Example of self-determination theory: Child cleaning teeth

Here is how the self-determination theory's (SDT) taxonomy of motivation could apply to a child cleaning their teeth regularly (see Figure 1):

## Amotivation

The child has no intention or desire to clean their teeth. They might not see the value in the behaviour or may be indifferent about it. For example, the child might forget to brush their teeth or avoid it altogether, feeling it is pointless.

## External regulation

The child brushes their teeth to avoid punishment or gain a reward. For example, they clean their teeth because their parent insists on it and threatens to take away a favourite toy if they don't.

## Introjection

The child brushes their teeth because they feel pressured internally, possibly due to guilt or a desire to avoid feeling bad about themselves. For example, the child brushes their teeth because they would feel guilty or fear being seen as dirty or irresponsible if they didn't.

## Identification

The child recognises the personal importance of brushing their teeth and accepts it as a valuable action. For example, they understand that cleaning their teeth helps prevent cavities and keeps them healthy, so they brush regularly because they see the benefit.

## Integration

The child has fully integrated the behaviour into their sense of self and sees it as part of who they are. For example, brushing their teeth becomes a routine that aligns with their broader values of taking care of themselves and their health, making it a natural part of their daily life.

## Intrinsic motivation

The child cleans their teeth because they find the activity enjoyable or satisfying in itself. For example, they might enjoy the fresh feeling after brushing or take pleasure in seeing their teeth clean and shiny.

## Conclusion

This taxonomy helps explain how motivation can range from a lack of motivation (amotivation) to fully self-determined and internalised motivation (intrinsic motivation), influencing the likelihood and consistency of the child's behaviour.

## Other examples

How could the SDT taxonomy of motivation be applied to other behaviours, such as:
* Exercise
* Recycling
* Studying
* Volunteering
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing/Instructor notes

* Demonstrate and have students edit their user page to experience all the basic wiki editing skills
* In this way, students' user pages will be underway and they'll have a concrete experience of successfully editing Wikiversity
* Explain the topic development marking criteria
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs/Self-determination theory

* Provide an overview of self-determination theory (SDT):
** Who has heard of it?
** What they know about it?
** What is the theory for?
** Who is it by?
** What are the key components?
*** Autonomy
*** Competence
*** Relatedness
* Quiz the class a bit further about what it knows about "autonomy" and what might be meant by "autonomy support"?
* Watch the 14:05 min. video, Promoting motivation, health, and excellence (Ed Deci, 2012, TEDx) (youtube) and note answers to:
** What is autonomy-based motivation?
** Why does autonomy-based motivation matter?
** How can we facilitate autonomy-based motivation? (e.g., as leaders, managers, teachers, parents)
# Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing

Tutorial 02: Wiki editing This is the second tutorial for the motivation and emotion unit of study.

## Overview

This tutorial:
* Demonstrates and practices basic wiki editing skills by creating a user page
* Explains the topic development marking criteria

## Basic skills

* Be bold Assume good faith
* Editing
** Edit (visual editor)
** Edit source (wikitext editor)
** Edit summaries
* User page
* Text formatting:
** Bold
** Italics etc.
* Structure
** Headings
** Table of contents
* Lists
** Bullet-points
** Numbered lists
* Links
** Internal
*** Wikiversity
*** Wikipedia
** External
* Figures

## Topic development

The topic development marking criteria:
* Title and sub-title (10%)
* Headings (10%)
* Overview (10%)
* Key points (10%)
* Figure (10%)
* Learning feature (10%)
* References (10%)
* Resources (10%)
* User page (10%)
* Social contribution (10%)
For more details, see the:
* Topic development checklist
* Topic development guidelines

## Using genAI

* Using generative AI (guidelines for this unit)
* Use the Studiosity Writing Feedback Plus tool for AI feedback

## Next steps

* Topic selection
* Topic development: Develop an initial chapter plan consisting of:
** Headings
** Bullet-points about key points for each section
** etc.
* For example, check out these examples of topic development submissions which received 100%

## Recording

* Tutorial 02, 2024
# Odd function/Differentiable/Derivation/Exercise

Let $f\colon \mathbb {R} \rightarrow \mathbb {R}$ be an odd differentiable function. Show that the derivative $f'$ is even.
# Offshore engineering

Part of the Wikiversity Department of Marine Engineering, School of Engineering and the Engineering and Technology Portal

## Content summary

Offshore Engineering applies ocean engineering studies to the engineering of devices within the benthic environment, such as Marine Foundations, Mooring Systems, Ocean Mining, Offshore Disposal, Offshore Pipelines and Cables, Offshore Structures, Submersible Vehicles, Submarine Habitats and Salvage Operations.

## Goals

To further knowledge of the deep ocean as an engineering environment and to enable the practitioner to effectively design within the parameters of such.

## Learning Materials
### Texts

* Introduction to Oceanography; Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection
* Marine Hydrodynamics; Wikibooks, the open-content textbooks collection

### Offshore Engineering Lessons

* The Benthic Environment
* Temperature
* Density
* Salinity
* Chemistry
* Deep Water Engineering
* Anchors
* Mining & Oil Exploration
* Biological Investigation
* Ocean engineering design
* Models & Scaling
* Resistance
* Propulsion
* Corrosion
* Galvanic Protection
* Arctic Engineering

## Assignments
### Activities:

* Physical Properties of the Oceans

### Readings:

* Physical Properties of the Oceans
* Peruse the appropriate sections of b:Introduction to Oceanography

### Study guide:

* Physical Properties of the Oceans
* Wikipedia article:Temperature
* Wikipedia article:Density
* Wikipedia article:Salinity
* Wikipedia article:Chemistry
* Wikipedia article:Marine geology
* Wikipedia article:Oceanography
* Wikipedia article:Chemical oceanography
* Wikipedia article:Physical oceanography
# Octonauts Brinicle Lesson

This lesson on brinicles is designed to go along with the Octonauts: The Over Under Adventure episode. Ages 4-8.

## Watch or Read

Watch Octonauts: The Over Under Adventure episode. It is available on YouTube here.
Or, read the simple English Wikipedia article about brinicles.
You can also watch the amazing real footage of a brinicle forming, and read this article about the footage here.

## Activity

Print out the worksheet below and complete the picture by drawing a brinicle.
# Odd number/Last digit/Exercise

Show that a natural number $n$ is odd if and only if its last digit in the decimal system equals $1,3,5,7$ or $9$.
# Odd number/Remainder representation/Exercise

Show that a natural number $n$ is odd if and only if it is of the form $n=2k+1$ with some natural number $k$.
# Odds ratio

This statistics resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
The odds ratio is a measure of effect size, describing the strength of association or non-independence between two binary data values. It is used as a descriptive statistic, and plays an important role in logistic regression.
# Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Video Games and Motivation

Video Games and Motivation