# New Zealand Pilot License/Meteorology/Private
## The Atmosphere

State the composition of the atmosphere
Describe the presence and importance of the following in the atmosphere:
* carbon dioxide
* ozone
* water vapour
Explain how temperature influences the ability of air to hold water vapour
Define tropopause
State how density of air affects the height of the tropopause in high, middle and low latitudes
Define pressure
Describe what is meant by:
* cold advection
* warm advection lapse rate
Define:
* isobar
* wind velocity
* anticyclone ("high")
* depression ("low")
* ridge of high pressure
* trough of low pressure
* ccl
* pressure gradient
Explain the relatonship between pressure gradient, isobars and wind velocity (airflow around pressure systems)
State the concept of convergence and divergence and describe how the associated subsidence or ascent of air influences the type of weather commonly associates with pressure systems
State the unit of pressure commonly used in meteorology
List the assumed conditions on which the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is based
Explain how a deviation from ISA calues influences performance of aircraft and their engines
Define
* QNH
* QNE
* altitude
* heaight
* pressure altitude
Explain why an altimeter requires a subscale adjustment
Explain the importance of correct subscale setting

## Temperature and Heat Exchange Processes

Explain what is meant by solar radiation
Describe the elements that influence or reject the amount of incoming solar radiation
Explain what is meant by terrestrial radiation
Descibe the elements that influence or restrict the escape of terrestrial radiation
Explain the effect of solar and terrestrial radiation on the air temperature (in the atmosphere)
Describe the:
* conduction process
* convection process
Define albedo
Describe the dirunal variation of surface air temperature and explain the effects of different types of surface on the variation

## Atmospheric Moisture

Define:
* condensation
* evaporation
* deposition
* sublimation
* melting
* freezing
* latent heat
Explain the function of condensation nuclei during condensation
State the effect of the following on the rate of evaporation:
* air temperature
* moisture content of air
* atmospheric pressure
* the wind
Describe the processes that produce changes of state of moisture and explain how latent heat is involved in each
Explain what is meant by relative humidity
Explain the effects of changes in temperature and moisture content of air on relative humidity
Explain what is meant by dew point
Explain how the effect of moisture content of air opn the value of the dew point
Explain how density of moist air affects aircraft and engine performance
Explain how temperature, relative humidity and dew point values can be used to indicate differences in wter content of air

## The Wind

State the direction in which the following to forces act:
* pressure gradient
* coriolis force
State the effect of wind speed on the strangth of the coriolis force
Explain how the inter-relation between pressure gradient and coriolis force determine the circulation around pressure systems
Explain what is meant by the "friction layer", and describe the elements that influence the density of the layer
Explain how the friction layer affects the surface wind velocity
Define:
* veering of the wind; and
* backing of the wind
Describe the diurnal variation of the surface wind:
* over land and
* over sea
State the changes in wind velocity when climbing out of, or descending into, the friction layer
State the function of the rotating cup anemometer
Describe how an approximate wind velocity can be determined from a 25-knot windsock when at an angle of 30 degrees, 45 degrees, 75 degrees and 90 degrees from the vertical
Describe how an approximate wind direction can be determined from:
* ripples on the water; and
* windlanes on water
State Buys Ballot's Law
Explain how applying Buys Ballot's Law can:
* determine the location of high and low pressure areas; and
* establish possible errors in altimeter reading
Define wind shear
Describe the effects of vertical and horizontal wind shear on aircraft operations
[link title[link title[link title]]]==Stability of Air==
Explain what is meant by:
* stable air
* unstable air
* neutrally stable air
State the two ractors that determine the stability of air
Describe what is meant by "environment lapse rate" (ELR)
Explain the adiabatic process
Draw graphs of steep and shallow environment lapse rates including inversions and isothermal layers
State the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)
Explain how the relationshi[ between the ELR and DALR can be used to determine the stability or instability of unsaturated air
State the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)
Explain how the relationship between the ELR and SALR can be used to determine the stability or instability of saturated air
Explain the factors involved in thermal rising of air
Describe how different dew point values determine the cloud base of convective cloud, given a constant moisture content
Describe the types of cloud that could be expected in:
* stable saturated air
* unstable saturated air
Describe weather conditions and degrees of visibility in:
* stable air and
* unstable air

## Local Winds

Describe the sea breeze process, including typical:
* timing of the occurance
* average strength of the sea breeze
* horizontal and vertical limits
* associated cloud development
* associated turbulence
Describe the land breeze process, and state:
* typical timing of the occurance
* average speed of the wind
* most likely season for the occurance
Describe the katabatic and anabatic wind processes, and state the:
* typical timing of each offurance
* average strength of the winds
* effect of moist vally air on cloud / fog formation
* effect of gravity on katabatic winds; and
* effect of aiabatic cooling and warming
Define, and differentiate between, gusts and squalls
Describe the fohn wind process
Given environment temperatures, dew points and mountain heights, determine the:
* cloud base on the windward side
* cloud base on the lee side
* temperature at stated datum's on the lee side
Describe the flight conditions associated with fohn wind conditions
Describe the mountain mountain wave (standing, or lee wave) process
Explain the wind and weather conditions, and associated main dangers to aircraft operations, in mountain wave conditions
Describe the rotor streaming process and explain the associated dangers to aircraft operations
Explain the dangers involved in attempting to out climb a slope in light aircraft, and describe the alternatives and remedies available under the circumstances

## Inversions

Define:
* inversion; and
* isothermal layer
Explain the effect of inversions on:
* the formation and development of cloud
* visibility
* turbulence
* the relative humidity and dew point
* the increased risk of carburettor icing
* the presence of wind shear
Describe the flight conditions in the presence of inversions
Explain the factors involved in a:
* radiation inversion
* turbulence inversion
* subsidence inversion; and
* frontal inversion

## Cloud

Describe the basic cloud formation process
State the most common method through which:
* cloud is formed; and
* air is cooled to produce cloud
Explain what is meant by "buoyancy" of air
Differentiate between cloud drops and rain / shower drops
State the approximate altitude limits (in NZ latitudes) of:
* high cloud
* middle cloud; and
* low cloud
Describe the following types of cloud and include a description of likely icing, turbulence and precipitation:
* cirrostratus
* cirrocumulus
* cirrus
* altostratus
* altocumulus
* stratus
* cumulus
* cumulonimbus / towering cumulus
* nimbostratus
Describe the terms used for the reporting of cloud
Describe the following methods whereby air is lifted, and include the effect of stability / instability on the type of cloud:
* orographic lifting
* mechanical lifting
* convective lifting
* slow widespread ascent
* frontal lifting
Explain the processes that contribute to cloud dispersal

## Precipitation

Define
* precipitation
* virga (aka virgo)
Explain how drops can grow through:
* the presence of ice crystals
* coalescence
Describe the following types of precipitation:
* rain
* drizzle
* snow
* sleet
* hail
Describe the following characters of precipitation:
* continuous
* intermittent
* showers

## Visibility

Define (meteorological) visibility
Explain what is meant by transparency of air
Explain the effect of illumination on visibility distance
Differentiate between visibility distance and visibility range
Describe the effects of the following on visibility distance:
* precipitation
* fog or mist
* have
* smoke
* sea spray
Explain the factors involved in slant range

## Fog

Define fog
Describe the principals of formation, required meteorological conditions, factors affecting extent of, and dispersal of:
* radiation fog
* advection fog
* valley fog
* sea fog
* steaming fog
* frontal fog
Describe the operational problems associated with fog

## Fronts and Depressions

Describe the polar front theory
Define airmass
List the airmass catagories
Defne the source region and state of typical global areas where source regions are found
Describe what is meant by:
* cold advection
* warm advection
Explain the typical weather conditions in New Zealand when affected by cold and warm advection
Describe how divergence aloft affects the atmospheric pressure near sea level
Describe how the characteristics of the:
* polar depression
* warm sector depression
* orographic depression
* thermal (heat type) depression
Draw the symbols, and colour codes, used to describe the following fronts on weather charys:
* cold front
* warm front
* occluded front
* stationary front
Draw a cross-section of the typical cold front influding cloud, temperature and freezing level changes, precipitation, and typical widgh
State the events before, at, and after, an idealised cold front in terms of:
* pressure
* temperature
* wind velocity
* cloud
* precipitation
* visibility
Draw a cross section of the typical warm front including cloud, temperature and freezing level changes, precipitation and typical width.
State the events before, at, and after, an idealised warm front in terms of:
* pressure
* temperature
* wind velocity
* cloud
* precipitation
* visibility
Draw a cross section of the following occlusions and explain how each type develops:
* a cold occlusion
* a warm occlusion
Describe the potential dangers to FVR flight through fronts
Sescribe the techniques, and precautions that can be taken to reduce or eliminate the dangers of VFR flight through fronts.

## Thunderstorms

Explain the conditions to be met for the development of thunderstorms
Describe the three stages of thunderstorm development
Explain the development, and describe the characteristics of:
* orographic thunderstorms
* heat type thunderstorms
* frontal thunderstorms
Describe the haxards associated with thunderstorms and explain why light aircraft should avoid them
Explain the orogin and development of tornadoes and state the main hazards

## Icing

Explain what is meant by supercooled water, and describe the influence of latent heat on the formation of ice.
Explain the process of freezing and melting.
With regard to airframe icing, explain the processes involved in the formation of:
(a) clear ice;
(b) rime ice;
(c) hoar frost;
(d) freezing rain.
State the types of cloud, and cloud drop size, that are conducive to the formation of each type of ice listed in
State the altitudes relative to the freezing level where rime ice or clear ice can be expected in cloud.
Give examples of conditions that could cause:
(a) freezing rain.
(b) hoar frost
State the hazards for light aircraft from:
(a) snow;
(b) sleet;
(c) hail.
Explain the influence of the following on the rate of ice accretion:
(a) water content of cloud;
(b) aircraft characteristics, components and airspeed.
State the dangers of icing to aircraft in flight and on the ground.
Explain the methods that can be used to minimise or eliminate the dangers of aircraft icing.
Explain the factors involved in carburettor icing.
State the maximum temperature range in which carburettor ice can form.
Explain how the accretion rate of carburettor ice is governed by:
(a) moisture content of air; and
(b) throttle setting.
Explain the conditions that can cause carburettor icing while on the ground.
Describe the methods commonly available in light aircraft to combat carburettor icing.
Explain the dangers and possible remedies for icing of engine and pitot system intakes.

## Turbulence

Describe the cause(s), factors involved, dangers, and techniques commonly used to avoid or minimise:
(a) thermal (convective) turbulence;
(b) mechanical turbulence - small scale and large scale;
(c) wind shear turbulence;
(d) wake turbulence.

## New Zealand Climatology

Describe how the following items govern the NZ climate:
(a) latitude;
(b) oceanic surroundings;
(c) topography.
In general terms, describe cloudiness, gustiness, visibility and turbulence at various locations within New Zealand during typical:
(a) northwest wind regimes;
(b) northeast wind regimes;
(c) southwest wind regimes;
(d) southeast wind regimes.
With regard to VFR flight in light aircraft over the Southern Alps, describe:
(a) the need for through flight planning;
(b) in-flight considerations;
(c) adverse winds;
(d) favourable winds;
(e) selection of tracks.

## Meteorological Services for Aviation

With respect to NZ Domestic VFR operations, interpret, understand and assess information of all descriptions contained in:
(a) area forecast (ARFOR);
(b) meteorological reports (METAR/SPECI);
(c) trend forecasts (TTL);
(d) aerodrome forecasts (TAF);
(e) SIGMET;
(f) special aerodrome reports (SPAR);
(g) automatic terminal information service (ATIS);
(h) aerodrome and weather information broadcasts (AWIB);
(i) basic weather reports (BWR);
(j) pilot reports.
Interpret, understand and assess weather information made available by television, Internet, newspapers and radio.