OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Social movements

Social movements involve people coming together to create societal change.
Social movements can be studied from political, sociological, anthropological, and psychological perspectives. There are probably other ways to look at, analyze, and evaluate social movements.

## Discussion questions

* What are some popular social movements? How were they started? What maintains them?
* What new social movements might exist in the future?
* Why do social movements happen?
* How do social movements benefit members of society? How can social movements potentially harm people?

## Learning resources and educational readings
### Local

* U. S. Government/Labor Movement
* Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Social movement motivation
* Organising in the Social Factory/Student movement
* Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Activism motivation
* Neurodiversity Movement
* Neurodiversity Movement/Section 1: The Basics
* Questions of democracy and social responsibility within Wikipedia
* Free culture movement
* Art Strike
* Organising in the Social Factory
* Recovery psychology/Identity Politics of Recovery
* Anti-psychiatry
* List of Portland, Oregon Protest video sources (2020)

### Wikipedia

* Social movement
* Reform movement
* Charismatic authority
* Social movement theory
* Social movement impact theory
* Social movement organization
* New social movements
* Decentralization
* Political opportunity
* Collective action
* Collective behavior
* List of social movements
* Nonviolent resistance
* Political movement
* Global citizens movement
* Revolutionary movement
* Social justice
* Online social movement
* Union organizer
* Slacktivism
* Internet activism
# Social exclusion

This psychology resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
Social exclusion has no single, agreed to, conceptualisation, though one suggested definition is that:
   Social exclusion is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they live.
# Social influence

This psychology resource is a "stub". Learn how you can help Wikiversity to develop it.
* Please help develop and classify this resource
* Learn how you can develop this resource to teach participants about Social influence. Choose a subject, education level, and resource type to classify the resource by. You may learn more about the topic to help you develop and classify the resource from:
# Tax avoidance/Reconstruction of transactions

In the history of Australian tax law, the former section 260 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth) is remembered as a failed general anti-avoidance rule. It suffered from two keys problems, being the 'choice principle' and the 'annihilation problem'. This page focuses on the annihilation problem in order to illustrate the need to 'reconstruct' transactions in an anti-avoidance provision.
Section 260 provided that any transaction entered into for the purpose of avoiding tax was 'void' as against the Commissioner of Taxation. This meant that the transaction was 'annihilated' -- the Commissioner was entitled to pretend it never happened.
However, what if, after annihilating the transaction, there was nothing left to tax? (TODO: Find case on this, to illustrate the kind of scheme against which section 260 is ineffective.)
In contrast, Part IVA, which replaced section 260, allows reconstruction. Part IVA authorises the Commissioner of Taxation to make up a 'counterfactual' (the term does not appear in the legislation but is the commonly-used term for the concept which appears implicitly in the legislation) representing the transaction that the taxpayer would have entered into had they wished to pursue the same non-tax objectives as the actual transaction but without pursuing any purpose of obtaining a tax benefit. The comparison of the tax consequences of the actual transaction and the counterfactual yields a quantification of the tax benefit. The Commissioner is authorised, under Part IVA, to impose additional taxation to bring the taxpayer's liability up to the liability that would had applied had the counterfactual been reality.
Reconstruction gives the tax authority great discretion. The only limits on this discretion are provided by whatever facts the legislature specifies that must remain the same between the actual transaction and the counterfactual. For example, Part IVA requires that the counterfactual have broadly the same non-tax purposes or effects as the actual transaction. A previous version of Part IVA prohibited the Commissioner from imposing a counterfactual which the taxpayer would never have willingly entered into (e.g. because the tax cost associated with it made it uncommercial, that is, the taxpayer would have preferred to simply do nothing: TODO find case), but this limitation has since been removed by amending legislation.
# Taylor expansion/R/One variable/Introduction/Section

So far, we have only considered power series of the form $\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }c_{k}x^{k}$. Now we allow that the variable $x$ may be replaced by a "shifted variable“ $x-a$, in order to study the local behavior in the expansion point $a$. Convergence means, in this case, that some $\epsilon >0$ exists, such that for
    $x\in ]a-\epsilon ,a+\epsilon [\,,$
the series converges. In this situation, the function, presented by the power series, is again differentiable, and its derivative is given as in fact. For a convergent power series
    $f(x):=\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }c_{k}(x-a)^{k}\,,$
the polynomials $\sum _{k=0}^{n}c_{k}(x-a)^{k}$ yield polynomial approximations for the function $f$ in the point $a$. Moreover, the function $f$ is arbitrarily often differentiable in $a$, and the higher derivatives in the point $a$ can be read of from the power series directly, namely
    $f^{(n)}(a)=n!c_{n}\,.$
We consider now the question whether we can find, starting with a differentiable function of sufficiently high order, approximating polynomials (or a power series). This is the content of the Taylor expansion.

## Definition

Let $I\subseteq \mathbb {R}$ denote an interval,
    $f\colon I\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
an $n$-times differentiable function, and $a\in I$. Then
    $T_{a,n}(f)(x):=\sum _{k=0}^{n}{\frac {f^{(k)}(a)}{k!}}(x-a)^{k}\,$
$n$
$f$
$a$
So
    $T_{a,0}(f)(x):=f(a)\,$
is the constant approximation,
    $T_{a,1}(f)(x):=f(a)+f'(a)(x-a)\,$
is the linear approximation,
    $T_{a,2}(f)(x):=f(a)+f'(a)(x-a)+{\frac {f^{\prime \prime }(a)}{2}}(x-a)^{2}\,$
is the quadratic approximation,
    $T_{a,3}(f)(x):=f(a)+f'(a)(x-a)+{\frac {f^{\prime \prime }(a)}{2}}(x-a)^{2}+{\frac {f^{\prime \prime \prime }(a)}{6}}(x-a)^{3}\,$
is the approximation of degree $3$, etc. The Taylor polynomial of degree $n$ is the (uniquely determined) polynomial of degree $\leq n$ with the property that its derivatives and the derivatives of $f$ at $a$ coincide up to order $n$.

## Theorem

Let $I$ denote a real interval,
    $f\colon I\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
an $(n+1)$-times differentiable function, and $a\in I$ an inner point of the interval. Then for every point $x\in I$, there exists some $c\in I$ such that
    $f(x)=\sum _{k=0}^{n}{\frac {f^{(k)}(a)}{k!}}(x-a)^{k}+{\frac {f^{(n+1)}(c)}{(n+1)!}}(x-a)^{n+1}.$
$c$
$a$
$x$

### Proof

$\Box$

## Corollary

Suppose that $I$ is a bounded closed interval,
    $f\colon I\longrightarrow \mathbb {R}$
is an $(n+1)$-times continuously differentiable function, $a\in I$ an inner point, and $B:={\max {\left(\vert {f^{(n+1)}(c)}\vert ,c\in I\right)}}$. Then, between $f(x)$ and the $n$-th Taylor polynomial, we have the estimate
    $\vert {f(x)-\sum _{k=0}^{n}{\frac {f^{(k)}(a)}{k!}}(x-a)^{k}}\vert \leq {\frac {B}{(n+1)!}}\vert {x-a}\vert ^{n+1}\,.$

### Proof

The number $B$ exists due to fact, since the $(n+1)$-th derivative $f^{(n+1)}$ is continuous on the compact interval $I$. The statement follows, therefore, directly from fact.
$\Box$
# Tax avoidance

Template:Globalize
The purpose of this page and pages linked from it is to explore the legal aspects of tax avoidance and, in particular, general and specific anti-avoidance rules such as Australia's Part IVA. Anti-avoidance rules generally involve a discretion, exercisable by the tax authority, to ignore or 'reconstruct' a transaction and thereby apply the tax law to a taxpayer as if the facts were different to reality.
The term 'tax avoidance' is used as on the following spectrum, which is commonly used in Australia:
* tax planning - structuring a transaction so as to take advantage of benefits intentionally provided by the law;
* tax avoidance - structuring a transaction so as to take advantage of loopholes in the law, contrary to its 'spirit', especially when using artificial, blatant and contrived steps;
* tax evasion - involves dishonesty e.g. factual misstatement on tax return understating income.
It may be argued that the words used in discussion of the terms 'tax planning' and 'tax avoidance' purport to refer to the legislative intent but in fact do not rely on the legislature as a source of information about policy or values at all; rather, they are a smokescreen for a completely subjective case-by-case policy decision about which transactions should attract taxation or not (a 'smell test'), resulting in arbitary taxation. If the values hidden in the exercise of the smell test could be teased out and crystallised into workable principles, then substantive tax legislation could be designed in a manner that made tax avoidance impossible without the need for anti-avoidance rules. It is likely that the 'tax avoidance problem' is in fact a symptom of a yawning (but obscured) gap between what people want in a tax system and the actual design of the tax system, created and exacerbated by a lack of real engagement between the public servants responsible for designing tax legislation and the elected representatives of the people; on this view, tax avoidance becomes a problem of tax law design.

## Key questions

* What is the line between (permissible) tax planning and (impermissible) tax avoidance?
* What are the various perspectives or views on tax avoidance, what is their history and what are their philosophical underpinnings?
* By what means can substantive tax legislation be drafted in a manner that obviates the need for anti-avoidance rules?

## By jurisdiction

* Tax avoidance in Australia

## Issues

* Tax avoidance/Purposive interpretation of tax legislation in order to defeat tax avoidance
* Tax avoidance/Fiscal nullity doctrine (TODO: Check whether this is just an instance of the 'purposive interpretation' approach)
* Tax avoidance/General anti-avoidance rule
* Tax avoidance/Transfer pricing
* Tax avoidance/Reconstruction of transactions
# Tax preparation

Hello, I have no idea how to start this, but I really want it to exist, so I'm just going to spill a bunch of suggestions. I personally was looking for a how-to sort of deal for personal income tax preparation. Something that goes over both the methods of doing so, and the tools/materials/information/resources needed to do so. (Courses could be listed according to region and governmental level in some sort of index, I suppose) I was thinking of this as maybe like an 'Accounting for Laymen' sort of thing. I looked at the Accounting page, and it is crazy intimidating.
A course could be organized like this:
(Government Type) ex: Country/state/province/county/city/etc. (Income tax rate(s)) ex: Graduated or Flat. If Graduated, list in table form. Is there a level, below which, no tax is collected at all? (Due date(s)) ex: Collected how often? When? (Collecting Body) ex: Who does the collecting? How do they accept payment? What form does the payment need to take? (Required Materials)
(Methods) ex: This section would go over the methods of preparing personal income tax. What is taxable income? What isn't? What counts as a tax exemption? Are there government programs/incentives that could be taken advantage of? How? I have no idea how to organize this section.
I'd be very grateful for any help you wikidemics can provide.
As far as learning projects go, I'm thinking a set of info/papers/account info/etc (whatever's needed) could be created for a John Doe type guy, or for several John Doe type guys. Learners would do his/her/their taxes and submit them for critiques. These would be updated when laws are changed, along with the course contents themselves. What do you think?
# Tax preparation in the United States

Lessig noted that a large group of companies and individuals make money from helping their clients negotiate the complexity of the US income tax system. These people would lose money if it were simpler. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) gets most of the information needed to complete an income tax return for most citizens and could send taxpayers a draft return. Taxpayers could either accept the IRS bill as is, submit it with modifications (similar to how consumers challenge charges on a credit card they didn't make), or create a new one completely from scratch. Intuit, the developer of tax preparation software TurboTax, spent over $1.7 million to kill a program like this in California (ReadyReturn). They similarly lobbied against plans by the US Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to create a Web portal for electronic tax filing.
This is the shell for a Documenting crony capitalism article on this subject. When completed, it should contain a summary line giving an estimate of the Return on investment obtained by this group of cronies supported by citations to information sources for the numbers. The article should also include sections mentioning the inevitable discrepancies between the different but related definitions used in different data sources combined here, plus estimated benefits, etc.
# Understanding Linux
## Virtual Memory

* Segmentation and Paging (A.pdf)
* MMU and TLB (A.pdf)
* User Space Allocationg (A.pdf)

## File System

* File System (pdf)
go to [ Electrical_&_Computer_Engineering_Studies ]
# Understanding Fairness/Luck, Land, and Legacy

There are at least three reasons why the wealthiest among us can feel good about sharing their bounty with those less fortunate. Those three reasons are luck, land, and legacy.
It is more likely than not that a wealthy person is male rather than female, white rather than black, healthy rather than sickly, fit and able bodied, higher than average intelligence, and living in the developed world rather than in the developing world. Each of these success factors is primarily a matter of luck rather than personal skill. While there are many examples where hard work, courage, persistence, ingenuity, and resourcefulness has helped someone overcome adversity and accumulate wealth, these willful factors often rely on good fortune. If today’s self-made man had the misfortune to be born a black woman in Eritrea or in a poor region of Niger the outcome would have been much different.
We have no moral claim to our luck. Instead the most fortunate can accept a moral responsibility to share the fruits of their good fortune.
Land is an important form of wealth. Landlords, ranchers, farmers, and mining companies all enjoy a financial return from the land they claim. Housing requires land. Real-estate developers and brokers profit from the land they buy, sell, and let. Land ownership accumulates wealth and can be passed on to future generations.
Land ownership ultimately originates with conquest. The North American land mass was first inhabited by diverse tribes of native Americans. After Christopher Columbus learned of the continent, the land was usurped by Europeans without cause. The history of Pennsylvania is one example. On March 4, 1681, Charles II of England granted the Province of Pennsylvania to William Penn to settle a debt of £16,000 that the king owed to Penn's father. The King, of course, had no legitimate claim to the land he so generously granted.
Although there is no legitimate basis for a sovereign claim to land ownership, many family fortunes have accrued from land holdings. This wealth, and the land it sprang from is often passed along from one generation to the next.
Wealth builds wealth. Inheriting wealth, including land, mineral rights, money, securities, jewelry, or other valuables provides a leg up in life to the fortunate recipient. Hard work helps, but hard work combined with an inheritance of wealth rather than debt makes a big difference.
We hear heated debates about the moral status of progressive taxes, wealth taxes, inheritance and estate taxes, and universal basic income. The wealthiest among us are beneficiaries of luck, land, and legacy, in addition to hard work and resourcefulness. They can be thankful for their circumstances and grateful to share the fruits of their good fortune with those less fortunate.
# Understanding fundamentalism
## Aims and Objectives

* To understand the causes and sources of Religious Fundamentalism
* To be able to identify Fundamentalist groups and ideas
* To engage in critical discussion with Fundamentalisms
# On formulas for factorials and values of factorials of negative integers arising from them | By Charles Ewan Milner

The PDF of this paper is at this link:
https://1drv.ms/b/c/abe48687e4d26b20/EcIZ-AtGpSZOnvn4o2Ili6YBQ5RV32LZ1Q33C5fncEM8wA?e=4gzfhQ
# On infinity and the infinitesimal
## Author information

Author: Charles Ewan Milner
Author email address: charles.milner@outlook.com
Author ORCID iD link: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5580-1345

## Abstract

This paper explores true, logical meanings meanings in mathematics of infinity and the infinitesimal.

## Main Paper

Infinity ($\infty$) is the concept of an endlessly large value while the infinitesimal is the concept of an infinitely small value greater than zero. While these ideas are difficult to deal with mathematically and are commonly misunderstood, they do have reasonable meanings and can somewhat be used mathematically.
There are multiple numbers which are infinitely large and which are infinities. They can be described by using set theory or with other methods.
There are multiple infinitesimals which can always be mathematically expressed as ${\frac {p}{\infty }}$, where $p$ is any finite, positive number, or which can be described by using set theory or with other methods.
The true meanings of infinity and the infinitesimal in logic and mathematics are covered with these facts.

## Additional information
### Acknowledgements

This paper was authored by Charles Ewan Milner.

### Competing interests

There are no competing interests relating to this paper held by its authors.
# On operations with zero considered indeterminate or undefined
## Author information

Author: Charles Ewan Milner
Author email address: charles.milner@outlook.com
Author ORCID iD link: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5580-1345

## Abstract

This paper explores correct and meaningful answers to multiple operations relating to zero that have been considered indeterminate or undefined in mathematics.

## Main Paper

There are many operations which involve the number zero that are considered indeterminate or undefined in mathematics. However, there are some answers to some of these operations which make them more meaningful in a mathematical sense.
${\frac {0}{0}}$ is considered indeterminate because it is equal to, by definition, the value $x$ such that $0x=0$. However, as most numbers have this property of $x$, they should all be valid answers for this operation. The problem is that many mathematicians do not accept an operation being equal to more than one value. However, truthfully, using logic and the axioms of mathematics, it can be concluded simply that it is a valid answer that ${\frac {0}{0}}=x$ for any value of $x$ such that $0x=0$, but because normal methods of algebra do not always work with this answer, they should not be used with it.
While ${\frac {0}{0}}$ can be given an infinite number of values, division of a number other than zero by zero is unable be given a value of any real number or even of a well-known non-real number. However, it is important to note that from a mathematical standpoint, these operations, in the form ${\frac {x}{0}}$ where $x\neq 0$, give legitimate values that are numbers, but just not in the set of the real numbers. Another notable fact about these values can be found with some simple mathematics. Because $-1\cdot -{\frac {1}{0}}={\frac {1}{0}}$, it is true that ${\frac {\frac {1}{0}}{-1}}=-{\frac {1}{0}}$. However, it can also be found that ${\frac {\frac {1}{0}}{-1}}={\frac {1}{0}}\cdot {\frac {1}{-1}}={\frac {1}{0}}$. This shows that ${\frac {1}{0}}=-{\frac {1}{0}}$.
There is much debate about what the value of $0^{0}$ is. It has been claimed that it is $1$, which is partially correct, but that is not the best definition. It can actually be found that $0^{0}=0^{1-1}={\frac {0^{1}}{0^{1}}}={\frac {0}{0}}$. Because ${\frac {0}{0}}$ is equal to any number $x$ such that $0x=0$ and $1$ fills this property of $x$, it is true that $0^{0}=1$, but there are an infinite number of other values that $0^{0}$ is also equal to.
These are truthful and meaningful answers to a few key operations relating to zero that are considered indeterminate or undefined in mathematics.

## Additional information
### Acknowledgements

This paper was authored by Charles Ewan Milner.

### Competing interests

There are no competing interests relating to this paper held by its authors.