# Industrial and organizational psychology/Module 3
## Module 3.1 - Introduction to Individual Differences

Individual differences are differences between 2+ people. We came to realize this field of study through Cattell's mental test, differential psychology, psychometrics, WII, and tests measuring g (general mental ability).
Individual differences could be intelligence, physical abilities, personality, interests, knowledge, or emotional abilities.

### Mod 3.2

Some things you should know before applying the "Individual Differences Model" is that adults have many different attributes, that eventually stabilize after some time. People are different in what these attributes entail. After specific 'training', these differences still exist. Different jobs require different attributes, and can be measured through KSAO.

## Module 3.3 Human Attributes

From Fleishman's taxonomy of 52 abilities, we divide this into 3 categories:
* Cognitive abilities - intelligence (g), important for work
* Physical abilities/sensory abilities
* Perceptual-motor abilities = physical movement. Fleishman's psychomotor abilities include arm-hand steadiness, manual/finger dexterity, control precision, response orientation, rate control, reaction time and wrist-finger speed.
IQ = intelligence quotient
Mental/cognitive ability = scientists use for the same thing, used for memory/reasoning.
Intelligence = general intellectual capacity (g)

### Five Factor Model

* Conscientiousness - being responsible
* Extraversion - being sociable
* Agreeableness - being cooperative
* Emotional stability - being calm
* Openness to experience - being curious
Issues? People can easily fake their personalities.
Other proposed individual differences could include skills (practiced acts), competencies (how well can do you accomplish something?), emotional intelligence, and knowledge.

## Module 3.3 - Foundations of Assessment
### History of Testing

1890 - Cattell's mental test
WWI: 1+ mil soldiers tested, and little control was put on testing after WWII. The 1960s had some rules for testing, including criticism & the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Attributes measured through an interview/paper and pencil test are reasoning and social skills.
A test is an objective procedure for measuring a psychological skill, using a sample of behavior. Attributes that are being assessed is for content, while the ways attributes are assessed is the process.
A test score shows that normal groups are used to analyze and understand a meaning to a score (you surely know what a 90/100 on a history test means, right?). Test admins are tasked with correctly figuring out and analyzing results. Test battery are a collection of tests that are used to test different attributes.
Speed tests have time limits (increased variability, but could prove to have irrelevancy when looked at the job and could increase legal challenges), while power tests don't have time limits.
Individual tests assess a singular candidate's approach to figuring out a problem, while group testing is valuable in reducing test costs. Performance tests assess one's skill in doing a task and the knowledge that they have to successfully carry out said task.
Though, bias (test results cause a statistical error of prediction for a sub group) and fairness (decision-making based on test scores, and nothing else) are crucial when examining the environment of testing. Culture plays a role on test scores as well.

## Module 3.4 - Assessment Procedures (slide 25)

Content vs. process: There is a critical difference in showing validity, which depends more on the content of the information seen. Cognitive ability tests give people the freedom to show what they know and what they can do with the information they have.
Tests that show ONE score: Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT).
Tests that assess multiple abilities: Bennett Test of Mechanical Comprehension.
Cognitive test batteries: General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB).
Testing psychomotor abilities: Purdue Pegboard Dexterity Test.
How do we test personality?
* Screen-out tests identify psychopathology. Used for public trust positions, used after employment offer. Example is the MMPI.
* Screen-in tests identify normal personality. Used before employment offer. Example includes HPI, PCI.
For emotional intelligence, ability-based EIs (emotional intelligence tests) don't overlap with the Big 5 as much as self-report EIs do.
Integrity tests are divided into two:
* Overt Integrity Test - Questions about past behavior that were dishonest and attitudes towards other behavioral problems (employee theft, for example) [do your friends steal from their bosses? How do you feel about that?]
* Personality Based Integrity Test - Tests that touch on honesty/integrity when dealing with broad personality constructs (social responsibility, for example) [would you take risks, even if it risks your integrity?].
An individual assessment could consist of tests, essays, and interviews. Issues with validity and ethics do exist though. Interviews could be structured, situational or unstructured.
Assessment centers are akin to testing centers. In the workplace, you have work sample tests (speech interview for a foreign student) or situational judgment tests (job-related scenarios where a candidate has to answer).

## Module 3.5 - Special Topics in Assessment (slide 44)

Incremental validity: Value in terms of increased validity of adding a particular predictor to an existing selection system.

### Biographical Data

Biodata: Information collected on an application blank (job history, education, any special training). Distinguishing characteristics include historical, external, objective, discrete, control, and relevant/noninvasive.
Ecology model: Events that make up a person's history are the choices that one makes when interacting with their environment.
Grades and letters of recommendation: Used to predict job offers, but not success. There's been very little research done on validity and fairness of these things.

### Controversial Practices

This includes...
Graphology: Traits can be taken from someone's handwriting
Polygraph: Measures physiological reactions and details deception.

### Other Assessments

Drug & alcohol testing: Legal issues play a role here (Drug Free Workplace Act).
Integrity testing: Overt integrity test + personality based integrity test
Computer-based assessments have their similarities and differences with paper & pencil test/interview.
CAT, or Computer Adaptive Testing, is based on preliminary routing test. The test is designed for the test-taker's skill level.