OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Bengali Language/Expressing Obligation with Verb

Expressing obligation requires a few transformations.

### Step 1

The person who is obliged to do things cannot be grammatically represented in the typical Subject Pronoun form, but in the Possessive Pronoun form in the following way :
| Person and Number | Subject pronoun form | Possessive pronoun form |
| 1st Person Singular | আমি aami "I" | আমার aamaar "my" |
| 2nd Person Singular (Standard/Familiar/Neutral) | তুমি tumi "you" | তোমার tomaar "your" |
| 2nd Person Singular (Honorific/Formal/Polite) | আপনি aapni "you" | আপনার aapnaar "your" |
| 2nd Person Singular (Very familiar/Impolite) | তুই tui "you" | তোর tor "your" |
| 3rd Person Singular (Standard/Familiar/Neutral) | সে she "he/she" | তার taar "his/her" |
| 3rd Person Singular (Honorific/Formal/Polite) | তিনি tini "he/she" | তাঁর taa(n)r "his/her" |
| 1st Person Plural | আমরা aamraa "we" | আমাদের aamaader "our" |
| 2nd Person Plural (Standard/Familiar/Neutral) | তোমরা tomraa "you guys" | তোমাদের tomaader "your" |
| 2nd Person Plural (Honorific/Formal/Polite) | আপনারা aapnaaraa "you guys" | আপনাদের aapnaader "your" |
| 2nd Person Plural (Very familiar/Impolite) | তোরা toraa "you guys" | তোদের toder "your" |
| 3rd Person Plural (Standard/Familiar/Neutral) | তারা taaraa "they" | তাদের taader "their" |
| 3rd Person Plural (Honorific/Formal/Polite) | তাঁরা taa(n)raa "they" | তাঁদের taa(n)der "their" |

### Step 2

Take the infinitive form of the verb denoting the activity that one is obligated to do. Add the modal word উচিত uchit right after it, like in the following table :
| Infinitive | Obligation expression (person/number independent) |
| বলা bawlaa "to say" | বলা উচিত bawlaa uchit "must say" |
| করা kawraa "to do"" | করা উচিত kawraa uchit "must do" |
| খাওয়া khaawaa "to eat"" | খাওয়া উচিত khaawaa uchit "must eat" |
The word উচিত uchit is a modal word which means "obligation" or "must". Note that this obligation expression is person and number independent. It doesn't change according to who is doing something or how many people are doing something.

### Step 3

Now combine the possessive form and the obligation expression to make a full obligation statement, like in the following
| Possessive pronoun form | Obligation expression | Full obligation statement (without object) |
| আমার aamaar "my" | বলা উচিত bawlaa uchit "must say" | আমার বলা উচিত aamaar bawlaa uchit "I must say" |
| তোমার tomaar "your"" | করা উচিত kawraa uchit "must do" | তোমার করা উচিত tomaar kawraa uchit "You must do" |
| তার taar "his/her"" | খাওয়া উচিত khaawaa uchit "must eat" | তার খাওয়া উচিত taar khaawaa uchit "You must eat" |
# Bengali Language/Expressing temporal information

Time is called সময় "shomoy" in Bengali

## Units of Time

| English | Bengali |
| Second | সেকেন্ড se•kenD |
| Minute | মিনিট mi•niT |
| Hour | ঘন্টা ghawn•Taa |
| Day | দিন din |
| Week | সপ্তাহ shawp•taa•ho |
| Month | মাস maash |
| Year | বছর baw•chhor |
| Decade | দশক daw•shok |
| Century | শতাব্দী shaw•tab•di |
| Millenium | সহস্রাব্দ shaw•hos•raab•do |

## Moments of the day

| Header text | Header text |
| Night | রাত raat |
| Day | দিন din |
| Midnight | মাঝরাত maajh•raat |
| Dawn | ভোর bhor |
| Sunrise | সূর্যোদয় shur•jo•doy |
| Morning | সকাল shaw•kaal |
| Noon | দুপুর du•pur |
| Afternoon | বিকাল bi•kaal |
| Sunset | সূর্যাস্ত shur•jaas•to |
| Twilight | গোধূলি go•dhu•li |
| Evening | সন্ধ্যা shon•dhaa |

## Days of the week

Sunday- রবিবার (robibar) Monday- সোমবার (sombar) Tuesday- মঙ্গলবার (mong.gol.bar)
# Bengali Language/Expressing locative information

Whereas English uses prepositions or prepositional phrases to denote positions with respect to a reference point, Bengali uses postpositions, that is, the funcional word is placed after (post) the noun phrase, or postpositional phrases, to do the same job.
| English preposition | Bengali postposition | Example |
| On | -er upore | Tebiler upore on the table |
| Under | -er nIche/tolaay | Tebiler nIche / Tebiler tolayy under the table |
| to the right of | Example | Example |
| to the left of | Example | Example |
| beside / next to | Example | Example |
| in front of | Example | Example |
| behind | Example | Example |
| facing | Example | Example |
| at the top of | Example | Example |
| at the bottom of | Example | Example |
| in the middle of | Example | Example |
| at the center of | Example | Example |
| at the edge of | Example | Example |
| in the corner of | Example | Example |
| at the end of | Example | Example |
| around | Example | Example |
| inside of | Example | Example |
| outside of | Example | Example |
| between | Example | Example |
# Bengali Language/Greetings and basic polite expressions

Note: This dialect of Bengali Language is spoken in the country Bangladesh, not to be confused with Bengali spoken in 'West Bengal' state in India.
| To say | Say | Transliteration |
| Hello | ওহে, আরে, আসসালামু আলাইকুম, আদাব, নমস্কার | oohe, aare, nomoskar |
| Goodbye | বিদায়, আসি, আসছি, আল্লাহ / খোদা হাফেজ | bidai, Aashi, Aaschi, Allah / Khuda / hafez, |
| Good morning | শুপ্রভাত, শুভ সকাল | Shuprobhat, Shuvo Shokal |
| Good afternoon | শুভ অপরাহ্ন | Shubho Oporanno |
| Good Evening | শুভ সন্ধ্যা | Shubho Shondha |
| Good Night | শুভ রাত্রি | Shubho Ratri |
| See you again | আবার দেখা হবে | Abar dekha hobe |
| Excuse me | এই যে, [একটু] শুনছেন / শুনবেন? | Ei je, [ektu] shunchen / shunben? |
| Pardon me | [আমাকে] মাফ করেন / ক্ষমা করেন | [amake] maaf koren / khoma koren |
| Thanks a lot. | অনেক ধন্যবাদ | Onek dhonnobad |
| Please | দয়া করে [একটু] | Doya kore [ektu] |
| Nice to meet you. | আপনার সাথে পরিচিত হয়ে খুশি হলাম | Apnar shathe porichito hoye khushi holam. |
| How are you? | [আপনি] কেমন আছেন? / [তুমি] কেমন আছো? | [aapni] Kemon achen? (formal) / [tumi] Kemon acho? (informal) |
| I am well | আমি ভালো আছি | Ami Bhalo achi. |
| I am very well. | আমি খুব ভালো আছি | Ami Khub bhalo achi. |
| Thank you | ধন্যবাদ, আপনাকে ধন্যবাদ, তোমাকে ধন্যবাদ | dhonnobad, apnake dhonnobad (formal) / tomake dhonnobad (informal) |
| Thanks a lot. | অনেক ধন্যবাদ | Onek dhonnobad |
| Yes | হ্যাঁ | Hyaan |
| No | না | Na. |
| Sorry | দুঃখিত | Dukkhito |
| I don't understand [what you are saying] | [আপনি কী বলছেন] আমি বুঝতে পারছি না | [Apni ki bolchen] Ami bhujhte parchi na. |
| Repeat [please] | [দয়া করে] আবার বলুন / আরেকবার বলুন / বলেন | [doya kore] Abar bolun / Arekbar bolun / bolen. |
| Speak [a bit] slowly please | [একটু] ধীরে বলুন / আস্তে বলেন | [Ektu] Dhire bolun / aaste bolen. |
| I don't understand | আমি বুঝতে পারছিনা | Ami bhujhte parchina. |
| Repeat please | আবার বলুন / আরেকবার বলুন / আরেকবার বলেন | Abar bolun / Abar bolen / Arekbar bolun. |
| I cannot speak Bengali | আমি বাংলা বলতে পারি না | Ami Bangla bolte pari na. |
| I can speak Bengali very well | আমি খুব ভালো বাংলা বলতে পারি | Ami khub bhalo bangla bolte pari. |
| Do you speak English? | আপনি কি ইংরেজী বলতে পারেন? | Apni ki ingreji bolte paren? |
# Bengali Language/Geography and nationalities
## Countries and regions
### Bengal

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| Bengal | বাংলা/বঙ্গ | bangla/bongo |
| East Bengal | পূর্ব বাংলা | purbo bangla |
| West Bengal | পশ্চিমবঙ্গ | poschim-bongo |
| Bangladesh | বাংলাদেশ | bangla-desh |
| Chittagong | চট্টগ্রাম | chotto-gram |
| Sylhet | সিলেট | silet |
| Rangpur | রংপুর | rongpur |
| Barisal | বরিশাল | borishal |
| Mymensingh | ময়মনসিংহ | moymon-shingh |
| Chittagong Hill Tracts | পার্বত্য চট্টগ্রাম | parbotto chotto-gram |
| Sundarbans | সুন্দরবন | shundor-bon |
| Malda | মালদহ | mal-doh |
| Bardhaman | বর্ধমান | bordho-man |

### Asia

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| India | ভারত​ | bharot |
| Sri Lanka | শ্রীলঙ্কা | shree-longka |
| China | চীন | cheen |
| Myanmar (archaic) | ব্রহ্মদেশ | brohmo-desh |
| Myanmar (modern) | মায়ানমার | maianmar |
| Singapore | সিঙ্গাপুর | shinga-pur |
| The Philippines | ফিলিপাইন | filipain |
| Maldives | মালদ্বীপ | maal-deep |
| Barak Valley | বরাক উপত্যকা | borak upottoka |
| Meghalaya | মেঘালয় | meghaloy |
| Himalayas | হিমালয় | himaloy |
| Tibet | তিব্বত | tibbot |
| Delhi | দিল্লি | dilli |
| Sindh | সিন্ধু | shindhu |
| Karachi | করাচী | korachi |
| Jharkhand | ঝাড়খণ্ড | jhar-khondo |
| Rakhine | আরাকান | arakan |

### Europe

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| Russia (archaic) | রুশ | rush |
| Russia (modern) | রাশিয়া | ra-shi-ya |
| United Kingdom | যুক্তরাজ্য | jukto-rajjo |
| Ireland | আয়ারল্যান্ড | ayar-lend |

### Americas

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| America | মার্কিন | markin |
| United States of America | মার্কিন যুক্তরাষ্ট্র | markin jukto-rashtro |

### Middle East & Africa

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| United Arab Emirates | সংযুক্ত আরব আমিরাত | shong-jukto arob amirat |
| Saudi Arabia | সৌদি আরব | soudi arob |
| Egypt | মিশর | mi-shor |
| Persia | পারস্য | parosh-sho |
| Turkey | তুরস্ক | turoshko |
| Palestine | ফিলিস্তিন | filistin |
| Syria | সিরিয়া | shiriya |
| The Levant | শাম | shaam |

### Oceania

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| Australia | অস্ট্রেলিয়া | oshtreliya |
| Kiribati | কিরিবাস | kiribash |

## Nationalities and demonyms

| English | Bengali | Transliteration |
| Bangladeshi | বাংলাদেশি | bangla-deshi |
| Indian | ভারতীয়​ | bharotiyo |
| Bengali | বাঙালি | bangali |
| Myanmar (archaic) | ব্রহ্মদেশি | brohmo-deshi |
| Chinese | চীনা | cheena |
| American | মার্কিনী | markini |
| Englishman/Englishwoman | ইংরেজ/ইংরেজ-নারী | ingrej/ingrej nari |
| French | ফরাসি | forashi |
| Dutch | ওলন্দাজ | olondaj |
# Bengali Language/Directions

| Bengali | Transliteration | Meaning |
| পূর্ব | pur-bo | East |
| পশ্চিম | posh-chim | West |
| উত্তর | ut-tor | North |
| দক্ষিণ | dok-khin | South |
| উত্তর-পূর্ব | ut-tor-pur-bo | Northeast |
| উত্তর-পশ্চিম | ut-tor-posh-chim | Northwest |
| দক্ষিণ-পূর্ব | dok-khin-pur-bo | Southeast |
| দক্ষিণ-পশ্চিম | dok-khin-posh-chim | Southwest |
| বাম | baam | Left |
| ডান | daan | Right |
| উপর | upor | Up |
| নীচ | nich | Down |
| সম্মুখ | som-mokh | Front |
| পিছন | pichon | Back |
# Bengali Language/Expressing Opposition
## Expression of opposition for expressing simple contrast

This is done by using the equivalent of English "but" in Bengali, which is কিন্তু (kintu)
ছেলেটা বোকা কিন্তু তার ভাইটা চালাক।
ChheleTaa boka kintu tar bhaita chaalaak.
The boy is stupid but his brother is clever.

## Expression of opposition when something logically unexpected follows

In Bengali, this can be expressed in the following way:

### Structure 1 - jodio (যদিও) ... taa shawtteo (তা সত্ত্বেও) / taar pawreo (তার পরেও) ...

jodio (যদিও) + setup sentence + taa shawtteo (তা সত্ত্বেও) / taar pawreo (তার পরেও) + logically unexpected followup sentence
| যদিও jodio | setup sentence | তা সত্ত্বেও taa shawtteo / তার পরেও taar pawreo | logically unexpected followup sentence |
| যদিও jodio | সে পড়াশোনা করেনি, she pawRaashonaa kawreni | তা সত্ত্বেও taa shawtteo | সে পরীক্ষায় পাশ করেছে। she porikkhay paash korechhe |
| Even though | he did not study, | despite that | he has passed the exam. |
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Wellbeing and dementia workshops
## Overview

This project involved the delivery of a developed interactive two part workshop to support participants to complete a small dementia specific project within their workplace.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Working with dementia in today's world: An education resource for GP practices
## Overview

Dementia care is an important part of care in any GP's practice. To date there has not been comprehensive training delivered to GPs and practice nurses in Western Australia on working with carers and families of people with dementia within the general practice setting. A general practice tream with improved knowledge and skills will be able to better inform and support carers and families of people with dementia.

## More information

Canning Division of General Practice with the support of the WA Dementia Training Study Centre, developed a comprehensive training package for GPs and practice nurses to improve communication and support to carers and families of people with dementia. The education and training package is tailored to the needs of GPs and practice nurses within the general practice setting. If you would like more information on this resource please contact the WA Dementia Training Study Centre l.durack@curtin.edu.au or +61+8+92661831
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Workforce scoping and development project
## Overview

This project designed and evaluated a region-based dementia education and training plan for Queensland.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Special needs case studies
## Overview

This project developed a series of dementia specific case studies which can be integrated into the delivery of undergraduate multidisciplinary curricula. Case studies focus on ATSI, CALD and end of life/palliative care.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Training for Aboriginal health workers
## Overview

This project developed and delivered a two-day workshop for indigenous health workers in rural WA.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Younger onset dementia training resource package
## Overview

This project builds on the existing 2 Young 4 Dementia resource and recent DCRC research activity into Younger Onset Dementia to develop a short course on Younger Onset Dementia which it is hoped will attract points from the RCNA and Royal Australian College of General Practice.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Support for a service prepared to evaluate the adoption of post graduate education and nursing competencies for registered nurses engaged in the care of people with dementia
## Overview

Th NSW/ACT DTSC developed a competency framework for Registered Nurses (RNs) caring for people with dementia and a post-graduate certificate in dementia nursing to prepare them for this work. This project provided support to an aged care organisation willing to evaluate the application of the competency framework and the provision of the education to their RNs.
The project provided the aged care organisation with material that will assist them in the recruitment, career development and performance monitoring of the RNs caring for people with dementia. In addition assistance was provided in the form of NSW/ACT DTSC scholarships and mentoring support to enable up to 10 RNs to enroll for and complete the post-graduate certificate in dementia care nursing. The organisation was also be assisted to apply for scholarships through other agencies to bring the total number of RNs enrolling in the course up to 20.
The overall aim of this project was to demonstrate the usefulness of the competency framework and the post-graduate certificate in dementia nursing developed by the NSW/ACT DTSC. Specifically this project:
* Provided scholarships to 10 RNs.
* Supported the nurses in their studies by providing mentorship in recognition of the difficulties often experienced by people returning to study after a prolonged absence.
* Evaluated the new course on Dementia Care in Nursing through student participation.
* Provided the organisation with a competency framework that assisted them to
** Recruit appropriately qualified RNs
** Develop a career path for RNs in the care of people with dementia
** Monitor the performance of RNs caring for people with dementia
* Evaluated the usefulness of the competency framework.
This project is the third in a set of inter-related projects (1st: Dementia nursing competencies, 2nd: Graduate certificate in dementia care nursing) and was needed to act as a test bed for the materials produced in the first two projects. This project demonstrated the benefits for large organisations of providing their senior registered nursing staff with systematic career development via tertiary education while assisting with the development and evaluation of the new competency framework and nursing specific, post-graduate certificate.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Toolkit for the implementation of person-centred care
## Overview

This project published a resource kit on the topic of person-centred approaches to need driven behaviours associated with dementia.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Rural and remote training
## Overview

This project provided a needs analysis which focused on identifying geographically significant areas in the SA and NT following an analysis of the ageing population, services available and qualifications in the region. Following this, a rural and remote ‘train the trainer’ style resource was developed and disseminated.

## More information

* TBA
# Caregiving and dementia/Projects/Sexualities and dementia resource
## Overview

Caring for people with dementia who express their sexualities continues to be a major challenge for health professionals. This project developed a self-directed learning resource and facilitators guide on the particular needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex groups and issues around sexuality for people living with dementia. This education resource for health professionals is designed to increase understanding of sexualities for people living with dementia.
Stage 2 of the project is a national Sexualities and Dementia program to promote and facilitate uptake of the resource via a series of “Train the Trainer” workshops to be conducted in Sydney, Newcastle, Melbourne, Hobart, Adelaide, Perth, Geraldton & Cairns during 2014.

## More information

* Sexualities and dementia: Education Resource for Health Professionals is available as a free download from the DTSC
* Tackling issues of sexuality among people with dementia - Dr Cindy Jones
* Sexualities and Dementia Train the Trainer workshops are scheduled for April to July 2014. For dates, further details and to register your interest in one of these workshops please go to the DTSC website.
# Ancient Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization

* This resource is part of the History of Europe to 1648 course

### Time Estimation

Time estimation for the completion of the required material in this section.
* Lecture = 30 min.
* Required Reading & Review Questions = 30-40min
* Test Yourself Questions = 30-40 min.

### Lecture

Coming Soon
Outline
* What is civilization ?.
* Civilization in Mesopotamia
* Sumeria and Babylonia
* Science, the Arts, Religion

### Required Reading

* Civilization. Read the introduction and the Characteristics paragraph only.
* Read about The Sumerians.
* The Akkadians: The First Empire
* Read the introduction to Babylon and the Old Babylonian Period section only.
* Read the Mesopotamian Literature section only.
* Mesopotamian Science and technology

### Review Questions

* Who were the peoples of Mesopotamia?
* Describe the cuneiform script used in Mesopotamia.
* What were the contributions of the Babylonians to the sciences?
* What were the contributions of the Babylonians to literature?
* What was religion like in Mesopotamia?

### Test Yourself Questions

* What is civilization?
* What did the peoples of Mesopotamia have in common?

### Additional Information

* Hammurabi
* Cuneiform script

### Further Reading

* C. B. F. Walker. Reading the Past: Cuneiform. London: British Museum, 1987. A short introduction to the cuneiform script used in the Ancient Near East.
* Kramer, Samuel Noah. History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. A classic introduction to the beginning of civilization in Sumer.
* Frankfort, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. 4th Edition. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1970. An introduction to the artifacts and monuments of the Ancient Near East.

### Chronology

Ancient Mesopotamia :
| Period | Time |
| Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age | 3000.000 - 7000 B.C. |
| Neolithic (New Stone) Age | 7000 - 2800 B.C. |
| Old Sumerian | 2800-2300 B.C. |
| Akkadian | 2300-2200 B.C. |
| New Sumerian | 2200-2000 B.C. |
| Early Old Babylonian | 2000-1570 B.C. |
# Andromeda

Andromeda galaxy is the nearest major galaxy to the milky way and is cataloged as Messier 31, M31 and NGC 224. Its original name was Andromeda Nebula</nowiki> and the name was originated from the wife of Perseus, princess Andromeda from Greek mythology. Andromeda galaxy can be seen with naked eyes, but it is only possible on the moonless nights.

## Observation history

The first person ever to discover and describe the Andromeda galaxy with naked eyes were the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi around the year 964 CE. He referred it as a "nebulous smear" or "small cloud" in his book. And the first person to give a description of the Andromeda galaxy were German astronomer Simon Marius in year 1612 followed by fellow European astronomer Pierre Louis Maupertuis in 1745. Charles Messier cataloged Andromeda as object M31 in 1764 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer.
In 1850, the first drawing of Andromeda's spiral structure was made by astronomer William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse.
In the year 1864, William Huggins noted that the spectrum of Andromeda differed from that of a gaseous nebula. Isaac Roberts took one of the first photographs of Andromeda in 1888, which is still commonly thought to be a nebula within our galaxy.

## Formation

A major collision of 2 galaxies occurred 2 to 3 billion years ago at the current Andromeda location, which the galaxies' mass ratio were approximately 4. The discovery of a recent merger in the Andromeda galaxy was first based on interpreting its anomalous age-velocity dispersion relation, as well as the fact that 2 billion years ago, star formation throughout Andromeda's disk was much more active than today.

## Structure

Based on its appearance in visible light, the Andromeda galaxy can be classified as an SA(s)b galaxy based on the de Vaucouleurs–Sandage extended classification system. However, infrared data from the 2MASS survey and the Spitzer Space Telescope showed that Andromeda is actually a barred spiral galaxy, like the Milky Way.

## Distance estimate

As you might know, space expands constantly. But it's not the case between the Milky way and the Andromeda galaxy. Andromeda galaxy is currently 2.537 million light years away from us. But there's a lot of studies showing that the Milky way and Andromeda is colliding in about 4.5 billion years from now on.