OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Mitigating Techniques for Commercial Risk/Commercial Banks-Mitigation

| Unit 3.5-Mitigating Techniques for Commercial Risk | Introduction | Commercial Banks | Loans | Letter of Credit | Draft Collection | Accounts Receivable | Governments | Factoring | Forfaiting | Banker's Acceptances | Credit Insurance | Summary | Resources | Activities | Assessment Go to Unit 3.1 | Unit 3.2 | Unit 3.3 | Unit 3.4 | Unit 3.5 Return to Trade Finance Module 3: Commercial Risk |

## Commercial Banks - Mitigation

Commercial banks, the largest financial sector in most countries, are usually short-term lenders. The principal international trade products that they offer are loans, letters of credit and documentary draft collections.
If a seller wants a third party to assume the risk of nonpayment on behalf of a buyer, it is important that this seller have a positive relationship with financial institutions. Understanding the way banks operate in terms of making funds available to buyers can provide an international credit manager with a more complete understanding of the risk associated with extending credit to a buyer.
International credit managers may work with a buyer in helping to find working capital financing, if the buyer does not already have a banking relationship. Of course, the credit worthiness of the buyer is critical to obtaining either short-term or long-term financing. When an international credit manager encounters a situation where shipments need to be made and there is little justification for open credit, a letter of credit can also be used as a bank financing opportunity for the international transactions.
# Literature/1923/Ogden/chapter04
## 4. Signs in Perception

The theory of interpretation applied to perception, 77. The difficulties of the question 'What do we see?' due to the neglect of the sign-situations involved; Helmholtz, 78. And to bad symbolic procedure, 80. Modifications of our sense organs as the initial signs which we interpret, 80. Direct apprehending as a happening in the nerves. -- Dismissal of the charge of materialism, 81. This view merely a rounding off of the most comprehensive system of verified references yet obtained. As such at present unassailable, 82. Some notorious paradoxes removed by the exhibition of the sign-situations present, 83. Such expansion of symbols as a general anti-metaphysical method, 85.
The certainty of our knowledge of the external world has suffered much at the hands of philosophers through the lack of a theory of signs, and through conundrums made possible by our habit of naming things in haste without providing methods of identification.
The paradoxes of really round pennies which appear elliptical, and so forth, are due to misuses of symbols; principally of the symbol 'datum.'
What we 'see' when we look at a table is first, modifications of our retinae. These are our initial signs. We interpret them and arrive at fields of vision, bounded by surfaces of tables and the like. By taking beliefs in these as second order signs and so on, we can proceed with our interpretation, reaching as results tables, wood, fibres, cells, molecules, atoms, electrons, etc. The later stages of this interpretative effort are physics. Thus there is no study called 'philosophy' which can add to or correct physics, though symbolism may contribute to a systematization of the levels of discourse at which 'table' and 'system of molecules' are the appropriate symbols.
The method by which confusions are to be extirpated in this field is required wherever philosophy has been applied. It rests partly upon the theory of signs, partly upon the Rules of Symbolization discussed in the next chapter.
# Literature/1923/Ogden/chapter06
## 6. Definition

Four difficulties confronting a theory of definition, 109. (i) Verbal and 'real' definitions, 110. (ii) Definitions and statements, (iii) Definitions ad hoc. -- The 'universe of discourse.' (iv) Intensive and extensive definition, 111.
The technique of definition. -- The selection of starting-points with which to connect doubtful referents. -- Types of fundamental connection few in number. -- Reasons for this, 113. Criteria of starting-points, 114. The merits of gesture-language, 116. Complex and indirect relations, 116. Enumeration of common routes of definition, 117.
Application of this technique to discussion. -- Fallacy of seeking the definition of a symbol. -- Systematic and occasional definitions, 121. Non-symbolic, i.e., indefinable terms, 123. Example of 'good,' 124. Influence of purpose on vocabulary, 126. Error of seeking common element in various uses. Reasons for this habit, 128. Difficulty of introducing new terms, 130. The Method of Separation, 131. Rules of thumb. -- The naming of controversial tricks. -- Schopenhauer's suggestion, 132. Three subterfuges distinguished: the phonetic (Mill's case); the hypostatic; the utraquistic, 133. Further safeguards against controversial malpractices. Dangerous words: Irritants, Degenerates, Mendicants (Matthew Arnold), Nomads (Locke), 134. The value of a transferable technique, 138.
In any discussion or interpretation of symbols we need a means of identifying referents. The reply to the question what any word or symbol refers to consists in the substitution of a symbol or symbols which can be better understood.
Such substitution is Definition. It involves the selection of known referents as starting-points, and the identification of the definiendum by its connection with these.
The defining routes, the relations most commonly used for this purpose, are few in number, though specialists in abstract thought can employ others. In fact they may be pragmatically generalized under eight headings. Familiarity with these defining routes not only conduces to ease of deportment in reasoning and argument, but offers a means of escape from the maze of verbal cross-classifications which the great variety of possible view-points has produced.
# Literature/1923/Ogden/quotes

"All life comes back to the question of our speech--the medium through which we communicate."
          --HENRY JAMES.
"Error is never so difficult to be destroyed as when it has its root in Language."
          --BENTHAM.
"We have to make use of language, which is made up necessarily of preconceived ideas. Such ideas unconsciously held are the most dangerous of all."
          --POINCARE.
"By the grammatical structure of a group of languages everything runs smoothly for one kind of philosophical system, whereas the way is as it were barred for certain other possibilities."
          --NIETZSCHE.
"An Englishman, a Frenchman, a German, and an Italian cannot by any means bring themselves to think quite alike, at least on subjects that involve any depth of sentiment: they have not the verbal means."
          --Prof. J. S. MACKENZIE.
"In Primitive Thought the name and object named are associated in such wise that the one is regarded as a part of the other. The imperfect separation of words from things characterizes Greek speculation in general."
          --HERBERT SPENCER.
"The tendency has always been strong to believe that whatever receives a name must be an entity or being, having an independent existence of its own: and if no real entity answering to the name could be found, men did not for that reason suppose that none existed, but imagined that it was something peculiarly abstruse and mysterious, too high to be an object of sense."
          --J. S. MILL.
"Nothing is more usual than for philosophers to encroach on the province of grammarians, and to engage in disputes of words, while they imagine they are handling controversies of the deepest importance and concern."
          --HUME.
"Men content themselves with the same words as other people use, as if the very sound necessarily carried the same meaning."
          --LOCKE.
"A verbal discussion may be important or unimportant, but it is at least desirable to know that it is verbal."
          --Sir G. CORNEWALL LEWIS.
"Scientific controversies constantly resolve themselves into differences about the meaning of words."
          --Prof. A. SCHUSTER.
# Literature/1923/Ogden/chapter07
## 7. The Meaning of Beauty

The perennial discussion of Beauty a suitable field in which to test the theory of definition. -- The chaos in aesthetics, 137. Rupert Brooke; Benedetto Croce, 140. Separation of the uses of the word, 141. Interrelations of these uses, 144. Cognate and allied terms, 145.
The multiple functions of language. -- Frequency of apparent nonsense in the best critics; Longinus, Coleridge, Bradley, Mackail, 147. The symbolic and the emotive use of words. -- Statements and appeals. -- The speaker and the listener, 149. The symbolic and emotive functions distinct. -- Claim to truth as the test. -- Dangers in applying the test, 150.
Neglect of this multiplicity by grammarians; von der Gabelentz, Vendryes, 151. The speculative approach, 153. Bergson, Stephen, 154. Solution of the intellect versus intuition problem, 155. 'Virtual knowledge' as aesthetic appreciation, 156. Repose and satisfaction in Synaesthesis. -- Interferences between language uses, 157. D. H. Lawrence and the sun, 159.
The application of this procedure in practice may be demonstrated by taking one of the most bewildering subjects of discussion, namely Aesthetics.
Beauty has been very often and very differently defined -- and as often declared to be indefinable. If, however, we look for the characteristic defining relations, we find that the definitions hitherto suggested reduce conveniently to sixteen.
Each of these then provides a distinct range of referents, and any such range may be studied by those whom it attracts. If in spite of the disconcerting ambiguity thus revealed (and all freely-used terms are liable to similar ambiguity) we elect to continue to employ the term Beauty as a shorthand substitute for the definition we favour, we shall do so only on grounds of ethics and expediency and at the risk of all the confusions to which such behaviour must give rise.
In addition to its symbolic uses 'Beauty' has also its emotive uses. These have often been responsible for the view that Beauty is indefinable, since as an emotive term it allows of no satisfactory verbal substitute. Failure to distinguish between the symbolic and emotive uses is the source of much confusion in discussion and research.
# Literature/1923/Ogden/chapter08
## 8. The Meaning of Philosophers

Lack of attention to Meaning on the part of philosophers, 160. Summary of the 1920-21 Symposium in Mind; Schiller, Russell, Joachim, Sidgwick, Strong, 161. Contemporaneous discussion of aphasia in Brain. -- Inability of current psychology to assist neurologists; Parsons, 162. Recent American contributions. -- The Critical Realists, 163. The ubiquity of the term 'meaning' in their discussions. -- Drake, Lovejoy, Pratt, Rogers, Santayana, Sellars, Strong. Uncritical use of the word 'meaning' their chief bond of union, 164. Particularly reprehensible display by Münsterberg, 169. Appreciation of Münsterberg; Professor Moore, 173. Vocabulary of the latter, 174. Further typical examples; Broad, Nettleship, Haldane, Royce, 177. Keynes, 178. Official psychology; seven professors, 179. Psycho-analysis; Putnam. Pragmatists, 180. Historians. Even the clearest thinkers; G. E. Moore, 181. Artists, theologians and others, 182. A crescendo of emotional asseveration, 183.
Proceeding on the same principles to 'Meaning' itself, we find a widely divergent set of opinions in the writings of the best philosophers. The recent discussions in Mind and in Brain show the helplessness of expert disputants in dealing with the resultant ambiguities of the term. The procedure of the ables and most practical group of American thinkers, the Critical Realists of 1921, reveals the same incompetence, while the use made of the word by so influential an authority as Professor Münsterberg is equally open to objection. In fact, a careful study of the practice of prominent writers of all schools leads to the conclusion that in spite of a tacit assumption that the term is sufficiently understood, no principle governs its usage, nor does any technique exist whereby confusion may be avoided.
# Literature/1924

Authors :
* A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z &

## Subpages

* Moore, Thomas Verner (1924). Dynamic Psychology: An Introduction to Modern Psychological Theory and Practice. J. B. Lippincott Co. $^{[^]}$
* Literature/1924/Richards $^{[^]}$
# Literature/1923/Ogden/chapter05
## 5. The Canons of Symbolism

The postulates of communication. -- Logic as the science of systematic symbolization, 87. The Canon of Singularity. The symbols of mathematics peculiar. -- The nature of mathematics, 88. Wittgenstein, Rignano, James Mill, 89. The sameness of references, 90. Symbol substitution, 91. The Canon of Definition. Identity of reference and identity of referent. -- Difficulties in discussion, 92. The Canon of Expansion. The source of 'philosophy.' -- Levels of reference. -- Expansion must show the sign-situations involved, 93. Symbolic overgrowths and contractions. -- 'Universal' symbolic conveniences. -- The illusion of a world of 'being,' 94. Russell, 96. Language as an instrument, 98. Incorrect distinguished from false symbols. -- The Universe of discourse, 102. The Canon of Actuality. The discovery of the referent. Bogus referents, 103. Examples of procedure, 104. The Canon of Compatibility. The avoidance of nonsense and 'antinomies.' The 'Laws of Thought,' 105. The Canon of Individuality. The 'place' of a referent. 'Place' as a symbolic accessory, 106. Translation and expansion of false propositions. -- Importance of expansion in education and controversy, 107.
Underlying all communication, and equally fundamental for any account of scientific method, are the rules or conventions of symbolism.
Some of these are obvious enough when stated, but, perhaps for this reason, have been generally neglected. Others have been cursorily stated by logicians, concerned hitherto with a narrow range of traditional problems. When, however, all are fully set forth in the forms implied by systematic discourse, the solutions of many long-standing problems are found to be de facto provided.
Examples of such problems are those of Truth, Reality, Universals, Abstractions, Negative Facts,Virtuous Triangles, Round-squares and so forth.
The rules or postulates in question which most needformulation are Six in number, and appear as the Canons of Symbolism. They derive from the nature of mental processes, but, being required for the control of symbolization, are stated in terms of symbols and referents.
The observance of these Canons ensures a clear prose style, though not necessarily one intelligible to men of letters.
# ICT in Education/Flexible Learning

* Real world cases of flexible learning implimantations
* IMPDET-LE is a doctoral study programme
* IMPDET-LE is a doctoral study programme providing doctoral trainining related to the research areas of educational technology and ICT for development. Completing the IMPDET-LE PhD study programme entails taking (a) an individualized series of postgraduate courses, (b) attending online edtech research days, and (c) writing a closely supervised dissertation that meets rigorous academic standards. Finishing a PhD degree in the IMPDET-LE programme takes usually minimum of four years, after the Master’s level, depending on the academic skills and background of the doctoal student and the availability of funding to support full-time studying.
* (Source: http://www.impdet.org/)
* edTech$^Δ$- Transforming  Strengths into Realities
* edTech$^Δ$ is a research group at the School of Computing, University of  Eastern Finland. They have develop fresh technological solutions in order to bridge various kinds of learning gaps. These include learning gaps caused by physical distances,  time constraints, limited learning  resources, mental or physical disabilities, and cultural differences, to name but a few. In our R&D work, they use existing technologies in novel and unconventional ways and invent educational computing innovations  for real life challenges together with learners, teachers, companies, parents and other stakeholders.
* (Source: http://www2.uef.fi/en/edtech/home)
# ICT in Education/Completed Change Projects/2013
### Afghanistan

Project Title:
Country:
Change agent (name):
Organization:
Problem:
Aim (max 80 words)
Approach/methods: (max 200 words)
Results: (max 200 words)
Conclusions and lessons learned (max 200 words)
Stakeholders:
Beneficiaries:
Suggestions for the future (max 100 words)
Key words:
# ICT in Education/Completed Change Projects/2013A

Change projects completed by 2013A group

### Afghanistan

Project Title:
Country:
Change agent (name):
Organization:
Problem:
Aim (max 80 words)
Approach/methods: (max 200 words)
Results: (max 200 words)
Conclusions and lessons learned (max 200 words)
Stakeholders:
Beneficiaries:
Suggestions for the future (max 100 words)
Key words:
# ICT in Education/Completed Change Projects/2014A

Change projects completed by 2014 A group

### Afghanistan

Project Title:
Country:
Change agent (name):
Organization:
Problem:
Aim (max 80 words)
Approach/methods: (max 200 words)
Results: (max 200 words)
Conclusions and lessons learned (max 200 words)
Stakeholders:
Beneficiaries:
Suggestions for the future (max 100 words)
Key words:

### Ethiopia

* Addis CS4HS
Addis CS4HS is a project that aims to introduce Computer Science to high school students in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It started in April 2014. The first batch of students were from Menelik II high school, which is the one of the oldest and the first high school in the country. The students were thought about the basics of Java programming, Joomla website development, movie making, Google web tools(such as Youtube, Gmail, Google Maps and Google+). 10 students were trained by 3 volunteers from Addis Ababa University from June - August,2014. Here is the link to the documentary video.
Project Title:Introducing high school students to Computer Science (Addis CS4HS)
Country: Ethiopia
Change agent (name): Fasika Minda
Organization: Addis Ababa University
Problem:
* Small number of students join CS/Engineering departments
* Not enough software developers
* Currently most CS departments accept less number of students compared to other departments in universities across the country. Therefore enough developers are not being produced.
* Not skilled enough to do the job
* From the graduates of the field of Computer Science, most students go for other unrelated jobs. Therefore less amount of skilled human power in the area.
Aim: Introducing high school students to Computer Science.
* To let students get inspired about joining CS/engineering and know about technologies and their usage in every subject/career they might be in
* Introducing students to program a computer so that they could learn different ways of thinking and problem solving
* Let them know that computing jobs are flexible and that they can work in any company
* Build their ability and confidence to succeed in computing highlight current and past Ethiopian CS/Engineering student’s projects and achievements
* To let students visit colleges and technology companies and let them know how computing relates to other subjects like health, agriculture, fashion, entertainment, education etc.
* To get students familiar with important Google apps and web tools
* And also to create a network and fun time between high school students and university students
Approach/methods:
* Volunteer-based
* Start to teach from the bottom from high schools so that students can be prepared for their college courses
* learn by doing → project based learning
Results: 10 students from one high school so far
Conclusions and lessons learned (max 200 words)
Stakeholders:
* High school students:
* High school teachers:
* University students
* Department of computer science, AAU:
* University lecturers
* Tech companies / NGOs
Beneficiaries: high school students, university students
Suggestions for the future (max 100 words)
Key words: Computer Science education for high school, #cs4hs, #highschool, #aau
# ICT in Education/Data Banks and Statistics

* World Values Survey
* The World Values Survey (www.worldvaluessurvey.org) is a global network of social scientists studying changing values and their impact on social and political life, led by an international team of scholars, with the WVS association and secretariat headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden.
* Useful tools
* World Values Survey
* Online Data Analysis
* (Source:http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvs.jsp)
* Our World In Data
* Our World In Data covers a wide range of topics and visualizes the empirical evidence of how living standards changed over the last decades, centuries, and millennia.
* (Source:http://ourworldindata.org/#)
* World Bank Development Data
* Explore. Create. Share: Development Data
* DataBank is an analysis and visualisation tool that contains collections of time series data on a variety of topics. You can create your own queries; generate tables, charts, and maps; and easily save, embed, and share them.
* ( Source: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx)
* World bank World education data section:
* Interactive database of World education, you can access and retrieval as tables, charts and you can customise by country, series and time.
* Link to educational data section: http://databank.worldbank.org/Data/Views/VariableSelection/SelectVariables.aspx?source=Education-Statistics:-Education-Attainment
* World telecommunication data
* ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies (ICTs), is recognized around the globe as the leading provider of timely and comprehensive telecommunication/ICT statistics and trends. The ICT-Eye website is a one stop-shop for telecommunication/ICT indicators and statistics, regulatory and policy information, national tariff policies and costing practices, and much more.. (source-http://www.itu.int/net4/itu-d/icteye/)
* (Source: http://www.itu.int/net4/itu-d/icteye/
# Helicopter/Howard Community College/Fall2011

501_Flyers
502_Helicopter
501_Eagles
502_Helicopter 2
502_Helicopter 3
550_Helicopter
501_Drones