OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Christian apologetics/Defense of Creation

=> School of Theology > Department of Christian Apologetics > Defense of Creation

## Introduction

There are two main camps of creation theory; old-earth creationists, and young-earth creationists. Old-earth creationists assert that the six days of creation mentioned in the first chapter of Genesis were not literal days, but rather long periods of time (spanning anywhere from millions to billions of years). Young-earth creationists assert that the earth is approximately 6,000 years old, and that the word "day" (יוֹם in the original Hebrew, pronounced yôm) is literal. The 7 day week is said to have derived from this.
# English-Chinese/Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread

Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread.
燕麦片主要作为粥食用，但也可用于各种烘焙食品，如燕麦饼，燕麦饼干和燕麦面包。
# English-Chinese/Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola

Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola.
燕麦也是许多冷谷类食物中的一种成分，尤其是muesli和granola。
# English-Chinese/Oats have numerous uses in foods; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour

Oats have numerous uses in foods; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour.
燕麦在食品中有很多用途; 最常见的是，它们被压制或压碎成燕麦片，或磨成细燕麦粉。
# English-Chinese/Obesity and lack of exercise can lead to depression

Obesity and lack of exercise can lead to depression.
肥胖和缺乏运动可导致抑郁症。
# English-Chinese/Oatmeal is a cereal food made from rolled, cut or ground oat

Oatmeal is a cereal food made from rolled, cut or ground oat.
燕麦片是一种由轧制，切割或磨碎的燕麦制成的谷类食品。
# English-Chinese/Obese people consume more energy than normal people because of the energy needed to maintain body weight

Obese people consume more energy than normal people because of the energy needed to maintain body weight.
由于维持体重所需的能量，肥胖的人比正常人消耗更多的能量。
# English-Chinese/Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children

Obesity is a leading preventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing rates in adults and children.
肥胖是世界范围内可预防的主要死因，成人和儿童的发病率正在上升。
# English-Chinese/Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol when consumed regularly

Oats are a nutrient-rich food associated with lower blood cholesterol when consumed regularly.
燕麦是一种营养丰富的食物，经常食用可降低血胆固醇。
# English-Chinese/Obesity and diabetes linked to cardiovascular disease

Obesity and diabetes mellitus are often linked to cardiovascular disease, as are a history of chronic kidney disease and hypercholesterolaemia.
肥胖和糖尿病通常与心血管疾病有关，慢性肾病和高胆固醇血症的病史也是如此。
# English-Chinese/Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and depression

Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, osteoarthritis, and depression.
肥胖增加了各种疾病和病症的可能性，特别是心血管疾病，2型糖尿病，阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停，某些类型的癌症，骨关节炎和抑郁症。
# Direct current/Generator

An Electrical Generator is a machine which converts mechanical power into electrical energy power.
It is based on the principle of production of dynamically induced EMF.
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced EMF is produced in it according to Faraday's Law's of Electromagnetic Induction. This e.m.f. causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. This is accomplished in an electric generator by means of an armature carrying conductors which works in conjunction with a magnetic field. Electromotive force is induced by the relative motion of the armature conductors and the magnetic field.
Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric generator are :
* A magnetic field
* A conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux.
Basic DC machine is that of commutator type, ie. it is an AC machine furnished with a commutator such that it converts the AC to DC. In this respect we can say that the commutator segments act as mechanical rectifiers.
So as you can see there lies a simple generator with a field, coil and relative motion between them. So from faraday's laws of EMI we can say that the coil(loop) would house an EMF.
Depending upon field type DC generators are classified. These are mainly 2 types 1) separately excited generators 2) self excited generators
In separately excited generators field is excited from a separate voltage source. Whereas in self excited type field is excited with permanent magnets.
Depending on field connection with armature they are further classified as 3 types i) series generators ii)shunt generators iii)compound generators
# Dirac's notation

Dirac's, or bra-ket, notation

## Kets' notation

A ket is just another way to write a column vector. If you have a vector called $v$, you can write it as ${\vec {v}}$, as [v$_i$], or as $|v\rangle$;. This last one is called a ket.
If you transpose a column vector you obtain a row vector. Dirac's way to write row vectors are Bras: $\langle v|$. Bra and ket are just a pun for bracket.

### Operations

Just as you can right-multiply any matrix by a column vector, you can do it by a ket (since it's another way to write it). As is usual in vectorial algebra, you omit the matrix-multiplication sign (x) and just juxtapose the two factors. So multiplying matrix A by ket v is written: $A|v\rangle$;.
The same goes for left-multiplying and bras. Multiplying bra u by matrix B is written: $\langle u|B$.
"A bilinear form" is the name given to a matrix intended to be multiplied on both sides by vectors (by a row vector on the left and a column vector on the right). In bra-ket notation, that multiplication is written this way: $\langle u|A|v\rangle$.
As the inner product of two vectors is the same as the matrix product of the first vector, transposed, by the second one, we can treat vectors as row or column matrices:
So the inner product of two vectors is a bilinear form whose matrix is the identity matrix. The identity matrix is, of course, never written, and the inner product of u and v is then written as u$^t$v or, in bra-ket notation, $\langle u|v\rangle$ (note you only write a "|").

## Functions as vectors

Functions of one variable can be seen, mathematically, as "infinite" vectors. The analogy is easier to see the other way: vectors can be treated as functions.
If we have, for example, a 5-dimensional vector, v = [v$_i$], such that i ranges from 1 to 5, we can write without trouble a function w(j) such that j is a discrete variable which can be 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, and such that w(j) = v$_j$.
Treating a function over the Reals (say, f(x)) as a vector requires us to accept x € R as an index (as was previously i € {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}). So now, instead of having a vector of dimension 5, we have a vector of infinite dimensions (as the possible values of x are infinite).
Perhaps it is easier to imagine x as belonging only to the Integers, and ranging from -oo to oo.

### Vectorial algebra is the same

The dot (or inner) product of two vectors consists on multiplying them coordinate-by-coordinate and then adding up all the products. If your vectors are of continuous dimension (as functions over the Reals), you have to substitute summation by integration.
Two-variable functions can be thougth of as matrices (of infinite and/or continuous dimension if needed).
Matrix-multiplicating a two-variable function (a matrix) by a one-variable function (a vector) is done this way: You give the same name to the index of the vector and the column index of the matrix. You multiply (normally) both functions. And finally you integrate over the common index. The result will be a function of the matrix's row index (and so, a vector, as expected).
# Direct current/Integrated circuits

| It is a course of Electronic engineering | Level 1 | Term 1 | Electronic engineering |

## Syllabus

This is an introductory course on integrated circuit design. The concepts presented here are the fundamentals that any IC designer must understand prior to pursuing advanced IC design concepts.
To understand IC design techniques, one must have a good understanding of circuits and systems concepts. IC designers must have an intuitive feel for ohm's law, kirchoff's laws, and the physics that governs the behavior of transistors. For this reason, a short review on semiconductor device physics is beneficial.

## Lecture plan

Introduction to Integrated Circuits
* Digital Integrated Circuits
** CMOS
** TTL
* Analog Integrated Circuits
* Mixed Signal Integrated Circuits
* RF Integrated Circuits
MOSFET Basics
* Small-Signal Model
BJT Basics
* Small Signal Model
CMOS Blocks / Subcircuits
* Current Mirrors
* CG/CE Amplifiers
* Cascode
* Folded Cascode
The Opamp
IC Design Flow
IC Design Tools (EDA)

## Reference books

Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits (4th Edition) Amazon.com by Paul R. Gray
Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits Amazon.com by Behzad Razavi
The Art of Electronics Archive.org
by Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill
Lessons In Electric Circuits Archive.org
by Tony R. Kuphaldt

## Wikiversity activities
### Active participants

Neurondev -Nov. 17th 2007
User:Kofani1997 - Dec. 09 2023

### To do

Much of the course material to be duplicated here can be found scattered throughout the online notes of lecturers at universities. Take the time to learn the material (if you aren't already an expert) and share it with others on Wikiversity through this course. (Keep in mind that copying material without permission that is not under a free license is not acceptable by Wikiversity standards. - Neurondev
# Dirac Delta Function
## Dirac Function
### Definition

The Dirac function $\delta (t)$ is a "signal" with unit energy that is concentrated around $t=0$
    $\delta (x)={\begin{cases}\infty ,&x=0\\0,&x\neq 0\end{cases}}$

#### Alternative definition

    $\delta (t)=\lim _{\sigma \to 0}{\frac {1}{\sigma {\sqrt {}2\pi )}}\exp(-{\frac {t^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}})$
This is a gaussian distribution with spread 0.

### Properties
#### Energy

    $E=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\delta (t)^{2}dt=\infty$
NB: $\delta (t)^{2}$ has no mathematical meaning, as $\delta (t)$ isn't an ordinary function but a distribution. The special nature of $\delta (t)$ appears clearly e.g. when you try to square the same Gaussian distribution above and try to compute the same limit of the integral in $-\infty ,\infty$. The result will be quite surprising: it is $\infty$!

#### Convolution

    $y(t)*\delta (t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }y(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )d\tau =y(t)$

## Kronecker Delta Function

The Kronecker delta function is the discrete analog of the Dirac function. It has Energy 1 and only a contribution at $k=0$
    $\delta (k)={\begin{cases}1,&k=0\\0,&k\neq 0\end{cases}}$

### Properties
#### Energy

    $E=\sum _{k=-\infty }^{\infty }\delta (k)^{2}=1$

#### Convolution

    $y(k)*\delta (k)=\sum _{m=-\infty }^{\infty }y(k)\delta (k-m)=y(k)$
# Direct current/Basics
## Basic Equations

* P, Power is measured in Watts
* I, Current is represented in Amps
* E, Voltage is measured in Volts
* R, Resistance (and resistance potential) is measured in Ohms Ω
* C, Capacitance amount of stored electric charge
* P=IE ; Power= Current * Voltage
* E=IR ; Voltage= Current * Resistance

## Theory

Voltage moves from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, but for application purposes it is viewed as positive to negative.

## Ground in DC circuitry

Although it may seem counter intuitive, according to electric voltage theory, the ground on a DC circuit is the negative terminal.
# Direct current/Circuits

Template:Direct Current Course Title:
Lecture Topic:
Instructor:
Institution:

## Backwards Design

Course Objectives
* Primary Objectives- By the next class period students will be able to:
** Know the basics of electronics
** Make their own projects
** Find a job
* Sub Objectives- The objectives will require that students be able to:
** Mathematics
** Physics(Electronics)
* Difficulties- Students may have difficulty:
** Theory
* Real-World Contexts- There are many ways that students can use this material in the real-world, such as:
** Robotics
** Practice
Model of Knowledge
* Concept Map
** text
** text
** text
* Content Priorities
** Enduring Understanding
*** text
*** text
*** text
** Important to Do and Know
*** text
*** text
*** text
** Worth Being Familiar with
*** text
*** text
*** text
Assessment of Learning
* Formative Assessment
** In Class (groups)
*** text
*** text
** Homework (individual)
*** text
*** text
* Summative Assessment
** text
** text

## Legacy Cycle

OBJECTIVE
By the next class period, students will be able to:
* text
* text
* text
The objectives will require that students be able to:
* text
* text
* text
THE CHALLENGE
text
GENERATE IDEAS
text
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES
text
RESEARCH & REVISE
text
TEST YOUR METTLE
text
GO PUBLIC
text

## Pre-Lesson Quiz

* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question

## Test Your Mettle Quiz

* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
* question
# Direct current/Motors

w:DC motor
# Diplomacy options

Proposed to a students to be more polite and clever in the world of future. The last 20 years we was going to avoid the use of nuclear weapons and maintain an economic power. Without any nuclear weapons, international unions (WTO) could to punish any land for illegal activities by the economic sanctions.
Also this could be made regarding to the certain person who made a violence. For example the government has a huge database about every person and they can control all life(life standard, job...) and in a flat world the government could encourage and punish.
We do the globe like a big nest without catastrophic weapons which could negative affect on our climate, air, water...
# Advanced Classical Mechanics/Hamilton's Equations
## Hamilton's Equations

Hamilton's equations are an alternative to the Euler-Lagrange equations to find the equations of motion of a system. They are applied to the Hamiltonian function of the system. Hamilton's equations are
${\dot {q_{i}}}={\frac {\partial H}{\partial p_{i}}}$
${\dot {p_{i}}}=-{\frac {\partial H}{\partial q_{i}}}$
${\frac {\partial L}{\partial t}}=-{\frac {\partial H}{\partial t}}$
Where $H$ is the Hamiltonian, $q_{i}$ are the generalized coordinates, $p_{i}$ are the generalized momenta, and a dot represents the total time derivative. The Hamiltonian can be found by performing a Legendre transformation on the Lagrangian of the system:
$H={\dot {q_{i}}}p_{i}-L(q,{\dot {q}},t)$
where the Einstein summation notation is used, a dot represents the total time derivative, q$_i$ are the generalized coordinates, p$_i$ are the generalized momenta.
These momenta are found by differentiating the Lagrangian with respect to the generalized velocities ${\dot {q_{i}}}$. Mathematically
$p_{i}={\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q_{i}}}}}$.
In some cases, $H=T+V$ is the total energy of the system. There are two conditions for this. First, the equations defining the generalized coordinates q don't depend on time explicitly. Second, the forces involved in the system are derivable from a scalar potential. The forces must be conservative (such as gravity).
References:
* ↑ Goldstein, Poole, Safko. Classical Mechanics 3rd ed. 2002
# Advanced Classical Mechanics/Energy and Angular Momentum

Let's start with some basic definitions. First m is the inertial mass of a particle -- we will consider only particles with constant masses (although the physics of rockets provides an important counter-example). A particle for us is something that can be described completely by its position ${\vec {r}}$ and mass (it doesn't have any important internal degrees of freedom).

## Momentum and Force

We can define the velocity and momentum of the particle,
${\vec {v}}={\frac {d{\vec {r}}}{dt}}$ and ${\vec {p}}=m{\vec {v}}$.
Because the acceleration is the rate of change of velocity we have
${\vec {F}}=m{\vec {a}}=m{\frac {d{\vec {v}}}{dt}}={\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}},$
so if the force vanishes, then the momentum is constant in time or conserved.

## Angular Momentum and Torque

Let's also define the angular momentum and the torque,
${\vec {L}}={\vec {r}}\times {\vec {p}}$ and ${\vec {N}}={\vec {r}}\times {\vec {F}}={\vec {r}}\times {\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}.$
Let's calculate the rate of change of the angular momentum
${\frac {d}{dt}}{\vec {L}}={\frac {d{\vec {r}}}{dt}}\times {\vec {p}}+{\vec {r}}\times {\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}={\vec {N}}$
so if the torque vanishes, the angular momentum is conserved. Specifically if the force is always directed along the position vector, ${\vec {r}}$, the torque vanishes and the angular momentum is conserved. This is called a central force.

## Work and Energy

We can define the work done on a particle while moving it from position #1 to position #2 to be
$W_{12}=\int _{1}^{2}{\vec {F}}\cdot d{\vec {s}}.$
Again let's assume that the mass of the particle is constant so
$W_{12}=\int _{1}^{2}{\vec {F}}\cdot d{\vec {s}}=m\int _{1}^{2}{\frac {d{\vec {v}}}{dt}}\cdot {\vec {v}}dt={\frac {m}{2}}\int _{1}^{2}{\frac {d}{dt}}\left(v^{2}\right)dt={\frac {m}{2}}\left(v_{2}^{2}-v_{1}^{2}\right)=T_{2}-T_{1}$
where we have defined the kinetic energy,
$T={\frac {1}{2}}mv^{2}$.
If the integral $W_{12}$ depends only on the locations of the points 1 and 2 and not the path, then the force or system is conservative. In particular,
$\oint {\vec {F}}\cdot d{\vec {s}}=0$ for such a system.
This means that the force is the gradient of some other function
${\vec {F}}=-{\vec {\nabla }}V(r)$
call the potential energy $V$. In this case we find that
$W_{12}=V_{1}-V_{2}=T_{2}-T_{1}$
so
$T_{1}+V_{1}=T_{2}+V_{2}$
This is called the conservation of mechanical energy.
# Advanced Classical Mechanics/Introduction

Previous physics courses have presented many applications of Newton's second law $F=ma$ where the force, $F$, is given or is a combination of constraining forces and given ones. The downside was that each phenomenon has its own set of forces to remember and different constraints required different formulations.
Physics is about unifying principles.
* Can we unify these diverse forces into a single principle?
* The answer is yes, yes. We can find two equivalent principles (ways of looking at classical mechanics).
* But we get more than that. These principles with only slight modification apply to quantum mechanics, electrodynamics and general relativity - in other words to all of physics.
The first is The Principle of Least Action that we will cover near the beginning of the course. This principle is often the easiest route to finding and solving the equations of motion of a system with constraints. We can formulate electrodynamics and general relativity with the principle, and it also provides a powerful (but not so easy) route to quantum mechanics.
The second is Hamilton's Equations. This formulation provides the easiest route to quantum mechanics and also gives us the powerful tool of Phase Space.
To get to the principle of least action we shall start with $F=ma$ (as in Schaum, Goldstein and Kibble). We could have given the principle as an axiom (as in Landau and Lifshiftz) and found $F=ma$ as a consequence. Since you are already familiar with $F=ma$ the first path is probably more comfortable.
# Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Brain Organ Models

Brain Organ Models
Dr. Edelman's book Nerual Darwinism: The Theory of Neural Group Selection while it arguably might only properly apply to the cerebral cortex, created an opportunity for larger nerual models to be built, based on the Neural Groups found in different organs of the brain. From these larger neural networks, Dr. Edelman and his contemporarise were able to develop the concept of Brain Based Devices which modeled the operation of organs of the brain, in a simplistic fashion limited mostly by the size of the simulation's host computer cluster.
The following Organs have been modeled in Brain Based Devices. How useful that modeling might be is based partially on the state of knowledge about the operation of the organ at the time of the model being built. As such we need to expect that as our knowledge increases the sophistication of the BBD models might also increase skewing our assumptions about how the organs work.
* Cerebral Cortex Model
* Cerebellum Model
* Thalamus Model
* Hippocampus Model
* Basal Ganglia Model
(Note to self, Check with NSI about current list of BBDs)
# Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Functional Models

Functional Models of the Brain
Neuroscience has been pushing to develop neural correlates for the functions that are defined by psychology. Some of these concepts date back from before psychology even to the thoughts of philosophers and religious thinkers in earlier ages. Psychology has adopted these classical function names even though the concepts that define them have changed so much that the current definitions may not even jibe anymore with the classical or folk traditions in what these functions are.
As we attempt to reconcile neuroscience with psychology we may find that the definitions change so radically that we must do a heroic job to define a term that means anything like the traditional or folk meaning. Since these paradigm shifts take time to diffuse through the population, the functions suffer from preconceived ideas about what they must do, that just aren't found in the neural correlates themselves but can be traced back to earlier science, philosophy, or religion.
The following Functional Models represent a transient look at our current understandings of what each function does or is. As research continues these models may shift or skew, changing our expectations of how each works, or what it does.
* Attention
* Memory
* Executive Function
* Will and Volition
* Self
* Personality
* Mind
# Artificial Consciousness/Neural Correlates/Hybrid Models
## Hybrid Models

The main difference between a Functional Model and a Hybrid Model, is that the hybrid model is based at least partially on the phenomenal models, and Neural Correlates. While the functional model is based primarily on the psychological models. Because the Hybrid model is based partially on the phenomenal models, it can take into account more recent research, that has not yet reached the sophistication necessary to qualify as a psychological model. This is partially because of the disciplinary distance between Neuroscience and Psychology. Because of this testing the Hybrid Model for function also acts as a test of the Neural Correlates and their interpretation that might be able to influence psychology when the psychologists become aware of the results.