OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# PlanetPhysics/Organismic Set Theory 3
### Organismic Set Theory and Relational Biology

organismic sets were defined by Nicolas Rashevsky at different levels of organization in living organisms by means of sets of several distinct types. Thus, in the case of organismic sets of zero-th order, $S_{0}$, the elements represent genes, and a concrete $S_{0c}$ is defined as the set of all genes $[G_{n}]$ of a specific organism or organism type (`species'); alternatively, $S_{0c}$ can be defined as a set representation of any organismic genome, $G_{O}$. The latter are then considered together with inputs $e_{i}$ from the environment, as well as their activities $a_{i}$ and relations $R_{ij}$ among organismic set elements (genes in the case of $S_{0}$), where $i,j$ are indices in a countable, index set $I$. Thus, Rashevsky's organismic set (OS) theory is part of abstract relational biology. At the next level of biological organization, cells are considered as first order organismic sets , $S_{1}$, whereas multi-cellular organisms are represented by organismic sets of second order, $S_{2}$, whose `elements' are the first order organismic sets, or cells, $S_{1}$. Attempts were then made by Rashevsky to expand his theory of organismic sets to organizational models of human societies. Results from such studies of relations between sets were considered to be far more important than the numerical or quantitative aspects that play such important roles in physics and chemistry. A number of interesting results were obtained by means of standard (Boolean) logic predicates applied to organismic sets and their relations. Further details can be found in the publications listed below and the references cited therein. Subsequently, autopoietic theories have enlarged upon, and also extended, the application of organismic sets to biological systems and Ecology.
# PlanetPhysics/Overview of Algebraic Topology
## An Overview of Algebraic Topology topics
### Introduction

Algebraic topology (AT) utilizes algebraic approaches to solve topological problems, such as the classification of surfaces, proving duality theorems for manifolds and approximation theorems for topological spaces. A central problem in algebraic topology is to find algebraic invariants of topological spaces, which is usually carried out by means of homotopy, homology and cohomology groups. There are close connections between algebraic topology, Algebraic Geometry (AG)
* homotopy theory and fundamental groups #Topology and groupoids; van Kampen theorem
* Homology and cohomology theories
* Duality
* category theory applications in algebraic topology
* indexes of category, functors and natural transformations
* Grothendieck's Descent theory
* `Anabelian Geometry' #Categorical Galois theory
* higher dimensional algebra (HDA)
* Quantum algebraic topology (QAT)
* Non-Abelian Quantum Algebraic Topology
($http://aux.planetphysics.org/files/lec/61/ANAQAT20c.pdf$)
* Quantum Geometry
* Non-Abelian algebraic topology (NAAT)

### Homotopy theory and fundamental groups

* Homotopy
* fundamental group of a space
* Fundamental theorems
* Van Kampen theorem #Whitehead groups, torsion and towers
* Postnikov towers

### Topology and Groupoids

* Topology definition, axioms and basic concepts #fundamental groupoid #topological groupoid #van Kampen theorem for groupoids
* Groupoid pushout theorem
* double groupoids and crossed modules
* new4

### Homology theory

* Homology group
* Homology sequence
* Homology complex
* new4

### Cohomology theory

* cohomology group #Cohomology sequence
* DeRham cohomology
* new4

### Non-Abelian Algebraic Topology

* crossed complexes #modules #omega-groupoids #double groupoids
* Higher Homotopy van Kampen Theorems
# PlanetPhysics/Parametric Operator

A parametric operator $\Omega$ with parameter $\alpha$ in the parametric set ${\mathcal {A}}$ is an indexed family of operators $(\Omega _{\alpha })_{\mathcal {A}}=\{\Omega _{\alpha }:\alpha \in {\mathcal {A}}\}$ with index $\alpha$ in the index set ${\mathcal {A}}$.
# PlanetPhysics/Particle

A particle is a body (or portion of a body) with negligible dimensions. Its dimensions are negligible if they are sufficiently small in comparison with other distances employed in the particular problem under consideration. The decision as to when some particular quantity is to be considered negligible in comparison with another depends upon the desired, or the possible, accuracy of the reslt or "answer" to the problem. While we speak of exact sciences, no measurement can be known to be truly exact (unless we extend "measurement" to include such a simple act as counting the number of acute angles in an equilateral triangle) and the limits or probable limits of accuracy need to be kept in mind in dealing practically with any problem. In certain astronomical problems the earth may be treated as a particle, while in other problems it may be treated as an infinite mass constituting a uniform slab with an infinite plane surface and finite thickness. In applying the methods of calculus to the study of supposedly continuous bodies, the material within an infinitesimal element of the volume of the body may be considered to constitute a particle.
Through no body and hence no particle (not even a proton) can actually have zero dimensions, and no finite mass can be concentrated at a point and thus provide infinite density, it is often convenient to consider a particle to be located at a point. The point in question may be any point within the particle, since its dimensions are negligible in comparison with all others involved in the problem. All the forces acting upon the particle may then be regarded as having their lines of action passing through a common point, and so they are called concurrent forces.
# PlanetPhysics/Parameter

{\em The term parameter, which originates in mathematics, has a number of specific meanings in fields such as astronomy, electricity, crystallography, and statistics.}
Perhaps because of its ring of `technical authority', it has been used more generally in recent years to refer to any factor that determines a range of variations and especially to a factor that restricts what can result from a process or policy. In this use it often comes close to meaning "a limit or boundary." Some of these new uses have a clear connection to the technical senses of the word. For example, the provisions of a zoning ordinance that limit the height or density of new construction can be reasonably likened to mathematical parameters that establish the limits of other variables. Therefore one can say : "The zoning commission announced new planning parameters for the historic district of the city". But other uses go one step further and treat parameter as a high-toned synonym for `characteristic'. There are several difficulties with the nontechnical use of the word `parameter' that may arise from its resemblance to the word `perimeter', with which it shares the sense "limit," though the precise meanings of the two words differ markedly. This confusion probably explains the use of `parameter' in a \htmladdnormallink{sentence {http://planetphysics.us/encyclopedia/Formula.html} such as "U.S. forces report that the parameters of the mine area in the Gulf are fairly well established", where the word `perimeter' would have expressed the intended sense more exactly.}
Other, rarer, confusion occurs when the old English spelling of `parametre' --originating from the French word `param\`etre'-- is employed instead of the now utilized spelling of `parameter' by non-native English speakers using out-of-date English dictionaries.
In general use, `parameter' "refers to a distinguishing characteristic or factor, especially one that can be measured or quantified: the parameters of light are brightness and colour. It has come to be used loosely to mean a limit. This is not incorrect, but it sounds like jargon. Before using it consider whether limit; scope; boundary, or a similar word would be more suitable." (excerpt from the online Dictionary of English)
# Pigeonhole Principle

This is a very simple idea that can come in handy when trying to sort things into different categories. Suppose you run a hotel and have 40 guests and 40 rooms for them to stay in. Each of them can have their own room. What if you didn't have enough rooms but didn't want to turn anyone away? At least two people will be heading toward the same room number!
Consider this classic example: You go to a party and meet a bunch of people. There are n people at the party, which means that there are n-1 other people whose hands you can shake. Everyone shakes at least one person's hand. By the pigeonhole principle, since there are n people and less than n number of people's hands to shake, when categorizing people by the number of hands that have been shaken, there must be at least two people that have shaken the same number of hands.
This idea comes in handy in computer science in things like hash functions.
See w:Pigeonhole_principlewikipedia for more information.
# Pillars of Game Development

Part of Board Game Design

## Introduction

These are considered to be the essentials of board game design.

## The Pillars

* Parsimony - a game should be no more complex than it has to be
* Excitement - there should be some inherent interest and excitement throughout the game
* Theme-Mechanic Balance - the mechanic and theme should work together harmoniously
* Perfect Potential - at the start, any player should be able to win the game
* Simplicity - while the concept can be complex, the language of the rules should be very simple and straightforward
* Replayability - players should not experience the same game twice
* Beauty - a finished game should have a good look and feel
       Much of a game lies in its beauty. Playing a game is an aesthetic experience - just like art, even if different - and it is propelled by our desire of beauty, expressed in the form of fun.
       The "toys" should be therefore nice and adequate to the theme: we all know the difference between playing with plastic vs. metal car models or plastic vs. tissue dolls.
* Player Control - chance should only be used where it adds to the game
# Picard/Picard dialects

* Introduction to Picard Picard dialects
* Introduction: this is an introductory lesson about dialects.
* spread of Picard (Picard, Chti, Rouchi, ...)
* Picard is a language of the group of Romance languages.
* Dialects are linguistic varieties which are defined by specific phonetic, morphological and lexical traits and sometimes by a distinctive literary tradition.
* The dialects are geografical variéties of the picard language. In each dialect, we have microdialects ( patoés, parlés, ... ). In general, the different varieties spoken are understood by speakers of different regions.
* for example:
* Indo-European language >
* Romance language >
* Langue d'oil >
* Langue picarde >
* Picard d'in heut (dialect) >
* Chti (édsous-dialecte or patoé) >
* chtimi d' Linse (parlé d'chés mineurs)
* other example:
* Langue picarde >
* Picard d'in bos (dialect) >
* patoé du Vimeu (édsous-dialecte or patoé) >
* parlé d'Nibo
* other example:
* Langue picarde >
* Picard d'in bos (dialect) >
* patoé du Bieuvésis (édsous-dialecte or patoé) >
* parlé d'Sertchu
* List of dialects (Chés parlés picards)
* The most known dialects are:
* « chti » or « chtimi » = in the south part of French Flanders (around Lille and Douai) and in North-East Artois (around Béthune and Lens)
* « rouchi » = around Valenciennes
* « tournaisien » (district of Tournai - Wallonie Picarde)
* « anmiénoé » (Sonme et Oése nord),
* « vimeu » (Sonme ouest) (Vimeu-Pontiu),
* but you have also for example:
* Bieuvésis,
* variétés circum-liloéses (Roubais, Tourcoin, Moucron, Comène),
* patwas d'Ât (Ath),
* laonnoé (Ainne nord est) (Thiérache),
* vermandoé (Ainne nord ouest),
* noyonnoé (Oése nord est),
* marquintérre (Sonme nord et Pas-Calés sud ouest),
* boulonné-cinsié (Pas-d'Calés ouest),
* boulonné-marin (Pas-d'Calés ouest) (‘’Gravelines, Grand Fort Philippe’’),
* calésien (Pas-d'Calés nord ouest),
* térnoé (Pas-d'Calés centre),
* arojoé (Pas-d'Calés sud),
* hennuyé (Hénau et Nord),
* Artésien rural.
* Notes
* Pluriplanet.org, Obsérvatoére linwistique .
* Linguashere
* Fondacheon Dalby pour l'Étude éd la Linguasfère
| previous lesson | previous page | next page | lesson intro | next lesson | Department | Division |
# Picard/Vocabulary/Numerals

* Introduction to Picard - Numerals

## 1 to 20

Cardinal numbers in Picard from 1 to 20 are as follows:
| One: un (m) / eune (f) Two: deus Three: troés Four: quate Five: chonc Six: sis Seven: sèt | Eight: uit Nine: neu Ten: dis Eleven: onze Twelve: dousse Thirteen: trèsse Fourteen: quatore | Fifteen: tchinse Sixteen: sèse Seventeen: dis-sèt Eighteen: dis-uit Nineteen: dis-neu Twenty: vint |

## 20 to 100

| - | Picard |
| 20 | vint |
| 21 | vint et un |
| 22 | vint deu |
| 23 | vint tro |
| 24 | vint quate |
| 25 | vint chonq |
| 26 | vint sich |
| 27 | vint sièt |
| 28 | vint uit |
| 29 | vint neu |
| French | Picard |
| trente | trinte |
| quarante | quarante |
| cinquante | chincante |
| soixante | soéchante / soiçante / sochante |
| soixante-dix | soéchante-dis / septante / sochante diche |
| 71 | sochante et onse |
| 72 | sochante douse |
| quatre-vingts | quater-vint / quater vint |
| quantre-vingt-dix | quater-vint-dis / nonante / quater vint diche |
etc. |}

## 100 to ...

| - | Picard |
| cent | un chint |
| deux cents | deus chints, deu chints |
| trois cents | tros chints |
| trois cent cinq | troés chint chonc |
| 400 | quate chints |
| 500 | chinq chints |
| 600 | six chints |
| 700 | sièt chints |
| 800 | uit chints |
| 900 | neu chints |
| - | Picard |
| mille | un mile |
| deux mille | Deus mile |
| 3000 | tros mile |
| - | Picard |
| un million | un millon, un million |
| 2 000 000 | deus millons |
| un milliard | un millar |

## ordinals

| - | Picard |
| premier | prumié, prinmier, prumière, prinmière, |
| deuxième | deusième, sgond, sgonde |
| 3° | trojième |
| 4° | quatième |
| 5° | chinquième |
| 6° | sichième |
| 7° | sètième |
| 8° | uitième |
| 9° | neuvième |
| 10° | dichième |
| 11° | onzième |
| 12° | dozième |
| 20° | vintième |
| 50° | chinquintième |
| 100° | chintième |
| 1000° | millième |

## Advèbes

| French | Picard |
| premièrement | preumièremint, prinmièremint |
| deusièmement | deusièm'mint |
| troisièmement | trojièm'mint |

## Fractions (frakchons)

| - | Picard |
| 1/2 | un d'mi |
| 1/3 | un tiers |
| 1/4 | un quart |
| 1/5 | un chinquième |
| 1/6 | un sichième |

## percentage (pouchintache)

33% = trinte tros pou chint

## calculations (chés carculs)

| - | Picard |
| 2 + 3 = 5 | 2 plus 3 égal 5 |
| previous lesson | previous page | next page | lesson intro | next lesson | Department | Division |
# Picard/Vocabulary/Présintacion

* Introduction to Picard - Présintacion
* Bojour tertous !
* Bojour chele dame ! Bojour tertoute !
* Bojour mes gins !
* Cha vo ti ? Kmint qu' i va ?
* Cha va mérchi et ti ?
* Min tiot nom ch'est Magrite.
* Mi ch'est Jin-Claude, j' vins d' Lille.
* J' vos présinte Mélie, ch'est ém' grinde file, al est dintisse.
* I fait caud édpis quèques jours mais demain i vo pluvoér à drache.
* Adé !
* À l' arvoïure.
| previous lesson | previous page | next page | lesson intro | next lesson | Department | Division |
# Picard/Picard pronunciation

* Introduction to Picard Picard pronunciation
Introduction: this is an introductory lesson.
It should teach students how to pronounce Picard and how to write Picard.
Near the end of this lecture, you will find a dictionary and place for global discussions.
Universal keyboard
This link allows to type all accentuated letters.
Pronunciation
Listen first !
audio - bojour tertous
PicardPrononciationFrenchEnglish
Bojour tertousBonjour à tousHello everybody
Bojour mes ginsBonjour à tousHello everybody
Cha vo ti min fiu ?Çà va bien mon fils ?It is fine my son ?
R'bé mi cho !Regarde moi çà !Look at this !
i faut voèr ch'prix.Il faut voir le prix.It is necessary to see the price.
Pronunciation rules :
Pronunciation examples
PicardPhonetics-English
gueugue
/ɡɶɡ/
[ɡɶɡ]
nuts
éj té connouos
[eʒ.te.kɔ̃.nwɔ]
I know you
o ll'a rtrouvé
[ol.lar.tru.vɛ]
we found him :
| previous lesson | previous page | next page | lesson intro | next lesson | Department | Division |
# Picard/Prumier nivieu

Picard is a language or a set of languages closely related to French, and as such is one of the larger group of Romance languages. It is spoken in one region in the far north of France (Hauts-de-France) and in parts of the Belgian region of Wallonia, the district of Tournai (Wallonie Picarde) and a part of the district of Mons (toward Tournai and the Belgian border).
Picard is known by several different names. Residents of Picardy simply call it picard, but it is more commonly known as chti or chtimi in the south part of French Flanders (around Lille and Douai) and in North-East Artois (around Béthune and Lens), or rouchi around Valenciennes; or simply as patois by Northerners in general. Linguists group all of them under the name Picard. In general, the variety spoken in Picardy is understood by speakers in Nord-Pas-de-Calais and vice versa.
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Echolalia

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Echolalia
Forced repetition of someone’s words
The following references are relevant:-
Critchley (1981) Speech disorders of Parkinsonism: a review.
Dierckx et al (1991) Evolution of technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT and brain mapping in a patient presenting with echolalia and palilalia.
Ghika et al (1996) “”Echoing approval": a new speech disorder.
Further Research
References
* ↑ Critchley, E. M. (date) Full Text Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 44 (9) 751–758. Speech disorders of Parkinsonism: a review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC491132/
* ↑ Dierckx, R. A.; Saerens, J.; De Deyn, P.P.; Verseigers, W.; Marien, P. and Vandevivere, J. (1991) Abstract J. Nucl. Med. 32 (8) 1619 – 1621 Evolution of technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT and brain mapping in a patient presenting with echolalia and palilalia. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1869990
* ↑ Ghika, J.; Bogpuslavsky, J.; Ghika-Schmidt, F. and Regli, F. (1996) Abstract J. Neurol. 3 (9) 633 – 637 "Echoing approval": a new speech disorder. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8892063
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Festination

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## Festination

Forced hurrying of walking, talking or thought.
The following references are relevant:-
Devos et al (2007) Improvement of gait by chronic, high doses of methylphenidate in patients with advanced Parkinson's disease
Hausdorff (2009) Gait dynamics in Parkinson’s disease: Common and distinct behavior among stride length, gait variability, and fractal-like scaling
Hove et al (2012) Interactive Rhythmic Auditory Stimulation Reinstates Natural 1/f Timing in Gait of Parkinson's Patients
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Flexion

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## Flexion

Bent or curved posture
The following references are relevant:-
Hong and Earhart (2010) Effects of Medication on Turning Deficits in Individuals with Parkinson's Disease
Mak et al (2011) Limb Collapse, Rather Than Instability, Causes Failure in Sit-to-Stand Performance Among Patients With Parkinson Disease
Xia et al (2011) Differentiation between the contributions of shortening reaction and stretch-induced inhibition to rigidity in Parkinson’s disease
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Dystonia

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## Dystonia

Sustained muscle contractions causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures.
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Freezing of gait

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## Freezing of gait

Inability to initiate locomotion
The following references are relevant:-
Morris et al (2010)
Striding Out With Parkinson Disease: Evidence-Based Physical Therapy for Gait Disorders
Maidan et al (2010)
Heart rate changes during freezing of gait in patients with Parkinson's disease
Espay et al(2012) “On” state freezing of gait in Parkinson disease - A paradoxical levodopa-induced complication

## Further Research

References
* ↑ Morris, Meg. E.; Martin, Clarissa L. and Schenkman, Margaret L.(2010) Full Text Phys. Ther. 90 (2) 280 – 288 Striding Out With Parkinson Disease: Evidence-Based Physical Therapy for Gait Disorders http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816030/
* ↑ Maidan, I; Plotnik, M.; Mirelman, M. Wess, A.; Giladi, N.; and Haudorff, J.M. (2010) Full Text Mov. Disord. 25 (14) 2346 -2354 Heart rate changes during freezing of gait http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964413/
* ↑ Espay, A.J.; Fasano, A.; van Nuenen, B.F.J.; Payne, M.M; Snijders, A.H. and Bloem, B.R. (2012) Full Text. Neurology 78 (7) 454 – 457 ”On” state freezing of gait in Parkinson disease - A paradoxical levodopa-induced complication http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3466608/
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Dysphasia

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Dysphasia
Difficulty in speaking
The following references are relevant:-
Colman et al (2011) Sentence Comprehension and Its Association with Executive Functions in Patients with Parkinson's Disease
Baylor et al (2012) A qualitative study of interference with communicative participation across communication disorders in adults
Fox et al(2012) LSVT LOUD and LSVT BIG: Behavioral Treatment Programs for Speech and Body Movement in Parkinson Disease
Further Research
References
* ↑ Colman, Katrien S.F.’ Koerts, Janneke; Stowe, Laurie A.; Leenders, Klaus L. and Basiaanse, Roelien (2011) Full Text Parkinsons Dis. 2011; 2011: 213983. Sentence Comprehension and Its Association with Executive Functions in Patients with Parkinson's Disease http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3202107/
* ↑ Baylor, Caroline; Burns, Michael; Eadie, Tanya; Britton, Deanna and Yorkston, Kathryn (2012) Full Text Am. J. Speech Lang Pathol. (20) (4) 269 – 287 A qualitative study of interference with communicative participation across communication disorders in adults http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3296484/
* ↑ Fox, Cynthis; Ebersbach, Georg; Ramig, Lorraine and Sapir, Shimon. (2012) Full Text Parkinsons Dis. 2012; 2012: 391946. LSVT LOUD and LSVT BIG: Behavioral Treatment Programs for Speech and Body Movement in Parkinson Disease http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3316992/
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Erethism

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Erethism
Pathological irritability or sensitivity of an organ or a body part.
This symptom (also known as Mad Hatter's Disease is commonly associated with mercury toxicity, (prevalent in hat manufacture) which is itself a noted causal risk for PD.
The following references are relevant:-
Critchley (1981) Speech disorders of Parkinsonism: a review.
Clarkson et al (2003) Human Exposure to Mercury: the Three Modern Dilemmas
Liu et al (2012) Occupational Neurotoxic Diseasesin Taiwan
Further Research
References
* ↑ Critchley, E.M. (1981) Full Text J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 44 (9) 751 – 758. Spech disorders of Parkinsonism: a review http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC491132/
* ↑ Clarkson, Thomas W.; Magos, Lazio and Myers, Gary J. font color="maroon">(2003) Abstract The Journal of Trace Elements in Experimental Medecine. 15 321 – 343 Human Exposure to Mercury: the Three Modern Dilemmas http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jtra.10050/abstract
* ↑ Liu, Chi-Hung, Huang, Chi-Yun and Huang, Chin-Chang (2012) Abstract Safety and Health at Work 3 94) 257 – 267 Occupational Neurotoxic Diseasesin Taiwanhttp://synapse.koreamed.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.5491/SHAW.2012.3.4.257&code=0193SHAW&vmode=FULL
# Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Symptoms/Foot Drop

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## Foot Drop or (Drop Foot)

Locomotion defect whereby the heel of a foot is raised from the ground while walking
The following references are relevant:-
Belfiore and Campanella (1994) A clinical sign of Parkinson's disease: the absence of lateral foot drop
Rogers et al (2011) Perturbations of ground support alter posture and locomotion coupling during step initiation in Parkinson's disease
The following references are relevant:-