OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Grove v Flavel

TL;DR: director who made use of information obtained as director to take steps to protect the director's own interests, to the detriment of other creditors of the company, acted improperly.

## Facts

* Director and entities associated with the director were owed money by the company.
* The company had other creditors.
* The director foresaw insolvency for the company, and so took steps to obtain payment of debts to the director and associated entities in preference to other creditors.
* The director was charged with and convicted of breaching the duties of a director.

## Held

* A director of an insolvent company (or a company at risk of insolvency) has a duty to consider the interests of creditors of the company.
** But the existence of duty to creditors independent of the duty to the company was rejected by High Court in Spies v The Queen (2000) 201 CLR 603, 635-637 [93]-[96].
* The director acted improperly.

## Other publishers' references

* (1986) 43 SASR 410
* (1986) 11 ACLR 161
* (1986) 4 ACLC 654
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Perpetual Executors and Trustees v Russell

* Perpetual Executors & Trustees Association of Australia Ltd v Russell
* [1931] HCA 7; (1931) 45 CLR 146
* Summary
* Equity does not simply nullify the Statute of Frauds.
* High Court of Australia
* on appeal from the Supreme Court of Victoria
* Duffy CJ
* Starke J
* McTiernan J
* Facts
* X leased land to D and granted D an option to buy the land, which D exercised. However, there was nothing in writing to satisfy the Statute of Frauds.
* X died. X's executor sued for a declaration that the land, never having being validly transferred to D, belonged to X's estate.
* Held
* The Statute of Frauds prohibits a defendant from relying on a non-complying agreement as a defence. (That is, just because you are a defendant rather than a plaintiff does not mean you are not trying to 'enforce' the agreement as prohibited by the Statute.)
* The mere existence of an agreement that does not comply with the Statute of Frauds does not by itself confer a right to specific performance of that agreement.
* Notes
* [1931] HCA 7
* (1931) 45 CLR 146
* Networked Knowledge Contract Law Casenote: Perpetual Executors & Trustees Association of Australia Ltd v Russell
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co

* Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company
* [1893] 1 QB 256, [1893] QB 256, [1892] EWCA Civ 1
* Summary
* An advert with certain terms for receiving a reward constitutes a binding unilateral offer that can be accepted by anyone who fulfilled the terms.
* Court of Appeal (Civil Division)
* Lindley LJ
* Bowen LJ
* Smith LJ
Facts
The defendant placed a newspaper advert stating:
£100 reward will be paid by the Carbolic Smoke Ball Company to any person who contracts the influenza after having used the ball three times daily for two weeks according to the printed directions supplied with each ball...£1000 is deposited with the Alliance Bank, shewing our sincerity in the matter.
Mrs Carlill bought and used some smoke balls, following the directions provided. She subsequently became ill with the flu and attempted to claim the £100 reward. :
* Held
* The advert constituted an offer of a unilateral contract. Mrs Carlill had accepted the offer by performing the attached conditions. The defence arguments were dismissed as follows:
* The £1,000 deposit showed an intention to enter legal relations and was not a mere sales puff.
* An offer can be made to the entire world.
* In unilateral contracts the offeree does not have to communicate an intention to accept, because acceptance is shown by full performance.
* Despite possible ambiguity in the wording, it is possible to apply a reasonable time limit or confining it to those who began ill with flu after using the balls.
* The use of the balls gave consideration to the defendants even if the balls had not been bought directly from them.
* Notes
* Wikisource has original text related to this resource:
* Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company
* The full decision on BAILII
* Simpson, A.W.B. (1985). "Quackery and Contract Law: The Case of the Carbolic Smoke Ball". Journal of Legal Studies 14 (2): 345–389. doi:10.1086/467776.  For a legal historian's discussion on the case.
* Collins, H. (2003). The Law of Contract: Law in Context (4th ed.). London: LexisNexis Butterworths. ISBN 0-406-94673-6.  For a critical and social analysis of the case and its place within 19th century free-market philosophy.
* Poole, J. (2003). Casebook on Contract Law (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926059-1.  For a basic discussion and analysis of the judgment.
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Donoghue v Stevenson

* Donoghue v Stevenson
* [1932] AC 562, [1932] UKHL 100, 1932 SC (HL) 31, [1931] UKHL 3
* Summary
* This case defined the modern concept of negligence, by establishing circumstances in which one party owes a duty of care to another party even if there are intervening third parties involved.
* House of Lords
* Buckmaster LJ
* Atkin LJ
* Tomlin LJ
* Thankerton LJ
* Macmillan LJ
* Facts
* Mrs Donoghue consumed some ginger beer, from an opaque bottle, bought by her friend. She poured the remainder onto ice cream. The bottle was found to contain a decomposed snail. Mrs Donoghue commenced a personal injury claim against the beer manufacturer, Mr Stevenson.
Held
The beer manufacturer owed a duty of care to Mrs Donoghue because she was the consumer of the ginger beer, and it was irrelevant that she had not bought the bottle. In particular, Lord Atkin stated that:
The rule that you are to love your neighbour becomes in law you must not injure your neighbour; and the lawyer's question "Who is my neighbour?" receives a restricted reply. You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who then in law is my neighbour? The answer seems to be persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called in question.
* Notes
* The full decision on BAILII
* Heuston, R. F. V. (1957). "Donoghue v. Stevenson in Retrospect". Modern Law Review (Wiley-Blackwell) 20 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2230.1957.tb00421.x. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2230.1957.tb00421.x/abstract. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Charles v Commissioner of Taxation

TL;DR: Monies received by a trustee and distributed to a beneficiary have the same character, for income tax purposes, in the beneficiary's hands as they had in the trustee's hands. Capital gains do not become ordinary income just because they flow through a trust.

## Facts

* The Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth) imposed tax on ordinary income but not on capital gains. In relation to amounts received by trustees, the Act imposed tax on the beneficiaries of the trust.
* The taxpayer held a unit in a unit trust which had been set up to hold investments in certain companies and securities. The trust deed required the trustee to pay out the 'cash produce' of the trust fund every six months.
* The trustee of the unit trust derived dividends and interest as well as proceeds from the sale of investments, and distributed this to the taxpayer.

## Held

* A unit holder's interest in a unit trust is distinct from a shareholder's interest in a company. A unit holder in a unit trust has a proprietary interest in the assets of the trust: 90 CLR 598, 609. [Note, this finding was read down in CPT Custodian v Commissioner of State Revenue (2005) 224 CLR 98.]
* Monies received by a trustee and distributed to a beneficiary have the same character, for income tax purposes, in the beneficiary's hands as they had in the trustee's hands. Capital gains do not become ordinary income just because they flow through a trust.

## Other publishers' references

* [1954] HCA 16
* (1954) 90 CLR 598
# Wikiversity Law Reports/Commissioner of Taxation v Anstis

TL;DR: Self-education expenses are deductible where the course of education is a condition of receiving an assessable government payment such as Youth Allowance

## Facts

* A taxpayer, 'A', was studying teaching and receiving Youth Allowance.
* A incurred self-education expenses including the purchase of textbooks.
* The Income Tax Assessment Act allowed a deduction from a taxpayer's taxable income.
* A claimed a deduction for these expenses. The Commissioner disallowed the deduction and disallowed an objection against that decision. The taxpayer appealed unsuccessfully to the Federal Court and Full Federal Court.

## Held

* Youth Allowance is ordinary income.
* The self-education expenses were incurred in the course of qualifying for, and thereby gaining, assessable income (being Youth Allowance)
* The self-education expenses were not private or domestic in nature because they were directly connected with the taxpayer's 'position' as a recipient of Youth Allowance, not just her existence as a human being.

## Other publishers' references

* [2010] HCA 40
* (2010) 241 CLR 443
* (2010) 272 ALR 1
* (2010) 76 ATR 735
* (2010) 85 ALJR 122
* [2010] ATC 20-221
# Wikiversity Law Reports/CPT Custodian v Commissioner of State Revenue

TL;DR: A unit holder in a unit trust does not have a right to freehold in land owned by the unit trust (but depending on what the trust deed says).

## Facts

* The Land Tax Act 1958 (Vic) imposed land tax on, among others, any person holding an 'estate of freehold in possession' (using the defined term 'owner' for such a person).
* The taxpayers were holders of units in unit trusts, the trustees of which owned land. In one case, a taxpayer owned all of the units in a trust, and in another case a taxpayer owned only 50% of the units in a trust.
* The Commissioner assessed the taxpayers to land tax on the land that they held through unit trusts. The taxpayers objected and their objections were disallowed. They appealed to the Supreme Court of Victoria, which allowed the appeals, finding that the unit holders were not owners of the land. The Commissioner appealed to the Court of Appeal, which found that the unit holders were only owners of land where they held 100% of the units in the unit trust that legally owned the land. This decision was appealed to the High Court.

## Held

* The question of what interest a beneficiary has in the assets of a trust are to be answered by reference to the particular terms of the trust in question, not by reference to some general concept of what a 'unit trust' is: 224 CLR 98, 109-110.
* The Act refers to an 'estate of freehold in possession', which is not just any interest, it is specifically an estate of freehold in possession: 224 CLR 98, 113-114.
* A beneficiary does not have an 'estate of freehold in possession' where they merely have an interest in a trust fund that may be invested in land and/or other investments, and their interest is a right of indemnity granted to the trustee and the manager of the trust under the trust deed: 224 CLR 98, 120.
* A unit holder in a unit trust like the ones in this case does not have an 'estate of freehold in possession', equitable or otherwise.
* Even if one person owns all the units in such a trust, they still don't have an estate of freehold in possession.

## Other publishers' references

* [2005] HCA 53
* (2005) 224 CLR 98
# SARSA
## Overview

SARSA is an algorithm for applying reinforcement learning in artificial neural networks (ANN).

## Exercise

We propose the construction of such an artificial neural network in order to understand the complicated concepts of this interesting field.

### Context

The ANN itself will represent a simple model of a rat's hippocampal place cells and action taking neurons when thrown into a Morris water maze. What is happening in the rat's brain as it learns to swim consistently straight to the platform after a couple of trials? At this point, science can't really answer this question in full detail. One can only speak of spatial learning, place learning, cognitive maps formation and memory in general. This project tries to place a simple mathematical model on these processes.

## The SARSA algorithm

We now explain how our ANN will be constructed. It will be structured of only 2 layers (a bit like a perceptron). One named the 'input layer' comprised of 100 neurons and a second titled the 'output layer' comprised of only 4 neurons. The input neurons (i) correspond to the fictional rat's place cells and are arranged in a grid of 10 by 10 covering the whole pool area. These neurons modulate their firing rate (Φ) according to the rat's position in the pool (s). Next, each of the four output neurons (a) have their own firing rate (Q) which is modulated solely by the activity of the input neurons to which they are connected. Every output neuron is connected to every input neuron with a different weight (w).
# SCCAP

This is the landing page for Wikiversity resources for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP). It links to convention resources and webinars that the society maintains.

## Resources

* Dealing with a School Shooting: Information that will be helpful to students, teachers, and families; with different resources for immediately afterwards and for the longer term.

### Evidence-based treatment videos

The following videos were produced by graduate students of University of Wyoming, and were supervised by Dr. Cynthia Hartung. These videos are a helpful introduction to several types of treatment that have been well-designed, with research supporting them.
* Modular Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Childhood Anxiety: Created by Lauren Zimmerman & Angeline Bottera
* Multifamily Psychoeducational Psychotherapy for Childhood Bipolar Spectrum Disorders: Created by Kandice Perry & Katy Richardson
* Trauma-Focused Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Children & Adolescents: Created by Kati Lear & Sarah Steinmetz
* Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adolescent Depression: Created by Brooke Merrow & Kendal Binion
* Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Created by Christopher Shelton & Ryan Kozina
* Coping Cat to Treat Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: Created by Andrea Slosser & Shira Kern
* Parent Management Training for Childhood Behavior Problems: Created by Adam Ripley & Alejandra Reyna
# Universal static boundary layers

The energy of or universe can be treated as a layered or graded black body radiator. The most convinent why to show this is to calculate heat capacity of the universe as a black body radiator. Temperature can be writen as dE/dS where E is the energy calculated from the pointing vector times the spacial distance of the layer at infinity or at the boundary. dE/dS = T^-1. So interms of life of these results we are scripted in terms of energy because of conservation. Due to complexity of the cube of the temperature for each layer and in particular the organic universal limit we are in thermal equilibrium with the highest order layer or grading. This is based on treating the boundary of energy at the maximum for our universe. The fact that there may be multiple extremes in the temperature profile of these boundaries an m-theory my be the result. This may arise in the distribution of space-time in terms of the moments of the distribution. There is a non uniform disribution of em radiation with compresion in the higherorder radiation like in the gamma wave band. Ie. GRBs ect. Coliders should show some sort of equilibrium with this boundary on temperature distributions. The moments of these distibutions are important to see if they are in a universal phase where the latent heat of fusion is constant or dynamic. Having a boundary mechanism is important for GUT because energy would be a constant for our universe. The perspective of a grading or layering scheme suggests that there is ordered symetry of our universe. Where the symetry first order layer would be consistent with first order particle superpositions. Ect. Through to high energy distributions. The energy of the gamma night sky for instance has a non uniform specific heat. It's symetry is consistent with creation of a type of particle because of thermal equilibrium on that waveband due to a boundary limit on our universe. That particle should have advancing decay lifetime due to the new life of our universe. This should be true of all of the layers. A layer produce a particle with a decay life time. Expect that each layer and particle be seperated by a latent heat of fusion such that each group of solid liquid gas contains one particle with a decay life time. The number of layers must be equal to the amount of particle abundance. Thus I propose a static layered boundary on energy for our universe which could contain a m-theory. A simple interpretation of this would be that the highest order complexity in our universe would be the living chemical boundary and thus an organic universal limit that all life must be in thermal statistical equlibrium. Like the metaclorian of Star Wars. So if you want you can call the boundary of our living universe in terms of energy as the metaclorian limit. Is this limit at highest energy as a function of space-time? Fiction science or science fiction? Astroparticle theory Dennis William Melton
# Universal Bibliography/Mathematics

See s:Category:Mathematics and w:Category:Works about mathematics
This part of the Universal Bibliography is a bibliography of mathematics.
General series
* Walter Ledermann (ed). Library of Mathematics. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Reviews: TLS, TES, Nature
* Addison-Wesley Series in Mathematics
* Chapman & Hall Mathematics
* R Brown and M A H Dempster (eds). Chapman and Hall Mathematics Series
* Ewing, Gehring and Halmos (eds). Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer Verlag
* Kelley and Halmos. The University Series in Undergraduate Mathematics. Van Nostrand Reinhold
* David A Towers (ed). Macmillan Mathematical Guides
* Paul A Smith and Samuel Eilenberg. Pure and Applied Mathematics: A Series of Textbooks and Monographs. Academic Press
* International Series in Pure and Applied Mathematics. McGraw Hill
* Schaum's Outline Series in Mathematics & Statistics. McGraw Hill
* McGraw Hill Series in Higher Mathematics
* Churchill Brown Series. McGraw Hill
* L Marder (ed). Problem Solvers. George Allen & Unwin
Linear algebra
* Seymour Lipschutz. Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Linear Algebra. McGraw Hill. 1968. 1974.
* Howard Anton. Elementary Linear Algebra. 7th Ed. John Wiley. 1994.
* Serge Lang. Introduction to Linear Algebra. Addison Wesley. 1970.
* A Mary Tropper. Linear Algebra. Nelson. 1969.
* P M Cohn. Elements of Linear Algebra. Chapman & Hall. 1994.
Linear analysis
Mathematics for scientists, engineers
Mathematics of science
Mathematical physics
* Boas. Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences.
* Margenau and Murphy. The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry. 1st Ed: 1943. 2nd Ed: 1956. Tenth reprint: 1976. GBooks: editions:ckaoI1Dpq9UC
* Bryron and Fuller. Mathematics of Classical and Quantum Physics.
# Universe

The universe is where everything, known to all of mankind, is. The Universe has fascinated the ancients. Where did we come from? How was the universe formed? Many religions proclaim that God created the Earth and the Heavens. But we want to know how it was created. According to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution we are descended from apes (see evolution for details). But Darwin had another theory that states that the universe was always here. But everything is created from something. So how was the universe created? The universe was created by a process called the Big Bang.

## The Big Bang

The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) is how most scientist believe is how the universe we know formed. Edwin Hubble discovered on day that some galaxies were moving away from us. This was a revolution in the history of science. But no one payed attention to him. But soon he was proven right.

## What is the universe?

The Universe is basically everything that we see. We live in the Universe. There may be other universes we do not know.
# Upper Limb Orthotics/Occupational hand therapy

This session will give you an overview of occupational therapy and hand therapy. You will then complete a number of tasks wearing the devices you made in enquiry 1. Completing these task will assist you to develop your understanding of task analysis, outcome measures and gain a deeper understanding of the limitations that exsist whilst using an orthosis.
# Upper Limb Orthotics/Lymphodema in the upper limb

This lecture will give you an understanding of the cause, effects and management of Lympheodema.
Some useful links include
* Best Practice for the management of Lyphoedema
* Australasian Lymphology Association
* Cancer Australia
# Upper Limb Orthotics/Low temperature wrist-hand orthoses

In this enquiry you will fabricate a number of hand orthoses during your practical class in week 3. You are to select the 2 best orthoses you have made (either 1 Hand Orthosis and 1 Wrist Hand Orthosis) and complete a self-critique of these. Use this marking matrix to complete your critque.
# Minimum package length vs maximum cable length
## Learning goals

* understand that the cable length has an influence to transfer rate
* understand that speed of light is responsible for the connection between cable length and transfer rate
* be able to calculate the maximum cable length for a given transfer rate
* understand that the cable length is part of the Ethernet protocol

## Script

Why Ethernet frame has to have a certain minimum length
The reason is that Ethernet is a non deterministic protocol. It means that any device on the network can start transferring data at any given time. The collision may happen. And what you want to achieve is that when you send data you want to occupy the entire shared medium. Imagine that you transfer 1 bit of data. Let’s assume that you have 100MBit/s Ethernet card. It means that you can send 100 million bits per second. So for sending 1 bit you need 10 nano seconds of time.
Transferring bit over the cable means that you put electromagnetic wave on the cable. The data spreads at the speed of light (the speed of light is approximately 300 million m/s). So we can multiply (speed of light*10ns). And what we see is 100MBit/s Ethernet device within 1 clock cycle the signal would have traveled something like 3 meters. That means that if you only put 1 bit on the cable and you want to occupy the entire network and medium than this medium should be shorter than 3 meters. But this doesn’t make sense.
Cables have to be 100 meters and longer. And the inventors of Ethernet said that let’s just have an Ethernet frame that has to have a certain minimum length. The data section of the Ethernet frame has to at least 46 bytes. So even if you want to send only 1 bit of data you still have to have payload of at least 46 bytes. Additionally there is 18 bytes for Header (14) and Checksum (4). So this makes 64 bytes=512 bits which is an amount of clock cycles that you occupy the wire when you start transferring Ethernet. If we 512 clock cycles * 3meters then we realize that can achieve a distance of 1500 m.
In real Ethernet the distance that will be supported is a little bit shorter to make sure that everything works fine. But we really want to occupy the cable all the time when you’re sending. You could have achieved this in various ways: - You could have made the cable shorter - You could have made the packages longer - You can also change the clock frequency
But one thing you cannot change is the speed of light --Jane Kruch (discuss • contribs) 10:41, 29 October 2013 (UTC)