OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fascia

See also Fascia (architecture) and Fascia on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​FASCIA (Latin for a bandage or fillet), a term used for many objects which resemble a band in shape; thus in anatomy it is applied to the layers of fibrous connective tissue which sheathe ​the muscles or cover various parts or organs in the body, and in zoology, and particularly in ornithology, to bands or stripes of colour. In architecture the word is used of the bands into which the architrave of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is subdivided; their origin would seem to have been derived from the superimposing of two or more beams of timber to span the opening between columns and to support a superincumbent weight; the upper beam projected slightly in front of the lower, and similar projections were continued in the stone or marble beam though in one block. In the Roman Corinthian order the fasciae, still projecting one in front of the other, were subdivided by small mouldings sometimes carved. The several bands are known as the first or upper fascia, the second or middle fascia and the third or lower fascia. The term is sometimes applied to flat projecting bands in Renaissance architecture when employed as string courses. It is also used, though more commonly in the form “facia,” of the band or plate over a shop-front, on which the name and occupation of the tradesman is written.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farthing

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​FARTHING (A.S. feórtha, fourth, +ing, diminutive), the smallest English coin, equal to the fourth of a penny. It became a regular part of the coinage from the reign of Edward I., and was, up to the reign of Mary, a silver coin. No farthing was struck in the reign of Elizabeth, but a silver three-farthing piece was issued in that reign, with a profile bust of the queen crowned, with a rose behind her head, and inscribed “E.D.G. Rosa sine spina.” The copper farthing was first introduced in the reign of James I., a patent being given to Lord Harington of Exton in 1613 for the issue of copper tokens of this denomination. It was nominally of six grains’ weight, but was usually heavier. Properly, however, the copper farthing dates from the reign of Charles II., in whose reign also was issued a tin farthing, with a small copper plug in the centre, and an inscription on the edge, “Nummorum famulus 1684.” No farthings were actually issued in the reign of Queen Anne, though a number of patterns were prepared (see Numismatics: medieval section, England). In 1860 the copper farthing was superseded by one struck in bronze. In 1842 a proclamation was issued giving currency to half-farthings, and there were several issues, but they were demonetized in 1869. In 1897 the practice was adopted of darkening farthings before issue, to prevent their being mistaken for half-sovereigns.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farthingale

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​FARTHINGALE (from the O. Fr. verdagalle, or vertugalle, a corruption of the Spanish name of the article, verdagado, from verdago, a rod or stick), a case or hoop, originally of bent rods, but afterwards made of whalebone, upon which were hung the voluminous skirts of a woman’s dress. The fashion was introduced into England from Spain in the 16th century. In its most exaggerated shape, at the beginning of the 17th century, the top of the farthingale formed a flat circular surface projecting at right angles to the bodice (see Costume).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farrer, Thomas Henry Farrer, 1st Baron

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​FARRER, THOMAS HENRY FARRER, 1st Baron (1819–1899), English civil servant and statistician, was the son of Thomas Farrer, a solicitor in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. Born in London on the 24th of June 1819, he was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1840. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1844, but retired from practice in the course of a few years. He entered the public service in 1850 as secretary to the naval (renamed in 1853 the marine) department of the Board of Trade. In 1865 he was promoted to be one of the joint secretaries of the Board of Trade, and in 1867 became permanent secretary. His tenure of this office, which he held for upwards of twenty years, was marked by many reforms and an energetic administration. Not only was he an advanced Liberal in politics, but an uncompromising Free-trader of the strictest school. He was created a baronet for his services at the Board of Trade in 1883, and in 1886 he retired from office. During the same year he published a work entitled Free Trade versus Fair Trade, in which he dealt with an economic controversy then greatly agitating the public mind. He had already, in 1883, written a volume on The State in its Relation to Trade. In 1889 he was co-opted by the Progressives an alderman of the London County Council, of which he became vice-chairman in 1890. His efficiency and ability in this capacity were warmly recognized; but in the course of time divergencies arose between his personal views and those of many of his colleagues. The tendency towards socialistic legislation which became apparent was quite at variance with his principles of individual enterprise and responsibility. He consequently resigned his position. In 1893 he was raised to the peerage. From this time forward he devoted much of his energy and leisure to advocating his views at the Cobden Club, the Political Economy Club, on the platform, and in the public press. Especially were his efforts directed against the opinions of the Fair Trade League, and upon this and other controversies on economic questions he wrote able, clear, and uncompromising letters, which left no doubt that he still adhered to the doctrines of free trade as advocated by its earliest exponents. In 1898 he published his Studies in Currency. He died at Abinger Hall, Dorking, on the 11th of October 1899. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son Thomas Cecil (b. 1859).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farrier and Farriery

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​FARRIER, and FARRIERY (from Lat. ferrarius, a blacksmith, ferrum, iron). Farrier is the name given generally either to the professional shoer of horses or in a more extended sense to a practitioner of the veterinary art; and farriery is the term for his business. Primarily the art of farriery is identical with that of the blacksmith, in so far as he makes and fixes shoes on horses (see Horse-Shoes); he is liable in law for negligence, as one who holds himself out as skilled; and he has a lien on the animal for his expenses. William the Conqueror is supposed to have introduced horse-shoeing into England, and the art had an important place through the middle ages, the days of chivalry, and the later developments of equitation. In modern times it has been closely allied with the general progress in veterinary science, and in the knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the horse’s foot and hoof.
See Fisher, The Farrier (1893); Lungwitz, Text-Book of Horse-shoeing (Eng. trans., 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farren, William

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​FARREN, WILLIAM (1786–1861), English actor, was born on the 13th of May 1786, the son of an actor (b. 1725) of the same name, who played leading rôles from 1784 to 1795 at Covent Garden. His first appearance on the stage was at Plymouth at the Theatre Royal, then under the management of his brother, in Love à la mode. His first London appearance was in 1818 at Covent Garden as Sir Peter Teazle, a part with which his name is always associated. He played at Covent Garden every winter until 1828, and began in 1824 a series of summer engagements at the Haymarket which also lasted some years. At these two theatres he played an immense variety of comedy characters. From 1828 until 1837 he was at Drury Lane, where he essayed a wider range, including Polonius and Caesar. He was again at Covent Garden for a few years, and next joined Benjamin Webster at the Haymarket, as stage-manager as well as actor. In 1843 at the close of his performance of the title-part in Mark Lemon’s Old Parr, he was stricken with paralysis on the stage. He was, however, able to reappear the following year, and he remained at the Haymarket ten years more, though his acting never again reached its former level. For a time he managed the Strand, and, 1850–1853, was lessee of the Olympic. During his later years he confined himself to old men parts, in which he was unrivalled. In 1855 he made his final appearance at the Haymarket, as Lord Ogleby in a scene from the Clandestine Marriage. He died in London on the 24th of September 1861. In 1825 he had married the actress Mrs Faucit, mother of Miss Helena Saville Faucit (Lady Martin), and he left two sons, Henry (1826–1860) and William (1825–1908), both actors. The former was the father of Ellen [Nellie] Farren (1848–1904), long famous for boy’s parts in Gaiety musical burlesques, in the days of Edward Terry and Fred Leslie. As Jack Sheppard, and in similar rôles, she had a unique position at the Gaiety, and was an unrivalled public favourite. From 1892 her health failed, and her retirement, coupled with Fred Leslie’s death, brought to an end the type of Gaiety burlesque associated with them.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fasces

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​FASCES, in Roman antiquities, bundles of elm or birch rods from which the head of an axe projected, fastened together by a red strap. Nothing is known of their origin, the tradition that represents them as borrowed by one of the kings from Etruria resting on insufficient grounds. As the emblem of official authority, they were carried by the lictors, in the left hand and on the left shoulder, before the higher Roman magistrates; at the funeral of a deceased magistrate they were carried behind the bier. The lictors and the fasces were so inseparably connected that they came to be used as synonymous terms. The fasces originally represented the power over life and limb possessed by the kings, and after the abolition of the monarchy, the consuls, like the kings, were preceded by twelve fasces. Within the precincts of the city the axe was removed, in recognition of the right of appeal (provocatio) to the people in a matter of life and death; outside Rome, however, each consul retained the axe, and was preceded by his own lictors, not merely by a single accensus (supernumerary), as was originally the case within the city when he was not officiating. Later, the lictors preceded the officiating consul, and walked behind the other. Valerius Publicola, the champion of popular rights, further established the custom that the fasces should be lowered before the people, as the real representatives of sovereignty (Livy ii. 7; Florus i. 9; Plutarch, Publicola, 10); lowering the fasces was also the manner in which an inferior saluted a superior magistrate. A dictator, as taking the place of the two consuls, had 24 fasces (including the axe even within the city); most of the other magistrates had fasces varying in number, with the exception of the censors, who, as possessing no executive authority, had none. Fasces were given to the Flamen Dialis and (after 42 B.C.) even to the Vestals. During the times of the republic, a victorious general, who had been saluted by the title of imperator by his soldiers, had his fasces crowned with laurel (Cicero, Pro Ligario, 3). Later, under the empire, when the emperor received the title for life on his accession, it became restricted to him, and the laurel was regarded as distinctive of the imperial fasces (see Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, i., 1887, p. 373).
# Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus/Chapter XIX

ASYMPTOTES. SINGULAR POINTS
150. Rectilinear asymtotes.. An asimptote to a curve is the limiting
position* of a tangent whose point of contact moves off an
infinite distance from the origin.
Thus, in the hyperbola, the asymptote
AB is the limitng position of the tangent
PT as the point of contact P moves off to the right to an infinite distance. In the case of algebraic curves the folowing definition is useful: as asymptote is the limiting potition of a secant as two points of intesection of the secant with a branch of the curve move off in the same direction along that branch to an infinite distance. For example, the asymptote AB is the limiting position of the secant PQ as P and Q move upwards to an infinite distance. 151. Asymptotes found by method of limiting intercepts.. The equation of the tangent to a curve at (x1,y1) is, by (1), p.76,
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Buhturī

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​BUHTURĪ [al-Walīd ibn ʽUbaid Allāh] (820–897), Arabian poet, was born at Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates. Like Abū Tammām, he was of the tribe of Tāi. While still young, he went to visit Abū Tammām at Horns, and by him was commended to the authorities at Maʽarrat un-Nuʽmān, who gave him a pension of 4000 dirhems (about £90) yearly. Later he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses in praise of the caliph Motawakkil and of the members of his court. Although long resident in Bagdad he devoted much of his poetry to the praise of Aleppo, and much of his love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a maiden of that city. He died at Manbij Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was collected and edited twice in the 10th century, arranged in one edition alphabetically (i.e. according to the last consonant in each line); in the other according to subjects. It was published in Constantinople (A.D. 1883). Like Abū Tammām he made a collection of early poems, known as the Hamāsa (index of the poems contained in it, in the Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol. 47, pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).
Biography in M‘G. de Slane’s translation of Ibn Khallikān’s Biographical Dictionary (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.; and in the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.  (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Buggy

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​BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four wheels (in America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one horse. American buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with a hood or open; among the varieties are the “Goddard” (the name of the inventor), the “box,” so called from the shape of the body, the “cut under,” i.e. cut out for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in a narrow space, the “end-spring” and “side-bar,” names referring to the style of hanging. A skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the American “speedways,” built and maintained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it may be connected with “bogie” (q.v.) a truck. The supposed Hindustani baggī, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an invention or an adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bugis

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​BUGIS, or Bughis, a people of Malayan stock, originally occupying only the kingdom of Boni in the south-western peninsula of the island of Celebes. From this district they spread over the whole island, and founded settlements throughout the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size and robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are brave, haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed towards “running amuck” than any other Malayans. They speak a language allied to that of the Macassars, and write it with similar characters. It has been studied, and its letters reproduced in type by Dr B. F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture more than the neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only for their own use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade in the mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust, tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns ​are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, and he cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some of the states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of the privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain rites connected with the worship of Siva. See further Boni; Celebes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bugti

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​BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about 15,500, who occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, between Jacobabad and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the north of them. Like the Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent race of people, fine horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against them was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were never brought under control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled Baluchistan. Since the construction of the railway, which completely outflanks their country, they have been fairly orderly.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Builders' Rites

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​BUILDERS’ RITES. Many people familiar with the ceremonies attendant on the laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise, may be at a loss to account for the actual origin of the custom in placing within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers, &c. The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found of the event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice as respects latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited in the hope that they will never be disturbed, and so another reason must be found for such an ancient survival. Whilst old customs continue, the reasons for them are ever changing, and certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones. Originally, it appears that living victims were selected as “a sacrifice to the gods,” and especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm remarks “It was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men in the foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure immovable stability.” There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome practice, both in savage and civilized communities. “The old pagan laid the foundation of his house and fortress in blood.” Under the walls of two round towers in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been discovered. In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built over a living human being, and when this became unlawful, images of living beings were substituted (Folk-Lore Journal, i. 23-24).
The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. Speth’s Builders’ Rites and Ceremonies (1893).  (W. J. H.*)
* ↑ Teutonic Mythology (1883–1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).
* ↑ Baring-Gould on “Foundations,” Murray’s Mag. (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bugge, Sophus

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​BUGGE, SOPHUS (1833–1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at Laurvik, Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at Christiania, Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of comparative philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In addition to collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the author of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His principal work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (Norroen Fornkvoedi), was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the Edda and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His writings also include Gamle Norske Folkeviser (1858), a collection of Old Norse folk-songs; Bidrag til den aeldste skaldedigtnings historie (Christiania, 1894); Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda (Copenhagen, 1896, Eng. trans., The Home of the Eddic Poems, 1899); Norsk Sagafortaelling op Sagaskrivning i Island (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July 1907.
For a further list of his works see J. B. Halvorsen, Norsk Forfatter-Lexikon, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Buhle, Johann Gottlieb

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​BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763–1821), German scholar and philosopher, was born at Brunswick, and educated at Göttingen. He became professor of philosophy at Göttingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous publications, ​the most important are the Handbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie (8 vols., 1796–1804), and Geschichte der neueren Philosophie (6 vols., 1800–1805). The latter, elaborate and well written, is lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v., 1791–1904).
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/El-Obeid

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EL-OBEID, Lobeid, or Obeidh, the chief town of the country of Kordofan, in Africa, and the seat of an Egyptian governor, is situated at a height of 1700 feet above the sea, at the foot of Jebel Kordofan, about 150 miles west of the Bahr-el Abiad, or White Nile, in 13° 15′ N. lat. and 30° 7′ E. long. It is scattered over a large area, and in fact consists of several distinct townships, each inhabited by a different race. Most of the houses are mere mud huts, which require to be rebuilt or extensively repaired every year after the rainy season; but, besides the governor's residence, there are three barracks, a gun-powder magazine, a hospital, and six mosques. Strong fences of thorny brushwood have to be maintained by every household as a protective against the wild beasts that invade the town by night. Though the wells have been sunk to a depth of nearly 100 feet, water is frequently scarce. The inhabitants make plaited work of palm-leaf fibres and beautiful silver filigree; and a considerable trade is carried on in gum, gold, and ivory with Darfur and other neighbouring countries. The population is estimated at from 12,000 to 20,000.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/El Rosario

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EL ROSARIO, a town of Mexico, in the state of Xinoloa, 55 miles east of Mazatlan. At one time its gold and silver mines attracted a large number of diggers, but they are no longer wrought, and it is now of importance chiefly as a depôt for the trade with Mazatlan and the interior. Population about 5000.