OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sonnino, Sidney, Baron

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​SONNINO, SIDNEY, Baron (1847-), Italian statesman and financier, was born at Florence on the 11th of March 1847. Entering the diplomatic service at an early age, he was appointed successively to the legations of Madrid, Vienna, Berlin and Versailles, but in 1871 returned to Italy, to devote himself to political and social studies. On his own initiative he conducted exhaustive inquiries into the conditions of the Sicilian peasants and of the Tuscan métayers, and in 1877 published in co-operation with Signor Leopoldo Franchetti a masterly work on Sicily (La Sicilia, Florence, 1877). In 1878 he founded a weekly economic review, La Rassegna Settimanale, which four years later he converted into a political daily journal. Elected deputy in 1880, he distinguished himself by trenchant criticism of Magliani's finance, and upon the fall of Magliani was for some months, in 1889, under-secretary of state for the treasury. In view of the severe monetary crisis of 1893 he was entrusted by Crispi with the portfolio of finance (December 1893), and in spite of determined opposition dealt energetically and successfully with the deficit of more than £6,000,000 then existing in the exchequer. By abolishing the illusory pensions fund, by applying and amending the Bank Laws, effecting economies, and increasing taxation upon corn, incomes from consolidated stock, salt and matches, he averted national bankruptcy, and placed Italian finance upon a sounder basis than at any time since the fall of the Right. Though averse from the policy of unlimited colonial expansion, he provided by a loan for the cost of the Abyssinian War in which the tactics of General Baratieri had involved the Crispi cabinet, but fell with Crispi after the disaster at Adowa (March 1896). Assuming then the leadership of the constitutional opposition, he combated the alliance between the Di Rudini cabinet and the subversive parties, criticized the financial schemes of the treasury minister, Luzzatti, and opposed the “democratic” finance of the first Pelloux administration as likely to endanger financial stability. After the modification of the Pelloux cabinet (May 1899) he became leader of the ministerial majority, and bore the brunt of the struggle against Socialist obstruction in connexion with the Public Safety Bill. Upon the formation of the Zanardelli cabinet Feb. 1901) he once more became leader of the constitutional opposition, and in the autumn of the year founded a daily organ, Il Giornale d'Italia, the better to propagate moderate Liberal ideas. Although highly esteemed for his integrity and genuine ability, it was not until February 1906 that he was called upon to form a ministry, on the fall of the Fortis cabinet. He immediately set about introducing certain urgent reforms, suppressed all subsidies to the press, and declared his intention of governing according to law and justice. In May, however, an adverse vote of the Chamber on a purely technical matter led to his resignation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sonpur

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​SONPUR, a feudatory state of India, in the Orissa division of Bengal, to which it was transferred from the Central Provinces ​in 1905. Area, 906 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 169,877, showing a decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue £8000, tribute £600. The chief is a Rajput of the Patna line. Rice and timber are exported, and iron ore is said to abound. The town of Sonpur is on the Mahanadi river just above the point where it enters Orissa. Pop. (1901), 8887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sonsonate

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​SONSONATE, the capital of the department of Sonsonate, Salvador; on the river Sensunapan and the railway from San Salvador to the Pacific port of Acajutla, 13 m. south. Pop. (1905), about 17,000. Sonsonate is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and one of the busiest manufacturing towns in the republic. It produces cotton cloth, pottery, mats and baskets, boots and shoes, sugar, starch, cigars and spirits. Through Acajutla it exports coffee and sugar, and imports grain for distribution to all parts of the interior.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sone

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​SONE, or Son, a river of central India which has been identified with the Erannoboas of the Greek geographers. With the exception of the Jumna it is the chief tributary of the Ganges on its right bank. It rises in the Amarkantak highlands about 3500 ft. above sea-level, the Nerbudda and Mahanadi also having their sources in the same table-land. From this point it flows north-west through an intricate mass of hills, until it strikes the Kaimur range, which constitutes the southern wall of the Gangetic plain. Here it turns east and continues in that direction until it falls into the Ganges about 10 m. above Patna, after a total course of 465 m. Its upper waters drain about 300 m. of wild hilly country, which has been imperfectly explored; while in its lower section of 160 m. it traverses the British districts of Mirzapur, Shahabad, Gaya and Patna. The Sone canals, fed by the river, form a great system of irrigation in the province of Behar. The headworks are situated at Dehri about 25 m. below the point where the river leaves the hilly ground. The weir across the Sone at this point is believed to be the longest constructed in a single unbroken piece of masonry, the length between abutments being 12,469 ft. A main canal is taken off on either bank of the river, and each of these is divided into branches, ​according to the requirements of the ground. The system consists of some 370 m. of canals and 1200 m. of distributaries, irrigating 555,000 acres. The Sone canals were begun in 1869, and came into operation in 1874; they form a valuable protection to the rice crop of Behar.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sonnenthal, Adolf von

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​SONNENTHAL, ADOLF VON (1834–1909), Austrian actor, was born at Jewish parentage in Budapest on the 21st of December 1834. Though brought up in penury and apprenticed to a working tailor, he yet cultivated the histrionic art, and was fortunate in receiving the support of a co-religionist, the actor Bogumil Dawison, who trained him for the stage. He made his first appearance at Temesvar in 1851, and after engagements at Hermannstadt and Graz came in the winter of 1855–1856 to Königsberg in Prussia, where his first performance was so successful that he was engaged by Heinrich Laube for the Burgtheater in Vienna, making his first appearance as Mortimer in Schiller's Maria Stuart. Under Laube's careful tuition he developed within three years into an actor of the first order, excelling both in tragedy and comedy; and in 1882, after 25 years of brilliant service at the Court Theatre, he was given a patent of nobility. In 1884 he became manager-in-chief of the theatre; and in 1887–1888 acted as artistic adviser. He visited the United States in 1885, and again in 1889 and 1902, achieving great success. His chief parts were Nathan in Lessing's Nathan der Weise, Wallenstein and Der Meister von Palmyra.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sonneberg

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​SONNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, situated in a narrow valley of the Thuringian forest, 13 m. by rail N.E. of Coburg. Pop. (1905), 15,003. It is famous for its manufacture of toys; its other industries are the making of glass and porcelain articles, electrical works and breweries. The town possesses a fine Gothic church, and a hydropathic establishment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newcastle (Pennsylvania)

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​NEWCASTLE, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Shenango river, at the mouth of Neshannock Creek, about 50 m. N.N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 11,600; (1900) 28,339, 5324 being foreign-born and 463 negroes; (1910) 36,280. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh, and the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie railways. Cascade Park, in the neighbourhood, is a pleasure resort. The surrounding country, with which the city has an extensive trade, is well adapted to agriculture, and abounds in bituminous coal, iron ore, limestone, sandstone and fire-clay. In 1905 the city ranked fifth among the cities of the state in the value of its factory product, and of its products (valued at $29,433,635, an increase of 47·1% since 1900) iron and steel, and tin and terne-plates were the most important. Newcastle was founded in 1802, became a borough in 1869, and was first chartered as a city in 1875, its charter being revised in 1887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newcastle (Ireland)

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​NEWCASTLE, a seaside resort of Co. Down, Ireland, finely situated on the western shore of Dundrum Bay, at the foot of Slieve Donard, the highest eminence of the Mourne Mountains. Pop. (1901) 1553. It is the terminus of the Belfast and County Down railway, being 36 m. S. of Belfast; and is also served by a branch of the Great Northern railway. A fort guarded the passage of the river Shimna here in early times, but the town is entirely modern. The sandy shore affords good bathing, there is a small spa, and the scenery of the Mournes is fine. The demesnes of Donard Lodge and Bryansford are of great beauty. The golf links of the County Down Club here are well known.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newcastle (New South Wales)

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​NEWCASTLE, a seaport of Northumberland county, New South Wales, Australia, at the mouth of the Hunter river, 102 m. by rail and 62 m. by sea N. by E. of Sydney, in 32° 55′ S., 151° 49′ E. Newcastle is the second city in New South Wales, the fourth port of Australia, and the seat of an Anglican bishop. The city rises steeply from the sea, and possesses numerous fine buildings, among which may be mentioned the railway station, post office, custom-house, the cathedral of Christ Church, the school of art with its large library, and the Victoria Theatre. There are also two state-subsidized hospitals, a college, a school of mines, a technological museum, several large and handsome churches, and numerous subsidized charitable institutions. Communication between the different parts is maintained by tramways, and steam ferry-boats ply between the city and its suburbs on the shores of the harbour. The industries include brewing, shipbuilding, copper and iron-founding, carriage-building and fellmongery; there are boot factories, engineering works, biscuit factories and smelting works at Cockle Creek. There is also a large trade in frozen meat. There are numerous coal mines in the vicinity, yielding coal of the finest quality. Newcastle has a fine harbour, with an area of 540 acres, protected by two breakwaters; the breadth of the channel at its entrance is 1200 ft., and the depth at the bar is 251/2 ft. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter and lie alongside of the wharves, which are 5 m. in extent, equipped with travelling cranes, hydraulic and steam cranes, lighted by electric light and connected with the Great Northern railway by a branch line. There is a floating dock to lift 2000 tons, and at Stockton there is a patent slip to take large vessels for repair. The facilities for the shipment of coal are excellent, and Newcastle is the chief coaling port in the southern hemisphere. The harbour is protected by two forts, Fort Scratchley, the strongest in Australia, and Shepherd’s Hill Fort. The city exports coal, wool, coke, horses, cattle, frozen meat, silver, lead, copper, tallow, hides and country produce. Newcastle returns three members to the legislative council and six members to the legislative assembly. Most of the suburbs are separate municipalities, namely, Stockton, Carrington, Wickham, Hamilton, Merewether, Adamstown, Waratah, New ​Lambton, Lambton, Wallsend and Plattsburg. The population of the municipality of Newcastle is 14,250; of the town and suburbs about 70,000.
The mouth of the Hunter river (named after Governor John Hunter), now known as Newcastle Harbour, was discovered in 1797 by Lieutenant John Shortland, who accompanied Hunter to New South Wales. For many years after its discovery it was used as a convict station. It became a free settlement in 1821, and in 1859 was erected into a municipality. The centenary of the landing of Shortland was celebrated in 1897, when a monument commemorating the event was erected.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newcomen, Matthew

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​NEWCOMEN, MATTHEW (c. 1610–1669), English nonconformist divine, was born about 1610 and educated at St John’s College, Cambridge (M.A. 1633). In 1636 he became lecturer at Dedham in Essex, and was the leader of the church reform party in that county. He assisted the elder Calamy in writing Smectymnuus (1641), and preached before parliament in 1643. He was a man of many gifts, excelling alike in preaching, in debate and in friendship, and declined many offers of more remunerative service. He protested against the extreme democratic proposals called “The Agreement of the People” (1647), and was one of the commissioners at the Savoy Synod of 1658. On the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662, Newcomen lost his living, but was soon invited to the pastorate at Leiden, where he was held in high esteem not only by his own people but by the university professors. He died of the plague in 1669.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanislau

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​STANISLAU (Polish, Stanislawow) , a town in Galicia, Austria, 87 m. S.E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 30,410, about half Jews. It possesses a beautiful parish church, which contains the tombs of the Potocki family. The principal industries include tanning, dyeing, tile-making, milling, the production of yeast and there is a large establishment for the manufacture of railway stock. Stanislau is an important railway junction, and has a considerable trade, principally in agricultural produce. Stanislau was founded by Stanislav Potocki (d. 1683), and has been newly rebuilt since it was devastated by a great fire in 1868.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanley, Sir William

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​STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548–1630), English soldier and traitor, was the eldest son of Sir Rowland Stanley (d. 1612) of Hooton, Cheshire, a member of the famous family of that name. As a volunteer under the duke of Alva he gained his earliest military experiences in the service of Spain; then about 1570 he joined the English forces in Ireland, where he remained for fifteen years, being knighted by Sir William Drury in,1579. He was very prominent in the guerrilla warfare against the Irish rebels; he was made sheriff of Cork, and he acted as deputy for Sir John Norris, the president of Munster, where by 300 executions he terrified the inhabitants "that a man now may travel the whole country and none to molest him." Having, says William Camden, "singulari fide et fortitudine in Hibernico bello moruerat," he returned to England in October 1585, undoubtedly annoyed that his services had not been more generously rewarded. In December of this year, however, he crossed to the Netherlands with the English forces, but almost as soon as he reached his destination he was sent to Ireland to collect recruits, of whom he enlisted about 1400. Although a strong Roman Catholic, Stanley had hitherto served Elizabeth loyally, but lingering in London on his return from his Irish errand, he seems to have entered into the schemes of the Jesuits against the queen, and he was probably aware of Anthony Babington's plot. But the time for more active and personal treachery had not yet arrived, and with his Irish levies he reached Holland in August 1586, fought gallantly at Zutphen and helped Sir William Pelham to seize Deventer. In spite of some remonstrances, Stanley was made governor of this town, being given extended powers by Leicester, and his opportunity had now come. In January 1587 he surrendered Deventer to the Spaniards, and while most of his men entered the Spanish service, he travelled to Madrid to discuss the projected invasion of England, his idea being to make Ireland the base for this undertaking. These and subsequent plans were ruined by the defeat of the Armada, but he made several journeys to Spain, and did not abandon the hope that England might be invaded. In the intervals between his travels he fought under the Spanish flag in the Netherlands and in France. Later he became governor of Mechlin, and he died at Ghent on the 3rd of March 1630. His descendant, William Stanley, was created a baronet in 1661, the male line of the family becoming extinct when Sir John Stanley-Errington, the 12th baronet, died in 1893.
See R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (1890), vol. iii.; and J. L. Motley, The United Netherlands (1904), vol. ii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stanley, Edward

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​STANLEY, EDWARD (1770-1849), bishop of Norwich, the younger brother of the 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley, was born in London and educated at St John's College, Cambridge (16th wrangler, 1802). He was ordained in 1802 and became rector of Alderley, Cheshire, three years later. Here he took a great interest in education, and encouraged especially the teaching of secular subjects at his school. In 1837 he was consecrated bishop of Norwich. The diocese at this time was conspicuous for laxity and want of discipline, and this he proceeded to remedy, although at first he met with much opposition. Ordinations and confirmations were held more regularly and frequently, the schools were properly inspected, the Plurality Act was enforced and undesirable clergy were removed. He was tolerant towards Dissenters and supported all missionary undertakings without regarding their sectarian associations. In politics he was a Liberal and devoted himself especially to educational questions. Dean Stanley (see above) was his third son.
Stanley's letters, Before and after Waterloo (edited by J. H. Adeane and M. Grenfell, 1907), are full of interest to students of Napoleonic history.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stannard, Joseph

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​STANNARD, JOSEPH (1796–1830), British painter, was born in Norwich. He there received some training in art from Robert Ladbrooke, the brother-in-law of Crome, and he also visited Holland and studied the pictures of the Dutch masters. His short life—he died when he was thirty-four—was spent in his native town, and he contributed to the exhibitions of the Norwich Society, of which he was a member, and also occasionally showed his work in London. Most of his pictures represent coast subjects or river scenes, but he had some reputation as a portrait-painter also, and in this branch of practice he achieved locally a fair measure of success. In his large picture, "The Annual Water Frolic at Thorpe," he combined landscape with portraiture. He attained no little skill as an etcher and published several plates which have a considerable degree of merit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mullah

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​MULLAH (Arabic maula, a term which originally expresses the legal bond connecting a former owner with his manumitted slave, both patron and client being called maula, and thus suggests the idea of patronage), in Mahommedan countries, a learned man, a teacher, a doctor of the law, In India the term is applied to the man who reads the Koran, and also to a Mussulman schoolmaster. In countries like Afghanistan the mullahs exert an influence over the populace which sometimes rivals that of the amir himself, and they have been responsible for many disturbances in Kabul. Among the democratic tribes of the north-west frontier of India they almost take the place of a secular chief. In the Indian frontier risings of 1897–98 the “mad mullah” of Swat led the attack upon the Malakand, while the Hadda mullah was largely responsible for the risings amongst the Mohmands, Afridis and Orakzais. The leader of the risings in Somaliland in 1899–1910 was similarly known as the “mad mullah.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mullion

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​MULLION (corrupted from “ munnion ”; this is derived from Fr. moignon, stump), in architecture, the English term for the perpendicular pieces of stone, sometimes like columns, sometimes like slender piers, which divide the bays or lights of windows or screen work from each other; equivalents are Fr. meneau, Ital. regolo, Ger. Fensterpfoste. H. Wedgwood (Dict. of Eng. Etym.) points out that the mullion is “the stump of the division before it breaks out into the tracery of the window.” In all styles, in less important work, the mullions are often ​simply plain chamfered, and more commonly have a flat hollow on each side. In larger buildings there is often a bead or bowtel on the edge, and often a single small column with a capital; these are more frequent in foreign work than in English. Instead of the bowtel they often finish with a sort of double ogee. As tracery grew richer, the windows were divided by a larger order of mullion, between which came a lesser or subordinate set of mullions, which ran into each other.