OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gerle, Christophe Antoine

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​GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE (1736–c. 1801), French revolutionist and mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Entering the Carthusian order early in life, he became prior of Laval-Dieu in Perche, and afterwards of Pont-Sainte-Marie at Moulins. Elected deputy to the states-general in 1789, Gerle became very popular, and though he had no seat in the assembly until after the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy suppléant, he is represented in David’s classic painting as taking part in it. In 1792 he was chosen elector of Paris. In the revolutionary turmoil Gerle developed a strong vein of mysticism, mingled with ideas of reform, and in June 1790 the prophetic powers of Suzanne Labrousse (1747–1821), a visionary who had predicted the Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice of the Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritualistic doctor and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a cabinetmaker, his mystical tendencies were strengthened. The insane fancies of Catherine Théot, a convent servant turned prophetess, who proclaimed herself the Virgin, the “Mother of God” and the “new Eve,” were eminently attractive to Gerle; in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at the meetings of the Théotists he officiated with the aged prophetess as co-president. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts were short-lived. The Théotists’ cult of Robespierre was a weapon in the hands of his opponents; and shortly after the festival of the Supreme Being, Vadier made a report to the Convention calling for the prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and others as fanatics and conspirators. They were arrested, thrown into prison and, in the confusion of Robespierre’s fall, apparently forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but Gerle, released by the Directory, became one of the editors of the Messager du soir, and was afterwards in the office of Pierre Bénézech (1775–1802), minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic vows in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of his life, Christine Raffet, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The date of his death is uncertain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poyet, Guillaume

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​POYET, GUILLAUME (1473-1548), French magistrate, was born at Angers. After practising successfully as a barrister at Angers and Paris, he was instructed by Louise of Savoy, mother of the king, Francis I., to uphold her rights against the constable de Bourbon in 1521. This was the beginning of his fortunes. Through the influence of the queen-mother he obtained the posts of advocate-general (1530) and president of the parlement of Paris (1534), and became chancellor of France in 1538. He was responsible for the legal reform contained in the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets (1539), the object of which was to shorten procedure. This ordered the keeping of registers of baptisms and deaths, and enjoined the exclusive use of the French language in legal procedure. With the constable de Montmorency he organized an intrigue to ruin Admiral Chabot, and procured his condemnation in 1541; but after the admiral was pardoned, Poyet was himself thrown into prison, deprived of his offices, and sentenced to a fine of 100,000 livres. He recovered his liberty in 1545, and died in April 1548.
See C. Porée, Guillaume Poyet (Angers, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poynings, Sir Edward

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​POYNINGS, SIR EDWARD (1459-1521), 'lord deputy of Ireland, was the only son of Robert Poynings, second son of the 5th Baron Poynings. His mother was a daughter of Sir William Paston, and some of her correspondence is to be found in the ​Paston Letters. Robert Poynings was implicated in Tack Cade's rebellion, and Edward was himself concerned in a Kentish rising against Richard III., which compelled him to escape to the Continent. He attached himself to Henry, earl of Richmond, afterwards King Henry VII., with whom he returned to England in 1485. By Henry VII. Poynings was employed in the wars on the Continent, and in I4Q3 he was made governor of Calais. In the following year he went to Ireland as lord deputy under the viceroyaity of Prince Henry, afterwards King Henry VIII. Poynings immediately set about Anglicizing the government of Ireland, which he -thoroughly accomplished, after inflicting punishment on, the powerful Irish clans who supported the imposture of Perkin Warbeck. He then summoned the celebrated parliament of Drogheda, which met in December 1494, and enacted the “Statutes of Drogheda,” famous in Irish history as “Poynings’s law” (see Statute: Ireland), which made the Irish legislature subordinate to, and completely dependent on, that of England, till its repeal in 1782. After defeating Perkin Warbeck at Waterford and driving him out of Ireland, Poynings returned to England in 1496, and was appointed warden of the Cinque Ports. He was employed both in military commands and in diplomatic missions abroad by Henry VII., and later by Henry VIII., his most important achievement being the successful negotiation of the “holy league” between England, Spain, the emperor, and the pope, in 1513. In 1520 he was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, in the arrangement of which he had taken an active part. He died in 1521. By his wife, Elizabeth Scot, Poynings left no surviving issue, and his estates passed through a collateral female line to the earl of Northumberland. He had several illegitimate children, one of whom, Thomas Poynings, was created Baron Poynings in 1545, but died in the same year without heirs.
See Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of King Henry VII. (London, 1641); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (2 vols., London, 1885); J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865); J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland (3 vols., London, 1872–1874); Wilhelm Busch, England under the Tudors, ed. by James Gairdner (London, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guzmics, Izidór

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​GUZMICS, IZIDÓR (1786–1839). Hungarian theologian, was born on the 7th of April 1786 at Vámos-Család, in the county of Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art of poetry by Paul Horváth. In October 1805 he entered the Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year, only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th of November 1806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the study of Greek under Farkas Tóth and in 1812 he was sent to Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the Nemzeti (National) Plutarkus, and in the translation of Johann Hübner’s Lexicon. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity in 1816, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological works are: A kath. anyaszentegyháznak hitbeli tanitása (The Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church), and A keresztényeknek vallásbeli egyesülésökröl (On Religious Unity among Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin treatise entitled Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia dogmatica (4 vols., Györ, 1828–1829). His translation of ​Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of the Oedipus of Sophocles and of the Iphigenia of Euripides were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonybél, a village in the county of Veszprém. There he built an asylum for 150 children, and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the 1st of September 1839.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guéridon

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​GUÉRIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported by a tall column or a human or mythological figure. This piece of furniture, often very graceful and elegant, originated in France towards the middle of the 17th century. In the beginning the table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure, and there is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic appellation of the young African groom or “tiger,” who was generally called “Guéridon,” or as we should say in English “Sambo.” The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the “Moor” when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours produced a very striking effect, and when a small table was supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive service was suggested with completeness. The guéridon is still occasionally seen in something approaching its original form; but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct of the French designer and artificer converted it into a far worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were several hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two they had taken an infinity of forms—columns, tripods, termini and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded. Silver, enamel, and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made, have been used for their construction. A variety of small “occasional” tables are now called in French guéridons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guérin, Jean Baptiste Paulin

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​GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783–1855), French painter, was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor parents. He learnt, as a lad, his father’s trade of a locksmith, whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school of art. Having sold some copies to a local amateur, Guérin started for Paris, where he came under the notice of Vincent, whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had a certain success. In 1812 he exhibited “Cain after the murder of Abel” (formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the Bourbons, was much employed in works of restoration and decoration at Versailles. His “Dead Christ” (Cathedral, Baltimore) obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was followed up by a long series of works, of which the following are the more noteworthy: “Christ on the knees of the Virgin” (1819); “Anchises and Venus” (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); “Ulysses and Minerva” (1824) (Musée de Rennes); “the Holy Family” (1829) (Cathedral, Toulon); and “Saint Catherine” (1838) (St Roch). In his treatment of subject, Guérin attempted to realize rococo graces of conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were attained by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais became widely popular. He died on the 19th of January 1855.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guébriant, Jean Baptiste Budes, Comte de

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​GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, Comte de (1602–1643), marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years’ War he commanded from 1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596–1641), the Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of Wolfenbüttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him the marshal’s bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded there on the 17th of November 1643.
A biography was published by Le Laboureur, Histoire du mareschal de Guébriant, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in Württembergische Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte (1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guéret

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​GUÉRET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse, situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058. Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned windows, Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce and lycées and training colleges, for both sexes. The industries include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce and cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded in the 7th century, and in later times became the capital of the district of Marche.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guyton de Morveau, Louis Bernard, Baron

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​GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, Baron (1737–1816), French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the university. As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devoting his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his Digressions académiques, in which he set forth his views on phlogiston, crystallization, &c., and two years later he established in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica, mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical nomenclature, which he published in the Journal de physique for May 1782, was ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the Méthode d’une nomenclature chimique, published in 1787, the principles of which were speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he published his reasons in the first volume of the section “Chymie, Pharmacie et Metallurgie” of the Encyclopédie méthodique (1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously. In 1791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in the following year of the National Convention, to which he was re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In 1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School, in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800 to 1814 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 1811 he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on the 2nd of January 1816.
Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals of the day, Guyton wrote Mémoire sur l’éducation publique (1762); a satirical poem entitled Le Rat iconoclaste, ou le Jésuite croqué (1763); Discours publics et éloges (1775–1782); Plaidoyers sur plusieurs questions de droit (1785); and Traité des moyens de désinfecter l’air (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine, and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at Dijon in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726–1785) and Jean François Durande (d. 1794) he also published the Élémens de chymie théorique et pratique (1776–1777).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guárico

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​GUÁRICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermúdez on the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate), 78,117. It extends across the northern llanos to the Orinoco and Apure rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle, horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are Camaguán (pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a small tributary of the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Carácas.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guyot, Yves

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​GUYOT, YVES (1843– ), French politician and economist, was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of L’Indépendant du midi of Nîmes, but joined the staff of La Rappel on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he suffered six months’ imprisonment. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of Paris and was rapporteur général of the budget of 1888. He became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E. Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published La Comédie protectionniste (1905; Eng. trans. The Comedy of Protection); La Science économique (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907); La Prostitution (1882); La Tyrannie socialiste (1893), all three translated into English; Les Conflits du travail et leur solution (1903); La Démocratie individualiste (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nikolayevsk (Russia)

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​NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Samara, on the right bank of the Irgiz, 40 m. from the Volga and 100 m. S.W. of the town of Samara. Pop. (1897) 12,524. Its inhabitants are mostly Raskolniks (i.e. Nonconformists), who have numerous monasteries along the river, and members of the United Greek Church, with about 2000 Tatars. The chief occupations are agriculture and live stock breeding.
Under the name of Mechetnoye, Nikolayevsk was founded in 1762 by Raskolniks who had fled to Poland and returned when Catherine II. undertook to grant them religious freedom. In 1828 serious persecutions began, with the result that the monasteries were closed with the exception of three, which were handed over in 1829 and 1836 to the United Greek Church. In 1835 the name of the town was changed to Nikolayevsk.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nikitin, Athanasius

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​NIKITIN, ATHANASIUS, of Tver (fl. 1468–1474), Russian merchant, traveller and writer, the earliest known Russian visitor to India. He started in 1468 on his “wanderings beyond the Three Seas” (Caspian, Euxine and Indian Ocean), and descended the Volga, passing by Uglich, Kostroma, Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Sarai and Astrakhan. Near the latter he was attacked and robbed by Tatars; but he succeeded in reaching Derbent, where he joined Vasili Papin, the envoy of Ivan III. of Moscow to the shah of Shirvan; from Nizhniy Novgorod he had travelled with Hasan Bey, the Shirvan shah’s ambassador, returning to his master with a present of falcons from Ivan. At Derbent Nikitin vainly endeavoured to get means of returning to Russia; failing in this, he went on to Batu, where he notices the “eternal fires,” and thence over the Caspian to Bokhara. Here he stayed six months, after which he made his way southward, with several prolonged stoppages, to the Persian Gulf, through Mazandaran province and the towns of Amul, Demavend, Ray (near Tehran), Kashan, Nain, Yezd, Sirjan, Tarun, Lar and Bandar, opposite New (or insular) Hormuz. From Hormuz he sailed by Muscat to Gujarat, Cambay and Chaul in western India. Landing at Chaul, he seems to have travelled to Umrut in Aurangabad province, south-east of Surat, and thence to Beder, the modern Ahmedabad. Here, and in adjacent regions, Nikitin spent nearly four years; from the little he tells us, he appears to have made his living by horse-dealing. From Beder he visited the Hindu sanctuary (“their Jerusalem”) of Perwattum. He returned to Russia by way of Calicut, Dabul, Muscat, Hormuz, Lar, Shiraz, Yezd, Isfahan, Kashan, Sultanieh, Tabriz, Trebizond and Kaffa (Theodosia) in the Crimea. He has left us descriptions of western Indian manners, customs, religion, court-ceremonies, festivals, warfare and trade, of some value; but the text is corrupt, and the narrative at its best is confused and meagre. His remarks on the trade of Hormuz, Cambay, Calicut, Dabul, Ceylon, Pegu and China; on royal progresses and other functions, both ecclesiastical and civil, at Beder; and on the wonders of the great fair at Perwattum—as well as his comparisons of things Russian and Indian—deserve special notice.
Two MSS. are known: (1) in the library of the cathedral of St Sophia in Novgorod; (2) in the library of the Troïtsa Monastery (Troitsko-Sergievskaya Lavra) near Moscow. See also the edition by Pavel Mikhailovich Stroev in Sofiiskii Vremennik (A.D. 862–1534), pt. ii. pp. 145-164 (Moscow, 1820–1821); and the English version in India in the 15th Century, pp. lxxiv.-lxxx.; 1-32 (separately paged, Nikitin’s being the third narrative in the volume, translated and edited by Count Wielhorski; London, Hakluyt Society, 1857). (C. R. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nikolayevsk (Siberia)

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​NIKOLAYEVSK, a town of East Siberia, in the Maritime province, on the left bank of the Amur, 20 m. above its outflow into the Gulf of Amur, in 53° 8′ N. Pop. (1897) 8200. It is defended by a fort and batteries. Founded in 1851, Nikolayevsk was formerly the capital of the Maritime province.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nikolsburg

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​NIKOLSBURG (Czech, Mikulov), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 53 m. S. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 8091. It is situated at the foot of the Polau Mountains and near the border of Lower Austria. It possesses a château of Prince Dietrichstein-Mensdorff, which contains an extensive library, with some valuable manuscripts. The Heiliger Berg, in the immediate vicinity, has sixteen chapels, and a church in the Byzantine style. The principal resources are viticulture, the manufacture of cloth, and trade in lime and limestone. On the 31st of December 1621 peace was concluded here between the emperor Ferdinand II. and Bethlen Gabor, prince of Transylvania; and on the 26th of July 1866 a preliminary treaty of peace between the Prussians and the Austrians was signed here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nikolayevskaya, Sloboda

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​NIKOLAYEVSKAYA, SLOBODA, a town of Russia in the government of Astrakhan, 3 m. from the left bank of the Volga, opposite Kamyshin, and 110 m. N. of Tsaritsyn. Pop. (1897) 20,000. It dates from the end of the 18th century, when a number of Little Russians settled there for the transport of salt from Lake Elton. It is one of the chief centres on the lower Volga for the trade in corn and salt.