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# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Aunoy, Marie Catharine Jumelle de Berneville, Comtesse d'

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AUNOY, MARIE CATHARINE JUMELLE DE BERNEVILLE, COMTESSE D',
Widow of the Count D'Aunoy, and niece of the celebrated Madame Desloges, died in 1705. She wrote with ease, though negligently, in the department of romance. People of a frivolous taste still read with pleasure her "Tales of the Fairies," four volumes in duodecimo, and especially her "Adventures of Hippolytus, Earl of Douglas," a story natural and interesting in the stvle, with abundance of the marvellous in the adventures. Her "Mémoires Historiques de ce qui c'est passé de plus Remarquable en Europe depuis 1672 jus qu'en 1679," are a medley of truth and falsehood. She wrote also "Memoirs of the Court of Spain," where she had lived with her mother, a work which presents us with no favourable idea of the Spanish nation. Her Memoirs of the Court of England," was rather better arranged; and a "History of John De Bourbon, Prince de Karency," in three volumes duodecimo, which is one of those historical romances that are the offspring of slender abilities joined to a warm imagination. Her husband, the Count d'Aunoy, being accused of high treason, by three Normans, very narrowly escaped with his head. One of his accusers, struck with remorse of conscience, declared the whole charge to be groundless. The countess died at Paris in January 1705, and left four daughters, one of whom, Madame de Hère, kept alive the family reputation, and was celebrated in verse for wit and talent. "The White Cat," "Cherry and Fair-star," "The Yellow Dwarf," "The Fair one with the Golden Locks," are among the Fairy tales written by le Comptesse d'Aunoy, and on these her principal claim to remembrance now rests; they have been much turned to account by writers of pantomimes and stage spectacles.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Aurelia

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AURELIA,
The wife of Caius Julius Caesar, and mother of the Dictator of the same name, may fairly take rank with Cornelia and other illustrious Roman mothers. She was a woman of excellent character, and carefully superintended the education of her son, who always exhibited towards her the greatest affection. It was in the year 63, B. C, that she had the satisfaction of seeing him elected Pontifex Maximus. Her parentage is not clearly ascertained, but Drumain conjectures that she was the daughter of M. Aurelius Cotta, and the sister of C. Aurelius Cotta, who was consul B. C. 75. Aurella lived to see her son consul, B. C. 59, and to hear of his exploits in Gaul; but after he left Rome for his province, she never beheld him more, dying B.C. 54, a short time before her grand-daughter Julia the wife of C. Pompeius.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Avogadro, Lucia

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AVOGADRO, LUCIA,
An Italian poetess, displayed early poetical talent, and won the praise even of Tasso. Only a few of her lyrics still remain, but they justify the praise that was bestowed upon her. She died in 1568.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Austin, Sarah

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AUSTIN, SARAH,
Belongs to a family of literary celebrity—the Taylors of Norwich. She is perhaps better acquainted with German literature than any living writer, not a native of Germany. She is also a good classical scholar, and generally accomplished. Her translations are numerous and successful: among them are "Ranke's History of the Popes," and "History of the Reformation." Her "Fragments from the German Prose Writers, illustrated with Biographical Notes" has attained considerable popularity, and gone through several editions.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/45

[Sidenote: (32) The Immunity, IX, 89.]
    45. "But the Apostle, and those who share his faith (Jáhadoo) exerted with their substance and their persons, and these ! good things await them and these are they who shall be happy."
       Sale ... "Expose their fortune and their lives."
       Rodwell ... "Contend with purse and person."
       Palmer ... "Are strenuous with their wealth and with their persons."
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/48

[Sidenote: (35) Ibid, 59.]
    48. "O ye who believe! should any of you desert his religion, God will then raise up a people whom He loveth, and who love Him, lowly towards the faithful, lofty to the unbelievers (Yojáhidoona) striving in the path of God, and not fearing the blame of the blamer. This is the Grace of God; on whom He will He bestoweth it, and God is all-embracing, Omniscient!"
       Sale ... "They shall fight for the religion of God."
       Rodwell ... "For the cause of God will they contend."
       Palmer ... "Strenuous in the way of God."
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/49

[Sidenote: Jihád does not mean the waging of war.]
49. These are all the verses of the Koran which contain the word "Jahd" or "Jihád," or any derivations from them. I believe that I have clearly shown by means of a careful comparison between the translators and commentators and the original passages in the Koran, that the word Jahd or Jihád in the classical Arabic and as used in the Koran does not mean waging war or fighting, but only to do one's utmost and to exert, labour or toil. The meaning which has come to be ascribed to the word is undoubtedly a conventional one, and is one that has been applied to it at a period much less recent than the revelation of the various chapters of the Koran.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/7

[Sidenote: In what sense they are used in the Koran.]
7. Out of the above, the verses containing the words "Jahd" and Johd,"—i.e., v, 58; vi, 109; xvi, 40; xxiv, 52; xxxv, 40; and ix, 80, marked *, are altogether out of dispute, as in all the former passages, except the last one, its obvious meaning is "most" or utmost solemn oaths, or most "energetic" oaths or strongest or most forcible oaths, and the latter signifies small provisions upon which a man possessing a little property can live with difficulty. The rest are of two kinds—first, the verses occurring in the Meccan Suras. As then the Moslems had not resorted to arms in their defence, though suffering from persecutions, Mohammadan commentators and jurists and Christian writers are unanimous in construing Jihád in its natural sense of exertion, effort, energy, and painstaking. Secondly, the verses containing the same words occurring in the Medina Suras, which were revealed or published when the Moslems had taken arms in their defence. As regards this period, the words are considered to have an entirely new and an altogether fortuitous meaning, viz., a religious war of aggression. Even some verses of this period are rendered by Mohammadans and Christians in the literal sense of the word.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Vide Rodwell's Translation of the Koran in loco.
* ↑ Vide Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon in loco.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/5

[Sidenote: The conjugation and declension of "Jahd" and Jihád]
5. The words "Jahd" and Jihád and their derivations, amounting to fourteen in number, occur in the following passages in the Koran:—
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/51

[Sidenote: Conclusion.]
51. I have already analysed all the verses containing these words (katal and kitál) in this book. What I have aimed at in the Appendix is to show that those authors and translators who cite certain verses of the Koran containing the word Jahd or Jihád and its derivations in support of their assertion, and that the Mohammadan religion sanctions the waging of war and the shedding of blood, are altogether in the wrong.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/47

[Sidenote: (34) Ibid, 58.]
    47. "And the faithful will say, 'Are these they who swore by God their (Jahda) utmost oath that they were surely on your side?' Vain their works; and they themselves shall come to ruin."
       Sale ... "Most firm."
       Rodwell ... "Most solemn."
       Palmer ... "Most strenuous."
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/6

[Sidenote: The number of instances in which they occur in the Koran.]
6. There are altogether 36 verses in the Koran containing the words noted above, in the following chapters and verses:—
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/46

[Sidenote: (33) The Table, V, 39.]
    46. "O ye who believe! fear God and desire union with Him and (Jáhidoo) toil on His path. It may be that you will obtain happiness."
       Sale ... "Fight."
       Rodwell ... "Contend earnestly."
       Palmer ... "Be strenuous."
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Appendix A/50

[Sidenote: Katal and Kitál.]
50. I do not mean to contend that the Koran does not contain injunctions to fight or wage war. There are many verses enjoining the Prophet's followers to prosecute a defensive war, but not one of aggression. The words "katal" and "kitál" distinctly indicate this.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheil, Richard Lalor

See also Richard Lalor Sheil on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SHEIL, RICHARD LALOR (1791–1851), Irish politician and writer, was born at Drumdowney, Tipperary, on the 17th of August 1791. His father, Edward Sheil, had acquired considerable wealth in Spain, and owned an estate in Tipperary. The son was taught French and Latin by the Abbé de Grimeau, a French refugee. He was then sent to a school in Kensington, London, presided over by another émigré, M. de Broglie. In October 1804 he was removed to Stonyhurst college, Lancashire, and in November 1807 entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he specially distinguished himself in the debates of the Historical Society. After taking his degree in 1811 he entered Lincoln's Inn, and was admitted to the Irish bar in 1814. His play of Adelaide, or the Emigrants, was played at the Crow Street theatre, Dublin, on the 19th of February 1814, with complete success, and on the 23rd of May 1816 it was performed at Covent Garden. The A postate, produced at the latter theatre on the 3rd of May 1817, firmly established his reputation as a dramatist. His principal other plays are Bellamira (written in 1818), Evadne (1819), Huguenot, produced in 1822, and Montini (1820). In 1822 he began, along with W. H. Curran, to contribute to the New Monthly Magazine a series of graphic and racy papers entitled Sketches of the Irish Bar. These were edited by M. W. Savage in 1855 in two volumes, under the title of Sketches Legal and Political. Sheil was one of the principal founders of the Catholic Association in 1823 and drew up the petition for inquiry into the mode of administering the laws in Ireland, which was presented in that year to both Houses of Parliament. In 1825 Sheil accompanied O'Connell to London to protest against the suppression of the Catholic Association. The protest was unsuccessful, but, although nominally dissolved, the association continued its propaganda after the defeat of the Catholic Relief Bill in 1825; and Sheil was one of O'Connell's leading supporters in the agitation persistently carried on till Catholic emancipation was granted in 1829. In the same year he was returned to Parliament for Milborne Port, and in 1831 for Louth. He took a prominent part in all the debates relating to Ireland, and although he was greater as a platform orator than as a debater, he gradually won the somewhat reluctant admiration of the House. In August 1839 he became vice-president of the board of trade in Lord Melbourne's ministry. After the accession of Lord John Russell to power in 1846 he was appointed master of the mint, and in 1850 he was appointed minister at the court of Tuscany. He died at Florence on the 23rd of May 1851.
See Memoirs of Rikhard Lalor Sheil, by W. Torrens M‘Cullagh (2 vols., 1855). His Speeches were edited in 1845 by Thomas McNevin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shelby, Isaac

See also Isaac Shelby on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SHELBY, ISAAC (1750–1826), American soldier and pioneer, was born at North Mountain, near Hagerstown, Maryland, on the 11th of December 1750. With his father, Evan Shelby (1720–1794), an emigrant from Wales, he removed to what is now Bristol, Tennessee, in 1771, and in 1774 took a conspicuous part in the battle of Point Pleasant. He was a surveyor in Kentucky for the Transylvania Company in 1775; became a captain of Virginia minute-men in 1776, and in 1777 became commissary with supervision over transportation of supplies from Staunton, Virginia, to the frontier. In 1779 he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates, but, by the line established between Virginia and North Carolina at this time, he became a resident of North Carolina and he was appointed colonel of the Sullivan county militia, which in 1780 he commanded in guerilla fighting, and he led the left centre of the American force at King's Mountain (October 7). He served under General Francis Marion in 1781, and in 1782 was a member of the North Carolina House of Commons. He was active in the movement for the erection of the state of Kentucky, was a member of the Kentucky Constitutional Convention of 1792, and was governor of the new state in 1792–1796 and in 1812–1816; in 1813 he commanded twelve Kentucky regiments at the battle of the Thames, and for his services received the thanks of Congress and a gold medal. In 1818 he was a commissioner with Andrew Jackson to the Chickasaws. He died on his estate in Lincoln county, Kentucky, on the 18th of July 1826.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheffield, John Baker Holroyd, 1st Earl of

See also John Baker Holroyd, 1st Earl of Sheffield on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, 1st Earl of (1735–1821), English politician, came of a Yorkshire family, a branch of which had settled in Ireland. He inherited considerable wealth, and in 1769 bought Sheffield Place in Sussex from Lord de la Warr. Having served in the army he entered the House of Commons in 1780, and in that year was prominent against Lord George Gordon and the rioters. In 1783 he was created an Irish peer as Baron Sheffield of Roscommon, a barony of the United Kingdom (Sheffield of Sheffield, Yorks) being added in 1802. In 1816 he was created Viscount Pevensey and earl of Sheffield. He was a great authority on farming, and in 1803 he was made president of the Board of Agriculture; but he is chiefly remembered as the friend of Gibbon (q.v.), whose works he afterwards edited. His son and grandson succeeded as 2nd and 3rd earls, the latter (1832–1909) being a well-known patron of cricket, at whose death the earldom became extinct. The Irish barony, however, under a special remainder, passed to the 4th baron Stanley of Alderley, who thus became Baron Sheffield of Roscommon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheerness

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​SHEERNESS, a garrison town and naval seaport in the Faversham parliamentary division of Kent, England, in the Isle of Sheppey, on the right bank of the Medway estuary at its junction with the Thames, 51 m. E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 18,179. Blue Town, the older part of the town, with the dockyard, is defended by strong modern-built fortifications, especially the forts of Garrison Point and Barton's Point, commanding the entrance of both the Thames and the Medway. The dockyard, chiefly used for naval repairs, covers about 60 acres, and consists of three basins and large docks, the depth of water in the basins ranging down to 26 ft. Within the yard there are extensive naval stores and barracks. Outside, the dockyard are the residences of the admiral of the home fleet and other officers, and barracks. The harbour is spacious, sheltered, and deep even at low water. Sheerness has some trade in corn and seed, and there is steamboat connexion with Port Victoria, on the opposite side of the Medway; with Southend, on the opposite side of the Thames; and with Chatham and London, and the town is in some favour as a seaside resort. A small fort was built at Sheerness by Charles II., which, on the 10th of July 1667, was taken by the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheet

See also sheet on Wikipedia; sheet on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SHEET, an expanse or surface, flat and thin, of various materials; a rope attached to a sail. These two apparently widely separated meanings are to be explained by the generally received etymology. In O. Eng. there are three words, all from the root seen in “shoot,” to dart, let fly, thrust forward; scete or scȳte, a sheet of cloth, sceat, corner or fold of a garment, projecting angles, region (e.g. sæs scādt, portion of the sea, gulf, bay), and scēata, foot of a sail, pes veli (Wright, Gloss.). The original meaning, according to Skeat, is “projection,” or that which shoots out, then a corner, especially of a garment or of a cloth; after which it was extended to mean a whole cloth or “sheet.” In Icelandic, the cognate word skaut has much the same meanings, including that of a rope attached to a sail. Other cognate forms in Teutonic languages are Ger. Schoss, lap, bosom, properly fold of a garment, Dutch schoot, Icel. skaut, &c. In current English usage, “sheet” is commonly applied to any flat, thin surface, such as a sheet of paper, a sheet of metal, or, in a transferred application, to an expanse of water, ice, fire, &c. More specifically it is used of a rectangular piece of linen or cotton used as that part of the usual bed clothes which are next the sleeper's body. In nautical usage the term “sheet” is applied to a rope or chain attached to the lower corners of a sail for the purpose of extension or change of direction (see Rigging. The connexion in derivation with “shoot” is clearly seen in “sheet-anchor,” earlier “shoot-anchor”—one that is kept in reserve, to be “shot” in case of emergency (see Anchor).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheikh

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​SHEIKH, or Shaikh, an Arabic title of respect. Strictly it means a venerable man, of more than fifty years of age. It is specially borne by heads of religious orders, chiefs of ​tribes and headmen of villages. Every village, however small, every separate quarter of a town, has a sheikh in whom is lodged the executive power of government power loosely defined, and of more or less extent according to the personal character and means of the individual who wields it. A village sheikh is a sort of head magistrate and chief of police. The Koran, the sole authentic authority in all matters, legal or civil, never accurately distinguished between the sheikh and the cadi (q.v.), and its phrases, besides, are Vague and capable of admitting different and even opposite interpretations. (For the Sheikh ul-Islam see Mufti.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shekel

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SHEKEL (from Heb. shakal, to weigh), originally a Jewish unit of weight ($^1$⁄$_{50}$ of a mina, and $^1$⁄$_{3000}$ of a talent) and afterwards a coin of the same weight. The Biblical references to shekels must refer to uncoined ingots. In the time of Josephus it seems that the light shekel weighed from 210 to 210.55 grains; the heavy shekel was twice that amount, which is practically identical with the Phoenician weight (224.4 grains). It corresponds to 1s. 4$^1$⁄$_2$d. and 2s. 9d. respectively in English silver. Jewish shekels were first coined by Simon the Hasmonean, probably in 139-138 B.C. These bear inscriptions in the archaic Hebrew and various emblems, such as the cup or chalice, the lily branch with three flowers, the candlestick, the citron and palm branch and so forth. They never bear the portraits of rulers or figures of animals. A later series of shekels, belonging to the Roman period, are tetradrachms, "which came from the mints of Caesarea and Antioch, and were used as blanks on which to impress Jewish types." Hence in Matt. xvi. 24 the temple tax of half a shekel is called a didrachm (2 drams). In 2 Samuel xiv. 26 we read of "shekels after the King's weight." The royal norm was heavier than the common norm. The Hebrews divided the shekel into 20 parts, each of which was called a gerah. (See also Numismatics.)
See articles in Encly. Bibl. col. 4442, and Hastings' Dict. of the Bible, ii. 417 seq.; F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881); T. Reinach, Jewish Coins (1903).
(I. A.)
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Gonzaga, Barba von

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GONZAGA, BARBA VON,
Duchess of Wurtemburg, was the daughter of Louis the Third, Duke of Mantua. She married the Duke of Wurtemburg, Eberhard with the beard, in the year 1474. A devoted student herself, she became the patroness of learning and literary men in her husband's domain. Through her influence was the university of Zuliengen established. She died, 1505, mourned by her subjects, and by the whole literary world.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Gonzaga, Cecilia de

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GONZAGA, CECILIA DE,
An Italian lady of high birth, gave proofs, even when a child, of a remarkable fondness for learning. Her father, John Francis Gonzaga, Lord of Mantua, procured the best masters to instruct her, and at the age of eight she is said to have known Greek. She was religious and charitable as well as learned, gave marriage portions to poor young women, and repaired and beautified convents and churches; in order to do this, she was obliged to use the greatest self-denial in her personal expenses. Her father, for a long time, resisted her desire of taking the veil, but he at length ​gave a reluctant consent to the irrevocable step which cut her off for ever from the active pursuits of life. She was born about 1422.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Gonzaga-Colonna, Julia

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GONZAGA-COLONNA, JULIA,
Duchess of Traietto, and Countess of Fondi, was married, when very young, to Duke Vespasian Colonna, a man older than her father; but it seems he gained her heart. She was, in a few years after her marriage, left a widow, rich, exceedingly beautiful, and "the great attractions of her person were surpassed, if possible, by the qualifications of her mind." The first noblemen in Italy made proposals for her hand; but notwithstanding the duke her husband had been old and infirm, she paid the highest respect to his memory, and determined never to marry a second time. The fame of her charms extended beyond her own country, and at length reached the Ottoman Porte. The Sultan, Soliman the Second, determined to obtain her by force, as he could not gain her by other means. The commander of his navy, Ariadne Barbarossa, undertook to seize and carry her off; arriving at Fondi in the night, with two thousand soldiers, he found little difficulty in scaling the walls. The inhabitants of Fondi, alarmed by the appearance of the invaders, and ignorant of the purpose for which they had come, rushed out of their houses, uttering the most doleful shrieks. The beauful duchess, awakened by these cries of terror, escaped from her chamber-window, and fled to the mountains, where she was assailed by fresh terrors, for a desperate banditti made these mountains their haunt. She fell into their hands; but, moved by her appeals, or restrained by divine providence, these outcasts treated her with respect, and restored her to freedom.
The duchess devoted her time chiefly to literature, and her genius, beauty, and virtues, gained her many flattering tributes from the distinguished philosophers and poets of that age. Bernardo Tasso, father of Torquato, complimented her by name in his "Amadis;" and after her decease, which occurred April 19th., 1566, Ariosto thus commemorates her:—
"Giulia Gonzaga che doTxmque il piede Volge e dovunque i sereni occhi gira Non pur ogn' altxa di belt& la cede, Ma come Dea dal ceil scesa l’ammira."
Julia was suspected of Lutheranism; and though she never acknowledged this, yet as she died without the usual Catholic ceremonies, the presumption is, that she was Protestant in her heart.