OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ryot

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​RYOT, or Rayat (from the Arabic ra’a, “to pasture”), properly a subject, then a tenant of the soil. The word is used throughout India for the general body of cultivators; but it has a special meaning in different provinces. The ryotwari tenure is one of the two main revenue systems in India. Where the land revenue is imposed on an individual or community owning an estate, and occupying a position analogous to that of a landlord, the assessment is known as zamindari; and where the land revenue is imposed on individuals who are. the actual occupants, the assessment is known as ryotwari. Under zamindari tenure the land is held as independent property; while under ryotwari tenure it is held of the crown in a right of occupancy, which is under. British rule both heritable and transferable. The former system prevails in northern and central India, and the latter in Bombay, Madras, Assam and Burma.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ryland, William Wynne

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​RYLAND, WILLIAM WYNNE (1738–1783), English engraver, was born in London in July 1738, the son of an engraver and copper-plate printer. He studied under Ravenet, and in Paris under Boucher and J. P. le Bas. After spending five years on the continent he returned to England, and having engraved portraits of George III. and Lord Bute after Ramsay, and a portrait of Queen Charlotte and the Princess Royal after Francis Cotes, R.A., he was appointed engraver to the king. In 1766 he became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and he exhibited with them and in the Royal Academy. In his later life Ryland abandoned line-engraving, and introduced " chalk-engraving," in which the line is composed of stippled dots, and in which he transcribed Mortimer's " King John Signing Magna Charta," and copied the drawings of the old masters and the works of Angelica Kauffman. In consequence of his extravagant habits his affairs became involved; he was convicted of forging bills upon the East India Company, and, after attempting to commit suicide, was executed at Tyburn on the 29th of August 1783.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rylsk

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​RYLSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kursk, 71 m. by rail W.S.W. of the town of Kursk. It is connected by a branch line with the Kursk-Kiev railway. Pop. (1897) 11,415. It has oil works, blast furnaces, and manufactories of soap and tallow, and an active trade in corn, hemp, and scythes imported from Austria. It was founded in the 9th century, and is frequently mentioned in the annals from 1152 onwards. Its cathedral was built in the 15th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ryswick, Treaty of

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​RYSWICK, TREATY OF, the peace which in 1697 ended the war between France on the one side and the Empire, England, Spain and Holland, on the other. Begun in 1689 under the leadership of the new king of England, William III., its object was to put a check on the ambitious designs of Louis XIV., and it raged in the Netherlands, the Rhineland, Italy, Ireland and Spain, in India and America and on the sea (see Grand Alliance, War of the). Negotiations for peace had begun in 1696, but they were soon broken off, William III. and the English parliament at this time refusing to treat except “with our swords in our hands.” But in May 1697 they were renewed under the mediation of the king of Sweden. The French representatives had their headquarters at the Hague and those of the allies at Delft, the conferences between them taking place at Ryswick. For the first few weeks no result was reached, and in June William III. and Louis XIV., the protagonists in the struggle, each appointed one representative to meet together privately. The two chosen were William Bentinck, earl of Portland, and marshal Boulilers, and they soon drew up the terms of an agreement, to which, however, the emperor Leopold I. and the king of Spain would not assent. But in a short time Spain gave way, and on the 20th of September 1697 a treaty of peace was signed between France and the three powers, England, Spain and Holland, the Empire still holding aloof. William then persuaded Leopold to make peace, and a treaty between France and the Empire was signed on the 30th of October following.
The basis of the peace was that all towns and districts seized since the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1679 should be restored. Then France surrendered Freiburg, Breisach and Philippsburg to Germany, although she kept Strassburg. On the other hand, she regained Pondicherry and Nova Scotia, while Spain recovered Catalonia, and the barrier fortresses of Mons, Luxemburg and Courtrai. The duchy of Lorraine, which for many years had been in the possession of France, was restored to Leopold Joseph, a son of duke Charles V., and the Dutch were to be allowed to garrison some of the chief fortresses in the Netherlands, including Namur and Ypres. Louis undertook to recognize William as king of England, and promised to give no further assistance to James II.; he abandoned his interference in the electorate of Cologne and also the claim which he had put forward to some of the lands of the Rhenish Palatinate.
For further details see C. W. von Koch and F. Scholl, Histoire abregée des traités de paix (1817–18); A. Moetjens, Artes et mémoires de la paix de Ryswick (The Hague, 1725); A. Legrelle, Notes et documents sur la paix de Ryswick (Lille, 1894); and H. Vast, Les Grands Traités du règne de Louis XIV (Paris, 1893–99). See also L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte, English translation as History of England (Oxford, 1875).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ryezhitsa

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​RYEZHITSA, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, 150 m. N.W. from the town of Vitebsk and on the railway between St Petersburg and Warsaw. Its population increased from 7306 in 1867 to 10,681 in 1897; but its importance is mainly historical. The cathedral is a modern building (1846). Ryezhitsa, or, as it is called in the Livonian chronicles, Roziten, was founded in 1285 by the Teutonic Knights to keep in subjection the Lithuanians and Letts. The castle was continually the object of hostile attacks. In 1561 the Teutonic Knights gave it in pawn to Poland, and, though it was captured by the Russians in 1567 and 1577, and had its fortifications dismantled by the Swedes during the war of 1656–60, it continued Polish till 1773, when White Russia was united with the Russian empire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Self

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​ SELF (O.Eng. seolf, silf, &c., cf. Dutch zelf, Ger. selbe, selbst), as a pronoun, an element attached to a personal pronoun or pronominal adjective to give emphasis, or to indicate a reflexive use; as an adjective a word properly meaning same, identical, also very (seen in the expression “self-same”), hence single, plain, not mixed with another colour. It is also a florist's term for a flower which has uniformity of tint, without markings or other tints. As a noun “self” means one's own person; for the psychological use of the term see Psychology, &c., and for its ethical aspect Egoism.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson

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​ SELIGMAN, EDWIN ROBERT ANDERSON (1861– ), American economist, was born at New York on the 25th of April 1861. He was educated at Columbia University, and, after studying for three years in Germany and France, became prize lecturer at Columbia University in 1885, being made adjunct professor of political economy in 1888. He became McVickar professor of political economy in the same university in 1904. His principal works are Railway Tariffs (1887), The Shifting and Incidence of Taxation (1899; 3rd ed., 1910), Progressive Taxation in Theory and Practice (1894; 2nd ed. 1908), Economic Interpretation of History (1902; 2nd ed. 1907), and Principles of Economics (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Selby, William Court Gully, 1st Viscount

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​SELBY, WILLIAM COURT GULLY, 1st Viscount (1835-1909), Speaker of the British House of Commons, was born on the 29th of August 1835, the son of Dr James Manby Gully of Malvern. His grandfather was Daniel Gully, a Jamaican coffee planter, He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was president of the Union. He was called to the bar in 1860, went the northern circuit, and took silk in 1877. In 1880 and 1885 he unsuccessfully contested Whitehaven as a Liberal, but was elected for Carlisle in 1886, and continued to represent that constituency until his elevation to the peerage. In April 1895 he was elected Speaker by a majority of eleven votes over Sir Matthew White Ridley (cr. Viscount Ridley, 1900), the Unionist nominee. In 1905 he resigned and was raised to the peerage with the title of Viscount Selby, the name being that of his wife, Miss Elizabeth Selby (d. 1906), whom he married in 1865. He died on the 6th of November 1909, and was succeeded by his son, James William Herschell Gully (b. 1867).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Selenga-Orkhon

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​SELENGA-ORKHON, a river of Central Asia, which rises in two principal head-streams, the Selenga and the Orkhon, on the plateau of N.W. Mongolia, not far apart in 101° E. Both flow generally E.N.E. as far as their conliuence near Kiakhta, on the frontier of Mongolia and Siberia, at the eastern extremity of the Sayan Mountains. Beyond Kiakhta the river flows generally N. nearly as far as 52° N., when it turns W. and enters Lake Baikal on the S.W., forming a delta. It is navigable from Kiakhta downwards, a distance of 210 m., its total length being 750 m. From the left it receives the Eghin-gol and the Jida, and from the right the Tala, Kharagoy, Chikoy, Khilok and Uda, streams each 150 to 300 m. in length. Near the upper Orkhon was the permanent camp of Karakorum, from the 8th century down to the end of the 13th the centre of the Mongol power, especially under the sway of Jenghiz Khan and his son Ogotai or Ogdai in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Several remarkable inscriptions were discovered here in the end of the 19th century, and were interpreted by Professor V. Thomsen of Copenhagen Inscriptions de l'Orkhon (Helsingfors, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saw-fly

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​SAW-FLY, the name given to the members of a well-known subdivision (Symphyta) of the Hymenoptera characterized by possessing a sessile abdomen which hides the base of the posterior legs. The antennae vary in their structure and in the number of their joints. Two of the processes of the ovipositor are modified to form saws, which when at rest lie in a sheath formed of two other processes which are modified into protective structures or valves. The larvae are usually caterpillars, but may be distinguished from the caterpillars of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) by the greater number of their abdominal pro-legs; usually 6, to 8 pairs are present. When alarmed they roll themselves up in a spiral fashion; some also discharge a thin fluid from lateral pores situated above the spiracles. The females place their eggs in small incisions made by means of their saws in the soft parts of leaves. Usually one egg is placed in each slit. Some species merely attach their eggs in strings to the exterior of the leaves. With each incision a drop of fluid is usually excreted, which serves to excite a flow of sap to the wounded part. The egg is said to absorb this sap, and so to increase in size. One genus (Nematus) alone forms galls. These occur in the young leaves of the willow, a tree which the true gall-flies do not attack. Nematus ventricosus resembles the bees and wasps in the fact that the parthenogenetic ova produce only males; as a rule in the animal kingdom the absence of fertilization results in the production of females.
Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum). Saw-Fly (magnified, with lines to left showing natural size), caterpillars, pupa and pupa-case.
The injury which the saw-flies inflict upon crops or young trees is almost entirely brought about by the voracious habits of the larvae. These possess well-developed mouth-appendages, by means of which they gnaw their way out of the leaf in which they have been hatched, and then eat it. In this way the turnip saw-fly (Athalia spinarum), not to be confused with the turnip “fly,” a beetle (Phyllotreta nemorum), attacks the leaves of the turnip, often com letely consuming the leafage of acres at a time. The pine saw-fly (Lophyrus pini) causes great damage to plantations of young Scotch firs, devouring the buds, the leaves and even the bark of the young shoots. Other species infest currant and gooseberry bushes, consuming the soft parts of the leaves, and leaving only the tough veins. The only remedy in most cases is to collect and kill the larvae when they first appear, or to spray the plants with some arsenical, wash. The best known family of saw-flies is that of the Tenthredinidae, most of whose caterpillars feed on leaves. The larvae of other families—the Cephidae and Siricidae-are internal feeders, burrowing in succulent ​or woody stems, and their limbs are in an extremely reduced condition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Savory, Sir William Scovell

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​SAVORY, SIR WILLIAM SCOVELL, Bart. (1826–1895), British surgeon, was born on the 30th of November 1826, in London. He entered St Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1844, becoming M.R.C.S. in 1847, and F.R.C.S. in 1852. From 1849 to 1859 he was demonstrator of anatomy and operative surgery at St Bartholomew’s, and for many years curator of the museum, where he devoted himself to pathological and physiological work. In 1859 he succeeded Sir James Paget as lecturer on general anatomy and physiology. In 1861 he became assistant surgeon, and in 1867 surgeon, holding the latter post till 1891; and from 1869 to 1889 he was lecturer on surgery. In the College of Surgeons he was a man of the greatest influence, and was president for four successive years, 1885–1888. As Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy and physiology (1859–1861), he lectured on “General Physiology” and the “Physiology of Food.” In 1884 he delivered the Bradshaw Lecture on the “Pathology of Cancer.” In 1887 he delivered the Hunterian Oration. In 1879, at Cork, he had declared against “Listerism” at the meeting of the British Medical Association, “the last public expression,” it has been said, “by a prominent surgeon against the now accepted method of modern surgery.” In 1887 he became surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and, in 1890 he was made a baronet. Savory, who was an able operator, but averse from exhibitions of brilliancy, was a powerful and authoritative man in his profession, his lucidity of expression being almost as valuable as his great knowledge of physiology and anatomy. He died in London on the 4th of March 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sawantwari

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​SAWANTWARI, or Savantvadi, a native state of Bombay, India. Area, 925 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 217,732, showing an increase of 13% during the preceding decade. The surface is broken and rugged, interspersed with densely-wooded hills; in the valleys are gardens and groves of cocoa-nut and betel-nut palms. Sawantwari has no considerable rivers; the chief streams are the Karli on the north and the Terakhol on the south, both navigable for small craft. The climate is humid and relaxing, with an average annual rainfall of 150 in. The estimated revenue is £28,000. The chief, whose title is sar desai, is a Mahratta of the Bhonsla family, who traces back his descent to the 16th century. There are special manufactures of ornaments carved out of bison-horn, painted and inlaid lacquer-work, and gold and silver embroidery. The town of Sawantwari, or Vadi, is picturesquely situated on the bank of a large lake, 17 m. E. of the seaport of Vengurla. Pop. (1901) 10,213.
Before the establishment of Portuguese power Sawantwari was the highway of a great traffic between the coast and the interior; but during the 16th and 17th centuries trade suffered much from the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in the disturbances of the 18th century it almost entirely disappeared. In consequence of piracy, the whole coast-line (including the port of Vengurla) was ceded to the British in 1812.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Savoie

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​SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 of the old provinces of Haute Savoie, Savoie, the Tarentaise and the Maurienne, which constituted the southern portion of the duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the department of Haute Savoie, E. and S.E. by Italy, S.W. by the department of the Hautes Alpes, and W. by those of the Isère and the Ain. Pop. (1901) 254,781; area 2224 sq. m. It is mainly made up of the basin of the Isère. The upper course of that river flows through the Tarentaise, receiving (right) the Arly and later (left) the Arc, which flows through the Maurienne, which is to a large extent traversed by the Mont Cenis railway. Probably the Isère formerly communicated with the Rhône past Chambéry and the Lac du Bourget. The sources of the Isère and of the Arc are separated by the ridge of the Col du Mont Iseran (9085 ft.). The loftiest points in the department are the Grande Casse (12,668 ft.), the culminating summit of the Vanoise group, the Mont Pourri (12,428 ft.), the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), the Aiguille de la Grande Sassière (12,323 ft.), the Dent Parrachée (12,179 ft.), the Levanna (11,943 ft.) and the Aiguilles d'Arves (11,529 ft.). A small portion of the department (including both shores of the Lac du Bourget) is in the part of the duchy of Savoy neutralized in 1815. It is divided into 4 arrondissements (Chambéry, the chief town, Albertville, Moutiers-Tarentaise, and St Jean de Maurienne), 29 cantons and 329 communes. It forms the dioceses of Chambéry (an archbishopric), Moutiers and St Jean de Maurienne. The best place known to foreigners is Aix les Bains (q.v.), while other sulphur springs rise at Marlioz and at Challes, those of Salins being saline, and those of Brides (the best known after Aix) alkaline.
See J. J. Vernier, Dictionnaire topographigue du dép. de la Savoie (Chambéry, 1897).  (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saw

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​SAW, a tool for cutting wood or other material, consisting of a blade with the edge dentated or toothed and worked either by hand or by steam, water, electric or other power (see Tools). The word in O. Eng. is saga and appears, in such forms as Dutch zaag, Dan. sav, Ger. Säge, in Teutonic languages. The root is sag-, to cut, which is seen in Lat. secare. It is also the base of such English words as scythe, sickle, &c. It must be distinguished from “saw,” a maxim, proverb, which is etymologically and in meaning a “saying,” from the Teutonic base sag-, to say; cf. “Saga,” Ger. sagen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sea

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​SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain), in its widest sense that part of the surface of the globe which consists of salt water, in distinction from dry land. The greater divisions of “the sea,” in this sense, are called oceans, and are dealt with under the heading Ocean and Oceanography, the latter being the term now generally applied to the scientific study of the sea. The word “sea,” however, is also used, in a restricted sense, in application to specific parts of the great oceans, more or less clearly defined by a partial land-boundary. Such are the Mediterranean Sea and the Caribbean Sea, connected with the Atlantic Ocean; the Arabian Sea, a division of the Indian Ocean, and the China and Japan Seas of the western Pacific Ocean. Subdivisions of great seas are similarly defined (e.g. the Adriatic Sea), and a few large bodies of salt water entirely land-locked are also called seas—e.g. the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Aral, the Dead Sea. Sea-level is the assumed mean level of the sea, serving as a datum from which to calculate the elevation of land in surveying (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scythe

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​SCYTHE, an implement for mowing grass or reaping corn or grain, consisting of a curved steel blade fastened to a long wooden handle with a slight double curve from which project two small pieces by which the handle is held. The handle is ​technically known as the “snathe,” “sned” or “snead” (snædan to cut, cf. Ger. schneiden). The word in O.E. is siðe or siþe M.E. sithe; the mis-spelling “scythe” is paralleled by “scent,” and is possibly due to, the Fr. scier, saw; the word means “an instrument for cutting,” and is derived from the root sak-, seen in Lat. secare, to cut, “saw” and “sickle,” the oldest of reaping implements, with deep curved blade and short handle. The same root is seen in the “sedge,” i.e. cutting or sword-grass, strictly applied to plants of the genus Carex, but loosely used of flags, rushes and other grasses growing in marshy places (see Reaping).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scève, Maurice

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​SCÈVE, MAURICE (c. 1500–1564), French poet, was born at Lyons, where his father practised law. Besides following his father’s profession he was a painter, architect, musician and poet. He was the centre of the Lyonnese coterie that elaborated the theory of spiritual love, derived partly from Plato and partly from Petrarch, which was enunciated in Antoine Heroet’s Parfaicte Amye.
Scève’s chief works are Délie, objet de plus haulte vertu (1544); two eclogues, Arion (1536) and La Saulsaye (1547); and La Microcosme (1562), an encyclopaedic poem beginning with the fall of man. Délie consists of 450 dizaines and about 50 other poems in praise of his mistress. These poems, now little read, were even in Scève’s own day so obscure that his enthusiastic admirer Étienne Dolet confesses he could not understand them. Scève was a musician as well as a poet, and cared very much for the musical value of the words he used. In this and in his erudition he forms a link between the school of Marot and the Pléiade. Délie (an anagram for l’idée) set the fashion of a series of poems addressed to a mistress real or imaginary, followed by Ronsard in Cassandre and by Du Bellay in Olive. The Lyonnese school of which Scève was the leader included his friend Claude de Taillemont and many women writers of verse, Jeanne Gaillarde-placed by Marot on an equality with Christine de Pisan—Pernette du Guillet, Clémence de Bourges and the poet’s sisters, Claudine and Sibylle Scève. Scève died in 1564. See also Labé, Louise).
See E. Bourciez, La Littérature polie et les mœurs de cour sous Henri II (Paris, 1886); Pernetti, Recherches pour servir à l’histoire de Lyon (2 vols., Lyons, 1757), and F. Brunetière, “Un Précurseur de la Pléïade, Maurice Scève,’ in his Études critiques, vol. vi. (1899).