OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Noümenon

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​NOÜMENON (Gr. νοούμενον, a thing known, from νοεῖν), a philosophical term put into currency by Kant and not much used except in definite reference to his doctrine. In the Kantian system the term “noümena” means things-in-themselves as opposed to “phenomena” or things as they appear to us. According to Kant the human mind is such that it can never penetrate by its speculative powers to things-in-themselves, but can only know phenomena. Thus we have the odd position that noümena, or the contents of the intelligible world, are just the things to which thought can never penetrate. The term, however, is a relic of an early period of Kant’s mental development. In his fully mature or critical position he held that the noümenal world was inaccessible to the speculative reason, and yet that we are not altogether excluded from it, since the practical reason, i.e. our capacity for acting as moral agents, assures us of the existence of a noümenal world wherein freedom, God and immortality have a real place. The relation of noümena to phenomena in the Kantian system is a most difficult one; and, in view of the fact that the acutest intellects of Europe have been engaged vainly for more than a century in reconciling the various passages on the subject, the safest conclusion is that they are irreconcilable. The course adopted by Kant’s immediate successors in German idealism was to reject the whole conception of noümena, for the reason that what is essentially unknowable has no existence for our intelligence. Kant, however, protested ​strongly against this development when it was propounded by Fichte, and held that he had precluded it by his “refutation of idealism”: he stood unshakably to the belief in an absolutely real world behind phenomena. Kant’s position may be illogical as he himself stated it; but it is the expression of a sound principle: we must connect it with his general tendency to recognize the dynamic side of things. He saw, what so many of his successors failed to see, that the world as we know it is an expression of power; and he could not imagine whence the power could come if not from a world beyond phenomena. (See Kant; Phenomenon.) (H. St.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuceria Alfaterna

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​NUCERIA ALFATERNA (mod. Nocera Inferiore, q.v.), an ancient town of Campania, Italy, in the valley of the Sarnus (Sarno), about 10 m. E. of the modern coast line at Torre Annunziata, and 8 m. E. of Pompeii. In the period before the Roman supremacy it appears to have been the chief town in the valley of the Sarnus, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Stabiae and Surrentum all being dependent upon it. The coins of the town bear the head of the river god. It maintained its allegiance to Rome till 309 B.C. when it joined the revolted Samnites. In 308 it repulsed a Roman attempt to land at the mouth of the Sarnus, but in 307 it was besieged and surrendered. It obtained favourable terms, and remained faithful to Rome even after Cannae. Hannibal reduced it in 216 by starvation, and destroyed and plundered the town. The inhabitants returned when peace was restored. Even during the Social War Nuceria remained true to Rome, though the dependent towns joined the revolt; after it they were formed into independent communities, and Nuceria received the territory of Stabiae, which had been destroyed by Sulla in 89 B.C., as a compensation. In 73 B.C. it was plundered by Spartacus. Of the buildings of the ancient city nothing at all is to be seen; but on the hillsides on the S. are remains of villas of the Roman period, and here tombs have been found. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nucleus

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​NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit), the central portion of things, round which other parts of the same thing or other things collect together. The term is particularly applied to the central mass of protoplasm in a plant or animal cell (see Cytology).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petard

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​PETARD (Fr. pétard, péter, to make a slight explosion), a device formerly used by military engineers for blowing in a gate or other barrier. It consisted of a small metal or wooden case, usually of sugar-loaf shape, containing a charge of powder and fired by a fuse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petchenegs

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​PETCHENEGS, or Patzinaks, a barbarous people, probably of Turkish race, who at the end of the 9th century were driven into Europe from the lower Ural, and for about 300 years wandered about the northern frontier of the East Roman Empire (See Turks).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peter

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​PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. πέτρος, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr), a masculine name, derived from the famous surname bestowed by Christ upon his apostle Simon (“Thou art Peter and upon this rock will I build my church,” Matt. xiv. 17-19). The name has consequently been very popular in Christian countries. It is noteworthy, however, that, out of deference to the “prince of the apostles” and first bishop of Rome, the name has never been assumed by a pope The biographies which follow are arranged in the order (1) the apostle, (2) kings; (3) other eminent men
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peshitto

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​PESHITTO, or Peshito (i.e. “simple”), the standard version of the Bible in the Syriac language. It was long supposed to be the original Syriac version, but is now generally recognized as representing a revision made by Rabbula, bishop of Edessa, early in the 5th century, an attempt at standardizing the Syriac text such as Jerome had made for the Latin in his Vulgate. (See Bible.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pessinus

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​PESSINUS (Πεσσινούς, Πεσινούς), an ancient city of Galatia in Asia Minor, situated on the lowest southern slope of Mt Dindymus, on the left bank of the river Sangarius, not far from its source The ruins, discovered by Texier, lie round the village of Bala-Hissar, 8 or 9 m. S E. of Sivri-Hissar. They include a theatre in partial preservation, but they have been mostly carried off to Sivri-Hissar, which is largely built out of them. Originally a Phrygian city, probably on the Persian “Royal Road,” it became the capital of the Gallic tribe Tolistobogii and the chief commercial city of the district. It contained the most famous sanctuary of the mother of the gods (Cybele), who here went by the name of Agdistis, and was associated with the god Attis, as elsewhere with Sabazius, &c. Her priests were also princes, who bore rule not only in the city (the coinage of which, beginning about 100 B.C., was for long issued by them) but also in the country round, deriving a large revenue from the temple estates; but in the time of Strabo (A.D. 19–20) their privileges were much diminished. The high-priest always bore the god's name Attis In the crisis of the second Punic War (205 B.C.), when the Romans lost faith in the efficacy of their own religion to save the state, the Senate, in compliance with an oracle in the Sibylline books to the effect that the foreign foe could be driven from Italy if the Idaean Mother (Cybele) were brought from Pessinus to Rome, sent ambassadors to the town, who obtained the sacred stone which was the symbol of the goddess and brought it to Rome, where the worship of Cybele was established. But the goddess continued to be worshipped in her old home; her priests, the Galli, went out to welcome Manlius on his march in 189 B.C., which shows that the town was not yet in the hands of the Tolistobogii. Soon after this a splendid new temple of the goddess was built by the Pergamenian kings. Some time before 164 B.C. Pessinus fell into the power of the Gauls, and the membership of the priestly college was then equally divided between the Gauls and the old priestly families. Like Ancyra and Tavium, Pessinus was Romanized first and Hellenized afterwards. Only about A.D. 165 did Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to be assumed; before that we find a deep substratum of Celtic feeling and ways, on which Roman elements had been superimposed without filtering through a Hellenic medium. Christianity was introduced late; it cannot be traced before the 4th century. When Galatia was divided into two provinces (A.D. 386-395) Pessinus was made the capital of Galatia Secunda or Salutaris, and it became a metropolitan bishopric. After the 16th century it disappears from history, being supplanted, from the beginning of the period of Saracen invasion, by the impregnable fortress Justinianopolis (Sivri-Hissar), which became the capital and the residence of the bishop, thenceforward called “archbishop of Pessinus or of Justinianopolis.” (J. G. C. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petau, Denys

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​PETAU, DENYS (1583-1652), Jesuit scholar, better known as Dionysius Petavius, was born at Orleans on the 21st of August 1583. Educated at Paris University, he came under the influence of Isaac Scaliger, who directed his attention towards the obscurer fathers of the Church. In 1603 he was appointed to a lectureship at the university of Bourges, but resigned his place two years later, in order to enter the Society of Jesus. For many years he was professor of divinity at the College de Clermont, the chief Jesuit establishment in Paris; there he died on the 11th of December 1652. He was one of the most brilliant scholars in a learned age. Carrying on and improving the chronological labours of Scaliger, he published in 1627 an Opus de doctrine temporum, which has been often reprinted. An abridgment of this work, Rationarzurn temporum, was translated into French and English, and has been brought down in a modern reprint to the year 1849. But Petau's eminence chiefly rests on his vast, but unfinished, De tlzeologieis dogmattbus, the first systematic attempt ever made to treat the development of Christian doctrine from the historical point of view.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Petalite

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​PETALITE, a mineral species consisting of lithium aluminium silicate, LiAl(Si$_2$O$_5$)$_2$. The monoclinic crystals approach spodumene (q.v.) in form, which is also a lithium aluminium silicate with the formula LiAl(SiO$_3$)$_2$. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and the mineral usually occurs in platy cleavage masses; on this account it was named, from Gr. πἑταλον (a leaf). The hardness is 6½ and the specific gravity 2.4 (that of spodumene being 3.16). The mineral is colourless or occasionally reddish, varies from transparent to translucent, and has a vitreous lustre. It was discovered in 1800 as cleavage masses in an iron mine on the island of Utö in the Stockholm archipelago, where it is associated with lepidolite, tourmaline (rubellite and indicolite) and spodumene. A variety known as “castor” is found as transparent glassy crystals associated with pollux (q.v.) in cavities in the granite of Elba. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peshwa

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PESHWA (Persian for “leader,” “guide”), the title of the head of the Mahratta confederacy in India. Originally the peshwa was only prime minister, but afterwards he supplanted his master and became chief of the state, founding an hereditary dynasty, with the capital at Poona. The last peshwa, Baji Rao, came into collision with the British, and was dethroned in 1818. His adopted son, Nana Sahib, took a leading part in the Mutiny of 1857, in revenge for being deprived of what he considered his rights.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orelli, Hans Konrad von

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​ORELLI, HANS KONRAD VON (1846–), Swiss theologian, was born at Zürich on the 25th of January 1846 and was educated at Lausanne, Zürich and Erlangen. He also visited Tübingen for theology and Leipzig for oriental languages. In 1869 he was appointed preacher at the orphan house, Zürich, and in 1871 Privatdozent at the university. In 1873 he went to Basel as professor extraordinarius of theology, becoming ordinary professor in 1881. His chief work is on the Old Testament; in addition to commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah (1886), Ezekiel and the Twelve Prophets (1888), most of which have been translated, he wrote Die alttestamentliche Weissagung von der Vollendung des Gottesreiches (Vienna, 1882; Eng. trans. Edinburgh, 1885), Die himmlischen Heerschaaren (Basel, 1889), and a journal of Palestinian travel, Durchs Heilige Land (Basel, 1878).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orendel

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​ORENDEL, a Middle High German poem, of no great literary merit, dating from the close of the 12th century. The story is associated with the town of Treves (Trier), where the poem was probably written. The introduction narrates the story of the Holy Coat, which, after many adventures, is swallowed by a whale. It is recovered by Orendel, son of King Eigel of Treves, who had embarked with twenty-two ships in order to woo the lovely Brida, the mistress of the Holy Sepulchre, as his wife. Suffering shipwreck, he falls into the hands of the fisherman Eise, and in his service catches the whale that has swallowed the Holy Coat. The coat has the property of rendering the wearer proof against wounds, and Orendel successfully overcomes innumerable perils and eventually wins Brida for his wife. A message brought by an angel summons both back to Treves, where Orendel meets with many adventures and at last disposes of the Holy Coat by placing it in a stone sarcophagus. Another angel announces both his and Brida’s approaching death, when they renounce the world and prepare for the end.
The poem exists in a single manuscript of the 15th century, and in one print, dated 1512. It has been edited by von der Hagen (1844), L. Ettmüller (1858) and A. E. Berger (1888); there is a modern German translation by K. Simrock (1845). See H. Harkensee, Untersuchungen über das Spielmannsgedicht Orendel (1879); F. Vogt, in the Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, vol. xxii. (1890); R. Heinzel, Über das Gedicht vom König Orendel (1892); and K. Müllenhoff, in Deutsche Altertumskunde, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1890), pp. 32 seq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orel (town)

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​OREL, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, lies at the confluence of the Oka with the Orlik, on the line of railway to the Crimea, 238 m. S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1875) 45,000. (1900) 70,075. It was founded in 1566, but developed slowly, and, had only a very few houses at the beginning of the 18th century. The cathedral, begun in 1794, was finished only in 1861. The town possesses a military gymnasium (corps of cadets), a public library, and storehouses for grain and timber. The manufactures are rapidly increasing, and include hemp-carding and spinning, rope-making, flour-mills and candle factories. Orel is one of the chief markets of central Russia for corn, hemp, hempseed oil, and tallow, exported; metal wares, tobacco, kaolin, and glass ware are also exported, while salt, groceries and manufactured goods are imported.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orense (province)

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​ORENSE, an inland province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts previously included in Galicia, and bounded on the N. by Pontevedra and Lugo, E. by Leon and Zamora, S. by Portugal, and W. by Portugal and Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 404,311; area 2694 sq. m. The surface of the province is almost everywhere mountainous. Its western half is traversed in a south-westerly direction by the river Miño (Portuguese Minho), which flows through Portugal to the Atlantic; the Sil, a left-hand tributary of the Miño, waters the north-eastern districts; and the Limia rises in the central mountains and flows west-south-west, reaching the sea at the Portuguese port of Vianna do Castello. The upper valley of the Limia is the only large tract of level country. The climate is very varied, mild in some valleys, cold and damp in the highlands, rainy near the northern border, and subject to rapid changes of temperature. The railway from Monforte to Vigo runs through the province. There are a few iron foundries of a primitive sort, but lack of transport and of cheap coal hinder the growth of mining and manufactures.
Though the soil is fertile and well watered, agricultural products are not so important as arboriculture. The oak, beech, pine, chestnut, walnut and plane grow in abundance on the hills and mountains; pears, apples, cherries, almonds, figs, roses and olives in the valleys, and even oranges and lemons in sheltered spots. The chief towns are the capital, Orense, Allariz, Carballino, Viana, Nogueira de Ramuin, Boborás, Cartella and La Vega. See also Galicia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orense (city)

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​ORENSE, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish province of Orense; on the left bank of the river Miño, and on the Tuy-Monforte railway. Pop. (1900) 15,194. The river is here crossed by a bridge—one of the most remarkable in Spain—of seven arches, 1319 ft. in length, and at its highest point 135 ft. above the bed of the river. This bridge was built by Bishop Lorenzo in 1230, but has frequently been repaired. The Gothic cathedral, also dating from Bishop Lorenzo’s time, is a comparatively small building, but has an image, El Santo Cristo, which was brought from. Cape Finisterre in 1330 and is celebrated throughout Galicia for its miraculous powers. The city contains many schools, a public library and a theatre. In the older streets there are some interesting medieval houses. Chocolate and leather are manufactured, and there are sawmills, flour-mills and iron foundries. The three warm springs to the west, known as Las Burgas, attract many summer visitors; the waters were well known to the Romans, as their ancient name, Aquae Originis, Aquae Urentes, or perhaps Aquae Salientis, clearly indicates.
The Romans named Orense Aurium, probably from the alluvial gold found in the Miño valley. The bishopric, founded in the 5th century by the Visigoths, was named the Sedes Auriensis (see of Aurium), and from this the modern Orense is derived. The city became the capital of the Suevi in the 6th century; it was sacked by the Moors in 716, and rebuilt only in 884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oregon City

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​OREGON CITY, a city and the county-seat of Clackamas county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Willamette river, and S. of the mouth of the Clackamas river, about 15 m. S. by E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 3062; (1900) 3494 (535 being foreign-born); (1910) 4287. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, by an electric line to Portland, by other electric lines, and by small river steamboats. The principal business streets are Main Street, on level ground along the river, and Seventh Street, on a bluff which rises abruptly 100 ft. above the river and is reached by four stairways elevated above the tracks of the Southern Pacific. The residences are for the most part on this bluff, which commands views of the peaks of the Cascade Mountains. The river here makes a picturesque plunge of about 40 ft. over a basalt ridge extending across the valley, and then flows between nearly vertical walls of solid rock 20-50 ft. high; it is spanned by a suspension bridge nearly 100 ft. above the water. A lock canal enables vessels to pass the falls. The water-power works woollen-mills, flour-mills, paper-mills, and an electric power plant (of the Portland Railway, Light and Power Company), which lights the city of Portland and transmits power to that city for street railways and factories. The municipality owns the waterworks. Next to Astoria, Oregon City is the oldest settlement in the state. In 1829 Dr John McLoughlin (1784–1857), chief agent of the Hudson’s Bay Company, established a claim to the water-power at the Falls of the Willamette and to land where Oregon City now stands, and began the erection of a mill and several houses. After 1840, in which year McLoughlin laid out a town here and named it Oregon City, a Methodist Mission disputed his claim. He aided many destitute American immigrants, left the service of the company, and removed to Oregon City. In 1850 Congress gave a great part of his claim at Oregon City for the endowment of a university, and in 1862 the legislature of Oregon reconveyed the land to McLoughlin’s heirs on condition that they should give $1000 to the university fund; but the questionable title between 1840 and 1862 hindered the growth of the place, which was chartered as a city in 1850.