OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rachmaninoff, Sergei Vasilievich

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​RACHMANINOFF, SERGEI VASILIEVICH (1873-), Russian composer and pianist, was born at Onega, in Russia, March 20 1873; his grandfather, an excellent pianist, had been a pupil of the Irish musician John Field. He began his studies under his mother, but at nine he became a pupil of Anna Ornadtskaya. In 1882, however, the Rachmaninoff family removed to St. Petersburg, and Sergei entered the Conservatorium, where he remained till 1885, when, on the family again removing to Moscow, he joined the Conservatorium there, and was on terms of friendship with Scryabin, Siloti, Taneyeff and Arensky. When, in 1892, Rachmaninoff left the Conservatorium, he won the large gold medal for a one-act opera Aleka and followed it by many other works. About 1893 he composed a pianoforte suite, another for two pianos, a dozen songs, his first piano concerto, the symphonic picture The Rock and the elegiac trio on the death of Tschaikovsky. Next there followed his first symphony, produced by Glazounoff at St. Petersburg. In 1897-8 Rachmaninoff became conductor of Mamoutoff's private opera, a post he resigned after the season, and in 1899 he came to London to conduct a Royal Philharmonic concert. A second piano suite, another concerto and a violoncello sonata were quickly composed, and were followed by the one-act opera The Miser Knight (Moscow 1900, Boston 1910) and Francesca da Rimini (Moscow, same evening); during 1904-6 he directed the Moscow Opera, and from 1906 to 1908 he lived in Dresden as composer and pianist, visiting Paris in 1907. In 1909-10 he visited the United States for the first time, and then returned to Russia, where he wrote The Island of Death, the D minor piano Sonata, and the third and fourth piano concertos (1909 and 1917). In 1912 he produced The Bells, which was produced in Liverpool by Sir Henry J. Wood in 1921. Among his other compositions Spring, for chorus and orchestra, is particularly noteworthy, and his devotional music includes a wonderful setting of the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom (1910). In 1917 Rachmaninoff left Russia, and in 1918 he settled in New York.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raemakers, Louis

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​RAEMAKERS, LOUIS (1869-), Dutch cartoonist, was born at Roermond, Holland, April 6 1869. He received his education in art at various schools, and finally at Amsterdam, where he obtained several prizes. He subsequently became director of an art school at Wageningen, in Gelderland. About 1908 he started drawing political cartoons, but it was not until the outbreak of war in 1914 that his work attained world-wide reputation, by his anti-German cartoons, illustrative of the devastation of Belgium and Northern France. Many special exhibitions of his war cartoons were held, and his work had a great effect as propaganda. Several volumes of his work have been published: The Great War in 1916; The Great War in 1917; Devant l'Histoire (1918); Cartoon History of the War (1919).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tournon

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​TOURNON, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ardèche, on the right bank of the Rhone, 58 m. S. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 3642; commune, 5003. Tournon preserves a gateway of the 15th century and other remains of fortifications and an old castle used as town hall, court-house and prison and containing a Gothic chapel. The church of St Julian dates chiefly from the 14th century. The lycée occupies an old college founded in the 16th century by Cardinal Francois de Tournon. Of the two suspension bridges which unite the town with Tain on the left bank of the river, one was built in 1825 and is the oldest in France. A statue to General Rampon (d. 1843) stands in the Place Carnot. Wood-sawing, silk-spinning, and the manufacture of chemical manures, silk goods and hosiery are carried on in the town, which has trade in the wine of the Rhone hills. Tournon had its own counts as early as the reign of Louis I. In the middle of the 17th century the title passed from them to the dukes of Ventadour.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tourneux, Jean Maurice

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​TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1849–), French man of letters and bibliographer, son of the artist and author J. F. E. Tourneux, was born in Paris on the 12th of July 1849. He began his career as a bibliographer by collaborating in new editions of the Supercheries litteraires of Joseph Querard and the Dictionnaire des anonymes of Antoine Barbier. His most important bibliographical work was the Bibliographie de l’histoire de Paris pendant la revolution française (3 vols. 1890–1901), which was crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. This valuable work serves as a guide for the history of the city beyond the limits of the Revolution.
His other works include bibliographies of Prosper Merimee (1876), of Theophile Gautier (1876), of the brothers de Goncourt (1897) and others; also editions of F. M. Grimm’s Correspondance litteraire, of Diderot’s Neveu de Rameau (1884), of Montesquieu’s Lettres persanes (1886), &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tournus

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​TOURNUS, a town of east-central France, in the department of Saône-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Saône, 20 m. N. by E. of Mâcon on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 3787. The church of St Philibert (early 11th century) once belonging to the Benedictine abbey of Tournus, suppressed in 1785, is in the Burgundian Romanesque style. The façade lacks one of the two flanking towers originally designed for it. The nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylindrical columns. The choir beneath which is a crypt of the 11th century has a deambulatory and square chapels. In the Place de l’Hôtel de Ville stands a statue of J. B. Greuze, born in the town in 1725. There are vineyards in the surrounding district and the town and its port have considerable commerce in wine and in stone from the neighbouring quarries. Chair-making is an important industry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de

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​TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656–1708), French botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, on the 5th of June 1656. He studied in the convent of the Jesuits at Aix, and was destined for the Church, but the death of his father left him free to follow his botanical inclinations. After two years' collecting, he studied medicine at Montpellier, but was appointed professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in 1683. By the king’s order he travelled through western Europe, where he made extensive collections, and subsequently spent three years in Greece and Asia Minor (1700–1702). Of this journey a description in a series of letters was posthumously published in 3 vols. (Relation d’un voyage du Levant, Lyons, 1717). His principal work is entitled Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols. Paris, 1700), and upon this rests chiefly his claims to remembrance as one of the most eminent of the systematic botanists who prepared the way for Linnaeus. He died on the 28th of December 1708.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tourcoing

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​TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is practically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a conditioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool carried on in some eighty factories employing between 10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery, of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories and of soap.
Famed since the 12th century for its woollen manufactures, Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when Louis XI of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sinan Pasha

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​SINAN PASHA (1515-1596), Turkish soldier and statesman, was an Albanian of low origin. In 1569 he was appointed governor of Egypt and was occupied until 1571 in the conquest of Yemen. In 1574 he commanded the great expedition against Tunis, which, in spite of the brave defence by the Spanish and Italian garrison, was added to the Ottoman empire. In 1580 Sinan commanded the army against Persia and was appointed grand vizier, but was disgraced and exiled in the following year, owing to the rout of his lieutenant Mahommed Pasha, at Gori, in an attempt to provision the Turkish garrison of Tiflis. He subsequently became governor of Damascus and, in 1589, after the great revolt of the Janissaries, was appointed grand vizier for the second time. Another revolt of Janissaries led to his dismissal in 1591, but in 1593 he was again recalled to become grand vizier for the third time, and in the same year he commanded the Turkish army against Hungary. In spite of his victories he was again deposed in February 1595, shortly after the accession of Mahommed III., and banished to Malghara; but in August was in power again and on the march to Wallachia. The unhappy course of this campaign, culminating in the fall of Gran, brought him once more into disfavour, and he was deprived of the seal of office (November 19). The death of his successor, Lala Mahommed, three days later, was looked on as a sign from heaven, and Sinan became grand vizier for the fifth time. He died suddenly on the 3rd of April 1596.
Bold, overbearing and unscrupulous, Sinan recoiled from no baseness to put a rival out of the way; while his insolence was not confined to foreign ambassadors, but was exercised towards his opponents in the sultan's presence. He had a barbarous hatred not only for Christians but for all civilization. The immense fortune which he left is a proof of his rapacity.
Another Sinan Pasha was governor of Anatolia at the time of Mahommed II.'s death in 1481. He was a brother-in-law of Bayezid II. and defeated Prince Jem's troops at Brusa. In Selim I.'s reign he served with great distinction in the Persian and Egyptian campaigns and fell at the battle of Ridania, where the Mamelukes were defeated, in 1517.
A third Sinan Pasha, brother of the grand vizier Rustem Pasha, was grand admiral under Suleiman I. and died about 1553.
See J. v. Hammer-Purgstall, Gesch. des Osmanischen Reiches (2nd ed., Pesth, 1840), and authorities there cited.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sinaia

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​SINAIA, a town of Rumania, about 12 m. S. of the Hungarian frontier at Predeal, on the railway from Ploesci to Kronstadt in Transylvania. Pop. (1900), 2210. Sinaia resembles a large model village, widely scattered among the pine forests of the lower Carpathians, and along the banks of the Prahova, a swift alpine stream. The monastery of Sinaia, founded by Prince Michael Cantacuzino in 1695, was the residence of the royal family until the present chateau was built. It consists of two courts surrounded by low buildings. In the centre of each court is a small church built in the Byzantine style. The monks possess a library, in which are kept valuable jewels belonging to the Cantacuzene family. Castle Peles or Pelesh, the modern palace, named after the hill on which it stands, is of a mixed style of architecture. The interior is fitted with magnificent wood carvings and stained glass windows illustrating the principal scenes of “Carmen Sylva's” writings. Until 1850 Sinaia consisted of little more than the monastery and a group of huts. In 1864, however, the monastic estate was assigned to the Board of Civil Hospitals, by which a hospital and baths were opened and the mineral springs developed. Sinaia soon became the favourite summer resort of Bucharest society, and rapidly developed in all its equipment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sinecure

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​SINECURE (Lat. sine cura, without care), properly a term of ecclesiastical law, for a benefice without the cure of souls (beneficium sine cura). In the English Church such sinecures arise when the rector has no cure of souls nor resides in the parish, the work of the incumbent being performed by a vicar; such sinecure rectories were expressly granted by the patron; they were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840. Other ecclesiastical sinecures are certain cathedral dignities to which no spiritual function attached or incumbencies where by reason of depopulation and the like the parishioners have disappeared or the parish church has been allowed to decay. Such cases have ceased to exist. The term is also used of any office or place, to which a salary, emoluments or dignity but no duties are attached. The British civil service and royal household were loaded with innumerable offices which by lapse of time had become sinecures and were only kept as the reward of political services or to secure voting power in parliament. They were extremely prevalent in the 18th century and were gradually abolished by statutes during that and the following century.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Antisabbatarians

*ANTISABBATARIANS, those who reject the observation of the Sabbath, under the idea that it was obligatory on the Jews only; and maintain that no one day is now more holy than another.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Scotch Theol. Dict.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Apellaeans

APELLAEANS, followers of Apelles in the second century, who believed in a supreme God, and in an inferiour one formed by him. He denied the resurrection.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Lardner's Heretics, 315, &c.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Apostolics

APOSTOLICS, a denomination in the twelfth century, who professed to exhibit in their lives and manners the piety and virtues of the holy apostles. They held it unlawful to take an oath, renounced the things of this world, and preferred celibacy to wedlock.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Mosheim. vol. ii. p. 457.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Antipaedobaptists

*ANTIPAEDOBAPTISTS, those who reject infant baptism. See Baptists.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Aphthartodocites

APHTHARTODOCITES, a sect in the sixth century, who held that the body of Jesus Christ was incorruptible, and not subject to death. They were a branch of the Eutychians.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Broughton, vol. i. p. 58.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Apollinarians

APOLLINARIANS, a denomination in the fourth century, who asserted that Christ's person was composed of a union of the true divinity and a human body, endowed with a sensitive soul; but without the reasonable one, the divinity supplying its place; the human body united to the divine spirit making one nature only.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Formey's Eccles. Hist. vol. i. p. 79.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Antitactae

ANTITACTAE, a branch of the Gnostics, who held that God, the Creator of the universe, was good and just; but that one of his creatures had created evil, and engaged mankind to follow it in opposition to God; and that it is the duty of mankind to oppose the author of evil, in order to avenge God of his enemy. See Gnostics.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Antitrinitarians

ANTITRINITARIANS, a general name given to all those who deny the doctrine of the Trinity, and particularly to the Arians and Socinians.
# A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations/Apocaritaes

APOCARITAES, a sect in the third century sprung from the Manicheans, who held that the soul of man was of the essence of God.

## Original footnotes

* ↑ Broughton, vol. i. p. 60.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weber, Wilhelm Eduard

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​WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891), German physicist, was born at Wittenberg on the 24th of October 1804, and was a younger brother of Ernst Heinrich Weber, the author of Weber's Law (see below). He studied at the university of Halle, where he took his doctor's degree in 1826 and became extraordinary professor of physics in 1828. Three years later he removed to Göttingen as professor of physics, and remained there till 1837, when he was one of the seven professors who were expelled from their chairs for protesting against the action of the king of Hanover (duke of Cumberland) in suspending the constitution. A period of retirement followed this episode, but in 1843 he accepted the chair of physics at Leipzig, and six years later returned to Göttingen, where he died on the 23rd of June 1891. Weber's name is especially known for his work on electrical measurement. Until his time there was no established system either of stating or measuring electrical quantities; but he showed, as his colleague K. F. Gauss did for magnetic quantities, that it is both theoretically and practically possible to define them, not merely by reference to other arbitrary quantities of the same kind, but absolutely in terms in which the units of length, time, and mass are alone involved. He also carried on extensive researches in the theory of magnetism; and it is interesting that in connexion with his observations in terrestrial magnetism he not only employed an early form of mirror galvanometer, but also, about 1833, devised a system of electromagnetic telegraphy, by which a distance of some 9000 ft. was worked over. In conjunction with his elder brother he published in 1825 a well-known treatise on waves, Die Wellenlehre auf Experimente gegründet; and in 1833 he collaborated with his younger brother, the physiologist Eduard Friedrich Weber (1806-1871), in an investigation into the mechanism of walking.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Webster

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​WEBSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the French river, about 16 m. S.S.W. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 7031; (1900) 8804, of whom 3562 were foreign born; (1910 census), 11,309. Land area (1906), 12·19 sq. m. Webster is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines. In the township is Lake Chaubunagungamaug, a beautiful sheet of water about 2 sq. m. in area. The manufacture of textiles and of boots and shoes is the principal industry; the total value of the factory product in 1903 was $5,867,769. Webster was founded by Samuel Slater (1768–1835), who in 1812 built cotton-mills and in 1815–1816 began the manufacture of woollen cloth. The township, named in honour of Daniel Webster, was erected in 1832 from common lands and from parts of Dudley and Oxford townships, which before the cotton-mills were bmlt here were almost uninhabited.
See Holmes Ammidown, Historical Collections (New York, 1874), vol. i . pp. 461-524.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Webb, Sydney

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​WEBB, SIDNEY (1839–), English socialist and author, was born in London on the 13th of July 1859. He was educated at private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck Institute and the City of London College. From 1875 to 1878 he was employed in a city office, but he entered the civil service by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878, became surveyor of taxes in 1879, and in 1881 entered the colonial office, where he remained until 1891. In 1885 he was called to the bar at Gray’s Inn. Mr Webb was one of the early members of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian Essays (1889); and he became well-known as a socialist, both by his speeches and his writings. He entered the London County Council in 1892 as member for Deptford, and was returned at the head of the poll in the successive elections of 1895, 1898, 1901 and 1904. He resigned from the civil service in 1891 to give his whole time to the work of the Council (where he was chairman of the Technical Education Board) and to the study of economics. He served from 1903 to 1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade Union Law and on other important commissions He married in 1892 Miss Beatrice Potter, herself a writer on economics and sociology, the author of The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain (1891) and a contributor to Charles Booth’s Life and Labour of the People (1891–1903). His most important works are: a number of Fabian tracts; London Education (1904); The Eight Hours Day (1891), in conjunction with Harold Cox; and, with Mrs Sidney Webb, The History of Trade Unionism (1894, new ed. 1902), Industrial Democracy (1897, new ed. 1902), Problems of Modern Industry (1898), History of Liquor Licensing (1903), English Local Government (1906), &c. Mrs Webb was a member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, and she and her husband were responsible for the Minority Report (see Poor Law) and for starting the widespread movement in its favour.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Webbe, William

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​WEBBE, WILLIAM (fl. 1586), English literary critic, was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1572–1573. He was tutor to the two sons of Edward Sulyard of Flemyngs, Essex, and later to the children of Henry Grey of Pirgo in the same county. A letter from him is prefixed to the 1392 edition of Tancred and Gisniunda, written by his friend, Robert Wilmot. In 1586 he published A Discourse of English Poetrie, dedicated to his patron, Edward Sulyard. Webbe argued that the dearth of good English poetry since Chaucer’s day was not due to lack of poetic ability, or to the poverty of the language, but to the want of a proper system of prosody. He abuses “this tinkerly verse which we call ryme,” as of barbarous origin, and comments on the works of his contemporaries, displaying enthusiasm for Spenser’s Shepheardes Calendar, and admiration for Phaer’s translation of Virgil. He urged the adoption of hexameters and sapphics for English verse, and gives some lamentable examples of his own composition.
The Discourse was reprinted in J. Haslewood’s Ancient Critical Essays (1811–1815), by E. Arber in 1869, and in Gregory Smith’s Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904).