OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rachel

See also Rachel (actress) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ra′chel, properly Elisa Rachel Felix, the great French tragic actress, was born of Jewish parents at Mumpf, in the Swiss canton of Aargau, March 24, 1820. She had her first lessons in singing at Paris about 1830, when her parents took up residence in that city, and in 1838 appeared as Camille in Les Horaces in the Thèâtre Français. From this time she shone without a rival; and the furore excited in Paris in 1848 by her recitation of the Marseillaise will continue to connect her name with the Revolution of that year. In 1849 she made the tour of the French provinces, and afterwards visited London, St. Petersburg, Berlin and other great cities of Europe, everywhere meeting enthusiastic admiration and applause. In 1855, while on a professional visit to America, her health gave way, and she returned home utterly prostrated, her death taking place at Cannes, near Toulon, Jan. 3, 1858. As an artist, within the limits prescribed by her genius, Rachel has never been surpassed. No language can give an idea of the force and intensity which characterized her rendering of passion. Her Phèdre, by common consent her masterpiece, was the incarnation of agony, not to be forgotten by anyone who ever heard it. "She does not act — she suffers," a fine critic has observed of her. But in spite of her great genius she was never tenderly loved, being grasping and avaricious. She left a large fortune, besides the amounts lavished upon her family during her life.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Caulicle

See also Hypocotyl on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Cau′licle (in plants), a name formerly applied to the hypocotyl, that is the stem-like part of a seedling, which appears below the first leaves or cotyledons. See Embryo.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cedar Rapids, Ia.

See also Cedar Rapids, Iowa on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cedar Rapids, Ia., a city in Linn County, on Cedar River. It is a considerable railroad-center, and has a number of machine-shops, employing about 1,000 men. The water-power utilized by its manufactories comes from the Cedar River. Its industries are pork-packing and the manufacture of flour, pumps, furniture, agricultural implements, starch, creamery, egg and dairy products. Cedar Rapids is the home of the American Cereal Co. and the Pawnee Cereal Co., which together have a daily capacity of thousands of barrels of cereals and give employment to hundreds of people. The city has the service of four railroads, excellent public schools, a public and also a Masonic library, etc. Population, 32,811.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cell

See also Cell (biology) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cell (in plants), the unit of structure in the bodies of plants and animals. The bodies of the smallest plants consist of a single cell, while those of the more complex plants consist of very many cells. The free cell is approximately globular in outline, but if pressed upon by neighboring cells it may become variously modified in form.
PLANT CELLS OF DIFFERENT AGES
Bounding the ordinary plant-cell, there is a thin elastic wall composed of a substance called cellulose. This cell-wall forms a delicate sac within which there exists the living substance called protoplasm. It is this substance which is alive and works, and has really formed the cell-wall about itself. The protoplasm of a living cell is organized into various
ULOTHRIX, SHOWING THE FORMATION, ESCAPE AND BEHAVIOR OF SWIMMING CELLS structures, which have different duties. One of the most conspicuous structures is a more compact mass of protoplasm, usually of spherical form, which is called the nucleus. The nucleus is imbedded in the less dense protoplasm, which receives the general name cytoplasm. In addition to its power of growth the living cell is also able to divide itself into two cells. The process of ordinary cell-division is an exceedingly complicated one, and is known as mitosis or karyokinesis. It is this power of self-division which enables a single cell, such as an egg, to produce eventually a complex body composed of numerous cells.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cellini, Benvenuto

See also Benvenuto Cellini on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cellini (chĕl-lē′nē̇), Benvenuto, an Italian goldsmith, sculptor and engraver and the author of a very interesting account of his own life, was born at Florence in 1500. When young, he went to Rome, where his skill in metal-work gained him the favor of many nobles. He seems to have been somewhat of a freebooter, besides an expert swordsman and stabber, and had few scruples about murdering any one he chanced to quarrel with. His book mentions many of his encounters. He usually got off scot-free, but the murder of a rival goldsmith brought him to prison. He was, however, in such favor as a metal-worker as to be quickly set free again. He was summoned to the court of France and he tells us how pleased Francis I was with a golden spice-box he made for him. But it was in Florence that he produced his finest piece of sculpture, the famous bronze, Perseus with the Head of Medusa. He began to write his life in 1558, which is of the greatest interest. Cellini was a shrewd judge of men, and gives a faithful and wonderfully life-like picture of Italian society in the 16th century. He died in 1571.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Celluloid

See also Celluloid on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Celluloid (sĕl′ū̇-loid), is a mixture of gun-cotton, camphor and various other substances. It is chiefly manufactured in the United States, most largely at Newark, N. J. Celluloid has many valuable properties. It is buff or pale brown in color, but it can be made as white as ivory or transparent. It can be molded or pressed into any form and turned, planed or carved. It is not affected by water or air. It can be hardened, and is then used for combs, piano keys and billiard balls. It can be colored to resemble amber or tortoise-shell. As an imitation of red coral, it is used in jewelry. Among the many articles made from it are knife-handles, buttons, napkin-rings, card-cases, thimbles, dolls, shirt fronts and collars.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Caucus

See also Caucus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Caucus (derivation doubtful), in politics, a term applied to designate a conference, generally preliminary to a subsequent public meeting, of men who desire to select delegates, nominate certain party representatives for office or take certain action in regard to some public question, give shape to and outline proposed later legislation, as well as to ascertain and discuss the views of those so called together in preliminary and sometimes secret council. The deliberation is one usually held to promote unity among members of the same party, in regard to public measures, and suggesting the line to be taken in advancing such, or possibly, in balking and defeating them, if objected to or deemed unwise and inexpedient.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cedar Rapid

See also Beauharnois Canal and Les Cèdres, Quebec on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cedar Rapid or The Cedars. An extensive rapid on the St. Lawrence River, now avoided by the Soulanges Canal, and the name of a village on the northern bank of the river, in Soulanges County, Quebec. Here Capt. Forster with a small band of regulars and Indians captured the garrison of 400 Americans in their retreat from Quebec in May, 1776. A force under Maj. Sherburne was also defeated after a spirited engagement, and the survivors made prisoners.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Celebes

See also Sulawesi on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Celebes (sĕl′e-bēz), an island possession of the Netherlands in the East Indies, lying between Borneo on the west and the Moluccas on the east. It was first visited by the Portuguese in 1512, but in 1660 was taken and occupied by the Dutch. The center and north of the island are mountainous, and have deposits of gold, copper, tin and diamonds. It is rich in forest wealth and its vegetation is luxuriant. The area of Celebes is 49,390 square miles, with an estimated population (1900) of 454,368. Among its chief products are coffee, sugar, indigo and tobacco. The capital is Macassar, situated on the southwestern peninsula. The Celebes Sea, on the north of the island, separates the latter from the Philippines; the Strait of Macassar on the west separates it from the island of Borneo.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cellulose

See also Cellulose on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cel′lulose (sĕl′ū̇-lōs), the peculiar material which forms the original cell-walls of plants. See Cell.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taunton, Mass.

See also Taunton, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Taun′ton, Mass., county-seat of Bristol County, on Taunton River, 35 miles south of Boston. The falls of the river furnish water-power for its many factories. Taunton has long been noted for its manufacture of stoves and printing-presses, brick and iron, and its copper-works are the oldest and largest in the United States. Other products are tacks, machinery, firebrick, crucibles, cotton, flannel, silver-plated ware and solid silverware. Taunton River is noted for its herring and shad fishing. There are a public library, Registry Building, Morton Hospital and the state insane asylum. Several ponds, many shade-trees and the green — a public square — help to beautify the place. There also is a fine bronze statue of Robert Treat Paine, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, occupying a conspicuous place, Taunton being Paine's home. Relics are preserved in Historical Hall, a building owned by the Old Colony Historical Society. Taunton has an excellent public-school system and Bristol Academy, located here, was incorporated in 1792. Taunton was settled in 1638 by a company from Taunton, England. It became a city in 1864. The site was known to the Indians as Cohannet. It was King Philip's favorite hunting-ground, and during King Philip's war it was saved from attack by the king's friendship for one of the citizens. Population 34,259.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taurus

See also Taurus Mountains on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tau′rus, a range of mountains in Asia Minor, which forms the water-shed between the waters flowing into the Mediterranean and those flowing into the Black Sea. There are two divisions of the range, the Taurus on the south and the Anti-Taurus running northeast. Snow-covered mountain-tops are numerous, rising above thick forests that everywhere mantle the mountain sides. The highest peak is Arjish Dagh in the Anti-Taurus range (13,100 feet). Other noted peaks are Bulghar Dagh (11,400 feet), Gok Dagh and Ak Dagh, each 9,800 feet. The principal pass between Syria and Asia Minor, called in early times the Cilician Gates, is formed by the valley of the upper Cydnus.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taylor (James) Bayard

See also Bayard Taylor on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tay′lor (James) Bayard, American author and traveler, was born at Kennett Square, Pa., on Jan. 11, 1825. At 17 he was apprenticed in a printing-office, and soon began to publish poems in newspapers and magazines. In 1844 he made a walking-tour of Europe, an account of which he published as Views Afoot. After writing for several newspapers, he joined the editorial staff of The New York Tribune, in which appeared accounts of travels in California, Mexico, up the Nile, in Asia Minor, India, China and Japan. In 1878 he became minister to Germany. Taylor was a quick worker, throwing off many volumes of verse, fiction, sketches, essays, translations and criticisms, besides his 11 books of travel. As an original poet he stands high in the second rank. Some of his best travesties are in his Echo Club. Among the finest of his poems are Bedouin Song, The Quaker Widow and The ​
Old Pennsylvania Farmer. His masterpiece is the translation of Goethe's Faust, “one of the glories of American literature” and one of the finest translations in any literature. Perhaps the best of his novels is The Story of Kennett, which largely is his own story. Taylor died at Berlin, Dec. 19, 1878. Consult Life by Conwell.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taxonomy

See also Taxonomy (biology) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Taxon′omy, that division of botany which deals with the classification of plants. It is one of the oldest of subjects, and not very long ago it was the only form of botanical instruction given in the schools. Specialists in this study are called taxonomists or systematists, but the plant-kingdom is so vast that no one can be a specialist in the taxonomy of all groups. Accordingly there are algologists, who classify algae; mycologists, who classify fungi; bryologists, who classify mosses; pteridologists, who classify ferns. Ordinarily, when a man is called a systematist or a taxonomist, without any qualification, he is a specialist in the classification of seed-plants. The early attempts to classify plants were purely artificial, that is, there was no effort to indicate their real relationships. For example, one of the earliest groupings of seed-plants was into herbs, shrubs and trees. This brought together many wholly unrelated plants and kept apart many which are closely related, as unrelated words are brought together in a dictionary by the accident of their first letter. The artificial system was most highly developed by Linnæus, who invented an elaborate scheme on the basis of the number of stamens and pistils in the flower. This scheme was used until quite recently, but it has now been entirely replaced by natural systems. These systems attempt to group plants together which are really related, a family in botany meaning about what the term means among human beings, if one substitutes species for individuals. A natural system of classification can only become perfect when the complete development and structure of every plant are known. Hence such systems are being constantly revised as knowledge increases.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taylor, Jeremy

See also Jeremy Taylor on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Taylor, Jeremy, a great English churchman, was born at Cambridge, Aug. 15, 1613. He was the son of a barber, and graduated at Cambridge University, becoming a clergyman before he was 21. During the Civil War he seems to have followed the royal army, and afterwards withdrew to Wales. Here, buried from the world for 13 years, he kept a school at Newton and employed his leisure in writing the works which gave him fame. Chief among them are Liberty of Prophesying, Holy Living and Holy Dying. At the Restoration, Taylor, as a stanch Loyalist, was made bishop of Down and Connor, an Irish see. Seven years later, he died on Aug. 13, 1667. See Life by R. A. Wilmott.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taxes

See also Tax on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tax′es are levied on property and persons for the support of a government. In early times rulers often raised revenues by means of property owned by the government or crown or belonging to the king or prince himself. The possessions of subjects were often confiscated outright, fines were imposed, and in Europe for many years crimes were punishable by the payment of a stated sum of money. The Jews paid taxes mainly in the form of the first fruits of their lands and the firstborn of their flocks, and it was the heavy burden of taxation that caused the revolt of the Ten Tribes after the death of Solomon. In Athens a royalty on the products of the mines, import-duties, market-licenses, assessments on wealthy citizens and tribute from dependent nations were some of the ways used for raising money. In Rome, under the republic, to the spoils of conquered nations and their tribute were ​added, under the empire, tolls, taxes on grain, on the privilege of Roman citizenship etc. In Europe, under the feudal system, kings were supported by their own lands, and in war claimed the services of their barons and knights at their own expense. Venice, in the middle ages, began the modern system of taxation by taxing land and levying import-duties; but throughout Europe, until the French Revolution and in some cases since, the nobles and clergy were privileged classes and paid no taxes. In many countries of Asia the right of taxation was given or sold to governors of provinces or to the highest bidder, a practice which often resulted in wringing from the people all that they had, which caused widespread misery. In Europe, too, taxes were sometimes farmed out at a lump sum.
In the United States taxes are imposed by the federal, state and municipal governments. Federal taxes are in the form of tariffs (q. v.) on imports, excise-duties, (mainly on liquors and tobacco) and income taxes (q. v.). Import and excise duties are indirect taxes, that is, not paid directly by the consumer. The bulk of state taxes are laid directly on property. The heaviest taxes usually are those laid for local purposes by the county or city. Besides the ordinary city or county taxes, assessments are often made on property specially benefited, for opening streets or roads, for street-lamps, sewers, water-service etc.
Unjust and unfair taxation has often caused discontent and even revolutions, and how to tax without oppressing the people is a deep problem. Turgot the French statesman, called it the art of plucking the goose without making it cry. In most countries it is now recognized that no tax can be levied without the consent of the representatives of the people who have to pay it. It was England's attempt to raise a stamp-duty and a customs-duty on tea in America that caused the revolt of the colonies under the celebrated cry: “No taxation without representation.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taxidermy

See also Taxidermy on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Taxidermy (tă x′ĭ-dẽr′my), the art of preparing the skins of animals for the purposes of the naturalist. In preparing small animals for stuffing, the skins are removed, the flesh clinging to them is cleaned away, and they are anointed with arsenical soap. This keeps the skin supple and prevents decay and attacks of insects. Larger skins are prepared with a powder containing arsenic, burnt alum, oak-bark and camphor. The animals are then stuffed and mounted.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tay

See also River Tay on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tay, the largest river of Scotland, pours into the German Ocean a greater bulk of water than any other river of Great Britain. The Dochart is the chief feeder of Loch Tay, and from this lake the Tay flows past Dunkeld and Perth, at the mouth of the Earn widening into the Firth of Tay, from three fourths of a mile to a mile wide, and falling into the North Sea about ten miles below Dundee, after a course of 120 miles. It is navigable to Perth, and the tide flows a mile further up. The salmon-fisheries are valuable.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Taylor, Zachary

See also Zachary Taylor on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Taylor, Zachary, twelfth president of the United States, was born in Orange County, Va., Sept. 24, 1784. His father was an officer of the Revolutionary War and one of the first settlers of Louisville, Ky., where Zachary was taken as a boy and lived till his 24th year, working on a plantation and getting but little schooling. Taylor entered the army in 1808 as lieutenant, and in 1812, as captain of a company of 50 men, two thirds of whom were down with fever, he defended Fort Harrison on the Wabash against a large force of Indians, led by Tecumseh (q. v.), the famous chief. Promoted to the rank of major for his gallantry, he was employed during the war in fighting the Indian allies of England. He built Fort Jesup in 1822, and ten years later served as colonel in the Black Hawk War. In 1836 he was ordered to Florida, where he gained an important victory over the Seminole Indians at Okeechobee, for which he was appointed brigadier-general and made commander of the United States forces in Florida. Just before the breaking out of the Mexican War Taylor was ordered to Corpus Christi, occupying the point with a force of 4,000 (1845). Next spring he marched across the disputed territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande, and built Fort Brown opposite Matamoras. The Mexicans demanded that he retire beyond the Nueces, and on his refusal Arista crossed the Rio Grande with a force of 6,000. On May 8, 1846, Taylor defeated him at Palo Alto with 2,300 men, and a few days later drove him from a new position at Resaca de la Palma across the Rio Grande. War was at once declared by Congress; 50,000 volunteers were called for; and Taylor was made a major-general, re-enforced, and ordered to invade Mexico. On Sept. 9, with 6,625 men, he attacked Monterey, which was defended by 10,000 regular troops. After ten days' siege and three days' hard fighting it surrendered. All but 5,000 volunteers and 500 regulars of his army were now sent to aid General Scott at Vera Cruz, and Taylor was left with this small force to oppose President Santa Anna's army of 21,000. He took a strong position at Buena Vista, fought a desperate battle and won a decided victory. This victory against enormous odds caused the utmost enthusiasm, and Taylor, known as “Old Rough and Ready,” was nominated by the Whigs for the presidency and elected. Entering the White House in 1849, he found a Democratic majority in Congress, with the small but vigorous Free-Soil party holding the balance of power, while such exciting questions as the admission of California, the settlement of the boundaries of Texas and the organization of the newly-acquired Mexican territories were stirring the nation. Worn out by the unaccustomed turmoil of politics, the rough, good-natured soldier did not long enjoy his honors, but died on July 9, 1850, 16 months after his inauguration. See Lives by Fry, Montgomery and Stoddard.
ZACHARY TAYLOR
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sable Island

See also Sable Island on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Sable Island, a low-lying island in the Atlantic, 100 miles south of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, to which it belongs. It is made of two sand-ridges, with a lagoon between them. The island has been called the sailors' grave, from the many shipwrecks happening there. Since 1873 three lighthouses have been built, of which two have been swept away and one undermined, as the island is fast sinking. Early in the 19th century it was 40 miles long, but now it is not more than 20. Near it are sandbanks and valuable fisheries.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sackett's Harbor, N. Y.

See also Sackets Harbor, New York on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Sack′ett's Har′bor, N. Y., a village on a bay of Lake Ontario at the mouth of Black River, 12 miles west of Watertown. The harbor is one of the best on the lake. It is a typical military town. Madison Barracks, regimental headquarters, are here. In the War of 1812 Sackett's Harbor was the headquarters of the northern division of the American fleet, and several war-vessels were built here. It was twice attacked by the British, who were driven off. Sackett's Harbor is becoming a popular summer-resort. Population (1910) 868; excluding the civilians living on the military reservation.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sabines

See also Sabines on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Sa′bines, an old Italian people who lived first among the central Apennines, but afterwards reached down into the western plains, even to Rome itself. According to the story, a colony of Sabines occupied the Quirinal Hill in Rome, but were at last joined to the Latin followers of Romulus on the Palatine Hill, and so helped to make the Roman people. It is said that Romulus, finding it hard to get wives for his followers, who were looked down upon as runaways and criminals, invited the Sabines to a feast and games. While the games were going on, the garrison of the Palatine seized the unsuspecting women, whom they carried off to be their wives. After several wars the Sabines outside of Rome were conquered in 241 B. C.