OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Reber, Franz von

Edition of 1905. See also Franz von Reber on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REBER, rā'bẽr, Franz von (1834—). A German art-historian, born at Cham, Bavaria. After studying in Munich and Berlin he went to Rome, and in 1858 established himself as lecturer at the University of Munich, was appointed professor at the Polytechnieum there in 1863 and director of the Royal Gallery in 1875. His writings include: Die Ruinen Roms und der Campagna (2d ed. 1879); Geschichte der Baukunst im Altertums (1864-67); Kunstgeschichte des Altertums (1871; trans. and supplemented by Clarke, New York, 1882); Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst (2d ed. 1884); Kunstgeschichte des Mittelalters (1886; trans. 1887); Geschichte der Malerei vom Anfang des 14. bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts (1894); and Die phrygischen Felsendenkmäler (1897). He translated the ten books of Vitruvius on Architecture (1865) and the History of the Antwerp School of Painting by Rooses (1880).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Reber, Napoléon Henri

Edition of 1905. See also Napoléon Henri Reber on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REBER, rā'bâr', Napoléon Henri (1807-80). A French composer, born at Mühlhausen, Alsace. He studied with Reicha and Le Sueur, wrote hamber-music, and set to music the new songs of the best French poets. He became professor of harmony at the Conservatory in 1851, and succeeded Halévy as professor of composition in 1862, He was inspector of the branch conservatories from 1871 and elected to Onslow's chair in the Académie in 1853. Among his works are: A ballet, Le diable amoureux (1840); the comic operas, La nuit de Noël ( 1848), Le père Gaillard (1852), Les papillotes de M. Benoist (1853), and Les dames capitaines (1857). His instrumental works, which are written in the spirit of the German classics, consist of four symphonies, one overture, and one suite for the orchestra, three stringed quartets, one stringed quintet, one pianoforte quartet, seven pianoforte trios, and pieces for the pianoforte and violin. For the voice he wrote thirty-three songs with pianoforte accompaniment, a Chœer de pirates, Le soir, an Ave Maria and Agnus Dei for two sopranos, tenor, bass, and organs, besides
Vocalises for soprano or tenor. His Traité d'harmonie (1862) ranks among the best modern works on theory and has been reprinted several times. He died in Paris.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rebmann, Johannes

Edition of 1905. See also Johannes Rebmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REBMANN, rắb'mȧn, Johannes (1820-76). A German missionary and African explorer, born at Gerlingen, Württemberg. He was sent by the British Church Missionary Society to Mombas, East Africa, as an assistant to Krapf, with whom in 1849 he discovered the mountains Kilimanjaro and Kenia. Rebmann spent thirty-eight years in Africa and acquired considerable knowledge of several of the native languages. He published a Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language (1877) and a map of East Africa (1856).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rebolledo, Bernardino de

Edition of 1905. See also Bernardino de Rebolledo on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REBOLLEDO, rā'Bṓ-lyā'Dṓ, Bernardino de, Count (1597-1676). A Spanish poet, born at Leon. From his youth he was a soldier and fought against the Turks and in Barbary and in the Thirty Years' War. He was made Ambassador to Denmark (1647) and afterwards to Sweden, and lived for several years in the north. In 1663 he was appointed Minister of State, a post he held until his death. His works include: Ocios (1650), a poem; Selva militar y politica (1652), a didactic poem; La constancia victoriosa (1655), and some epistles, epigrams, and excellent ballads. His style is prosaic, but it is simple and usually unaffected. The three-volume edition of his works (Madrid, 1778) contains a biography.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Reigate

Edition of 1905. See also Reigate on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​REIGATE, rī'get. A municipal borough and market town in Surrey, England, at the base of the North Downs, 23 miles south of London (Map: England, F 5). The town was incorporated in 1863; it owns a sewage farm, provides isolation for infectious diseases, and contributes to technical instruction. From early times it was considered a place of strength; and after the Conquest it was granted to the earls of Warrenne. The parish church is in various styles of architecture, the oldest portions dating from the twelfth century. Trade is chiefly agricultural. Nearby are quarries of freestone and hearthstone and supplies of fuller's earth, and of silver sand for manufacturing glass. Population, in 1891, 22,646; in 1901, 25,993.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Realschule

Edition of 1905. See also Realschule on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REALSCHULE, rắ-äl'shōō'le. A German school of secondary instruction differing from the Gynmasium inasmuch as it offers no instruction in the classical languages and lays stress on science. The Realschule is an outgrowth of the realistic tendencies of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The institutions that Francke established at Halle toward the close of the seventeenth century laid unusual stress on the study of nature. At the same time notable efforts were being made to introduce more science into the classical schools generally. In 1747 Hecker established at Berlin an öconomisch-mathematische Realschule, which may be regarded as the prototype of the Realschule of to-day. It gave instruction in the German, French, and Latin languages, writing, arithmetic, drawing, history, geography, and the elements of geometry, mechanics, and architecture, and also in religion and ethics. Some optional study of various occupations and trades was also provided.
The Realschule of to-day has a six years' course, and its graduates go directly into business life. Those who wish to take the university courses in science and mathematics attend the Oberrealschule, which has a nine years' course. The programme in this school is like that in the Realgymnasium, with the exception of the omission of Latin and the substitution therefor of more work in mathematics, natural history, chemistry, mineralogy, French, and English. Graduates of these two types of schools are regarded as on the same plane educationally, but both are looked upon as somewhat inferior to the graduates of the Gymnasium. Consult: Russell, German High Schools (New York, 1899); Bolton, Secondary School System of Germany (ib., 1900). See National Education; Gymnasia and Realgymnasia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Reifferscheid, August

Edition of 1905. See also August Reifferscheid on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​REIFFERSCHEID, rī'fẽr-shīt, August (1835-87). A German archæologist and classical philologist, born and educated in Bonn. He received a traveling fellowship in archæology from the University of Bonn; spent 1861-66 mostly in Italy, being part of the time charged by the Vienna Academy to make archival research for the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum; and was professor at Breslau (1868-85), and from 1885 at Strassburg. His works include Suetoni præter Cæsarum Libros Reliquiæ (1860), the standard edition of these fragments; Bibliotheca Patrum Latinorum Italica (1865-72); Arnobius (1875); an edition of Anna Comnena's Alexias (1878); and a partial edition of Tertullian (edited by Wissowa, 1890).
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The New International Encyclopædia/Regiomontanus

Edition of 1905. See also Regiomontanus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
REGIOMONTANUS (1436-76). A German mathematician and astronomer, whose real name was Johannes Müller. He was born near Königsberg (whence his Latin name), was educated at Vienna, and was a pupil of Georg Peuerbach (q.v.). He collected numerous Greek MSS. and translated many of them, especially the works of Ptolemy, Apollonius, Archimedes, and Hero of Alexandria. He also brought the
algebra of Diophantus to the notice of Europeans. Regiomontanus was the author of a treatise on plane and spherical trigonometry. De Trianqulis Omnimodis (1533), which contained the sine and cosine. Adopting the half chord of the Arabs, he constructed tables of sines and tangents. His work on arithmetic and algebra, entitled Algorithmus Demonstratus (1534), was among the first containing symbolic algebra. He established an observatory and printing press in Nuremberg, and produced tables of eclipses, and works on astronomy and astrology. He was called to Rome by Sixtus IV. to revise the calendar, but died there the following year, and was buried in the Pantheon. His works include: Ephemerides ab Anno 1475-1506 (1474); Calendarium Novum (1473); De Quadratura Circuli (1463); Disputationes Dialogus contra Gerhardi Cremonensis in Planetarum Theorias Deliramenta (1475); De Reformatione Calendarii (1484); De Cometæ Magnitudine Longitudineque (1531); Tabulæ Directionum Profectionumque (1575); De Doctrina Triangulorum (1463). Consult Ziegler, Regiomontanus (Dresden, 1874). A collection of his letters was edited by Murr (Nuremberg, 1786).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engelmann, George

Edition of 1905. See also George Engelmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENG'ELMANN, George (1809-84). An American botanist. He was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, was educated at the universities of Heidelberg, Berlin, and Würzburg, and became established as a physician at Saint Louis, Mo., in 1835. In 1836 he began the publication of the newspaper Das Westland, at one time well known
through its excellent descriptions of Western life and manners. It was, however, as a botanist that Engelmann became widely celebrated. Although the greatest authority on the North American vine and cactus, Engelmann also gave considerable attention to other species of plants, furnishing reports of his discoveries and investigations to the Government. He was the first president of the Saint Louis Academy of Science; and his valuable botanical collection, so important in establishing the nomenclature of numerous botanical species of America, is now in Shaw's Botanical Gardens, Saint Louis.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d'

Edition of 1905. See also Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGHIEN, äN'gyāN', Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Duc d' (1772-1804). A member of the Bourbon family, celebrated in history for his tragic fate, he was the only son of Prince Louis Henri Joseph de Bourbon, and was born at Chantilly, August 2, 1772. In 1789 he left France and traveled through several countries of Europe. In 1792 he entered the corps of émigrés (q.v.) assembled by his grandfather, the Prince of Condé, on the Rhine, and showed himself to be a brave and efficient officer. After the Peace of Lunéville in 1801 he went to reside at Ettenheim, an old castle on the German side of the Rhine, not far from Strassburg, and within the territories of the Duke of Baden. Here he married the Princess Charlotte of Rohan-Rochefort, and lived as a private citizen. When the conspiracy headed by Cadoudal and Piehegrn against the life of Bonaparte was discovered at Paris (1804), the police were led to believe that the Duc d'Enghien was privy to it, and the evidence seemed to justify their belief. The unfortunate error of a spy further tended to confirm the strong suspicions of Bonaparte, and he resolved to seize the person of the unfortunate prince and make of him a terrible example for future conspirators. On the night of March 15, 1804, the neutral territory of Baden was invaded and the Duke captured and carried a prisoner to Vincennes. On March 20th he was tried before a court martial consisting of eight officers, and after a brief examination was condemned to death. The grave of the victim had been prepared in expectation of this sentence, and at three o'clock on the morning of March 21st he was shot. His innocence was soon established beyond doubt, and the execution of the Duc d'Enghien has fixed a deep and lasting stigma on the character of Napoleon. Consult: Dupin, Pièces judiciaires (Paris, 1823); id., Mémoires historiques sur la catastrophe du duc d'Enghien (Paris, 1834); Constant, Le duc d'Enghien (Paris, 1869); Welschinger, L'Europe et l'exécution du duc d'Enghien (Amiens, 1890); Ropes, The First Napoleon (Boston, 1885); Fay, “The Execution of the Duc d'Enghien,” in American Historical Review (New York, 1899).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum

Edition of 1905. See also Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EPIS'TOLÆ OB'SCURO'RUM VIRO'RUM (Lat., ‘Letters of Obscure Men’). The title of a collection of satirical letters which appeared at Hagenau in 1515, professing to be issued by the Aldine Press at Venice. It purported to be the composition of certain ecclesiastics and professors in Cologne and other places in Rhenish Germany. The letters were directed against the scholastics and monks, and helped in no small degree to bring about the Reformation. The controversy of Reuchlin (q.v.) with the baptized Jew Pfefferkorn concerning the books of the Jews gave the first occasion to the Epistolæ, and probably their title was suggested by the letters to himself from distinguished men which Reuchlin published, under the title Virorum Epistolæ Clarorum ad Reuchlinum Phorcensem (1514), to show that his position in this controversy was approved by the learned. The Epistolæ Obscurorum were addressed to Ortuinus Gratius in Deventer, who had made himself odious to the liberal minds of the time by his arrogant pretension, his determined hostility to the spirit of the age, and his lax morality. On the first appearance of the work it was ascribed to Reuchlin, afterwards to Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Hutten. The first part contained 41 letters, a number which was increased in subsequent editions. It was probably mainly the composition of the distinguished humanist Erotus Rubeanus, who originated the idea. In the composition of the second part (1519) Ulrich von Hutten had much share, but others participated, including Erotus. The Epistolæ were placed in the catalogue of forbidden books by a Papal bull, and this circumstance contributed not a little to spread the work. The classical edition is that by Böcking, Supplementum Ulrici Hutteni Operum, vols. vi., vii. (Leipzig, 1864-70). There is a German translation by Binder (Stuttgart, 1876). Consult: Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten (6th ed., Leipzig, 1895), of which there is an English translation (London, 1874); and Pattison, Essays (Oxford, 1889).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engelmann, Johannes

Edition of 1905. See also Johannes Engelmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGELMANN, ĕng'el-män, Johannes (1832—). A Russian jurist. He was born at Mitau, Courland, was educated at the University of Saint Petersburg, and was professor of Russian law at Dorpat from 1860 to 1899. After 1887 his lectures, which had previously been given in German, were delivered in the Russian language. These lectures, delivered during a period of nearly forty years, covered a wide field and contributed greatly to the advancement of the science of jurisprudence in Russia. His works include Die Verjahrung nach russischem Privatrecht (1867; in Russian, 1868); Die Zwangsvollstreckung auswärtiger richterlicher Urteile in Russland (1884; also translated into French and Russian).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engelhardt, Georg von

Edition of 1905. See also Georg von Engelhardt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGELHARDT, Georg von (1775-1862). A Russian statesman and author. He was born at Riga, and at the age of fifteen went to Saint Petersburg, where, in 1796, he became an employee in the Department of Foreign Affairs. Alexander I. subsequently appointed him Under-Secretary of State in the newly created Imperial Council. In 1811 he became director of the Pedagogical Institute, and in 1816 he was transferred in the same capacity to the lyceum at Tsarskoye Selo, whence, however, he was removed in 1823 because of his pronounced liberalism. He was editor of the Russische Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung from 1838 to 1852, and published the manuscript journals of Wrangel, the explorer, in the work entitled Reise längs der Nordküste von Sibirien und auf dem Eismeer (1839).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engelhardt, Moritz von

Edition of 1905. See also Moritz von Engelhardt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGELHARDT, Moritz von (1779-1842). A Russian naturalist. He was born in Esthonia, and was educated at the universities of Leipzig and Göttingen. In company with Karl von Raumer he traveled through central Europe and England, and in 1811 he undertook a journey with Friedrich von Parrot through the Crimea and the Caucasus. The results of his extensive tour through Finland in 1818 were published in the work entitled Geognostischer Umriss von Finland, vol. i. of an elaborately projected Darstellung aus dem Felsgebäude Russlands (1821). From 1820 to 1830 he was professor of mineralogy at Dorpat, and in 1826 he entered upon those extensive travels through Russia in the course of which he discovered the vast deposits of gold, platinum, and diamonds described in his famous reports published at Riga in 1828 and 1830. His other literary productions include a description of his first extensive tour, published by him jointly with his companion Raumer in the works respectively entitled Geognostische Versuche (1816) and Geognostische Umrisse (1817).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engerth, Wilhelm, Baron

Edition of 1905. See also Wilhelm Engerth on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGERTH, Wilhelm, Baron (1814-84). An Austrian engineer, brother of the preceding. He
was born at Pless, Prussian Silesia, studied architecture at the Polytechnic Institute and at the Academy of Arts, Vienna, and in 1844 was appointed professor of mechanical engineering at Gratz. He is inventor of the ‘Engerth system’ for freight locomotives, which, since its introduction on the Semmering Railroad, has found wide adoption on the Continent. The construction of the river-gate near Nussdorf, which prevents the entrance of ice into the Danube Canal at Vienna and the resultant annual inundations, was devised and built by Engerth. He was supervising architect of the buildings of the Vienna Exposition of 1873, and the entire engineering department was on that occasion placed under his control.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engels, Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Engels on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGELS, ĕng'els, Friedrich (1820-95). A German socialist, born in Barmen, Prussia. He was an apprentice at Bremen and Berlin, and subsequently became connected with manufacturing interests in Manchester, England. In 1814 he was a collaborator on the Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher, issued at Paris by Karl Marx (q.v.) and Arnold Ruge (q.v.). From 1846 he was associated with Marx in the Communistic League, a precursor of the International, and in 1848 was joint author of the manifesto to the laboring classes of the world. Afterwards (1848-49) he was an editor of Marx's Neue Rheinische Zeitung at Cologne, participated in the revolutionary movement led by Struve and Hecker in Baden in 1848-49, and from 1850 until his retirement in 1869 was a manufacturer of cotton goods at Manchester. He was a prominent assistant of Marx in the extension of Social Democracy, and was secretary for Portugal, Spain, and Italy in the general council of the International. He wrote Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England (1845; new ed. 1892). He also edited the third (1885) and fourth (1894) volumes of Marx's Das Kapital (Hamburg). Consult: Dawson, German Socialism (1888), and the biography of Engels by Sombart (Berlin, 1895).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Engerth, Eduard von

Edition of 1905. See also Eduard von Engerth on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ENGERTH, ĕng'ẽrt, Eduard von (1818-97). An Austrian historical portrait painter. He was born at Pless, Prussian Silesia, and studied under Kunelwieser at the Vienna Academy, where, in 1845, he obtained the grand prize and the imperial stipend attached to it. In 1854 he was appointed director of the Prague Academy; in 1865, professor at the Vienna Academy; in 1871, director of the Belvedere Gallery, and in 1874 rector of the Academy. His most celebrated picture is entitled “Seizure of King Manfred's Family After the Battle of Benevento” (Art Museum, Vienna). The painting entitled “The Victory of Prince Eugene at Zenta” is also highly esteemed.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Androt, A. A

Androt, A. A., was born at Paris in 1781 ; he was admitted, in 1796, a pupil of the Conservatory, and in 1802 gained the prize for composition. He then went to Rome, where he was patronized by Guglielmi, and composed some church music, which was performed in passion week in 1804. Just as he had finished a "De profundis," he died, in the twenty-third year of his age.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Aneau, Barthelemy

Aneau, Barthelemy. Author of two books, the one containing church music, and the other the fourth eclogue of Virgil set to music, printed at Lyons in 1539 and 1559.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Anfossi

Anfossi. An eminent performer on the double bass, resident some years since in London. He performed at the York musical festival in 1823.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Anemochord

Anemochord. Aeolian harp.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Anerio, Felice

Anerio, Felice, is said by Walther to have been a pupil of Maria Nanino, and by Adami to have succeeded Palestrina as maestro di capella of the pontifical chapel. These two circumstances alone imply no common degree of merit ; and, according to Adami, many admirable compositions by this author were preserved in the pope's chapel, and in daily use. He seems to have been regarded as a great master of his profession. His madrigals for six voices were printed at Antwerp, 1599, and canzonets for four voices, at Frankfort, in 1610 ; which, for a time, enjoyed a considerable share of public favor.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Anerio, G. F

Anerio, G. F., a Roman composer and chapel-master at Verona at the beginning of he seventeenth century, published madrigals and other works at Venice and at Rome.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Anfangs-ritornel

Anfangs-ritornel. (G.) An introductory symphony to an air, &c.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Andronicus

Andronicus. A Neapolitan musician of antiquity. He composed a hymn, which was solemnly chanted by a chorus of young virgins, to appease the wrath of the gods against the Romans. (Vide Sallust.) In the private as well as public sacrifices of the ancient Romans, music was considered an important aid to their ceremonials. The flute was the instrument in use, as also in Greece, to accompany the voices of their priests. The flutes used in the temples were made of boxwood ; those for the theatres and public games, of silver. The trumpet and the lituus were also introduced (according to the Grecian custom) during the hecatombs. To show the importance which was attached to the musical characters in ancient Rome, it is related that, early in the history of that city, the musicians formed together a college or society, and were accustomed to partake daily of a dinner at the capital, given them by the state. On account of this dinner being suppressed, they all retired to Tibur ; and the only terms on which they would agree to return to Rome were, not only the renewal of their usual daily repast, but to be treated with much more magnificence ; as a foretaste of which enjoyments, a banquet was prepared for them at Tibur, where they all became inebriated, and in that state were removed to Rome.
# Complete Encyclopaedia of Music/A/Angeber, W

Angeber, W., published some piano-forte lessons at Augsburg about 1799.