OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ricold of Monte Croce

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​RICOLD OF MONTE CROCE (1242–1320), Italian Dominican missionary, was born at Monte Croce, near Florence. In 1267 he entered the Dominican house of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, and in 1272 that of St Catherine in Pisa. He started for Acre with a papal commission to preach in 1286 or 1287: in 1288 or 1289 he began to keep a record of his experiences in the Levant; this record he probably reduced to final book form in Bagdad. Entering Syria at Acre, he crossed Galilee to the Sea of Tiberias; thence returning to Acre he seems to have travelled down the coast to Jaffa, and so up to Jerusalem. After visiting the Jordan and the Dead Sea he quitted Palestine by the coast road, retracing his steps to Acre and passing on by Tripoli and Tortosa into Cilicia. From the Cilician port of Lajazzo he started on the great high road to Tabriz in north Persia. Crossing the Taurus he travelled on by Sivas of Cappadocia to Erzerum, the neighbourhood of Ararat and Tabriz. In and near Tabriz he preached for several months, after which he proceeded to Bagdad via Mosul and Tekrit. In Bagdad he stayed several years, studying the Koran and other works of Moslem theology, for controversial purposes, arguing with Nestorian Christians, and writing. In 1301 Ricold again appeared in Florence: some time after this he proposed to submit his Confutatio Alcorani to the pope, but did not. He died on the 31st of October 1320. As a traveller and observer his merits are conspicuous. His account of the Tatars and his sketch of Moslem religion and manners are especially noteworthy. In spite of strong prejudice, he shows remarkable breadth of view and appreciation of merit in systems the most hostile to his own.
Of Ricold's Itinerary (Itinerarius [sic]) fifteen MSS. exist, of which the chief are: (1) Florence, Laurentian Library, Fineschi, 326; (2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 49535, fols. 46-55; (3) Wolfenbiittel, od. Weissenb. 40, fols. 73 B.-94 (all of 14th century). Of his Epistles there is one MS., viz. Rome, Vatican, 3717, fols. 249 A.–267 A. The best edition of the Itinerary is by J. C. M. Laurent, in Peregrinatores Medii Aevi Quatuor, pp. 105 (101)-41 (Leipzig, 186 and 1873). The Epistles have been edited by R. Röhricht in Archives de l’orient latin, vol. ii. part ii. (Documents) pp. 258-96 (Paris 1884). The Corgutatio Aleorani, printed at Seville in 1500, at Venice in 1607, adds hardly anything to the sections of the Itinerary devoted to Moslem belief, &c. Ricold's Libellus contra Nationes Orientales and Contra errores Judaeorum have never been printed. See also C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 190-202, 218, 390-91, 547, 554, 564.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ricina

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​RICINA, an ancient town of Picenum, Italy, 3 m. N.W. of the modern Macerata, on the banks of the river Potenza, in a fertile valley. It was probably a municipium until it was re founded by Pertinax and Septimius Severus, after which it bore the name Colonia Helvia Ricina Pertinax. The site is now deserted, but considerable ruins of a theatre and remains of baths and other buildings (all in brickwork of the imperial period) still exist; also the fragments of an ancient bridge over the Potenza.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rickmansworth

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​RICKMANSWORTH, an urban district in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 17½ m. W.N.W. of London by the Metropolitan & Great Central joint railway; served also by a branch of the London & North Western railway from Watford. Pop. (1901) 5627. It lies in a pleasant valley at the junction of the Chess with the Colne, and on the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary, with the exception of the tower a modern reconstruction, contains some French stained glass of the 16th century. The chief industries are brewing and art-printing. The Colne here holds large trout, which are carefully preserved. The grounds of Moor Park to the south-east are finely wooded, and the mansion, belonging to Lord Ebury, is a good example of the period of George I. "The estate counts among its former owners such famous names as the Botelers; George Neville, archbishop of York; John de Vere, earl of Oxford in Henry VII.'s time; Wolsey in the next reign; Robert Carey, earl of Monmouth, and the duke of Monmouth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rickman, Thomas

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​RICKMAN, THOMAS (1776–1841), English architect, was born on the 8th of June 1776 at Maidenhead, Berkshire, where he assisted his father (a Quaker) in business as a grocer and druggist until 1797. He was then engaged in various businesses until 1818. All his spare time was spent in sketching and making careful measured drawings, till he gained a knowledge of architecture which was very remarkable at a time when little taste existed for the beauties of the Gothic styles. In 1811 alone he is said to have studied three thousand ecclesiastical buildings. When in 1818 a large grant of money was made by the government to build new churches, Rickman sent in a design of his own which was successful in an open competition; thus he was fairly launched upon the profession of an architect, for which his natural gifts strongly fitted him. Rickman then moved to Birmingham, and by 1830 became one of the most successful architects of his time. He built churches at Hampton Lucy, Ombersley, and Stretton-on-Dunsmore, St George's at Birmingham, St Philip's and St Matthew's in Bristol, two in Carlisle, St Peter's and St Paul's at Preston, St David's in Glasgow, Grey Friars at Coventry, and many others. He also designed the new court of St John's College, Cambridge, a palace for the bishop of Carlisle, and several large country houses. These a're all in the Gothic style, but show more knowledge of the outward form of the medieval style than any real acquaintance with its spirit, and are little better than dull copies of old work, disfigured by much poverty of detail. Rickman nevertheless played an important part in the revival of taste for medievalism perhaps second only to Pugin. His Attempt to discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England shows painstaking research, and ran through many editions. Rickman died at Birmingham on the 4th of January 1841. He was married three times: first to his cousin, Lucy Rickman of Lewes; secondly to Christiana Hornor; thirdly to Elizabeth Miller of Edinburgh, by whom he had a son and a daughter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ricimer

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​ RICIMER (d. 472), master of the Roman Empire in the West during part of the 5th century, was the son of a prince of the Suebi and the daughter of Wallia, king of the Visigoths. His youth was spent at the court of Valentinian III., and he won distinction under Aetius. In 456 he defeated the Vandals in a sea-fight near Corsica, and on land near Agrigentum in Sicily, and backed by the popularity thus acquired, Ricimer then gained the consent of the Roman senate to an expedition against the emperor Avitus, whom he defeated in a bloody battle at Piacenza on the 16th of October 456. Avitus was taken prisoner and made bishop of Piacenza, and shortly afterwards sentenced to death. Ricimer then obtained from
Leo I., emperor at Constantinople, the title patrician, but in 457 set up Majorianus as his own emperor in the West, and induced Leo to give his consent. When, however, Majorianus tried to rule by himself, Ricimer forced him to abdicate and caused his assassination on the 7th of August 461. The successor whom Ricimer placed upon the throne was Libius Severus, who proved to be more docile than Majorianus, but had to face the rivalry of Leo in the East and Aegidius in Gaul. Upon his death in 465 — said to be due to the poison of Ricimer — this emperor-maker ruled the West for eighteen months without an emperor, and then accepted Leo's candidate Anthemius, diplomatically married his daughter, and for some time lived in peace with him. Before long, however, Ricimer moved to Milan, ready to declare war upon Anthemius. St Epiphanius, bishop of Milan, patched up a truce, but in 472 Ricimer was again before Rome with an army of Germans, proclaimed as emperor Olybrius, whom Leo had sent to pacify the two enemies, and after three months' siege took the city, on the 1st of July 472. Anthemius was massacred and Rome was a prey to Ricimer's soldiers. He himself, however, died on the 18th of August 472, of malignant fever.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Psorospermiasis

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​PSOROSPERMIASIS, the medical term for a disease caused by the animal parasites known as psorosperms or gregarinidae, found in the liver, kidneys and ureters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Psyche

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​PSYCHE (ψυχή), in Greek mythology, the personification of the human soul. The story of the love of Eros (Cupid) for Psyche is a philosophical allegory, founded upon the Platonic conception of the soul. In this connexion Psyche was represented in Greek and Graeco-Roman art as a tender maiden, with bird's or butterfly's wings, or simply as a butterfly. Sometimes she is pursued and tormented by Eros, sometimes she revenges herself upon him, sometimes she embraces him in fondest affection. The tale of Cupid and Psyche, in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, has nothing in common with this conception but the name. In it Psyche, the youngest daughter of a king, arouses the jealousy of Venus, who orders Cupid to inspire her with love for the most despicable of men. Cupid, however, falls in love with her himself, and carries her off to a secluded spot, where he visits her by night, unseen and unrecognized by her. Persuaded by her sisters that her companion is a hideous monster, and forgetful of his warning, she lights a lamp to look upon him while he is asleep; in her ecstasy at his beauty ​she lets fall a drop of burning oil upon the face of Cupid, who awakes and disappears. Wandering over the earth in search of him, Psyche falls into the hands of Venus, who forces her to undertake the most difficult tasks. The last and most dangerous of these is to fetch from the world below the box containing the ointment of beauty. She secures the box, but on her way back opens it and is stupefied by the vapour. She is only restored to her senses by contact with the arrow of Cupid, at whose entreaty Jupiter makes her immortal and bestows her in marriage upon her lover. The meaning of the allegory is obvious. Psyche, as the personification of the soul, is only permitted to enjoy her happiness so long as she abstains from ill-advised curiosity. The desire to pry into its nature brings suffering upon her; but in the end, purified by what she has undergone, she is restored to her former condition of bliss by the mighty power of love.
On this story see L. Friedländer, “Ueber das Märchen von Amor and Psyche” (in Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, 1888, vol. i.; for a treatment of the Greek conception, see E. Rohde, Psyche, 1894). For Psyche in art see A. Conze, De Psyches imaginibus quibusdam (1855); Max Collignon, Essai sur les monuments grecs et romains relatifs au mythe de Psyché (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ptarmigan

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​PTARMIGAN (Lagopus mutus or alpinus), a gallinaceous bird akin to the grouse (q.v.). The word in Gaelic is tarmachan, which appears from the end of the 16th century in many forms, such as tormican, tarmichen, and even “termagant.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Psychophysics

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​PSYCHOPHYSICS (from Gr. ψυχή, soul, φύσις, nature), a department of psychology which deals with the physiological aspects of mental phenomena, and in particular investigates the quantitative relations between stimuli and the resultant sensations. Following the introspective school of which the last leader was Alexander Bain, the tendency of psychological investigation, in the hands of Fechner, Helmholtz, Wundt, Münsterberg, was predominantly psychophysical, and psychological study, especially in Germany, where the first fully-equipped laboratory was set up in Leipzig (1879) by Wundt, and in America became largely a matter of experiment and apparatus. Such apparatus has been devised for optical, acoustical, haptical (Gr. ἅπτειν, touch), taste and smell experiments. Haptical apparatus includes the kinesimeter (for cutaneous sensation), the thermaesthesiometer (for heat and cold sensation), the algometer or algesimeter (for pain sensations), the aesthesiometer (e.g. those of Jastrow and Münsterberg). Among important apparatus for measuring the time relations of mental processes are the d'Arsonval chronometer, which marks hundredths of a second, and the Hipp chronoscope, in which the stimulus and the clock are electrically connected.
For authorities see Baldwin's Dict. of Philos. and Psych. s.v. “Laboratory,” and the latest psychological textbooks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parny, Évariste Désiré de Forges, Vicomte de

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​PARNY, ÉVARISTE DÉSIRÉ DE FORGES, Vicomte de (1753–1814), was born in the Isle of Bourbon on the 6th of February 1753. He was sent to France at nine years old, was educated at Rennes, and in 1771 entered the army. He was, however, shortly recalled to the Isle of Bourbon, where he fell in love with a young lady whom he addresses as Eleonore. Her father refused to consent to her marriage with Parny, and she married some one else. Parny returned to France, and published his Poésies érotiques in 1778. He also published about the same time his Voyage de Bourgogne (1777), written in collaboration with his friend Antoine de Bertin (1752–1790); Épitre aux insurgents de Boston (1777), and Opuscules poetiques (1779). In 1796 appeared the Guerre des dieux, a poem in the style of Voltaire’s Pucelle, directed against Christianity. Parny devoted himself in his later years almost entirely to the religious and political burlesque. He was elected to the Academy in 1803, and in 1813 received a pension from Napoleon. In 1805 he produced an extraordinary allegoric poem attacking George III., his family and his subjects, under the eccentric title of “Goddam! Goddam! par un French-dog.” Parny’s early love poems and elegies, however, show a remarkable grace and ease, a good deal of tenderness, and considerable fancy and wit. One famous piece, the Elegy on a Young Girl, is scarcely to be excelled in its kind. Parny died in 1814.
His Œuvres choisies were published in 1827. There is a sketch of Parny in Sainte-Beuve’s Portraits contemporains.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paropamisus

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PAROPAMISUS, the name given by the Greeks to the parts of the Hindu Kush bordering Kohistan to the north-west of Kabul. It is now applied in a restricted sense to the water-parting between Herat and the Russian frontier on the Kushk river, which possesses no local name of its own. From Herat city to the crest of the Paropamisus, which is crossed by several easy passes, is a distance of about 36 m., involving a rise of 1000 ft.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parnassus

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​PARNASSUS (mod. Liákoura or Likeri), a mountain of Greece, 8070 ft., in the south of Phocis, rising over the town of Delphi. It had several prominent peaks, the chief known as Tithorea and Lycoreia (whence the modern name). Parnassus was one of the most holy mountains in Greece, hallowed by the worship of Apollo, of the Muses, and of the Corycian nymphs, and by the orgies of the Bacchantes. Two projecting cliffs, named the Phaedriadae, frame the gorge in which the Castalian spring flows out, and just to the west of this, on a shelf above the ravine of the Pleistus, is the site of the Pythian shrine of Apollo and the Delphic oracle. The Corycian cave is on the plateau between Delphi and the summit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parole

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PAROLE (shortened from the Fr. parole d’honneur, word of honour), a military term signifying the engagement given by a prisoner of war that if released he will not again take up arms against his captors during the term of engagement or the war, unless previously relieved of the obligation by exchange. “Parole” is also used in the same sense as “word” to imply a watchword or password. The French word, formed from the Late Lat. paraula, parabola, Gr. παραβολή, story, parable, was also adopted into English as “parol,” i.e. verbal, oral, by word of mouth, now only used in the legal term “parol evidence,” i.e. oral as opposed to documentary evidence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parnon

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​PARNON (mod. Malevo), the mountain ridge on the east of the Laconian plain. Height 6365 ft. It is visible from Athens above the top of the Argive mountains.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ryle, John Charles

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​RYLE, JOHN CHARLES (1816–1900), English bishop, was born at Macclesfield on the 10th of May 1816, and was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he Was Craven Scholar in 1836. After holding a curacy at Exbury in Hampshire, he became rector of St Thomas's, Winchester (1843), rector of Helmingham, Suffolk (1844), vicar of Stradbroke (1861), honorary canon of Norwich (1872), and dean of Salisbury (1880); but before taking this office was advanced to the new see of Liverpool, where he remained until his resignation, which took place three months before his death at Lowestoft on the 10th of June 1900. ​Ryle was a strong supporter of the evangelical school. Among his longer works are Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century (1869), Expository Thoughts on the Gospels (7 vols., 1856–69), Principles for Churchmen (1884). His second son, Herbert Edward Ryle (b. 1856), a distinguished Old Testament scholar, was made bishop of Exeter in 1901, and in 1903 bishop of Winchester.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rzhev

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​RZHEV, or Rznov, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, 76 m. S.W. of the town of Tver, occupying the bluffs on both banks of the Volga (here 350 ft. wide) near the confluence of the Vazuza. Pop. (1900) 31,514. It is the terminus of a branch line (85 m.) from the St Petersburg & Moscow railway, and is the centre of a large transit trade between Orel, Kaluga and Smolensk and the ports of St Petersburg and Riga. In the 12th century Rzhev belonged to the principality of Smolensk. Under the rulers of Novgorod it became from 1225 a subordinate principality, and in the 15th century the two portions of the town were held by two independent princes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rylands, John

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​RYLANDS, JOHN (1801–1888), English manufacturer and merchant, was born at St Helens, Lancashire, on the 7th of February 1801, and was educated at the grammar school in that town. In 1819 he, his elder brothers and his father, a manufacturer of cotton goods, founded the firm of Rylands & Sons, cotton goods and linen manufacturers, at Wigan. The business rapidly increased, dye-works and bleach-works were added, and the discovery of coal under some of the firm's property added materially to its wealth. In 1825 the partners became merchants as well as manufacturers, and subsequently acquired spinning mills at Bolton and elsewhere. In 1847, his father being dead and his brothers having retired, John Rylands assumed entire control of the business, which in 1873 was turned into a limited liability company. It has mills at Manchester, Bolton, and Wigan, and is now probably the largest concern of the kind in Great Britain. John Rylands was a benefactor to various charities, and was one of the original financiers of the Manchester Ship Canal. He died at Stretford on the 11th of December 1888. A permanent memorial, the John Rylands Library, was erected by his widow in Manchester in 1899.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rye (plant)

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​RYE. This cereal, known botanically as Secale cereale, is supposed to be the cultivated form of S. montanum, a wild perennial species occurring in the more elevated districts of parts of the Mediterranean region, and W. to Central Asia. Its cultivation does not appear to have been practised at a
Rye (Secale cereale), about ¼ nat. size. 1, single spikelet; 2, single flower with awned plume and palea; 3, pistil; 4, grain. 1, 2, 4, about two-thirds nat. size.
very early date, relatively speaking. Alphonse de Candolle, who has collected the evidence on this point, draws attention to the fact that no traces of this cereal have hitherto been found in Egyptian monuments, or in the earlier Swiss dwellings, though seeds have been found in association with weapons of the Bronze period at Olmütz. The absence of any special name for it in the Semitic, Chinese and Sanskrit languages is also adduced as an indication of its comparatively recent culture. On the other hand, the general occurrence of the name in the more modern languages of N. Europe, under various modifications, points to the cultivation of the plant then, as now, in those regions. The origin of the Latin name secale, which exists in a modified form among the Basques and Bretons, is not explained. Rye is a tall-growing annual grass, with fibrous roots, flat, narrow, ribbon-like bluish-green leaves, and erect or decurved cylindrical slender spikes like those of barley. The spike lets contain two or three flowers, of which the uppermost is usually imperfect. The outer glumes are acute and glabrous, the flowering glumes lance-shaped, with a comb-like keel at the back, and the outer or lower one prolonged at the apex into a very long bristly awn. Within these are three stamens surrounding a compressed ovary, with two feathery stigmas. When ripe, the grain is of an elongated oval form, with a few hairs at the summit. When the ovaries of the plant become affected with a peculiar fungus (Claviceps purpurea) they become blackened and distorted, constituting ergot (q.v.).
In the S. of Great Britain rye is chiefly or solely cultivated as a forage-plant for cattle and horses, being usually sown in autumn for spring use, after the crop of roots, turnips, &c., is exhausted, and before the clover and lucerne are ready. For forage purposes it is best to cut early, before the leaves and haulms have been exhausted of their supplies to benefit the grain. In the N. of Europe, and more especially in Scandinavia, Russia and parts of N. Germany, rye is the principal cereal; and in nutritive value, as measured by the amount of gluten it contains, it stands next to wheat, a fact which furnishes the explanation of its culture in N. latitudes ill-suited for the growth of wheat. Rye bread or black bread is in general use in N. Europe. The straw, which is prized on account of its length, is used for making hats and in the manufacture of paper. The bran is used for cattle-food and poultices, and the grain in the distillery.