OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Colon (Panama)

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​COLON (formerly known as Aspinwall), a city of the Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon, and 47 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Panama. Pop. (1908) about 3000, consisting largely of Jamaica negroes and natives of mixed Spanish, Indian and African descent. It is served by the Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama from ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven lines of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepôt for much of the commerce between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between the interior towns of Central and South America and the cities of Europe and the United States. The city lies on the west side of the low island of Manzanillo, is bordered on the landward sides by swamp, and consists mainly of unimposing frame houses and small shops. The most attractive parts are the American quarter, where the employés of the Panama railway have their homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French officers during their efforts to build the canal. In this last district, near the mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of Christopher Columbus, the gift of the empress Eugénie in 1870. Here also stands the mansion erected and occupied by Ferdinand de Lesseps during his residence on the isthmus. With the exception of railway shops, there are no important industrial establishments.
Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of Manzanillo was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama railway. The settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour of William H. Aspinwall (1807–1875), one of the builders of the railway; but some years afterwards its name was changed by legislative enactment to Colon, in honour of Christopher Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The original name, however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants for many years after this change. With the completion of the railway in 1855, the town supplanted Chagres (q.v.) as the principal Atlantic port of the isthmus. Later it acquired increased importance through its selection by de Lesseps as the site for the Atlantic entrance to his canal. During the revolution of 1885 it was partly burned and was rebuilt on a somewhat larger plan. As the city has always been notoriously unhealthful, the United States, on undertaking the construction of the Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing its becoming a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and harbour over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine, and engaged to construct a system of waterworks and sewers in the municipality, which had been practically completed in 1907. The United States government has also opened a port at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Karwar

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​KARWAR, or Carwar, a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of North Kanara district in the Bombay presidency; 295 m. S. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), 16,847. As early as 1660 the East India Company had a factory here, with a trade in muslin and pepper; but it suffered frequently from Dutch, Portuguese and native attacks, and in 1752 the English agent was withdrawn. Old Karwar fell into ruins, but a new town grew up after the transfer of North Kanara to the Bombay presidency. It is the only safe harbour all the year round between Bombay and Cochin. In the bay is a cluster of islets called the Oyster Rocks, on the largest of which is a lighthouse. Two smaller islands in the bay afford good shelter to native craft during the strong north-west winds that prevail from February to April. The commercial importance of Karwar has declined since the opening of the railway to Marmagao in Portuguese territory.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kashan

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​KASHAN, a small province of Persia, situated between Isfahan and Kum. It is divided into the two districts germsir, the “warm,” and sardsir, the “cold,” the former with the city of Kashan in the plains, the latter in the hills. It has a population of 75,000 to 80,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £18,000. Kashan (Cashan) is the provincial capital, in 34° 0′ N. and 51° 27′ E., at an elevation of 3190 ft., 150 m. from Teheran; pop. 35,000, including a few hundred Jews occupied as silk-winders, and a few Zoroastrians engaged in trade. Great quantities of silk stuffs, from raw material imported from Gilan, and copper utensils are manufactured at Kashan and sent to all parts of Persia. Kashan also exports rose-water made in villages in the hilly districts about 20 m. from the city, and is the only place in Persia where cobalt can be obtained, from the mine at Kamsar, 19 m. to the south. At the foot of the hills 4 m. W. of the city are the beautiful gardens of Fin, the scene of the official murder, on the 9th of January 1852, of Mirza Taki Khan, Amir Nizam, the grand vizier, one of the ablest ministers that Persia has had in modern times.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Karwi

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​KARWI, a town of British India, in the Banda district of the United Provinces, on a branch of the Indian Midland railway; pop. (1901), 7743. Before the Mutiny it was the residence of a Mahratta noble, who lived in great state, and whose accumulations constituted the treasure afterwards famous as “the Kirwee and Banda Prize Money.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Karyogamy

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​KARYOGAMY (Gr. κάρυον, nut or kernel, thus “nucleus,” and γάμος, marriage), in biology: (1) the fusion of nuclei to form a single nucleus in syngamic processes (see Reproduction); (2) the process of pairing in Infusoria (q.v.), in which two migratory nuclei are interchanged and fuse with two stationary nuclei, while the cytoplasmic bodies of the two mates are in intimate temporary union.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kasbek

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​KASBEK (Georgian, Mkin-vari; Ossetian, Urs-khokh), one of the chief summits of the Caucasus, situated in 42° 42′ N. and 44° 30′ E., 7 m. as the crow flies from a station of the same name on the high road to Tiflis. Its altitude is 16,545 ft. It rises on the range which runs north of the main range (main water-parting), and which is pierced by the gorges of the Ardon and the Terek. It represents an extinct volcano, built up of trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a double cone, whose base lies at an altitude of 5800 ft. Owing to the steepness of its slopes, its eight glaciers cover an aggregate surface of not more than 8 sq. m., though one of them, Maliev, is 36 m. long. The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak, or Devdorak, which creeps down the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the same name, reaching a level of 7530 ft. At its eastern foot runs the Georgian military road through the pass of Darial (7805 ft.). The summit was first climbed in 1868 by D. W. Freshfield, A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker, with a Swiss guide. Several successful ascents have been made since, the most valuable in scientific results being that of Pastukhov (1889) and that of G. Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller in 1890. Kasbek has a great literature, and has left a deep mark in Russian poetry.
See D. W. Freshfield in Proc. Geog. Soc. (November 1888) and The Exploration of the Caucasus (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1902); Hatisian’s “Kazbek Glaciers” in Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (xxiv., 1888); Pastukhov in Izvestia of the Caucasus Branch of Russ. Geog. Soc. (x. 1, 1891, with large-scale map).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moderator

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​MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit), a judge or umpire, one who acts the part of mediator, and so a term used of the person chosen to be president of a meeting (as in America, of a town meeting). In academic use, the word was formerly applied to the public officer who presided over the exercises, &c., prescribed for candidates for degrees in the university schools; it is now used at Cambridge of one or two officers who are appointed each year to preside over the examination for the mathematical tripos, at Oxford of an examiner in the first public examination, known as “moderations,” and at Dublin of a candidate for honours in the examination for degree of Bachelor of Arts. In the Presbyterian churches the name is applied to the minister elected to preside over ecclesiastical meetings or assemblies, as the synod, presbytery or general assembly (see Presbyterianism). The name was historically given to a party of people who joined together to oppose the “Regulators,” another party who professed to administer justice in the Carolinas (1767–1771). Technically, the word is also used of a particular form of lamp, in which the flow of oil from the reservoir to the burner is regulated by a mechanical arrangement to which the name is applied.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moderatus of Gades

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​MODERATUS OF GADES, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean school, contemporary with Apollonius of Tyana. He wrote a great work on the doctrines of the Pythagoreans, and tried to show that the successors of Pythagoras had made no additions to the views of their founder, but had merely borrowed and altered the phraseology. He has been given a fictitious importance by recent commentators, who have regarded him as the forerunner of the Alexandrian School of philosophy. Zeller has shown that the authority on which this view is based is entirely unsound. Moderatus is thus left as an unimportant though interesting representative of a type of thought which had almost disappeared since the 5th century B.C.
Stobaeus, Eclogae, p. 3, preserves a fragment of his writings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Models, Artists'

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​MODELS, ARTISTS’, the name given to persons who pose to artists as models for their work. The Greeks, who had the naked body constantly before them in the exercises of the gymnasium, had far less need of professional models than the moderns; but it is scarcely likely that they could have attained to the high level reached by their works without constant study from nature; and the story told of Zeuxis by Valerius Maximus, who had five of the most beautiful virgins of the city of Crotona offered him as models for his picture of Helen, proves their occasional use. The remark of Eupompus, quoted by Pliny, who advised Lysippus, “Let nature be your model, not an artist,” directing his attention to the crowd instead of to his own work, also suggests a use of models which the many portrait statues of Greek and Roman times show to have been not unknown. In Egypt, too, although the priesthood had control of both sculpture and painting as used for the decoration of temples and palaces, and imposed a strict conventionalism, there are several statues of the early periods which are so lifelike in their treatment as to make it certain that they must have been worked from life. At the period of the Renaissance, painters generally made use of their relations and friends as models, of which many examples might be quoted from Venice, Florence, Rome and other places, and the stories of Titian and the duchess of Ferrara, and Botticelli and Simonetta Vespucci, go to show that ladies of exalted rank were sometimes not averse from having their charms immortalized by the painter’s brush. But paid models were not unknown, as the story of the unfortunate contadino used by Sansovino as model for his statue of the little Bacchus will show. Artists’ models as a special class appear when the establishment of schools for the study of the human figure created a regular demand, and since that time the remuneration offered has ensured a continual supply. The prices and the hours of Work vary in different art centres. In England seven shillings is generally paid for a day of six hours, but models of exceptional beauty or talent frequently obtain more from successful artists or wealthy amateurs.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Modica

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​MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 57 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail and 33 m. direct. Pop. (1901), 48,962. It lies on a hill between two valleys; the hill, crowned by the church of S. Giorgio, reconstructed in the 17th century, was the site of the Sicel town of Motyca, while the modern part of the town extends along the river Mauro, an inundation of which did much damage in September 1902. Remains of megalithic buildings, apparently, however, houses of the Byzantine period, are described in Notizie degli Scavi, 1896, 242 seq. Six miles to the south-east is the valley known as the Cava d’Ispica, with hundreds of grottoes cut in its rocky sides; of these only a few are Sicel tombs, the majority being catacombs or open tombs of the early Christian and Byzantine periods, or even cave-dwellings of the latter age.
See P. Orsi in Notizie degli Scavi (1905), 431.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mock

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​MOCK, an adjective meaning sham, feigned, spurious, falsely imitative. As a verb it means to deride or imitate contemptuously. The derivation of O. Fr. mocquer, mod. moquer; Ital. moccare, from which the English word is adopted, is disputed. Some authorities refer it to Ger. mucken, mucksen, to growl, grumble, which is probably echoic in origin; others to a supposed Late Lat. muccare, formed from mucus—mucus, in the sense of “to wipe the nose at.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Modestinus, Herennius

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​MODESTINUS, HERENNIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist, who flourished about 250 B.C. He appears to have been a native of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dalmatia, and was a pupil of Ulpian. In Valentinian’s Law of Citations he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gaius and Ulpian. He is mentioned in a rescript of Gordian in the year 240 B.C. in connexion with a responsum which he gave to the party to whom the rescript was addressed. No fewer than 345 passages in the Digest are taken from his writings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malalas, John

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​MALALAS (or Malelas) (Syriac for “orator”), JOHN (c. 491–578), Byzantine chronicler, was born at Antioch. He wrote a Χρονογραφία in 18 books, the beginning and the end of which are lost. In its present state it begins with the mythical history of Egypt and ends with the expedition to Africa under Marcianus, the nephew of Justinian. Except for the history of Justinian and his immediate predecessors, it possesses little historical value; it is written without any idea of proportion and contains astonishing blunders. The writer is a supporter of Church and State, an upholder of monarchical principles. The work is rather a chronicle written round Antioch, which he regarded as the centre of the world, and (in the later books) round Constantinople. It is, however, important as the first specimen of a chronicle written not for the learned but for the instruction of the monks and the common people, in the language of the vulgar, with an admixture of Latin and Oriental words. It obtained great popularity, and was conscientiously exploited by various writers until the 11th century, being translated even into the Slavonic languages. It is preserved in an abridged form in a single MS. now at Oxford.
For the authorities consulted by Malalas, the influence of his work on Slavonic and Oriental literature, the state of the text, the original form and extent of the work, the date of its composition, the relation of the concluding part to the whole, and the literature of the subject, see C. Krumbacher’s Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). See also the editio princeps, by E. Chilmead (Oxford, 1691), containing an essay by Humphrey Hody and Bentley’s well-known letter to Mill; other editions in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. byz., by L. Dindorf (1831), and in J. P. Migne Patrologia graeca, xcvii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malachowski, Stanislaw

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​MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736–1809), Polish statesman, the younger son of Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of Posen, the companion in arms of Sobieski. From his youth Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of his country, and as president of the royal court of justice won the honourable title of the “Polish Aristides.” He was first elected a deputy to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years’ Diet unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its session in 1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski speedily gathered round him all those who were striving to uphold the falling republic and warmly supported every promising project of reform. He was one of the framers of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in liberality all his colleagues and advocating the extension of the franchise to the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the first to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of the constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792, going first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia, where he was imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of conspiracy. In 1807 Malachowski was placed at the head of the executive committee appointed at Warsaw after its evacuation by the Prussians, and when the grand duchy of Warsaw was created Malachowski became president of the senate under King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with the Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines Malachowski came to the assistance of the depleted treasury by hypothecating all his estates as an additional guarantee. In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death was regarded as a public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains to their last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held simultaneously as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the Polish nation.
See August Sokolowski, Illustrated History of Poland (Pol.), vol. iv. (Vienna, 1900); Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski, edited by Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malakand Pass

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​MALAKAND PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Province of India, connecting the British district of Peshawar with the Swat Valley. It is now a military post and the headquarters of a political agency. It came into prominence for the first time in 1895 during the Chitral campaign, when 7000 Pathans held it against Sir Robert Low’s advance, but were easily routed. After the campaign was over a fortified camp was formed on the Malakand to guard the road to Chitral. During the frontier risings of 1897 the Swatis made a determined attack on the Malakand, where 700 were killed, and on the adjacent post of Chakdara, where 2000 were killed. This was the origin of the Malakand Expedition of the same year. (See Swat.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cyaxares

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​CYAXARES (Pers. Uvakhshatra), king of Media, reigned according to Herodotus (i. 107) forty years, about 624–584 B.C. That he was the real founder of the Median empire is proved by the fact that in Darius’s time a Median usurper, Fravartish, pretended to be his offspring (Behistun inscr. 2. 43); but about his history we know very little. Herodotus narrates (i. 103 ff.) that he renewed the war against the Assyrians, in which his father Phraortes had perished, but was, while he besieged Nineveh, attacked by a great Scythian army under Madyas, son of Protothyes, which had come from the northern shores of the Black Sea in pursuit of the Cimmerians. After their victory over Cyaxares, the Scythians conquered and wasted the whole of western Asia, and ruled twenty-eight years, till at last they were made drunk and slain by Cyaxares at a banquet (cf. another story about Cyaxares and a Scythian host in Herod, i. 73). As we possess scarcely any contemporary documents it is impossible to find out the real facts. But we know from the prophecies of Jeremiah and Zephaniah that Syria and Palestine were really invaded by northern barbarians in 626 B.C., and it is probable that this invasion was the principal cause of the downfall of the Assyrian empire (see Media and Persia: Ancient History).
After the destruction of the Scythians Cyaxares regained the supremacy, renewed his attack on Assyria, and in 606 B.C. destroyed Nineveh and the other capitals of the empire (Herod. i. 106; Berossus ap. Euseb. Chron. i. 29, 37, confirmed by a stele of Nabonidus found in Babylon: Scheil in Recueil de ​travaux, xviii.; Messerschmidt, “Die Inschrift der Stele Nabonaids,” in Mitteilungen der vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, i., 1896). According to Berossus he was allied with Nabopolassar of Babylon, whose son Nebuchadrezzar married Amyitis, the daughter of the Median king (who is wrongly called Astyages). The countries north and east of the Tigris and the northern part of Mesopotamia with the city of Harran (Carrhae) became subject to the Medes. Armenia and Cappadocia were likewise subdued; the attempt to advance farther into Asia Minor led to a war with Alyattes of Lydia. The decisive battle, in the sixth year, was interrupted by the famous solar eclipse on the 28th of May 585 predicted by Thales. Syennesis of Cilicia and Nebuchadrezzar (in Herodotus named Labynetus) of Babylon interceded and effected a peace, by which the Halys was fixed as frontier between the two empires, and Alyattes’s daughter married to Cyaxares’s son Astyages (Herod. i. 74). If Herodotus’s dates are correct, Cyaxares died shortly afterwards.
In a fragmentary letter from an Assyrian governor to King Sargon (about 715 B.C.) about rebellions of Median chieftains, a dynast Uvakshatar (i.e. Cyaxares) is mentioned as attacking an Assyrian fortress (Kharkhar, in the chains of the Zagros). Possibly he was an ancestor of the Median king.  (Ed. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cyclone

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​CYCLONE (Gr. κυκλῶν, whirling, from κύκλος, a circle), an atmospheric system where the pressure is lowest at the centre. The winds in consequence tend to blow towards the centre, but being diverted according to Ferrel’s law they rotate spirally inwards at the surface of the earth in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch in the northern hemisphere, and the reverse in the southern hemisphere. The whole system has a motion of translation, being usually carried forward with the great wind-drifts like eddies upon a swift stream. Thus their direction of movement over the British Islands is usually from S.W. to N.E., though they may remain stationary or move in other directions. The strength of the winds depends upon the atmospheric gradients. (See Meteorology.)