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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Objectivism

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OBJECTIVISM, in philosophy, a term used, in contradistinction to Subjectivism, for any theory of knowledge which to a greater or less extent attributes reality (as the source and necessary pre-requisite of knowledge) to the external world. The distinction is based upon the philosophical antithesis of the terms Object and Subject, and their respective adjectival forms "objective" and "subjective." In common use these terms are opposed as synonymous respectively with "real" and "imaginary," "practical" and "theoretical," "physical" and "psychic." A man "sees" an apparition; was there any physical manifestation, or was it merely a creation of his mind ? If the latter the phenomenon is described as purely subjective. Subjectivism in its extreme form denies that mind can know more than its own states. Objects, i.e. things-in-themselves, may or may not exist: the mind knows only its own sensations, perceptions, ideal constructions and so forth. In a modified form "subjectivism" is that theory which attaches special importance to the part played by the mind in the accumulation of experience. See Psychology; Relativity of Knowledge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Obok

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​OBOK, a seaport on the north shore of the Gulf of Tajura, N.E. Africa, acquired by France in 1862. It gave its name to the colony of Obok, now merged in the French Somali coast protectorate (see Somaliland: French). The port is separated from the open sea by coral reefs, but is only partially sheltered from the winds. This led to the practical abandonment of the town by the French, who in 1896 transferred to Jibuti, on the opposite shore of the Gulf of Tajura, the seat of government of the colony. Obok is connected with Aden and Jibuti by submarine cables. Population about 500.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Obiter Dictum

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​OBITER DICTUM, that which is said by the way or in passing (Lat. ob, by, and iter, road); specifically, in law, an opinion expressed by a judge incidentally in the course of a case, on a point of law not necessarily connected with the issue or not forming part of the grounds of the decision; such obiter dicta have no binding authority.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oblation

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​OBLATION, an offering (Late Lat. oblatio, from offerre, oblatum, to offer), a term, particularly in ecclesiastical usage, for a solemn offering or presentation to God. It is thus applied to certain parts of the Eucharistic service in the Roman Church. There are “two oblations,” the “lesser oblation,” generally known as the “offertory,” in which the bread and wine yet unconsecrated are presented, and the “greater oblation," the “oblation” proper, forming the latter part of the prayer of consecration, when the “Body and Blood” are ceremonially presented. The word “oblate” is an ecclesiastical term for persons who have devoted themselves or have been devoted as children by their parents to a monastic life. “Oblate” is more familiar in the Roman Church as the name of a religious congregation of secular priests, the Oblate Fathers of St Charles. They are placed under the absolute authority of the bishop of the diocese in which they are established and can be employed by him on any duties he may think fit. This congregation was founded in 1578 under the name of Oblates of the Blessed Virgin and St Ambrose by St Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan (see Borromeo, Carlo). There is a similar congregation of secular priests, the Oblates of Mary the Immaculate, founded at Marseilles in 1815.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Obnoxious

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​OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm), a word originally meaning “exposed to harm or injury,” but now “exciting aversion or dislike.” The current use dates from the later 17th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polder

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​POLDER, the Dutch name for a piece of low-lying, marshy land reclaimed from the sea or other water by drainage and diking (see Holland).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polarity

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​ POLARITY (Lat. polaris, polus, pole), having two poles or parts at which certain properties are the opposite to one another, as in a magnet the ends of which have opposite magnetic characters. The act of producing polarity is termed polarization. For electrolytic polarization see Battery and Electrolysis, and for optical see Polarization of Light below.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pole, William

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​POLE, WILLIAM, (1814–1900), English engineer, was born at Birmingham on the 22nd of April 1814. He was a man of many accomplishments. Having spent his earlier years in various engineering occupations in England, he went out to India in 1844 as professor of engineering at Elphinstone College, Bombay, where he had to first organize the course of instruction for native students, but his health obliged him to return to England in 1848. For the next ten years he worked in London under James Simpson and J. M. Rendel, and the high reputation he achieved as a scientific engineer gained his appointment in 1859 to the chair of civil engineering in University College, London. He obtained a considerable amount of official work from the government. He served on the committees which considered the application of armour to ships and fortifications (1861–1864), and the comparative advantages of Whitworth and Armstrong guns (1863–1865). He was secretary to the Royal Commission on Railways (1865–1867), the duke of Richmond’s Commission on London Water (1867–1869), also taking part in the subsequent proceedings for establishing a constant supply, the Royal Commission on the Disposal of London Sewage (1882–1884), and the departmental committee on the science museums at South Kensington in 1885. In 1871 he was employed by the War Office to report on the Martini-Henry rifle, and in the same year was appointed consulting engineer in London to the Japanese government. a position through which he exercised considerable influence on the development of the Japanese railway system. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1861, in recognition of some investigations on colour-blindness. Music was also one of his chief interests. At the age of twenty-two he was appointed organist of St Mark’s, North Audley Street, in open competition, the next selected candidate being Dr E. J. Hopkins (1818–1901), who subsequently was for fifty years organist of the Temple Church. He took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford in 1860, proceeding to his doctor’s degree in 1867, and in 1879 published his Philosophy of Music. He was largely concerned in the institution of musical degrees by the University of London in 1877, and for many years acted as one of the examiners. His mathematical tastes found congenial occupation in the study of whist, and as an exponent of the scientific principles of that game he was even earlier in the field than “Cavendish.” His literary work included treatises on the steam-engine and on iron construction, biographical studies of famous engineers, including Robert Stephenson and I. K. Brunel, Sir William Fairbairn and Sir W. Siemens, several books on musical subjects and on whist, and many papers for reviews and scientific periodicals. He died on the 30th of December 1900. His son, William Pole (1852–), became known as an actor and writer under the stage-name of William Poel, more especially for his studies in Shakespearian drama and his work in connexion with the Elizabethan Stage Society.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pole-vaulting

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​POLE-VAULTING, the art of springing over an obstacle with the aid of a pole or staff. It is probable that an exercise of the kind was a feature of Greek gymnastics, but with this exception there is no record of its ancient practice as a sport. As a practical means of passing over such natural obstacles as canals and brooks it has been made use of in many parts of the world, for instance in the marshy provinces along the North Sea and the great level of the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The artificial draining of these marshes brought into existence a network of open drains or canals intersecting each other at right angles. In order to cross these dryshod, and at the same time avoid tedious roundabout journeys over the bridges, a stack of jumping poles was ​kept at every house, which were commonly used for vaulting over the canals
As a sport, pole-vaulting made its appearance in Germany in the first part of the 19th century, when it was added to the gymnastic exercises of the Turner by Johann C. F. Guts-Muths and Frederich L. Jahn. In Great Britain it was first commonly practised at the Caledonian games. It is now an event in the athletic championships of nearly all nations. Although strength and good physical condition are essential to efficiency in pole-vaulting, skill is a much more important element. Broad-jumping with the pole, though the original form of the sport, has never found its way 1nto organized athletics, the high jump being the only form recognized. The object is to clear a bar or lath supported upon two uprights without knocking it down. The pole, of hickory or some other tough wood, is from 13 to 15 ft. long and 13/4 in. thick at the middle, tapering to 11/4 in. at the ends, the lower of which is truncated to prevent sinking into the earth and shod with a single spike to avoid slipping. A hole in which to place the end of the pole is often dug beneath the bar. In holding the pole the height of the cross-bar is first ascertained, and the right hand placed, with an under grip, about 6 in. above this point, the left hand, with an over-grip, being from 14 to 30 in. below the right. The vaulter then runs towards the bar at full speed, plants the spiked end of the pole in the ground about 18 in. in front of the bar and springs into the air, grasping the pole firmly as he rises. As he nears the bar he throws his legs forward, and, pushing with shoulders and arms, clears it, letting the pole fall backwards. In Great Britain the vaulter is allowed to climb the pole when it is at the perpendicular. Tom Ray, of Ulverston in Lancashire, who was champion of the world in 1887, was able to gain several feet in this manner. In the United States climbing is not allowed. Among the best British vaulters, using the climbing privilege, have been Tom Ray, E. L. Stones, R. Watson and R. D. Dickinson; Dickinson having cleared 11 ft. 9 in. at Kidderminster in 1891. The record pole-vault is 12 ft. 61/2 in., made by W. Dray of Yale in 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pole

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​POLE (1) (O. Eng. pál, cf. Ger. Pfahl, Du. paal, from Lat. palus, stake), a tapering cylindrical post or stake of some considerable length, used as a support in scaffolding, for telegraph or telephone wires, hops, &c., and as a means for taking jumps (see Pole-Vaulting), and also as a single shaft for a vehicle drawn by two or more horses. As a measure of length a “pole,” also called “rod” or “perch,” is equal to 51/2 yds. (161/2 ft.), as a measure of area it is equal to 301/4 sq. yds. (2) (Lat. polus, adapted from Gr. πόλος, pivot, axis). one or other of the extremities of the axis of the earth; the “celestial pole” is one or other of the points in the heavens to which the earth’s axis points; in the northern hemisphere this point is near the star Ursae minoris, better known as the Pole-star or Polaris (see Ursa Major). For the regions lying about the north and south poles of the earth see Polar Regions.
In mathematics the word pole has several meanings. In spherical trigonometry the “pole” of a circle on a sphere is the point where the diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of the circle intersects the sphere. In crystallography (q.v) the “ pole" of a face is the intersection of a line perpendicular to the face with ​the sphere of projection. The term is also applied to a point from which lines radiate, as, for instance, the origin in a system of polar co-ordinates, or the common point of a pencil of rays. In the geometry of conic sections the “pole” of a line, termed the “polar” of the point, is the intersection of the tangents (either real or imaginary) at the points where the line meets the conic (see Geometry: § Projective). The “magnetic poles” of the earth are the points on the earth’s surface where the dipping needle is vertical (see Terrestrial Magnetism), and the “poles” of a magnet are the points of the magnet where the magnetic intensity is greatest. In electricity, the term is applied to the elements of a galvanic battery (q.v.), or to the terminals of a frictional electrical machine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacking and Sack Manufacture

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​SACKING AND SACK MANUFACTURE. Sacking is a heavy closely-woven fabric, originally made of flax, but now almost exclusively made of jute or of hemp. The more expensive kinds, such as are used for coal sacks for government and other vessels, are made of hemp, but the jute fibre is extensively used for the same purpose, and almost entirely for coal sacks for local house supplies. The same type of fabric is used for wool sacks, cement bags, ore bags, pea sacks and for any heavy substance; it is also made up into a special form of bag for packing cops and rolls of jute and flax yarns for delivery from spinners to manufacturers. Proper sacking is essentially a twilled fabric, in which the number of warp threads per inch greatly exceeds the number per inch of weft. The illustration shows a typical kind of three-leaf twill, double warp sacking. All three-leaf twill sackings are double in the warp, but four-leaf sackings are single. They are usually 27 in. wide, but other widths are made.
The lower part of the illustration shows four repeats of the three-leaf twill, while the lines drawn to the plan of the fabric show that each line of the design is reproduced in the cloth by two warp threads. The weft is single, but each one is usually about four times the weight of the warp for the same length (about 8 ℔ warp and 32 ℔ weft). Large quantities of cotton sacks are made for flour, sugar and similar produce: these sacks are usually plain cloth, some woven circular in the loom, others made from the piece.
Large quantities of seamless bags or sacks for light substances are woven in the loom, but these are almost invariably made with what is termed the double plain weave, i.e. the cloth, although circular except at the end, is perfectly plain on both sides. Circular bags have been made both with three-leaf and four-leaf twills, but it is found much more convenient and economical to make the cloth for these kinds, and in most cases for all other types, in the piece, and then to make it up into sacks by one or other of the many types of sewing machines. The pieces are first cut up into definite lengths by special machinery, which may be perfectly automatic, or semiautomatic-usually the latter, as many thicknesses may be cut at the same time, each of the exact length. The lengths of cloth are then separately doubled up, the sides sewn by special sewing machines of the Laing or Union make (of which there are seven or eight different kinds for different types of bags), and the ends hemmed. It will thus be seen that the length required is twice the length of the sack plus the amount for hemming the mouth.
The sack is now ready for delivery, unless the name of the owner, some trade mark, or other particulars are required to appear on it. These particulars are printed on in one or more colours by the Kinmond and Kidd patent multicolour sack-printing machine.
The chief centres for these goods are Dundee and Calcutta, all varieties of sacks and bags being made in and around the former city. (T. Wo.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacramentals

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​ SACRAMENTALS (Sacramentalia), in the Roman Catholic Church certain acts or ordinances instituted not by Christ, but by the Catholic Church with divine authority. They are believed, in their application to persons and things, to communicate quasi ex opere operato through ordained priests the grace of God, consisting in purification, supernatural revivification and sanctification. The term is thus used to cover the rites of dedication, consecration and benediction, and, closely connected with the last-named, exorcism.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacramentarians

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​ SACRAMENTARIANS, the name given to those who during the Reformation controversies not only denied the Roman Catholic “transubstantiation,” but also the Lutheran “consubstantiation.” They comprised two parties: (1) the followers of Capito, Carlstadt and Bucer, who at the diet of Augsburg presented the Confessio Tetrapolitana from Strassburg, Constance, Lindau and Memmingen; (2) the followers of the Swiss reformer Zwingli, who to the same diet presented his private confession of faith. The doctrinal standpoint was the same—an admission of a spiritual presence of Christ which the devout soul can receive and enjoy, but a total rejection of any physical or corporeal presence. After holding their own view for some years the four cities accepted the Confession of Augsburg, and were merged in the general body of Lutherans; but Zwingli's position was incorporated in the Helvetic Confession. It is a curious inversion of terms that in recent years has led to the name Sacramentarians being applied to those who hold a high or extreme view of the efficacy of the sacraments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sackett's Harbor

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SACKETT'S HARBOR, a village in Jefferson county, New York, U.S.A., at the eastern end of Lake Ontario, on the south shore of Black River Bay, about 1 m. from its mouth, and about 10 m. W. by S. of Watertown. Pop. (1890) 787; (1900) 1266; (1905) 903; (1910) 868. Sackett's Harbor is served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway. It is built on low land, around a small, nearly enclosed harbour, the northern shore of which is formed by Navy Point, a narrow tongue of land extending about ¼ m. nearly due eastward from the mainland. About 1 m. to the W. by S. is Horse Island, approximately ¼ m. long (east and west), and nearly as broad, only a few feet above the lake level and separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, always fordable, and sometimes almost dry; at its eastern end is Sackett's Harbor Lighthouse. The harbour is deep enough for the largest lake vessels. The village is a summer resort. At Sackett's Harbor are Madison Barracks, a United States military post, established in 1813 and including a reservation of 99 acres; and a United States Naval Station. In the post cemetery is the grave of General Zebulon M. Pike, who was killed at York (now Toronto) on the 27th of April 1813.
The first settlement was made in 1801 by Augustus Sackett, and the village was incorporated in 1821. In the War of 1812 Sackett's Harbor was an important strategic point for the Americans, who had here a naval station, Fort Tompkins, at the base of Navy Point, and Fort Volunteer, on the eastern side of the harbour. In July 1812 a British squadron unsuccessfully attempted to capture a brig and schooner in the harbour. From Sackett's Harbor American expeditions against York (now Toronto) and Fort George respectively set out in April and May 1813; though scantily garrisoned it was successfully defended by General Jacob Brown (who had just taken command) against an attack, on the 29th of May, of Sir George Prevost with a squadron under Sir James Lucas Yeo. The British losses were 259; the American 157, including Lieut.-Colonel Electus Backus, commander of the garrison before General Brown's arrival. Almost all the American stores at the naval station were destroyed to save them from the enemy. The blockade of the harbour by Yeo was abandoned in June 1814 after the defeat of a force from the squadron sent out to capture guns which were being brought from Oswego to Sackett's Harbor to equip the “Superior.” an American vessel launched on the 1st of May, and a smaller vessel nearly completed. Sackett's Harbor was the starting-point of a force of 700 men under a Pole named von Schultz, who in November 1838, during the uprising in Upper Canada (Ontario) attempted to invade Canada, was taken prisoner near Prescott, was tried at Kingston, being defended by Sir John Macdonald, and with nine of his followers was executed in Kingston in December.
See A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power in its Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols., Boston, 1905); and William Kingsford, The History of Canada, vol. viii. (Toronto, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saco

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​SACO, a city of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Saco river, and the Atlantic Ocean, opposite Biddeford, with which it is connected by bridges, and 14 m. S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1890), 6075; (1900) 6122 (903 foreign-born); (1910) 6583. It is served by the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected with Portland by an electric line. The actual municipal limits include an area of about 40 sq. m., but much of this is sparsely settled, and the centre of settlement, or city proper, is about 5 m. above the mouth of the Saco. The city has a public park (Pepperrell Park) of 30 acres, the Dyer Library (1790), containing in 1908 16,000 volumes, and York Institute (established in 1866 and incorporated in 1867), with a library of 5000 volumes in 1908; and is the seat of Thornton Academy (co-educational), incorporated in 1181 1, opened in 1813, but closed during 1848–1889 after the burning of the old building. Old Orchard Beach, in the vicinity, extending along the shore front of the township of Old Orchard (pop. in 1900, 964) and part of the shore fronts of Saco and Scarboro, is a popular summer resort; in August 1907 nearly all the hotels were burnt, but others have since been built. At Saco the river falls about 55 ft. and provides excellent water-power. The city's principal manufactures are cotton goods and cotton-mill machinery. Saco was settled as early as 1631, and was the seat of the Gorges government from 1636 to 1653, when it passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Until 1762 Saco and Biddeford formed one town or plantation—until 1718 under the name of Saco, and from 1718 to 1762 under the name of Biddeford. In 1716 Sir William Pepperrell acquired title to the principal part of what is now Saco, in 1752 this was made a separate parish, and ten years later it was incorporated as a separate township under the name of Pepperellboro. In 1.779 the Pepperrell property was confiscated as that of a loyalist, and in 1805 the name of the township was changed to Saco. In 1867 Saco was chartered as a city.