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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Riccati, Jacopo Francesco, Count

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​RICCATI, JACOPO FRANCESCO, Count (1676–1754), Italian mathematician, was born at Venice on the 8th of May 1676, and died at Treviso on the 15th of April 1754. He studied at the university of Padua, where he graduated in 1696. His favourite pursuits were scientific, and his authority on all questions of practical science was referred to by the senate of Venice. He corresponded with many of the European savants of his day, and contributed largely to the Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig. He was offered the presidency of the academy of science of St Petersburg; but he declined, preferring the leisure and independence of life in Italy. Riccati’s name is best known in connexion with his problem called Riccati’s equation, published in the Acta Eruditorum, September 1724. A very complete account of this equation and its various transformations was given by J. W. L. Glaisher in the Phil. Trans. (1881).
After Riccati’s death his works were collected by his sons and published (1758) in four volumes. His sons, Vincenzo (1707–1775) and Giordano (1709–1790), inherited his talents. The former was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and published, among other works, ai treatise on the infinitesimal calculus, Giordano was distinguished both as a mathematician and an architect.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ribot, Théodule

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​RIBOT, THÉODULE (1823–1891), French painter, was born at Breteuil, in Eure, in 1823, and died at Bois Colombes, near Paris, in September 1891. A pupil nominally of Glaize, but more really of Ribera, of the great Flemings and of Chardin, Théodule Ribot had yet conspicuously his own noble and personal vision, his own intensity of, feeling and rich sobriety of performance. Beginning to work seriously at art when he was no longer extremely young, and dying before he was extremely old, Ribot crowded into some thirty or thirty-five years of active practice very varied achievements; and he worked in at least three mediums, oil paint, pencil or crayon draughtsmanship and the needle of the etcher. His drawings were sometimes “complete in themselves,” and sometimes fragmentary but powerful preparations for painted canvases. The etchings, of which there are only about a couple of dozen, are of the middle period of his practice; they show a diversity of method as well as of theme; the work in the well-nigh Velazquez-like “Prière”—a group of girl children—contrasting strongly with that process almost of outline alone, which he employed in the brilliant little group of prints which record his vision of the character and humours of cooks and kitchen-boys. In etching, the method varied with the theme—not with the period. It is quite otherwise with the paintings. Here the earlier work, irrespective of its subject, is the drier ​and the more austere; the later work, irrespective of its subject, the freer and broader. But even in that which is quite early there is a curious and impressive intensity of conception and presentation. His visions of elderly women and young girls remain upon the memory. His women, wrinkled and worn, have had the experience of a hard and grinding world; his children, his young girls, are the quintessence of innocence and happy hopefulness, and life is a jest to his boys. His religious pieces, in which Ribera affected him, have conviction and force. Into portraits and into character studies, but more especially into genre subjects, Ribot was apt to introduce Still-life, and to make much of it. Herein, as in his sense of homeliness, he resembled Chardin. But again, Chardin-like, he painted Still-life for its own sake, by itself, and always with an extraordinary sense of the solidity and form, the texture and the hue, and, it must be added also, the very charm of matter. (F. We.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ricard, Louis Gustave

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​RICARD, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1823-1873), French painter, was born in Marseilles in 1823, and studied first under Auber in his native town, and subsequently under Coignet in Paris. The formation of his masterly, distinguished style in portraiture was, however, due rather to ten years' intelligent copying of the old masters at the Louvre and at the Italian galleries, than to any school training. He was a master of technique, and his portraits-about two hundred-reveal an extraordinary insight into the character of his sitters. Nevertheless, for some time after his death his name was almost forgotten by the public, and it is only of quite recent years that he has been conceded the position among the leading masters of the modern French school which is his due. A portrait, of himself, and one of Alfred de Musset, are at the Luxembourg Gallery. Among his best known worksare the portrait of his mother, and those of the painters Fromentin, Heilbuth and Chaplin.
See Gustave Ricard, by Camille Mauclair (Paris, Librairie de l'art).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zarcillo y Alcaraz, Francisco

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​ZARCILLO Y ALCARAZ, FRANCISCO (1707-1781), Spanish sculptor, was born in Murcia on the 12th of May 1707. At the age of twenty he completed the statue of St Ines of Montepulciano, which had been begun for the Dominicans at Murcia by his father. On the death of the latter the care of the family fell upon Francisco, who with the help of his brothers and sisters organized a workshop. In 1765 he also founded a small academy, which, however, was speedily dissolved owing to disunion among the members. In the Ermita de Jesús in Murcia may be seen Zarcillo's scenes from the Passion of Our Lord, a vast work in which all the sculptor's qualities and defects are revealed. In the church of St Miguel are an Immaculate Conception and a St Francis. Mention should also be made of the Christ at the Well in the church of Santa Maria dellas Gracias in Murcia, and of the sculptures in San Pedro and in the Capucine monastery in Murcia. Zarcillo worked in wood, which was coloured. The ascription of the stone sculptures on the façade of the St Nicolas Church in Murcia to him rests on conjecture. He died at Murcia in 1781.
See B. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik (Strassburg, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zarhón

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​ZARHÓN, a mountain in Morocco, 9½ m. N. of Mequinez, on whose hillside is the town Mulai Idris Zarhón, so called after Mulai Idris I., the founder of the Moorish empire, who was buried there in A.D. 791. The whole town is considered as a sanctuary, pays no taxes, provides no soldiers and is never visited save by Mahommedans. Near the town are the ruins ​of Volubilis—Kasar Fara‛on or Pharaoh’s Castle, once the Roman capital, and the first home of Idris.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zarncke, Friedrich Karl Theodor

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​ZARNCKE, FRIEDRICH KARL THEODOR (1823-1891), German philologist, was born on the 7th of July 1825 at Zahrenstorf, near Brüel, in Mecklenburg, the son of a country pastor. He was educated at the Rostock gymnasium, and studied (1844-1847) at the universities of Rostock, Leipzig and Berlin. In 1848 he was employed in arranging the valuable library of Old German literature of Freiherr Karl Hartwig von Meusebach (1781-1847), and superintending its removal from Baumgartenbrück, near Potsdam, to the Royal Library at Berlin. In 1850 he founded at Leipzig the Literarisches Centralblatt für Deutschland. In 1852 he established himself as Privatdozent at the university of Leipzig, and published an excellent edition of Sebastian Brant’s Narrenschiff (1854), a treatise Zur Nibelungenfrage (1854), followed by an edition of the Nibelungenlied (1856, 12th ed. 1887), and Beiträge zur Erläuterung und Geschichte des Nibelungenliedes (1857). In 1858 he was appointed full professor, and commenced a series of noteworthy studies on medieval literature, most of which were published in the reports (Berichte) of the Saxon Society of Sciences. Among them were that on the old High German poem Muspilli (1866); Gesang vom heiligen Georg (1874); the legend of the Priester Johannes (1874); Der Graltempel (1876), and the Annolied (1887). He also wrote a valuable treatise on Christian Reuter (1884), on the portraits of Goethe (1884), and published the history of Leipzig university, Die urkundlichen Quellen zur Geschichte der Universität Leipzig (1857) and Die deutschen Universitäten im Mittelalter (1857). Two volumes of his Kleine Schriften appeared in 1897.
See Zur Erinnerung an den Heimgang von Dr Friedrich Zarncke (1891); Franz Vogt in Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie; Eduard Zarncke in Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumswissenschaft (1895); and E. Sievers in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zebulun

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​ZEBULUN, a tribe of Israel, named after Jacob's sixth “son” by Leah. The narrator of Gen. xxx. 20 offers two etymologies of the name, from the roots z–b–d, “give,” and z–b–l, “exalt (?).”
The country of Zebulun lay in the fertile hilly country to the north of the plain of Jezreel, which forms the first step towards the mountains of Asher and Naphtali, and included the goodly upland plain of el-Baṭṭōf. The description of its boundaries is obscure, owing in some measure to its position between Issachar and Naphtali, with one or the other of which it is frequently combined. At one period Zebulun, like Dan and Asher (Judges v. 17), would seem to have reached the sea and bordered on Phoenician territory (Gen. xlix. 13, Deut. xxxiii. 18 seq.). In the latter passage allusion is made to a feast upon a sacred mountain field by Zebulun and Issachar in common, and to the wealth these tribes derived from commerce by sea. Zebulun had a chief part in the war with Sisera (Judges iv. 6, v. 18; see Deborah); it is said to have furnished at least one of the “judges,” Elon the Zebulonite (Judges xii. 11 seq.); and the prophet Jonah, who foretold the victories of Jeroboam II., came from the border town of Gath-hepher (probably the modern el-Meshhed) (2 Kings xiv. 25). The deportation of the northern tribes under Tiglath Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29) appears to have included Zebulun (Isa. ix. 1). Nazareth lay within the territory of Zebulun but is not mentioned in the Old Testament.  (S. A. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zedekiah

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​ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for “righteousness of Yah[weh]”), son of Josiah, and the last king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 17 sqq.; 2 Chron. xxxvi. 10 seq.). Previously known as Mattaniah (“gift of Yah[weh]”), he was appointed king by Nebuchadrezzar, after the capture of Jerusalem (597 B.C.) and his name changed to Zedekiah. He held his position under an oath of allegiance, but after three years (cf. Jehoiakim, 2 Kings xxiv. i) began an intrigue with Moab, Edom, Ammon, Tyre and Sidon, which the prophet Jeremiah vigorously denounced (Jer. xxvii. seq.; cf. also Ezek. xvii. 11-21). It is possible that he was summoned to Babylon to explain his conduct (Jer. li. 59; the Septuagint reads “from Zedekiah”; see also xxix. 3). Nevertheless, relations were maintained with Egypt and steps were taken to revolt. The Babylonian army began to lay siege to Jerusalem in the ninth year of his reign, and a vain attempt was made by Pharaoh Hophra to cause a diversion. The headings to the prophecies in Ezek. xxix. sqq. suggest that fuller details of the events were once preserved, and the narratives in Jer. xxxii.-xxxiv., xxxvii. give some account of the internal position in Jerusalem at the time. After six months a breach was made in the city, Zedekiah's flight was cut off in the Jordan Valley and he was taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah. His sons were killed, and he was blinded and carried to Babylon in chains (cf. Ezek. xii. 10-14). Vengeance was taken upon Jerusalem, and, on the seventh day of the fifth month, 586 B.C., Nebuzaradan sacked the temple, destroyed the walls and houses, and deported the citizens, only the poorest peasantry of the land being left behind. See Jews (History), § 17 seq.  (S. A .C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yecla

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​YECLA, a town of E. Spain, in the extreme N. of the province of Murcia, on the Yeda-Villena railway; it is situated on the W. slope of Monte Castillo, which rises above the left bank of the Arroyo del Jua. Pop. (1900) 18,743. The chief buildings are a half-ruined citadel, a modern parish church with a pillared Corinthian facade, and a town hall standing in a fine arcaded square. Yecla has a thriving trade in the grain, wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass produced in the surrounding country.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yeisk

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​YEISK, a town of Russia, in the province of Kuban (Caucasus), founded in 1848 on a sandbank which separates the shallow Bay of Yeisk from the Sea of Azov, 76 m. S.W. of Rostov-on-the-Don. Pop; 35,446. Notwithstanding its shallow road stead, Yeisk has grown with great rapidity, and exports corn, linseed and wool. There are wool-cleansing factories, oil-works and tanneries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yeast

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​YEAST (O.E. giest or gyst; the root yes-, to boil, ferment, is seen in Sansk. nir-yāsa, exudations from trees, and Gr. ζεέιν, to boil), a cellular organism produced in the alcoholic fermentation of saccharine liquids (see Fungi, Fermentation, Brewing).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yenisei

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​YENISEI, a river of Asia, which rises in two principal head streams, the Bei-kem and the Khua-kem, on the plateau of N.W. Mongolia—the former on the S. flank of the Sayan Mountains in 97° 30′ E. and 52° 20′ N., and the latter in marshes a few miles W. of Lake Kosso-gol. They have a westerly course, but after uniting they turn N., through the Sayan Mountains in the wild gorge of Kemchik, in 92° E. Thence the river makes its way across the Alpine region that borders the Sayan Mountains on the N. until it emerges upon the steppes at Sayansk (53° 10′ N.). Augmented by the Abakan on the left and the Tuba on the right, it traverses the mining region of Minusinsk, approaches within 6 m. of the Chulym, a tributary of the Ob, intersects the Siberian railway at Krasnoyarsk, and is joined first by the Kan and then by the Upper (Verkhnyaya), the Stony (Podkamennaya), and the Lower (Nizhnyaya) Tunguzka, all from the right. The Upper Tunguzka, known also as the Angara, drains Lake Baikal, and is navigable from Irkutsk. The Yenisei continues N. to the Arctic Ocean, joined on the left by the Zym, Turukhan and Ingarevka, and on the right by the Kureika and Daneshkina. After the confluence of the Angara, the stream continues to widen out to 30 m., its bed being littered with islands until it breaks into its delta (240 m. long). The length of the river is nearly 3000 m., and the area of its drainage basin 970,000 sq. m. It is navigable as far up as Minusinsk, a distance of 1840 m., and is free from ice on the average for 155 days at Turukhansk and for 196 days at Krasnoyarsk. A canal connects the Great Kaz, a tributary of the Yenisei, with the Ket, an affluent of the Ob.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yeniseisk (town)

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​YENISEISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Yenisei, 170 m. N.N.W. of Krasnoyarsk, with which it has regular communication by steamer. Pop. 12,000. It is the centre of a gold-mining region, and has a public library and a natural history and archaeological museum. The town was founded in 1618.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Écija

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​ÉCIJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; on the Cadiz-Cordova railway and the left bank of the river Genil. Pop. (1900) 24,372. The river, thus far navigable, is here crossed by a fine old bridge; and the antiquity of the town betrays itself by the irregularity of its arrangement, by its walls and gateways, and by its numerous inscriptions and other relics. Its chief buildings include no fewer than twenty convents, mostly secularized. The principal square is surrounded with pillared porticoes, and has a fountain in the centre; and along the river bank there runs a fine promenade, planted with poplar trees and adorned with statues. From an early period the shoemakers of Écija have been in high repute throughout Spain; woollen cloth, flannel, linen and silks are also manufactured. The vicinity is fertile in corn and wine, and cotton is cultivated. The heat is so great that the spot has acquired the sobriquet of El Sarten, or the “Frying-pan” of Andalusia. Écija, called Estija by the Arabs, is the ancient Astigis, which was raised to the rank of a Roman colony with the title of Augusta Firma. According to Pliny and Pomponius Mela, who both wrote in the 1st century A.D., it was the rival of Cordova and Seville. If local tradition may be believed, it was visited by the apostle Paul, who converted his hostess Santa Xantippa; and, according to one version of his life, it was the see of the famous St Crispin (q.v.) in the 3rd century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Æthelweard

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​ÆTHELWEARD (Ethelward.) Anglo-Saxon historian, was the great-grandson of Æthelred, the brother of Alfred and ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973, and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop Ælfheah (Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover. Æthelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to the year 975. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is largely independent of it. Æthelweard gave himself the bombastic title “Patricius Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus,” and unfortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man. His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time attempts more than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often very obscure. Æthelweard was the friend and patron of Ælfric the grammarian.
Authorities.—Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch, ​Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224; Fabii Ethelwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 449-454. Secondary: Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci.; Napier and Stevenson, Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v.  (A. Mw.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Æthelwulf

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​ÆTHELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father Ecgberht in A.D. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for 823 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent, which was successfully accomplished. On the accession of Æthelwulf, Æthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. Æthelwulf’s reign was chiefly occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king’s defeat 843–844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and Æthelstan of Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered in England that year for the first time. In 851 also Æthelwulf and Æthelbald won their great victory at Aclea, probably the modern Ockley. In 853 Æthelwulf subdued the North Welsh, in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, and gave him his daughter Æthelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Donation of Æthelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his son Æthelbald on his return, and content himself with the eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858.
See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904). 1-16; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Échelon

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​ÉCHELON (Fr. from échelle, ladder), in military tactics, a formation of troops in which each body of troops is retired on, but not behind, the flank of the next in front, the position of the whole thus resembling the steps of a staircase. To form échelon from line, the parts of the line move off, each direct to its front, in succession, so that when the formation is completed the rightmost body, for example, is farthest advanced, the one originally next on its left is to the left rear, a third is to the left rear of the second, and so on. The word is also used more loosely to express successive lines, irrespective of distances and relative positions, e.g. the “second échelon of ammunition supply,” which is fully a day’s march behind the first.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Æthelred I.

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​ÆTHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866–871), was the fourth son of Æthelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his father’s will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest brother Æthelbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in favour of his brother Æthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint kingdoms he succeeded in 866. Æthelred’s reign was one long struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 Æthelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or Burhred, of Mercia, against this host, but the Mercians soon made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at Reading, where they defeated Æthelred and his brother, but later in the year the English won a great victory at “Æscesdun.” A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially retrieved their fortune by a victory at “Mæretun” (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the Easter of this year Æthelred died, perhaps of wounds received in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne. He left a son, Æthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom. Æthelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king.
Authorities.—The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, Cartul. Saxon. vol. ii. Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v.; Eng. Hist. Review, i. 218-234.  (A. Mw.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ça Ira

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​ÇA IRA, a song of the French Revolution, with the refrain:—
“Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira! Les aristocrates à la lanterne.”
The words, written by one Ladré, a street singer, were put to an older tune, called “Le Carillon National,” and the song rivalled the “Carmagnole” (q.v.) during the Terror. It was forbidden by the Directory.