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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tanjore

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​TANJORE, a city and district of British India in the Madras presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river Cauvery, and is an important junction on the South Indian railway, 218 m. S. of Madras. Pop. (1901) 57,870. As the last capital of the ancient Hindu dynasty of the Cholas, and in all ages one of the chief political, literary and religious centres of the south, the city is full of interesting associations. It was the scene of the earliest labours of Protestant missionaries in India. The modern history of Tanjore begins with its conquest by the Mahrattas in 1674 under Venkaji, the brother of Sivaji the Great. The British first came into contact with Tanjore by their expedition in 1749 with a view to the restoration of a deposed raja. In this they failed, and a subsequent expedition was bought off. The Mahrattas practically held Tanjore until 1799. In October of that year the district was ceded to the East India Company in absolute sovereignty by Raja Sharabhoji, pupil of the missionary Schwarz. The raja retained only the capital and a small tract of country round. He died in 1833 and was succeeded by his son Sivaji, on whose death in 1855 without an heir the house became extinct. The mission at Tanjore was founded in 1778 by the Rev. Christian F. Schwarz or Schwartz (1726-1798). The mission establishments were taken over in 1826 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which subsequently founded new stations in several parts of the district. Roman Catholic missions date from the first half of the 17th century. St Peter's College, founded by Schwarz as a school, is now a first-grade college affiliated to the university of Madras. His church dates from 1779. Among interesting ancient buildings may be mentioned the palace within the fort, containing an armoury and fine library; and the Brihadiswaraswami temple, of the nth century, enclosed in two courts, surmounted by a lofty tower and including the exquisitely decorated shrine of Subrahmanya. Though the city has specialities of jewelry, carpets, modelling in pith, &c, there are no large industries.
The District of Tanjore has an area of 3710 sq. m. On account of its fertility it has been called the " Gaiden of Southern India." It is irrigated by an elaborate system of dams, cuts and canals in connexion with the rivers Cauvery and Coleroon, and the soil is exceedingly productive. The delta of the Cauvery occupies the flat northern part, which is highly cultivated, dotted over with groves of coco-nut trees, and is one of the most densely populated tracts in India. The staple crop is rice, which is grown on 77 per cent, of the cultivated area. Tanjore is a land of temples, many of them being of very early date. The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of the South Indian railway, some of which have been constructed by the district board. The chief seaport is Negapatam, and the principal export is rice to Ceylon. The population in 1901 was 2,245,029.
See Tanjore District Gazetteer (Madras, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tanga

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​TANGA (“the sail”), a seaport of German East Africa, lying opposite the island of Pemba in 5º 6' S., 39º 7' E. The town is regularly laid out on elevated ground on the southern shore of Tanga Bay, and has a population of about 6000. Among the public buildings are the administrator's residence, the hospital, the boma (barracks), Protestant and Catholic churches and the government and mission schools. Tanga is the port of the Usambara district, where are many thriving plantations. The harbour is entered by a broad channel five to eight fathoms deep. It is a port of call for the German mail steamers, and the starting-point of a railway to the Usambara highlands.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tangermünde

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​TANGERMÜNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Elbe, 43 m. N.E. from Magdeburg by rail via Stendal. Pop. (1905) 12,829. It contains iron foundries, shipbuilding yards, refineries, and other industrial establishments, and enjoys a considerable river trade in grain and coal. It is ornamented by numerous brick buildings of the 14th and 15th centuries, including the turreted walls, the church of St Stephen (1376), and the late Gothic town hall. The castle, built in the 14th century, was the chief residence of the margraves of Brandenburg.
See Götze, Geschichte der Burg Tangermünde (Stendal, 1871).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penni, Gianfrancesco

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​PENNI, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528), Italian painter, surnamed “Il Fattore,” from the relation in which he stood to Raphael, whose favourite disciple he was after Giulio Romano, was a native of Florence, but spent the latter years of his life in Naples. He painted in oil as well as in fresco, but is chiefly known for his work in the Loggie of the Vatican.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penology

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​PENOLOGY (Lat. poena, punishment), the modern name given to penitentiary science, that concerned with the processes devised and adopted for the repression and prevention of crime. (See Crime; Criminology; Prison; Juvenile Offenders; Recidivism, &c.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Penrhyn, George Sholto Gordon Douglas-Pennant, 2nd Baron

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​PENRHYN, GEORGE SHOLTO GORDON DOUGLAS-PENNANT, 2nd Baron (1836-1907), was the son of Colonel Edward Gordon Douglas (1800-1886), brother of the 19th earl of Morton, who, through his wife, Juliana, elder daughter and coheir of George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, Carnarvon, had large estates in Wales and elsewhere, and was created Baron Penrhyn in 1866. Dawkins had inherited the estates from Richard Penryn, who was created Baron Penryn in 1763, the title becoming extinct on his death in 1808.
George Douglas-Pennant was conservative M.P. for Carnarvonshire in 1866-1868 and 1874-1880, and succeeded his father in the title in 1886. A keen sportsman, a benevolent landlord, a kind and considerate employer, Lord Penrhyn came of a proud race, and was himself of an imperious disposition. He came prominently before the public in 1897 and subsequent years in connexion witl1 the famous strike at his Welsh slate quarries. During his father's lifetime the management of the Penrhyn quarry had been left practically to an elective committee operatives, and it was on the verge of bankruptcy when in 1885 he took matters in hand; he abolished the committee, and with the help of Mr E. A. Young, whom he brought in from London as manager, he so reorganized the business that this slate-quarry yielded a profit of something like £150,000 a year. The new men and new methods were, however, not to the taste of the trade unionist leaders of the quarrymen, and in 1897, when the “new unionism" was rampant in labour questions throughout England, a strike was deliberately fomented. Lord Penrhyn refused to recognize the union or its officials, though he was willing to consider any grievances from individual quarrymen, and a protracted struggle ensued, in which his determination was invincible He became the object of the bitterest political hostility, and trade unionism exerted itself to the utmost, but vainly, to bring about some form of government intervention. Penrhyn strikers perambulated the country, singing and collecting contributions to their funds. But in spite of every pressure Lord Penrhyn insisted on being master of his own property, and by degrees the agitation collapsed. His death on the 10th of March 1907 evoked general and genuine regret. Lord Penrhyn was twice married, and had fifteen surviving children. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Edward Sholto (b 1864), who was Unionist M.P. for South Northamptonshire from 1895 to 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sulmona

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​SULMONA, or Solmona (anc. Sulmo), a city and episcopal see of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 40 m. by rail S.E. by E. of that town, and 107 m. E. by N. of Rome (75 m. direct). Pop. (1901), 13,372 (town), 18,247 (commune). Sulmona is situated at a height of 1322 ft. above the sea on the Gizio, a tributary of the Pescara, which supplies water-power to its paper-mills, fulling-mills and copper-works. Its cathedral of San Panfilio has a 14th-century portal. The interior has been modernized, but in the crypt are some medieval sculptures. ​Sulmona has also in S. Maria della Tomba a good example of pure Gothic. S. Francesco d’Assisi occupies the site of an older and larger church, the Romanesque portal of which still stands at the end of the Corso Ovidio, and forms the entrance to the meat market. Opposite is a picturesque aqueduct of 1266 with pointed arches. S. Agostino has a good Gothic portal. The Ospedale Civico, next to the church of the Annunziata, begun in the first half of the 15th century, shows an interesting mixture of Gothic and Renaissance styles. The window of the Palazzo Tabassi is similar, and both are due to Lombard masters. In the court of the grammar school is a fine 15th-century statue of Ovid, the most celebrated native of the town, whose memory is preserved among the peasants in songs and folk-lore. The Porta Napoli is an interesting gate of the early 14th century. Innocent VII. was a native of the town. In the vicinity of the town is Monte Morrone where Pietro di Morone lived (c. 1254) as a hermit and founded a monastery for his hermits, who after his elevation to the papacy as Celestine V. took the name of Celestines; the monastery (S. Spirito) remained till 1870, when it was transformed into a prison. There are some ruins of the imperial period, attributed, groundlessly, to the house of Ovid near it. The church contains a Gothic tomb of 1412 by a German master, in which Renaissance influence is, according to Burckhardt, traceable for the first time in south Italy in the realistic characterization of the portrait figures.
Sulmo, a city of the Paeligni, is first mentioned during the Second Punic War (211 B.C.). It was the second town of the Paeligni in importance, Corfinium coming first. It became a Roman colony probably in the reign of Augustus, and as a municipium it continued to flourish throughout the empire. It was situated 7 m. south-east of Corfinium on the road to Aesernia, and was famous for its iron smiths. Hardly any remains of the ancient city exist above ground, owing to frequent earthquakes. A number of discoveries of tombs (both archaic and of the Roman period), &c., have however been made (cf. A. de Nino, in Notizie degli Scavi, passim). Charles V. erected it into a principality, which he bestowed on Charles Lannoy, who had captured Francis I. at the battle of Pavia. It ultimately passed to the Como and Borghese families. The bishopric is known as that of Valva and Sulmona.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sulphonal

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​SULPHONAL, or acetone diethyl sulphone (CH$_3$)$_2$C(SO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$, a valuable hypnotic prepared by condensing acetone with ethyl mercaptan in the presence of hydrochloric acid, the mercaptol (CH$_3$)$_2$C(SC$_2$H$_5$)$_2$ formed being subsequently oxidized by potassium permanganate (E. Baumann, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2808). It is also formed by the action of alcoholic potash and methyl iodide on ethylidene diethyl sulphine, CH$_3$·CH(SO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$ (which is formed by the oxidation of dithioacetal with potassium permanganate). It crystallizes in prisms melting at 125° C., which are practically insoluble in cold water, but dissolve in 15 parts of hot and also in alcohol and ether.
It is the sulphonalum of the B.P., and the sulphomethanum of the U.S.P. It produces lengthened sleep in functional nervous insomnia, and is also useful in insanity, being given with mucilage of acacia or in hot liquids, owing to its insolubility, or in large capsules. Its hypnotic power is not equal to that of chloral, but as it is not a depressant to the heart or respiration it can be used when morphine or chloral are contra-indicated. It is, however, very uncertain in its action, often failing to produce sleep when taken at bedtime, but producing drowsiness and sleep the following day. The drowsiness the next day following a medicinal dose can be avoided by a saline laxative the morning after its administration. It is unwise to use it continuously for more than a few days at a time, as it tends to produce the sulphonal habit, which is attended by marked toxic effects, disturbances of digestion, giddiness, staggering gait and even paralysis of the lower extremities. These effects are accompanied by skin eruptions, and the urine becomes of a dark red colour (haematoporphinuria). Sulphonal is cumulative in its effects. Many fatal cases of sulphonal poisoning are on record, both from chronic poisoning and from a single large dose. Trional (CH$_3$)(C$_2$H$_5$)C(SO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$, and tetronal, (C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$C(SO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$, are also hypnotics. They are faster in action than sulphonal, and trional does not disorder the digestion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sulpicia

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​SULPICIA, the name of two Roman poets. The earlier lived in the reign of Augustus, and was a niece of Messalla, the patronof literature. Her verses, which were preserved with those of Tibullus and were for long attributed to him, are elegiac poems addressed to a lover called Cerinthus, possibly the Cornutus addressed by Tibullus in two of his Elegies (bk. ii., 2 and 3; seeSchanz, Gesch. d. röm. Litt. § 284; F. Plessis, La Poésie latine, pp. 376–377 and references there given). The younger Sulpicia lived during the reign of Domitian. She is praised by Martial (x. 35, 38), who compares her to Sappho, as a model of wifely devotion, and wrote a volume of poems, describing with considerable freedom of language the methods adopted to retain her husband Calenus's affection. An extant poem (70 hexameters) also bears her name. It is in the form of a dialogue between Sulpicia and the muse Calliope, and is chiefly a protest against the banishment of the philosophers by the edict of Domitian (A.D. 94), as likely to throw Rome back into a state of barbarism. At the same time Sulpicia expresses the hope that no harm will befall Calenus. The muse reassures her, and prophesies the downfall of the tyrant. It is now generally agreed that the poem (the MS. of which was discovered in the monastery of Bobbio in 1493, but has long been lost) is not by Sulpicia, but is of much later date, probably the 5th century; according to some it is a 15th-century production, and not identical with the Bobbio poem.
Editions by O. Jahn (with Juvenal and Persius, revised by F. Bücheler, 1893) and in E. Bährens, De Sulpicius quae vocatur satira (1873); see also monograph by J. C. Boot (1868); R. Ellis in Academy, (Dec. 11, 1869) and Journal of Philology (1874), vol. v.; O. Ribbeck. Geschichte der römischen Dichtung (1§ 92), vol. iii.; H. E. Butler, Post-Augustan Poetry (1909), pp. 174–176; M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (1900), iii. 2; Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 233, 6. There are English translations by L. Evans in Bohn's Classical Library (prose, with Juvenal and Persius) and by J. Grainger (verse, 1759).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sulpicius Rufus, Servius

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​SULPICIUS RUFUS, SERVIUS (c. 106-43 B.C.), surnamed Lemonia from the tribe to which he belonged, Roman orator and jurist. He studied rhetoric with Cicero, and accompanied him to Rhodes in 78 B.C. Finding that he would never be able to rival his teacher he gave up rhetoric for law (Cic. Brut. 41). In 63 he was a candidate for the consulship, but was defeated by L. Licinius Murena (q.v.), whom he subsequently accused of bribery; in 51 he was successful. In the Civil War, after considerable hesitation, he threw in his lot with Caesar, who made him proconsul of Achaea in 46. He died in 43 while on a mission from the senate to Antony at Mutina. He was accorded a public funeral, and a statue was erected to his memory in front of the Rostra. Two excellent specimens of Sulpicius's style are preserved in Cicero (Ad. Fam. iv. 5 and 12). Quintilian (Instit. x. 1, 116) speaks of three orations by Sulpicius as still in existence; one of these was the speech against Murena, another Pro or Contra Aufidium, of whom nothing is known. He is also said to have been a writer of erotic poems. It is as a jurist, however, that Sulpicius was chiefly distinguished. He left behind him a large number of treatises, and he is often quoted in the Digest, although direct extracts are not found (for titles see Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Lit. 174, 4). His chief characteristics were lucidity, an intimate acquaintance with the principles of civil and natural law, and an unrivalled power of expression.
See R. Schneider, De Servio Sulpicio Rufo (Leipzig, 1834); O. Karlowa, Römische Rechtsgeschichte, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1885); the chief ancient authority is Cicero.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sulpicius Rufus, Publius

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​SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS (c. 121-88 B.C.), Roman orator and statesman, legate in 89 to Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Social War, and in 88 tribune of the plebs. Soon afterwards Sulpicius, hitherto an aristocrat, declared in favour of Marius and the popular party. He was deeply in debt, and it seems that Marius had promised him financial assistance in the event of his being appointed to the command in the Mithradatic War. To secure the appointment for Marius, Sulpicius brought in a franchise bill by which the newly enfranchised Italian allies and freedmen would have swamped the old electors (see further Rome, History, II. " The Republic "). The majority of the senate were strongly opposed to the proposals; a justitium (cessation of public business) was proclaimed by the consuls, but Marius and Sulpicius got up a riot, and the consuls, in fear of their lives, withdrew the justitium. The proposals of Sulpicius became law, and, with the assistance of the new voters, the command was bestowed upon Marius, then a mere privatus. Sulla, who was then at Nola, immediately marched upon Rome. Marius and Sulpicius, unable to resist him, fled from the city. Marius managed to escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was discovered in a villa at Laurentum and put to death; his head was sent to Sulla and exposed in the forum. Sulpicius appears to have been originally a moderate reformer, who by force of circumstances became one of the leaders of a democratic revolt. Although he had impeached the turbulent tribune C. Norbanus (q.v.), and resisted the proposal to repeal judicial sentences by popular decree, he did not hesitate to incur the displeasure of the Julian family by opposing the candidature for the consulship of C. Julius Caesar (Strabo Vopiscus), who had never been praetor and was consequently ineligible. His franchise proposals, as far as the Italians were concerned, were a necessary measure of justice; but they had been carried by violence. Of Sulpicius as an orator, Cicero says (Brutus, 55): "He was by far the most dignified of all the orators I have heard, and, so to speak, the most tragic; his voice was loud, but at the same time sweet and clear; his gestures were full of grace; his language was rapid and voluble, but not redundant or diffuse; he tried to imitate Crassus, but lacked his charm." Sulpicius left no written ​speeches, those that bore his name being written by a certain P. Canutius (or Cannutius). He is one of the interlocutors in Cicero's De oratore.
See Appian, Bell. civ. i. 55-60; Plutarch, Sulla and Marius; Vell. Pat. ii. 18; Livy, Epit. 77; E. A. Ahrens, Die drei Volkstribunen (Leipzig, 1836); Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 7; Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, vol. ii. ch. 17.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sultan

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​SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning “victorious” or “a ruler,” sultat, dominion), a title of honour borne by a great variety of rulers of very varying powers and importance in Mahommedan Africa and the East. The word has thus no exact equivalent in English, and was early imported into the language in the Middle English form of soudan (from old Fr. soudan, souldan). This title is that conventionally applied by foreigners to the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan par excellence, whose proper styles are, however, padishah (emperor) and “commander of the faithful” (see Amir). The feminine form “sultana” is derived from the Italian (fem. of sultano).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sultanpur

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​SULTANPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad division of the United Provinces. The town is on the right bank of the river Gumti, midway between Benares and Lucknow, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901), 9550.
The District of Sultanpur has an area of 1713 sq. m. The surface is generally level, being broken only by ravines in the neighbourhood of the rivers. The central portion is highly cultivated, while in the south are widespread arid plains and swampy jhils or marshes. The principal river is the Gumti, which passes through the centre of the district and affords a valuable highway for commerce. Minor streams are the Kandu, Pili, Tengha and Nandhia, the last two being of some importance, as their channels form the outlet for the superfluous water of the jhils, draining into the Sai. There are no forests in the district, only stunted dhák jungles used for fuel. In 1901 the population was 1,083,904, showing an increase of less than 1% in the decade. Sultanpur is a purely agricultural district with a very dense population, The principal crops are rice, pulses, wheat, barley, sugar-cane and a little poppy. The main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Rae Bareli and Mogul Serai serves the south-western portion.
The only incident worthy of note in the history of the district since the British annexation of Oudh is the revolt of the native troops stationed at Sultanpur during the Mutiny. The troops rose in rebellion on the 9th of June 1857, and, after murdering two of their officers, sacked the station. Upon the restoration of order Sultanpur cantonment was strengthened by a detachment of British troops; but in 1861 it was entirely abandoned as a military station.
See Sultanpur District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903).