OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Darboy, Georges

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​DARBOY, GEORGES (1813–1871), archbishop of Paris, was born at Fayl-Billot in Haut Marne on the 16th of January 1813. He studied with distinction at the seminary at Langres, and was ordained priest in 1836. Transferred to Paris as almoner of the college of Henry IV., and honorary canon of Notre Dame, he became the close friend of Archbishop Affre and of his successor Archbishop Sibour. He was appointed bishop of Nancy in 1859, and in January 1863 was raised to the archbishopric of Paris. The archbishop was a strenuous upholder of episcopal independence in the Gallican sense, and involved himself in a controversy with Rome by his endeavours to suppress the jurisdiction of the Jesuits and other religious orders within his diocese. Pius IX. refused him the cardinal’s hat, and rebuked him for his liberalism in a letter which was probably not intended for publication. At the Vatican council he vigorously maintained the rights of the bishops, and strongly opposed the dogma of papal infallibility, against which he voted as inopportune. When the dogma had been finally adopted, however, he was one of the first to set the example of submission. Immediately after his return to Paris the war with Prussia broke out, and his conduct during the disastrous year that followed was marked by a devoted heroism which has secured for him an enduring fame. He was active in organizing relief for the wounded at the commencement of the war, remained bravely at his post during the siege, and refused to seek safety by flight during the brief triumph of the Commune. On the 4th of April 1871 he was arrested by the communists as a hostage, and confined in the prison at Mazas, from which he was transferred to La Roquette on the advance of the army of Versailles. On the 27th of May he was shot within the prison along with several other distinguished hostages. He died in the attitude of blessing and uttering words of forgiveness. His body was recovered with difficulty, and, having been embalmed, was buried with imposing ceremony at the public expense on the 7th of June. It is a noteworthy fact that Darboy was the third archbishop of Paris who perished by violence in the period between 1848 and 1871. Darboy was the author of a number of works, of which the most important are a Vie de St Thomas Becket (1859), a translation of the works of St Denis the Areopagite, and a translation of the Imitation of Christ.
See J. A. Foulon, Histoire de la vie et des œuvres de Mgr. Darboy (Paris, 1889), and J. Guillermin, Vie de Mgr. Darboy (Paris, 1888), biographies written from the clerical standpoint, which have called forth a number of pamphlets in reply.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Daphla Hills

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​DAPHLA (or Dafla) HILLS, a tract of hilly country on the border of Eastern Bengal and Assam, occupied by an independent tribe called Daphla. It lies to the north of the Tezpur and North Lakhimpur subdivisions, and is bounded on the west by the Aka Hills and on the east by the Abor range. Colonel Dalton in The Ethnology of Bengal considers the Daphlas to be closely allied to the hill Miris, and they are akin to and intermarry with the Abors. They have a reputation for cowardice, and as politically they are disunited, they are at the mercy of the Akas, their less numerous but more warlike neighbours on the west. Their clothing is scanty, and its most distinguishing feature is a cane cap with a fringe of bearskin or feathers, which gives them a very curious appearance. The men wear their hair in a plait, which is coiled into a ball on the forehead, to which they fasten their caps with a long skewer. In 1872 a party of independent Daphlas suddenly attacked a colony of their own tribesmen, who had settled at Amtola in British territory, and carried away forty-four captives to the hills. This led to the Daphla expedition of 1874, when a force of 1000 troops released the prisoners and reduced the tribe to submission. According to the census of 1901 the Daphlas in British territory numbered 954, the tribal country not being enumerated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newhaven

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​NEWHAVEN, a seaport in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 56 m. S. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway, on the English Channel at the mouth of the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6772. The church of St Michael has a Norman square embattled tower surmounted by a spire, and an apsidal chancel. The port is protected by fortifications. A harbour was first granted to Newhaven in 1713, and during the early part of the 18th century it possessed a large shipping trade. This afterwards declined, but it is now one of the principal points of communication between England and France, the railway company maintaining a daily service of fast steamers to Dieppe in connexion with the Chemin de fer de l’Ouest. The tidal harbour, which is owned by a company, is enclosed by two piers and a breakwater, the area being about 30 acres, and the quayage 1400 yds. The roadstead is one of the finest on the coast of England. With France there is a large traffic in wines, spirits, silk, fruit, vegetables and general provisions. The coasting trade consists chiefly of imports of coal and provisions, the exports being principally timber for shipbuilding and flint for the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newmarch, William

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​NEWMARCH, WILLIAM (1820–1882), English economist and statistician, was born at Thirsk, Yorkshire, on the 28th of January 1820. He settled in London in 1846 as an official of the Agra Bank, but resigned in 1851 on his appointment as secretary of the Globe Insurance Company. This post he held till 1862, when he became chief officer in the banking-house of Glyn, Mills & Co., in whose employ he remained until 1881. Notwithstanding the continuous pressure of an active business life he found time to contribute largely many valuable articles to the magazines and newspapers, and took an active part in the proceedings of the Royal Statistical Society (of which he was one of the honorary secretaries, editor of its journal, and in 1869–1871 president) and the Political Economy Club. He was also elected a fellow of the Royal Society. His extensive knowledge of banking was displayed in the evidence which he gave before the select committee on the Bank Acts in 1857. He collaborated with Thomas Tooke in the two final volumes of his History of Prices and was responsible for the greater part of the work in those volumes. For nineteen years he wrote an admirable survey of the commercial history of the year in the Economist. He died at Torquay on the 23rd of March 1882. After his death his friends founded, in perpetuation of his memory, a Newmarch Lectureship in economic science and statistics at University College, London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newel

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​NEWEL (O. Fr. nouel or noel, modern noyau, properly a kernel, from Lat. nux, nut; other foreign equivalents are Ital. albero, Ger. Spindel), the term given in architecture to the central shaft of a semicircular or winding staircase, which is built up or consists of the narrow ends of the steps standing one over the other. When in stone, both newel and steps are cut out of the same block; when in wood, the newel becomes a vertical post into which the steps are housed. The term is also given to the vertical post at the foot or the angles of a square staircase, into which the carriage or beam carrying the steps is tenoned.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newlyn

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​NEWLYN, a village in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the shore of Mount’s Bay, 1 m. S.W. of Penzance. It is a small fishing port, with narrow paved lanes and old-fashioned cottages. Near the parish church of St Peter stands an ancient cross of granite, discovered in a field close by. The harbour, one of the safest for small craft in the west country, is sheltered by two long and massive stone piers. A more ancient pier, originally constructed in the reign of Henry VI., was renewed in that of James I. Tin mining and smelting have been largely carried on in the neighbourhood, and several galleries were worked far under the sea. The principal modern industry, however, is fishing, especially for pilchard. The picturesque appearance of the village, with its quays and little harbour, and the grandeur of the cliffs and moorland scenery towards Land’s End, make Newlyn an attractive spot. Between 1880 and 1890 an artistic coterie grew up here, the leaders of which were Edwin Harris, Walter Langley, Fred Hall, Frank Bramley, T. C. Gotch, Mr and Mrs Stanhope Forbes, Chevalier Taylor and H. S. Tuke. The earlier artists at Newlyn were said to have selected it as their centre, because a greyness in the atmosphere helped their depiction of subtleties in tone, part of their creed being subordination of colour to tone-gradation. In later times, the element of a common ideal tended to disappear, but the interest of the “Newlyn school” attracted a regular art-colony, who in various ways assimilated and expressed the picturesque influences of the place (see Painting: Recent British). There is a permanent Art Gallery, containing examples of the work of the Newlyn artists. Newlyn ward in the urban district of Paul (pop. 6332) had in 1901 a population of 3749.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newcomen, Thomas

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​NEWCOMEN, THOMAS (1663–1729), English engineer, one of the inventors of the steam-engine, was born at Dartmouth in 1663. While employed as an ironmonger in his native town, he corresponded with Robert Hooke about the previous investigations of Denis Papin and the marquis of Worcester as to the applicability of steam-power for the purpose of driving machinery, and in conjunction with John Calley (or Cawley), said to have been a grazier or glazier in Dartmouth, and Captain Thomas Savery (1650?–1715), a military engineer, he constructed in 1705 a “fire-engine,” now known as the “atmospheric steam-engine.” He died in 1729, probably in London. (See Steam-Engine.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newlands, John Alexander Reina

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​NEWLANDS, JOHN ALEXANDER REINA (1835–1898), English chemist, was born in 1838. He was one of the first, if not quite the first, to propound the conception of periodicity among the chemical elements. His earliest contribution to the question took the form of a letter published in the Chemical News in February 1863. In the succeeding year he showed, in the same journal, that if the elements be arranged in the order of their atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music. The Law of Octaves thus enunciated was at first ignored or treated with ridicule as a fantastic notion unworthy of serious consideration, but the idea, subsequently elaborated by D. I. Mendeléeff and other workers into the Periodic Law, has taken its place as one of the most important generalizations in modern chemical theory. Newlands, who was of Italian extraction on his mother’s side, and fought as a volunteer in the cause of Italian freedom under Garibaldi in 1860, died in London on the 29th of July 1898. He collected his various papers on the atomicity of the elements in a little volume on the Discovery of the Periodic Law published in London in 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newdigate, Sir Roger

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​NEWDIGATE, SIR ROGER (1719–1806), English antiquary, was born on the 30th of May 1719. He was the 5th baronet of Harefield (in Middlesex) and Arbury (in Warwickshire), and grandson of Sir Richard Newdigate, an English chief justice during the time of Richard Cromwell’s protectorate. He was educated at University College, Oxford. From 1741 to 1747 he was M.P. for Middlesex, and from 1750 to 1780 M.P. for the university of Oxford. In 1753 he spoke in parliament on behalf of the repeal of the Plantation Act, and during the debates on the land tax in 1767 he opposed the duke of Grafton’s administration and the proposed grant to the royal princes. Being the owner of extensive collieries near Bedworth in Warwickshire, he actively promoted the Coventry, Oxford and Grand Junction canal, cutting also a canal from his collieries to Coventry, and interesting himself in the construction of the turnpike road from ​Coventry to Leicester. But it is as an antiquary and the founder of a prize at the Oxford university that he is chiefly remembered. His interest in old architecture dated from a tour in France and Italy which was undertaken while he was a young man. He filled two folio volumes with sketches of ancient buildings. His collection of antiquities included marbles, casts of statues and vases. Two marble candelabra found in Hadrian’s villa at Rome he purchased for £1800 and presented them to the Radcliffe Library at Oxford. Among his other generosities to the university were a chimney piece, for the hall of University College, and the sum of £2000 for the removal by Flaxman of the Arundel collection of marbles to the Radcliffe Library. The “Newdigate” prize of twenty-one guineas for English verse, which is open for competition each year to the undergraduates of Oxford University, was founded by him and was first awarded in the year of his death. He died at Arbury on the 23rd of November 1806. His portrait was painted by Kirkby for University College, Oxford, and at the age of sixty-three he also sat to Romney.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perpendicular Period

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​PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, the term given by Thomas Rickman to the third period of Gothic architecture in England, in consequence of the great predominance of perpendicular lines. In the later examples of the Decorated period the omission of the circles in the tracery had led to the employment of curves of double curvature which developed into flamboyant tracery, and the introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction in the contrary direction. The mullions of the windows (which are sometimes of immense size, so as to give greater space for the stained glass) are carried up into the arch mould of the windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional mullions. The buttresses and wall surface are likewise divided up into vertical panels. The doorways are frequently enclosed within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrils being fitted with qua trefoils or tracery. Inside the church the triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and greater importance is given to the clerestory windows which constitute the finest features in the churches of this period. The mouldings are flatter and less effective than those of the earlier periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction of large elliptical hollows. The finest features of this period are the magnificent timber roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall (1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall.
The earliest examples of the Perpendicular period, dating from 1360, are found at Gloucester, where the masons of the cathedral would seem to have been far in advance of those in other towns. Among other buildings of note are the choir and tower of York Cathedral (1389-1407); the nave and western transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378-1411), and the tower ​(towards the end of the 15th century); New College, Oxford (1380–1386); the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1381–1391), the nave and aisles of Winchester Cathedral (1399–1419); the transept and tower of Merton College, Oxford (1424–1450); Manchester Cathedral (1422); the central tower of Gloucester Cathedral (1454–1457), and that of Magdalen College, Oxford (1475–1480). To those examples should be added the towers at Wrexham, Coventry, Evesham, and St Mary’s at Taunton, the first being of exceptional magnificence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pernau

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​PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin), a seaport and watering-place of western Russia, in the government of Livonia, 155 m. N. of Riga, on the left bank of the Pernau or Pernova, which about half a mile farther down enters the Bay of Pernau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. Pop., 12,8S0. The harbour is usually free from ice from the end of April to the middle of December.
Founded on the right side of the river in 1255 by one of the bishops of Oesel, Pernau soon became a flourishing place. In the 16th century it was occupied in succession by the Swedes, the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1599 the Poles transferred the town to the left side of the river; and in 1642 the Swedes, who had been in possession since 1617, strengthened it with regular fortifications. In 1710 it was taken by the Russians, and the fortress is now demolished.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perovskite

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​PEROVSKITE, or Perofskite, a mineral consisting of calcium titanate, CaTiO$_3$, usually with a small proportion of the calcium replaced by iron. The crystals found in schistose rocks have the form of cubes, which are sometimes modified on the edges and corners by numerous small planes; on the other hand, the crystals occurring as an accessory constituent of eruptive rocks are octahedral in form and microscopic in size. Although geometrically cubic, the crystals are always doubly refracting, and they sometimes show evidence of complex mimetic twinning; their structure as shown in polarized light is very similar to that of the mineral boracite, and they are therefore described as pseudo-cubic. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces of the cube. The colour varies from pale yellow to blackish-brown and the lustre is adamantine to metallic; the crystals are transparent to opaque. The index of refraction is high, the hardness 5½ and the specific gravity 4.0. The mineral was discovered at Achmatovsk near Zlatonst in the Urals by G. Rose in 1839, and named in honour of Count L. A. Perovsky; at this locality large cubes occur with calcite and magnetite in a chlorite-schist. Similar crystals are also found in talc-schist at Zermatt in Switzerland. The microscopic octahedral crystals are characteristic of melilite basalt and nepheline basalt; they have also been found in peridotite and serpentine.  (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perm (town)

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​PERM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great highway to Siberia, 1130 m. by rail and river N.E. from Moscow. Pop. (1879), 32,350; (1897), 45,403. During summer it has regular steam communication with Kazan, 605 m. distant, and it is connected by rail (311 m.) with Ekaterinburg on the east side of the Urals. The town is mostly built of wood, with broad streets and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect, especially when compared with Ekaterinburg. It is the seat of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has an ecclesiastical seminary and a military school, besides several scientific institutions (the Ural society of natural sciences, archives committee, technical society), and a scientific museum. Its industries develop but slowly, the chief works being ship-building yards, tanneries, chemical works, saw-mills, brickfields, copper foundries, machinery works, soap and candle factories and rope works. The government has a manufactory of steel guns and munitions of war in the immediate neighbourhood of the town. The present site of Perm was occupied, as early as 1568, by a settlement named Brukhanovo, founded by one of the Stroganovs; this settlement seems to have received the name of Perm in the 17th century. A copper works was founded in the immediate neighbourhood in 1723, and in 1781 it received officially the name of Perm, and became an administrative centre both for the country and for the mining region.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Permeability, Magnetic

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Permeameter

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​PERMEAMETER, an instrument for rapidly measuring the permeability of a sample of iron or steel with sufficient accuracy for many commercial purposes. The name was first applied by S. P. Thompson to an apparatus devised by himself in 1890, which indicates the mechanical force required to detach one end of the sample, arranged as the core of a straight electromagnet, from an iron yoke of special form; when this force is known the permeability can be easily calculated. (See Magnetism)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perowne, John James Stewart

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​PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEWART (1823-1904), English bishop, was born, of Huguenot ancestry, at Burdwan, Bengal, on the 13th of March 1823. He was educated at Norwich and at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow in 1849. After holding a chair in King's College, London, he was appointed vice-principal at St David's College, Lampeter (1862-1872). In 1868 he was Hulsean lecturer, taking as his subject Immortality. He was elected canon of Llandaff in 1869, dean of Peterborough 1878, and in 1891 succeeded Henry Philpott as bishop of Worcester. Perowne was a good Hebrew scholar of the old type and sat on the Old Testament Revision Committee. He is best remembered as the general editor of the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. His chief works were a Commentary on The Book of Psalms (2 vols., 1864-1868) and a life of Bishop Thirlwall (1877-1878). He resigned his see in 1901, and died on the 6th of November 1904.