OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Judge

Edition of 1905. See also Judge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JUDGE (OF., Fr. juge, from Lat. judex, judge, from jus, law + dicere, to say). One who finds a judgment; especially a presiding magistrate in a court of justice. The proceedings of courts of justice may be: (a) to maintain the order of judicial procedure and make provision for the execution of judgments; (b) to find and interpret the legal rule or rules applicable to each case; (c) to determine what the facts in the case are, or at least what facts shall be taken to be proved.
While all these different functions frequently are discharged by a single authority, they frequently are separated. Representatives of the people, not otherwise connected with the administration of justice, are frequently charged with the decision of questions of fact, and sometimes with the decision of questions both of fact and of law. This last separation was regularly made in the Greek democracies, in the Roman Republic, and in the early German tribes. A magistrate who was not simply a judicial officer, but who also had duties of general administration, including, in some instances, military duties—an archon or prætor or prince or hundredman—presided over the administration of justice, but judgment was rendered by representatives of the people—by 'dikasts' or 'judices,' or (among the Germans) by all the freemen. Contrary to our modern usage, the term 'judge' was not regularly applied to the presiding magistrate, but to the representatives of the people who actually found the judgment. Among the Germans it was frequently applied to the 'wise men' or 'law-speakers' who suggested the judgment which the folk-moot approved or rejected. The term judge was not applied to the presiding magistrate by the Romans until, in the Imperial period, he had become judge of the law and the facts. The term began to be applied to the presiding official by the Germans when he began (in the Frankish Empire) to obtain a considerable degree of control over the findings of the popular court. The relatively modern usage of describing the presiding magistrate as judge even when, as in English criminal procedure, he has no control over the judgment, is connected with the change which has separated judicial from general administration.
With the establishment of a separate and independent judiciary, placed beyond the reach of governmental interference, it has been found practicable, in all countries except those of the English law, to intrust to the judges the power of decision on the facts as well as on the law in civil cases. In criminal cases, however, the system of popular judgment has not only maintained itself in English law, but, after disappearing for centuries, has been reestablished on the Continent of Europe. So recent, however, has been the introduction of the jury system in Continental procedure that the inquisitorial traditions of the intermediate period are still strong, and the judge, to English eyes, seems to combine judicial functions with those of a public prosecutor. Compare Court; Magistrate.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Juengling, Frederick (1915)

Edition of 1915. See also Frederick Juengling on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JUENGLING, yŭng'lĭng, Frederick (1846-89). An American wood engraver, born in New York City. He studied at the Art Students' League and was the first secretary and one of the founders of the American Society of Wood Engravers (1881). He belonged to the new school, which, for the long lines and regular sweeps of the graver, sanctioned by tradition, desired to substitute short, broken lines and dot stippling. Sylvester Koehler, in his paper on the “United States” contributed to the important folio volume Die Radierung der Gegenwart (Vienna, 1892-93), calls him the “boldest and most inconsiderate experimenter among the pioneers of the new school,” but cites his reproduction of “Monticello” as a veritable triumph of wood engraving. Juengling's reproductions of Kelly's illustrations in Scribner's Monthly (1877) is regarded by Weitenkampf as making “the first obvious, continued assertion of the new point of view.” Consult Frank Weitenkampf, American Graphic Art (New York, 1912). See Wood Engraving.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kaab ibn Zuhair

Edition of 1905. See also Ka'b bin Zuhayr on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KAAB IBN ZUHAIR, käb ib'n zōō'hār (Ar. Ka'b). An Arabian poet of the seventh century, a contemporary of Mohammed. His father, Zuhair ibn Abi Sulma Rabia al-Muzani, was also a poet and author of one of the seven poems of the Muallakat, the great collection of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. All the other members of Kaab's family (the Muzainah) became converts to Islam, and when his brother Bujair adopted the new faith, Kaab indited a bitter and sarcastic poem which came to the notice of the Prophet, and Kaab was outlawed. By means of a clever stratagem, however, he gained access to Mohammed and recited a famous eulogy, called, from the first two words, Bānat Su'ād (Su'ād—a woman's name—fled). Mohammed was pleased and gave the poet his own mantle. Kaab is reported to have died soon after. The two poems referred to are translated by Brockelmann in his (popular) Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, pp. 52, 53 (Leipzig, 1901); the second also by Gabrieli, Al-Budatān (Florence, 1901). The best editions of the Bānat Su'ād are those of I. Guidi (Leipzig, 1871-74) and Nöldeke, in his Delectus Veterum Carminum Arabicorum (Berlin, 1890).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Banana

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Banana, (bȧ-nä′nȧ), the name of a fruit and also of the plant which produces it. It is thought to be a native of India, but is now grown in all tropical countries. We get our bananas largely from the West Indies and Central America. The fruit is grown extensively in our island possessions, and some is produced in Florida, Louisiana and California. There are many varieties; the one commonly exported is the Martinique, which shows a large bunch of yellow fruit. A delicious variety is the apple banana, a small banana with fragrance and taste of the apple. In Hawaii, just in the home garden of the sugar planter, may be grown fifteen different kinds. Common in tropical countries is a popularly called cooking banana, not edible raw; with thick, salmon-colored flesh and dark skin, similar to the plantain of the South Seas. It is told that the natives of one of the South Sea islands subsist entirely on bananas; on many islands it is the main food. Between the plantain and the banana there is little, if any, botanical difference. Both are Musa sapientum. The plantain, a much less familiar fruit, is large, solid and mealy compared with the ordinary banana. The banana is very nutritious and wholesome when thoroughly ripe. The bunches are cut off when green; those for export, so they will ship well; those for home use, to keep them from the birds. They are often hung from the beam of the veranda to ripen. Some bunches grow to enormous size, one occasionally weighing 80 pounds. A small area of land will produce a rich crop.
A plant bears but a single bunch, then the stalk is cut down and the sprouts take its place. When about three feet high, these are transplanted, put far enough apart to allow space for the great leaves that will outspread wide when full grown. The plant or tree varies in height from 10 to 40 feet, and at the top of the stalk the immense, undivided leaves are from six to ten feet long and one to two feet wide. The flower-bearing is most curious; the flower cluster with its tight-overlapping scales is a great elongated purple bud in appearance. Under each scale is a true flower of which there may be over a hundred in each "bud," forming that many bananas as they develop. Under favorable conditions a banana plant bears when from twelve to eighteen months old. Bananas grown for their fruit are perpetuated by root-cuttings, by sprouts and suckers.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bancroft, George

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Ban′croft, George, a distinguished American historian, was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1800. He graduated from Harvard College, and studied two years at Gottingen, Germany. He was tutor in Greek at Harvard for one year, and with a fellow student carried on a school in Northampton until 1830. The first volume of his History of the United States was published in 1834, and two other volumes soon followed. The next five volumes came out from 1852 to 1860, and in 1866 and in 1874 two more volumes were published, which bring the history to the preliminary treaty of peace with Great Britain in 1782. Two other volumes, on the formation of the constitution, appeared in 1882. Bancroft was collector of the port of Boston under President Van Buren; under President Polk he was secretary of the navy and minister to England. In 1867 he was appointed minister to Berlin, where he remained until recalled at his own request in 1874. He died at Washington, D. C., Jan. 17, 1891.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baltic, Battle of the

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Baltic (ba̤l′ tĭk), Battle of the, a naval battle between the English and Danish fleets in the harbor of Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. The English fleet, under Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson second in command, was ordered to the Baltic to break up the alliance just formed between Russia, Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. Nelson led the attack, and when Parker gave the signal to stop the fight, Nelson put the glass to his blind eye, and said he could not see the signal. He continued the attack and captured or destroyed nearly the whole Danish fleet. His victory helped greatly to break up the alliance.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baltimore Oriole

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Baltimore Oriole or Baltimore bird, also called Firebird, is a beautiful bird, very common in North America, from Canada to Mexico. The birds come from the south in May, and in trees and vines near houses build their hanging nests of moss and fibers skillfully woven together. Threads, strings and horsehairs are used in building the nest, which is a deep hanging pouch about six inches long. The birds are about seven inches long, with sharp bills, pointed wings and rounded tail. The plumage is beautiful, especially in the males, being a glossy black, mixed with bright orange and yellow. These were the colors of Lord Baltimore's livery, hence the name. Their song is strong and pleasant, a ringing whistle easily imitated. They are valuable for their destruction of insect larvae, like the tent-caterpillar, canker worm, etc. Lady Baltimore, as the nest builder is called by the author of Bird Neighbors, is one of the best architects in the world. Of the splendid male the poet Lowell says: "Hush! 'tis he! My oriole, my glance of summer fire."
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baluchistan

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Baluchistan (bȧ-lōō′chĭs-tän′}, a rugged country of southwestern Asia, bounded on the north by Afghanistan, on the south "by the Arabian Sea, on the west by Persia and on the east by Hindustan. It has an area of 121,855 square miles.

## Surface

Surface. Baluchistan is mountainous, but has also broad and high tablelands and some extensive sandy deserts. One of its mountain systems extends north and the other east and west. Many of the mountains have great height and are snow covered, while the tablelands are very hot in summer and extremely cold in winter. Its most important rivers are the Bolan and Mula, which are located in the northeast.

## Natural Resources

Natural Resources. It is believed that the mineral wealth is quite important, and includes, gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, mineral salts and saltpeter. Throughout the country there is a great scarcity of water, and the soil generally speaking is not fertile. The following articles, however, are produced to some extent: wheat, barley, millet, cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco. Orchard and garden fruits are grown near the towns and vegetables are very plentiful. Attention is given to the breeding of fine camels.

## Manufactures

Manufactures. The manufacturing interests are unimportant, and consist mainly of coarse fabrics, matchlocks and other weapons.

## Government

Government. The khan or tribal ruler receives an annual grant from India, and resides at Kelat, while his rule is almost confined to the surrounding country. Quetta is the largest town and has railway connection with India. It is strongly fortified, and is occupied by a British garrison. The country is a British protectorate, and while not wholly under their rule, is completely under British influence. Population over 915,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bamboo

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Bamboo', a kind of tree-like grass, which grows to a large size in the warmer parts of Asia and America. Some kinds are at least eighty feet high. It is used for a great variety of purposes, such as housebuilding, shipmasts, furniture, spear-shafts and walking sticks. As the stem is hollow and very strong, it is also used for water pipes. In some varieties a sweet juice is found, which in India is used for cooking.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baltimore, Lord

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Baltimore, Lord, a title of the Calvert family. In 1625 Sir George Calvert was made first Lord Baltimore by James I, and granted land in Newfoundland; but the colony which he founded was a failure. He then petitioned Charles I for a charter to found a new colony, but died (1632) before the charter was issued. His son, Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, received the charter in June, 1632, and was thus the real founder of Maryland colony. The whole state of Maryland was included in the grant, and Leonard Calvert, a brother of Lord Baltimore, came with an expedition as governor in 1633. Under the Calverts the colony was managed in a wise and tolerant manner.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Balzac, Honore de

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Balzac (băl′zăk′), Honore de, a great French novelist, was born at Tours in 1799. He studied law, but gave it up and went to Paris to try his fortune as an author. For ten years he lived in wretched circumstances, writing stories which were of little value. In his thirtieth year he wrote his first great novel, The Last Chouan, which brought him into notice. Soon after he began his great work, called The Human Comedy, which was intended to be a complete picture of modern life. He was a very hard worker, and wrote eighty-five novels in twenty years. Few writers have shown such power in describing character and in giving reality and life to their characters. Some of his best works are Scenes of Provincial Life, Scenes of Parisian Life, La Peau de Chagrin (The Magic Skin), Le Cousin Pons, Séra-phita, Conies Drôlatiques, Eugénie Grandet and Father Goriot. He died at Paris, Aug. 18, 1850.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baltic Sea

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Baltic Sea is the great inland sea, bordered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, Finland and Sweden. It is nearly 900 miles long, from 100 to 200 miles broad, and 40 to 140 fathoms deep, and has an area, including the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, of 184,496 square miles, over 12,000 square miles being occupied by islands. The great number of islands, the sudden changes of wind and the violent storms make navigation very dangerous. The main gulfs are those of Bothnia, Finland and Riga. About 250 rivers flow into it, which makes the sea much more nearly fresh water than other bodies of salt water. For this reason it freezes easily, so that navigation is interfered with from three to five months in the year. The chief rivers are the Oder, Vistula, Niemen, Düna, Narva and Neva. The shipping-trade is large, the exports of the countries around the Baltic being timber, hides, tallow and grain. The Eider and Gotha Canals connect the Baltic and the North Sea. A larger canal for ships from the mouth of the Elbe to Kiel Bay was begun in 1887 and completed in 1895. It cuts the base of the peninsula of Jutland through Schleswig-Holstein. It is about sixty miles long and saves a dangerous voyage of about 600 miles. Another projected canal is a Russian enterprise, which is designed to connect the Gulf of Riga with southern Russia at Kherson, north of the Crimea. It will utilize the water ways of the Düna and the Dnieper. The most important harbors on the Baltic are Copenhagen, Kiel, Lübeck, Stralsund, Stettin, Dantzic, Königsberg, Memel, Riga, Narva, Kronstadt, Sveaborg, Stockholm and Karlskrona. A noticeable feature of the Baltic is the slow vertical movement of its coasts downward in the south of Sweden and an upward movement farther north. Its area is said to be gradually decreasing. The Germans call it the East Sea. The Baltic is connected with the Cattegat and the North Sea by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arundel Marbles

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Ar'undel Marbles, part of a collection of ancient sculptures and antiquities gathered among the ruins of Greece early in the 17th century at the expense of the Earl of Arundel, and since 1667 in the possession of the University of Oxford. The most valuable of the marbles is the one bearing the Parian Chronicle, a compendium of the chief events in Grecian and Athenian history, covering a period of 1,318 years or from the reign of Cecrops (1582 B. C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B. C.). The Arundel Society of London, instituted in 1848 for promoting the knowledge of art by the publication of facsimiles and photographs, was named after the Earl of Arundel.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Asbestos

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Asbes'tos, an incombustible mineral of a flax-like, fibrous texture, composed of silica, magnesia and lime, and usually occurring in veins in highly metamorphic rocks. The sources of supply of commercial asbestos are deposits of two distinct minerals: one a variety of serpentine known as chrysotile; the other a variety of amphibole. The Canadian product, which is much prized, is of the chrysotile variety, and is chiefly found in the Thetford district, in the province of Quebec. There the more expensive grades have a value of from $150 to $250 a ton, though the mill fibre or paper stock commands but $30 or so a ton. The yield of the Canadian product in 1910, was 75,678 tons, valued at $2,458,929, the most of which was exported, only a small part being reserved for home consumption. The sources of the supply in this country are the states of Georgia and Wyoming, Idaho and Vermont. In the United States the yield in 1910 was but 3,693 short tons, valued at $68,357. The foreign sources, besides Canada, where asbestos is found, are Australia, Russia, Corsica and the Tyrol. The uses are now many to which asbestos is put, among them the manufacture of fireproof clothing, lining felt, theater curtains, etc., where protection is sought from fire; it is also in use for incasing steam pipes, pistons, hot-air joints and furnace pipes as well as for lampwicks, gas stoves and fireproof safes. It is valuable also for its heat-retaining properties. The ancients were familiar with asbestos, making use of it to envelope corpses on the funeral pyre, so as to retain the ashes.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aryans

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Aryans (är' yăns), the name given to the parent race from which most of the modern Europeans are supposed to have descended. The race, possibly, lived originally in the highlands of Central Asia and spoke a common language. Now and then small groups separated from the parent fold and traveled to the northwest. The first of these groups were the Celts, who once seem to have spread over a large part of Europe, though the Welsh and Irish and a few other peoples are all that is left of them. A good while later the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks and the Germans started westward and settled in the regions which these nations now occupy. Other tribes that set out in the same way are the Slavs, the Persians and the upper classes of Hindus. The languages of these different peoples are now quite different; but they show that they were once all part of the same root-tongue. The parent race was a peaceful, agricultural people, having a definite form of government. They probably lived in towns and built houses. All that we know about them comes from the study of the languages of European nations and of the Old-Persian and the high-caste races of Hindustan. The English are a branch of the Aryan race through the Germans.
# The New Student's Reference Work/As You Like It

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As You Like It is a comedy of Shakespeare, written probably in 1599 and founded as to its plot upon Rosalind, a novel by Thomas Lodge. In As You Like It Shakespeare imagines a sort of golden age, in which an ideal life according to nature is led by the outlawed Duke and his court “under the shade of melancholy boughs” in the forest of Ardennes. The bright wit and beauty of the dialogue and the combination of romance, philosophy and art in this play, make it one of the most readable of the works of Shakespeare, and still a favorite drama upon the stage. In no other play are grace and thought so exquisitely mingled and touched with humor.
See the full text of As You Like It.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Asaph

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A'saph, one of the leaders of the choir appointed by King David for the religious service. His position probably became hereditary, his descendants thus forming a kind of religious order. He is supposed to have written several psalms.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ascension, Right

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Ascension, Right, in astronomy, a term used with declination (tending down or aside), for defining the position of points of the celestial concave and indicating their positions relative to each other, right ascension being measured on the equinoctial from the first point of Aries eastward, while declination measures the secondaries of the equinoctial to the north and south poles of the heavens from 0 to 90. Right ascension, which is commonly expressed in time, one hour corresponding to 15$^0$ on the celestial sphere, is invariably measured from west to east, thus corresponding to longitude on the earth, while declination corresponds to latitude. The right ascension of a star or other heavenly body is ascertained by a transit instrument and a clock.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Asa

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Asa, son of Abijah and great-grandson of Solomon, was the third king of Judah and reigned from about 929 to 873 B. C. He was very zealous in opposing the worship of heathen gods, and is noted for the wisdom of his rule. A great army which the king of Ethiopia sent against him he completely overthrew. During most of his reign he was at war with Baasha, king of Israel, and at one time formed an alliance against him with the king of Damascus. His son Jehoshaphat succeeded him.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ascalon

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As'calon or Ashkelon, one of the five chief cities of the ancient Philistines, lying north of Gaza on the Mediterranean. It had a shrine of the Syrian fish-goddess Derketo, and was the birthplace of Herod the Great. In Solomon's time it was subject to the Jews, but later became independent. Under the Romans it was a kind of republic and afterward the seat of a Christian bishop. The Arabs took it in 637, and in 1099 the crusaders, under Godfrey de Bouillon, gained a great victory before its walls. Recaptured by the Moslems, it was retaken after five months' siege in 1157 by Baldwin III. It was dismantled by Saladin in 1191, and completely destroyed in 1270 by Sultan Bibars.