OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bessemer (Michigan)

Edition of 1905. See also Bessemer, Michigan on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BESSEMER. A city and county-seat of Gogebic County, Mich., 47 miles east of Ashland, Wis., on the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, the Wisconsin Central, and the Chicago and Northwestern railroads (Map: Michigan, C 2). It has a picturesque location, and contains a fine high school, city hall, and brown-stone court-house buildings. The city is the centre of the productive Gogebic iron range, and is engaged principally in iron mining and manufacturing. Population, in 1890, 2566; in 1900, 3911.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Canons on Hunting

From volume 7 of the work.
From early times, hunting, in one form or another has been forbidden to clerics. Thus, in the "Corpus Juris Canonici" (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) we read: "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decrees (can. xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii). The council seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction between noisy (clamorosa) and quiet (quieta) hunting, declaring the former to be unlawful but not the latter.
Ferraris (s.v. "Clericus", art. 6) gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility, or honest recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however (De episc., l. IV, c. xix), thinks that the interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the Church.
Nevertheless, although the distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese. This has been done by synods at Milan, Avignon, Liège, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV (De synodo diœces., l. II, c. x) declares that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.
AICHNER, Compendium juris eccles. (Brixen, 1895); WERNZ, Jus Decretalium, II (Rome, 1899); LAURENTIUS, Institutiones juris eccles. (Freiburg, 1903).
WILLIAM H. W. FANNING
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cantor

From volume 3 of the work.
The chief singer (and sometimes instructor) of the ecclesiastical choir, called also precentor. His duties and qualifications have varied considerably according to time and place; but generally he must be ready to lead all the singing in church, to start any chant, and be watchful to prevent or correct mistakes of singers placed under him. He may be responsible for the immediate rendering of the music, showing the course of the melody by movements of the hand. The chief singer of the Gregorian Schola Cantorum was called Prior scholae or Primicerius. In medieval cathedrals the cantor was master of music and chant, but also commonly one of the dignitaries of the chapter. In the fourteenth century the cantor in many churches began to delegate his instruction of the singers to a master of music. After the introduction of harmonized music some duties naturally fell to the conductor or choir-master, who might be a layman. the cantor's place in church is on the right of the choir, and immediately on his left stands his assistant, formerly called the "Succentor". In ruling the choir the cantor very commonly carried a staff as the mark of his dignity. This custom still survives in some places.
GERBERT, De cantu et musica sacra (St. Blasien, 1774); BAUMER, Histoire du Brevaire (Paris, 1905); MEES, Choirs and Choral music (London, 1901); DUCHESNE, Christian Worship (London, 1901); WAGNER, History of Plain Chant (London, 1907).
WILFRID G.A. SHEBBEARE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Canossa

From volume 3 of the work.
A former castle of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, in the foothills of the Apennines, about eighteen miles from Parma, where took place the dramatic penance of King Henry IV of Germany in presence of Pope Gregory VII. The king, excommunicated 22 February, 1076, would have been utterly abandoned by the inimical German princess unless within a year he made peace with the pope. Early in January, 1077, the latter was on his way to the diet called to meet at Augsburg, 2 February, when he heard that Henry had crossed Mont Cenis. Fearing for his person, he took refuge in the impregnable and almost inaccessible burg of Canossa, the hereditary stronghold of his friend and protectress, Matilda. The king, however, was really intent on performing the penance necessary to lift the excommunication, by which diplomatic step the plans of his enemies in Germany would be nullified. For three days (25-27 January) he stood constantly before the castle gate, in the dress of a penitent, beseeching with many tears the pope's forgiveness. Gregory finally yielded, moved by the royal compunction and by the importunities of his royal entourage, among them Matilda. He received Henry back into the communion of the Church, and promised to promote his reconciliation with the German princes. But the king soon violated his solemn oath to comply with the pope's conditions, and renewed the conflict. The story, as narrated above, is told by Gregory himself (Reg. Ep., IV, 12), in a letter to the princes of Germany explanatory of the event of Canossa. The contemporary chronicler, Lambert of Hersfeld, asserts that at the Mass of reconciliation the pope, when about to give communion to Henry, took himself on half of the Sacred Host and challenged the king to take the other as an ordeal. Modern historians deny the truth of this assertion.
The penance of Henry was, in reality, only a personal humiliation, and not a degradation of the royal office; nor was it in that form imposed by the pope, nor did the king spend three days and nights in his bare shirt without food and without shelter (Hergenrother, "Kirchengeschichte", ed. Kirsch, II, 361). The ruins of Canossa are now within the Commune of Ciano d'Enza, some shapeless fragments of broken walls that rise on rocky buttresses above a sea of hardened brown mud, "twisted and tossed and contorted into the most hideous of crevasses" (Hare). The castle-well and "gate of penance" alone remain.
Hare, Cities of Northern Italy (London, 1896), II,245-49; Buchberger, Kirchliches Handlexikon (Munich, 1906), I, 830; Knöpfler, Die Tage von Tribur und Canossa, in Hist. Polit. Blatter (1884), XCIV, 209,381; Gosselin, Temporal Power of the Pope in the Middle Ages (Baltimore, 1853), II; Hergenröther, Church and State (tr., London, 1872).
THOMAS J. SHAHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cantate Sunday

From volume 3 of the work.
A name given to the fourth Sunday after Easter, from the first word of the Introit at Mass on that day -- "Cantate Domino novum canticum", Sing ye to the Lord a new song -- similar to the names Gaudete and Laetare Sundays, assigned to the third Sunday of Advent and the fourth of Lent. These names, which are as old probably as the twelfth century, appear to have been in common use in the Middle Ages and to have been employed to signify the date in secular affairs as well as ecclesiastical. John of Salisbury, Bishop of Chartres (d. 1182), is one of the earliest writers to use the name.
GUERANGER, Liturgical Year (Worcester, s.d.); HAMPSON, Medii aevi Kalendarium, or Dates, Charters and Customs of the Middle Ages (London, 1841), II, 40.
G. CYPRIAN ALSTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Canopy

From volume 3 of the work.
The canopy, in general, is an ornamental covering of cloth, stone, wood, or metal, used to crown an altar, throne, pulpit, statue, etc. In liturgical language, the term is commonly employed to designate
In medieval times altars were protected by a covering then called a ciborium (see the article ALTAR, under sub-title Ciborium), but now known as a baldachinum, or canopy, which survives at the present day as a feature of certain styles of architecture. When an altar had no ciborium it was covered with a cloth called a dais. As a mark of distinction bishops and higher prelates have a right to a covering over the thrones which they occupy at certain ecclesiastical functions. This is called a canopy. It is sometimes granted by special privilege to prelates inferior to bishops, but always with limitations as to the days on which it may be used and the character of its ornamentation. When bishops assist at solemn functions in the churches of regulars the latter are bound to provide the episcopal seat with a canopy (Cong. of Bishops and Regulars, 1603). Princes enjoy similar privileges, but their seats should be outside the sanctuary, and regulated in accordance with custom. The colour of the canopy should correspond with that of the other vestments. Two kinds of canopy are employed in processions of the Blessed Sacrament. One of small dimensions and shaped like an umbrella--except that it is flat and not conical is called an ombrellino. It is provided with a long staff by which it is held. The other, called a baldacchino, is of more elaborate structure and consists, in main outline, of a rectangular frame-work of rich cloth, supported by four, six, or eight staves by which it is carried. In both cases the covering consists of cloth of gold, or silk of white color. The ombrellino is used for carrying the Blessed Sacrament to the sick and for conveying it from the altar to the baldacchino. The latter is used for all public processions, when it is borne by nobles of the highest rank, the more worthy holding the foremost staves. It is forbidden to carry relies of the saints under the baldacchino, but this honour may be given to those of the Sacred Passion (Cong. of Rites, May, 1826). Cæremoniale Episcoporum, (Rome, 1902), passim: Du CANGE, Glossarium Latinitatis, s. vv. Conopeum, Ciborium, Baldachinum (Venice, 1738); PUGIN, Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornaments, s.v. Canopy (London, 1868); BOURASSÉ Dictionnaire d'archéologie sacree, s.v. Baldaquin (Paris, 1851); KRAUS, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (Freiburg im Br., 1896), I, 372 etc.
Patrick Morrisroe.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Canopus

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Egypt. Its old Egyptian name was Pikuat; the Greeks called it Kanobos, or Kanopos, after a commander of a Greek fleet buried there. The city stood in the seventh Nomos (Menelaites, later Canopites), not far from the Canopic mouth. It had many martyrs in the persecution of Diocletian, among others St. Athanasia with her three daughters, and St. Cyrus and John. There was here a monastery called Metanoia, founded by monks from Tabennisi, where many patriarchs of Alexandria took shelter during the religious quarrels of the fifth century. Two miles east of Canopus was the famous heathen temple of Manouthin, afterwards destroyed by monks, and a church on the same spot dedicated to the Evangelists. St. Cyril of Alexandria solemnly transported the relics of the holy martyrs Cyrus and John into the church, which became an important place of pilgrimage. It was here that St. Sophronius of Jerusalem was healed of an ophthalmy that had been declared incurable by the physicians (610-619), whereupon he wrote the panegyric of the two saints with a collection of seventy miracles worked in their sanctuary (Migne, P.G., LXXXVII, 3379-676)
Canopus formed, with Menelaus and Schedia, a see subject to Alexandria in Aegyptus Prima; it is usually called Schedia in the "Notitiae episcopatuum". Two titulars are mentioned by Lequien (II, 415), one in 325, the other in 362. The modern Arabic name is Aboukir, "Father Cyrus", in honour of the first of the two celebrated martyrs. It is to-day a village with 1000 inhabitants, at the end of a little peninsula north-east of Alexandria. It has a trade in quails, which are caught in nets hung along the shore. Off Aboukir, 1 August, 1798, the French fleet was destroyed within the roads by Nelson; 25 July, 1799. Bonaparte destroyed there a Turkish army 18,000 strong; and on 8 March, 1801, the French garrison of 1800 men was defeated by 20,000 English and Turks commanded by Abercromby.
S. VAILHÉ
# The Listener and Other Stories

* The Listener
* Max Hensig
* The Insanity of Jones
* The Dance of Death
* The Old Man of Visions
* May Day Eve
* Miss Slumbubble—and Claustrophobia
* The Woman's Ghost Story
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
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# The Laws of Howel the Good/Map of Pre-Norman Wales

| PRE-NORMAN WALES | A.W. Wade-Evans, Welsh Mediaeval Law. |
OXFORD PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS BY HORACE HART, M.A. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Beryllium

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​BERYLLIUM, a rarer white malleable metal, the same as glucinum. It occurs as a silicate in phenacite, also in the mineral beryl along with aluminum silicate.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Besant, Annie

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​BESANT, ANNIE (bes′ant), an English theosophist and author, born in London, Oct. 1, 1847; was married in 1867 to the Rev. Frank Besant, brother of Sir Walter Besant, but was legally separated from him in 1873. She manifested an earnest interest in social and political topics, and, in 1874, became connected with the National Secular Society. Owing to the publication of "Fruits of Philosophy," Mrs. Besant was prosecuted, in connection with Charles Bradlaugh (June, 1877), but the prosecution failed. In 1883 she announced her adhesion to Socialism. For three years she was a member of the School Board of London. She was prominently connected with various socialistic movements, and in 1889 joined the Theosophical Society, of which she became president in 1907. She visited the United States in 1891 and 1892-1893 and lectured on Madame Blavatsky and reincarnation, theosophy, and occultism. Among her numerous publications are "Reincarnation" (1892); "Autobiography" (1893); "Death and After" (1893); "Building of the Kosmos" (1894); "The Self and Its Sheaths" (1895); "Path of Discipleship" (1896); "Four Great Religions" (1897); "The Ancient Wisdom" (1897); "Three Paths to Union with God" (1897); etc.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bierstadt, Albert

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
BIERSTADT, ALBERT, an American painter, born near Düsseldorf, Germany, Jan. 7, 1830; removed with his parents to Salem, Mass., in 1831; began to paint in oils in 1851; and in 1853 returned to Düsseldorf to study his art, spending a winter in Rome, traveling in Italy and Switzerland, and returning to the United States in 1857. In 1859 he accompanied General Lander's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, and studied mountain scenery. He was elected a member of the National Academy in 1860. In 1861 he finished his painting, “Laramie Peak,” and in 1863 “View of the Rocky Mountains—Lander's Peak.” These at once gave him a high reputation. He received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, and Germany, and French, Russian and Turkish orders. Among his best known paintings are “North Fork of the Platte” (1864); “Looking Down the Yosemite” (1865); “Storm on Mt. Rosalie” (1866); “Settlement of California,” and “Discovery of the Hudson River,” both in the Capitol at Washington; “In the Rocky Mountains” (1871); “Great Trees of California” (1874); “Estes Park, Colorado” (1878); “Storm on the Matterhorn” (1884); “Valley of Zermatt, Switzerland” (1885); “California Oaks” (1886). He died Feb. 18, 1902.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bismarck

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
BISMARCK, city, capital of the State of North Dakota, and county-seat of Burleigh co.; on the Missouri river, and the Northern Pacific and the Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie railroads, 194 miles W. of Fargo. It contains the State Capitol (which cost over $500,000), the State Penitentiary, court house, city hall, opera house, a State Hospital for the Insane, St. Paul Seminary, U. S. Indian School. The river is here spanned by a bridge that cost $1,500,000. Bismarck has improved waterworks, electric lights, several flour mills, a National bank, the State Library. The city is a supply and trade center for an extensive agricultural section. Pop. (1910) 5,443; (1920) 7,122.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Besançon

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​BESANÇON (bes-än-sôṅ′), a city in the N. E. of France, the capital of the department of Doubs, on the river Doubs. It commands a strong strategic position at the convergence of the roads from Switzerland and the valley between the Vosges and Jura Mountains. It was the fortified town of Vesontio in 58 b. c., when Cæsar expelled the Sequani. In the 5th century it was part of Burgundy, and in 1032 a free city of Franche-Comté. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, it was ceded to Spain, but was retaken by Louis XIV., united to France in 1678, and fortified by Vauban. It withstood the Austrians in 1814, and was the seat of operations of the French army under Bourbaki in 1870-1871. It contains Roman remains, including an amphitheater, aqueduct and triumphal arch of Mars, as well as a cathedral of diversified architectural style, and the Renaissance palace of Cardinal Granvella, who was born in Besançon, Victor Hugo was also a native of Besançon. Watchmaking is the principal industry. Pop. about 60,000.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Birmingham (Alabama)

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
BIRMINGHAM, city and county-seat of Jefferson co., Ala.; at the junction of several trunk railroads; 96 miles N. W. of Montgomery, the State capital. It is at the foot of Red Mountain, which, besides its vast limestone deposits, contains a remarkably large and accessible vein of hematite iron ore; and is also in close proximity to the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa coal fields. These natural resources have made Birmingham the most important manufacturing city in the South since the close of the Civil War. The city has an extensive waterworks system with a reservoir on Shade's Mountain, 225 feet above the city; is provided with the Waring system of sewerage; and has an exceptional equipment of street railroads connecting it with all important suburban points. Birmingham is served by nine railroad systems, the Alabama Great Southern, Seaboard Air Line, Central of Georgia, Illinois Central, Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic, Southern, Frisco, Louisville and Nashville, and Mobile and Ohio. It is in the heart of great coal fields which have an estimated available supply of 68,572,000,000 tons.
Following the 1904 census, the corporate limits of the city were extended to seven times the former area, or from 4,270 acres to 30,881 acres. There are 60 elementary schools, five high schools, beside commercial, technical, and collegiate institutions. The city is under the commission form of government. The net funded debt in 1919 was $6,035,000. The total assessed value of realty was $75,000,000; of personalty, $29,000,000. The ratio of assessment to market value was 50 per cent. The tax rate was 1 per cent. Budget for the year, $1,445,000. Charitable institutions include St. Vincent's Hospital, Hillman Hospital, Mercy Home, Jefferson Co. Almshouse, and the Boys Industrial School. Birmingham has been called the “Pittsburgh of the South.” Every year 70 per cent. of the entire tonnage of Alabama is hauled in and out of the city. There are over 400 mining and manufacturing plants of various kinds, blast furnaces, coke ovens, steel plants, rolling mills, cement factories, chemical works, hollow ware factories, corn and flour mills, sash factories, agricultural implements, packing companies. Its manufactures are over one-sixth of the total for the State.
History.—Birmingham was incorporated as a city in 1871 with a population of less than 1,000. Its noticeable development began in 1880 and its remarkable progress may be said to date from 1890. In 1896 its two largest iron and steel corporations began selling pig iron for export at prices as satisfactory as those obtained on domestic orders; and since then it has had a larger development in the iron and steel industry than any city S. of Pittsburgh. Pop. (1890) 26,178; (1900) 38,415; (1910) 132,685; (1920) 178,270.
© Ewing Galloway :
STEEL MILL NEAR BIRMINGHAM, ALA. :
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bisbee

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
BISBEE, a town of Arizona, in Cochise co., 30 miles S. of Tombstone. It is served by a branch line of the El Paso and Southwestern railroad, a feeder of the Southern Pacific, with which it connects at Benson. Its interests are mineral, chiefly copper, gold, silver, and lead. It has a public library and two hospitals. Pop. (1910) 3,266; (1920) 9,205.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Bitlis

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
BITLIS, town of Asia Minor and capital of the former Turkish vilayet bearing the same name, situated on the Bitlis Chai, a tributary of the Tigris. The beginnings of the town date back to the time of Alexander the Great, to whom is attributed the building of a castle now in ruins that dominates the town. It is situated about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is a place of considerable strategic importance. The inhabitants are composed of Turks and Armenians, the latter having most of the trade of the district of which the town is the commercial center. The principal articles of
trade are fruits, manna, gum, spices, arms, wool, and tobacco. In the course of the World War it was occupied by the Russian armies on March 2, 1916. It has been the scene of terrible massacres of the Armenian inhabitants, a large number of whom have been exterminated or deported. It is included within the territory of the new Republic of Armenia created by the decision of the Peace Conference. Before the war it had a population of about 36,000.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Berzelius, Johann Jakob, Baron

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​BERZELIUS, JOHANN JAKOB, BARON, a Swedish chemist, born in Ostgothland, Aug. 29, 1779. After graduating at Upsala, in 1804, he went to Stockholm, where he became an assistant to Sparrmann, who had accompanied Captain Cook in one of his voyages around the world; and at his death, in 1806, he succeeded him in the chair of chemistry, which he held for 42 years. His patient labors and ingenious investigations have done more to lay the foundations of organic chemistry than those of any other chemist. To him, chemistry is indebted for the discovery of several new elementary bodies, more especially selenium, thorium, and cerium; and to his skill as a manipulator may be traced many of the analytical processes at present in use. All the scientific societies of the world contended for the honor of enrolling his name among their members. He died in Stockholm, Aug. 7, 1848.