OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheaton, Henry

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Wheaton on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WHEATON, Henry (1785-1848). An American lawyer, diplomat, and publicist, born in Providence, R. I. He graduated at Brown University in 1802, was admitted to the bar in 1805, and studied for several years in Paris and London. He then practiced for some time in Providence, and in 1812 settled in New York City, where for three years he edited The National Advocate. In 1814 he became a judge advocate of the army, and in 1815-19 was a justice of the Marine Court of New York City. From 1816 to 1827 he was reporter of the United States Supreme Court, and the Reports published by him in twelve volumes are of exceptional value. In 1821 he was a member of the New York Constitutional Convention, in 1823 of the State Assembly, and in 1825 of the commission appointed to revise the statute law of New York. In 1827 he was sent as chargé d'affaires to Denmark, in which country the United States had never before been regularly represented. In 1835 he was appointed Minister Resident to the Court of Prussia and from 1837 to 1846 was Minister Plenipotentiary there. A treaty successfully negotiated by him in 1844 was rejected by the United States Senate, but formed the basis upon which future German treaties were drawn up. His best work is his Elements of International Law (1836), which remains one of the greatest authorities on the subject in any language. It has been republished in many editions in America, of which that of Lawrence (1855), with a biographical memoir, and that of Dana (1866) are the most valuable. It has also been republished in London, and translated into French,
Chinese, and Japanese. Among his other publications are: A Digest of the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States from Its Establishment in 1789 to 1820 (1820-29); Life of William Pinkney (1826), abridged for Sparks's “American Biographies;” History of the Northmen (1831; French trans. 1844); Histoire du progrès des gens en Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie jusqu'au congres de Vienne, avec un précis historique du droit des gens européens avant la paix de Westphalie (1841; Eng. trans. 1846); and An Enquiry into the Validity of the British Claim to a Right of Visitation and Search of American Vessels suspected to be engaged in the Slave Trade (1842).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheeling

Edition of 1905. See also Wheeling, West Virginia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHEEL′ING. The largest city of West Virginia and the county-seat of Ohio County, 63 miles southwest of Pittsburg, Pa., on the Ohio River, and on the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling, the Wheeling and Lake Erie, and other railroads (Map: West Virginia, D 1). It is situated on ground rising gradually from the river. A steel railroad bridge spans the Ohio, and there is a suspension bridge, 1010 feet long, which is one of the chief attractions of the city. Noteworthy features include also the Krugar Monument, the site of Old Fort Henry, the custom-house and post-office, the city hall, and the county courthouse. The Public Library has 17,200 volumes. Among other institutions are Linsley Institute, Wheeling Female Academy, and Haskins Hospital. Owing to its excellent transportation facilities. Wheeling is an important wholesale and jobbing centre, and is also of considerable industrial prominence, being known especially for its iron and steel interests. The manufacture of glass, pottery, smoking tobacco, and cigars is extensive. The smaller establishments comprise lumber mills, canneries, breweries, and manufactories of carriages and wagons, boxes, leather, etc. In the census year 1900 the capital invested in all industries was $13,224,577, and their output was valued at $16,747,544.
The government is vested in a mayor, chosen every two years, and a bicameral council. Of the subordinate officials, the water board, board of public works, and gas board are elected by the council, and the school board is chosen by popular vote. The water-works, which represent an expenditure of $803,092, the gas plant, and the electric-light plant are the property of the municipality. For maintenance and operation the city spends annually about $438,000, the chief items being: schools, $94,000; gas plant, $80,000; water-works, $51,000; fire department, $42,000; police department, $36,000; and interest on debt, $26,000. Population, in 1890, 34,522; in 1900, 38,878.
Settled by Colonel Ebenezer Zane in 1770, Wheeling was the first town, established on the Ohio River. It was laid out in 1793, was incorporated as a town in 1806, and was chartered as a city in 1836. In 1774 Fort Henry, named in honor of Governor Patrick Henry, was built here, which, in September of the same year, was fiercely attacked by a force of 300 Indians, who killed 23 out of a garrison of 42. In 1781 the Indians made another attack, and in 1782 a force of English and Indians unsuccessfully besieged the place for several days. In 1861 the Wheeling Convention, representing the people of Virginia ​opposed to secession, met here and established the ‘restored government,’ and here the Constitutional Convention of West Virginia met in 1861-62. From 1863 to 1870 and again from 1875 to 1885 Wheeling was the capital of the State.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheel Lock

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ WHEEL LOCK. See Small Arms.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheelock, Eleazar

Edition of 1905. See also Eleazar Wheelock on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHEELOCK, hwē′lok, Eleazar (1711-79). An American educator, born at Windham, Conn. He graduated at Yale in 1733, was ordained pastor of the Congregational Church at Lebanon, Conn., in 1735, and there established a school for the education of Indian and white youths. In 1770 he removed to Hanover, N. H., and there reëstablished his school, for which an endowment of $50,000 had been obtained, under the name of Dartmouth College (q.v.). During the remaining nine years of his life Dr. Wheelock was president of the new college, and despite privation and hardship succeeded in putting it on so firm a basis that it survived the disasters of the Revolution. He published a number of sermons and a Plain and Faithful Narrative of the Indian School at Lebanon. Consult: Baxter P. Smith, History of Dartmouth College (Boston, 1878); Chase, History of Dartmouth College and the Town of Hanover (Cambridge, 1891); and McClure and Parish, Memoirs of the Rev. Eleazar Wheelock, D.D. (Newburyport, 1811).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Whaleboat

Edition of 1905. See also Whaleboat on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHALEBOAT. A rather narrow boat, sharp at both ends and with considerable sheer (i.e. the ends rise considerably above the middle part), which was much used in the whale fishery. These boats are now carried by many vessels in all trades and by men-of-war. They are suitable for nearly all uses at sea and are very generally fitted as life-boats. The shape of the stern adapts them to use as surf boats or in rough seas, in which case they are steered with a heavy car working in a crutch on the sternpost. See Boat.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheatley, Phillis

Edition of 1905. See also Phillis Wheatley on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WHEATLEY, Phillis (c.1753-84) . An American negro poet, born in Africa. She was brought to the United States in 1761 and purchased by John Wheatley, of Boston. He had her well educated, and she soon showed remarkable intellectual quickness. When still a girl, she wrote many verses, and in 1773, a year before, she visited England, her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, by Phillis Wheatley, Negro Servant to Mr. John Wheatley, of Boston, in New England, were published in London with the indorsement of several distinguished men.
She was made much of by the Countess of Huntingdon's set, and in America drew forth a complimentary letter from Washington. Of real poetic ability she was totally destitute. In 1775 the family to which she belonged was broken up, and three years later she made an unfortunate marriage with a colored man named John Peters. There were at least four posthumous editions of her poems, and her letters were printed in 1864.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Whalebone

Edition of 1905. See also Baleen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHALEBONE. The baleen-plates which take the place of teeth in the mouths of the baleen whales (see Whale) constitute the whalebone of commerce. They vary in length from a few inches up to 10, and even in rare instances 12 feet. Chemically they consist of albumen hardened by a small proportion of phosphate of lime. Their color is usually of a bluish black, but in some species they are striped longitudinally with bands of a whitish color; and they terminate at the point in a number of coarse black fibres of the baleen, which fibres are also found more or less down both sides of the blade. These fibres are used by brush-makers. Whalebone before being fit for use is first trimmed—that is, all the hairs are removed from the point and edges of each blade; and generally the surface of each flat side is scraped. The blades are then boiled in water or heated in steam for several hours, until they become soft enough to be cut with a common knife. The workman then cuts them into lengths fitted for the purposes to which they are to be applied. They were formerly extensively used in thin strips, such as stay-bones and umbrella-ribs, but within recent years steel rods have been largely substituted in these manufactures.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheaton, Frank

Edition of 1905. See also Frank Wheaton on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WHEAT'ON, Frank (1833-1903). An American soldier, born in Providence, R. I. He received a public school education, and was a civil engineer in California until 1855, when he was commissioned lieutenant in the First United States Cavalry. In March, 1861, he was promoted to the rank of captain. Four months later he was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the Second Rhode Island Volunteers, and before the end of the year he was commissioned colonel. He participated in the first battle of Bull Run and in the Peninsular and Maryland campaigns. In November, 1862, he was promoted to be brigadier-general of volunteers, and was brevetted major-general in both the volmnteer and the regular service. At the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania his troops were engaged in some of the most desperate fighting. In 1864 he commanded a division in the Shenandoah Valley and at the battle of Cedar Creek he was one of the first to rally his forces. During the last year of the war he served under Grant and took part in the campaign which ended at Appomattox. In 1866 he was commissioned lieutenant-colonel of the Thirty-ninth Infantry and rose to the rank of major-general in the Regular Army before his retirement in 1895.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheeler, William Adolphus

Edition of 1905. See also William Adolphus Wheeler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHEELER, William Adolphus (1833-74). An American lexicographer, born at Lester, Mass. A graduate of Bowdoin (1853), Wheeler, after teaching for several years, assisted Joseph E. Worcester in preparing his Dictionary, and contributed to the revision of Noah Webster's Dictionary (1864), for which he prepared an “Explanatory and Pronouncing Vocabulary of the Names of Noted Fictitious Persons and Places, including Familiar Pseudonyms, Surnames, etc.” This was published separately in 1865. Wheeler then joined the staff of the Boston Public Library, became superintendent of the catalogue department, and made collections for a Shakespearean cyclopædia. He revised the abridgment of Webster's Dictionary and Hole's Brief Biographical Dictionary (1866), and edited Mother Goose Melodies (with antiquarian and philological notes, 1869) and a Dickens Dictionary (1873).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wheeler, William Almon

Edition of 1905. See also William A. Wheeler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ WHEELER, William Almon (1819-87). An American legislator, Vice-President of the United States from 1877 to 1881. He was born at Malone, Franklin County, N. Y. He taught a district school for several seasons after completing the course at the public schools, and studied for two years at the University of Vermont. He then studied law at Malone, was admitted to practice, and met with considerable success in his profession. From 1847 to 1849 he was district attorney of Franklin County, and in 1850 and 1851 was a Whig member of the New York State Assembly. In 1851 he abandoned his law practice for banking, and was also interested in railroads. In 1857 he was chosen, as a Republican, to the State Senate, and was elected president pro tempore. In 1860 he was elected a member of the Thirty-seventh Congress. In 1867 he was a member of the New York Constitutional Convention, of which he was elected president. From 1809 until 1877 he was again a member of Congress, serving as chairman of the important committees on Commerce, the Pacific Railroads, and Southern Affairs, and taking a leading part in legislation affecting the reconstructed Southern States. In 1875-76, while chairman of the Committee on Southern Affairs, he originated and effected the compromise, known by his name, between the warring political factions in Louisiana. From 1877 to 1881, during the administration of President Hayes, he was Vice-President of the United States.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Coast-Defense

See also Coastal defence and fortification on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Coast-Defense. In 1885 the nation awoke to the fact that the fortifications that should protect our cities and prevent a foe from using our harbors as bases of warlike operations were absurdly weak—in many cases not strong enough to keep out a single line of battleships. Our navy had just been born, and we were without torpedo or other coast-defense vessels. In 1886 about 100 million dollars were appropriated to be spent in 10 years for coast defense; but for many years the matter was greatly neglected. To-day, however, it is believed that our principal ports and harbors are safe from any attack from the sea, even if our navy were driven from the ocean. The defences on the great lakes are comparatively weak, as our treaties with Great Britain prevent either country from maintaining more than a few small vessels upon these waters. The first plans for coast-defense relied largely on vessels of great gun-power and lying very low in the water, so as to offer a small target. These ships were expected to remain in the harbor to supplement the forts. But this type of harbor-defense is abandoned. The coast-defense forts are to all appearance nothing but grassy mounds of earth. The guns for the most part are of the disappearing type, presenting a target to the enemy only at the moment of firing. The latest form of coast-defense is the submarine ship of which we already have a few excellent examples.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cold Harbor

See also Battle of Cold Harbor on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cold Harbor, a village in Virginia, nine miles northeast of Richmond, where a bloody battle was fought, June 3, 1864, between the Federal army under Grant and the Confederate army under Lee. Lee held a strong position, having his entire line covered with earthworks. In the early morning the Federal line advanced in a grand assault on the Confederate works. They were obliged to pass over a naked plain covered by the Confederate guns. Bravely and swiftly they advanced, only, however, to be swept down by the enemy’s fire. In less than an hour after the first volley was fired 6,000 Union soldiers lay on the ground dead or wounded, and the assault failed. The attack was not renewed, and at night Lee, in turn, assaulted the Federal lines, but was repulsed.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Clémenceau, George B. E.

See also George Clemenceau on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Clémenceau (klắ′män′sō′), George B. E., a French statesman and senator and premier of France and minister of the interior, under the presidency of Armand Fallieres. A clever debater and born orator, as well as an able journalist in his day, M. Clémenceau is one of the most picturesque figures in modern politics. A native of Brittany (he was born in 1841 in the department of La Vendée), he early studied and for a time practised medicine in Montmartre, and then travelled abroad, paying a brief visit the while to the United States. In 1869 he returned to France, and two years later was elected to the National Assembly, later on becoming a member of the Chamber of Deputies and leader of the Extreme Left. Though holding radical views, he has usually acted with moderation and good sense, though he was compelled successively to oppose Gambetta, Jules Ferry and the Boulangists. For a number of years he devoted himself to journalism, editing for a time not only his radical journal, La Justice, but contributing many notable articles to L'Aurore, among them several defending Dreyfus, besides writing fiction and social studies and taking active part in politics and the questions of the day. Chief among the controversies of the time is the part played by M. Clémenceau in defining the relation of Radicals to Socialists, in reply to M. Jaures, the Socialist leader. Among his published works are Les Massacres d'Arménie (1896), Les Phis Forts (1898) and La Mele Sociale (1895).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cold Wave

See also Cold wave on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cold Wave. From time to time great masses of air that have been chilled by the cold soil of northern Canada flow southward over the United States. Such cold waves, as they are called by the United States weather-bureau, usually cause a sudden fall in the temperature to the extent of at least 20°. The mass of cold air, being dense, usually lies near to the surface of the ground. It pushes its way beneath the less dense air of the south, which curls and rises away before it. The clouds which mark the advance of a cold wave, and often bring snow, seem to be caused by the cooling of the southern air, so that it can no longer contain so much water-vapor. A cold wave will sometimes reach even Mexico, where it is known as the Norte.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cole, Thomas

See also Thomas Cole on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cole, Thomas, an American painter, was born at Bolton-le Moors, England, Feb. 1, 1801. At Steubenville, O., where his father settled after emigrating to America, the sight of a wandering portrait-painter, with his canvas and colors, made him decide to become a painter. He painted portraits in several Ohio cities with no success, after which he set up as a landscape-painter at Philadelphia in 1823. Here he had a hard time, glad even to ornament chairs for a living. But in 1825 he painted several landscapes from sketches he had made in the Catskills, which gave him a name among artists. Prosperity at once followed and never afterward forsook him. Among his finest pictures are Mt. Ætna, View of the White Mountains and The Voyage of Life, the last a series of four pictures representing childhood, youth, manhood and old age. He died at Catskill, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1848.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Clinton, Mass.

See also Clinton, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Clinton, Mass., a town of Worcester County, 12 miles from Worcester, on the Nashua River. It has several churches, a hospital and The Bigelow Free Public Library of 25,000 volumes. Located here are the Bigelow Carpet Co., the Lancaster Mills and the Clinton Wire-Cloth Co. Clinton has the service of the New York, New Haven and Hartford and the Boston and Maine railroad. Population 13,301.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Coast Range

See also California Coast Ranges on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Coast Range, a mountain range in California, extending from the Oregon boundary into Lower California. It is 30 to 40 miles wide, and is divided by the Bay of San Francisco. From the main range spurs reach out to the coast line, inclosing fertile valleys. The most noted are the Los Angeles, Santa Clara and Sonoma valleys. The highest peak is Mt. San Bernardino, 11,600 feet in height.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cold Storage

See also Refrigeration on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cold Storage. Food may be preserved either by some chemical change made in it or by keeping out the bacteria of decomposition or by cold. The first method, which includes smoking and the use of large quantities of sugar, has the disadvantage of making the food less wholesome. The second method depends upon the fact that bacteria are kept out with the air, and requires that the bacteria present in the food or vessel be first destroyed, usually by prolonged boiling. By this method the food loses taste, in most cases. Cold storage depends upon the fact that below a certain temperature the bacteria of decomposition cannot work, though they may continue alive. A mammoth’s flesh was preserved in the snows of Siberia for probably 20,000 years or more; and when found the dogs ate the flesh. Cold storage is the best method of preserving food. In 1867 the first refrigerator-car ran from Chicago to New York with a load of beef; it was a success, and enormous quantities of meat are now sent east in this way. The butchers in New York and other cities are able by the same method to keep the meat a long time after receiving it. Meat is now sent across the Atlantic in cold storage, especially to England, thus saving the expense and the risks of sending live animals. For about 25 years mutton has been sent in ever-increasing quantities from New Zealand and Australia to England by cold storage, with excellent results to all concerned. Fruits are now sent in refrigerator-cars from California and the south to all parts of the country. Bananas are thus packed, and the heat regulated on the journey, so that the bananas arrive at their destination at just the required degree of ripeness; for cold prevents ripening as well as decay. The cars are built double, with ice at each end, and a fan turned by the forward motion of the car keeps the air circulating over the ice to the meat and back again. The art of cold storage was neglected until the American people developed it into a great industry and common practice.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Coleridge, John Duke, Lord

See also John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Coleridge (kōl′rĭj), John Duke, Lord, son of a nephew of the poet, was born in 1820, and graduated at Oxford. He sat in Parliament from 1865 to 1873, where he was solicitor-general and attorney-general under Gladstone. In 1880 he became lord-chief-justice of England. He died on June 14, 1894.