OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristippus

Edition of 1905. See also Aristippus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR'ISTIP'PUS (Gk. Άριστιππος, Aristippos). The founder of the Cyrenaic or Hedonistic School of Philosophy. He was the son of Aristades of Cyrene, in Africa, and was born probably not long before B.C. 435. He was drawn to Athens by the fame of Socrates, whose pupil he remained until his master's condemnation and death, without, however, adopting fully his philosophy. After Socrates's death he lived in various cities, avoiding all hindering connections by becoming a citizen of no state, but having guest-friends in many. We know that he sojourned some time in Ægina, in Corinth, where he was intimate with the famous courtesan Laϊs, and especially at the Syracusan court. He must have spent considerable time also in his native Cyrene, where he possessed property, for his philosophic school was there established. His master, Socrates, had taught that virtue and felicity together formed the highest aim of man; the latter Aristippus emphasized as a principle in itself, and declared that pleasure (ήδονή, hëdonë) was the supreme good. According to him, our sensations alone are the real bases of knowledge, and all that gives pleasant sensations must be good; virtue and all so-called moral obligations and limitations have no validity so far as they limit pleasure. Yet Aristippus shows the influence of Socratic doctrine when he teaches that the ​wise man will wish to preserve the enjoyment he may secure by practicing self-control, judgment, and moderation; and for the same end will resist the mastery of the passions. Further, the greatest pleasure is to be found in the cultivation of the mind. For this teaching he has been not inaptly named a pseudo-Socratic.
Many anecdotes about Aristippus have come down from antiquity. They show him to have been a skillful man of the world, capable of adapting himself to the changes of fortune. Plato is reported to have said that Aristippus was the only man he knew who could wear with equal grace both fine clothes and rags. Diogenes Laërtius has preserved to us many of his bon-mots and repartees. He apparently did not formulate a philosophy himself; the Cyrenaic system was probably worked out by Arete, his daughter, and by her son, Aristippus the younger. (See Hedonism.) Aristippus's works, if he left any, have been lost: the five letters to which his name is attached are unquestionably spurious. Consult: Zeller, Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie (Leipzig, 1893), and Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, English translation (New York, 1877).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristobulus

Edition of 1905. See also Aristobulus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTOBU'LUS (Gk. Άριστόβονλος, Aristoboulos) . An Alexandrian Jew who lived under Ptolemy VI., Philometor, and was considered by the early fathers as founder of the Jewish philosophy in Alexandria. He was the author of certain works (B.C. 170–150) on the Pentateuch, of which only fragments are preserved in Clement of Alexandria and in Eusebius. It was intended to show that Greek philosophers and poets borrowed their views from the Pentateuch; and to support this theory, numerous questions were professedly taken from Linus, Hesiod, Homer, and Orpheus, of which the Christian apologists made abundant use. There is no reason to question the genuineness of the work of Aristobulus, which exhibits all the characteristics of the literature of Hellenistic Judaism. As for the supposed quotations from the Greek poets, it is probable that Aristobulus adopted them from some older work by a Jewish writer, who forged the verses in question. See Schürer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Vol. II., 237-243.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristobulus I

Edition of 1905. See also Aristobulus I on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTOBULUS I. A prince of Judæa, who succeeded his father, John Hyrcanus, as high-priest in B.C. 105. His mother had been given the royal office by the will of Hyrcanus, but the son deposed her, put her in prison, where she died of hunger, while he took the title of king, the first instance of its assumption among the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. Aristobulus had a decided leaning toward Hellenism, though, despite this fact, he remained Jewish in his feelings. He was disliked by the people for imprisoning his mother, and all his brothers except Antigonus, and even him, at a later period, he murdered at the instigation of Queen Salome. He conquered a large part of the Iturean country and compelled the inhabitants to accept Judaism. He died in B.C. 104 of a malignant disease, although his death may have been hastened because of remorse for the murder of his brother.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristol

Edition of 1905. See also Aristol on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR′ISTOL. A light-brown, amorphous powder formed by the union of iodine and thymol. It contains 45.8 per cent. of iodine, and chemically it is dithymol-diiodide. Insoluble in water and glycerin, it is freely soluble in ether and fatty oils, and slightly so in alcohol. Its action is similar to that of iodoform (q.v.), but it possesses the advantage of being odorless. Being an unstable compound, it cannot be mixed with substances which have a tendency to combine with iodine, and so is best used alone. It is used as a substitute for iodoform, as a cicatrizant and mild antiseptic, in dressing wounds.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristobulus II

Edition of 1905. See also Aristobulus II on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTOBULUS II. (? -B.C. 49). Son of Alexander Jannæus (brother of Aristobulus 1.) and Salome Alexandra (widow of Aristobulus 1.), who succeeded in grasping the high-priestship and the royal authority from his elder brother, Hyreanus II., to whom both belonged. Aristobulus maintained himself from B.C. 69 to B.C. 63, when Hyeranus appealed to Pompey. After many intrigues and changes of front Pompey finally took sides against Aristobulus, and, after reducing the extent of the Jewish possessions, placed Hyeranus in charge as high-priest, without the title of king. Aristobulus was taken as a prisoner of war to Rome. He was released by Cæsar, but was poisoned by adherents of Pompey, and died in B.C. 49.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Aristobulus of Cassandria

Edition of 1905. See also Aristobulus of Cassandreia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARISTOBULUS of Cassandria. A Greek historian, born in a city of Chalcidice, but afterwards—later than B.C. 316—a citizen of Cassandria. When eighty-four, he wrote an historical work of unknown title on Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied on his Asiatic campaigns. This work was freely used by later authors, noticeably by Arrian, Strabo, and Plutarch.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, Thomas

Edition of 1905. See also Thomas Chase (educator) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CHASE, Thomas (1827-92). An American educator, born in Worcester, Mass. He graduated in 1848 at Harvard University, studied at the University of Berlin and the Collège de France, and was professor of Greek and Latin at Haverford College in 1855-75. From 1875 to 1886 he was president of Haverford. He was a member of the American committee for the revision of the New Testament, and a delegate to the Stockholm Philological Congress of 1889. He published Hellas: Her Monuments and Scenery (1863), a Latin Grammar (1882), and editions (1881) of Cicero on Immortality (1868), The Æneid (1869), Horace (1872), Four Books of Livy, and (1876) Juvenal and Persius.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chase, William Merritt

Edition of 1905. See also William Merritt Chase on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CHASE, William Merritt (1849—). An American painter. He was born in Franklin, Ind., November 1, 1849. After studying under R. F. Hays, in Indianapolis, and in the schools of the National Academy of Design, he painted with Piloty and Wagner at Munich (1872), acquiring a thoroughly German method, which at that time was bituminous and dark. On his return to New York (1878) he began to change his style of painting, gradually clarifying his color and showing an appreciation for the work of the French school. One of the most facile and brilliant technicians of the American school, Chase succeeds equally well with figure, portrait, and still life. He himself considers his best work to be still life, of which remarkable examples are one in the Pennsylvania Academy and an “English Cod” lately exhibited. Other well-known works are “A Broken Jug,” “Ready for a Ride” (1878, Union League Club, New York), “Alice” (Art Institute, Chicago), and a “Lady in Black” (Metropolitan Museum, New York). He has received many medals, is a National Academician, and has been president of the Society of American Artists.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chasidim

Edition of 1905. See also Hasidic Judaism on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CHASIDIM, kă-sḗ'dīm (Heb., saints). A name employed at different periods of history to designate a sect of Pietists among the Jews. (1) Beginning in the time of the high priest Simon the Just (B.C. 300-270), a sect of Jews arose which was distinguished by its strict observance of ceremonial regulations. They firmly opposed all Hellenizing tendencies, and clung closer and closer to the ceremonies of Judaism. The members even suffered death in preference to transgressing the rites of their religion. They carried out to the letter the Sabbath laws and incurred loss and personal danger rather than extinguish a fire on that day; but they were no less stringent in carrying out the purely ethical features of the law, and were noted for their kindness and charity. Under Mattathias, the Hasmonean, they took part in the Jewish wars for independence, and were keen patriots, although lacking the ardor and spirit of the Hasmoneans themselves. In the days of John Hyrcanus, when Judæa was again independent, the Pietists withdrew into a life of retirement, and became the sect of Essenes (q.v.), while those of the Chasidim who were not willing to resign participation in political affairs branched off into the sect of Pharisees (q.v.). These Chasidim are mentioned in the Apocrypha (cf. I. Mac. ii. 42), as ‘Asidæans’ or ‘Hasidæans.’ Consult Hamburger, Realencyklopädie für Bibel und Talmud, Vol. II. (Leipzig, 1896).
(2) In modern times the name Chasidim is applied to a sect which originated in Poland under the leadership of Israel of Miedziboz (died 1759), and after his death of Beer of Mizricz (died 1772). Israel was called ‘Baal Shem,’ ‘master of the name,’ because he professed to perform miracles by using the name of God, and the sect that followed him was characterized by a belief in miracles, and in the approach of the coming of the Messiah. They opposed Talmudic learning, because their leader was not a Talmudist. Their worship became characterized by its noisiness and the almost frenzied gyrations of its devotees. Beer was dignified with the title ‘Zaddik’ (righteous), and claimed to represent God upon earth. The members of the sect formed a kind of fraternity, and it spread rapidly, numbering about fifty thousand in 1770. The new division provoked great opposition on the part of the Talmudists, and in 1781, in Vilna. the Chasidim were declared to be heretics, but the sect continued to flourish, and to-day has a large number of adherents. With their antipathy to the Talmud on the one hand, the Chasidim combine an aversion to all modern culture on the other, their literature consisting of mystical, cabalistic works. Consult Schechter, Studies in Judaism (New York, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Charlestown (Massachusetts)

Edition of 1905. See also Charlestown, Boston on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHARLESTOWN. Formerly a city of Middlesex County, Mass., now incorporated with Boston (q.v.).
Charlestown was settled in 1629, by a small company from Salem, and was organized as a town in 1634. The territory originally within its limits has from time to time been divided up to form the towns of Woburn, Malden, Stoneham, Burlington, and Somerville, and parts of Medford, Cambridge, Arlington, and Reading. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought here on June 17, 1775, when the British set fire to the town, destroying 320 buildings, valued at $525,000. The battle is commemorated by the Bunker Hill Monument, a granite shaft 220 feet high, which was completed in 1843, the cornerstone of which was laid by General Lafayette, with appropriate ceremonies, in 1825, Daniel Webster delivering a notable address on each occasion. In 1873, its population then being 23,373, Charlestown was annexed to Boston. Consult: Frothingham, History of Charlestown (Boston, 1845), and Hunnewell, A Century of Town Life, a History of Charlestown from 1775 to 1887 (Boston, 1888).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Charlestown (West Virginia)

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Town, West Virginia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHARLESTOWN. A city and county-seat of Jefferson County, W. Va., 55 miles northwest of Washington, D. C., on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Norfolk and Western railroads (Map: West Virginia, G 2). It is in a fertile agricultural district, has deposits of limestone and iron ore in the vicinity, and manufactures brass fittings, bridges, harness, collars, fly-nets, and various wooden products, cigars, etc. The city is known as a summer resort. It has a fine court-house and jail. Among its educational institutions are Stephenson Seminary and Powhatan College, both for young ladies. Charlestown was settled about 1750, and was first incorporated in 1786. It was here that John Brown was tried, condemned, and hanged December 2, 1859. On October 18, 1863, a Confederate cavalry division, under General Imboden, captured the place and secured 424 prisoners and large quantities of military stores; but, on the approach of a superior Union force, almost immediately withdrew. Population in 1890, 2287; in 1900, 2392.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Charleston Exposition

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ CHARLESTON EXPOSITION. See South Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chasing

Edition of 1905. See also Repoussé and chasing on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CHASING (short form of enchase; Fr. enchâsser, from en + châsse, frame, OF. casse, It. cassa, Cat., Lat. capsa, case, from capere, to hold). The art of working in metals by indenting. This is an art of very early times, and was practiced largely by the Greeks in ornamenting the draperies and costumes of religious figures for the temples. It is produced by punching from behind the general character of the design, which is afterwards perfected by chiseling the details. This results in a kind of embossed engraving, often of great richness. The favorite metal used for this purpose was silver, although gold, and in very early times even iron, was thus
ornamented. That the art was known at a very early period may be inferred from the shield of Achilles, the ark of Cypselus, and other productions of the kind. Such portions of the colossal statues made by Phidias and Polycletus as were not of ivory were produced by this art. The statue of Athena was richly adorned in this manner. Besides Phidias and Polycletus, Myron, Mys, and Mentor were celebrated toreutic artists in antiquity, and among many moderns the most famous is Benvenuto Cellini.
# The Mystery of the Sea/Appendix C

THE RESOLVING OF BACON'S BILITERAL REDUCED TO THREE SYMBOLS IN A NUMBER CIPHER
Place in their relative order as appearing in the original arrangement the selected symbols of the Biliteral:
a a a a a a a a a b &c
Then place opposite each the number arrived at by the application of odd and even figures to represent the numerical values of the symbols "a" and "b."
Thus aaaaa will be as shown 9 Thus aaaab will be as shown 72 Thus aaaba will be as shown 521
and so on. Then put in sequence of numerical value. We shall then have: 0. 9. 18. 27. 36. 45. 54. 63. 72. 81. 125. 143. 161. 216. 234. 252. 323. 341. 414. 432. 521. 612. An analysis shows that of these there are two of one figure; eight of two figures; and twelve of three figures. Now as regards the latter series—the symbols composed of three figures—we will find that if we add together the component figures of each of those which begins and ends with an even number they will tot up to nine; but that the total of each of those commencing ​and ending with an odd number only total up to eight. There are no two of these symbols which clash with one another so as to cause confusion.
To fit the alphabet to this cipher the simplest plan is to reserve one symbol (the first—"0") to represent the repetition of a foregoing letter. This would not only enlarge possibilities of writing, but would help to baffle inquiry. There is a distinct purpose in choosing "0" as the symbol of repetition for it can best be spared; it would invite curiosity to begin a number cipher with "0," were it in use in any combination of figures representing a letter.
Keep all the other numbers and combinations of numbers for purely alphabetical use. Then take the next five—9 to 45 to represent the vowels. The rest of the alphabet can follow in regular sequence, using up of the triple combinations, first those beginning and ending with even numbers and which tot up to nine, and when these have been exhausted, the others, those beginning and ending with odd numbers and which tot up to eight, in their own sequence.
If this plan be adopted, any letter of a word can be translated into numbers which are easily distinguishable, and whose sequence can be seemingly altered, so as to baffle inquisitive eyes, by the addition of any other numbers placed anywhere throughout the cipher. All of these added numbers can easily be discovered and eliminated by the scribe who undertakes the work of decipheration, by means of the additions of odd or even numbers, or by reference to his key. The whole cipher is so rationally exact that any one who knows the principle can make a key in a few minutes.
As I had gone on with my work I was much cheered by certain resemblances or coincidences which presented themselves, linking my new construction with the exist​ing cipher. When I hit upon the values of additions of eight and nine as the component elements of some of the symbols, I felt sure that I was now on the right track. At the completion of my work I was exultant for I felt satisfied in believing that the game was now in my own hands.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fillmore, Millard

Edition of 1905. See also Millard Fillmore on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FILL'MORE, Millard (1800-74). The thirteenth President of the United States. He was horn in Cayuga County, N. Y., February 7, 1800. After a youth of industry with little opportunity for education, he undertook the study of law, and was admitted to the bar in 1823. His practice of his profession, chiefly at Buffalo, continued actively for twenty-four years. His political life began in 1828 with his election as an Anti-Mason (q.v.) to the State Legislature, where he served for three terms. In 1832 he was elected to Congress as a Whig, and retained his seat, with one intermission (1835-37), until 1843. During this period he was prominent as a debater on the Whig side, upheld the right of petition, served as chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means in the Twenty-seventh Congress, and reported the Tariff Act of 1842, of which he was virtually the author. He sought without success the Presidential nomination in 1844; and in the same year he ran for governor of the State on the Whig ticket, but was defeated by Silas Wright (q.v.). He became Comptroller of New York State in 1847. In the following year he was elected by the Whig Party Vice-President on the ticket with Zachary Taylor (q.v.). Upon the death of the President, in July, 1850, Fillmore succeeded him, and the change in administration was marked by the early passage of the Compromise Measures. (See Compromise Measures of 1850.) Fillmore's support of those measures, and especially his signing of the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), alienated many of the extreme Northern members of his party. Aside from the developments of the slavery problem, his administration was marked by one conspicuous event — the establishment of diplomatic relations with Japan. In 1852 he was a prominent Presidential candidate before the National Convention of the Whig Party. In 1856 he was a candidate for the Presidency on the ticket of the Know-Nothing (q.v.) or American Party, and although supported by many conservative Whigs, such as Edward Everett (q.v.), he received the electoral votes of only one State, Maryland. He took no active part in the Civil War, and spent the remaining years of his life at Buffalo, where he died March 8, 1874. Consult: Chamberlain, Biography of Millard Fillmore (Buffalo, 1856); and Wilson, The Presidents of the United States (New York, 1894). For an account of his administration, see United States.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Final Cause

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​FINAL CAUSE. See Causality.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fessenden, Thomas Green

Edition of 1905. See also Thomas Green Fessenden on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FESSENDEN, Thomas Green (1771-1837). An American writer. He was born at Walpole, N. H., and graduated at Dartmouth in 1796. He was for some time in London engaged in an enterprise which ruined him financially, and while there advertised the metallic tractors of Benjamin D. Perkins (q.v.) in a grotesque poem entitled Terrible Tractoration (1803), a satire upon the medical profession which opposed the use of the instruments. In 1822 he started in Boston the New England Farmer, with which he was connected until his death. For two years he was editor of the Weekly Inspector in New York City. Among his further works are: Pills, Poetical, Political, and Philosophical, Prescribed for the Purpose of Purging the Public of Piddling Philosophers, Penny Poetasters, of Paltry Politicians, and Petty Partisans, by Peter Pepperbox, Poet and Physician (1809); Democracy Unveiled (1806); American Clerk's Companion (1815); The Ladies' Monitor (1818); and Laws of Patents for New Inventions (1822). Consult Hawthorne, Fanshawe, and Other Pieces (Boston, 1876).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fessler, Ignaz Aurelius

Edition of 1905. See also Ignaz Aurelius Fessler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FESSLER, fĕs'lẽr, Ignaz Aurelius (1756-1839). A well-known Hungarian historian and ecclesiastic. He was born at Czurendorf and educated at Pressburg and Raab. He was successively a Capuchin monk in Vienna, professor
of hermeneutics at Lemberg, a Protestant and Freemason at Berlin, a lecturer on philosophy at Saint Petersburg, a Government official at Saratov, and, lastly, general superintendent of the Lutheran Community of Saint Petersburg. He wrote several historical novels (Marc Aurel, Matthias Corvinus, Attila) now well-nigh forgotten, a History of the Hungarians, possessing great merit, and an autobiography charming in manner and style, Rückblicke auf meine Siebzigjahrige Pilgerfahrt (Breslau, 1826). He died at Saint Petersburg, December 15, 1839.