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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adrian of Castello

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adrian of Castello, also called de Corneto, from his birthplace in Tuscany, an Italian prelate distinguished as a statesman and reviver of learning, b. about 1460; d. about 1521. In 1488 he was sent by Innocent VIII as nuncio to Scotland, but was recalled when the news of the death of James III reached Rome. However, Adrian had arrived in England and gained the favour of Henry VII, who appointed him as his agent at Rome. In 1489 he returned to England as collector of Peter's-pence and in 1492 obtained the prebend of Ealdland in St. Paul's Cathedral, and the rectory of St. Dunstan-in-the-East. On the death of Innocent VIII, he returned to Rome, where he acted as a secretary in the Papal treasury and also as ambassador of Henry VII. In 1502, he was promoted to the Bishopric of Hereford. In 1503 Alexander VI raised him to the cardinalate with the title of St. Chrysogonus. After the death of Alexander VI, Adrian's influence in Rome declined. In 1504 he was translated to the Bishopric of Bath and Wells, but never occupied the see. In 1509, fearing the displeasure of Julius II, he left Rome for Venice, and later for Trent, where he remained until the death of Julius and the election of Leo X, when he returned to Rome (1511). He was again, in 1517, implicated in a charge of conspiring with Cardinal Petrucci to poison the Pope, and confessed to having been privy to the affair. He was forgiven by Leo, but found it safer to escape ​from Rome to Venice. He never appeared in Rome again. He had previously been deprived of his office of collector of Peter's-pence, and on 5 July, 1518, was degraded from the cardinalate and his Bishopric of Bath given to Cardinal Wolsey. He was long associated with the scholar Polydore Vergil, who was his sub-collector of Peter's-pence in England. Among his writings are a poem in elegant Latinity, entitled "Venatio" (Aldus, 1505), and treatises, "De Verâ Philosophiâ" (Bologna, 1507; Cologne, 1548, Rome, 1775); and "De Sermone Latino et modo Latine loquendi" (Baste, 1513).
Pastor, History of the Popes, tr. Antrobus, V 144–146; VI, 56, 129, 132, 179, 281, 353, 363, 376, 380 (London, 1891–98 St. Louts, 1902); Vacant in Dict. théol, cath., s.v.; Stephens, Dict. Nat. Biog., s. v.; Polyd. Vergh., Hist. Anglic.; Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, IV, 940; Wharton, Anglica Sacra, I 576; Calendar of State Papers, Henry VII, I and II; Calendar of Venetian State Papers, I–V.
Thomas Walsh.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adoro Te Devote

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adoro Te Devote (I adore Thee devoutly), a hymn sometimes styled Rhythmus, or Oratio. S. ​Thomæ (sc. Aquinatis) written c. 1260 (?), which forms no part of the Office or Mass of the Blessed Sacrament, although found in the Roman Missal (In gratiarum actione post missam) with 100 days indulgence for priests (subsequently extended to all the faithful by decree of the S.C. Indulgent., 17 June, 1895). It is also found commonly in prayer and hymn-books. It has received sixteen translations into English verse. The Latin text, with English translation, may be found in the Baltimore "Manual of Prayers" (659, 660). Either one of two refrains is inserted after each quatrain (a variation of one of which is in the Manual), but originally the hymn originally the hymn lacked the refrain.
Mok, Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters, I, 275–276, for MSS. variations and elucidations and for two refrains; Daniel, Thesaurus Hymnologicus, I, 255–256, and IV, 234–235; Julian, Dict. of Hymnology, s. v., for first lines of English versions; American Eccles Rev., Feb., 1896, 143–147, for text, transl., rhythmic analysis, etc.; also ibid., 167, for indulgence extended.
H. T. Henry.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adrian Hamsted

From volume 7 of the work.
Founder of the sect of Adrianists; born at Dordrecht, 1524; died at Bruges, 1581. We know nothing of his personal history, and very little concerning the short-lived sect to which he gave his name. The Adrianists, who were mostly women, professed in general the doctrines of the Anabaptists; but what their specific beliefs were cannot be ascertained. Charges of immorality have been named against them, but have never been proved.
LEO A. KELLY
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adrian Turnebus

From volume 15 of the work.
Philologist, b. at Andely in Normandy in 1512; d. in Paris, 12 June, 1565. The accounts of the life of the great scholar are scanty and in part even contradictory. Neither is it easy to interpret the name Turnebus, in French TurnËbe. It is said that his father was a Scottish gentleman named Turnbull, who settled in Normandy and gave his name the French form of TournebÊuf. From this it became Tournebu, then TurnËbe, in Latin Turnebus. Whatever may have been the derivation of his name, Turnebus came from a noble though poor family. When eleven years old he was sent to Paris to study. Here his ability and industry enabled him not only to surpass his fellow-pupils but even also his teachers. In 1532 he received the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Paris, and one year later he became professor of humanities at Toulouse. Having held this position for fourteen years, he next became professor of Greek at Paris, and in 1561 exchanged this professorship for that of Greek philosophy. For a time (1552-55) he and his friend William Morel supervised the royal printing press for Greek works. It is said, and can easily be believed of so distinguished a scholar, that important professorships in other places were declined by him while he taught at Paris. As an illustration of his remarkable industry a well-authenticated story is told, that he devoted several hours to study even on his wedding-day. Over-study, however, wore out his strength prematurely, and he died at the age of fifty-three. In accordance with his own testamentary directions, his body was placed in the ground without any religious ceremony on the very evening of his death. This curious proceeding, as well as various utterances and a severe poem on the Jesuits, raised the much controverted question, whether Turnebus remained a Catholic or became an adherent of the new heresy. It seems at least probable that he inclined to Protestant views, even though he did not break completely with the Church, as his Catholic friends steadily maintained. In other respects his character was blameless. His reputation rests not only on his lectures, but also in equal measure on his writings. His numerous works, including commentaries on the ancient classics, short treatises, and poems, were collected and published (2 vols., Strasburg, 1600) with the co-operation of his three sons.
DE THOU, Histoire universelle; J÷CHER, Allg. Gelehrten-Lexikon; ISELIN, Neu vermehrtes histor. u. geographisches Lexikon, VI.
N. SCHEID
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adrian Willaert

From volume 15 of the work.
Composer and founder of the Venetian school, b. at Bruges, or, according to other authorities, at Roulers, Netherlands, between 1480 and 1490; d. at Venice, 7 December 1562. Willaert, taught in Paris by Jean Moulin, disciple of Josquin Deprés, first went to Rome in 1516, then to Ferrara, after which he entered the service of King Louis II of Bohemia and Hungary. On 12 Dec., 1527, he accepted the post of choir master of St. Mark's at Venice. Although grounded in the principles of contrapuntal art, Willaert soon fell under the influence of the new tendency, developing in Florence and elsewhere in Italy, to make the harmonic element predominate over the melodic. As there were two choir lofts, one of each side of the main altar of St. Mark's, both provided with an organ, Willaert divided the choral body into two sections, using them either antiphonally or simultaneously. He then composed and performed psalms and other works for two alternating choirs. This innovation met with instantaneous success and strongly influenced the development of the new method. Willaert was no less distinguished as a teacher than as a composer. Among his disciples are: Ciprian de Rore, his successor at St. Mark's; Costanzo Porta; Francesco della Viola; Giuseppe Zarlino; and the two Gabrielis, Andrea and Giovanni. These formed the Venetian school. Willaert left a large number of compositions -- masses, psalms, motets, madrigals, for from four to seven voices -- preserved in collections dating from his time.
JACOB, Die Kunst im Dienste der Kirche (Landshut, 1885); MENDEL, Musikalisches Conversationslexikon, XI (Berlin, 1879); AMBROS, Gesch. der Musik, III (Leipzig, 1881); ROCKSTRO, A general history of music (New York, 1886); WOOLRIDGE, Oxford history of music, II (Oxford, 1905).
JOSEPH OTTEN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adrian and Peter von Walenburch

From volume 15 of the work.
Auxiliary bishops of Cologne and celebrated controversial theologians, born at Rotterdam at the beginning of the seventeenth century, exact dates of birth unknown; Adrian died at Mainz, or Wiesbaden, 11 or 14 September, 1669; Peter died at Cologne, 21 December, 1675. The early accounts of the brothers do not agree as to whether they were Protestants or Catholics in their youth. The brothers studied law in France and received the doctorate in civil and canon law. After returning to Rotterdam they studied Catholic theology. On account of the religious turmoil in Holland they went to Germany, living at the Court of the Duke of Pfalz-Neuburg at Dusseldorf till 1646, when they went to Cologne. There in 1647 the Archbishop and Elector of Cologne, Maximilian Heinrich of Bavaria, appointed Adrian Auxiliary Bishop and Vicar- General of Cologne and consecrated him titular Bishop of Adrianople on 30 Nov., 1661. The younger brother, Peter, became a canon of the collegiate Churches of St. Peter and St. Victor at Mainz; in 1658 he was made titular Bishop of Mysia and auxiliary bishop to the Archbishop and Elector Johann Philip von Schonborn. The last years of his stay at Mainz coincide with the first years of Leibniz's residence at the Court of Mainz. Peter aided Leibniz in his theological studies in connection with his scheme of ecclesiastical reunion. After Adrian's death Peter was appointed in 1669 Auxiliary Bishop of Cologne. The brothers were noted for their theological learning; they were also voluminous writers in theological controversy with Protestants. Peter was the chief author of their joint works. They also engaged in literary controversy with many learned Protestant theologians, as Coccejus, Crocius, Hulsemann, Dannhauer, and Drelincourt. Their works are distinguished by clear and thorough reasoning, and a moderate charitable tone. The most noted of the conversions effected by the brothers is that of the Landgrave Ernst of Hesse-Rheinfels, at Cologne in 1652. Their collected works were issued in two volumes folio (Cologne, 1669-71). The first volume contains mainly the exposition of principles, partly in treatises which lay the fundamental basis, partly in further discussions with Protestant opponents. The last treatise is a satire on Oliver Cromwell as the protector of Protestantism. The second volume "Tractatus speciales de controversiis fidei" (Cologne, 1671) contains seventeen treatises on special subjects.
FOPPENS, Bibl. Belgica, II (Brussels, 1739), 1018-9, with portraits; HARTZHEIM, Bibl. coloniensis (Cologne, 1747), 8-9, 285-86; 397-443, on pp. 405-43 is given the first paragraph of the reason of Landgrave Ernst of Hesse for returning to the Church; HURTER, Nomenclator literarius, IV (3rd ed., Innsbruck, 1910), 79-82; WERNER, Gesch. der apolog. und polem. Literatur, IV (Schaffhausen, 1865), 586-7.
FRIEDRICH LAUCHERT
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sappaliga

​Sappaliga.— It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "in some tāluks of South Canara they are said to be identical with, or a sub-caste of Gāniga." The Gānigas are a Canarese caste, of which the traditional occupation is oil-pressing. In the Manual of the South Canara district, it is recorded that "Sappaligs appear to be identical with the Dēvādigas (temple musicians) in North Canara, though they are regarded as distinct castes in South Canara. The Sappaligs are, as the name sappal (noise) implies, a class of musicians in temples, but a number of them are cultivators." Sappaliga is an occupational term. The musicians among the Tulu Mogēr fishing caste are called Sappaligas, in the same way that those Mogērs who are engaged as oil-pressers are called Gānigas, both being occupational names.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sara

​Sara (thread). — A gōtra of Kurni.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Saurāshtra

​Saurāshtra.—A synonym of the Patnūlkārans, derived from the Saurāshtra country, whence they came southward. They also style themselves Saurāshtra Brāhmans.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sapiri

​Sapiri. — A synonym of Relli.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Saragu

​Saragu (dried or withered leaves). — A sub-division of Valaiyan.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sarattu

​Sarattu (sacred thread). — A sub-division of Kanakkan, members of which wear the sacred thread.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Savalaikkāran

​Savalaikkāran.—A Tamil name for fishermen, who fish in the sea. Savalai or saval thadi is the flattened paddle used for rowing boats. The Savalaikkārans are more akin to the Pallis or Vanniyans than to the Sembadavans. Though a large number are agriculturists, some play on the nāgasaram (reed instrument). In the Tinnevelly district, where Mēlakkārans are scarce, the temple musicians are either Savalaikkārans or Panisavans. The agricultural Savalaikkārans use the title Padayāchi, and the musicians the title Annāvi. Their marriages last three days, and the milk-post is made of teak-wood. Widow remarriage is prohibited. The dead are always buried. Socially they are on a par with the Maravans, with whom they interdine.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Santārasi

​Santārasi.— An exogamous sept of Dandāsi. The members thereof may not use mats made of the sedge of this name.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sanyāsi

​Sanyāsi.— "A Sanyāsi is literally a man who has forsaken all, and who has renounced the world and leads a life of celibacy, devoting himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to the study of holy books. He is considered to have attained a state of exalted piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste and ceremony. His is the fourth Āsrama or final stage of life recommended for the three higher orders. ["Having performed religious acts in a forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a Sanyāsi, for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection." *] The number of Brāhman Sanyāsis is very small; they are chiefly the Gurus or High Priests of the different sects. These are, as a rule,, men of learning, and heads of monasteries, where they have a number of disciples under instruction and training for religious discussion. They are supported entirely by endowments and the contributions of their disciples. They undertake periodical tours for the purpose of receiving the offerings of their followers. Since the Sanyāsi is considered to be above all sin, and to have acquired sufficient merit for salvation, no srādha is performed by the children born to him before he became an anchorite. [The skull of a Sanyāsi is broken after death, as a guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Cf. Gōsāyi.] The corpse of a Sanyāsi is buried, and never burnt, or thrown into the river.
"The majority of the Sanyāsis found, and generally known as such, are a class of Sūdra devotees, who live ​by begging, and pretend to powers of divination. They wear garments coloured with red ochre, and allow the hair to grow unshorn. They often have settled abodes, but itinerate. Many are married, and their descendants keep up the sect, and follow the same calling."*
* ↑ * Manu.
* ↑ * Mysore Census Report, 1891, 1901.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Sarangulu

​Sarangulu.——Recorded, in the Nellore district, as being sailors. The name is doubtless equivalent to Serang, which has been defined † as meaning "a native boatswain, or chief of a lascar crew; the skipper of a small native vessel."
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Georges Chastellain

From volume 3 of the work.
(Or Chastelain), a Burgundian chronicler, born in the County of Alost, Flanders, in 1403; died at Valenciennes in 1475. He studied at Louvain, and, after a few years in the army, travelled in England and France. He next entered the service of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, whose successor, Charles the Bold, coming to Valenciennes in 1473, to hold a chapter of the Golden Fleece, conferred upon him the honour of knighthood, with the title of Indiciarius of the order.
Chastellain's more important works include
In spite of excessive partiality to the Duke of Burgundy, Chastellain's historical works are valuable for the accurate information they contain. As a poet he was famous among his contemporaries. He was the great master of the school of grands rhétoriqueurs, whose principal characteristics were fondness for the most artificial forms and a profusion of latinisms and graecisms.
LOUIS N. DELAMARRE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Georgius Syncellus

From volume 6 of the work.
(Gr. Georgios ho Sygkellos).
Died after 810; the author of one of the more important medieval Byzantine chronicles. Not much is known of his life. He had lived many years in Palestine as a monk; under the Patriarch Tarasius (784-806) he came to Constantinople to fill the important post of syncellus. The syncellus is the patriarch's private secretary, generally a bishop, always the most important ecclesiastical person in the capital after the patriarch himself, often the patriarch's successor. But George did not succeed Tarasius. Instead, when his patron died he retired to a monastery and there wrote his chronicle. The only date we know at the end of his life is 810 (6302 an. mundi), which he mentions (Dindorf's edition, 389, 20, see below) as the current year. The chronicle, called by its author, "Extract of Chronography" (Ekloge chronographias), contains the history of the world from the Creation to the death of Diocletian (316). It is arranged strictly in order of time, all the events being named in the year in which they happened. The text is continually interrupted by long tables of dates, so that Krumbacher describes it as being "rather a great historical list [Geschichtstabelle] with added explanations, than a universal history" (Byzantinische Litteratur, 2nd ed., Munich, 1897, 340). The author has taken most trouble over the Bible history, the chronology of the life of Christ and the New Testament. For later times he is content with a compilation from Eusebius (Church History and Canon) and one or two other historians (the Alexandrines Panodorus and Annianus especially; see Gelzer, op. cit. infra). He took trouble to secure good manuscripts of the Septuagint and did some respectable work as a critic in collating them. He also quotes Greek Fathers - Gregory Nazianzen and Chrysostom especially. His interest is always directed in the first place to questions of chronology. The "Extract of Chronology" has merit. Krumbacher counts it as the best work of its kind in Byzantine literature (op. cit., 341). That the author thinks the Septuagint more authentic than the Hebrew text - of which he could read nothing at all - is a harmless and inevitable weakness in a Greek monk. Georgius Syncellus's chronicle was continued by his friend Theophanes Confessor (Theophanes homologetes). Anastasius Bibliothecarius composed a "Historia tripartita" in Latin, from the chronicle of Syncellus, Theophanes, and Nicephorus the Patriarch (806-815). This work, written between 873 and 875 (Anastasius was papal librarian), spread Syncellus's chronological ideas in the West also. In the East his fame was gradually overshadowed by that of Theophanes.
ADRIAN FORTESCUE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gerard, Archbishop of York

From volume 6 of the work.
Date of birth unknown; died at Southwell, 21 May, 1108. He was a nephew of Walkelin, Bishop of Winchester, of Simon, Abbot of Ely, and connected with the royal family. Originally a precentor in Rouen cathedral, he became clerk in the chapel of William Rufus, who employed him in 1095 on a diplomatic mission to the pope. His success was rewarded with the Bishopric of Hereford, and he was consecrated by St. Anselm 8 June, 1096, having been ordained deacon and priest on the previous day. On the accession of Henry I, in 100, he was made Archbishop of York and began a long contest with St. Anselm, in which he claimed equal primacy with Canterbury and refused to make his profession of canonical obedience before him. When he journeyed to Rome for the pallium, he was entrusted with the mission of representing the king against Anselm in the controversy about investitures. The pope's decision was against the king, but Gerard professed to have received private assurances that the decrees would not be enforced. This was denied by the monks who represented St. Anselm; and the pope, when appealed to, repudiated the statement and excommunicated Gerard till he confessed his error and made satisfaction.
Eventually he professed obedience to St. Anselm, but continued to assert the independence of York. When Anselm refused to consecrate three bishops, two of whom had received investiture from the king, Gerard attempted to do so, but two refused to accept consecration at his hands. The pope reprimanded him for his opposition to the primate, and finally the two prelates were reconciled. Gerard carried out many reforms in York, though by his action against St. Anselm he incurred great unpopularity, and the writers of the time charge him with immorality, avarice, and the practice of magic. He died suddenly on the way to London to attend a council, and his death without sacraments was regarded as a Divine judgment. The canons refused to bury him within the cathedral, and the people pelted the hearse with stones. Some Latin verses by him are preserved in the British Museum (Titus. D. XXIV. 3).
EDWIN BURTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Georges d'Armagnac

From volume 1 of the work.
French cardinal and diplomatist, b. c. 1501; d. 2 June, 1585. He belonged to the illustrious family of Foix d'Armagnac. In his youth he was the protégé of Cardinal d'Amboise. The Duke of Alençon introduced him to Francis I, and in 1529 he was appointed Bishop of Rodez, was ambassador to Venice 1536-38, took part in the war between Francis I and Charles V, and distinguished himself by contributing to the emperor's retreat from the south of France (1538). In 1539 the king sent him as ambassador to Rome, where the cardinal's hat was bestowed upon him in (1544). In 1552 he was appointed lieutenant-general of the king at Toulouse, together with Paul de Carrets, Bishop of Cahors. Eight years later he was raised to the Archbishopric of Toulouse, which he left in 1565, Pius IV having appointed him legate at Avignon, together with Cardinal de Bourbon. In this position Cardinal d'Armagnac vigorously defended the interests of the Church against the Huguenots and brought about a good understanding between the people of Avignon and those of Orange and Languedoc. The pope showed his approval of d'Armagnac's administration by promoting him to the Archbishopric of Avignon (1576). His great intelligence and deep knowledge of men and things, his austere virtues, and the protection which he granted to the arts and sciences place him in the first rank of the faithful servants of the Church in the sixteenth century.
Rey, Le cardinal d'Armagnac co-legat a Avignon (1566-83), d'apres sa correspondance; Annales du midi (1898), 129-154, 273-306; Tamizey de Larroque, Lettres inedites du cardinal d'Armagnac, in Rev. hist., 1876, II; Farges in La grande encyc., III, 986.
JEAN LE BARS