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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oxazoles

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​OXAZOLES, a group of organic compounds containing a ring complex (shown below) composed of three carbon atoms, and one oxygen and one nitrogen atom; they are isomeric with the isoxazoles (q.v.). They are obtained by condensing a halogen derivatives of ketones with acid-amides (M. Lewy, Ber. 1887, 20, p. 2576; 1888, 21, p. 2195)
| R·C | NH | + | HO·C·R′ | →R·C | N·CR′ | ; |
| R·C | OH | + | Br ·C..H | →R·C | O·C..H | ; |
by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on nitriles and benzoin (F. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc. 1893, 63, p. 469); and by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a mixture of aromatic aldehydes and their cyanhydrins (E. Fischer, Ber. 1896, 29, p. 205).
| R·CH | CN | +OHC·R→R·C | CH·N |
| R·CH | OH | +OHC·R→R·C | O – C..·R |
They are weak bases, and the ring system is readily split by evaporation with hydrochloric acid, or by the action of reducing and oxidizing agents.
The dihydro-oxazoles or oxazolines are similarly formed when β-halogen alkyl amides are condensed with alkali (S. Gabriel, Ber. 1889, 22, p. 2220), or by the action of alkali on the compounds formed by the interaction of ethylene chlorhydrin on nitriles. They are strong bases characterized by a quinoline-like smell. The amino-oxazolines are known as alkylene-ψ-areas and are formed by the action of potassium cyanate on the hydrobromides of the bromalkylamines (S. Gabriel, Ber. 1895, 28. p. 1899). They are strong bases. Tetrahydro-oxazoles or oxazolidines result from the action of aldehydes on amino-alcohols (L. Knorr, Ber. 1901, 34, p. 3484). The above types of compounds may be represented by the following formulae:—
| N ＝ CH | O, | N ＝ CH | O, | N＝C(NH$_2$) | O, | NH – CH$_2$ | O |
| | | O, | | | O, | | | O, | | | O |
| CH＝CH | O, | CH$_2$·CH$_2$ | O, | CH$_2$ – CH$_2$ | O, | CH$_2$ – CH$_2$ | O |
| oxazole | | oxazoline | | amino-oxazoline | amino-oxazoline | oxazolidines. | oxazolidines. |
The benzoxazoles are formed when ortho-amino phenols are condensed with organic acids (A. Ladenburg, Ber. 1876, 9, p. 1524; 1877, 10, p. 1113), or by heating aldehydes and ortho-amino phenols to high temperature (G. Mazzara and A. Leonardi, Gazz. 1871, 21, p. 251). They are mostly crystalline solids which distil unchanged. When warmed with acids they split into their components. They behave as weak bases. By the condensation of ortho-amino phenols with phosgene or thiophosgene, oxy and thio-derivatives are obtained, the (OH) and (SH) groups being situated in the μ position, and these compounds on treatment with amines yield amino derivatives.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oxford, John de Vere, 13th Earl of

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​OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13th Earl of (1443–1513), was second son of John, the 12th earl, a prominent Lancastrian, who, together with his eldest son Aubrey de Vere, was executed in February 1462. John de Vere the younger was himself attainted, but two years later was restored as 13th earl. But his loyalty was suspected, and for a short time at the end of 1468 he was in the Tower. He sided with Warwick, the king-maker, in the political movements of 1469, accompanied him in his exile next year, and assisted in the Lancastrian restoration of 1470–1471. As constable he tried John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, who had condemned his father nine years before. At the battle of Barnet, Oxford was victorious in command of the Lancastrian right, but his men got out of hand, and before they could be rallied Warwick was defeated. Oxford escaped to France. In 1473 he organized a Lancastrian expedition, which, after an attempted landing in Essex, sailed west and seized St Michael’s Mount in Cornwall. It was only after a four months’ siege that Oxford was forced to surrender in February 1474. He was sent to Hammes near Calais, whence, ten years later, in August 1484, he escaped and joined Henry Tudor in Brittany. He fought for Henry in high command at Bosworth, and was rewarded by restoration to his title, estates and hereditary office of Lord Chamberlain. At Stoke on the 16th of June 1486 he led the van of the royal army. In 1492 he was in command in the expedition to Flanders, and in 1497 was foremost in the defeat of the Cornish rebels on Blackheath. Bacon (Hist. of Henry VII. p. 192, ed. Lumby) has preserved a story that when in the summer of 1498 Oxford entertained the king at Castle Hedingham, he assembled a great number of his retainers in livery; Henry thanked the earl for his reception, but fined him 15,000 marks for the breach of the laws. Oxford was high steward at the trial of the earl of Warwick, and one of the commissioners for the trial of Sir James Tyrell and others in May 1502. Partly through ill-health he took little part afterwards in public affairs, and died on the 10th of March 1513. He was twice married, but left no children.
Oxford is frequently mentioned in the Paston Letters, which include twenty written by him, mostly to Sir John Paston the younger. See The Paston Letters, ed. J. Gairdner; Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (1905); Sir James Ramsay, Lancaster and York; and The Political History of England, vols. iv. and v. (1906). (C. L. K.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leopold II. (lake)

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​LEOPOLD II., a lake of Central Africa in the basin of the Kasai affluent of the Congo, cut by 2° S. and 18° 10′ E. It has a length N. to S. of about 75 m., is 30 m. across at its northern end, tapering towards its southern end. Numerous bays and gulfs render its outline highly irregular. Its shores are flat and marshy, the lake being (in all probability) simply the lowest part of a vast lake which existed here before the Kasai system breached the barrier—at Kwa mouth—separating it from the Congo. The lake is fed by the Lokoro (about 300 m. long) and smaller streams from the east. Its northern and western affluents are comparatively unimportant. It discharges its waters (at its southern end) into the Mfini, which is in reality the lower course of the Lukenye. The lake is gradually diminishing in area; in the rainy season it overflows its banks. The surrounding country is very flat and densely wooded.
See Kasai; and articles and maps in Le Mouvement géog., specially vol. xiv., No. 29 (1897) and vol. xxiv., No. 38 (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leopardo, Alessandro

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​LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO (d. c. 1512), Italian sculptor, was born and died at Venice. His first known work is the imposing mausoleum of the doge Andrea Vendramini, now in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo; in this he had the co-operation of Tullio Lombardo, but the finest parts are Leopardo’s. Some of the figures have been taken away, and two in the Berlin museum are considered to be certainly his work. He was exiled on a charge of fraud in 1487, and recalled in 1490 by the senate to finish Verrocchio’s colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni. He worked between 1503 and 1505 on the tomb of Cardinal Zeno at St Mark’s, which was finished in 1515 by Pietro Lombardo; and in 1505 he designed and cast the bronze sockets for the three flagstaffs in the square of St Mark’s, the antique character of the decorations suggesting some Greek model. (See Venice.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leotychides

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According to Diodorus (xi. 48) Leotychides reigned twenty-two, his successor Archidamus forty-two years. The total duration of the two reigns, sixty-four years, we know to be correct, for Leotychides came to the throne in 491 and Archidamus (q.v.) died in 427. On this basis, then, Leotychides’s exile would fall in 469 and the Thessalian expedition in that or the preceding year (so E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, iii. § 287). But Diodorus is not consistent with himself; he attributes (xi. 48) Leotychides’s death to the year 476–475 and he records (xii. 35) Archidamus’s death in 434–433, though he introduces him in the following years at the head of the Peloponnesian army (xii. 42, 47, 52). Further, he says expressly that Leotychides ἐτελεύτησεν ἄρξας ἔτη εἴκοσι καὶ δύο, i.e. he lived twenty-two years after his accession. The twenty-two years, then, may include the time which elapsed between his exile and his death. In that case Leotychides died in 469, and 476–475 may be the year in which his reign, though not his life, ended. This date seems, from what we know of the political situation in general, to be more probable than the later one for the Thessalian campaign.
G. Busolt, Griech. Geschichte, iii. 83, note; J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 326; G. Grote, History of Greece, new edition 1888, iv. 349, note; also abridged edition 1907, p. 273, note 3. Beloch’s view (Griech. Geschichte, i. 455, note 2) that the expedition took place in 476, the trial and flight in 469, is not generally accepted. (M. N. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leopold

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​LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from liut, Mod. Ger. Leute, “people,” and pald, “bold,” i.e. “bold for the people”), the name which has been that of several European sovereigns.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Putnam, Rufus

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​PUTNAM, RUFUS (1738–1824), American soldier and pioneer, was born in Sutton, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1738 (O.S.). His grandfather was a half brother to Israel Putnam's father. He served in the French and Indian War in 1757–60; was a millwright in New Braintree in 1761-1768, during which time he studied surveying; and from 1769 until the War of Independence was a farmer and surveyor. In 1773, with Israel Putnam and two others, he visited West Florida to examine lands which, it was expected, were to be granted to the provincial troops for their services against the French and Indians, and which he charted (see Mississippi). He became lieutenant-colonel in one of the first regiments raised after the battle of Lexington, and served before Boston; in March 1776 he was made chief engineer of the works at New York; in August he was appointed engineer with the rank of colonel; and when Congress did not act on his plan (submitted in Oct. 1776) for the establishment of a distinct engineer corps he resigned (Dec. 1776), and in 1777 served in the northern army under Major-General Horatio Gates, commanding two regiments in the second battle of Saratoga. In 1778 he laid out fortifications, including Fort Putnam, at West Point, and in 1779 he served under Major-General Anthony Wayne after the capture of Stony Point. For the remainder of the war he saw little active service. In January 1783 he was commissioned brigadier-general. After the war he returned to Rutland, Mass., where he had bought a confiscated farm in 1780. In March 1786 he founded, with other officers of the War of Independence, the Ohio Company of Associates for the purchase and settlement of Western lands. In November 1787, after Congress had made its grant to the Ohio Company, he was appointed by the company superintendent of its proposed settlement on the Ohio, and in 1788 he led the small party which founded Marietta, Ohio. He was a judge of the court of the North-West Territory in 1790–1796; was a brigadier-general in the army and a commissioner to treat with the Indians in 1792–1793; was surveyor-general of the United States in 1796–1803; and in 1802 was a member of the Ohio state constitutional convention. He died, in Marietta, on the 4th of May 1824. He has been called “ The Father of Ohio,” and he contributed greatly toward the material building up of the North-West Territory.
See John W. Campbell, Biographical Sketches (Columbus, Ohio, 1838); Sidney Crawford, “ Rufus Putnam, and his Pioneer Life in the North-west,” vol. xii., new series, pp. 431–454, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society (Worcester, 1899), and Rowena Buell (ed.), The Memoirs of Rufus Putnam (Boston, 1903), in which his autobiography, his journal and other papers, now in the library of Marietta College, are reprinted. His Journal, 1757–1760, dealing with his experiences in the French and Indian War, was edited with notes by E. C. Dawes (Albany, New York, 1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Putlitz, Gustav Heinrich Gans, Edler zu

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​PUTLITZ, GUSTAV HEINRICH GANS, Edler zu (1821-1890), German author, was born at Retzien near Perleberg in West Prignitz, on the 20th of March 1821. He studied law at Berlin and Heidelberg, and was attached to the provincial government at Magdeburg from 1846-1848. In 1853 he married Gräfin Elisabeth von Königsmark, and lived on his estate until 1863, when he became director of the Court theatre at Schwerin. This post he left in 1867, was for a short time chamberlain to the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick, and from 1873 to 1889 successfully directed the Court theatre at Karlsruhe. He died at Retzien on the 5th of September 1890. Putlitz made his debut as a writer with a volume of romantic stories, Was sich der Wald erzählt (1850), which attained great popularity (fifty editions) and found many imitators; but he was most successful in his comedies, notably Badekuren (1859); Das Herz vergessen (1853); and Spielt nicht mit dem Feuer! (1887), while of his narratives Die Alpenbraut (1870) and Walpurgis (1870) are distinguished by refined terseness of style and delicacy of portraiture.
A selection of his works, Ausgewählte Werke, was published in 6 vols. in Berlin (1872-1877), and a supplementary volume in 1888; his comedies, Lustspiele, appeared in two series of 4 vols. each (1851-1860 and 1869-1872). See E. zu Putlitz, Gustav zu Putlitz. Ein Lebensbild aus Briefen (3 vols., 1894-1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Putnam

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​PUTNAM, a city and the county-seat of Windham county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Putnam, on the Quinebaug river, at the mouth of the Mill river, in the N.E. part of the state, about 6 m. from the Rhode Island boundary and about 7% m. from that of Massachusetts. Pop. (1900), of the township (including the city), 7348; of the city, 6667 (2012 being foreign born); (1910) 6637. Putnam is at the intersection of two branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and is connected by electric line with Worcester, Norwich and Providence. The city is the seat of two Roman Catholic institutions, St Mary's Convent and Notre Dame Academy, and has a public library and an endowed hospital. The Quinebaug and Mill rivers provide excellent water-power. The township (named in honour of General Israel Putnam) was incorporated in 1855, and the city was chartered in 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Puttee

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​PUTTEE, or Puttie, the name, adapted from the Hindī pattī, bandage (Skr. patta, strip of cloth), for a covering for the lower part of the leg from the ankle to the knee, consisting of a long narrow piece of cloth wound tightly and spirally round the leg, and serving both as a support and protection, worn especially by riders, and taking the place of the leather or cloth gaiter. It has been adopted as part of the uniform of the mounted soldier in the British army.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Puteaux

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​PUTEAUX, a north-western suburb of Paris, on the left bank of the Seine, 41/2 m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906), 28,718. Puteaux has a church of the 16th century with good stained glass windows. There is a fort on the Seine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schömann, Georg Friedrich

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​SCHÖMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1793–1879), German classical scholar, was born at Stralsund in Pomerania on the 28th of June 1793. In 1827 he was appointed professor of ancient literature and eloquence in the university of Greifswald, where he died on the 25th of March 1879. Schömann’s attention was chiefly devoted to the constitutional and religious antiquities of Greece. His first works on the subject were De comitiis Atheniensium (1819), the first independent account of the forms of Athenian political life, and a treatise De sortitione judicum apud Athenienses (1820). In conjunction with M. H. E. Meier, Schömann wrote Der attische Process (1824, revised ed. by J. H. Lipsius, 1883–1887), which, although in some respects out of date, still has considerable value.
Among his other works are:—editions of Isaeus (1831) and Plutarch’s Agis and Cleomenes (1839, important for the Attic law of inheritance and the history of the Spartan constitution); Antiquitates juris publici Graecorum (1838); a critical examination of Grote’s account of the Athenian constitution (1854, Eng. trans. by B. Bosanquet, 1878) from a conservative point o view; and lastly, Griechische Alterthümer (1855–1859; 4th ed. by J. H. Lipsius, 1897–1902; Eng. trans. of vol. i. by E. G. Hardy and J. S. Mann, 1880), treating of the general historical development of the Greek states, followed by a detailed account of the constitutions of Sparta, Crete and Athens, the cults and international relations of the Greek tribes. The question of the religious institutions of the Greeks, which he considered an essential part of their public life, had early engaged his attention, and he held the opinion that everything really religious was akin to Christianity, and that the greatest intellects of Greece produced intuitively Christian, dogmatic ideas. From this point of view he edited the Hesiod (1868), with a commentary, chiefly mythological, and Cicero’s De natura deorum (1850, 4th ed. 1876); translated with introduction and notes Aeschylus’s Prometheus Bound, and wrote a Prometheus Unbound (1844), in which Prometheus is brought to see the greatness of his offence and is pardoned by Zeus. Of his contributions on grammatical subjects special mention may be made of Die Lehre von den Redetheilen nach den Alten dargestellt (1862), an introduction to the elements of the science of grammar. His many-sidedness is shown in his Opuscula academica (4 vols., 1856–1871).
See F. S(usemihl) in C. Bursian’s Biog. Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde (1870); A. Baumeister in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xxxii.; C. Bursian, Gesch. der class. Philologie in Deutschland (1833), and J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), p. 165.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schönbein, Christian Friedrich

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​SCHÖNBEIN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1790–1868), chemist, was born at Metzingen, Swabia, on the 18th of October 1799, and died at Sauersberg, near Baden Baden, on the 29th of August 1868. After studying at Tübingen and Erlangen, he taught chemistry and physics, first at Keilhau, Thuringia, and then at Epsom, England, but most of his life was spent at Basel, where he undertook the duties of the chair of chemistry and physics in 1828 and was appointed full professor in 1835. His name is chiefly known in connexion with ozone, which he began to investigate in 1839, and with guncotton, which he prepared and applied as a propellant in fire-arms early in 1846. He was a most prolific writer, 364 papers appearing under his name in the Royal Society’s Catalogue, and he carried on a large correspondence with other men of science, such as Berzelius, Faraday, Liebig and Wöhler.
Many of his letters together with a life will be found in G. W. A. Kahlbaum’s Monographien aus der Geschichte der Chemie, vols. iv. and vi. (1899 and 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schöneberg

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​SCHÖNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, forming a suburb of Berlin, which it adjoins on the south-west. Pop. (1905) 141,010. It has four churches, a statue of the emperor William I. and several educational establishments. It contains the railway station of the military line to Zossen and is connected with the metropolis by electric trams and omnibuses Its chief manufactures are railway plant, cigars, soap, paper and chemicals. The foundation of Alt-Schöneberg is ascribed to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, in the 12th century while Neu-Schöneberg was founded by Frederick the Great in 1750 to accommodate some Bohemian weavers exiled for their religion. It was made a town in 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schwind, Moritz von

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​SCHWIND, MORITZ VON (1804–1871), German painter, was born in Vienna in 1804. He received rudimentary training and led a joyous careless life in that gay capital; among his companions ​was the composer Schubert, whose songs he illustrated. In 1828 he removed to Munich, and had the advantage of the friendship of the painter Schnorr and the guidance of Cornelius, then director of the academy. In 1834 he received the commission to decorate King Ludwig's new palace with wall paintings illustrative of the poet Tieck. He also found in the same place congenial sport for his fancy in a “Kinderfries”; his ready hand was likewise busy on almanacs, &c., and by his illustrations to Goethe and other writers he gained applause and much employment. In the revival of art in Germany Schwind held as his own the sphere of poetic fancy. To him was entrusted in 1839, in the new Carlsruhe academy, the embodiment in fresco of ideas thrown out by Goethe; he decorated a villa at Leipzig with the story of Cupid and Psyche, and further justified his title of poet-painter by designs from the Niebelungenlied and Tasso's Gerusalemme for the walls of the castle of Hohenschwangau in Bavarian Tirol. From the year 1844 dates his residence in Frankfort; to this period belong some of the best easel pictures, pre-eminently the Singers' Contest in the Wartburg (1846), also designs for the Goethe celebration, likewise numerous book illustrations. The conceptions for the most part are better than the execution. In 1847 Schwind returned to Munich on being appointed professor in the academy. Eight years later his fame was at its height on the completion in the castle of the Wartburg of wall pictures illustrative of the Singers' Contest and of the history of Elizabeth of Hungary. The compositions received universal praise, and at a grand musical festival in their honour Schwind himself played among the violins. In 1857 appeared his exceptionally mature “cyclus” of the Seven Ravens from Grimm's fairy stories. In the same year he visited England to report officially to King Ludwig on the Manchester art treasures. And so diversified were his gifts that he turned his hand'to church windows and joined his old friend Schnorr in designs for the painted glass in Glasgow cathedral. Towards the close of his career, with broken health and powers on the wane, he revisited Vienna. To this time belong the “cyclus” from the legend of Melusine and the designs commemorative of chief musicians which decorate the foyer of the new opera house. Cornelius writes, “You have here translated the joyousness of music into pictorial art.” Schwind's genius was lyrical; he drew inspiration from chivalry, folk-lore, and the songs of the people; his art was decorative, but lacked scholastic training and technical skill. Schwind died at Munich in 1871, and was buried in the old Friedhof of the same town.