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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/León (Mexico)

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​LEÓN, or León de las Aldamas, a city of the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, 209 m. N.W. of the federal capital and 30 m. W. by N. of the city of Guanajuato. Pop. (1895) 90,978; (1900) 62,623, León ranking fourth in the latter year among the cities of Mexico. The Mexican Central gives it railway connexion with the national capital and other prominent cities of the Republic. León stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the Turbio, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma, at an elevation of 5862 ft. above sea-level and in the midst of very attractive surroundings. The country about León is considered to be one of the richest cereal-producing districts of Mexico. The city itself is subject to disastrous floods, sometimes leading to loss of life as well as damage to property, as in the great flood of 1889. León is essentially a manufacturing and commercial city; it has a cathedral and a theatre, the latter one of the largest and finest in the republic. The city is regularly built, with wide streets and numerous shady parks and gardens. It manufactures saddlery and other leather work, gold and silver embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, especially rebozos (long shawls), soap and cutlery. There are also tanneries and flour mills. The city has a considerable trade in wheat and flour. The first settlement of León occurred in 1552, but its formal foundation was in 1576, and it did not reach the dignity of a city until 1836.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/León, Luis Ponce de

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​LEÓN, LUIS PONCE DE (1527–1591), Spanish poet and mystic, was born at Belmonte de Cuenca, entered the university of Salamanca at the age of fourteen, and in 1544 joined the Augustinian order. In 1561 he obtained a theological chair at Salamanca, to which in 1571 was added that of sacred literature. He was denounced to the Inquisition for translating the book of Canticles, and for criticizing the text of the Vulgate. He was consequently imprisoned at Valladolid from March 1572 till December 1576; the charges against him were then abandoned, and he was released with an admonition. He returned to Salamanca as professor of Biblical exegesis, and was again reported to the Inquisition in 1582, but without result. In 1583–1585 he published the three books of a celebrated mystic treatise, Los Nombres de Cristo, which he had written in prison. In 1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose works, a treatise entitled La Perfecta Casada, for the use of a lady newly married. Ten days before his death, which occurred at Madrigal on the 23rd of August 1591, he was elected vicar ​general of the Augustinian order. Luis de León is not only the greatest of Spanish mystics; he is among the greatest of Spanish lyrical poets. His translations of Euripides, Pindar, Virgil and Horace are singularly happy; his original pieces, whether devout like the ode De la vida del cielo, or secular like the ode A Salinas, are instinct with a serene sublimity unsurpassed in any literature, and their form is impeccable. Absorbed by less worldly interests, Fray Luis de León refrained from printing his poems, which were not issued till 1631, when Quevedo published them as a counterblast to culteranismo.
The best edition of Luis de León’s works is that of Merino (6 vols., Madrid, 1816); the reprint (Madrid, 1885) by C. Muñoz Saenz is incorrect. The text of La Perfecta Casada has been well edited by Miss Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago, 1903). See Coleccion de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, vols. x.-xi.; F. H. Reusch, Luis de León und die spanische Inquisition (Bonn, 1873); M. Gutiérrez, Fray Luis de León y la filosofía española (Madrid, 1885); M. Menendez y Pelayo, Estudios de crítica literaria (Madrid, 1893), Primera série, pp. 1-72.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Figurate Numbers

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​FIGURATE NUMBERS, in mathematics. If we take the sum of n terms of the series 1 + 1 + 1 + . . ., i.e. n, as the nth term of a new series, we obtain the series 1 + 2 + 3 + . . ., the sum of n terms of which is 1/2n · n + 1. Taking this sum as the nth term, we obtain the series 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + . . ., which has for the sum of n terms n (n + 1) (n + 2) / 3! This sum is taken as the nth term of the next series, and proceeding in this way we obtain series having the following nth terms:—
The numbers obtained by giving n any value in these expressions are of the first, second, third, . . . or r th order of figurate numbers.
Pascal treated these numbers in his Traité du triangle arithmetique (1665), using them to develop a theory of combinations and to solve problems in probability. His table is here shown in its simplest form. It is to be noticed that each number is the sum of the numbers immediately above and to the left of it; and that the numbers along a line, termed a base, which cuts off an equal number of units along the top row and column are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of (1 + x)$^{r−1}$, where r represents the number of units cut off.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Filander

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​FILANDER, the name by which the Aru Island wallaby (Macropus brunii) was first described. It occurs in a translation of C. de Bruyn’s Travels (ii. 101) published in 1737.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fildes, Sir Luke

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​FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844– ), English painter, was born at Liverpool, and trained in the South Kensington and Royal Academy schools. At first a highly successful illustrator, he took rank later among the ablest English painters, with “The Casual Ward” (1874), “The Widower” (1876), “The Village Wedding” (1883), “An Al-fresco Toilette” (1889); and “The Doctor” (1891), now in the National Gallery of British Art. He also painted a number of pictures of Venetian life and many notable portraits, among them the coronation portraits of King Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1879, and academician in 1887; and was knighted in 1906.
See David Croal Thomson, The Life and Work of Luke Fildes, R.A. (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Figueira da Foz

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​FIGUEIRA DA FOZ, or Figueira, a seaport of central Portugal, in the district of Coimbra, formerly included in the province of Beira; on the north bank of the river Mondego, at its mouth, and at the terminus of the Lisbon-Figueira and Guarda-Figueira railways. Pop. (1900) 6221. Figueira da Foz is an important fishing-station, and one of the headquarters of the coasting trade in grain, fruit, wine, olive oil, cork and coal; but owing to the bar at the mouth of the Mondego large ships cannot enter. Glass is manufactured, and the city attracts many visitors by its excellent climate and sea-bathing. A residential suburb, the Bairro Novo, exists chiefly for their accommodation, to the north-west of the old town. Figueira is connected by a tramway running 4 m. N. W. with Buarcos (pop. 5033) and with the coal-mines of Cape Mondego. Lavos (pop. 7939), on the south bank of the Mondego, was the principal landing-place of the British troops which came, in 1808, to take part in the Peninsular War. Figueira da Foz received the title and privileges of city by a decree dated the 20th of September 1882.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Figueras

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​FIGUERAS, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Gerona, 14 m. S. of the French frontier, on the Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop. (1900) 10,714. Figueras is built at the foot of the Pyrenees, and on the northern edge of El Ampurdan, a fertile and well-irrigated plain, which produces wine, olives and rice, and derives its name from the seaport of Ampurias, the ancient Emporiae. The castle of San Fernando, 1 m. N.W., is an irregular pentagonal structure, built by order of Ferdinand VI. (1746–1759), on the site of a Capuchin convent. Owing to its situation, and the rocky nature of the ground over which a besieger must advance, it is still serviceable as the key to the frontier. It affords accommodation for 16,000 men and is well provided with bomb-proof cover. In 1794 Figueras was surrendered to the French, but it was regained in 1795. During the Peninsular War it was taken by the French in 1808, recaptured by the Spaniards in 1811, and retaken by the French in the same year. In 1823, after a long defence, it was once more captured by the French. An annual pilgrimage from Figueras to the chapel of Nuestra Señora de Requesens, 15 m. N., commemorates the deliverance of the town from a severe epidemic of fever in 1612.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Filariasis

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​FILARIASIS, the name of a disease due to the nematode Filaria sanguinis hominis. A milky appearance of the urine, due to the presence of a substance like chyle, which forms a clot, had been observed from time to time, especially in tropical and subtropical countries; and it was proved by Dr Wucherer of Bahia, and by Dr Timothy Lewis, that this peculiar condition is uniformly associated with the presence in the blood of minute eel-like worms, visible only under the microscope, being the embryo forms of a Filaria (see Nematoda). Sometimes the discharge of lymph takes place at one or more points of the surface of the body, and there is in other cases a condition of naevoid elephantiasis of the scrotum, or lymph-scrotum. More or less of blood may occur along with the chylous fluid in the urine. Both the chyluria and the presence of filariae in the blood are curiously intermittent; it may happen that not a single filaria is to be seen during the daytime, while they swarm in the blood at night, and it has been ingeniously shown by Dr S. Mackenzie that they may be made to disappear if the patient sits up all night, reappearing while he sleeps through the day.
Sir P. Manson proved that mosquitoes imbibe the embryo filariae from the blood of man; and that many of these reach full development within the mosquito, acquiring their freedom when the latter resorts to water, where it dies after depositing its eggs. Mosquitoes would thus be the intermediate host of the filariae, and their introduction into the human body would be through the medium of water (see Parasitic Diseases).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Figulus, Publius Nigidius

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​FIGULUS, PUBLIUS NIGIDIUS (c. 98–45 B.C.), Roman savant, next to Varro the most learned Roman of the age. He was a friend of Cicero, to whom he gave his support at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy (Plutarch, Cicero, 20; Cicero, Pro Sulla, xiv. 42). In 58 he was praetor, sided with Pompey in the Civil War, and after his defeat was banished by Caesar, and died in exile. According to Cicero (Timaeus, 1), Figulus endeavoured with some success to revive the doctrines of Pythagoreanism. With this was included mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even the magic arts. According to Suetonius (Augustus, 94) he foretold the greatness of the future emperor on the day of his birth, and Apuleius (Apologia, 42) records that, by the employment of “magic boys” (magici pueri), he ​helped to find a sum of money that had been lost. Jerome (the authority for the date of his death) calls him Pythagoricus et magus. The abstruse nature of his studies, the mystical character of his writings, and the general indifference of the Romans to such subjects, caused his works to be soon forgotten. Amongst his scientific, theological and grammatical works mention may be made of De diis, containing an examination of various cults and ceremonials; treatises on divination and the interpretation of dreams; on the sphere, the winds and animals. His Commentarii grammatici in at least 29 books was an ill-arranged collection of linguistic, grammatical and antiquarian notes. In these he expressed the opinion that the meaning of words was natural, not fixed by man. He paid especial attention to orthography, and sought to differentiate the meanings of cases of like ending by distinctive marks (the apex to indicate a long vowel is attributed to him). In etymology he endeavoured to find a Roman explanation of words where possible (according to him frater was = fere alter). Quintilian (Instit. orat. xi, 3. 143) speaks of a rhetorical treatise De gestu by him.
See Cicero, Ad Fam. iv. 13; scholiast on Lucan i. 639; several references in Aulus Gellius; Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature, 170; M. Hertz, De N. F. studiis atque operibus (1845); Quaestiones Nigidianae (1890), and edition of the fragments (1889) by A. Swoboda.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Filangieri, Gaetano

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​FILANGIERI, GAETANO (1752–1788), Italian publicist, was born at Naples on the 18th of August 1752. His father, Caesar, prince of Arianiello, intended him for a military career, which he commenced at the early age of seven, but soon abandoned for the study of the law. At the bar his knowledge and eloquence early secured his success, while his defence of a royal decree reforming abuses in the administration of justice gained him the favour of the king, Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and led to several honourable appointments at court. The first two books of his great work, La Scienza della legislazione, appeared in 1780. The first book contained an exposition of the rules on which legislation in general ought to proceed, while the second was devoted to economic questions. These two books showed him an ardent reformer, and vehement in denouncing the abuses of his time. He insisted on unlimited free trade, and the abolition of the medieval institutions which impeded production and national well-being. Its success was great and immediate not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large. In 1783 he married, resigned his appointments at court, and retiring to Cava, devoted himself steadily to the completion of his work. In the same year appeared the third book, relating entirely to the principles of criminal jurisprudence. The suggestion which he made in it as to the need for reform in the Roman Catholic church brought upon him the censure of the ecclesiastical authorities, and it was condemned by the congregation of the Index in 1784. In 1785 he published three additional volumes, making the fourth book of the projected work, and dealing with education and morals. In 1787 he was appointed a member of the supreme treasury council by Ferdinand IV., but his health, impaired by close study and over-work in his new office, compelled his withdrawal to the country at Vico Equense. He died somewhat suddenly on the 21st of July 1788, having just completed the first part of the fifth book of his Scienza. He left an outline of the remainder of the work, which was to have been completed in six books.
La Scienza della legislazione has gone through many editions, and has been translated into most of the languages of Europe. The best Italian edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (1807). The Milan edition (1822) contains the Opusculi scelti and a life by Donato Tommasi. A French translation appeared in Paris in 7 vols. 8vo. (1786–1798); it was republished in 1822–1824, with the addition of the Opuscles and notes by Benjamin Constant. The Science of Legislation was translated into English by Sir R. Clayton (London, 1806).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochtman, Leonard

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​OCHTMAN, LEONARD (1854– ), American painter, was born in Zonnemaire, Zeeland, Holland, on the 21st of October 1854. His family removed to Albany, New York, in 1866. In 1882 he began to exhibit landscapes at the National Academy, and he became a National Academician in 1904. His most characteristic pictures, which recall the work of Inness, are scenes on Long Island Sound and on the Mianus river.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochrida

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​OCHRIDA (also written Okhrida and Achrida; Turkish Ochri), a city of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Monastir; on the north-eastern shore of Lake Ochrida, and at the eastern end of the Roman Via Egnatia. Pop. (1905) about 11,000, including Albanians, Turks, Greeks and Slavs. Ochrida occupies the site of the ancient Lychnidos, which was added to the Macedonian empire by Philip II. (382–336 B.C.), and destroyed by the Bulgarians in A.D. 861. It is the seat of Bulgarian and Greek bishops. From the creation of the Bulgarian patriarchate of Ochrida in 893 to its abolition in 1767 the city was the ecclesiastical headquarters of the Bulgarians in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. Lake Ochrida is 2260 ft. above sea-level, in a mountainous limestone region of Karst formation. It measures 107 sq. m., and has a maximum depth of 938 ft. Its waters are supplied by subterranean streams. Its chief outlet is the river Black Drin, on the north.
See Gelzer, Der Patriarchat von Achrida (Leipzig, 1902); and “Dr Jovan Cvijić’s Researches in Macedonia, &c.,” in The Geographical Journal, vol. xvi. (London, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochres

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​OCHRES, a class of pigments varying in colour from yellow to red, and consisting mainly of hydrated iron oxide. The Yellow Ochres are native earths coloured with hydrated ferric oxide, the brownish yellow substance that colours, and is deposited from, highly ferruginous water. These ochres are of two kinds—one having an argillaceous basis, while the other is a calcareous earth, the argillaceous variety being in general the richer and more pure in colour of the two. Both kinds are widely distributed, fine qualities being found in Oxfordshire, the Isle of Wight, near Jena and Nuremberg in Germany, and in France in the departments of Yonne, Cher and Nièvre. The original colour of these ochres can be modified and varied into browns and reds of more or less intensity by calcination. The nature of the associated earth also influences the colour assumed by an ochre under calcination, aluminous ochres developing red and violet tints, while the calcareous varieties take brownish-red and dark-brown hues. The well-known Terra da Sienna which in its raw state is a dull-coloured ochre, becomes when burnt a fine warm mahogany brown hue highly valued for artistic purposes. Yellow ochres are also artificially prepared—Mars Yellow being either pure hydrated ferric oxide or an intimate mixture of that substance with an argillaceous or calcareous earth, and such compounds by careful calcination can be transformed into Mars Orange, Violet or Red, all highly important, stable and reliable pigments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochsenfurt

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​OCHSENFURT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, situated on the left bank of the Main, here crossed by a stone bridge, 13 m. S. from Würzburg by the railway to Munich, and at the junction of a line to Röttingen. Pop. (1905) 3333. It contains an Evangelical and five Roman Catholic churches, among them that of St Michael, a fine Gothic edifice. There is a considerable trade in wine and agricultural produce, other industries being brewing and malting.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochakov

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​OCHAKOV, a fortified town and port of Russia, in the government of Kherson, 41 m. E. of Odessa, on a cape of the Black Sea, at the entrance to the estuary of the Dnieper, and opposite to Kinburn. Pop. (1897), 10,784. Strong fortifications have been built at Ochakov and on the Kinburn promontory, to protect the entrance to the Dnieper. Ochakov stands close to the site of the old Miletan (Greek) colony of Olvia and the Greek colony of Alektor. The fortress of Kara-kerman or Ozu-kaleh was built on this spot by the khan of the Crimea, Mengli Girai, in 1492. At a later date it became the centre of a Turkish province which included Khaji-dereh (Ovidiopol), Khaji-bey (Odessa), and Dubossary, as well as some 150 villages. Russia, regarding it as the main obstacle to the possession of the Black Sea littoral, besieged it in 1737, when it was captured by Marshal Münnich, but in the following year it was abandoned, and in 1739 restored to Turkey. The second siege by Russia was begun in 1788, and lasted six months, until the fortress was stormed and taken, after a terrible loss of life. By the peace of 1791 it became Russian. In 1855 it was bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet, and after that the Russians demolished the fortifications.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ochiltree

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​OCHILTREE, a barony in the county of Ayr, Scotland, from which a title in the Scottish peerage was held in the 16th and 17th centuries by a branch of the house of Stewart. Sir Andrew Stewart (d. 1488), chancellor of Scotland, a great-grandson of the regent Albany (d. 1420), was created Baron Avandale or Avondale about 1457. This peerage became extinct at his death, but was revived about 1499 in favour of his nephew and heir Andrew Stewart, who, being killed at the battle of Flodden in 1513, was succeeded by his son Andrew, 2nd Baron Avandale of this creation; and the latter obtained an act of parliament in 1543 empowering him to exchange the title of Lord Avandale for that of Lord Ochiltree, or Lord Stewart of Ochiltree. His son, Andrew, 2nd Lord Ochiltree (d. c. 1000), was a zealous supporter of the lords of the congregation, and especially of John Knox, in the struggle against Mary queen of Scots, and was wounded at the battle of Langside while fighting against the queen. Of his five sons, William was slain by the earl of ​Bothwell in 1588, and James, created earl of Arran in 1581, was tne father of Sir James Stewart of Killeith who became 4th Lord Ochiltree in 1615; his daughter Margaret was the second wife of John Knox. His brother Henry Stewart married Margaret Tudor, widow of James IV. of Scotland, and was created Baron Methven by James V. in 1528; and another brother, Sir James Stewart of Beath, was ancestor of the Stewart earls of Moray, through his son James who was created Lord Doune in 1581.
The second Lord Ochiltree was succeeded in the peerage by his grandson Andrew, who resigned the title in 1615, and having been summoned by writ to the Irish House of Lords was created Baron Castle Stewart in the Irish peerage in 1619. The barony of Ochiltree which he thus resigned was conferred in 1615 on his cousin Sir James Stewart of Killeith (see above), son of the earl of Arran; and on the death without issue of his son William, 5th Lord Ochiltree, in 1675, the title became extinct. In 1774 Andrew Thomas Stewart successfully claimed the barony of Castle Stewart in the peerage of Ireland as heir male under the creation of 1619; but although he was permitted in 1790 to vote as Lord Ochiltree in an election of Scottish representative peers, his claim to this barony as collateral heir of the grantee of 1615 was disallowed by the House of Lords in 1793.