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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abbot, Robert

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​Abbot, Robert. Noted as this Puritan divine was in his own time, and representative in various ways, he has hitherto been confounded with others, as Robert Abbot, Bishop of Salisbury, and his personality distributed over a Robert Abbot of Cranbrook; another of Southwick, Hants; a third of St Austin's, London; while these successive places were only the successive livings of the one Robert Abbot. He is also described as of the Archbishop's or Guildford Abbots, whereas he was in no way related, albeit he acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles-dedicatory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe ovt Sinne and Antichrist (1623, 4to), that it was from the archbishop he had "received all" his "worldly maintenance," as well as "best earthly countenance" and "fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was the presentation to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent, of which the archbishop was patron. This was in 1616. He had received his education at Cambridge, where he proceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In 1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years, and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full." The former date carries us back to 1588-89, or perhaps 1587-88—the ​"Armada" year as his birth-time; the latter to 1616-17 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters (1626), he describes himself as formerly "assistant to a reverend divine . . . . now with God," and the name on the margin is "Master Haiward of Wool Church." This was doubtless previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where the father of Phineas and Giles Fletcher was the first "Reformation" pastor, and which, relatively small as it is, is transfigured by being the birth-place of the poet of the "Locustæ" and "The Purple Island." His parishioners were as his own "sons and daughters" to him, and by day and night he thought and felt, wept and prayed, for them and with them. He is a noble specimen of the rural clergyman of his age. Puritan though he was in his deepest convictions, he was a thorough Churchman as toward Non-conformists, e.g., the Brownists, with whom he waged stern warfare. He remained until 1643 at Cranbrook, and then chose the very inferior living of Southwick, Hants, as between the one and the other, the Parliament deciding against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices. Succeeding the "extruded" Udall of St Austine's, Abbot continued there until a good old age. In 1657, in the Warning-piece, he is described as still "pastor of Austine's in London." He disappears silently between 1657-8 and 1662. Robert Abbot's books are distinguished from many of the Puritans by their terseness and variety. (Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings; Wood's Athenæ (Bliss); Catalogus Impressorum Librorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, s.v.; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem., ii. 218.)  (A. B. G.)
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abbotsford

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​Abbotsford, the celebrated residence of Sir Walter Scott, situated on the south bank of the river Tweed, about three miles above Melrose. The nucleus of the property was a small farm of 100 acres, with the "inharmonious designation" of Clarty Hole, acquired by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was gradually increased by various acquisitions, the last and principal being that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The present new house was then commenced, and was completed in 1824. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines—one side overlooking the Tweed, and the other facing a courtyard; and the general style of the building is the Scottish baronial. Scott had only enjoyed his new residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune (connected with the failure of Ballantyne and Constable), which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, the library and museum were presented as a free gift by the creditors; and after Scott's death, which took place at Abbotsford in September 1832, a committee of friends subscribed a further sum of about £8000 towards the same object. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847, by Mr Cadell, the publisher, accepting the remaining claims of the family over Sir Walter Scott's writings in requital of his obligation to obliterate the heritable bond on the property. The result of this transaction was, that not only was the estate redeemed by the fruit of Scott's brain, but a handsome residue fell to the publisher. Scott's only son Walter (Lieutenant-Colonel 15th Hussars) did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Its subsequent possessors have been Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, and the latter's son-in-law, J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., whose daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter) is the present proprietor. Mr Lockhart died at Abbotsford in 1854.—See Life of Scott, by J. G. Lockhart; Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey, by Washington Irving; Abbotsford Notanda in Gentleman's Mag., April and May 1869; The Lands of Scott, by James F. Hunnewell, cr. 8vo, 1871; Scott Loan Exhibition Catalogue, 4to, 1871.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abbé

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​Abbé is the French word corresponding to Abbot, but, from the middle of the sixteenth century to the time of the French Revolution, the term had a wider application. The assumption by a numerous class of the name and style of abbé appears to have originated in the right conceded to the King of France, by a concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I., to appoint abbés commendataires to 225 abbeys, that is, to most of the abbeys in France. This kind of appointment, whereby the living was commended to some one till a proper election could take place, though ostensibly provisional, really put the nominee in full and permanent possession of the benefice. He received about one-third of the revenues of the abbey, but had no share, in its government, the charge of the house being intrusted to a resident officer, the prieur claustral. The abbés commendataires were not necessarily priests; the papal bull required indeed that they should take orders within a stated time after their appointment, but there seems to have been no difficulty in procuring relief from that obligation. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the Church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed—abbés de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbés de sainte espérance, abbés of St Hope—came to hold a recognised position, that perhaps proved as great an attraction as the hope of preferment. The connection many of them had with the Church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study; practising celibacy; and wearing a distinctive dress—a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. As might be imagined from the objectless sort of life the class led, many of the abbes were of indifferent character; but there are not a few instances of abbés attaining eminence, both in political life and in the walks of literature and science. The Abbé Sieyès may be taken as a prominent example of the latter type.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abd-el-Kader

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​Abd-el-Kader, celebrated for his brave resistance to the advance of the French in Algeria, was born near Mascara, in the early part of the year 1807. His father was a man of great influence among his countrymen from his high rank and learning, and Abd-el-Kader himself at an early age acquired a wide reputation for wisdom and piety, as well as for skill in horsemanship and other manly exercises. In 1831 he was chosen Emir of Mascara, and leader of the combined tribes in their attempt to check the growing power of the French in Africa. His efforts were at first successful, and in 1834 he concluded a treaty with the French general, which was very favourable to his cause. This treaty was broken in the succeeding year; but as the war that followed was mainly in favour of the Arabs, peace was renewed in 1837. War again broke out in 1839, and for more than a year was carried on in a very desultory manner. In 1841, however, Marshal Bugeaud assumed the chief command of the French force, which numbered nearly 100,000 men. The war was now carried on with great vigour, and Abd-el-Kader, after a most determined resistance, surrendered himself to the Duc d'Aumale, on the 22d December 1847. The promise, that he would be allowed to retire to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, upon the faith of which Abd-el-Kader had given himself up, was broken by the French government. He was taken to France, and was imprisoned first in the castle of Pau, and afterwards in that of Amboise. In 1852 Louis Napoleon gave him his liberty on condition of his not returning to Algeria. Since then he resided successively at Broussa, Constantinople, and Damascus. He is reported to have died at Mecca in October 1873. See Algeria.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abbotsford Club

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​Abbotsford Club, one of the principal printing clubs, was founded in 1834 by Mr W. B. D. D. Turnbull, and named in honour of Sir Walter Scott. Taking a wider range than its predecessors, the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs, it did not confine its printing (as remarked by Mr Lockhart) to works connected with Scotland, but admitted all materials that threw light on the ancient history of literature of any country, anywhere described or discussed by the Author of Waverley. The club, now dissolved, consisted of fifty members; and the publications extend to 34 vols. quarto, issued during the years 1835-1864.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abbreviators

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​Abbreviators, a body of writers in the Papal Chancery, whose business is to sketch out and prepare in due form the Pope's bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees. ​They are first mentioned in a bull of Benedict XII., early in the 14th century. Their number is fixed at seventy-two, of whom twelve, distinguished as de parco majori, hold prelatic rank; twenty-two, de parco minori, are clergymen of lower rank; and the remainder, examinatores, may be laymen.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abdera (1.)

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​Abdera (1.), in Ancient Geography, a maritime town of Thrace, eastward from the mouth of the river Nestus. Mythology assigns the founding of the town to Hercules; but Herodotus states that it was first colonised by Timesias of Clazomenæ, whom the Thracians in a short time expelled. Rather more than a century later (B.C. 541), the people of Seos recolonised Abdera. The town soon became one of considerable importance, and in B.C. 408, when it was reduced by Thrasybulus the Athenian, it is described as in a very flourishing condition. Its prosperity was greatly impaired by its disastrous war with the Triballi (circa B.C. 376), and very little is heard of it thereafter. The Abderitæ, or Abderitani, were proverbial for their want of wit and judgment; yet their city gave birth to several eminent persons, as Protagoras, Democritus, and Anaxarchus the philosophers, Hecatæus the historian, Nicænetus the poet, and others.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Avigliano

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​AVIGLIANO, a town of Italy, in the province of Basilicata, 11 miles N.N.W. of Potenza. It stands on the declivity of a hill, and contains a collegiate church, several convents, and a royal college. A peculiar kind of pottery produced here towards the end of the 18th century is still sought after by collectors. The surrounding country is said to produce the finest cattle in the kingdom. A part of the town was destroyed by a land-slip in 1824. Population, 15,982.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Avezzano

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​AVEZZANO, a town of Italy, in Abruzzo Ulteriore II., containing a castle, which was built in 1499 by Virgilio Orsini, afterwards belonged to the family of the Colonnas, and is now in the possession of the Barberinis. Population about 5900. Long. 13° 32' E., lat. 41° 58' N.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aveyron

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​AVEYRON, a department in the S. of France, bounded on the N. by Cantal, E. by Lozere, S. by He rault and Tarn, and W. by Tarn et-Garonne and Lot, containing an area of 3429 square miles. It corresponds to a large por tion of the ancient district of Rouergue in Guienne, which formerly gave its name to a family of counts. Its earliest inhabitants known to us were the Rutheni, whose capital
department is rich in prehistoric antiquities, such as the dolmens at Taurines, Laumieres, Grailhe, &c. (see paper by M. E. Cartailhac in Norwich vol. of Internat. Cong, of Prehist. Arch., 1868). A large portion of Aveyron is occupied by offshoots of the Cevennes, the highest summit beiug Cham-de-la-Roche, 4350 feet above the level of the sea. About half the area is under cultivation, nearly one-fourth ia heath, one-tenth woods and forests, and rather more than an eighth part meadow land. Vineyards -occupy about one-twelfth part of the cultivated land. The department has mines of copper, lead, silver, iron, zinc, alum, and antimony, and extensive coal-fields of great value. Rather more than three-fourths of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits of one kind or another, mainly in the rearing of cattle, sheep, and swine ; and there are manufactures of paper, woollen and cotton goods, silk, and leather, to which water-power is skilfully applied. Aveyron exports chestnuts, almonds, hemp, wool, wax, the famous Roquefort cheese, timber, and cattle. Among the numerous men of mark belonging to the department may be mentioned Jean de la Valette, the defender of Malta, Raynal, Bonald, and Louis Blanc. The capital is Rodez, and the arrondissements are Rodez, Espalion, Milhau, Saint- Affrique, and Villefranche. Popu lation in 1872, 402,474. For investigations into the races represented in the department see Bulletins de la Soc. d Anthrop. vol. iv.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Avlona

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AVLONA, or Valona (the ancient Αὐλών), a town and seaport of Albania, in the eyalet of Yanina. It stands on an eminence near the Gulf of Avlona, an inlet of the Adriatic, almost surrounded by mountains. The port, which is protected by the island of Sasseno, the ancient Saso, is the best on the Albanian coast. It is visited weekly by Austrian steamers, and carries on considerable intercourse with Brindisi, &c. The town is about a mile and a half from the sea, and has rather a pleasant appearance with its minarets and its palace, surrounded with gardens and olive-groves. The Christian population, of which a considerable proportion are Italians, is largely engaged in commerce ; while the Turks manufacture woollen stuffs and arms. The material imported into England for tanning, under the name of Valonia, is the pericarp of an acorn produced in the district. Avlona played an important part in the wars between the Normans and the Byzantine empire. In 1464 it was taken by the Ottomans; and after being in Venetian possession in 1690, was restored to them in 1691. In 1851 it suffered severely from an earthquake.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Avesnes

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​AVESNES, a town of France, in the department of Nord, situated in a fertile district on the Greater Helpe. It is generally well built, and is fortified on Vauban s system. Its principal building is the cathedral, surmounted by a tower 330 feet high, which is raised on four columns, and has a fine chime. It is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, an agricultural society, and a communal college. The principal manu factures are hosiery, coarse serge, and soap ; there are also breweries, tanneries, salt-refineries, and brick and marble works. A great part of the town was destroyed by the explosion of a powder-magazine during the siege by the Prussians in July 1815, but was soon afterwards rebuilt. Population, 3737.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Avoirdupois

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AVOIRDUPOIS, or Averdupois, the name of a system of weights, commonly supposed to be derived from the French, avoir du pois, to have weight. The suggested derivation from averer, to verify, seems, however, more probable, averdupois being the earlier form of the word. Avoirdupois weight is used for all commodities except the precious metals, gems, and medicines. The pound avoirdupois, which is equal to 7000 grains troy, or 453·54 grammes, is divided into 16 ounces, and the ounce into 16 drams. See Weights and Measures.
# Elements of Chemistry

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* Elements of Chemistry (1790), textbook by Antoine Lavoisier, translated by Robert Kerr
* Elements of Chemistry, textbook by David Boswell Reid
# Elements of Chemistry (Lavoisier, tr. Kerr)

ELEMENTS
OF
CHEMISTRY.
ELEMENTS
OF
CHEMISTRY,
IN A
NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER,
CONTAINING ALL THE
MODERN DISCOVERIES.
ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTEEN COPPERPLATES.
By Mr. LAVOISIER,
Member of the Academy of Sciences, Royal Society of Me- dicine, and the Agricultural Society of Paris, of the Royal Society of London, and Philosophical Societies of Orleans, Bologna, Basil, Philadelphia, Haerlem, Manchester, &c. &c.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH,
By ROBERT KERR, F.R. & A.SS.E. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons, and Surgeon to the Orphan Hospital of Edinburgh.
EDINBURGH: printed for WILLIAM CREECH, and sold in london by g.g. and j.j. robinsons.
MDCCXC.
CONTENTS.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Andreasberg

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ANDREASBERG, a town of Prussia, in the former kingdom of Hanover, situated in the Hartz mountains, at an elevation of nearly 2000 feet above the level of the sea, and at a distance of about 10 miles S.E. from Clausthal. It contains 3321 inhabitants, many of whom are employed in the manufacture of lace, thread, or matches. In the vicinity there are valuable mines of silver, iron, lead, cobalt, arsenic, and copper.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Andriscus

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ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who, pretending to be the natural son of Perseus, last king of Macedonia, assumed the name of Philip, for which reason he was called Pseudo-Philippus, the False Philip. Escaping from Rome, where he was imprisoned for his pretensions, he found a sufficient number of partisans in Thrace to en courage him to assert his claim to the throne of Macedonia, and enable him to defeat the Roman praetor Juventius, who had been sent against him. His brief reign was marked by great cruelty and extortion. In 148 B.C. he was completely defeated, and was carried captive to Rome by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, for whom this triumph gained the name of Macedonicus. The victory placed Macedonia once more in the hands of the Romans, though at a cost of 25,000 men. Andriscus was put to death by order of the senate.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Andover (2.)

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purchased a part of the Indian domain known as Cochiche wick from the natives for $26.64 and a cloth coat. The streams in the vicinity afford water power, which is employed to some extent in manufactures of flannels, linen, and shoe thread ; Lut the town is chiefly known by its academic institutions. The Puuchard High School has a high local reputation. Phillips Academy is one of the most popular schools in New England. It was endowed by the Phillips family in 1778 with $85,000 (17,000) and considerable landed estates, and has always been well sustained. It has a principal and eight instructors, and the number of pupils in 1873 was 252. The Andover Theological Seminary was founded in 1807, under the auspices of the Congregationalists, but is open to Protestants of all denominations. It has five professors and generally more than 100 students. Tuition and room rent are free to all, and additional aid is given to indigent students. The Abbot Female Academy, for the education of female teachers (founded in 1829), is also a flourishing institution. Andover has a bank, four churches, and two hotels. Its population