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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metapontum

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​METAPONTUM (Gr. Μεταπόντιον, mod. Metaponto), an ancient city of Magna Graecia situated on the Gulf of Tarentum, near the mouth of the river Bradanus, and distant about 24 m. from Tarentum and 14 m. from Heraclea. It was founded by an Achaean colony from Sybaris and Crotona about 700 B.C. Metapontum was one of the cities that played a conspicuous part in the troubles arising from the introduction of the Pythagorism into Magna Graecia, and it was there that Pythagoras died in 497 B.C. His tomb was still shown in the time of Cicero.
At the time of the Athenian expedition to Sicily (415 B.C.) Metapontum appears to have been an opulent and powerful city, whose alliance was courted by the Athenians; but it contented itself with a very trifling support. IN 332 B.C., at the time of the expedition of Alexander, king of Epirus, into Italy, it was one of the first cities to enter into an alliance with him. The Second Punic War gave a fatal blow to its prosperity. After the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C. it was among the first cities in the south of Italy to declare in favour of Hannibal, and became for some years the headquarters of Hannibal. Hence, when the defeat of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus (207 B.C.) compelled him to abandon this part of Italy, the inhabitants of Metapontum abandoned their city, and followed him in his retreat.
From this time Metapontum sank; though it was still existing in the days of Cicero, Pausanias tells us that in his time nothing remained of it but a theatre and the circuit of the walls.
Metapontum has the remains of two temples, both of which seem to belong to the period 510–480 B.C. (Koldewey and Puchstein, Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien, Berlin, 1899, pp. 35–41). The so-called Chiesa di Sansone, which lay within the ancient town, and was probably dedicated to Apollo Lycius, was a peripteros measuring 186 by 913/4 ft., of which only the foundations are left. The capitals were 31/3 ft. in diameter. The temple was decorated with finely painted terra-cottas. Of the other temple, the so-called Tavole Paladine, which lay outside the area of the ancient city, and was a peripteros with 6 columns, 31/3 ft. in diameter, in front and 12 ft. at the sides, 15 columns are standing, with the lower portion of the epistyle. It measured 105 ft. by 49 ft. without the steps. There are also traces of the town walls, which have served for the construction of farmhouses, of tombs, and of a harbour by the shore. Pliny speaks of a temple of Juno at Metapontum supported by columns of vinewood (Hist. nat. xiv. 9). An archaic treasure-house dedicated at Olympia by the people of Metapontum has been discovered there. The railway station is the junction of the line from Battipaglia (and Naples) with that from Taranto to Reggio.  (T. As.)
See M. Lacava, Topografia e storia di Metaponto (Naples, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metaurus

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​METAURUS (mod. Metauro; the form Mataurus is later, and is more frequent in inscriptions of the imperial period), a river of Italy, which flows into the sea a little south-east of Fanum Fortunae (mod. Fano). On its banks Hasdrubal, while marching to the aid of Hannibal in 207 B.C., was defeated and slain by the Roman army, this being the decisive battle of the Second Punic War. The exact site of the battle is uncertain; tradition places it between Fossombrone and the Furlo Pass, but it is probable that it occurred nearer the sea-coast.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metcalfe, Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, Baron

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​METCALFE, CHARLES THEOPHILUS METCALFE, Baron (1785–1846), Indian and colonial administrator, was born at Calcutta on the 30th of January 1785; he was the second son of Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe, then a major in the Bengal army, who afterwards became a director of the East India Company, and was created a baronet in 1802. Having been educated at Eton, he in 1800 sailed for India as a writer in the service of the Company. After studying Oriental languages as the first student at Lord Wellesley’s College of Fort William, he, at the age of nineteen, was appointed political assistant to General Lake, who was then conducting the final campaign of the Mahratta war against Holkar. In 1808 he was selected by Lord Minto for the responsible post of envoy to the court of Ranjit Singh at Lahore; here, on the 25th of April 1809, he concluded the important treaty securing the independence of the Sikh states between the Sutlej and the Jumna. Four years afterwards he was made resident at Delhi, and in 1819 he received from Lord Hastings the appointment of secretary in the secret and political department. From 1820 to 1825 Sir Charles (who succeeded his brother in the baronetcy in 1822) was resident at the court of the nizam, and afterwards was summoned in an emergency to his former post at Delhi. In 1827 he obtained a seat in the supreme council, and in March 1835, after he had acted as the first governor of the proposed new presidency of Agra, he provisionally succeeded Lord William Bentinck in the governor-generalship. During his brief tenure of office (it lasted only for one year) he carried out several important measures, including that for the liberation of the press, which, while almost universally popular, complicated his relations with the directors at home to such an extent that he resigned the service of the Company in 1838. In the following year he was appointed by the Melbourne administration to the governorship of Jamaica, where the difficulties created by the recent passing of the Negro Emancipation Act had called for a high degree of tact and ability. Sir Charles Metcalfe’s success in this delicate position, was very marked, but unfortunately his health compelled his resignation and return to England in 1842. Six months afterwards he was appointed by the Peel ministry to the governor-generalship of Canada, and his success in carrying out the policy of the home government was rewarded with a ​peerage shortly after his return in 1845. He died at Malshanger, near Basingstoke, on the 5th of September 1846.
See J. W. Kaye’s Life and Correspondence of Charles Lord Metcalfe (London, 1854).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Metaxas, Andreas

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​METAXAS, ANDREAS (1786–1860), Greek politician, was born in the island of Cephalonia. During the latter part of the War of Independence (1824–1827) he accompanied Capo d’Istria to Greece, and was appointed by him minister of war. When Capo d’Istria was murdered in 1831 Metaxas became a member of the provisional government which held office till the accession of King Otho in 1833. During the minority of Otho he was named privy councillor and minister at Madrid and Lisbon. In 1840 he was recalled and appointed minister of war. In 1843–1844 he was president of the council of ministers, and he subsequently held the post of ambassador at Constantinople from 1850 to 1854. He died at Athens on the 19th of September 1860.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilwinning

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​KILWINNING, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Garnock, 24 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway, and 263/4 m. by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4440. The chief buildings include the public library, the Masonic hall and the district hospital. The centre of interest, however, is the ruined abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. Founded about 1140 by Hugh de Morville, lord of Cunninghame, for Tyronensian monks of the Benedictine order, it was dedicated to St Winnin, who lived on the spot in the 8th century and has given his name to the town. This beautiful specimen of Early English architecture was partly destroyed in 1561, and its lands were granted to the earl of Eglinton and others. Kilwinning is the traditional birthplace of Scottish freemasonry, the lodge, believed to have been founded by the foreign architects and masons who came to build the abbey, being regarded as the mother lodge in Scotland. The royal company of archers of Kilwinning—dating, it is said, as far back as 1488—meet every July to shoot at the popinjay. The industry in weaving shawls and lighter fabrics has died out; and the large iron, coal and fire-clay works at Eglinton, and worsted spinning, employ most of the inhabitants. About a mile from Kilwinning is Eglinton Castle, the seat of the earls of Eglinton, built in 1798 in the English castellated style.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilpatrick, Old

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​KILPATRICK, OLD, a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the Clyde, 101/2 m. N.W. of Glasgow by rail, with stations on the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 1533. It is traditionally the birthplace of St Patrick, ​whose father is said to have acted there as a Roman magistrate. Roman remains occur in the district, and the Wall of Antoninus ran through the parish. To the north, occupying an area of about 6 m. from east to west and 5 m. from north to south run the Kilpatrick Hills, of which the highest points are Duncomb and Fynloch Hill (each 1313 ft.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilsyth

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​KILSYTH, a police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the Kelvin, 13 m. N.N.E. of Glasgow by the North British railway, and close to the Forth and Clyde canal. Pop. (1901), 7292. The principal buildings are the town and public halls, and the academy. The chief industries are coal-mining and iron-works; there are also manufactures of paper and cotton, besides quarrying of whinstone and sandstone. There are considerable remains of the Wall of Antoninus south of the town, and to the north the ruins of the old castle. Kilsyth dates from the middle of the 17th century and became a burgh of barony in 1826. It was the scene of Montrose’s defeat of the Covenanters on the 15th of August 1645. The town was the centre of remarkable religious revivals in 1742–3 and 1839, the latter conducted by William Chalmers Burns (1815–1868), the missionary to China.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilt

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​KILT, properly the short loose skirt or petticoat, reaching to the knees and usually made of tartan, forming part of the dress of a Scottish Highlander (see Costume). The word means that which is “girded or tucked up,” and is apparently of Scandinavian origin, cf. Danish kilte, to tuck up. The early kilt was not a separate garment but was merely the lower part of the plaid, in which the Highlander wrapped himself, hanging down in folds below the belt.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilwardby, Robert

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​KILWARDBY, ROBERT (d. 1279), archbishop of Canterbury and cardinal, studied at the university of Paris, where he soon became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic. Afterwards joining the order of St Dominic and turning his attention to theology, he was chosen provincial prior of his order in England in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X. terminated a dispute over the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury by appointing Kilwardby. Although the new archbishop crowned Edward I. and his queen Eleanor in August 1274, he took little part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the poor, and showed liberality to the Dominicans. In 1278 Pope Nicholas III. made him cardinal-bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina; he resigned his archbishopric and left England, carrying with him the registers and other valuable property belonging to the see of Canterbury. He died in Italy on the 11th of September 1279. Kilwardby was the first member of a mendicant order to attain a high position in the English Church. Among his numerous writings, which became very popular among students, are De ortu scientiarum, De tempore, De Universali, and some commentaries on Aristotle.
See N. Trevet, Annales sex regum Angliae, edited by T. Hog (London, 1845); W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, vol. iii. (London, 1860–1876); J. Quétif and J. Échard, Scriptores ordinis Predicatorum (Paris, 1719–1721).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilrush

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​KILRUSH, a seaport and watering-place of county Clare, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the north shore of the Shannon estuary 45 m. below Limerick. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4179. It is the terminus of a branch of the West Clare railway. The only seaport of importance in the county, it has a considerable export trade in peat fuel, extensive fisheries, and flagstone quarries; while general fairs, horse fairs and annual agricultural shows are held. The inner harbour admits only small vessels, but there is a good pier a mile south of the town. Off the harbour lies Scattery Island (Inis Cathaigh), where St Senan (d. 544) founded a monastery. There are the remains of his oratory and house and of seven rude churches or chapels, together with a round tower and a holy well still in repute. The island also received the epithet of Holy, and was a favourite burial-ground until modern times.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pasewalk

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​PASEWALK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the Ucker, 26 m. N.W. from Stettin by the railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 10,519. Pasewalk became a town during the 12th century and was soon a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1359 it passed to the duke of Pomerania. Frequently ravaged during the wars which devastated the district, it was plundered several times by the imperialists during the Thirty Years’ War; in 1657 it was burnt by the Poles and in 1713 by the Russians. By the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was given to Sweden, but in 1676 it was conquered by Brandenburg, and in 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, it was definitely assigned to Brandenburg-Prussia.
See Hückstädt, Geschichte der Stadt Pasewalk (Pasewalk, 1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pasig

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​PASIG, a town and the capital of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 6 m. E.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 11,287. The town, which covers a considerable area, is traversed by the Pasig river and its tributary, the Mariquino river, and for a short distance borders on Laguna de Bay. In the south-western part is Fort McKinley. Although built on low ground, Pasig is fairly healthy. It was formerly an important commercial centre, the inhabitants being largely engaged in a carrying and forwarding trade between Manila and the lake ports; but this trade was lost after the establishment of direct rail and steamboat service between these ports. The principal industries are rice-farming, the manufacture of a cheap red pottery, and fishing. The language is Tagalog.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paskevich, Ivan Fedorovich

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​PASKEVICH, IVAN FEDOROVICH (1782–1856), count of Erivan, prince of Warsaw, Russian field marshal, descended from an old and wealthy family, was born at Poltava on the 19th (8th) of May 1782. He was educated at the imperial institution for pages, where his progress was rapid, and in 1800 received his commission in the Guards and was named aide-de-camp to the tsar. His first active service was in 1805, in the auxiliary army sent to the assistance of Austria against France, when he took part in the battle of Austerlitz. From 1807 to 1812 he was engaged in the campaigns against Turkey, and distinguished himself by many brilliant and daring exploits, being made a general officer in his thirtieth year. During the French War of 1812–14 he was present, in command of the 26th division of infantry, at all the most important engagements; at the battle of Leipzig he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general. On the outbreak of war with Persia in 1826 he was appointed second in command, and, succeeding in the following year to the chief command, gained rapid and brilliant successes which compelled the shah to sue for peace in February ​1828. In reward of his services he was named by the emperor count of Erivan, and received a million of roubles and a diamond-mounted sword. From Persia he was sent to Turkey in Asia, and, having captured in rapid succession the principal fortresses, he was at the end of the campaign made a field marshal at the age of forty-seven. In 1830 he subdued the mountaineers of Daghestan. In 1831 he was entrusted with the command of the army sent to suppress the revolt of Poland, and after the fall of Warsaw, which gave the death-blow to Polish independence, he was raised to the dignity of prince of Warsaw, and created viceroy of the kingdom of Poland. On the outbreak of the insurrection of Hungary in 1848 he was appointed to the command of the Russian troops sent to the aid of Austria, and finally compelled the surrender of the Hungarians at Világos. In April 1854 he again took the field in command of the army of the Danube, but on the 9th of June, at Silistria, where he suffered defeat, he received a contusion which compelled him to retire from active service. He died on the 13th (1st) of February 1856 at Warsaw, where in 1869 a memorial was erected to him. He held the rank of field marshal in the Prussian and Austrian armies as well as in his own service.
See Tolstoy, Essai biographique et historique sur le feld-maréchal Prince de Varsovie (Paris, 1835); Notice biographique sur le Maréchal Paskévitch (Leipzig, 1856); and Prince Stcherbatov’s Life (St Petersburg, 1888–1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pascal, Jacqueline

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​PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625–1661), sister of Blaise Pascal, was born at Clermont-Ferrand, France, on the 4th of October 1625. She was a genuine infant prodigy, composing verses when only eight years, and a five-act comedy at eleven. In 1646 the influence of her brother converted her to Jansenism. In 1652, she took the veil, despite the strong opposition of her brother, and subsequently was largely instrumental in the latter’s own final conversion. She vehemently opposed the attempt to compel the assent of the nuns to the Papal bulls condemning Jansenism, but was at last compelled to yield her own. This blow, however, hastened her death, which occurred at Paris on the 4th of October 1661.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pasdeloup, Jules Étienne

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​PASDELOUP, JULES ÉTIENNE (1819–1887), French conductor, was born in Paris, and educated in music at the conservatoire. He founded in 1851 a “societe des jeunes artistes du conservatoire,” and, as conductor of its concerts, did much to popularize the best new compositions of the time. His “popular concerts” at the Cirque d’hiver, from 1861 till 1884, had also a great effect in promoting French taste in music.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pasiteles

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​PASITELES, the most important member of the Neo-Attic school of sculpture in the time of Julius Caesar. At that period there was at Rome a demand for copies of, or variations on, noted works of Greek sculpture: the demand was met by the workshops of Pasiteles and his pupils Stephanus and Menelaus and others, several of whose statues are extant. In working from early Dorian models they introduced refinements of their own, with the result that they produced beautiful, but somewhat vapid and academic types. Pasiteles is said by Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxvi. 39) to have been a native of Magna Graecia, and to have been granted the Roman citizenship.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paschal Chronicle

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​PASCHAL CHRONICLE (Chronicum Paschale, also Chronicum Alexandrinum or Constantinopolitanum, or Fasti Siculi), so called from being based upon the Easter canon, an outline of chronology from Adam down to A.D. 629, accompanied by numerous historical and theological notes. The work, which is imperfect at the beginning and end (breaking off in the year 627), is preceded by an introduction on the Christian methods of reckoning time and the Easter cycle. It was written during the reign of Heraclius (610–641), and is generally attributed to an unknown Byzantine cleric and friend of the patriarch Sergius, who is specially alluded to as responsible for the introduction of certain ritual innovations. The so-called Byzantine or Roman era (which continued in use in the Greek Church until its liberation from Turkish rule) was adopted in the Chronicum for the first time as the foundation of chronology, in accordance with which the date of the creation is given as the 21st of March, 5507. The author is merely a compiler from earlier works, except in the history of the last thirty years, which has the value of a contemporary record.
The chief authorities used were: Julius Sextus Africanus (3rd century); the consular Fasti; the Chronicle and Church History of Eusebius; John Malalas; the Acta martyrum; the treatise of Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia (the old Salamis) in Cyprus (fl. 4th century), on Weights and Measures. Editions: L. Dindorf (1832) in Corpus Scriptorum hist. byzantinae, with Du Cange’s preface and commentary; J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, xcii.; see also C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895); H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius Africanus und die byzantinische Chronographie, ii. 1 (1885); J. van der Hagen, Observationes in Heraclii imperatoris methodum paschalem (1736, but still considered indispensable); E. Schwarz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopädie, iii., pt. 2 (1899); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pasha

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​PASHA, also written “pacha” and formerly “pashaw,” &c., a Turkish title, superior to that of bey (q.v.), borne by persons of high rank and placed after the name. It is in the gift of the sultan of Turkey and, by delegation, of the khedive of Egypt. The title appears, originally, to have been bestowed exclusively upon military commanders, but it is now given to any high official, and also to unofficial persons whom it is desired to honour. It is conferred indifferently upon Moslems and Christians, and is frequently given to foreigners in the service of the Turks or Egyptians. Pashas are of three grades, formerly distinguished by the number of horse-tails (three, two and one respectively) which they were entitled to display as symbols of authority when on campaign. A pashalik is a province governed by or under the jurisdiction of a pasha.
The word is variously derived from the Persian pādshah, Turkish pādishah, equivalent to king or emperor, and from the Turkish bash, in some dialects pash, a head, chief, &c. In old Turkish there was no fixed distinction between b and p. As first used in western Europe the title was written with the initial b. The English forms bashaw, bassaw, bucha, &c., general in the 16th and 17th centuries, were derived through the med. Lat. and Ital. bassa.