OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustication

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​ Rustication (i.e. the making “rustic” or countrified, from Lat. rus, country; thus the term “rusticate” is used for taking a country holiday, or in academic circles to be “rusticated” is to be sent away from a university for punishment), in architecture, the technical term (French equivalent bossage) given to masonry in which the centre part of the face of the stone is either left rough as it came from the quarry, or is worked in various ways to give variety to the surface. The earliest example exists in the platform at Pasargadae in Persia (560 B.C.), erected by Cyrus, where the edge round the four sides of the stone forms a draft, two or three inches wide, worked with a chisel, the centre ​part being left rough. Similar work exists at Arak-el-Emir in Palestine (151 B.C.) The finest examples are those of the walls of the temple at Jerusalem, and at Hebron, where the stones are of immense size and the rustication projects sometimes over a foot. The Crusaders' castles in Palestine are all boldly rusticated, but the projecting portions have been worked over with a chisel in diagonal lines, and this enables them to be distinguished from the earlier masonry. In the five-sided tower at Nuremberg and the Burg-Capelle at Rothenburg, the rustication has a decorative value, so that in later work it was employed for the quoin-stones of towers. The masonry of the Palazzo Vecchio, and of the Pitti, Strozzi and Riccardi palaces, all in Florence, and of other palaces in Siena and Volterra, is rusticated. Rustication was employed in terraces and grottos in Italy, where on account of its extravagances it gave rise to the term “ grotesque.” In the later Renaissance the edges of the stone were bevelled off, with a sunk joint in addition; and the treatment was known as vermiculated, if in imitation of earth burrowed by worms; marine, if with small shell holes; stalactitic, if carved in imitation of lime deposits, &c. In Italy the projecting portions were sometimes worked into facets. Rustication was introduced into England by Inigo Jones, who, in old Somerset House, York Stairs Watergate, the gateway of the Botanical Garden at Oxford, and elsewhere, used it only in alternate courses, his example being followed by other architects of the Renaissance. The term is now applied to the ashlar blocks of masonry which alternate with the circular drums of columns in many public buildings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ruthenians

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Ruthenians, a name applied to those of the Little Russians who are Austrian subjects. The name is a form of the word Russian. The Ruthenians were separated from the bulk of Russians by the accident of the two feudal principalities of the old Red Russia, Halič and Volhynia, having fallen to Lithuania, which in turn was united with Poland. At the partition of Poland no one troubled about ethnological boundaries. The language is in substance like the Little Russian of the Ukraine, though it has marked differences; the most interesting dialects are those in the extreme W., which approach to Slovak and that of the Huzuli in Bukovina. The Ruthenians number some three million in Galicia, Bukovina, and in the Carpathians along the edges of Hungary from the 21st meridian eastwards. Throughout Galicia the Poles form the aristocracy, though in two-thirds of it Ruthenians form the bulk of the population, while the middle class is Jewish or German. The Ruthenians are therefore under an alien yoke both politically and economically: in religion they mostly belong to the Uniate Church, acknowledging the Pope but retaining their Slavonic liturgy and most of the outward forms of the Greek Church. Their intellectual centre is Lemberg (Lviv or Lwów), where some lectures in the university are given in their language, and they are agitating for it to have equal rights with Polish. Yet here Little Russian is freer than in the Russian empire, and in Lemberg is the centre of its literature, the society called by the name of Ševčenko, the Little Russian poet. This society publishes voluminous transactions in a special orthography and deals with everything concerning Little Russia, its archaeology, people and language.
See summary of the work of the Ševčenko for ten years in Archiv f. slavische Phil. xxvii. (1905), p. 279.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rustchuk

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​Rustchuk (Bulg. Russé), the capital of the department of Rustchuk, Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, where it receives the E. Lom. Pop. (1906) 33,552. Rustchuk is the headquarters of a military division and of a naval flotilla stationed on the Danube. As a river-port and the terminus of railways from Varna and from Sofia via Trnovo, it has much commercial importance; and it possesses tobacco and cigarette factories, soap-works, breweries, aerated water factories, dyeworks, tanneries, sawmills, brick and tile works and a celebrated pottery.
In the time of the Romans Rustchuk was one of the fortified points along the line of the Danube. In the Tabula Peutingeriana it appears as Prisca, in the Antonine Itinerary as Serantaprista, in the Notitia as Seragintaprista and in Ptolemy as Priste Polis. Destroyed by barbarian invaders in the 7th century the town recovered its importance only in comparatively modern times. In 1810 it was captured by the Russians, who destroyed the fortifications. It played an important part in the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1828–29, 1853–54 and 1877–78. In 1877 it was nearly destroyed by the Russian artillery stationed in the Rumanian town of Giurgevo, on the opposite bank of the Danube.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sestett

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​SESTETT, the name given to the second division of a sonnet, which must consist of an octave, of eight lines, succeeded by a sestett, of six lines. In the usual course the rhymes are arranged abc | abc, but this is not necessary. Early Italian Sonnets, and in particular those of Dante, often close with the rhyme-arrangement abc | cba; but in languages. where the sonority of syllables is not so great as it is in Italian, it is dangerous to leave a period of five lines between one rhyme and another. In the quatorzain, there is properly speaking no sestett, but a quatrain followed by a couplet, as in the case of Shakespeare's so-called “ Sonnets.” Another form of sestett has only two rhymes, ab | ab | ab; as is the case in Gray's famous sonnet “On the Death of Richard West.” The sestett should mark the turn of emotion in the sonnet; as a rule it may be said, that the octave having been more or less objective, in the sestett reflection should make its appearance, with a tendency to the subjective manner. For example, in Matthew Arnold's in-genious “ The Better Part, ” the rough inquirer, who has had his own way in the octave, is replied to as soon as the sestett commences:-
   “ So answer est thou? But why not rather say: ' Hath Man no second life ? Pitch this one high. More strictly, then, the inward judge obey ! Was Christ a man like us? Ah I let us try If we, then, too, can be such men as he I ' ”
Wordsworth and Milton are both remarkable for the dignity with which they conduct the downward wave of the sestett in their sonnet. The French sonneteers of the 16th century, with Ronsard at their head, preferred the softer sound of the arrangement aab | ccb |. The German poets have usually wavered between the English and the Italian forms.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Settee

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​SETTEE, a long upholstered seat, usually high-backed and with arms at each end. Its ancestors were the settle and the chair-it has alternately resembled the one and the other. It is broadly distinguished from the many varieties of sofa by being intended for sitting rather than reclining-its seat is of the same height as that of a chair; its arms and much of its detail are chair-like. It dates from about the middle of the 17th century, but examples of that early period are exceedingly rare. There is a famous one at Knole, made about midway between the restoration of Charles II. and the revolution of 1688. By that time the settee had acquired the splendid upholstery and convoluted woodwork which adorned the end of the Stuart period. Early in the 18th century the conjoined double or triple chair form
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Settembrini, Luigi

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​SETTEMBRINI, LUIGI (1813–1877), Italian man of letters and politician, was born in Naples. At the age of twenty-two he was appointed professor of eloquence at Catanzaro, and married Raffaela Luigia Faucitano (1835). While still a young man he had been affected by the wave of liberalism then spreading all over Italy, and soon after his marriage he began to conspire mildly against the Bourbon government. Betrayed by a priest, he was arrested in 1839 and imprisoned at Naples; although liberated three years later he lost his professorship and had to maintain himself by private lessons. Nevertheless he continued to conspire, and in 1847 he published anonymously a “Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies,” a scathing indictment of the Bourbon government. On the advice of friends he went to Malta on a British warship, but although, when King Ferdinand II. granted a constitution (16th of February 1848), he returned to Naples and was given an appointment at the ministry of education, he soon resigned on account of the prevailing chaos, and retired to a farm at Posilipo. When reaction set in, once more Settembrini was arrested as a suspect (June 1849) and imprisoned. After a monstrously unfair trial, he and two other “political” were condemned to death, and nineteen others to varying terms of imprisonment (February 1851). The death sentences were, however, commuted to imprisonment for life, and Settembrini was sent to the dungeons of San Stefano. There he remained for eight years. His friends, including Antonio Panizzi, then in England, made various unsuccessful attempts to liberate him, and at last he was deported with sixty-five other political prisoners. The exiles received an enthusiastic welcome in London, but Settembrini after a short stay in England joined his family at Florence in 1860. On the formation of the Italian kingdom he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the university of Naples, and devoted the rest of his life to literary pursuits. In 1875 he was nominated senator. He died in 1877. His chief work is his Lezioni di letteratura italiana, of which the dominant note is the conviction that Italian literature “is as the very soul of the nation, seeking, in opposition to medieval mysticism, reality, freedom, independence of reason, truth and beauty” (P. Villari).
See L. Settembrini, Ricordanze, 2 vols., edited by F. de Sanctis (Naples, 1879–1880); Epistolario di Luigi Settembrini, edited by F. Fiorentino; P. Villari, Saggi critici (Florence, 1884); Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, Italian Characters (London, 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sestri Ponente

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​SESTRI PONENTE, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 4 m. W. of that town on the coast. Pop. (1901) 17,225. It has important shipbuilding yards and iron-works, with factories, for macaroni, matches and tobacco, tanneries and saw-mills, and, in the vicinity, alasbaster quarries. A mile and a half west is Pegli, also a favourite seaside resort, with beautiful Walks and fine villas, among which the Villa Pallavicina, with rare trees and fantastic buildings, fountains and grottoes, is noticeable.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Set-off

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​SET-OFF, in law, a statutory defence to the whole or to a portion of' a plaintiff's claim. It had no existence under the English common law, being created by 2 Geo. II. c. 22 for the relief of insolvent debtors. Such a defence could be pleaded only in respect of mutual debts of a definite character, and did not apply to cases in which damages were claimed, nor to equitable claims or demands. By the rules of the Supreme Court (O. XIX. r. 3) a defendant in an action may set off or set up any right or claim by way of counterclaim against the claims of a plaintiff, and such set-off or counterclaim has the same effect as a statement of claim in a cross-action. (See Pleading.)
In architecture, the term set-off is given to the horizontal line shown where a wall is reduced in thickness, and consequently the part of the thicker portion appears projecting before the thinner. In plinths this is generally simply chambered. In other' parts of work the set-off is generally concealed by a projecting string. Where, as in parapets, the upper part projects before the lower, the break is generally hid by a corbel table. The portions of buttress caps which recede one behind another are also called sets-off.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Setia

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​SETIA (mod. Sezze, 52 m. by rail S.E. of Rome), an ancient town of Latium (adjectum), Italy, on the south-west edge of the Volscian mountains, overlooking the Pomptine Marshes, 1047 ft. above sea-level, and over 900 ft. above the plain. It was an ancient Volscian town, a member of the Latin league of 499 B.C., which became a Latin colony in 382 B.C., and, owing to the strength of its position as a frontier fortress, is frequently mentioned in the military history of Rome up to the time of Sulla, by whom it was captured in 82 B.C. Under the empire it was well known for its wine, which Augustus preferred even to Falernian. Considerable remains of the city walls exist, built of large blocks of limestone in the polygonal style. This style may also be seen in several terrace walls belonging to a later date, as is indicated by the careful jointing and bossing of the blocks of which they are composed. Such intentional archaism is by no means uncommon in the neighbourhood of Rome. The modern town, occupying the ancient site, is an episcopal see, with a much-restored 13-century Gothic cathedral. Pop. (1901) 6944 (town), 10,827 (commune). At the foot of the hill on which the town stands are considerable remains of Roman villas. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sestri Levante

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​SESTRI LEVANTE (anc. Segesta Tiguliorum), a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, from which it is 28½ m. distant by rail, 33 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3034 (town); 12,038 (commune). It is both a summer and a winter resort, with line views. Part of the town is situated on a promontory (230 ft.) between two bays. The ancient town was the port of exportation of the slate of the district, for we hear of a place called Tigulia or Tegulata on the coast-road; but we know practically nothing of the political condition of the district in Roman times.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Faini, Diamante

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FAINI, DIAMANTE,
Whose maiden name was Medaglia, one of the most noted Italian poets, was born in Roako, a village in the neighbourhood of Breschia. Her poetic talent developed itself while she was yet quite a child. When she reached her fifteenth year, she was well acquainted with the ancient languages, and had written several poems, which excited the admiration of the literary world. The academies of Unanimi in Italy, of Ardetti in Padua, and that of the Arcadi of Rome, were proud to inscribe her name among their members. But she was not only a poetess,—philosophy, mathematics, theology, and astronomy, all found in her a devoted admirer and a close student. She died the 13th. of July, 1770, at Salo.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Falconia, Proba

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FALCONIA, PROBA,
A Roman poetess, flourished in the reign of Theodosius; she was a native of Horta, or Hortanum, in Etruria. There is still extant by her, a cento from Virgil, giving the sacred history from the creation to the deluge; and "The History of Christ," in verses selected from that poet, introduced by a few lines of her own. She has sometimes been confounded with Anicia Faltonia Proba, the mother of three consuls, and with Valeria Proba, wife of Adelsius, the proconsul. She lived about 438.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Falconberg, Mary

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FALCONBERG, MARY,
Third daughter of Oliver Cromwell, and second wife of Thomas Lord Viscount Falconberg, was distinguished for her talents, her spirit, and her beauty. Bishop Burnet, who styles her "a wise and worthy woman," adds, "that she was more likely to have maintained the post of protector than either of her brothers; according to an observation respecting her, that those who wore breeches deserved petticoats better; but if those in petticoats had been in breeches, they would have held faster." After the deposition of Richard, of whose incapacity his sister was aware, she exerted herself in favour of Charles the Second, and is said to have greatly contributed towards the Restoration. It is certain that her husband was, by the committee of safety, sent to the Tower a short time before the return of Charles, in whose favour he held a distinguished place. Lady Falconberg was a member of the established church, and respected for her munificence and charity.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Fannia

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FANNIA,
Daughter of Pætus Thrasea, and grand-daughter of Arria, was the wife of Helvidius, who was twice banished by Domitian, Emperor of Rome, in 81, and who was accompanied each time into exile by his devoted wife. Fannia being accused of having furnished Senecio with materials for writing the life of Helvidins, boldly avowed the fact, but used the greatest precaution to prevent her mother from being involved in the transaction. She was as gentle as magnanimous, and fell a victim to the unremitting tenderness with which she watched over a young vestel, Junia, who had been entrusted to her care, when ill, by the high priest.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Fantastici, Rosellina Massimima

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FANTASTICI, ROSELLINA MASSIMIMA,
Is an Italian, born in the city of Pisa, near the close of the last century. The daughter of a very accomplished mother, Rosellina had, from maternal care, uncommon advantages of education. She appeared at an early age to have a remarkable talent for miniature painting, and attained great excellence in that art. Her marriage displayed her good qualities as a wife and mother, and also as the manager of household economy; but these occupations, though properly fulfilled, do not, or need not, suspend the intellectual improvement of women. Madame Fantastici found time to pursue her painting, until after the birth of her fifth child; when her eyes failing her, she was obliged to give up entirely the practice of this art. She then occupied her leisure hours "with literature, and obtained the silver medal from the Academy of Pistoia for one of her poems. When her children were old enough to require her constant attention, she devoted her time entirely to their education, and wrote nothing but little plays and stories, expressly for their improvement. She experiences the reward of these cares in the love and reverence with which her children regard her. She is now emancipated from her duties an teacher, and has returned with renewed ardour to her beloved studies, the fruits of which will no doubt in time enrich the literature of her country. Her published works are, "A Collection of Sonnets and Odes," "Cefale e Procri," a poem in octave-rhyme, and "Four little plays for children." She now resides at Pisa.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Eustachium

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EUSTACHIUM,
Daughter of Paula, a Roman lady of ancient family, was learned in Greek and Hebrew, as well as in the Latin language, so that she could read Hebrew psalms fluently, and comment ably upon them. She was many years a disciple of St. Jerome, and followed him in his journeys to different places. He speaks of her in high terms in his epistles, and in the life of St. Paula. She lived in a monastery at Bethlehem, till she was forced from it by a kind of persecution said to have been excited by the Pelagians. She died about 419.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Fane, Elizabeth

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FANE, ELIZABETH,
Author of several pious meditations and proverbs in the English language, printed in London in 1550, was probably either the wife of Richard Fane, who married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Stidolph, or of Sir Thomas Fane, who was engaged in Wyatt's rebellion in the reign of Queen Mary. Her writings were entitled "Lady Elizabeth Fane's twenty-one Psalms, and one hundred and two Proverbs "
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Eusebia, Aurelia

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EUSEBIA, AURELIA,
The wife of Constantius, Emperor of the East, was a woman of genius and erudition, but strongly addicted to the Arian heresy; in support of which she exerted her influence over her husband, which was considerable. Few of the empresses had been so beautiful or so chaste. She prevailed on Constantius to give his sister Helena to Julian, and to name him Caesar. Many virtues are allowed her by historians; among others, those of compassion and humanity. She left no children, and died in 360, much regretted by her husband.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vich

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​ VICH, a city of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on the river Gurn, a small right-hand tributary of the Ter, and on the Granollérs-Ripoll railway Pop. (1900) 11,678. Vich is an ancient episcopal city, with narrow, ill-paved streets and many curious old houses irregularly built on the slope of a hill, which rises above one of the side valleys of the Ter basin. The cathedral, founded about 1040 and built chiefly in the 14th century, was to some extent modernized in 1803. Its Gothic cloisters (1340) are remarkable for the beautiful tracery in their windows, and there is a fine altar of sculptured marble. Some valuable manuscripts are preserved in the library of the chapter-house, and the museum contains an interesting archaeological collection, besides statuary, pictures, &c. The city is locally celebrated for the manufacture of sausages, other industries include tanning and the weaving of linen and woollen fabrics.
Vich, the Ausa of the ancient geographers, was the chief town of the Ausetani, in the middle ages it was called Ausona and Vicus Ausonensis, hence Vic de Osona, and simply Vich.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vice-Chancellor

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​VICE-CHANCELLOR, the deputy of a chancellor (q.v.). In he English legal system vice-chancellors in equity were formerly important officials. The first vice-chancellor was appointed in 1813 in order to lighten the work of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, who were at that time the sole judges in equity. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed in 1841. The vice-chancellors sat separately from the lord chancellor and the lords justices, to whom there was an appeal from their decisions. By the Judicature Act 1873 ​they became judges of the High Court of Justice, retaining their titles, but it was enacted that on the death or retirement of any one his successor was to be styled “judge.” Vice-chancellor Sir J. Bacon (1798–1895) was the last to hold the office, resigning in 1886.
Vice-chancellor is also the title given to the judge of the duchy court of Lancaster. For the vice-chancellor of a university, see Chancellor.