OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Olivenite

See also Olivenite on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVENITE, a mineral consisting of basic copper arsenate with the formula Cu$_2$(OH)AsO$_4$. It crystallizes in the ortho​rhombic system, and is sometimes found in small brilliant crystals of simple prismatic habit terminated by domal faces. More usually, however, it occurs as globular aggregates of acicular crystals, these fibrous forms often having a velvety lustre; sometimes it is lamellar in structure, or soft and earthy. A characteristic feature, and one to which the name alludes (German, Olivenerz, of A. G. Werner, 1789), is the olive-green colour, which varies in shade from blackish-green in the crystals to almost white in the finely fibrous variety known as “woodcopper.” The hardness is 3, and the sp. gr. 4·3. The mineral was formerly found in some abundance, associated with limonite and quartz, in the upper workings in the copper mines of the St Day district in Cornwall; also near Redruth, and in the Tintic district in Utah. It is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the alteration of copper ores and mispickel.
The arsenic of olivenite is sometimes partly replaced by a small amount of phosphorus, and in the species libethenite we have the corresponding basic copper phosphate Cu$_2$(OH)PO$_4$. This is found as small dark green crystals resembling olivenite at Libethen in Hungary, and in small amount also in Cornwall. Other members of this isomorphous group of minerals are adamite, Zn$_2$(OH)AsO$_4$, and descloizite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Olives, Mount of

See also Mount of Olives on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or Mount Olivet (Ὄρος Ἐλαιῶνος or τῶν Ἐλαιῶν; mod. Jebel-eṭ-Ṭur), the ridge facing the Temple Mount at Jerusalem on the east, and separated from it by the Kidron. A basis of hard cretaceous limestone is topped with softer deposits of the same, quaternary deposits forming the summit. There are four distinct elevations in the ridge: traditionally the southernmost, which is separated by a cleft from the others, is called the “Hill of Offence,” and said to be the scene of Solomon’s idolatry. The summit to the north of this is often (wrongly) spoken of as Olivet proper. Still worse is the error of calling the next hill but one to the north “Scopus.” The top of the ridge affords a comprehensive view. There are four Old Testament references: 2 Sam. xv. 30 sqq., Neh. viii. 15, Ezek. xi. 23, Zech. xiv. 4. In the New Testament the place is mentioned in connexion with the last days of the life of Jesus. He crossed it on his kingly entry into Jerusalem, and upon it he delivered his great eschatological address (Mark xiii. 3). That the Ascension took place from the summit of the Mount of Olives is not necessarily implied in Acts i. 12; the words “over against Bethany” (Luke xxiv. 50) perhaps mean one of the secluded ravines on the eastern slope, beside one of which that village stands. But since Constantine erected the “Basilica of the Ascension” on the spot marked by a certain sacred cave (Euseb. Vita Const. iii. 41), the site of this event has been placed here and marked by a succession of churches. The present building is quite modern, and is in the hands of the Moslems. Close to the Chapel of the Ascension is the vault of St Pelagia, and a little way down the hill is the labyrinth of early Christian rock-hewn sepulchral chambers now called the “Tombs of the Prophets.” During the middle ages Olivet was also shown as the mount of the Transfiguration. A chapel, bearing the name of the Caliph Omar, and said to occupy the place where he encamped when Jerusalem surrendered to the Moslems, formerly stood beside the Church of the Ascension. There are a considerable number of monasteries and churches of various religious orders and sects on the hill, from whose beauty their uniform and unredeemed ugliness detracts sadly. On Easter day 1907 was laid the foundation of a hospice for pilgrims, under the patronage of the German empress.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oliva, Fernan Perez de

See also Fernan Perez de Oliva on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVA, FERNAN PEREZ DE (1492?–1530), Spanish man of letters, was born at Cordova about 1492. After studying at Salamanca, Alcala, Paris and Rome, he was appointed rector at Salamanca, where he died in 1530. His Diálogo de la dignidad del hombre (1543), an unfinished work completed by Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, was written chiefly to prove the suitability of Spanish as a vehicle for philosophic discussion. He also published translations of the Amphitruo (1525), the Electra (1528) and the Hecuba (1528).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oliver, Peter

See also Peter Oliver (painter) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVER, PETER (1594–1648), English miniature painter, was the eldest son of Isaac Oliver, probably by his first wife; and to him Isaac Oliver left his finished and unfinished drawings, with the hope that he would live to exercise the art of his father. The younger sons of the artist appear to have been under age at the time of his death, and were probably therefore sons by a later wife than the mother of Peter Oliver. He resided at Isleworth, and was buried beside his father at St Anne’s Blackfriars. He was even more eminent in miniature painting than his father, and is specially remarkable for a series of copies in water-colour he made after celebrated pictures by old masters. Most of these were done by the desire of the king, and seven of them still remain at Windsor Castle. A great many of Oliver’s works were purchased by Charles II. from his widow; several of his drawings are in existence, and a leaf from his pocket-book in the collection of the earl of Derby. His most important work is the group of the three grandsons of the 1st Viscount Montacute with their servant, now belonging to the marquess of Exeter; and there are fine miniatures by him at Welbeck Abbey, Montagu House, Sherborne Castle, Minley Manor, Belvoir Castle and in the private collection of the queen of Holland. (G. C. W.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Olivares, Gaspar de Guzman

See also Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVARES, GASPAR DE GUZMAN, count of Olivares and duke of San Lucar (1587–1645), Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born in Rome, where his father was Spanish ambassador, on the 6th of January 1587. His compound title is explained by the fact that he inherited the title of count of Olivares, but was created duke of San Lucar by the favour of Philip IV. He begged the king to allow him to preserve his inherited title in combination with the new honour—according to a practice of which there are a few other examples in Spanish history. Therefore he was commonly spoken of as el condeduque. During the life of Philip III. he was appointed to a post in the household of the heir apparent, Philip, by the interest of his maternal uncle Don Baltasar de Zúñiga, who was the head of the prince’s establishment. Olivares made it his business to acquire the most complete influence over the young prince. When Philip IV. ascended the throne in 1621, at the age of sixteen, he showed his confidence in Olivares by ordering that all papers requiring the royal signature should first be sent to the count-duke. Olivares could now boast to his uncle Don Baltasar de Zuniga that he was “all.” He became what is known in Spain as a valido—something more than a prime minister, the favourite and alter ego of the king. For twenty-two years he directed the policy of Spain. It was a period of constant war, and finally of disaster abroad and of rebellion at home. The Spaniards, who were too thoroughly monarchical to blame the king, held his favourite responsible for the misfortunes of the country. The count-duke became, and for long remained, in
See the Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV. of Don Antonio Canovas (Madrid, 1889); and Don F. Silvela’s introduction, much less favourable to Olivares, to his edition of the Cartas de Sor Maria de Agreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid, 1885–1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oliver, Isaac

See also Isaac Oliver on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566–1617), English miniature painter, was probably born in London, as in 1571 a certain Peter Olivier of Rouen was residing in London with his wife and had been there for three years with one “chylde” named “Isake.” It would seem likely, therefore, that he was not at that time more than six years old. It has been suggested by Mr Lionel Cust, from the Huguenot records, that he is identical with one Isaac Oliver of Rouen, married at the Dutch church in Austin Friars in 1602. His death occurred in 1617, and he was buried in the church of St Anne, Blackfriars. He was probably a pupil of Nicholas Hilliard, and connected through his wife, whose name is unknown, with the artists Gheeraerts and De Critz. He was an exceedingly expert miniature painter, and splendid examples of his work can be seen at Montagu House, Windsor Castle, Sherborne Castle and in the collections of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Some of his pen drawings are in the British Museum. (G. C. W.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oreodon

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​OREODON (i.e. "hillock-tooth"), the name of an Oligocene genus of North American primitive ruminants related to the camels, and typifying the family Oreodontidae. Typical oreodonts were long-tailed, four-toed, partially plantigrade ruminants with sharp-crowned crescentic molars, of which the upper ones carry four cusps, and the first lower premolar canine-like both in shape and function. In the type genus there are forty-four teeth, forming an uninterrupted series. The vertebral artery pierces the neck-vertebrae in the normal manner. The name Oreodon is preoccupied by Orodus, the designation of a genus of Palaeozoic fishes, and is likewise antedated by Merycoidodon, which is now used by some writers. See Tylopoda.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orfila, Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure

See also Mathieu Orfila on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORFILA, MATHIEU JOSEPH BONAVENTURE (1787–1853), French toxicologist and chemist, was by birth a Spaniard, having been born at Mahon in Minorca on the 24th of April 1787. An island merchant’s son, he looked naturally first to the sea for a profession; but a voyage at the age of fifteen to Sardinia, Sicily and Egypt did not prove satisfactory. He next took to medicine, which he studied at the universities of Valencia and Barcelona with such success that the local authorities of the latter city made him a grant to enable him to follow his studies at Madrid and Paris, preparatory to appointing him professor. He had scarcely settled for that purpose in Paris when the outbreak of the Spanish war, in 1807, threatened destruction to his prospects. But he had the good fortune to find a patron in the chemist L. N. Vauquelin, who claimed him as his pupil, guaranteed his conduct, and saved him from expulsion from Paris. Four years afterwards he graduated, and immediately became a private lecturer on chemistry in the French capital. In 1819 he was appointed professor of medical jurisprudence, and four years later he succeeded Vauquelin as professor of chemistry in the faculty of medicine at Paris. In 1830 he was nominated dean of that faculty, a high medical honour in France. Under the Orleans dynasty, honours were lavishly showered upon him; he became successively member of the council of education of France, member of the general council of the department of the Seine, and commander of the Legion of Honour. But by the republic of 1848 he was held in less favour, and chagrin at the treatment he experienced at the hands of the governments which succeeded that of Louis Philippe is supposed to have shortened his life. He died, after a short illness, in Paris on the 12th of March 1853.
Orfila’s chief publications are Traité des poisons, or Toxicologie générale (1813); Éléments de chimie médicale (1817); Leçons de médecine légale (1823); Traité des exhumations juridiques (1830); and Recherches sur l’empoisonnement par l’acide arsénieux (1841). He also wrote many valuable papers, chiefly on subjects connected with medical jurisprudence. His fame rests mainly on the first-named work, published when he was only in his twenty-seventh year. It is a vast mine of experimental observation on the symptoms of poisoning of all kinds, on the appearances which poisons leave in the dead body, on their physiological action, and on the means of detecting them. Few branches of science, so important on their bearings on every-day life and so difficult of investigation, can be said to have been created and raised at once to a state of high advancement by the labours of a single man.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Organistrum

See also Organistrum on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORGANISTRUM, the medieval Latin name for the earliest known form of the hurdy-gurdy (q.v.). The organistrum was large enough to rest on the knees of two performers sitting side by side, one of whom turned the crank setting the wheel in motion, while the other, the artist, manipulated the keys. The word organistrum is derived from organum and instrumentum; the former term was applied to the primitive harmonies, consisting of octaves accompanied by fourths or fifths, first practised by Hucbald in the 10th century. This explanation enables us to fix with tolerable certainty the date of the invention of the organistrum, at the end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century, and also to understand the construction of the instrument. A stringed instrument of the period—such as a guitar-fiddle, a rotta or oval vielle—being used as model, the proportions were increased for the convenience of holding the instrument and of dividing the performance between two persons. Inside the body was the wheel, having a tire of leather well rosined, and working easily through an aperture in the sound-board. The three strings resting on the wheel and supported besides on a bridge of the same height all sounded at once as the wheel revolved, and in the earliest examples the wooden tangents taking the place of fingers on the frets of the neck acted upon all three strings at once, thus producing the harmony known as organum.
The organistrum appears on a bas-relief from the abbey of St Georges de Boscherville (11th cent.), now preserved in the museum of Rouen, where it is played by a royal lady, her maid turning the crank. It has the place of honour in the centre of the band of musicians representing the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse in the tympanum of the Gate of Glory of the cathedral of Santiago da Compostella (12th cent.). There is also a fine example in a miniature of a psalter of English workmanship (12th cent.), forming part of the Hunterian collection in Glasgow University; this was shown at the Exhibition of Illuminated MSS. at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1908. (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orford

See also Orford, Suffolk on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORFORD, a small town, once of greater importance, in the south-eastern parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 21 m. E. by N. of Ipswich. Pop. (1901) 987. It lies by the right bank of the river Alde, where that river flows south-westward on the inner side of the great beach which has blocked its direct outflow to the sea, and swells out seaward in the blunt promontory of Orford Ness. The church of St Bartholomew is of much interest. It retains a ruined Norman chancel of rich and unusual design, while the body of the church is Decorated. Of Orford castle the keep remains, standing high on a mound; it is partly of Caen stone and partly of flint work, and is of Norman date.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Organon

See also Organon on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORGANON (Gr. ὄργανον, instrument, from ἕργον, work), the name given to Aristotle's logical treatises. They are so called because logic is itself neither a speculative science nor a practical art in the ordinary sense, but an aid or instrument to all scientific thought. Francis Bacon, regarding the Aristotelian logic as he understood it as of no avail, gave to his own treatise the name Novum Organum in the belief that he had discovered a new inductive logic which would lead necessarily to the acquisition of new scientific knowledge. Compare also Whewell’s Novum Organum Renovatum and Lambert’s Neues Organon. In medieval music the term was applied in a similar sense to early attempts at improvised counterpoint i.e. a part sung as an accompaniment above or below the melody or plainsong; it consisted of 8ths and 5ths (or 4ths) added to the plainsong.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oresme, Nicolas

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORESME, NICOLAS (c. 1320–1382), French bishop, celebrated for his numerous works in both French and Latin on scholastic, scientific and political questions, was born in Normandy at the opening of the 14th century. In 1348 he was a student in the college of Navarre at Paris, of which he became head in 1356. In 1361 he was named dean of the cathedral of Rouen. Charles V. had him appointed bishop of Lisieux on the 16th of November 1377. He died in that city on the 11th of July 1382. One of his works, of great importance for the history of economic conceptions in the middle ages, was the De origine, natura, jure et mutationibus monetarum, of which there is also a French edition. Oresme was the author of several works on astrology, in which he showed its falseness as a science and denounced its practice. At the request of Charles V. he translated the Ethics, Politics and Economics of Aristotle. In December 1363 he preached before Urban V. a sermon on reform in the church, so severe in its arraignment that it was often brought forward in the 16th century by Protestant polemists.
See Francis Meunier, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicole Oresme (Paris, 1857); Feret, La Faculté de théologie de l’Université de Paris (Paris, 1896, t. iii. p. 290 sqq.); Émile Bridrey, Nicole Oresme. Étude des doctrines et des faits économiques (Paris, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sopron

See also Sopron on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SOPRON (Ger. Oedenburg; Med. Lat. Sopronium), a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same name, 140 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 30,628, about 60% Germans. It lies in an extensive valley enclosed on all sides by the outskirts of the Rosalien mountains, a group belonging to the eastern outliers of the Alps. In the principal square are the Benedictine church, built at the end of the 13th century and restored in the 15th century, and the town hall, completed in 1894. The Dominican church, built in 1674; the church of St Michael, in the Gothic style, completed in 1484, the most interesting church in the town; and the old tower, 200 ft. high, are all worth notice. Sopron has a thriving industry in sugar, soap, vinegar, bell-founding and machinery, and it carries on an active trade in cereals, fruit and wine. Large cattle markets are also held here. Within the county a good quality of wine is produced, especially near the little town of Ruszt (pop. 1608) and at the village of Balf (Ger., Wolfs) on the shores of the Neusiedler lake. In the neighbourhood of Sopron is the Brennberg, with extensive coal-mines. Sopron was a Roman colony under the name of Scarabantia. It was afterwards occupied by German settlers and became a royal free town in the 11th century. Matthias Corvinus granted the town special privileges in 1464. An important Diet of Hungarian Protestants took place here in 1681.
About 12 m. north, at the foot of the Leitha mountains, lies the town of Kismarton (Ger. Eisenstadt; pop., 2951), which contains a magnificent castle of the Esterhazy family, built in 1683 and enlarged in 1805. About 10 m. north-west lies Nagymarton (Ger. Mattersdorf; pop., 3789); and not far from it, on the frontier of Austria, the well-preserved castle of Forchtenstein, the cradle of the Esterhazy family. About 12 m. east, not far from the Neusiedler lake, lies Esterhaza, with a beautiful castle in the French Renaissance style, belonging to Count Esterhazy. About 9 m. south-east lies the village of Nagyczenk (Ger. Zinkendorff), with the castle of the Szechenyi family.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soracte

See also Soracte on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SORACTE, a mountain in the province of Rome, Italy. It is a narrow, isolated limestone ridge, some 5 m. S.E. of Civita Castellana, and 3½ m. in length. The highest summit is 2267 ft. above sea-level; just below it is a monastery removed there from the summit in 1835; it was originally founded about 748 by Carloman, son of Charles Martel (the altar has, indeed, fragments of sculptures of this period), and until modern times was occupied by Trinitarian monks. On the actual summit is a church. Owing to the isolated position of the mountain the view is magnificent, and Soracte is a conspicuous object in the landscape, being visible from Rome itself. It is thus mentioned by Horace ("vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte?" Carm. i. 9), and Virgil, who mentions Apollo as its guardian deity, though no traces of his temple exist; and in reality it was sacred to Dis Pater and the gods of the lower world. At the bottom of the mountain on the east is a disused limestone quarry. The village of S. Oreste at the south-east end of the ridge owes its name to a corruption of the ancient name. In the communal palace is a fine processional cross of the 11th century in the Byzantine style (see Römische Quartalschrist, 1905, 209—Archaologie) .
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soranus, Barea

See also Barea Soranus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SORANUS, BAREA, Roman senator, lived in the reign of Nero. His gentile name was possibly Servilius. In 52 he was consul suffectus, and (perhaps in 61) proconsul of Asia. The upright and considerate manner in which he treated the pro- vincials won him their affection, but at the same time brought upon him the hatred of Nero, who felt specially aggrieved because Soranus had refused to punish a city which had defended the statues of its gods against the Imperial commissioners. Soranus was accused of intimacy with Rubellius Plautus (another object of Nero's hatred), and of endeavouring to obtain the goodwill of the provincials by treasonable intrigues. One of the chief witnesses against him was Egnatius Celer of Berytus, his client and former tutor. Soranus was condemned to death (in 65 or 66), and committed suicide. His daughter Servilia, who was charged with having consulted the sorcerers, professedly in regard to her father's fate, but in reality with evil designs against the emperor, was involved in his downfall. The accuser, who was condemned to death in the reign of Vespasian for his conduct on this occasion, is a standing example of ingratitude and treachery.
Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 30, 32; Hist. iv. 10; Juvenal iii. 116; Dio Cassius lxii. 26.