OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hessian

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​HESSIAN, the name of a jute fabric made as a plain cloth, in various degrees of fineness, width and quality. The common, or standard, hessian is 40 in. wide, weighs 101/2 oz. per yd., and in the finished state contains about 12 threads and 121/2 picks per in. The name is probably of German origin, and the fabric was originally made from flax and tow. Small quantities of cloth are still made from yarns of these fibres, but the jute fibre, owing to its comparative cheapness, has now almost supplanted all others.
This useful cloth is employed in countless ways, especially for packing all kinds of dry goods, while large quantities, of different qualities, are made up into bags for sugar, flour, coffee, grain, ore, manure, sand, potatoes, onions, &c. Indeed, bags made from one or other quality of this cloth, or from sacking, bagging or tarpaulin, form the most convenient, and at the same time the cheapest covering for any kind of goods which are not damaged by being crushed.
Certain types are specially treated, dyed black, tan or other colour, or left in their natural colour, stiffened and used for paddings and linings for cheap clothing, boots, shoes, bags and other articles. When dyed in art shades the cloth forms an attractive decoration for stages and platforms, and generally for any temporary erection, and in many cases it is stencilled and then used for wall decoration.
The great linoleum industry depends upon certain types of this fabric for the foundation of its products, while large quantities are used for the backs of fringe rugs, spring mattresses and the upholstery of furniture.
The great centres for the manufacture of this fabric are Dundee and Calcutta, and every variety of the cloth, and all kinds of hand- and machine-sewn, as well as seamless bags, are made in the former city. The American name for hessian is burlap; this particular kind is 40 in. wide, and is now largely made in Calcutta as well as in Dundee and other places.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hereward

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​HEREWARD, usually but erroneously styled “the Wake” (an addition of later days), an Englishman famous for his resistance to William the Conqueror. It is now established that he was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey, from which he held lands at Witham-on-the-Hill and Barholme with Stow in the south-western corner of Lincolnshire, and of Crowland Abbey at Rippingale in the neighbouring fenland. His first authentic act is the storm and sacking of Peterborough in 1070, in company with outlaws and Danish invaders. The next year he took part in the desperate stand against the Conqueror’s rule made in the isle of Ely, and, on its capture by the Normans, escaped with his followers through the fens. That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name; he became, says Mr Davis, “in popular eyes the champion of the English national cause.” The Hereward legend has been fully dealt with by him and by Professor Freeman, who observed that “with no name has fiction been more busy.”
See E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. iv.; J. H. Round, Feudal England; H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins.  (J. H. R.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hergenröther, Joseph von

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​HERGENRÖTHER, JOSEPH VON (1824–1890), German theologian, was born at Würzburg in Bavaria on the 15th of September 1824. He studied at Würzburg and at Rome. After spending a year as parish priest at Zellingen, near his native city, he went, in 1850, at his bishop’s command, to the university of Munich, where he took his degree of doctor of theology the same year, becoming in 1851 Privatdozent, and in 1855 professor of ecclesiastical law and history. At Munich he gained the reputation of being one of the most learned theologians on the Ultramontane side of the Infallibility question, which had begun to be discussed; and in 1868 he was sent to Rome to arrange the proceedings of the Vatican Council. He was a stanch supporter of the infallibility dogma; and in 1870 he wrote Anti-Janus, an answer to The Pope and the Council, by “Janus” (Döllinger and J. Friedrich), which made a great sensation at the time. In 1877 he was made prelate of the papal household; he became cardinal deacon in 1879, and was afterwards made curator of the Vatican archives. He died in Rome on the 3rd of October 1890.
Hergenröther’s first published work was a dissertation on the doctrine of the Trinity according to Gregory Nazianzen (Regensburg, 1850), and from this time onward his literary activity was immense. After several articles and brochures on Hippolytus and the question of the authorship of the Philosophumena, he turned to the study of Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, and the history of the Greek schism. For twelve years he was engaged upon this work, the result being his monumental Photius, Patriarch von Constantinopel. Sein Leben, seine Schriften und das griechische Schisma (3 vols., Regensburg, 1867–1869); an additional volume (1869) gave, under the title Monumenta Graeca ad Photium . . . pertinentia, a collection of the unpublished documents on which the work was largely based. Of Hergenröther’s other works, the most important are his history of the Papal States since the Revolution (Der Kirchenstaat seit der französischen Revolution, Freiburg i. B., 1860; Fr. trans., Leipzig, 1860), his great work on the relations of church and state (Katholische Kirche und christlicher Staat in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung und in Beziehung auf Fragen der Gegenwart, 2 parts, Freiburg i. B., 1872; 2nd ed. expanded, 1876; Eng. trans., London, 1876, Baltimore, 1889), and his universal church history (Handbuch der allgemeinen Kirchengeschichte, 3 vols., Freiburg i. B., 1876–1880; 2nd ed., 1879, &c.; 3rd ed., 1884–1886; 4th ed., by Peter Kirsch, 1902, &c.; French trans., Paris, 1880, &c.). He also found time for a while to edit the new edition of Wetzer and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon (1877), to superintend the publication of part of the Regesta of Pope Leo X. (Freiburg i. B., 1884–1885), and to add two volumes to Hefele’s Conciliengeschichte (ib., 1887 and 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heringsdorf

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​HERINGSDORF, a seaside resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the north coast of the island of Usedom, 5 m. by rail N.W. of Swinemünde. It is surrounded by beech woods, and is perhaps the most popular seaside resort on the German shore of the Baltic, being frequented by some 12,000 visitors annually.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heriot

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​HERIOT, by derivation the arms and equipment (geatwa) of a soldier or army (here); the O. Eng. word is thus here-geatwa. The lord of a fee provided his tenant with arms and a horse, either as a gift or loan, which he was to use in the military service paid by him. On the death of the tenant the lord claimed the return of the equipment. When by the 10th century land was being given instead of arms, the heriot was still paid, but more in the nature of a “relief” (q.v.). There seems to have been some connexion between the payment of the heriot and the power of making a will (F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, p. 298). By the 13th century the payment was made either in money or in kind by the handing over of the best beast or of the best other chattel of the tenant (see Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. 270 sq.). For the manorial law relating to heriots, see Copyhold.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Herero

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​HERERO, or Ovaherero (“merry people”), a Bantu people of German South-West Africa, living in the region known as Damaraland or Hereroland. They call themselves Ovaherero and their language Otshi-herero. Sometimes they are described as Cattle Damara or “Damara of the Plains” in distinction from the Hill Damara who are of mixed blood and Hottentots in language. The Herero, whose main occupation is that of cattle-rearing, are a warlike race, possessed of considerable military skill, as was shown in their campaigns of 1904–5 against the Germans. (See further German South-West Africa.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Herford

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​HERFORD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated at the confluence of the Werre and Aa, on the Minden & Cologne railway, 9 m. N.E. of Bielefeld, and at the junction of the railway to Detmold and Altenbeken. Pop. (1885) 15,902; (1905) 24,821. It possesses six Evangelical churches, notably the Münsterkirche, a Romanesque building with a Gothic apse of the 15th century; the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style; and the Johanniskirche, with a steeple 280 ft. high. The other principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the gymnasium founded in 1540, the agricultural school and the theatre. There is a statue of Frederick William of Brandenburg. The industries include cotton and flax-spinning, and the manufacture of linen cloth, carpets, furniture, machinery, sugar, tobacco and leather.
Herford owes its origin to a Benedictine nunnery which is said to have been founded in 832, and was confirmed by the emperor Louis the Pious in 839. From the emperor Frederick I. the abbess obtained princely rank and a seat in the imperial diet. Among the abbesses was the celebrated Elizabeth (1618–1680), eldest daughter of the elector palatine Frederick V., who was a philosophical princess, and a pupil of Descartes. Under her rule the sect of the Labadists settled for some time in Herford. The foundation was secularized in 1803. Herford was a member of the Hanseatic League, and its suzerainty passed in 1547 from the abbesses to the dukes of Juliers. In 1631 it became a free imperial town, but in 1647 it was subjugated by the elector of Brandenburg. It came into the possession of Westphalia in 1807, and in 1813 into that of Prussia.
See L. Hölscher, Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Herford (Gütersloh, 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heriot, George

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​HERIOT, GEORGE (1563–1623), the founder of Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh, was descended from an old Haddington family; his father, a goldsmith in Edinburgh, represented the city in the Scottish parliament. George was born in 1563, and after receiving a good education was apprenticed to his father’s trade. In 1586 he married the daughter of a deceased Edinburgh merchant, and with the assistance of her patrimony set up in business on his own account. At first he occupied a small “buith” at the north-east corner of St Giles’s church, and afterwards a more pretentious shop at the west end of the building. To the business of a goldsmith he joined that of a money-lender, and in 1597 he had acquired such a reputation that he was appointed goldsmith to Queen Anne, consort of James VI. In 1601 he became jeweller to the king, and followed him to London, occupying a shop opposite the Exchange. Heriot was largely indebted for his fortune to the extravagance of the queen, and the imitation of this extravagance by the nobility. Latterly he had such an extensive business as a jeweller that on one occasion a government proclamation was issued calling upon all the magistrates of the kingdom to aid him in securing the workmen he required. He died in London on the 10th of February 1623. In 1608, having some time previously lost his first wife, he married Alison Primrose, daughter of James Primrose, grandfather of the first earl of Rosebery, but she died in 1612; by neither marriage had he any issue. The surplus of his estate, after deducting legacies to his nearest relations and some of his more intimate friends, was bequeathed to found a hospital for the education of freemen’s sons of the town of Edinburgh; and its value afterwards increased so greatly as to supply funds for the erection of several Heriot foundation schools in different parts of the city.
Heriot takes a leading part in Scott’s novel, The Fortunes of Nigel (see also the Introduction). A History of Heriot’s Hospital, with a Memoir of the Founder, by William Steven, D.D., appeared in 1827; 2nd ed. 1859.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohican, Mahican and Mohegan

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MOHICAN, MAHICAN, and MOHEGAN, the first two the alternative names of an important tribe and confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock, and the last a dialectic form of the name applied to a branch tribe. The Mohicans inhabited the Hudson valley, and their domain extended into Massachusetts. The Mohicans were called by the French Loups (wolf Indians), a translation of "Mohican." At first their council-fire was at Schodac, on an island near Albany, and they were grouped in forty villages. In consequence of attacks by the Mohawks, they moved their council-fire to what is now Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1664; in 1730 many migrated to the Susquehanna valley, Pennsylvania, and became absorbed into the Delawares. In 1736 those left in Massachusetts were placed on a reservation at Stockbridge, and called by that name. A few of these Stockbridge Indians, who may truly be called "the last of the Mohicans," are now settled, with some of the Munsees, on a reservation at Green Bay, Wisconsin. The Mohegans, originally an offshoot of the Mohican, lived on Thames river, Connecticut, their country extending into Massachusetts and including Rhode Island. In 1637, on the destruction of the Pequots, an offshoot of the Mohegans, the Mohegans claimed their country too, and thus the territorial power of the two tribes was consolidated under one Mohegan chief. For some time the Mohegans remained the supreme Indian people of southern New England. Eventually they sold most of their lands and centred in a small reservation on Thames river. They have now practically become extinct.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohonk Lake

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​MOHONK LAKE, a summer settlement at the northern end of Lake Mohonk, Ulster county, New York, U.S.A., about 14 m. N.W. of Poughkeepsie. It is served from New Paltz, about 1 m. S.E. (about 5 1/2 m. by stage), by the Wallkill Valley railway, a branch of the West Shore. The lake is a small body of water, picturesquely situated 1245 ft. above the sea-level, on Sky Top Mountain (1542 ft.), one of the highest peaks of the Shawangunk range. The highest point of Sky Top lies just east of the south end of the lake; close by, to the west, Eagle Cliff rises to a height of 1412 ft. The development of this beautiful region into a summer resort and the holding of Indian and arbitration conferences here have been due to Albert Keith Smiley (b. 1828), a graduate of Haverford College (1849), who conducted an English and classical academy in Philadelphia in 1853–1857, was principal of the Oak Grove academy at Vassalboro, Maine, in 1858–1860, was principal and superintendent of the Friends school at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1860–1879, and became a member of the United States Board of Indian Commissioners in 1879. In 1869 he bought, at the northern end of Lake Mohonk, a tract of land on which he built a large hotel. Here, in October 1883, the first Conference of the Friends of the American Indian met; these conferences have since been held annually, their scope being enlarged in 1904 to include consideration of the condition of “other dependent peoples”—i.e. the natives of the Philippines, Porto Rico and Hawaii. The first conference on international arbitration was held here in June 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohun, Charles Mohun, 4th Baron

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​MOHUN, CHARLES MOHUN, 4th Baron (c. 1675–1712), was the son of the 3rd Baron Mohun, who died in October 1677 as the result of a wound received while acting as second in a duel. The boy had no regular guardian, and before he was seventeen he had earned an unpleasant notoriety in London for rowdyism and brawling, had fought a duel and had been tried on a charge of murder. His friend, Captain Richard Hill, a roystering young officer, was in love with the actress Mrs Bracegirdle, and thought William Mountfort, the actor, to be his successful rival. On the night of the 9th of December 1692 Mohun assisted Hill to attempt the actress’s abduction. The attempt failed, and Mohun and Hill then escorted Mrs Bracegirdle to her house, and subsequently remained together outside drinking till the appearance of Mountfort, who lived close at hand. Greetings were exchanged between Mohun and Mountfort, and the latter made a disparaging remark about Hill, who either without warning (according to Mountfort’s deathbed statement) or in fair fight (according to other evidence) ran Mountfort through the body, and then absconded. Mohun was arrested and put on trial in Westminster Hall before his peers for murder as an accessory before the fact (1693), but by an overwhelming majority the peers found him not guilty. This verdict has been severely criticized, notably by Macaulay, who saw in it merely a gross instance of class favouritism. But a careful examination of the evidence (in the State Trials) justifies the decision, and establishes the presumption that the fight was a fair one. In 1699 Mohun was put on his trial for another alleged murder, but was unanimously and quite justly acquitted. His boon companion, Edward Rich, earl of Warwick (1673–1701), who was tried on a separate indictment for the same crime, was found guilty of manslaughter. On this occasion Mohun expressed regret for his past life, and he seems subsequently to have made a genuine attempt to alter his ways and to have taken a practical interest in public affairs. But in 1712 his violent temper again got the better of him, and he forced the 4th duke of Hamilton, with whom he had been at law for some years, into a desperate duel in Hyde Park in the early hours of the 15th of November, in which both combatants were killed. Thackeray has utilized this incident in Esmond. Lord Mohun had no issue, and on his death the barony, which was created in 1628 in favour of his great-grandfather John Mohun (c. 1592–1640), became extinct.
See The Whole Life and History of My Lord Mohun and the Earl of Warwick (London, 1711); J. Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence; Historical Manuscripts Commission, 11th report, appendix v. (Dartmouth MSS.); G. C. Boase and W. P. Courtney, Bibliotheca cornubiensis (1874–1882); Howell, State Trials; and Colley Cibber, Apology, edited by R. W. Lowe (1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohawk

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MOHAWK, a tribe of North American Indians, the chief people of the Iroquois confederacy. The name probably means "man-eaters"; they call themselves Kaniengehaga, "flint people." Their villages were in the valley of the Mohawk river, New York. Their territory extended northward to the St Lawrence and southward to the Delaware river and Catskill Mountains. They were thus early in touch with Dutch and English, and were the first Indians to obtain firearms. In the War of Independence they fought with the English, and finally took refuge in Canada, where most of them have remained.
See Indians, North American. For Mohawk cosmology see 21st Annual Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol. (1899-1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohs, Friedrich

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​MOHS, FRIEDRICH (1773–1839), German mineralogist, was born at Gernrode in the Harz Mountains, on the 29th of January 1773. He was educated at Halle, and at the mining academy at Freiburg. He spent much time in Austria in studying mineralogy and mining, and became professor of mineralogy at Gratz in 1812. On the death of Werner in 1817, he was appointed to the chair of mineralogy in the mining academy of Freiburg, and in 1826 he became professor of mineralogy and superintendent of the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna. His great work was the Grundriss der Mineralogie (Eng. trans. Treatise on Mineralogy, by Wilhelm Haidinger, 1825). He died at Agardo, near Belluno, Italy, on the 29th of September, 1839.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohr, Karl Friedrich

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​MOHR, KARL FRIEDRICH (1806–1879), German pharmacist, son of a well-to-do druggist in Coblentz, was born on the 4th of November 1806. Being a delicate child he received much of his early education at home, in great part in his father’s laboratory. To this may be traced much of the skill he showed in devising instruments and methods of analysis. At the age of twenty-one he began to study chemistry under Leopold Gmelin, and, after five years spent in Heidelberg, Berlin and Bonn, returned with the degree of Ph.D. to join his father’s establishment. On the death of his father in 1840 he succeeded to the business, retiring from it for scientific leisure in 1857. Serious pecuniary losses led him at the age of fifty-seven to become a privatdozent in Bonn, where in 1867 he was appointed, by the direct influence of the emperor, extraordinary professor of pharmacy. He died at Bonn on the 28th of September 1879. Mohr was the leading scientific pharmacist of his time in Germany, and he was the author of many improvements in analytical processes. His methods of volumetric analysis were expounded in his Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode (1855), which won the special commendation of Liebig and has run through many editions. His Geschichte der Erde, eine Geologie auf neuer Grundlage (1866), also obtained a wide circulation. In a paper “Über die Natur der Wärme,” published in the Zeitschrift für Physik in 1837, he gave one of the earliest general statements of the doctrine of the conservation of energy in the words: “besides the 54 known chemical elements there is in the physical world one agent only, and this is called Kraft (energy). It may appear, according to circumstances, as motion, chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism; and from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of the others.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mohun, Michael

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​MOHUN, MICHAEL (c. 1625–1684), English actor, played at the Cockpit in Drury Lane before the Civil War. He served on the king’s side with credit and was promoted captain, and subsequently, in Flanders, major. At the Restoration he returned with Charles II. and took up his former profession, playing a great variety of parts, usually as second to Charles Hart.