OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Johnson, Reverdy

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​JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876), American political leader and jurist, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the 21st of May 1796. His father, John Johnson (1770–1824), was a distinguished lawyer, who served in both houses of the Maryland General Assembly, as attorney-general of the state (1806–1811), as a judge of the court of appeals (1811–1821), and as a chancellor of his state (1821–1824). Reverdy graduated from St John’s college in 1812. He then studied law in his father’s office, was admitted to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough, ​Prince George’s county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore, where he became the professional associate of Luther Martin, William Pinkney and Roger B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he reported the decisions of the court of appeals in Harris and Johnson’s Reports (1820–1827); and in 1818 he was appointed chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825 he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to his practice; from 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of the United States Senate; and from March 1849 to July 1850 he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1856 he became identified with the conservative wing of the Democratic party, and four years later supported Stephen A. Douglas for the presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to the peace convention at Washington; in 1861–1862 he was a member of the Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New Orleans he was commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions of the military commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard to foreign governments, and reversed all those decisions to the entire satisfaction of the administration. In 1863 he again took his seat in the United States Senate. In 1868 he was appointed minister to Great Britain and soon after his arrival in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for the settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War; this, however, the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the accession of General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming his practice he was engaged by the government in the prosecution of Ku-Klux cases. He died on the 10th of February 1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the doctrine of secession, and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. Opposed to the Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground that it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged during his later years in most of the especially important cases in the Supreme Court of the United States and in the courts of Maryland.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Johnson, Eastman

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​JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906), American artist, was born at Lovell, Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his home for four years. In 1860 he was elected to the National Academy of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his own, depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual interest. Such pictures as “Old Kentucky Home” (1867), “Husking Bee” (1876), “Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket” (1880), and his portrait group “The Funding Bill” (1881) achieved a national reputation. Among his sitters were many prominent men, including Daniel Webster; Presidents Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. Folger; Emerson, Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and Sir Edward Archbald. He died in New York City on the 5th of April 1906.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musket

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​MUSKET (Fr. mousquet, Ger. Muskete, &c.), the term generally applied to the firearm of the infantry soldier from about 1550 up to and even beyond the universal adoption of rifled small arms about 1850–1860. The word originally signified a male sparrowhawk (Italian moschetto, derived perhaps ultimately from Latin musca, a fly) and its application to the weapon may be explained by the practice of naming firearms after birds and beasts (cf. falcon, basilisk). Strictly speaking, the word is inapplicable both to the early hand-guns and to the arquebuses and calivers that superseded the hand-guns. The “musket” proper, introduced into the Spanish army by the duke of Alva, was much heavier and more powerful than the arquebus. Its bullet retained sufficient striking energy to stop a horse at 500 and 600 yards from the muzzle. A writer in 1598 (quoted s.v. in the New English Dictionary) goes so far as to say that “One good musket may be accounted for two callivers.” Unlike the arquebus, it was fired from a rest, which the “musketeer” stuck into the ground in front of him. But during the 17th century the musket in use was so far improved that the rest could be dispensed with (see Gun). The musket was a matchlock, weapons with other forms of lock being distinguished as wheel-locks, firelocks, snaphances, &c., and soldiers were similarly distinguished as musketeers and fusiliers. On the disuse, about 1690–1695, of this form of firing mechanism, the term “musket” was, in France at least, for a time discontinued in favour of “fusil,” or flint-lock, which thenceforward reigned supreme up to the introduction of a practicable percussion lock about 1830–1840. But the term “musket” survived the thing it originally represented, and was currently used for the firelock (and afterwards for the percussion weapon). To-day it is generically used for military firearms anterior to the modern rifle. The original meaning of the word musketry has remained almost unaltered since 1600; it signifies the fire of infantry small-arms (though for this “rifle fire” is now a far more usual term), and in particular the art of using them (see Infantry and Rifle). Of the derivatives, the only one that is not self-explanatory is musketoon. This was a short, large-bore musket somewhat of the blunderbuss type, originally designed for the use of cavalry, but afterwards, in the 18th century, chiefly a domestic or coachman’s weapon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muskogee

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​MUSKOGEE, a city and the county-seat of Muskogee county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., about 3 m. W. by S. of the confluence of the Verdigris, Neosho (or Grand) and Arkansas rivers, and about 130 m. E.N.E. of Oklahoma City. Pop. (1900), 4154; (1907), 14,418, of whom 4298 were negroes and 332 Indians; (1910), 25,278. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Missouri, Oklahoma & Gulf railways. Fort Gibson (pop. in. 1910, 1344), about 5 m. N.E. on the Neosho, near its confluence with the Arkansas, is the head of steam-boat navigation of the Arkansas; it is the site of a former government fort and of a national cemetery. Muskogee is the seat of Spaulding Institute (M.E. Church, South) and Nazareth Institute (Roman Catholic), and at Bacone, about 2 m. north-east, is Indian University (Baptist, opened 1884). Muskogee is the commercial centre of an agricultural and stock-raising region, is surrounded by an oil and natural gas field of considerable extent producing a high grade of petroleum, and has a large oil refinery, railway shops (of the Midland Valley and the Missouri, Oklahoma & Gulf railways), cotton gins, cotton compresses, and cotton-seed oil and flour mills. The municipality owns and operates the water-works, the water supply being drawn from the Neosho river. Muskogee was founded about 1870, and became the chief town of the Creek Nation (Muskogee) and the metropolis and administrative centre of the former Indian Territory, being the headquarters of the Union Indian Agency to the Five Civilized Tribes, of the United States (Dawes) Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes, and of a Federal land office for the allotment of lands to the Creeks and Cherokees, and the seat of a Federal Court. The city was chartered in 1898; its area was enlarged in 1908, increasing its population.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musonius Rufus

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​MUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the 1st century A.D., was born in Etruria about A.D. 20–30. He fell under the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso’s conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus) and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and goodwill among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy, which is in most respects identical With that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though he did not altogether neglect logic and physics, he maintained that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and the truly good man is also the true philosopher.
Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The letters are certainly unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who wrote Ἀπομνημονεύματα Μουσωνίου τοῦ φιλοσόφου, from which Stobaeus obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller §§ 477, 488, 489; Tacitus, Annals, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81; and compare articles Stoics and Epictetus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musk-deer

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​MUSK-DEER (Moschus moschiferus), an aberrant member of the deer family constituting the sub-family Cervidae Moschinae (see Deer). Both sexes are devoid of antler appendage; but in this the musk-deer agrees with one genus of true deer (Hydrelaphus), and as in the latter, the upper canine teeth of the males are long and sabre-like, projecting below the chin, with the ends turned somewhat backwards. In size the musk-deer is rather less than the European roe-deer, being about 20 in. high at the shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder pair, are long; and the feet remarkable for the great development of the lateral pair of hoofs and for the freedom of motion they all present, which must be of assistance to the animal in steadying it in its agile bounds among the crags of its native haunts. The ears are large, and the tail rudimentary. The hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly brittle and pith-like character, breaking easily; it is generally of a greyish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red, and often variegated with lighter patches. The musk-deer inhabits the forest districts in the Himalaya as far west as Gilgit, always, however, at great elevations—being rarely found in summer below 8000 ft. above the sea-level, and ranging as high as the limits of the thickets of birch, rhododendron and juniper, among which it mostly conceals itself in the daytime. The range extends into Tibet, Siberia and north-western China; but the musk-deer of Kansu has been separated as a distinct species, under the name of M. sifanicus. Musk-deer are hardy, solitary and retiring animals, chiefly nocturnal in habits, and almost always found alone, rarely in pairs and never in herds. They are exceedingly active and surefooted, having perhaps no equal in traversing rocks and precipitous ground; and they feed on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants which grow on the mountains.
The Musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus).
Most mammals have certain portions of the skin specially modified and provided with glands secreting odorous and fatty substances characteristic of the particular species. The special gland of the musk-deer, which has made the animal so well known, and has proved the cause of unremitting persecution to its possessor, is found in the male only, and is a sac about the size of a small orange, situated beneath the skin of the abdomen, the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial aperture. The secretion with which the sac is filled is dark brown or chocolate in colour, and when fresh of the consistence of “moist gingerbread,” but becoming dry and granular after keeping (see Musk). The Kansu (M. sifanicus) differs from the typical species in having longer ears, which are black on the outer surface.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musk-rat

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​MUSK-RAT, or Musquash, the name of a large North American rat-like rodent mammal, technically known as Fiber zibethicus, and belonging to the mouse-tribe (Muridae). Aquatic in habits, this animal is related to the English water-rat and therefore included in the sub-family Microtinae (see Vole). It is, however, of larger size, the head and body being about 12 in. in length and the tail but little less. It is rather a heavily-built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short limbs, the eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond the fur. The fore-limbs have four toes and a rudimentary thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft underfur, interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which overlie and conceal the former, on the upper surface and sides of the ​body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present in both sexes.
The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities in the northern part of the continent, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren grounds bordering the Arctic seas, It lives on the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits. Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist of a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared at the mouths of their holes. (See also Rodentia.)
The Musk-rat (Fiber zibethicus).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musk-shrew

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​MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura of the family Soricidae (see Insectivora). The term is generally used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coerulea) of India. Dr Dobson believed this to be a serni-domesticated variety of the brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muskegon

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​MUSKEGON, a city and the county-seat of Muskegon county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Muskegon lake, an expansion of Muskegon river near its mouth, about 4 m. from Lake Michigan and 38 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890), 22,702; (1900), 20,818, of whom 6236 were foreign-born; ​(1910 census) 24,062. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the Père Marquette, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon (electric) railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports. There are several summer resorts in the vicinity. As the gifts of Charles H. Hackley (1837–1905), a rich lumberman, the city has an endowment fund to the public schools of about $2,000,000; a manual training school, which has an endowment of $600,000, and is one of the few endowed public schools in the United States; a public library, with an endowment of $215,000; a public hospital with a $600,000 endowment; and a poor fund endowment of $300,000. In Hackley Park there are statues of Lincoln and Farragut, and at the Hackley School there is a statue of McKinley; all three are by C. H. Niehaus. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Muskegon lake is 5 m. long and 11/2 m. wide, with a depth of 30 to 40 ft., and is ice-free throughout the year. The channel from Muskegon lake to Lake Michigan has been improved to a depth of 20 ft. and a width of 300 ft. by the Federal government since 1867. From Muskegon are shipped large quantities of lumber and market-garden produce, besides the numerous manufactures of the city. The total value of all factory products in 1904 was $6,319,441 (39·6% more than in 1900), of which more than one-sixth was the value of lumber. A trading post was established here in 1812, but a permanent settlement was not established until 1834. Muskegon was laid out as a town in 1849, incorporated as a village in 1861, and chartered as a city in 1869. The name is probably derived from a Chippewa word, maskeg or muskeg, meaning “grassy bog,” still used in that sense in north-western America.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muslim Ibn Al-Ḥajjāj

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​MUSLIM IBN AL-ḤAJJĀJ, the Imam, the author of one of the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Ṣaḥīḥ, “sound,” was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after A.D. 815 and died there in 875. Like al-Bukhārī (q.v.), of whom he was a close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system of canon law on a speculative basis (see Mahommedan Law). But though he was a student and friend of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur for refusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see Mahommedan Religion; and Patton’s Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of al-Bukhari, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his material according to such a system, he did not add guiding rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many as twenty works, but only his Ṣaḥīḥ seems to have reached us.
See further, de Slane’s transl. of Ibn Khallikān, iii. 348 sqq, and of Ibn Khaldun’s Prolégomènes, ii. 470, 47; Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.; Brockelmann, Geschichte der arab. Litt., i. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, 80, 147 seq.; Dhahabī Tadhkira (edit. of Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq.  (D. B. Ma.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muskhogean Stock

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​MUSKHOGEAN STOCK, a North American Indian stock. The name is from that of the chief tribe of the Creek confederacy, the Muskogee. It includes the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles and other tribes. Its territory was almost the whole state of Mississippi, western Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, Alabama, most of Georgia, and later nearly all Florida; Muskhogean traditions assign the west and north-west as the original home of the stock. Its history begins in 1527, on the first landing of the Spaniards on the Gulf Coast. The Muskhogean peoples were then settled agriculturists with an elaborate social organization, and living in villages, many of which were fortified (see Indians: North American).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rockford

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​ROCKFORD, a city and the county seat of Winnebago county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the northern part of the state, about 85 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 23,584; (1900) 31,051, of whom 9337 were foreign-born (6690 Swedes); (1910 census) 45,401. Area, 8.91 sq. m. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Gary (“Rockford Route”) and the Illinois Central railways, and is connected by interurban electric railway with Chicago and Freeport, Illinois, and Janesville, Wisconsin. The city has a Memorial Hall, erected in honour of the soldiers and sailors of Winnebago county, and in charge of the Grand Army of the Republic; a soldiers’ memorial fountain; a Carnegie library, containing 51,340 volumes in 1909; and the Velie Museum of natural history. Rockford College (non-sectarian), for the higher education of women, is ranked by the United States Commissioner of Education as one of fifteen women’s colleges of the highest grade in the country; it was opened in 1849 as Rockford Seminary, and was named Rockford College in 1892. In 1908–9 it had 196 students. Rockford is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. In and near the city there are two hospitals and three sanatoriums. Manufacturing is facilitated by good water-power, supplied by a dam across the Rock river about 800 ft. long, constructed in 1844. Among the manufactures are furniture, hosiery and knit goods, agricultural implements, foundry and machine-shop products, saddlery and harness, &c. The total value of all factory products in 1905 was $15,276,129 (38.6% more than in 1900). The municipality owns and operates its waterworks; the water supply is obtained from artesian wells. Rockford was first settled in 1834, and was chartered as a city in 1852. More than one-fourth of its area has been annexed to the city since 1889.