# The Origin of the Bengali Script/Chapter 3

CHAPTER III
The Eastern Alphabet―550-1100 A.D.
We now come to the class of alphabets, to which Dr. Bühler has given the name, Siddhamātṛkā. From this point, Dr. Bühler's work ceases to be exhaustive and does not deal with Eastern variety forms of the Northern alphabet, separately. Such a treatment of North-Indian palaeography was, perhaps, impossible sixteen years ago, and consequently, the author of the Indian Palæography was obliged to deal with the Northern Indian alphabet of the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th centuries A.D., as a single whole. The differentiation was made only in the case of Sāradā alphabet, which was already a separate unit in the 8th century A.D. and in a much later period, in the case of proto-Bengali. In these pages Dr. Bühler's arrangement has not been followed, on account of the following reasons:—
I. The discovery of a number of dated records, has made it impossible to accept, the alphabet used in the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāman, as representing type specimens of the North-Eastern alphabet of the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. These new inscriptions are:—
(i) the Amaunā grant of Nandana, G. E. 232=551 A.D.
(ii) the Paṭiakellā grant of Mahārāja Śivarāja, G. E. 283=602 A.D.
(iii) the Gańjām grant of the time of Mahārājādhirāja Śaśāṅka, G. E. 300=619 A.D.
​(iv) The Muṇḍeśvarī inscription of the Mahāsāmanta Mahāpratīharā Maharājā Udayasena, H.E. 30=636 A.D.
II. The final settlement of the chronology of the Gurjjara-Pratīhāra dynasty of Northern and Central India, by the researches of Mr. D.R. Bhandarkar and the late Mr. A.M.T. Jackson, has placed the introduction of the Nāgarī alphabet into Northern India one hundred and thirt-yseven years later. On this point Dr. Bühler said "In Northern and Central India, the Nāgarī appears first on the copper-plate of the Maharājā Vināyakapāla of Mahodaya probably of A.D. 794." The real date of Vināyakapāla's grant is V.E. 988=931 A.D. instead of H.E. 188=794 A.D.
III. The discovery of a number of inscriptions in North-Eastern India, specially of the Pāla kings of Bengal, makes it possible to distinguish two different varieties of the North-Eastern alphabet, as early as the 8th century A.D., and shows that Nāgarī has had very little influence on the development of the Bengali alphabet.
Sixteen years ago, the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāman was the only known dated inscription of the 6th century A.D., in North-Eastern India. In it, Dr. Hoernle and Dr. Bühler, found, for the first time, that the Eastern variety of the early Gupta alphabet has been entirely displaced by the Western one. But, we have already seen, that fresh discoveries place this displacement more than a century earlier. The next point to be considered is the tripartite form of ya and the downward limit of its use. In 1891 Dr. Hoernle fixed 600 A.D. as the ​lowest limit for the use of this form of ya in Northern India:—
"Any inscription in the North-Western Indian alphabet, which shows the more or less exclusive use of the old form of ya, must date from before 600 A.D., while any inscription showing an exclusive use of the cursive form of ya must date after 600 A.D."
The force of Dr. Hoernle's argument has been weakened by the discovery of the Udaypur inscription of the Guhila Aparājita, of V. E. 716 = 659 A.D. "The discovery of an inscription of the 7th century", observes Dr. Bühler, "with mostly tripartite ya, E. I. 4, 29, makes a modification of Hoerule's argument necessary but does not invalidate his final result". It will be observed that no limit has been fixed for the use of the tripartite form of ya in a North-Eastern inscription. In the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāman, we find that, the bipartite form had, entirely, displaced the tripartite one. Consequently, it has been supposed that the bipartite form has displaced the tripartite form, in the North-Eastern inscriptions, almost about the same time as in North-western records. Subsequent discoveries now enable us to prove beyond doubt that in North-eastern India, the use of the tripartite form of ya, lasted about half a century longer than the limit of North-western India. For example we have the form used in the Amaunā grant of Nandana. The date of this inscription is not far removed from that of the Bodh-Gayā inscription, and it was found in a place not very far off from Bodh-Gayā, yet we find that in all cases the tripartite form of ya has been used. So again, in the case of Paṭiākellā grant of ivarāja, we find that ​the tripartite form is being used in all cases, in the Gupta year 283 = 602 A.D. So also in the case of the Muṇḍeśvarī inscription, we find that the tripartite form alone is used in 636 A. D. Consequently, we have to admit that the use of the bipartite form of ya, in the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāman, in the Gupta year 269 = 588 A.D., is premature. There are other reasons which lead us to believe that, though this record was found in North-Eastern India, the alphabet of the locality was not used in incising it, which on the other hand was done by a man from Western India. We have a similar case in the Bhitāri pillar- inscription of Skandagupta, which, though found in Eastern India, shows the use of the Western variety of the North-Indian alphabet; and the Sāñcī inscription of the time of Candragupta II which, though found in Western India shows the use of the Eastern variety of the alphabet. The alphabet used in the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāman cannot be taken to represent the ordinary Eastern variety of the Epigraphic alphabet of North-India in the 6th century A.D. for the following reasons :—
* the Amaunā grant of Nandana and the Paṭiākellā grant of Śivarāja show the exclusive use of the tripartite form of ya; consequently, we have to admit that in the Eastern variety of the Northern alphabet the tripartite form of ya was in use in the 6th century A.D.;
* the prevalence of acute angles at the lower extremities of letters is exceptional, and, not of common occurrence, in these records.
The ordinary 6th century epigraphic alphabet of North-Eastern India is then to be found in the following inscriptions:—
* the Amaunā grant of Nandana,
* the Paṭiākellā grant of Śivarāja, ​
* the Barābār cave-inscription of Ananta-varman,
* the Nāgārjunī cave-inscription of Ananta-varman, and
* the Nāgārjunī cave-inscription of Ananta-varman.
The principal characteristics of the alphabet, which remained current in North-eastern India, from 550-650 A.D. are noted below:
(1) The use of the tripartite form of ya. The only exception is the Gañjām grant of the time of Śaśāṅka, The difference cannot be accounted for at present, so long as the riddle of Śaśāṅka-Narendra remains unsolved. Why ⟨Śaśāṅka⟩, probably surnamed Narendra, whose coinage is allied to that of the early or the Imperial Guptas, went to Kaliṅga and how he came to be acknowledged as a suzerain, by the Śailodbhava princes of the Koṅgoda-maṇḍala, is still a mystery to us. The introduction of the North-Eastern alphabet, into the Northern Sircars, was also probably due to this prince. We find the ordinary 6th century alphabet of Kaliṅga, in the Buguḍā grant of Mādhavavarman and the Parikuḍ plates of Madhyamarāja.
(2) The general prevalence of right angles at the lower extremities of certain letters e.g. gha, pa, pha, ṣa and sa.
(3) The absence of later developments such as tails or verticals on the right of these signs.
​In other words, the North-eastern epigraphic alphabet of the 6th century A.D., presents the ordinary characteristics of the North-western variety of the early Gupta alphabet.
Early in the latter-half of the 7th century A.D., we find a marked change in the North-Eastern alphabet. The Shahpur image-inscription of the Harṣa year 66 = 671 A.D. and the undated Aphsaḍ inscription, both of the time of Ādityasena of Magadha, exhibit this change for the first time. From this time onward, the eastern variety of the northern alphabet, develops by itself and the western variety never succeeds in displacing it again. For a short time only, during the domination of the Gurjjara-Pratihāra princes, a western variety, called Nāgarī, makes its influence felt and divides the eastern variety into two different branches. Out of these sub-divisions, the western one is gradually absorbed in Nāgarī, while the eastern one develops separately and becomes the Bengali script, of the llth and 12th centuries A.D. At this period, it is necessary to take a more complete survey of the Eastern alphabet, than that done in the case of the Eastern variety of previous centuries. In the latter half of the 7th century A.D., we find the following characteristics of the eastern variety of the northern alphabet.—
I. Vowels.
(1) The upper part of the left limb of a has become a slightly elongated nail-head or wedge, while the lower part is converted into a regular curve, with a knob at its top, looking more like a comma. The right limb together with the line joining both the limbs, can be drawn at one stroke of the pen and the letter resembles the Bengali one, in its present form. Cf. a in ajanayad (in L. 6).
​(2) In the case of ā we find the differentium in a second curve, also shaped like a comma, which is attached to the lower extremity of the right limb. Cf. the form in āsīd (in L. 1).
(3) In the case of the short i, we find the lower circle or dot of Gupta alphabet of the Western variety, which in Maukharī inscriptions becomes a short vertical curved line, developed at this period into a long curve, which, in two different cases, is shown to be of different lengths.
(4) In the case of u, we find the horizontal line at the lower extremity transformed into a curve and elongated. This form continues without alteration till the end of the 10th century A.D., when the first change in its form is found in the Bhagalpur grant of Nārāyaṇapāla.
(5) The rare o, becomes an elongated comma laid flat on its back. In the absence of the earlier forms of this letter of the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. comments are impossible. The only known forms are those found in the inscriptions of the Mahārājas of Uchakalpa and those of Yaśodharman, which belong to the Southern variety of the Gupta alphabet.
II. Consonants.
(1) For the first time in Eastern India, the first consonant, ka always has a loop on its left. The looped form, it should be noticed here, has also been found in the Gañjām plates of the time of Śaśāṅkarāja along with the bipartite form of ya. It continued in this form until the loop becomes a semi-circle, in the 11th century A.D.
(2) In kha, the triangle at the base of the letter, which is observable for the last time, in the cave-inscriptions of the Maukharīs, becomes transformed into a straight line and a curve. The sides of the triangle become a ​semi-circle, while the other side becomes elongated and touches both extremities of the arc. This arc and its base line becomes the right limb, of this letter in the 7th century A.D. The left limb is formed by an increase in the length of the upper hook or curve, which was an open square in Maukharī inscriptions. There is a wedge, instead of a dot or a short straight line at the lower extremity of the left limb.
(3) In the case of ga, we find the open square form of the western variety, with its long right limb, again transformed into a curve, with a wedge at the lower extremity of its left limb.
(4) In gha, the curvature of the base line, was already observable in the Eastern variety of the early Gupta alphabet. In the sixth century, we see that in the inscription of Yaśodharman, the base line has become a curve on the left side and a slanting line to the right, forming an acute angle with the right vertical. In the Aphsaḍ inscription, we find that, this letter has become something like the tripartite ya of the Kuṣāṇa and Gupta periods, the only differentia being the wedges on the top of its three limbs and the presence of an acute angle instead of a right angle, at its right lower extremity.
(5) In ṅa we find, the lower right angle is becoming, in some cases, an acute angle and the vertical straight line is transformed into a curve.
(6) In ca, the two curves, of the Gupta period, are transformed into a triangle, with a wedge on its apex and a slight elongation of the base line or lower lino towards the left.
(7) There is little or no change in the case of cha and the ligature cha shows that, the older form of ca is still being used in certain cases.
PLATE VI.
Bodhicaryavatara (Ms. Ga 8067) Fol. 65, Rev. (A. S. B.)
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. X, p. 49.
* ↑ Ibid, Vol. IX. p. 286.
* ↑ Ibid, Vol. VI. p. 142.
* ↑ Ibid, Vol. IX, p. 289.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palæography, Eng. Ed., p. 51.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. VIII, App. 1, pp. 1 & 4.
* ↑ J.A.S.B., 1891, pt. 1, p. 90.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. IV, p. 29.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palæography, p. 48. note 8.
* ↑ Fleet's Gupta Inscriptions, p. 221, pl. XXX B.
* ↑ Ibid, p. 224, pl. XXXI, A.
* ↑ Ibid, p. 227, pl. XXXI B.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. VI, p. 142.
* ↑ Ibid, Vol. III, p. 43 and Vol. VII, p. 100.
* ↑ Vaṅgīya-Sāhitya-Parișad-Patrikā, V$^o$ XVI, p. 197; Epi. Ind., Vol. XI, pp. 281-87.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography. pl. IV, Col. XIX, II.
​(8) In ja the curvature of the lower horizontal line was already perceptible in the Eastern variety form of the early Gupta alphabet. The vertical was also perceptibly curved. Here we find the central horizontal line also curved to the same extent as the base or lower line. A wedge has been added to the right extremity of the upper horizontal line.
(9) There is only one instance of the occurrence of jha and it has exactly the same shape which ma has in the Allahabad pillar-inscription of Samudragupta.
(10) In the case of ña, it occurs in two ligatures, conjointly, with ca and ja; the form ñca, does not differ much from that found in the Allahabad pillar-inscription of Samudragupta, but in the ligature jñya its form is still more cursive.
(11) In the case of ṭa, we find the Eastern variety differring very much from that of the Western. The ṭa in the Aphsaḍ inscription is merely an open curve, with a wedge placed horizontally at the upper end of the curve; but in the Western variety, as in the case of the Lakkhamaṇḍala Praśasti, it is a semi-circle with a serif, which is attached to the curve by means of a wedge.
(12) In the case of ṭha we find the ancient Maurya form still being used in Northern India without any change.
(13) In the case of ḍa, we see that the letter consists of two small curves. In the last line of Aphsaḍ inscription, in the word Gauḍena, we find a more archaic form, resembling the one used in the Allahabad pillar-inscription of Samudragupta; the only difference being a slight shortening of the length. It may be mentioned in this connection that the word Gauḍa is found for the first time in Indian epigraphy, in the Aphsaḍ inscription, where it is ​stated that the Praśasti was composed by Sūkșma-śiva, a native of the Ganḍa country.
(14) In the case of ḍha, we find the angle changed into a curve. Cf. the form in the inscriptions of Yaśodharman.
(15) In the case of a ṇa, we see that the base line has become slanting, thus forming an acute angle at the right lower extremity, and the left hook has become lengthened. In the case of the ligature ṇḍa, the lingual ṇa has acquired a distinctly modern form, consisting simply of two curves.
(16) The lower right limb of ta, which was already elongated in the Gupta period, becomes slightly curved and we find a wedge at the top of this letter.
(17) In the cese of tha occurs only once and its form, there is very indistinct e.g. vimathito (L. 7), but here we find the upper part of the letter distinctly broadened. In ligatures on the other hand, we find the older form still prevailing e.g. in stha in kumbhasthalī (L.1).
(18) In dha, the small arc has changed into a semi- circle.
(19) In the case of na, we find that the looped form of the Early Gupta period has changed into one somewhat resembling the modern Nāgarī one. The loop has become : -
(a) separated from the main body of the letter,
(b) smaller in size,
and (c) joined to the main body by a short horizontal stroke.
​(20) A still more cursive form is apparent in pa and the acute angle has become more pronounced. The right limb shows further downward elongation.
(21) In the Aphsaḍ column of Dr. Bühler's plates, pha has been omitted but it occurs among the ligatures e.g. Col. XIX, 45. It occurs many times and we have it thrice in the 25th line of the Aphsaḍ inscription:—Sphaṭika, sphara and sphurat.
(22) From this time onward we shall have to discard ba, from the alphabet, as in Northern inscriptions, va took the place of ba and its occurrence is occasional.
(23) In the Western variety of the early Gupta alphabet, the left hook of bha has changed into a solid wedge, and this wedge has developed into a hollow one, at the same time, separating the right limb of the letter from the upper part. So for all practical purposes, the distinction between ha and bha had ceased.
(24) In ma the acute angle, observable in the western variety alphabet of the early Gupta period, develops still more strongly and causes a downward elongation of the right limb.
(25) We find two varieties of ya in the Aphsaḍ inscription. In the first place, we have the bipartite form, with a clear acute angle at its lower extremity and in the second place, a later form, in which the acute angle is less prominent, but the downward elongated of the right limb has already assumed a settled from.
(26) In ra, we find for the first time, a pointed wedge or arrow-head, at the lower extremity, which is found earlier in inscriptions of the western variety e.g. the Lakkhamandala Praśasti and the Bodh-Gayā inscription ​of Mahānāman. It is still more developed in the Aphsaḍ inscriptions where it resembles a ḍa of short stature.
(27) We find two forms of la also. In the first case, the curve or hook in the left limb of the letter has been lengthened downwards with a very slight outward curve at its lowest extremity. In the second case, we find the hook on the curve of the left limb, instead of being prolonged downwards, has acquired an inward length, very much resembling the modern Nāgāri and Bengali forms of the letter.
(28) The triangular ra of the early Gupta period suffers the same transformation as the triangle at the base of kha. Two sides of the triangle are converted into a curve, while the third side is lengthened. A wedge is invariably to be found on the top of the letter.
(29) In śa, the upper part of the letter was a curve in the early Gupta alphabet, whether Eastern or Western. In the later western variety it changed to a rectangle. But in the Aphsaḍ inscription, we find, for the first time, the upper part consists of a loop, while the right lower limb has been elongated upwards.
(30) We find three distinct forms of sa.—
(a) The looped form which occurs in the Aphsaḍ inscription alone (cf. Bühler's tables, pl. IV, XIX, 38).
(b) The form in which the loop is changed into a hollow wedge (cf. Bühler's tables, pl. IV, XVIII, 38).
(c) In the third variety which is found exclusively in the Shahpur image-inscription of Ādityasena, the apex of the wedge has separated and ceased to be a wedge. This form is found in the 6th and 9th century inscriptions of north-eastern India.
​(31) We find one form of ha, and the only changes noticeable are the elongation of the curve or hook in the right limb of the letter, and the introduction of the wedge at the top and the slanting of the hitherto horizontal base line.
The next inscription of the Eastern variety is the Deo-Baranark inscription of Jīvitagupta II, the great-grandson of Ādityasena. Most probably, this record was incised in the earlier part of the 8th century A. D. The following inscriptions of Eastern India may be taken as type-specimens for the 8th century A. D.:—
1. The Deo-Baranark pillar-inscription of Jīvitagupta II. We have a certain date for Adityasena in the Shahpur image-inscription. Three full generations elapsed between him and Jīvitagupta II. If these generations be taken to be short and to have covered fifteen years on the average, we arrive at the 8th century A. D. as the date of Jīvitagupta II. Consequently it may be affirmed that the Deo-Baranark pillar was incised either in the first or the second decade of the 8th century A. D.
2. The Khālimpur grant of Dharmmapāla, the year 33.
3. The Bodh-Gayā image-inscription of the time of Dharmapāla, the year 26.
It is now quite certain that the reign of Dharmmapāla fell in the 8th century A. D., because he was a contemporary of—
(i) the king Indrarāja or Indrāyudha of Kanauj who is stated in the Harivaṁśapurāṇa to have been living in the Śaka year 705=783 A. D.,
​(ii) a king named Cakrāyudha, whom he offered the throne of Kanauj, and who was defeated by the Gurjjara-Pratīhāra king Nāgabhaṭa II,
(iii) the Gurjjara-Pratīhāra chief Nāgabhaṭa II, for whom we have a certain date in the Buchkala inscription of V. S. 872 = 815 A. D.,
(iv) the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Govinda III whose certain dates range from 794—813 A.D.
The Deo-Baranark inscription of Jīvitagupta II is in a bad state of preservation and the facsimile given in Dr. Fleet's work has not been well reproduced. We find here the forms of initial vowels have not changed. Ka, ga, ca, ja, ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, da, dha, na, bha, ma, ya, and ha also have not changed. We find changes in the cases of—
(1) ṇa, in which we find the right hook or curve further lengthened downwards,
(2) in the case of ta also we find a similar increase in the downward length with a very slight, almost imperceptible, curve at its lower extremity,
(3) in tha, we find the top of the latter broadened, most probably due to "the elongation of the ends of the wedges and of the use of long straight strokes", cf. yathā in (L. 14),
(4) we find two forms of pa: (a) the older form, in which the acute angle is still prevalent; and (b) in which the acute angle, though present, is less remarkable and has given place to a downward elongation of the right vertical line e.g. in the ligature spa
​(5) in the case of la, we find the acute angle having, in certain cases, become too small and the right vertical straight line produced downwards, e.g. in kamala (L. 4), but in other cases, it retains the form of the Aphsaḍ inscription, e.g. valavī (L. 6.),
(6) we find two forms of śa also:—(a) the earlier, with a curved, top as in paramamāheśvara (L. 3), and (b) the later form, which we find for the first time, and which resembles the 9th century form of the Dighwā-Dubhauli grant,
(7) in sa the lower part of the left limb is cursive and projects beyond the vertical level of the left side of the letter,
(8) the third variety of the dental sa of the Aphsaḍ inscription is used in all cases.
The Bodh-Gayā and Khālimpur inscriptions of the 26th and 32nd year of the reign of Dharmapāla, most probably, were incised in the 9th and last decade of the 8th century A.D.
In the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Dharmapāla we find:-
1 three forms of śa:
(a) the ancient form with the round top as in Śilābhidaḥ L. 1, Keśava L. 2 and ṣaḍ-viṅśati L. 7,
(b) the later form without the cross-bar as in Mahadevaścaturmnkha and śreṣṭha (L. 2),
(c) the transitional with the lingering cross-bar, as in śreyase (L. 4);
2 the cross-bar of the lingual ṣa going to intersect the acute angle at the bottom, instead of joining the right vertical line;
​3 in ja the upper horizontal bar disappearing entirely and being substituted by a wedge. The middle horizontal bar is a curve and longer in size in one case (mahībhuji L. 7) and shorter in another (ujjvalasya L. 1);
4 two forms of na:
(a) the older looped form occurring in all cases except two,
(b) the transitional form, between the Gupta shape and the Nāgarī or Bengali form, which we find in ahani (L. 9) and most probably also in khānitā (L. 6);
5 in ṇa, the base line almost disappearing in many cases, as in puṣkarṇī and Viṣṇu (L. 5) drammāṇām and sahasreṇa (L. 6), the base line finally perceptible in putreṇa (L. 2);
6 in ha, the acute angle, at the lower extremity, more sharply defined. The characters of the Khālimpur grant of Dharmmapāla appear next, and in it we find some notable changes.
I. Vowels.
1. In a, we find a broad top-stroke, for the first time, which makes, the resemblance of the letter, to the initial Bengali a complete. Cf. ajani (L. 45).
2. In ā, we find, the length of the vowel is denoted, even in the case of the initial, by a full length vertical straight line, instead of a curve, attached to the lower extremity of the right limb. In the case of the medial, this form is to be found, in all cases, in the Bodh-Gayā inscription also. For the initial form, cf. asīd in L. 5.
3. In the case of i, we see that the usual form is a wedge at the top with two circular dots below. Cf. the form in iva (L. 4) and iti (L. 7).
PLATE VII.
The Prapitamahesvara Temple Inscription-Gaya, V. S. 1299.
* ↑ An earlier mention is to be found in the Haraha Inscription of Īśānavarman of [V. E.] 611, which has since been discovered.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography, pl. IV, X, 20.
* ↑ Ep. Ind., Vol. I, p. 12.
* ↑ J. A. S. B., 1894, pt. I, p. 53, pl. III.
* ↑ Ibid, (N.S.) Vol. IV, p. 102, pl. VI.; Annual Rep. Arch. Survey 1908-9, pp. 148-50.
* ↑ Peterson's 4th Rep. on the Search for Skt. Mss. in the Bombay Preay., pp. XLI and 176; Ind. Ant., Vol. XV, p. 141.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. IX, pl. 193
* ↑ J. B. B. R. A. S., Vol. XXII, No. LXI, p. 128.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. VIII, App. II, p. 3.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography, Eng. Ed., p. 53.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography, Eng. Ed., pl. IV, XXI, 36.
​II. Consonants.
1. Ka retains the looped form, but the acute angle at the bottom becomes more sharply defined.
2. In kha, we find the hook at the top, having become elongated, is converted into a left limb, which in certain cases e.g. in the Bodh-Gayā inscription, is projected further downwards than the right limb. In this inscription, the acute angle in the right limb, becomes still more sharp, e.g. nikhila (L. 20) and khalu (L. 25).
3. In ga, we find the left limb has been sharply curved to the right, the extremity of the curve being occupied by the usual wedge.
4. In gha we have a broad top stroke, the left end of which is connected with the lower extremity of the right vertical line, by means of two curves. In fact, the base line of the 5th century gha, consisting of a curve to the left and a slanting straight line to the right, has been transformed into two distinct curves, while the acute angle at the bottom has become very small.
5. ña occurs in ligatures only and has not changed, cf. Saṅgīryamānaḥ (L. 22).
6. In ca, there is no other change, save the sharpness of the acute angle and the consequent decrease in the breadth of the letter.
7. In cha also, there is little or no change, except the downward elongation of the vertical line, which forms a short tail, attached to the point or junction of the two circles, cf. ahavecchā (L. 20).
8. In ja, we find remarkable changes. The lowest horizontal line consists of a hook, while the middle horizontal has been forced downwards; the place of the upper horizontal line being taken by a wedge. There is very little difference between this form and the modern Bengali form of this letter.
​9. Ña is to be found in ligatures only, cf. sarvvaajña (L. 1) where the reproduction is not very distinct.
10. Another important modification is to be found in ṭa, where instead of the semi-circle, we find the letter consists of a top-stroke, a vertical straight line attached to the right extremity, which forms the right limb, and a curve, attached to the left end of the top-stroke, by means of another curve.
11. Tha has changed from a circle into a semi-circle with a straight line attached to its both ends and slightly produced downwards, beyond it ; cf. kaṇṭhe (L. 23). This form is not to be found in the 9th and 10th century inscriptions.
12. In ṇa, we find that in all cases the older form is still prevalent. In no case we find the suppression of the base line, as we do in some cases of the Bodh-Gayā inscription.
13. In ta, we find the curve on the right hand having a distinct tendency to become a straight line.
14. In tha, we find a more archaic form, as neither the top-stroke nor the broadening of the upper part of the letter is perceptible.
15. In the case of da, we find further changes. The curve in the middle of the letter has been changed into a sharp acute angle and the slight curve at the bottom lengthened downwards.
16. In dha, we find no change, except the sharpening of the acute angle and the consequent shortening of the breadth.
17. Another archaic form is that of na, which in all cases, shows the early Gupta looped form instead of the modern one.
18. In pa, we find the acute angle has almost disappeared and the letter consists of a top-stroke, a ​vertical straight line, attached to its right end a curve attached to the left end of the top-stroke and the lower part of the vertical.
19. Pha is denoted by the absence of the top stroke. It resembles a pa without the top stroke and a small curve attached to the upper part of the right vertical line, cf. phani (L. 15).
20. In bha, there is no change beyond the sharpening of the lower angle.
21. In ma also there is no change save the decrease in the size of the acute angle.
22. In ya the vertical straight line is slightly projected downwards beyond the point of the junction with the curve.
23. In ra the arrow-head of the wedge becomes distinct.
24. Another remarkable change is to be found in la. The base line of this letter, which became slanting in the inscriptions of the later Guptas of Magadha, has been entirely suppressed in the majority of cases. In this record the hook or curve in the left limb of this letter is attached to the middle of the right vertical straight line by another curve and the letter becomes what it is in modern Nāgarī or Bengali. It should be noticed in this connection that the older form is preserved in the sea where the base line is distinct.
25. In va, we find a similar downward prolongation of the right vertical straight line.
26. In sa, we find the looped form in all cases. The later forms, used in the Bodh-Gayā inscription, are not in evidence.
27. In śa, we find the older form, in which the crossbar touched the right vertical straight line, instead of the later form to be found in the Bodh-Gayā inscription. ​28. Ṣa retains the form which we find in the Deo-Baranark inscription of Jīvita-Gupta II without any change.
29. The form of the letter is entirely changed in ha, where we find the upper angle changed into a curve and the lower angle replaced by a short vertical straight line. So, the letter now consists of a wedge at the top, a curve below and two short vertical straight lines.
From this point we have to recognise four different varieties in Northern alphabets:—
(i) the Eastern, the development of which, we have to follow, in order to trace the origin of the Bengali script;
(ii) the Central, which gradually developed into the modern Nāgarī and the alphabet of the Southern Punjab and Rājputānā;
(iii) the Śāradā, which according to Bühler, "appears since about A.D. 900 in Kashmir and in the North-Eastern Punjab (Kangra and Chamba);"
(iv) the North-Western. The alphabet has not as yet, obtained proper recognition. It is to be found on the coins of the Hindu kings of Kabul or Ohind and in certain 9th or 10th century inscriptions discovered by Sir Harold Deane, which have not been properly dealt with as yet". It may be termed the Trans-Indus alphabet of the 9th or 10th centuries A.D., which died away after the Muhammedan occupation of the country. It may be noticed, however, that it survived till the earlier part of the 11th century A.D., when we find it on the little known silver coins, with Sanskrit legends, issued by the famous conqueror, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
​From this point onward, we shall have to confine ourselves to the development of the Eastern alphabet only, and to compare it with that of the central. This, again, will be called Western, from the point of view of our observation, for the sake of better distinction. In the earlier part of the 9th century A.D., the Gurjjara-Pratīhāras founded an extensive empire in Northern India, which extended from Bihār in the East to the Punjab in the West and from the Himalayas in the North to Malwa and Gujrat in the South. In Bengal, Devapāla succeeded Dharmapāla and kept the Pala Empire in tact. But his successors, Vigrahapāla I and Nārāyaṇapāla, were not so fortunate and we find that the Gurjjara-Pratīhāra emperors wrested Northern and Southern Bihār from them. We know from three different inscriptions that Magadha or Southern Bihār was included in the dominions of the Emperor Mahendrapāla:
1. The Dighwā-Dubhauli grant of Mahendrapāla, V.E. 955 = 898 A.D.
2. The Rām-Gayā inscription of Mahendrapāla, the year 8.
3. The Guṇeriā image-inscription of Mahendrapāla, the year 9.
The following inscriptions of the 9th century A.D. may be safely referred to the Eastern variety of the Northern class:
1. The Munger grant of Devapāla, the year 32.
2. The Ghoṣrāwā inscription of the time of Devapāla.
​3. The Bādāl pillar inscription of the time of Nārāyaṇapāla.
4. The Visnupād temple inscription of Nārāyaṉapāla—the year 7.
5. The Bhagalpur grant of Nārāyaṇapāla—the year 17.
6. The Dighwā-Dubhauli grant of Mahendrapāla—V. E. 955.
7. The Ramgayā inscription of Mahendrapāla—the year 8.
Out of these seven inscriptions the Hunger grant of Devapāla is of no use for Palæographical purposes, as its original cannot be traced, and it was published by the late Dr. Kielhorn from the eye copy reproduced in the first volume of the Asiatick Researches. The Ghosrāwā inscription is the only record whose characters may be taken to represent the North Eastern alphabet of the earlier part of the 9th century A.D. Dr. Bühler was certainly wrong in placing the alphabets of the Dighwā-Dubhauli grant of Mahendrapāla and the Asiatic Society's grant of Vināyakapāla before that of the Ghosrāwā Inscription. The approximate date of the Ghosrāwā inscription is also wrongly given. It should be 800-900 A.D. instead of 850-950 A.D. Subsequent examination will prove that the Dighwā-Dubhauli grant is later in date than that of the Bhagalpur grant of Nārāyaṉapāla.
​The following characteristics of the alphabet used in the Ghosrāwā inscription may be noted:
1. In A the top stroke has not yet fully developed. There are two distinct wedges on the top of each of the limbs. In addition to these there is a long narrow wedge at the lower extremity of the right limb.
2. In the case of Ā also the top stroke has not yet fully developed.
3. The initial short I consists of two circles or dots at the top, and a scroll like curve below.
4. E has become a right angled triangle in form.
5. Kha still shows a wedge at the bottom of the left limb.
6. Ca shows an increase in the breadth.
7. Ja shows an archaic form in which the central horizontal bar is slightly slanting downwards and lower horizontal bar shows a small curve at the end
8. In Ṭa the right limb is not shown and is archaic in form consisting of a semi-circle with a wedge at the upper end.
9. In Ṇa the base line has entirely disappeared.
10. Tha shows a broadening of the upper part and consists of a loop and a curve with an acute angle at the bottom formed by a side of the curve and the right vertical straight line.
11. Da shows a slanting downward stroke at its lower extremity.
12. Dha also shows this stroke.
13. Na shows the transitional form between the looped one of the early Gupta period and the Nāgarī or Bengali one. The loop has separated from the main body of the letter.
​14. Pa is very archaic in form. There is no curvature about it and the lower part shows two right angles instead of an obtuse and an acute angle.
15. In Bha we see the slanting downward stroke.
16. In Ma the loop is still absent.
17. In Ya the acute angle has been entirely sup- pressed and with the exception of the breadth of the lower part of the letter we have the complete Nāgarī or Bengali form.
18. The base line of La has been entirely suppressed. The hook or curve on the left is joined to the right limb by a short straight line.
19. In Va the acute angle has given place to the elongation of the right vertical straight line.
20. In Śa we find a wedge at the botoom of the left limb and the cross bar has become slanting while the right limb is projected upwards.
21. In Ṣ, the base line has again become horizontal, and the cross bar has slanted downwards.
22. In Ha also we find a slightly archaic form as the acute angle has not as yet developed into a second downward stroke.
The archaisms found in the alphabet used in the Ghosrāwā inscription may be explained in this manner. The Ghosrāwā inscription represents the true epigraphic alphabet, in which certain letters are more archaic in form than those in the Khālimpur grant of Dharmapāla. The alphabet used in the Khālimpur grant represents the current-hand-script of the later part of the 8th century A. D. and as such shows much later forms than the Ghosrāwā inscription, which being incised on stone is an Epigraph proper of the 9th century.
PLATE VIII.
Krsnakirttana (Ms. Bangiya Sahitya Parishad) Fol. 179. Rev.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography, Eng. Ed., p. 57.
* ↑ V. A. Smith, Cat. of Coins in the Indian Museum, Vol. I, p. 246.
* ↑ J. A. S. B., 1898, pt. I, p. 6, pl. VII 55.
* ↑ S. L. Poole's, of Orient. Coins in the Brit. Museum, Vol. II, pp. 149-151, pl. VI.
* ↑ Ind. Ant. XV, p. 112.
* ↑ Cunningham's A. S. R., Vol. III, p. 123, No. 13. pl. XXXVII No. 6.
* ↑ Ibid, p. 124, No. 14.
* ↑ Asiatick Researches, Vol. I, p. 123; Ind. Ant., Vol. XXI, p. 254.
* ↑ Ind. Ant., Vol. XVII, p. 309.
* ↑ Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p 161.
* ↑ Cunningham's A. S. R., Vol. III, pl. XXXVI.
* ↑ Ind. Ant., Vol. XV, p. 305; J. A. S. B. 1878, Pt. 1, pl. XXIV-XXV.
* ↑ Ind. Ant., Vol. XV, p. 112.
* ↑ Cunningham's A. S. R., Vol. III, pl. XXXVII, No. 6.
* ↑ Bühler's Indische Palæographie—Tafel IV, Cols. XXI & XXIII.
* ↑ Ibid, Taf. V, Col. VI.
​We pass on to the reign of Nārāyaṇapāla, where we have two stone inscriptions and a copper plate. The Bādāl pillar inscription was found in North Bengal and the Visṇupād temple inscription, at Gayā in South Bihār. The copper plate was also found at Bhāgalpur in the latter province. In the case of Epigraphs proper we find that the alphabet of the Bādāl pillar, which is in the East is more archaic than that of the Gayā inscription of the West. The following points are worth noting in the case of the alphabet used in the Bādāl pillar inscription:—
I. Vowels:—
1. The top stroke is prominent in the case of A and the letter consists of a vertical straight line drawn downwards from right end of the top stroke. A short straight line stands at right angle to the first one, at its centre, and supports a comma-shaped-curve at its extremity. There is a long thin wedge at the bottom of the vertical line.
2. Ā is similar in shape, the length of the sound being denoted by a second vertical straight line placed on the right of the first and drawn parallel to it.
3. The initial I is denoted by a wedge at the top, and two circles or dots below it.
4. The initial U has not changed its form.
5. We find two forms of E:—
(a) The first one is the triangular form in which one of the upper angles has gradually become a right angle. The lower part of the letter shows the slightly curved downward stroke.
(b) In the second form we find that it has ceased to be a triangle. The hypotenuse has snapped leaving a curve at the top of the vertical side and a part of it at the lower end. The resemblance to the modern Bengali form is now complete. Cf. the form in eva (L. 13).
​II. Consonants:—
1. In many cases there is no trace of an acute angle at the lower part of Ka. The letter consists of a top-stroke, a vertical straight line with curving end drawn at right angles to the former, and a curve attached to the left side of the vertical, the upper part of which projects out on the right side and is then turned straight downwards.
2. The base of Kha still consists of a triangle but the base line is not horizontal. The upper part of the letter which consisted formerly of a curve with a wedge or short straight line at its end now consists of a curve with another much smaller one as its extremity.
3. In Ga the curve has a second one attached to its lower extremity and there is a slight tendency of projecting the vertical straight line upwards, beyond the point of its junction with the curve.
4. There is a distinct tendency towards shortage in the breadth of the upper part of Gha. The other changes are the introduction of the top-stroke, the raising of the left curve above the level of the right one, the disappearance of the acute angle and the presence of the slightly curved downward stroke at the bottom.
5. Ca has not changed.
6. In Ja we find a much later form. The vertical straight line has now become a curve while the central bar or horizontal line has become transformed into a long slanting downward stroke. The top-bar has long ago been converted into a wedge.
7. Ña is found in ligatures. In one case we find that it resembles the modern Bengali form. Cf. ñca in Kiñcit (L. 23).
8. We find two forms of Ta:—
(a) The form met with for the first time in Khālimpur grant in which there is a top-stroke, a right limb ​consisting of a vertical straight line attached to the right end of the top-stroke, and a left limb consisting of a semi-circle which is attached to the left end of the top-stroke by means of another slanting straight line. Cf. Mukuṭāṅkita (L. 7).
(b) The second form consists of a top-stroke and a semi-circle attached to the left end of it by a slanting straight line. The only difference between this form and the first one is the absence of the right limb. Cf. Vikaṭa (L. 8).
9. Ṭha consists of a plain circle up to this time.
10. Ḍa is to be found in Uḍupa (L. 7) where the angular form is found to have given its place to the archaic cursive one.
11. In Ṇa we find that the base line is still intact but the left hook or curve has been transformed into a vertical straight line slightly curving towards the lower end.
12. Ta has not changed but we find two different final forms:—
    (a) Vidhivat (L. 10-11).
    (b) Kiñcit, (L. 34).
13. There is a perceptible narrowing of the upper part of Dha.
14. In Na we find the modern Bengali form. The final form has also been used in the inscription. Cf. Śrī-mān (L. 12).
15. In Pa we find a shortening in the breadth of the letter which makes its resemblance to the modern Nāgarī form complete.
16. In Pha the left limb consists of a curve which joins the right one at the lower extremity. The right limb consists of a vertical straight line and a hook or curve to the right attached to its upper end.
​17. Bha has not changed much.
18. For the first time we find that in Ma the base line is almost horizontal and there is a loop at the left end of the base line. The acute angle has been entirely suppressed.
19. In Ya we also find a shortage in the breadth of the letter, which makes its resemblance to the modern Nāgarī form, almost complete.
20. In La we have the archaic form with the slightly curved base line.
21. In Va which does duty both for Ba and Va we find that the acute angle has entirely disappeared and the letter now consists of a top stroke, a vertical straight line at right angles to the above, and a semi-circle attached to the left side of the vertical.
22. We find four different forms of the palatal sibilant:—
(a) The looped form in which the lower part of the left limb ends in a wedge. Cf. Śakra (L. 1).
(b) The looped form in which we find a small triangle at the lower extremity of the looped form. Cf. Śarkkarā (L. 8).
(c) The transitional form between the looped form and the Bengali one in which the letter consists of a vertical straight line on the right, to which is attached a curve by means of a very small horizontal straight line. From the left end of this curve, another curve which ends in a wedge, hangs downwards. Cf. Śiva (L. 10).
(d) The modern Bengali form in which there is no top stroke. The letter consists of a vertical straight line on the right with a curved top and a curved line on the left the upper end of which meets the curved end of the right-limb and has a wedge at its base. Cf. Śāṇḍilya (L. 1).
​23. In the lingual Ṣa the breadth of the lower part has decreased considerably.
24. Sa has not changed at all.
25. Ha in all cases shows the later form of the llth and 12th century Nāgarī or Bengali, in which the downward stroke which had taken the place of the lower acute angle becomes transformed into a curve.
In the Gayā inscription we find that—
1. Initial I has two different forms:—
(a) Two circles at the top and a scroll at the bottom. Cf. Iti in L. 4.
(b) A short horizontal straight line at the top and two small circles at the bottom.
2. Kha has acquired the modern Bengali form, in which the letter consists of a vertical straight line on the right and the triangle which has now ceased to be so, as the apex has opened out, and the curve at the top. This curve at the top, and the transformed sides of the triangle form a new limb of the letter. The lower part of the curve at the top has again curved slightly inwards making the resemblance complete.
3. Gha still retains the acute angle at the bottom. Cf. Narasiṅgha (L. 2).
4. In Ṭa we find that the vertical straight line on the right has entirely disappeared. Cf. the three instances in L. 2.
5. Ṭha continues to preserve its ancient form.
6. We find two forms of Pa:—
(a) The more ancient form in which the angles still persist as in Pravala (L. 2).
(b) The comparatively modern cursive form which is more abundant.
7. Pha is to be found in ligatures:—
Sphurad-amala (L. 1-2) and Sphuratu (L. 14).
​8. In the case of La we find important changes. The base line has disappeared and the letter consists of a top-stroke, a vertical straight line at right angles to it and two small curves joined together which touch the left side of the vertical line.
9. We find two forms of the palatal sibilant Śa here also:—
(a) The transitional form between the looped one and the more modern form. This particular transitional form is earlier than that to be found in the Bādāl pillar inscription, as here the loop is still present but nestles against the left side of the right vertical straight line. Cf. Śetu (L. 12).
(b) The other form is more widely used and is same as variety (d) of the Bādāl pillar inscription.
We now turn to the alphabet of the Bhāgalpur grant which is the latest record of Nārāyaṇapāla discovered up to date as it was issued in the 17th year of his reign. We find that in the alphabet of this inscription we have the Proto-Bengali forms almost complete:
I. Vowels:—
1. A is the complete Bengali one in which even the short line joining the comma-shaped scroll to the right vertical line is slanting downwards instead of being horizontal as in the Bādāl pillar inscription. Cf. Asir (L. 20), Abhitva(ra)māna (L. 35), Anyāṁs=ća (L. 36). The wedge has almost disappeared from the lower part of the letter.
​2. Ā also has a similar form—the length being denoted by a second vertical straight line placed to the right of the letter as in the Bādāl pillar inscription. The A and Ā of the alphabet used in this inscription is almost the same as those used in the modern Bengali alphabet, the only differentia being the short vertical straight stroke in both letters joining the comma-shaped curve with the top stroke.
3. In the case of initial I we find almost the same form as in the Bādāl pillar, i.e., the wedge at the top and two circles or dots below it. The wedge however is modified in form, having lost the upper side of the triangle. Cf. Iti. (L. 47 and 50).
4. In the initial U we find a change after a long time. The letter now possesses a top stroke and the vertical straight line which had remained unaltered since the early Mauryya period now curves sharply to the left. Cf. Udīcīnāneka (L. 26).
II. Consonants:—
1. The triangle of Ka has become broader.
2. Kha shows the cursive Bengali form found for the first time in the Gayā inscription.
3. Gha has lost its acute angle, become shortened in breadth at the upper part and the left curve at the base placed on a higher level than the right one. We have a very close approach to the modern Bengali form in this instance.
4. Ca also shows a distinct narrowing at the upper part.
5. In Ja we find that in some cases the central horizontal bar of the earlier forms, which becomes almost a downward stroke in the Bādāl pillar inscription, transformed into two straight lines, forming an obtuse angle. In other cases this line becomes merely a curve.
​6. In Ṭa we find that there is a short downward stroke from the right end of the top stroke which may be a relic of the longer stroke of the form used in the Khālimpur grant.
7. In Ṇa we find the proto-Bengali form consisting of two short curves joined on to the left side of a vertical straight line.
8. Ta has changed its form after a long time. The letter now consists of a top stroke and a vertical straight line at right angles to it and a curve attached to the left side of the latter. The form resembles the Nāgarī one to some extent.
9. In Tha the upper curve has become open showing the evolution of the Bengali form.
10. In Dha also the upper part of the letter has in many cases opened.
11. The Na has in the majority of cases, the archaic looped form but the loop seems to be drooping or bent downwards.
12. In Pa the upper part of the letter has narrowed.
13. Pha also shows the decrease in the breadth of the upper part of the letter.
14. Ma in all cases has the looped form.
15. In La we find the final suppression of the base line.
16. The Palatal Śa is in all cases of the looped form.
17. We find two forms of the lingual Ṣa:—
(a) The first is the older form in which the breadth of the letter is the same in the upper as well as in the lower parts. Cf. Samāyāt-āśeṣa.
(b) The second is that in which the breadth of the upper part is considerably less than that of the lower. Cf. Samupagat-āśeṣa (L. 30).
PLATE IX.
The Umga Hill Inscription of Bhairavendra.
​the Bādāl pillar and Viṣṇupād temple inscriptions of the time of Nārāyaṇapāla. The examination of the characters of the Dighwā-Dubhauli grant of the Pratīhāra Emperor Mahendrapāla have been included in this paper though it was issued from Mahodaya or Kanauj, because in the first place, the land granted was situated in the maṇḍala and bhūkti of Śrāvasti, in the second place because it was found in the village Dighwā-Dubhauli in the Sub-Division of Gopālganj, in the district of Saran of the Tirhut Sub-division of Bihār, and in the third place because there are many Eastern variety forms in the alphabet used in it:―
1. The narrow Ca.
2. The cursive Ja.
3. The later Ṭa of the Bhāgalpur grant.
4. The Proto-Bengali Tha.
5. The looped Ma.
6. The transitional Śa in which the loop nestles close to the vertical straight line.
7. The late Ṣa in which the cross bar slants downwards.
The exceptional forms are those of:―
(1) A, (2) Kha, (3) Gha, (4) Ta, (5) Ṇa, (6) Na.
We have to admit then that the Dighwā-Dubhauli grant shows the use of an alphabet which is a mixture of the Eastern and Western, a fact not to be wondered at the land was situated on a border. In the Ram-Gayā inscription of Mahendrapāla (regnal year 8= C.898 A.D.) we have a similar mixture:―
1. Śa is of the transitional form and shows a triangle instead of a wedge at the lower extremity of the left limb.
2. Ja shows the downward slanting of the central bar and extreme cursiveness of the lower one.
3. Pa still retains an acute angle.
​4. Ma is looped in form but the lower horizontal bar is perfectly so. There is no slanting.
5. La shows the horizontal straight line which joins the curve or hook to the right vertical straight line.
6. Na is of the looped form.
7. Ha still shows an acute angle but at the same time exhibits a downward curve projecting from the lower angle.
Few inscriptions have been discovered in Northern India which can safely be referred to the 10th century A.D. The reason for the absence of records is not far to seek. The period was a very troubled one and saw the fall of mighty empires. The vast fabric of the Gurjjara-Pratīhāra Empire, imperfectly welded together, was rapidly falling to pieces. Family discord, fanned into flame by neighbouring monarchs, rushed the decay of the Gurjjaras of Kanauj. In the far East the ancient Empire of the Pālas was fast crumbling away. The Pālas were between two fires. The Gurjjara-Pratīhāras in the West, and Mongoloid tribes from the North, were doing their best to annihilate them. We have seen that in the latter part of the 9th century Magadha (South Bihar) and Tīrabhūkti (North Bihar) had been wrested from the Pālas. South Bihar actually formed a part of the Gurjjara Empire. In the North there was a commotion among the Mongoloid tribes of the Sub-Himalayan regions. Perhaps it was the result of a movement among the Nomads of the Trans-Himalayan deserts, the last wave of which reached the Northern barrier of India. The force that was transmitted through the rocky barrier served to dismantle the tall fabric constructed by Dharmmapāla. The Mongoloid tribes, dislodged from their submontane pastures descended into the plains and conquered North Bengal. In 966 A.D. we find a king of Gauda, who professed the Brāhmanical faith, but acknowledged descent from a Non-Aryan clan (Kāmboja). ​There are only three short votive inscriptions and one copper plate grant which can safely be referred to the 10th century A.D.:
1. The Dinājpur pillar inscription Ś. 888 + 78 = 966 A.D.
2. The Nālandā image inscription of Gopāla II—the year 1.
3. The Bodh-Gayā image inscription of Gopāla II.
4. The Bāngarh (Dinājpur) grant of Mahīpāla I.
The last one is included in this list because:
1. We know from the Imadpur image inscriptions that Mahīpāla I reigned at least 48 years.
2. We know from the Tirumalai inscription that the Northern conquest of Rājendra Coḷa I was completed before his 12th regnal year i.e. 1023–4 A.D.
3. The Sārnāth inscription of Mahīpāla I is most probably a posthumous one. So is the date V.E. 1083 = 1026 A.D. The brothers Sthirapāla and Vasantapāla probably finished the work started by Mahīpāla I.
4. There is barely room for two syllables between the words "Samvat" and lguna. The second of these must be read Phā, the first syllable in the name of the month Phālguna and so there can have been only one numeral to express the year.
Consequently we find that the Bāngarh (Dinājpur) grant of Mahīpāla must be assigned to the latter half of the 10th century A.D.
In the Dinājpur pillar inscription we find that:—
1. The upper curve of Ga has given place to a straight line from the left end of which hangs a curved line ending ​in a wedge and from the right end of which hangs a straight line at right angle to it. Cf. Gīyate (L. 2).
2. In Gha the curves at the lower part have disappeared entirely and the letter consists of a top stroke, a vertical straight line hanging down from the right end of the former, and a loop in the angle formed by these lines, which is joined to the left end of the top stroke and the lower end of the vertical line by two slight curves. Cf. Ghaṭā (L. 3).
3. In Ca the acute angle is still present but the upper curve has become a horizontal straight line. The letter has also gained in breadth. Cf. Ca (L. 1).
4. In Ja we have almost the modern Bengali form. The letter consists of a wedge-shaped top stroke, a right limb, the upper part of which is horizontal and the lower part vertical and a left limb, which is as shaped curve. Cf. Kāmvojānvayajena (L. 2).
5. Ña is perceptible in the ligature ñja and there is no difference in it from the modern Bengali form.
6. In Ṭa the only remarkable feature is the remnant of the right vertical straight line of the form of the Khālimpur grant of Dharmmapāla. Cf. Ghaṭa (L. 3).
7. Ḍa is cursive in form and consists of a wedge at the top and a S shaped curve below which is slightly different from the modern Bengali form.
8. Ṇa is exclusively Proto-Bengali in form. It consists of a top stroke, a right vertical straight line and two semi-circular curves attached to one another, the right end of the right one of which touches the upper part of the left side of the vertical. Cf. Mārggaṇaguṇa (L. 2).
9. Ta shows the later form consisting of a top stroke, a vertical straight line and a long slight curve attached to the upper part of the left side of the vertical. Cf. Gīyate (L. 2). ​10. Tha has not changed. The upper loop has not become open as yet. Cf. Varuthini and Pramathane (L. 1).
11. In Dha we find an acute angle and an arc of a circle bounded by a straight line which is produced upwards beyond the point of its junction with the upper end of the curve. Cf. Vidyādharaiḥ (L. 1).
12. Na has the later form consisting of a top stroke, a right vertical line and a loop in the angle joined to the left side of the latter by a short horizontal line. Cf. Gauḍapatinā (L. 2–3).
13. Pa has the modern Nāgarī form. Cf. Prāsādo (L. 3).
14. Va shows no difference except the presence of the acute angle.
15. In Bha we find a change after a long time. The letter consists of a top stroke, a right vertical straight limb, and a long narrow wedge which is joined to the left side of the vertical line. This wedge seems to have been formed by the closing in of the sides supporting the obtuse and acute angles in the older form. Cf. Bhūbhūṣaṇaḥ (L. 3).
16. Ma shows the looped form in which the lower horizontal line is at right angles to the vertical. Cf. Niramāyi (L. 3).
17. Ya shows the diminution in the breadth of the lower part of the letter. Cf. Yasya (L. 2).
18. Ra shows a widening of the wedge. Cf. Durvvār-āri (L. 1).
19. La shows a slightly archaic form in which the line joining the curve to the right vertical is still horizontal and not slanting downwards.
20. There is no difference between Ba and Va.
​21. Śa does not occur.
22. In Ṣa we find a diminution in the breadth of the lower part of the letter and a slanting cross bar. Cf. Varṣeṇa (L. 3).
23. In Sa the closing in of the sides has caused a fresh formation of the wedge. Cf. Prāsādo (L. 3).
24. Ha shows a top stroke—the transformation of the upper angle into a curve, and the curved line below the lower angle. Cf. Graho (L. 2).
The Nālandā (Baragaon in the Patna District) image inscription shows:
1. That in the west the older form of Bha was still being used. Cf. Paramabhattāraka (L. 1), and Bhattārikā (L. 2) and
2. That the later form of Śa is used in all cases: Āśvina, Śudi, Parameśvara, Śrī (L. 1), and Śrī Vāgīśvarī (L. 2).
The Bodh-Gayā image inscription also shows the exclusive use of:—
1. the older form of Bha
2. the later form of Śa and
3. the later Bengali form of Kha. Cf. Khaḍga (L. 1), Duḥkha (L. 2).
In the Bāngarh inscription of Mahīpāla we find the latest form of the 10th century alphabet of the North East. In this inscription we come across the pure Proto-Bengali alphabet for the first time which is further developed in another century. We find that all earlier forms have gone out of use. The points to be noted are:—
1. The initial i, still consisting of a wedge at the top, and two dots or circles below. Cf. iv-aiko (L. 18).
​2. The Bengali form of Kha in which the cursive left limb joins the right vertical at its lower end as well as at the top. Cf. the instances in L. 27.
3. The looped form of Gha. Cf. the instances in L. 26.
4. The widened form of Ca. Cf. Caraņa (L. 24).
5. The Bengali form of Ja in which the lower curved line is extended upwards and makes the development complete.
6. The older form of Ța in which the residue of the right vertical line still exists.
7. Țha shows a wedge-shaped vertical line for the first time. Cf. Píțh-opalaṁ, (L. 14).
8. Ṇa has the complete Proto-Bengali form.
9. In Ta the left end of the curve was already widening in the Dinājpur pillar inscription but in this record it does not show the change.
10. Tha does not show the opening of the upper loop. Cf. Pārthivendrān (L. 58).
11. Dha shows the prolongation of the vertical straight line. Cf. Sandadhānaḥ (L. 2).
12. Na shows the slanting cross-bar between the loop on the left and the right vertical line.
13. Bha yet shows the older form.
14. Ma shows the slanting of the lower horizontal line which joins the loop to the right vertical.
15. La shows the developed Nāgarī or Bengali form.
16. Ṡa shows the later form in all eases and we do not find the looped or any of the transitional forms.
17. We find the later form Ha in which there is a curved line below the lower (now the only) angle.
In the llth century A.D., we find a fresh development. In Eastern India the gulf between the alphabets used in the Eastern and Western parts have become wider and ​consequently we find Nāgāri from Benares westwards, and Bengali from Gayā towards the East. We have very few inscriptions of the western variety. The Pratīhāras still lingered at Kanauj, a helpless prey of the Muhammadan invader and the proud Caṇḍella Rajput. In Bengal the century saw the rise of a new Empire under Mahīpāla I, the invasion of the Southern Conqueror Rājendra Coḷa I, the fight for supremacy with the Cedī kings Gāṅgeya and Karṇṇa, the final break up under Vigrahapāla and Rāmapāla's attempt to recover the lost supremacy.
In the eleventh century A.D. we shall consider the alphabets of four different inscriptions:
Besides these there are a number of records which need not be taken into consideration at present. Of Mahīpāla I we have the Imadpur image inscription of the 48th year and the Bodh-Gayā image inscription of the 10th year. We have another inscription of 15th year of Nayapāla in the temple of Narasiṁha in the compound of the Viṣṇupād at Gayā. We have two certain inscriptions of the reign of Vigrahapāla III:—
​(1) The Akṣayavaṭa inscription of the 5th year and (2) the Āmgāchhi copper plate grant. So also of the reign of Rāmapāla we have the Chandimau image inscription of the 42nd year. But these inscriptions are useless to us as trustworthy facsimiles have not been published or are not easily obtainable. The impression of the Krishṇa-Dwārikā temple inscription of Nayapāla was obtained after a good deal of trouble through the kind services of Pandit Parameswar Dayal of Gayā.
In the Sārnāth inscription of Mahīpāla I we find that a mixed alphabet has been used. There is not the slightest chance of the entire alphabet being called Nāgarī, as a comparison with the Benares grant of Karṇṇadeva, the Cedī ruler, would prove at once that the western variety of the North-eastern alphabet was something altogether different.
The following are the peculiarities of the alphabet used in the Sārnāth inscription of Mahīpāla I:
(1) Ā in ārādhya and ī in īśāna (L. 1) have the western variety form. In Ā the comma shaped curve in the lower part of the left limb of the letter has lost its knob or head and has acquired the form of a semi-circle.
(2) In ī we find that the letter consists of a horizontal straight line above the two dots below and under them a slight curve indicates the length of the vowel Cf. Īśāna (L. 1).
(3) We find Eastern variety forms in Śa, Ha, La, Ṇa.
(4) E in etāṁ (L. 2) has the modern Bengali form in which the loop has opened. So also is Ja.
​The alphabet used in the Krishna-Dwārikā temple inscription of the 15th year of Nayapāla, is the same as that of the Narasimha temple inscription of the time of the same king and the Akṣayavaṭa inscription of the fifth year of Vigrahapāla III. With some modifications, it is used in the Satīghāt (Śītalā temple) inscription at Gayā of the time of Yakṣapāla. Here we find that:—
(1) A has the Bengali form, but the short vertical straight line, joining the comma-shaped curve of the left limb, with the top stroke, is still present; Cf. ajāta and ananya (L. 5).
(2) In Ā the length is denoted by a second vertical straight line; Cf. ākulaṁ (L. 15).
(3) There is no change in i, Cf. iva (L. 1).
(4) In U the inward curvature of the vertical line has disappeared giving place to a vertical line slanting, towards the left, at the end of which is a curve which turns back and nearly reaches the level of the top-stroke.
(5) The Nāgarī form of E is prevalent in which the triangle has not opened out as yet. Cf. ete (L. 8).
(6) The acute angle is clear at the lower end of Ka.
(7) We find a top stroke in Kha. Throughout this record the Nāgarī form of kha is still prevalent.
(8) The upper part of Ga now shows a top stroke.
(9) The looped form of Gha is used in all cases; Cf. Ślāghā (L. 13).
(10) We find the same form of Ca as that used in the Dinājpur pillar inscription of the Śaka year 888.
(11) In Cha there is no other change save the downward projection of the vertical line Cf. cchavi-cchāyaiḥ (L. 7).
​(12) In Ja we find that the curve to the right, the disappearance of which make the development of the modern Bengali form, complete, still continues.
(13) Ña has the fully developed Bengali form and is to be found in ligatures only, Cf. Kiñ-ca (L. 3).
(14) Ṭa still consists of a top stroke, a right limb which is a short stump of a vertical straight line hanging from the right end of the top stroke, and a left limb, which is a semi-circular curve, the upper end of which is attached to the left end of the top stroke by a short slanting straight line; Cf. Paṭala (L. 3),
(15) In Ṭha we find the top stroke Cf. Pāṭha-kramād (L. 8).
(16) In Ḍha we find that the letter consists of a top stroke and a scroll below; prauḍha (L. 9).
(17) Ṇa has the proto-Bengali form, the only special feature being the top stroke Cf. Bhūṣaṇah (L. 5).
(18) In Ta we find a broadening of the stroke in the extremity of the curve, which has once been noticed in the Dinājpur pillar inscription.
(19) The upper loop or curve of Tha has not opened out as yet.
(20) The angle at the back of Da has become sharper.
(21) The upward projection of the vertical straight line continues without change, in Dha.
(22) Na shows the Bengali form in which the line joining the loop and the right vertical straight line is not horizontal but is slanting downwards.
(23) Pa has the Nāgarī form, the only exception being the presence of the acute angle.
(24) Pha has the Bengali form.
(25) Bha shows the formation of the wedge due to the closing in of the sides. The lower extremity of the letter now curves inward and not outwards.
​(26) The looped form of Ma is used in all cases. The perfectly horizontal position of the short straight line which joins the loop to the right vertical Hues shows that the letter belongs to the western variety of the Northeastern alphabet.
(27) In Ya we find the formation of the angle in the left limb.
(28) The wedge shaped Ra continues without change.
(29) The Bengali form of La shows almost complete development.
(30) In Va the acute angle is still to be found in the lower part of the letter.
(31) Śa shows a distinct top stroke over the two curves in the upper part of the letter.
(32) Ṣa shows an angle in the left limb.
(33) In Sa we find that the open wedge has become solid.
(34) Ha only is archaic in form. It does not show the curved line below the lower angle.
The Tetrāwān image inscription of the 2nd year of Ramapāla is not in a good state of preservation. We find that in this inscription we have more instances of western forms than of eastern ones of the North-eastern alphabet:—
1. The initial I consists of a horizontal straight line and below it two circles or dots.
2. Ma has the Nāgarī form, as in the Krishṇa-Dwārikā temple inscription.
3. The scute angle is absent in Va.
4. Bha shows the older form in all cases.
5. Ṭha is more advanced in form, e.g. in gaṭkitaṁ (L. 2).
​We come to the Deopārā inscription of Vijayasena, where we find the modern Bengali alphabet, with certain exceptions in which the development of the form is still incomplete:
1. I where we find that the two circles have become joined together and ellipsoid in form.
2. U where the inward curvature of the vertical is still to be seen.
3. Ka does not show the acute angle.
4. Ga shows a right angle at the top formed by the top stroke and the right vertical straight line.
5. Na shows the modern Bengali form in the ligature.
6. Ca has the Nāgārī form, the hollow triangle at the lower extremity is still to the left.
7. Ja shows the transitional form.
8. Ṭa shows the transitional form in which the top stroke and the straight left limb on the right, have combined to form a curve.
9. Ḍa still shows the inward curvature of the vertical line as in U.
10. Ṇa shows the absence of the top stroke that its development is not yet complete.
11. Da shows a curve at the back and is transitional in form.
​12. Dha shows the absence of the horn which characterises the modern Bengali form.
13. Na shows that the short line joining the loop to vertical line is still horizontal.
14. Pa shows the transitional form.
15. La has a peculiar form, resembling La which is still found in some cases in modern Bengali Manuscripts where la is denoted by a dot placed under na.
The development is more or less complete in the case of the following letters:—
1. A where the line joining the comma-shaped curve to the top stroke has become slanting instead of being perfectly vertical.
2. Ā is absent but we can derive it by adding a vertical straight line to the right of A.
3. In modern Bengali E shows a further elongation of the base line towards the left, than that in the Deopārā praśasti.
4. The development of O is full and complete.
5. Kha shows the modern Bengali form as found in the Bhagalpur grant. The only change needed to perfect it, is the formation of an acute angle at the bottom.
6. The development of Gha also is complete, save the elimination of the curve to the right, above the loop and the junction of the upper part of the loop to the left end of the top-stroke. ​7. Cha also is complete. The depression of the circle has given the letter modern form and the opening of the curve to the right at the lower end would complete the development.
8. In Jha the upper part of the limb was eliminated later, forming the modern shape.
9. Ña occurs in ligatures only but it has the fully developed Bengali form. In fact the modern Bengali form, as has been already shown, developed much earlier.
10. Dha has the same form as that to be found in the Krishṇa-Dwārikā temple inscription.
11. Ta shows the fully developed form. The hook with the extended head, having become shortened, has the form of a knob. The only change in subsequent centuries was the upward elongation of the curve at the lower extremity of the letter.
12. In Tha we find a transitional form which had almost acquired completion. In subsequent centuries we find the elimination of the wedge at the lower extremity of the vertical line and the formation of an acute angle.
13. Pha has acquired the modern form about a century ago.
14. In Bha we find the almost completely developed form. The only change in subsequent centuries is a curvature of the solid wedge and an upward elongation of the lower extremity.
15. Ma shows the complete development.
​16. In Ya the only change needed to complete the development is the formation of an acute angle at the bottom.
17. In Pa the solid wedge at the lower extremity, becomes hollow, in fact a triangle, in later years.
18. In Va we find a semi-circular curve, which is attached to the vertical line. In subsequent years this again becomes a triangle.
19. The left limb of śa has become shortened in length. The only change needed is the formation of two loops at the end of the left limb and the suppression of one of the two curves in the upper part.
20. In Ṣa also we find the form almost completed. The only change needed is the formation of an acute angle at the bottom.
21. The final development of the form of Sa is to be found in the Deopārā praśasti.
22. We find the transitional form of Ha in this record. The subsequent changes are the formation of a knob instead of the curve to the left, in the upper part of the letter, and the addition of a top stroke.
In the twelfth century we come across a number of historical events. The Gaharwārs or Gāhaḍavālas made themselves secure at Kanauj. In the East, the power of the Pālas, declined gradually. Their dominions in Bengal were gradually acquired by the Senas, and in Bihār by the Gaharwārs. In this century we find the completion of the ​development of the modern Bengali script with exceptions of a few letters such as:
In this century, it will not be necessary to consider these alphabets used in the different inscriptions, as our narrative of the development of the Bengali alphabet is almost complete. We shall, simply, note the changes in the forms of the letters as they pass through this period. Again, with the extension of the Gāhaḍavāla Empire towards the East the eastern limit of the use of the western variety of the North-Eastern alphabet also extended eastwards in the century. In the Śaka year 1059-1137 A.D. we find the western variety in the Govindpur (near Nawada in the Gayā District) stone inscription of the poet Gangādhara which is now in the Indian Museum at Calcutta. Again in the 4th decade of the thirteenth century of the Vikrama era we find the western variety in the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Jayacchandra. The alphabet of these inscriptions is altogether different from that used in the Deopārā praṣasti and other eastern variety inscriptions of the North-Eastern alphabet, so that it is unnecessary to enter into an analysis of it. The further development of the alphabet will be shown from the specimens used in the following inscriptions:—
(1) The Manda inscription of the time of Gopala III.
(2) The Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva.
​(3) The Torpondighi grant of Lakṣmaṇasena.
(4) The Dacca image inscription of Lakṣmaṇasena—the year 3.
(5) The Bodh-Gayā inscription of Aśokacalla—the La-saṁ 51 = 1170 A.D.
(6) The Gadādhara temple inscription of V. E. 1232 = 1175 A.D.
(7) The alphabets used in the Manuscripts of Pāncākara, Yogaratnamālā and Guhyāvalī-vivṛti written in the 37th, 38th, and 39th year of the reign of Govindapāla, i.e., 1198-1200 A.D.
* ↑ Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
* ↑ J. A. S. B. (N. S.), Vol. VIII, p. 619, pl. XV.
* ↑ Ibid, Vol. IV, p. 105, No II, pl. VII.
* ↑ Ibid, No. III.
* ↑ J. A. S. B. 1892, Pt. I, p. 82.
* ↑ Proc. A. S. B. 1881, p. 98
* ↑ Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, p. 119–20.
* ↑ Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIII.
* ↑ Annual Rep. Arch. Survey, 1903-4. p. 222, pl. LXIV. No. 4.
* ↑ Cunningham's A.S.R. Vol. III. pl. XXXVII. J.A.S.B. 1900. pt. I. p. 193; Memoirs, A.S.B. Vol. V. p. 77, pl. XXV
* ↑ J.A.S.B. (N.S.) Vol. IV. p. 109 pl. VII.
* ↑ Ep. Ind. Vol. II. p. 307. & plate.
* ↑ Cunningham's A.S.R. Vol. III. p. 122 No. 9.
* ↑ J.A.S.B. 1900. pt. I p. 190. note 1. Mem. A.S.B., Vol. V. p. 78, pl XXVI.
* ↑ Cunningham's A.S.R. Vol. III. p. 132-33. Mem. A.S.B. Vol. V. p. 81, pl. XXVII.
* ↑ Ind. Ant. Vol. XXI. p. 97.
* ↑ Cunningham's A.S.R. Vol. XI. p. 169. Aun. Sep. Arch. Survey India, 1911-12, p. 161, pl. LXXII, fig. 8.
* ↑ Facsimiles of these inscriptions have since been published in my memoirs on the Pālas of Bengal, Mem. A.S.B. Vol. V. pp. 78-82, pls. XXV-XXVII.
* ↑ Ind. Ant. Vol. XVI. p. 64. Mem. A.S.B. Vol. V. p. 96, pl. XXIX.
* ↑ Epi. Ind. Vol., I, p. 307.
* ↑ Bühler's Indian Palaeography, pi. V. XVIII. 3.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 5.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 10.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 12.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 14.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 15.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 20.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 24.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 27.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 28.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 29.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 30.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 1.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 7.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 9.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 11.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 13.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 16.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 18.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 19.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 23.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 25.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 25.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 26.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 33.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 34.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 35.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 36.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 38.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 39.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 40.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, 41.
* ↑ Ibid, pl. V, XVIII, 42.
* ↑ Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p. 333.
* ↑ Mem. A. S. B., Vol. V, p. 109, pl. XXX.
* ↑ Proc. A. S. B. 1881, p. 172, pl. VIII.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. II, p. 350.
* ↑ Epi. Ind., Vol. XIII, p. 8.
* ↑ J. & P. A. S. B., Vol. IX, p. 290, pl. XXIV.
* ↑ Cunningham's Mahabodhi, p. 78, pl. XXVIII A.
* ↑ Cunningham's A.S.R., Vol. III, p. 125, pl. XXXVIII; Mem. A.S.B., Vol. V, p. 109, pl. XXVIII.
* ↑ Bendall's Cat. Skt. Mss. in the Univ. Liby., Cambridge, pp. 188-190, No. 1699, I-III.