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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuttall, Thomas

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​NUTTALL, THOMAS (1786–1859), English botanist and ornithologist, who lived and worked in America from 1808 until 1842, was born at Settle in Yorkshire on the 5th of January 1786, and spent some years as a journeyman printer in England. Soon after going to the United States he was induced by Professor B. S. Barton (1766–1815) to apply himself to the study of the plants of that country. In 1825–1834 he was curator of the botanic gardens of Harvard university. In 1834 he crossed the continent to the Pacific Ocean, and visited the Hawaiian Islands. Some property having been left him in England on condition of his residing on it during part of each year, he left America in 1842, and did not again revisit it except for a short time in 1852. He died at St Helens, Lancashire, on the 10th of September 1859.
Almost the whole of his scientific work was done in the United States, and his published works appeared there. The more important of these are, The Genera of North American Plants, and a Catalogue of the Species to the year 1817 (2 vols., 1818); Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the year 1819 (1821); The North American Sylva: Trees not described by F. A. Michaux (3 vols., 1842–1849); Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada (1832 and 1834); and numerous papers in American scientific periodicals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tîrgovishtea

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​TÎRGOVISHTEA (Rumanian Tîrgoviştea, or Târgoviştea, sometimes incorrectly written Tergovista or Tirgovist), the capital of the department of Dimbovitza, Rumania; situated at the foot of the Carpathians, on the right bank of the river Jalomitza, 48 m. N.N.W. of Bucharest. Pop. (1900), 9398. A branch line connects Tîrgovishtea with the main Walachian system, and is prolonged northwards into the hills, where there are rich deposits of petroleum, salt and lignite. Coal is also found but not worked. Apart from the scanty ruins of a 14th-century palace, the most interesting building in the town is the Metropolitan church, still one of the finest in the country, with its nine towers and monuments of the princely house of Cantacuzino. It was founded in 1515 by Neagoe Basarab, builder of the famous cathedral of Curtea de Argesh. Tîrgovishtea is a garrison town, with a cavalry-training school and an artillery depot and repairing arsenal.
​Under Mircea the Old (1383–1419) Tîrgovishtea became the third capital of Walachia. In the 15th century it was sacked by the Szeklers. Michael the Brave defeated the Turks under its walls in 1597. In the 16th century it had a population of 60,000 and contained 70 churches and 40 convents. After Constantine Brancovan moved the seat of government to Bucharest in 1698, Tîrgovishtea lost its importance and the population decreased.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tönsberg

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​TÖNSBERG, a fortified seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-Laurvik amt (county), situated on a bay on the south coast, near the entrance to Christiania Fjord, 72 m. S. by W. of Christiania on the Skien railway. Pop. (1900), 8620. It is one of the most ancient towns in Norway. It is the headquarters of a sealing and whaling fleet. The principal industries are refineries for preparing whale and seal oil and saw-mills. An interesting collection of antiquities and whaling implements is preserved in the Slotstaarn on Castle Hill.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Töpffer, Rodolphe

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​TÖPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedestrian journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva on the 31st of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came about 1760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father. But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes, with sketches by the author—the first printed edition appeared at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zigzag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death, on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1834 he published an article in the Bibliothèque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a number of tales, commencing with the Bibliothèque de mon oncle (1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the well-known volume which bears the title of Nouvelles genevoises. He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics, and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Genève. Among ​his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a volume of artistic studies, the Réflexions et menus propos d’un peintre génevois (1848).
Lives by A. Blondel and the abbé Relave (both published at Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's Écrivains nationaux (Geneva, 1874); and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d’un alpiniste (Lausanne, 1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and several chapters in Ste Beuve’s Causeries du lundi, Derniers portraits littéraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Týr

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​TÝR, the Scandinavian god of battle. He is not a prominent figure in Northern mythology, for even in this special capacity he is overshadowed by Odin, and there are hardly any traces of worship being paid to him. Among other Teutonic peoples, however, he seems at one time to have been a deity of considerable importance. In Anglo-Saxon he was called Tī (Ti, Tiig, gen. Tīwes, whence “Tuesday”) and equated with the Roman Mars. He is also identified with the German god mentioned more than once by Tacitus, as well as in inscriptions, by the name Mars. His Teutonic name is the same as the word for “god” in several other Indo-European languages (e.g. Lat. dīuus, Lith. dēvas, Skr. devas), and even in Old Norse the plural tīvar was still used in the same sense. (See Teutonic Peoples § Religion, ad fin.) (H. M. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Téligny, Charles de

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​TÉLIGNY, CHARLES DE (c. 1535-1572), French soldier and diplomat, belonged to a respected Huguenot family of Rouerque, and received an excellent training in letters and arms at the house of Coligny. He was employed on several peace missions; he represented the Protestants before the king, and was entrusted by Condé with the presentation of his terms to the queen-mother in 1567, and in the following year he assisted at the conference at Chalons and signed the peace of Longjumeau, which was destined to be of short duration. On the outbreak of war, he took part in the siege of Poitiers, directed an unsuccessful attack on Nantes, fought bravely under Coligny at Moncontour, and participated in the negotiations ending in the treaty of Saint-Germain (8th of August 1570). In 1571 he retired to La Rochelle and married Louise de Coligny, but was speedily recalled to Paris to serve on the bi-partisan commission of adjustment. Although he won the special favour of Charles IX., he was one of the first victims in the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day (24th of August 1572). His remains were taken to the Castle of Téligny in 1617, but eight years later were thrown into the river by the bishop of Castres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tübingen

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​ ​given in German history to an arrangement made in 1514 between Duke Ulrich and his subjects, by which the latter acquired various rights and privileges on condition of relieving the former of his debts. The town was captured by the Swabian League in 1519, by Turenne in 1647, and again in 1688 by the French, who destroyed the walls.
See Eifert, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt und Universität Tübingen (Tübingen,1849); Maier, Die Musenstadt Tübingen (Tübingen, 1904); Tübingen und seine Umgebung (Tübingen, 1887-1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tîrgu Jiu

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​TÎRGU JIU (often incorrectly written Tergu Jiu), the capital of the department of Gorjiu, Rumania; situated among the lower slopes of the Carpathians, on the left bank of the river Jin, and at the terminus of a branch railway which joins the main Walachian line between Turnu Severin and Craiova. Pop. (1900), 6634. The town has a small trade in timber, petroleum and farm produce. Anthracite coal is found in the neighbourhood.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tîrgu Ocna

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​TÎRGU OCNA (Rumanian also Targul Ocna), a town of Rumania, on the left bank of the river Trotosh, an affluent of the Sereth, and on a branch railway which crosses the Ghimesh Pass into Transylvania. Pop. (1900), 8033. Tîrgu Ocna is built among the Carpathian Mountains, on bare hills formed of rock salt. Outside the town stands the largest prison in Rumania; beyond this are the mines, worked, since 1870, by convicts, who receive a small wage. The thickness of the salt is unknown; the mines yield about 11,000 tons annually.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wooster

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​WOOSTER, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Killbuck Creek, about 50 m. S. by W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 6063 (407 foreign-born); (1910) 6136. Wooster is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways. It is the seat of the university of Wooster (co-educational; Presbyterian; founded in 1866 and opened in 1870), which in 1909 had 37 instructors and 1547 students. The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station is in the city, which also has various manufactures. Wooster was laid out in 1808, was incorporated as a town in 1817, and became a city of the second class in 1869. It was named in honour of General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was killed in the War of Independence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wootton Bassett

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​WOOTTON BASSETT, a market town in the N. parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 83 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2200. It is the junction of the direct railway (1903) between London and the Severn tunnel with the main line of the Great Western system. The town has large cattle markets and an agricultural trade.
Wootton Bassett (Wodeton, Wolton) was held in the reign of Edward the Confessor by one Levenod, and after the Norman Conquest was included in the fief of Miles Crispin. About a century later the manor was acquired by the Basset family. The town received its first charter from Henry VI., and returned members to parliament from 1446–1447 until the passing of the Reform Act of 1832. In 1571 Elizabeth granted to the town a market on Tuesday and two fairs each to last two days, at the feasts of St George the Martyr and the Conception of the Virgin. In 1679 the town received a charter from Charles II., and the corporation consisted of a mayor, two aldermen and 12 capital burgesses, until abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1886, under which the property is now vested in seven trustees, one of whom is appointed by the lord of the manor, and there are also two aldermen and four elected members. In 1836 fairs were instituted on the Tuesday before the 6th of April and on the Tuesday before the nth of October, which are still maintained, and a large cattle market is held on the first Wednesday of every month. The manufacture of broadcloth was formerly carried on, but is now entirely decayed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Woolwich-and-Reading Beds

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​WOOLWICH-AND-READING BEDS, in geology, a series of argillaceous and sandy deposits of lower Eocene age found in the London and Hampshire basins. By the earlier geologists this formation was known as the “Plastic Clay” so called by T. Webster in 1816 after the Argile plastique of G. C. F. D. Cuvier and A. Brongniart. It was called the “Mottled Clay” by J. Prestwich in 1846, but in 1853 he proposed the name “Woolwich-and-Reading Beds” because the other terms were not applicable to the different local aspects of the series.
Three distinct types of this formation are recognized: (1) The Reading type, a series of lenticular mottled clays and sands, here and there with pebbly beds and masses of fine sand converted into quartzite. These beds are generally unfossiliferous. They are found in the N. and W. portions of the London Basin and in the Hampshire Basin. (2) The Woolwich type, grey clays and pale sands, often full of estuarine shells and in places with a well-marked oyster bed. At the base of the shell-bearing clays in S.E. London there are pebble beds and lignitic layers. The Woolwich beds occur in W. Kent, the E. borders of Surrey, the borders of E. Kent, in S. Essex and at Newhaven in Sussex. (3) A third type consisting of light-coloured false-bedded sands with marine fossils occurs in E. Kent. Where it rests on the Thanet beds it is an argillaceous greensand with rounded flint pebbles; where it rests on the Chalk it is more clayey and the flints are less rounded and are green-coated. Except in the Hampshire basin the Woolwich-and-Reading beds usually rest on the Thanet beds, but they are found on the Chalk near Bromley, Charlton, Hungerford, Hertford, Reading, &c. In Dorsetshire the Reading beds appear on the coast at Studland Bay and at other points inland. The “Hertfordshire Pudding Stone” is a well-known rock from near the base of the formation; it is a flint pebble conglomerate in a siliceous matrix. The fossils, estuarine, freshwater and marine, include Corbicula cuneiformis, C. tellinella, Ostrea bellovacina, Vivaparus lentus, Planorbis hemistoma, Melania (Melanatria) inquinata, Neritina globulus, and the remains of turtles, crocodiles, sharks, birds (Gastornis) and the mammal Coryphodon. Bricks, tiles and coarse pottery and occasionally firebricks have been made from the clay beds in this formation.
See Eocene, also J. Prestwich, Q.J.G.S. (1854), x.; W. Whitaker, “Geology of London”, Mem. Geol. Survey, i. and ii. (1889) and Sheet Memoir, No. 268.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Woonsocket

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​WOONSOCKET, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on both banks of the Blackstone river, about 16 m. N. by W. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 28,204; (1905, state census) 32,106 (13,734 foreign-born, including 8939 French Canadians and 1369 Irish); (1910) 38,125. Woonsocket is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an interurban electric line. Among its institutions arc the Sacred Heart College and the Harris Institute Public Library, founded (1863) by Edward Harris, a local manufacturer. Woonsocket has ample ​water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, the Mill and the Peters rivers. The value of its factory products in 1905 was $19,260,537. Worsted and woollen yarns are manufactured in Woonsocket by the French and Belgian processes. Other manufactures are cotton goods and yarns, rubber goods, clothes wringers, silks, bobbins and shuttles, and foundry products.
The first settlement in the vicinity was made apparently about 1666 by Richard Arnold, who at about that time built a saw-mill on the bank of the Blackstone river. Woonsocket was set off from Cumberland and was incorporated as a township in 1867; was enlarged by the addition of a part of Smithfield in 1871, and was chartered as a city in 1888.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Worcester, William

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​Worcester, William (c. 1413–c. 1482), English chronicler, was a son of William of Worcester, a Bristol citizen, and is sometimes called William Botoner, his mother being a daughter of Thomas Botoner. He was educated at Oxford and became secretary to Sir John Fastolf. When the knight died in 1459, Worcester, although one of his executors, found that nothing had been bequeathed to him, and with one of his colleagues, Sir William Yelverton, he disputed the validity of the will. However, an amicable arrangement was made and Worcester obtained some lands near Norwich and in Southwark. He died about 1482. Worcester made several journeys through England, and his Itinerarium contains much information. The survey of Bristol is of the highest value to antiquaries. Portions of the work were printed by James Nasmith in 1778, and the part relating to Bristol is in James Dallaway’s Antiquities of Bristowe (Bristol, 1834).
Worcester also wrote Annates rerum Ariglicarum, a work of some value for the history of England under Henry VI. This was published by T. Hearne in 1728, and by Joseph Stevenson for the “Rolls” series with his Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in France during the Reign of Henry VI. (1864). Stevenson also printed here collections of papers made by Worcester respecting the wars of the English in France and Normandy. Worcester’s other writings include the last Acta domini Johannis Fastolf. See the Paston Letters edited by J. Gairdner (1904); and F. A. Gasquet, An Old English Bible and other Essays (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 5:9

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 6:1

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 6:11

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