OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Colby, Thomas Frederick

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​COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK (1784–1852), British major-general and director of ordnance survey, was born at St Margaret’s, Rochester, on the 1st of September 1784, a member of a South Wales family. Entering the Royal Engineers he began in 1802 a life-long connexion with the Ordnance Survey department. His most important work was the survey of Ireland. This he planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year when he reached the rank of major-general, and according to the rules of the service had to vacate his survey appointment. He was the inventor of the compensation bar, an apparatus used in base-measurements. He died at New Brighton on the 9th of October 1852.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Colchester, Charles Abbot, 1st Baron

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​COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1st Baron (1757–1829), born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother’s second marriage, half-brother of the famous Jeremy Bentham. From Westminster school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which he gained the chancellor’s medal for Latin verse as well as the Vinerian scholarship. In 1795, after having practised twelve years as a barrister, and published a treatise proposing the incorporation of the judicial system of Wales with that of England, he was appointed to the office previously held by his brother of clerk of the rules in the king’s bench; and in June of the same year he was elected member of parliament for Helston, through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 Abbot commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining the appointment of two committees—the one to report on the arrangements which then existed as to temporary laws or laws about to expire, the other to devise methods for the better publication of new statutes. To the latter committee, and a second committee which he proposed some years later, it is owing that copies of new statutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates and municipal bodies. To Abbot’s efforts were also due the establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some time at long interest in the hands of the public accountants, by charging them with payment of interest, and, most important of all, the act for taking the first census, that of 1801. On the formation of the Addington ministry in March 1801 Abbot became chief secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the February of the following year he was chosen speaker of the House of Commons—a position which he held with universal satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him to retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of £4000, of which £3000 was to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th of May 1829. His speeches against the Roman Catholic claims were published in 1828.
He was succeeded by his eldest son Charles (d. 1867), postmaster-general in 1858; and the latter by his son Reginald Charles Edward (b. 1842), as 3rd baron.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Colchester (Vermont)

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​COLCHESTER, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A., on Lake Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington, from which it is separated by the Winooski river. Pop. (1900) 5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the Central Vermont railway. The surface is generally gently rolling, and in places along the banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the lake, and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett’s Bay, an arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and 1½ m. wide, several large private schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied, much of it being good meadow land or well adapted to the growing of grain and fruit. The township has two villages: Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement, and Winooski (pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories of cotton and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver plated ware, carriages, wagons and screens. Within the township there is a United States military reservation, Fort Ethan Allen. The village was founded in 1772 by Ira Allen and for many years it was known as “Allen’s Settlement”; but later it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was incorporated as the Village of Winooski.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Colcothar

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​COLCOTHAR (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic golgotar, which was probably a corruption of the Gr. χάλκανθος, from χαλκός, copper, ἄνθος, flower, i.e. copper sulphate), a name given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation of fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous sulphate. It is used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of jewellers, and as the pigment Indian red. It is also known as Crocus Martis.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Affray

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​AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a public place to the terror (à l’ effroi) of the lieges. The offence is a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and imprisonment. A fight in private is an assault and battery, not an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see Assembly, Unlawful), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may, and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an affray. In the United States the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. § 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the English definition of affray, with the substitution of “actual disturbance of the peace” for “causing terror to the lieges.” The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa, affray falls within the definition of vis publica.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Afium-kara-hissar

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​AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000). Called Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740, its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c., on the other, the city became a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East. Opium in large quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms the staple article of its commerce; and there are, besides, manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium ​contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building), and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople.
See V. Cuinet, Turquie d’Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Affre, Denis Auguste

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​AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE (1793–1848), archbishop of Paris, was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St Sulpice, where in 1818 he became professor of dogmatic theology. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close. During the insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that by his personal interference peace might be restored between the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however, when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they ​were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on the 7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind. The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, including an Essai sur les hiéroglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834), in which he showed that Champollion’s system was insufficient to explain the hieroglyphics.
See Ricard, Les grands évêques de l’église de France au XIXe siècle (Lille, 1893); L. Alazard, Denis-Auguste Affre, archevêque de Paris (Paris, 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Afranius, Lucius (Roman general)

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​AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of the Sertorian (79–72), third Mithradatic (74–61) and Civil Wars. Of humble origin (Cic. ad Att. i. 16. 20), from his early years he was a devoted adherent of Pompey. In 60, chiefly by Pompey’s support, he was raised to the consulship, but in performing the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on the allotment of Spain to Pompey (55), Afranius and Marcus Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were compelled, after a short campaign in which they were at first successful, to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on promising not to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey’s camp. On the defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of Thapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose veterans rose in tumult and put them to death.
See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius xxxvii., xli.-xliii.; Caesar, B.C. i. 37-87; Appian, B.C. ii.; for the history of the period, articles on Caesar and Pompey.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Afranius, Lucius (Roman poet)

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​AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about 94 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed freely from Menander and others. His style was vigorous and correct; his moral tone that of the period.
Horace, Epp. ii. 1. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. 3; Quintilian x. 1. 100; fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cox, Samuel Hanson

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​COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793–1880), American Presbyterian divine, was born at Rahway, N.J., on the 25th of August 1793, of Quaker stock. He was pastor of the Presbyterian church at Mendham, N.J., in 1817–1821, and of two churches in New York from 1821 to 1834. He helped to found the University of the City of New York, and from 1834 to 1837 was professor of pastoral ​theology at Auburn. The next seventeen years were passed in active ministry at Brooklyn, whence in 1854, owing to a throat affection, he removed to Owego, N.Y. He died at Bronxville, N.Y., on the 2nd of October 1880. Cox was a fine orator, and a speech made in Exeter Hall in 1833, in which he put the responsibility for slavery in America on the British government, made a great impression. It was he who described the appellation D.D. as a couple of “semi-lunar fardels.”
His son, Arthur Cleveland Coxe (1818–1896), who changed the spelling of the family name, graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1838 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1841. He was rector of St John’s Church, Hartford, in 1843–1854, of Grace Church, Baltimore, in 1854–1863, and of Calvary Church, New York City, in 1863. In 1863 he became assistant bishop and in 1865 bishop of western New York. He was strongly influenced by the Oxford Movement. Bishop Coxe wrote spirited defences of Anglican orders and published several volumes of verse, notably Christian Ballads (1845).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Coxcie, Michael

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​COXCIE, MICHAEL (1499–1592), Flemish painter, was born at Malines, and studied under Bernard van Orley, who probably induced him to visit Italy. At Rome in 1532 he painted the chapel of Cardinal Enckenvoort in the church of Santa Maria dell’ Anima; and Vasari, who knew him, says with truth “that he fairly acquired the manner of an Italian.” But Coxcie’s principal occupation was designing for engravers; and the fable of Psyche in thirty-two sheets by Agostino Veneziano and the Master of the Die are favourable specimens of his skill. During a subsequent residence in the Netherlands Coxcie greatly extended his practice in this branch of art. But his productions were till lately concealed under an interlaced monogram M.C.O.K.X.I.N. Coxcie returned in 1539 to Malines, where he matriculated, and painted for the chapel of the gild of St Luke the wings of an altarpiece now in Sanct Veit of Prague. The centre of this altarpiece, by Mabuse, represents St Luke portraying the Virgin; the side pieces contain the Martyrdom of St Vitus and the Vision of St John in Patmos. At van Orley’s death in 1541 Coxcie succeeded to the office of court painter to the regent Mary of Hungary, for whom he decorated the castle of Binche. He was subsequently patronized by Charles V., who often coupled his works with those of Titian; by Philip II., who paid him royally for a copy of van Eyck’s “Agnus Dei”; and by the duke of Alva, who once protected him from the insults of Spanish soldiery at Malines. There are large and capital works of his (1587–1588) in St Rombaud of Malines, in Ste Gudule of Brussels, and in the museums of Brussels and Antwerp. His style is Raphaelesque grafted on the Flemish, but his imitation of Raphael, whilst it distantly recalls Giulio Romano, is never free from affectation and stiffness. He died at Malines on the 5th of March 1592.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cox, Jacob Dolson

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​ ​with the Fitz-John Porter Case (Cincinnati, 1882); and the valuable Military Reminiscences of the Civil War (2 vols., New York, 1900) published posthumously.
See J. R. Ewing, Public Services of Jacob Dolson Cox (Washington, 1902), a Johns Hopkins University dissertation; and W. C. Cochran, “Early Life and Military Services of General Jacob Dolson Cox,” in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 58 (Oberlin, Ohio, 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cowry

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​COWRY, the popular name of the shells of the Cypraeida, a family of mollusks. Upwards of 100 species are recognized, and they are widely distributed over the world—their habitat being the shallow water along the sea-shore. The best known is the money cowry or Cypraea moneta, a small shell about half an inch in length, white and straw-coloured without and blue within, which derives its distinctive name from the fact that in various countries it has been employed as a kind of currency. (See Shell-money.) In Africa among those tribes, such as the Niam-Niam, who do not recognize their monetary value, the shells are in demand as fashionable decorations, just as in Germany they were in use as an ornament for horses’ harness, and were popular enough to acquire several native names, such as Brustharnisch or breastplates, and Otterköpfchen or little adders’ heads. Besides the Cypraea moneta various species are employed in this decorative use. The Cypraea aurora is a mark of chieftainship among the natives of the Friendly Islands; the Cypraea annulus is a favourite with the Asiatic islanders; and several of the larger kinds have been used in Europe for the carving of cameos. The tiger cowry, Cypraea tigris, so well known as a mantelpiece ornament in England and America, is commonly used by the natives of the Sandwich Islands to sink their nets; and they have also an ingenious plan of cementing portions of several shells into a smooth oval ball which they then employ as a bait to catch the cuttle-fish. While the species already mentioned occur in myriads in their respective habitats, the Cypraea princeps and the Cypraea umbilicata are extremely rare.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cox, Kenyon

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​COX, KENYON (1856– ), American painter, was born at Warren, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1856, being the son of Gen. Jacob Dolson Cox. He was a pupil of Carolus-Duran and of J. L. Gérôme in Paris from 1877 to 1882, when he opened a studio in New York, subsequently teaching with much success in the Art Students’ League. His earlier work was mainly of the nude drawn with great academic correctness in somewhat conventional colour. Receiving little encouragement for such pictures, he turned to mural decorative work, in which he achieved prominence. Among his better-known examples are the frieze for the court room of the Appellate Court, New York, and decorations for the Walker Art Gallery, Bowdoin College; for the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota, and for other public and private buildings. He wrote with much authority on art topics, and is the author of the critical reviews, Old Masters and New (1905) and Painters and Sculptors (1907), besides some poems. He became a National Academician in 1903. His wife, née Louise H. King (b. 1865), whom he married in 1892, also became a figure and portrait-painter of note.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cox, Samuel

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​COX, SAMUEL (1826–1893), English nonconformist divine, was born in London on the 19th of April 1826. For some years he worked as an apprentice in the London docks, and then entered the Baptist College at Stepney. In 1851 he became pastor of a Baptist church at Southsea, removing in 1855 to Ryde, and in 1863 to Nottingham. He was president of the Baptist Association in 1873 and received the degree of D.D. from St Andrews in 1882. Cox had distinct gifts as a biblical expositor and was the founder and first editor of a monthly journal The Expositor (1875–1884). Among the best known of his numerous theological publications are Salvator Mundi (1877), A Commentary on the Book of Job (1880), The Larger Hope (1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cox, Sir George William

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​COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827–1902), English divine and scholar, was born on the 10th of January 1827, at Benares, India, and was educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Oxford. In 1850 he was ordained, and in 1860 took a mastership at Cheltenham College, which he held for only a year. He had already contributed to the Edinburgh Review, and had published in 1850 Poems, Legendary and Historical (with E. A. Freeman), and in 1853 a Life of St Boniface. From 1861 he devoted himself entirely to literary work, chiefly in connexion with history and comparative mythology. Many of his works were avowedly popular in character, and the most important, the History of Greece, has been superseded and is now of little value. His studies in mythology were inspired by Max Müller, but his treatment of the subjects was his own. He was an extreme supporter of the solar and nebular theory as the explanation of myths. He also edited (with W. T. Brande) A Dictionary of Science, Literature and Art (1875). Sir George Cox (who succeeded to the baronetcy in 1877) was a Broad Churchman, and a prominent supporter of Bishop Colenso in 1863–1865; and five years after Colenso’s death he published (1888) his Life of the bishop. He was himself nominated to the see of Natal, but was refused consecration. In 1881 he was made vicar of Scrayingham, York, but resigned the living in 1897. In 1896 he was given a civil list pension. He died at Walmer on the 9th of February 1902.
Works.—Tales from Greek Mythology (1861); A Manual of Mythology (1867); Latin and Teutonic Christendom (1870); The Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870, new ed., 1882); History of Greece (1874); General History of Greece (1876); History of the Establishment of British Rule in India, and An Introduction to the Science of Comparative Mythology (1881); Lives of Greek Statesmen (1885); Concise History of England (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Control

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​CONTROL (Fr. contrôle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of “control” in this, its literal, meaning), a substantive (whence the verb) for that which checks or regulates anything, and so especially command of body or mind by the will, and generally the power of regulation. In England the “Board of Control,” abolished in 1858, was the body which supervised the East India Company in the administration of India. In the case of “controller,” a general term for a public official who checks expenditure, the more usual form “comptroller” is a wrong spelling due to a false connexion with “accompt” or “account.” A “control” or “control-experiment,” in science, is an experiment used, by an application of the method of difference, to check the inferences drawn from another experiment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Contralto

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​CONTRALTO (from Ital. contra-alto, i.e. next above the alto), the term for the lowest variety of the female voice, as distinguished from the soprano and mezzo-soprano. Originally it signified, in choral music, the part next higher than the alto, given to the falsetto counter-tenor.