OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fourier, Jean-Baptiste Joseph, Baron

Edition of 1906. See also Joseph Fourier on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOURIER, Jean-Baptiste Joseph, Baron (1768-1830). A French geometer and physicist, born at Auxerre. He was the son of a poor tailor, and was left an orphan at the age of eight. The Bishop of Auxerre, recognizing his ability, placed him in a Church military school, where he soon showed a decided aptitude for mathematics. At the age of nineteen he wrote his memoir, Sur la résolution des équations numériques de degré quelconque, which was presented to the Academy in 1789. He took part in the Revolution, but in 1795 was sent as a student to the newly founded Ecole Normale, and soon after obtained the chair of analysis in the Ecole Polytechnique (1795-98). He went to Egypt in 1798 and was made perpetual secretary of the Institute of Cairo, and in the following year was placed at the head of one of the two scientific expeditions to the upper Nile. He returned to France in 1801 and was made (1802) Prefect of Isère, a position which he filled with his usual tact and energy. Napoleon created him a baron in 1808; but as, in 1814, he gave brief allegiance to the Bourbons, his political career was wrecked by the return of the Emperor from Elba. He was, after much difficulty, made a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1815, and succeeded Delambre (1822) as perpetual secretary for the mathematical sciences. He later became a member of the French Academy (1826). Fourier was one of the leading mathematical physicists of his time. His labors were divided between the study of the theory of
heat and of numerical equations. Among his leading works are the following: Théorie analytique de la chaleur (1822); Analyse des équations déterminées (posthumous, 1831); a memoir on statics (Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, 1797-98); and numerous memoirs on equations. His works, including references to numerous biographical sketches, were published by Darboux under the title, Œuvres de Fourier (Paris, 1889-90).
Fourier's Series, communicated by Fourier to the Academy toward the end of 1807, plays an important part in mathematical physics. Consult Du Bois-Reymond, Zur Geschichte der trigonometrischen Reihen (Tübingen, 1880).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Frederic, Harold

Edition of 1906. See also Harold Frederic on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRED'ERIC, Harold (1856-98). An American novelist and journalist. He was born in Utica, N. Y., August 19, 1856, and was London correspondent of the New York Times from 1884 till his premature death in Hornby, England, October 19, 1898. He was educated in Utica, worked at journalism there, in Albany, and in New York; but won distinction for novels, chiefly of rural life in central New York, written after his going to England. His first important story, Seth's Brother's Wife (1887), was followed by The Lawton Girl (1890); In the Valley (1890), a story of 1777; The Return of the O'Mahoney (1892); The Copperhead (1894), a story of the Civil War; and Marsena (1895), a collection of keenly humorous character stories. All these, however, were surpassed by The Damnation of Theron Ware (1896), a brilliant analysis of religious life in the American middle class, minutely realistic in detail, clever in conversation, and unfailing in psychic insight, immediately recognized by the public as a human document. His last works, March Hares (1896), Gloria Mundi (1898), and In the Marketplace (1899), were less significant. The New Exodus (1892) was a study of Anti-Semitism, the result of a visit to Russia, undertaken in 1891.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fourier, François Marie Charles

Edition of 1906. See also Charles Fourier on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOURIER, fōō'ryắ', François Marie Charles (1772-1837). A French socialist. He was born at Besançon, April 7, 1772, the son of a merchant, and educated in the college there. At the age of eighteen he entered a cloth business, although from his childhood he had shown an antipathy toward commerce on account of the deception and injustice he saw in it. He visited all
the large cities, not only in France, but in Holland and Germany, as a mercantile agent, thus gaining an opportunity for careful observation of social conditions. At his father's death he inherited 80,000 francs, and invested it at Lyons in colonial products. During the siege of Lyons, in 1793, all his property was destroyed; his bales of cotton were used as breastworks, his provisions were taken to feed the soldiers; and he was himself thrown into prison. Later he entered the army, but he was forced to resign on account of ill health. The rest of his life was spent in mercantile pursuits. In 1799, as agent for a great provision merchant, he had to destroy a large quantity of rice which had been held for higher prices so long that it had become unfit for consumption. The destruction of food needed by the poor made a lasting impression on his mind, and is said to have first turned his attention to social problems. His business enterprises did not prosper, and for the greater part of his life he was in straitened circumstances. His chief works were the Théorie des quatre mouvements et des destinées générales, published in 1808; the Traité d'association domestique agricole (1822), which contains his whole system, and was later republished under the title, Théorie de l'unité universelle; and Le nouveau monde industriel ou invention du procédé d'industrie attrayante et combinée, distribuée en séries passionées (1829). Before his death he had a few followers, the most important one of whom was M. Just Muiron, who was converted to Fourierism in 1814. Fourier died October 10, 1837. After his death his party gained many adherents, among whom were some of the Saint-Simonians. A newspaper was published, and the ‘Society for the Propagation and Realization of the Theory of Fourier’ was established. See Fourierism.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fredegunda

Edition of 1906. See also Fredegund on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRED'EGUN'DA (c.545-597). A Frankish queen. Originally a servant of Audovere, wife of Chilperic of Neustria, she soon won the King's heart, and got him to put his wife in a convent and to divorce her. But Chilperic married Galsvintha, and put away Fredegunda. Galsvintha
died in the same year (567), probably strangled by Fredegunda, who succeeded her as Queen. This brought on war between Chilperic and his brother Sigibert, King of Austrasia, and a bitter rivalry between Fredegunda and Brunhilda, sister of the murdered Queen and wife to Sigibert, who was soon assassinated by Fredegunda's agents at Vitry (575). Chilperic's sons by Audovere also died suddenly, and in 584 Chilperic was murdered, and by contemporary historians the Queen was accused of instigating all three murders. Now, with her son Clotaire upon the throne, she put forth all her efforts to kill Brunhilda and her son Childebert, and, unsuccessful in this, made war on Austrasia after Childebert's death, obtained possession of Paris and other cities, but died in the following year. See Brunhilda.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krumbacher, Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Karl Krumbacher on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUMBACHER, krụm'bäG-ẽr, Karl (1856—). A distinguished German Byzantine scholar, born at Kürnach; professor in the University of Munich. Professor Krumbacher is best known for his Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (2d ed. 1897), a monument of wide and sound learning, and as editor of the Byzantinische Zeitschrift and Byzantinisches Archiv. Among his other works are: Ein neuer Codex der Grammatik des Dositheus (1884); Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der griechischen Sprache (1885-89); Mittelgriechische Sprichwörter (1893); Studien zu Romanos (1898); Die Moskauer Sammlung mittelgriechischer Sprichwörter (1900).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krumhorn

Edition of 1905. See also Crumhorn on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUMHORN, krụm'hôrn (Ger., crook-horn). The name of a very old wind instrument made of wood, the under part of which is bent outward in a circular arc. It was extensively used during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and retained its popularity in France till about 1730. A complete set of krumhorns consisted of five instruments: sopranos in C and G, alto in D, tenor in G, and bass in D. Krumhorn is also the name of an organ-stop, formerly much used, especially in small organs. The pipes are made of tin, the body or sounding part being cylindrical, and partly shut at the upper end. The Italian name of cormorne has been corrupted by English organ-builders into cremona, which is the same stop in English organs. The sound of the krumhorn as an organ-stop is soft and quiet, but it is defective in not keeping in tune so well as other reed stops.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krummacher, Friedrich Adolf

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Adolf Krummacher and Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUMMACHER, krụm'mȧG-ẽr, Friedrich Adolf (1767-1845). A German theologian and a writer of devotional poetry and prose, born at Tecklenburg, July 13, 1767. He studied theology at Lingen and Halle, taught in the high school at Hamm, was head of the high school at Mörs, and became, in 1800, professor of theology at Duisburg. In 1807 he returned to the ministry, became pastor at Kettwig, and in 1812 was called to Bernburg as general superintendent and higher Court preacher. He accepted a call to Bremen in 1824 and retired in 1843. His Parabeln (1805) soon became a religious classic and they have often been reprinted. They were first translated into English in 1825. For his life, consult his Selbstbiographie (Berlin, 1869); Maria Krummacher, Unser Grossvater (Bielefeld, 1891). — His son Friedrich Wilhelm (1796-1868) became Court chaplain (1853) at Potsdam. He was a preacher of great eloquence, but a reactionary theologian. Many of his works have found favor in translations in England. Among them are: Elias der Thisbiter (1836); Elisa (1839-42); and Passionsbuch (1856). Salomo und Sulamith (1827, 9th ed. 1875) was also very popular.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krupp, Alfred

Edition of 1905. See also Krupp on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUPP, krụp, Alfred (1812-87). Inventor, metallurgist, and manufacturer. He was the son and successor of Friedrich Krupp, the founder of the steel-works at Essen, and was born at Essen, Prussia. His brother Hermann was associated with him until 1848, when Alfred assumed entire control, and by persistent study and great diligence continued his father's efforts to improve the manufacture of steel. His exhibit at London in 1851 first drew the attention of the world to him, and in 1852 the successful invention of a method of manufacturing weldless railway tires enabled him to enlarge his establishment. His breech-loading rifle and cannon were adopted by the Prussian Army in 1861, and the war of 1870-71 established its superiority. His factory soon became known for the heavy ordnance and armor plate which were constructed there not only for Germany, but other European nations except France, for whom the Krupps have never manufactured munitions of war. He died July 14, 1887. Consult Bädeker, Alfred Krupp (Essen, 1888). See the articles Armor Plate and Ordnance.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krupp, Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Krupp on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUPP, Friedrich (1787-1826). Ironmaster and founder of the famous Krupp Works. He was born at Essen, Rhenish Prussia, and after the death of his father he was brought up by his grandmother, who had, in 1800, purchased the Sterkrade Works. Here Friedrich endeavored to make cast steel, the secret of which was carefully guarded in England. With Gottlob Jacobs, an engineer, Krupp made his first experiments at the Sterkrade Works, and after the sale of the plant in 1808 continued his attempts independently at Essen. In 1810 he founded a small forging plant near Essen, and in 1815 formed a partnership with Friedrich Nicolai for the production of cast steel, a product which was found excellent for certain purposes, such as mint dies, stamps for buttons, etc. Yet the demand was not sufficient to keep the works in operation, and soon after 1820 Krupp was obliged to give up his house to occupy a small one-story laborer's cottage near his plant. The hut is still preserved in the midst of the present gigantic establishment. Shortly before his death he confided to his son Alfred (q.v.) the secret of making cast steel, which the latter developed successfully.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krupp, Friedrich Alfred

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Alfred Krupp on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUPP, Friedrich Alfred (1854-1902). A German gunmaker, son of Alfred Krupp. He increased and diversified the output of the Krupp Works, which he extended by the incorporation with them of other enterprises. A member of the Prussian Upper House and Council of State, he also sat in the Reichstag from 1893 to 1898. Just before his death his private character was violently assailed by the Socialist newspaper the Vorwaerts, and it was said that this arraignment hastened his end. The Emperor vigorously defended Krupp, especially in a public speech at his funeral, and the heirs began a suit against the Vorwaerts, but soon abandoned the action.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krupp Steel

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
KRUPP STEEL, Krupp Armor Plate, etc. See Armor Plate.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Kruse, Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Heinrich Kruse on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUSE, krōō'ze, Heinrich (1815-1902). A German dramatist and publicist, born at Stralsund. He studied philology at the universities of Bonn and Berlin. In 1847 he took up journalism, and in 1855 he became chief editor of the Kölnische Zeitung. He devoted himself, however, largely to play-writing. Of his dramas the following are considered of great merit: Die Gräfin, a tragedy (1868), which was awarded a prize by the Berliner Schiller Commission; Brutus (1874-82); Das Mädchen von Byzanz (1877-85); and Der Verbannte (1879-81). In most of his dramas Kruse outlines his characters with strength, and the play of human passion and action is expressed with true dramatic effect. He also wrote sea stories and poems.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Krupp Foundries, Social Work at

Edition of 1905. See also Krupp on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
KRUPP FOUNDRIES, Social Work at. About 1861 the great firm of Krupp at Essen, Germany, finding that there were not in the town sufficient houses for their employees, began building dwellings. By 1862 ten houses were ready for foremen, and in 1863 the first houses for workingmen were built in Alt Westend. Neu Westend was built in 1871 and 1872. Now some 400 houses are provided, many being given rent free to widows of former workers. A coöperative society founded in 1868 has become the Consum-Anstalt and profits are divided according to amounts purchased. A boarding-house for single men, the Ménage, was started in 1865 with 200 boarders and now accommodates 1000. Bath-houses are provided and employees receive free medical attendance. Insurance societies—accident, life, and sickness—exist among the men and the firm contributes for their support $60,000 per year. There is a trust fund of $250,000 for the benefit of the needy who are not qualified to get pensions. Essen also has a fund of $125,000 used in building workingmen's houses, and there is also a building association. Technical and manual training schools are provided. The relations between employers and men have been excellent.
# The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood/Preface

FROM THE AUTHOR TO THE READER
You who so plod amid serious things that you feel it shame to give yourself up even for a few short moments to mirth and joyousness in the land of Fancy; you who think that life hath nought to do with innocent laughter that can harm no one; these pages are not for you. Clap to the leaves and go no farther than this, for I tell you plainly that if you go farther you will be scandalized by seeing good, sober folks of real history so frisk and caper in gay colors and motley that you would not know them but for the names tagged to them. Here is a stout, lusty fellow with a quick temper, yet none so ill for all that, who goes by the name of Henry II. Here is a fair, gentle lady before whom all the others bow and call her Queen Eleanor. Here is a fat rogue of a fellow, dressed up in rich robes of a clerical kind, that all the good folk call my Lord Bishop of Hereford. Here is a certain fellow with a sour temper and a grim look—the worshipful, the Sheriff of Nottingham. And here, above all, is a great, tall, merry fellow that roams the greenwood and joins in homely sports, and sits beside the Sheriff at merry feast, which same beareth the name of the proudest of the Plantagenets—Richard of the Lion's Heart. Beside these are a whole host of knights, priests, nobles, burghers, yeomen, pages, ladies, lasses, landlords, beggars, peddlers, and what not, all living the merriest of merry lives, and all bound by nothing but a few odd strands of certain old ballads (snipped and clipped and tied together again in a score of knots) which draw these jocund fellows here and there, singing as they go.
Here you will find a hundred dull, sober, jogging places, all tricked out with flowers and what not, till no one would know them in their fanciful dress. And here is a country bearing a well-known name, wherein no chill mists press upon our spirits, and no rain falls but what rolls off our backs like April showers off the backs of sleek drakes; where flowers bloom forever and birds are always singing; where every fellow hath a merry catch as he travels the roads, and ale and beer and wine (such as muddle no wits) flow like water in a brook.
This country is not Fairyland. What is it? 'Tis the land of Fancy, and is of that pleasant kind that, when you tire of it—whisk!—you clap the leaves of this book together and 'tis gone, and you are ready for everyday life, with no harm done.
And now I lift the curtain that hangs between here and No-man's-land. Will you come with me, sweet Reader? I thank you. Give me your hand.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Judge, William Quan

Edition of 1905. See also William Quan Judge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JUDGE, William Quan (1851—). An Irish-American Theosophist, born at Dublin. He came to the United States in 1864 with his father, practiced law in New York City from 1872 to 1880, and then founded, with Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott, the Theosophical Society of America. He had been trained in theosophical beliefs and now, as secretary of this society, traveled in South and Central America, the West Indies, and Europe. See Theosophical Society.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Judge-Advocate

Edition of 1905. See also Judge advocate on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JUDGE-ADVOCATE. The prosecutor on a general court-martial or military commission. In the United States the judge-advocate is usually detailed at the same time the authority for the convening of the court is issued, and, except in exceptional cases, is a member of the judge-advocate-general's department. In the British Army such duties devolve upon a specially detailed staff officer, or the prisoner's commanding officer. In district or regimental court-martials, the latter officer is usually represented by the regimental adjutant. The prisoner has the right to call on any regimental officer to speak in his behalf. See Judge-Advocate-General; Courts, Military; Military Law, under which latter heading the duties of the judge-advocate in courts-martial are discussed.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Jung-Stilling, Johann Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Heinrich Jung on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JUNG-STILLING, yōōng stĭl′lĭng, Johann Heinrich (1740-1817). A German author, born at Grund in Westphalia. His original name was Jung. He was a charcoal-burner, was then apprenticed to a tailor, and in 1770 went to Strassburg to study medicine. He practiced at Elberfeld till 1778, and achieved renown by his operations for the removal of cataract; then taught at Kaiserslautern, Heidelberg, and Marburg; but soon returned to Karlsruhe, where he was pensioned by the Grand Duke of Baden and made Privy Councilor. His most important work is the mystic autobiography, Heinrich Stillings
Leben (1806), in the publication of which he was assisted by Goethe, whom he had learned to know at Strassburg, and who characterizes his friend in the second volume of Aus meinem Leben. The autobiography was completed by Heinrich Stillings Alter (1817). His other works are the novels: Geschichte des Herrn von Morgenthau (1779); Geschichte Florentins von Fahlendorn (1781-83); and Erzählungen (1814-15); and on purely mystical subjects: Theobald (1784-85; in English, 1846); Theorie der Geisterkunde (1808; in English, 1834); and Scenen aus dem Geisterreiche (1797-1801). His collected works were published at Stuttgart (1835-39). Consult Petersen, Jung-Stilling (Copenhagen, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Judea

Edition of 1905. See also Judea on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JUDE′A. See Palestine.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Judeich, Johann Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Friedrich Judeich on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​JUDEICH, yo͞o′dī̇k, Johann Friedrich (1828-94). A German forester, born at Dresden and educated at Tharandt and Leipzig. He served in the Saxon and Bohemian forestry departments; and in 1862 became head of the new school at Weisswasser, whence four years after he returned to Tharandt as director. His most important work is the text-book Die Forsteinrichtung (5th ed. 1893); he edited the seventh and eighth editions of Eatzeburg's Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde (1876 and 1885-95); and contributed to Lorey's Handbuch der Forstwissenschaft (1887-88). Judeieh edited the Forst- und Jagdkalender (1882 sqq.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Juengling, Frederick (1905)

Edition of 1905. See also Frederick Juengling on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JUENGLING, yŭng'lĭng, Frederick (1846-89). An American painter and wood-engraver, born in New York City. He studied painting at the Art Students' League there, but afterwards became widely known as a wood-engraver. He was the first secretary and one of the founders of the American Society of Wood-Engravers (1881). His paintings include “The Intruder” (1884), and “In the Street” (1886), and among his engravings are “The Professor,” after Duveneck, and “The Voice of the Sea,” after Quartley, both notable for the exactness with which he reproduced the original work. He obtained an honorable mention at the Salon of 1881, and a second class medal at the Munich Exhibition of 1883.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Johnson, Samuel William

Edition of 1905. See also Samuel William Johnson on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
JOHNSON, Samuel William (1830—). An American agricultural chemist, born at Kingsboro, N. Y. He was educated at the Scientific School of Yale College, and studied at the universities of Leipzig and Munich. He was made professor of analytical chemistry at the Yale Scientific School in 1856, taught agricultural chemistry there from 1857 to 1875, and after 1875 acted as professor of theoretical and agricultural chemistry. From 1877 to 1900 he was also director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. In 1866 he became a member
of the Connecticut State Board of Agriculture and of the National Academy of Sciences. His publications include: Essays on Manures (1859); Peat and Its Uses (1866); How Crops Grow (1868); How Crops Feed (1870); Chemical Notation and Nomenclature (1870).