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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maris, Jacob

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​MARIS, JACOB (1837–1899), Dutch painter, first studied at the Antwerp Academy, and subsequently in Hébert’s studio during a stay in Paris from 1865 till 1871. He returned to Holland when the Franco-Prussian War broke out, and died there in August 1899. Though he painted, especially in early life, domestic scenes and interiors invested with deeply sympathetic feeling, it is as a landscape painter that Maris will be famous. He was the painter of bridges and windmills, of old quays, massive towers, and level banks; even more was he the painter of water, and misty skies, and chasing clouds. In all his works, whether in water or oil colour, and in his etchings, the subject is always subordinate to the effect. His art is suggestive rather than decorative, and his force does not seem to depend on any preconceived method, such as a synthetical treatment of form or gradations of tone. And yet, though his means appear so simple, the artist’s mind seems to communicate with the spectator’s by directness of pictorial instinct, and we have only to observe the admirable balance of composition and truthful perspective to understand the sure knowledge of his business that underlies such purely impressionist handling. Maris has shown all that is gravest or brightest in the landscape of Holland, all that is heaviest or clearest in its atmosphere—for instance, in the “Grey Tower, Old Amsterdam,” in the “Landscape near Dordrecht,” in the “Sea-weed Carts, Scheveningen,” in “A Village Scene,” and in the numerous other pictures which have been exhibited in the Royal Academy, London, in Edinburgh (1885), Paris, Brussels and Holland, and in various private collections. “No painter,” says M. Philippe Zilcken, “has so well expressed the ethereal effects, bathed in air and light through floating silvery mist, in which painters delight, and the characteristic remote horizons blurred by haze; or again, the grey yet luminous weather of Holland, unlike the dead grey rain of England or the heavy sky of Paris.”
See Max Rooses, Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century (London, 1899); R. A. M. Stevenson, “Jacob Maris,” Magazine of Art (1900); Ph. Zilcken, Peintres Hollandais modernes (Amsterdam, 1893); Jan Veth, “Een Studie over Jacob Maris,” Onze Kunst (Antwerp, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marion (Indiana)

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​MARION, a city and the county-seat of Grant county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 60 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, on the Mississinewa River. Pop. (1910), 19,359. It is served by the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Indianapolis, Muncie, Fort Wayne, Kokomo and many other towns and cities. The city is the seat of the Marion Normal College and Business University, and has a Carnegie library. Marion lies in a good farming country and in the centre of the state’s natural gas region. Among the manufactures are glass, stoves, iron bedsteads, foundry and machine-shop products, steel, planing-mill products, paper and pulp, and leather. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $4,290,166, the value of the glass product alone being $1,042,057, or 24.3% of the total. Marion was settled in 1832, and was named in honour of General Francis Marion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mariotte, Edme

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​MARIOTTE, EDME (c. 1620–1684), French physicist, spent most of his life at Dijon, where he was prior of St Martin sous Beaune. He was one of the first members of the Academy of Sciences founded at Paris in 1666. He died at Paris on the 12th of May 1684. The first volume of the Histoire et mémoires de l’Académie (1733) contains many original papers by him upon a great variety of physical subjects, such as the motion of fluids, the nature of colour, the notes of the trumpet, the barometer, the fall of bodies, the recoil of guns, the freezing of water, &c.
His Essais de physique, four in number, of which the first three were published at Paris between 1676 and 1679, are his most important works, and form, together with a Traité de la percussion des corps, the first volume of the Œuvres de Mariotte (2 vols., Leiden, 1717). The second of these essays (De La nature de l’air) contains the statement of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure, which, though very generally called by the name of Mariotte, had been discovered in 1660 by Robert Boyle. The fourth essay is a systematic treatment of the nature of colour, with a description of many curious experiments and a discussion of the rainbow, halos, parhelia, diffraction, and the more purely physiological phenomena of colour. The discovery of the blind spot is noted in a short paper in the second volume of his collected works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mariupol

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​MARIUPOL, a seaport of Russia, on the north shore of the Sea of Azov, at the mouth of the Kalmius, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, 67 m. W. of Taganrog. Pop. (1900), 52,770, including the inhabitants of two suburbs, Mariinsk and Kara-su. The place is said to have been inhabited in remote times under the name of Adamakha; the present town was built only in 1779, by Greek emigrants from the Crimea. Its inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, fishing, and the manufacture of leather, agricultural implements, iron goods and bricks. In export trade Mariupol ranks next to Taganrog among the ports of the Sea of Azov; but its harbour is open to the south-east and shallow, though it is being gradually deepened by systematic dredging. The principal articles of export are cereals, with some oilcake, phosphate and coal; but the total value is only about £2,000,000 annually. The imports do not reach a quarter of a million sterling.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maritime Territory

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​MARITIME TERRITORY, a term used in international law to denote coastal waters which are not Territorial Waters though in immediate contact with the sea. In the case of Territorial Waters (q.v.) the dominion of the adjacent state is subject to a limitation. Dominion over maritime territory is not subject to any limitation. Thus any strait through which the right of passage of foreign vessels can be forbidden (as the Solent or the Inland Sea of Japan), or bays so land-locked that they cannot be held to form part of any ocean-highway, are maritime territory.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sketch

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​SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. σχέδιος, sudden, off-hand, σχεδόν, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source), a rough or hasty preliminary outline or draft serving as a note or material for a finished work. Though used of literary composition, as for a short slightly constructed play, or of a rapid delineation in words of an event or character, the term is chiefly used of the putting on paper or other material of the immediate impression of an object, figure, landscape, &c., by an artist, or of an artist’s first idea or conception of a work whether in painting or sculpture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skibbereen

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​SKIBBEREEN, a market town of county Cork, Ireland, on the river Ilen about 3 m. from its estuary, 53¾ m. S.W. of Cork by the Cork, Bandon and South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 3208. The river is navigable for small vessels to Skibbereen itself, and for larger ones to Old Court on the estuary; and the town is a flourishing fishing-station. Trade in corn and other agricultural produce is considerable. This district suffered terribly in the famine of 1847, and hundreds of victims were buried in pits in the graveyard adjoining the ruined Cistercian cell of Abbeystrowry, a mile west of the town. The Ilen offers fishing, late in the season, for brown and sea trout. The main railway continues south to Baltimore, and a light railway runs to the pleasant seaside village of Skull (or Schull), 15 m. W. Skibbereen is governed by an urban district council.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skien

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​SKIEN, a seaport of southern Norway, in Bratsberg amt (county) , on the river Skien, 5 m. below its issue from Lake Nord, and 6 m. above its outflow into Frier Fjord. Pop. (1900) 11,343. It was mostly rebuilt after a fire in 1886. Here Henrik Ibsen, the dramatist, was born in 1828. In 1892 a canal ascending 189 ft. by means of 17 locks was made between lakes Bandak and Nord, giving access to the Telemark district by way of Dalen. The whole distance between the lakes is 40 m., and several fine falls, as the Ulefos, Eidsfos, and Vrangfos, are passed. The engineering is noteworthy. In the town and district are numerous saw-mills, planing, cotton-spinning and flour-mills, factories for wood-pulp and domestic commodities, also a copper mine (at Omdal). The exports are ice, timber (including telegraph poles for the British government), wood-pulp and copper, and the imports coal and china-clay. The town (the ancient Skida) dates from the 14th century. A fine view is obtained from the Bratsberg Kiev, S. E. of the town, with ruins of a chapel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skierniewice

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​SKIERNIEWICE, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Warsaw, 41 m. by rail S.W. from the city of Warsaw. Pop. (1897) 9846. It was formerly the see of the archbishop of Gnesen, primate of Poland. Here is an imperial castle, in which the emperors of Russia, Austria and Germany met in conference on the 15th-17th of September 1884. Cloth and linen are manufactured.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skene, William Forbes

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​SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1809–1892), Scottish historian and antiquary, was the second son of Sir Walter Scott's friend, James Skene (1775–1864), of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen, and was born on the 7th of June 1809. He was educated at Edinburgh High School, in Germany and at the university of St Andrews, taking an especial interest in the study of Celtic philology and literature. In 1832 he became a writer to the signet, and shortly afterwards obtained an official appointment in the bill department of the Court of Session, which he held until 1865. His early interest in the history and antiquities of the Scottish Highlands bore its first fruit in 1837, when he published The Highlanders of Scotland, their Origin, History and Antiquities. His chief work, however, is his Celtic Scotland, a History of Ancient Alban (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876–1880), perhaps the most important contribution to Scottish history written during the 19th century. In 1879 he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford, and in 1881 historiographer royal for Scotland. He died in Edinburgh on the 29th of August 1892.
The most important of Skene’s other works are: editions of John of Fordun’s Chronica gentis Scotorum (Edinburgh, 1871–1872); of the Four Ancient Books of Wales (Edinburgh, 1868) ; of the Chronicles of the Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867) ; and of Adamuan’s Vita S. Columbae (Edinburgh, 1874); an Essay on the Coronation Stone of Scone (Edinburgh, 1869); and Memorials of the Family of Skene of Skene (Aberdeen, 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skelton and Brotton

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​SKELTON AND BROTTON, an urban district in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 17 m. E. by S. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the North-Eastern railway, with stations at Brotton and North Skelton. Pop. (1901) 13,240. This is one of the largest townships in the Cleveland ironstone district, and its industrial population is wholly employed in the quarries. The modern Skelton Castle incorporates part of the ancient stronghold of Robert de Brus who held it from William the Conqueror. A modern church replaces the ancient one, of which there are ruins, and a fine Norman font is preserved. The large ironstone quarries have not wholly destroyed the beauty of the district. The Cleveland hills rise sharply southward, to elevations sometimes exceeding 1000 ft., and are scored with deep and picturesque glens. On the coast, which is cliff-bound and fine, is the watering-place of Saltburn by the Sea.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Skimmer

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​SKIMMER, the English name bestowed by T. Pennant in 1781 on a North American bird which had already been figured and described by M. Catesby (B. Carolina, i. pl. 90) as the “Cut-water,”—as it appears still to be called on some parts of the coast,—remarkable for the unique formation of its bill, in which the maxilla, or so-called upper mandible, is capable of much vertical movement, while the lower mandible, which is considerably the longer of the two, is laterally compressed so as to be as thin as a knife-blade. This bird is the Rhynchops nigra of Linnaeus, who, however, united with it what proves to be an allied species from India that, having been indicated many years before by Petiver (Gazoph. naturae, tab. 76, fig. 2), on the authority of Buckley, was only technically named and described in 1838 by W. Swainson (Anim. Menageries, p. 360) as R. albicollis. A third species, R. flavirostris, inhabits Africa; and examples from South America, though by many writers regarded as identical with R. nigra, are considered by Howard Saunders (Proc. Zool. Society, 1882, p. 522) to form a fourth, the R. melanura of Swainson (ut supra, p. 340). All these ​resemble one another very closely, and, apart from their singularly-formed bill, have the structure and appearance of Terns (q.v). Some authors make a family of the genus Rhynchops, but it seems needless to remove it from the Laridae (see Gull). In breeding-habits the Skimmers thoroughly agree with the Terns, the largest species of which group they nearly equal in size, and indeed only seem to differ from them in the mode of taking their food, which of course is correlated with the extraordinary formation of their bill. (A. N.)
* ↑ “I call it Skimmer, from the manner of its collecting its food with the lower mandible, as it flies along the surface of the water” (Gen. of Birds, p. 52).
* ↑ Other English names applied to it in America are “Razorbill,” “Scissorbill,” and “Shearwater.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Theobald

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​THEOBALD (d. 1161), archbishop of Canterbury, was of Norman parentage, but the date of his birth is unknown. Early in life he entered the great abbey of Bee, of which he became prior in 1127 and abbot ten years later. In 1138 he was selected by Stephen, king of England, to fill the vacant see of Canter- bury. Apparently he owed this advancement to his character for meekness, and as archbishop he behaved with a moderation which is in striking contrast to the conduct of his rival, Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester. During the struggle between Stephen and Matilda it was Bishop Henry who fought for the privileges of the Church; Theobald, while showing a preference for Stephen’s title, made it his rule to support the de facto sovereign. But as Stephen’s cause gained ground the archbishop showed greater independence. He refused to consecrate the king’s nephew to the see of York, and in 1148 attended the papal council of Reims in defiance of a royal prohibition. This quarrel was ended by the intercession of the queen, Matilda of Boulogne, but another, of a more serious character, was provoked by Theobald’s refusal to crown Count Eustace, the eldest son of Stephen, the archbishop pleading the pope’s orders as the excuse for this contumacy. He was banished from the kingdom, but Pope Eugenius terrified Stephen into a reversal of the sentence. In 1153 Theobald succeeded in reconciling Stephen with Henry of Anjou, and in securing for the latter the succession to the throne. On the accession of Henry in 1154, Theobald naturally became his trusted counsellor; but ill-health prevented the archbishop from using his influence to its full extent. He placed the interests of the Church in the hands of Thomas Becket, his archdeacon, whom he induced Henry to employ as chancellor. Theobald died on the 18th of April 1161. He is said to have recommended Becket as his successor.
In history Theobald lives chiefly as the patron of three eminent men: Becket, who began life as a clerk in his household; Master Vacarius, the Italian jurist, who was the first to teach Roman law in England; and John of Salisbury, the most learned scholar of the age. Theobald’s household was a university in little; and in it were trained not a few of the leading prelates of the next generation.
See the Vita Theobaldi printed in J. A. Giles, Lanfranci Opera, vol. i. (Oxford, 1844); W. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, ii. c. vi. (London, 1862); and K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, vol. i. (London, 1887).  (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Themistius

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​THEMISTIUS (317–?387), named εὐφραδής (“eloquent”), statesman, rhetorician and philosopher, was born in Paphlagonia and taught at Constantinople, where, apart from a short sojourn in Rome, he resided during the rest of his life. Though a pagan, he was admitted to the senate by Constantius in 355. He was prefect of Constantinople in 384 on the nomination of Theodosius. His paraphrases of Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics, Physics and De Anima are valuable; but the orations in which he panegyrizes successive emperors, comparing them to Plato’s “true philosopher,” and even to the “idea” itself, are servile and unworthy. Against this, however, should be set the description given by Boetius, “disertissimus scriptor ac lucidus, et omnia ad facilitatem intelligentiae revocans, ” and that of Gregory Nazianzen—with whom Themistius corresponded—βασιλέα λόγων. Themistius’s paraphrases of the De Coelo and of book Λ of the Metaphysics have reached us only through Hebrew versions. In philosophy Themistius was an eclectic. He held that Plato and Aristotle were in substantial agreement, that God has made men free to adopt the mode of worship they prefer, and that Christianity and Hellenism were merely two forms of the one universal religion.
The first edition of Themistius’s works (Venice, 1534) included the paraphrases and eight of the orations. Nineteen orations were known to Petavius, whose editions appeared in 1613 and 1618; Hardouin (Paris, 1684) gives thirty-three. Another oration was discovered by Angelo Mai, and published at Milan in 1816. The most recent editions are W. Dindorf’s of the orations (Leipzig, 1832), and L. Spengel’s of the paraphrases (Leipzig, 1866). The Latin translations of the Hebrew versions of the paraphrases of the De Coelo and book A of the Metaphysics were published at Venice in 1574 and 1558 respectively. A new edition of the latter by S. Landauer appeared in 1903. See Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, vi. 790 seq.; E. Zeller, History of Greek Phil.; E. Baret, De Themist, sophista (Paris, 1853); Jourdain’s Recherches critiques sur l’âge et l’origine des traductions latines d’Aristote (Paris, 1819); see Neoplatonism. For Themistius’s Commentaries on Aristotle, see Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca (Berlin), and also Themistii paraphrases Aristotelis librorurn quae snpersunt, ed. L. Spengel (1866, Teubner series, mentioned above).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Theodora (daughter of Constantine VIII.)

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​THEODORA (d. 1057), daughter of the emperor Constantine VIII. Possessed of a strong and austere character, she refused the hand of the heir-presumptive, Romanus, who was married instead to her sister Zoë (1028). Though living in retirement she excited Zoë’s jealousy, and on a pretext of conspiracy was confined in a monastery. In 1042 the popular movement which caused the dethronement of Michael V. also led to Theodora’s instalment as joint-empress with her sister. After two months of active participation in government she allowed herself to be virtually superseded by Zoë’s new husband, Constantine IX. Upon his death in 1054, in spite of her seventy years, she reasserted her dormant rights with vigour, and frustrated an attempt to supersede her on behalf of the general Nicephorus Bryennius. By her firm administration she controlled the unruly nobles and checked numerous abuses; but she marred her reputation by excessive severity towards private enemies and the undue employment of menials for advisers. She died suddenly in 1057.
See G. Fialay, History of Greece, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1877); G. Schlumberger, L’Épopée Byzantine, vol. iii.(Paris. 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Themis

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​THEMIS, in Greek mythology, the personification of justice. In Homer θέμις is used both as a common and as a proper noun. As a common noun (plural θέμιστες, θέμιτες, θέμιδες), it is the body of rules and precedents established at the beginning of the world, as a guarantee of its order and harmony (see Greek Law); personified, Themis is the servant or companion of Zeus, her chief function being to summon the assemblies of both gods and men (Odyssey, ii. 68). In the Hesiodic theogony, she is the daughter of Uranus and Gaea, and according to Pindar the wife of Zeus, by whose side she sits, assisting him with her advice, which is even better than that of any of the gods. She is the mother of the Horae and of the Moirae (Fates), an indication of her influence in the physical and moral world. She is the representative of divine justice in all its relations to men, and takes special cognizance of the rights of hospitality. Her opposite is Hybris (ὕβρις), insolent encroachment upon the rights of others, on whose track she follows to punish, like Nemesis. In this aspect both Themis and Nemesis are called ίχναία (ἴχνος, track). In the lexicon of Festus, Themis is described as the goddess who prescribes that which is right in accordance with divine law (fas) and is herself identical with this divine law. She is also a prophetic divinity, and there was a tradition that the oracle at Delphi had first been in the hands of Gaea, who transferred it to Themis (sometimes identified with her) by whom it was handed over to Apollo (Aeschylus, Enmenides, 2; Euripides, Iphig. in T. 1181). Orphic poetry makes her a daughter of Helios, whose eye is all-seeing (πανδέρκης) and penetrates all mysteries. She was especially honoured at Athens, Delphi, Thebes, Aegina and Troezene, where there was an altar dedicated to a triad of Themides (on the analogy of the triads of Horae, Charites, Moirae). In art she was represented as of dignified and commanding presence, with the cornucopiae (symbolizing the blessings resulting from order) and a pair of scales.
See article “Justitia” by J. A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dict. des Antiquités; H. Ahrens, Die Göttin Themis (1862); R. Hirzel, Themis, Dike, und Verwanzttes (1907).