OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laer, Pieter van

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​LAER (or Laar), PIETER VAN (1613–c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an early age is seen in his landscape and backgrounds, but in his subjects he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers’ shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is “generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener heavy, and his execution broad and spirited.” Certain etched plates are also attributed to him.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laetus, Julius Pomponius

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​LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425–1498), Italian humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its constitution resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was forbidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV. permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the 9th of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were published in a collected form (Opera Pomponii Laeti varia, 1521). They contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a compendium of Roman history from ​the death of the younger Gordian to the time of Justin III. Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical authors, and promoted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil at Rome in 1469.
See The Life of Leto by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums, ii.; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an account of the academy; Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1908), ii. 92.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laevius

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​LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (De grammaticis, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur before the 2nd century (Fronto, Ep. ad M. Caes. i. 3; Aulus Gellius, Noct. Att. ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9; Apuleius, De magia, 30; Porphyrion, Ad Horat. carm. iii. 1, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bährens, Fragm. poët. rom. pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed an Erotopaegnia, and in other sources he is credited with Adonis, Alcestis, Centauri, Helena, Ino, Protesilaudamia, Sirenocirca, Phoenix, which may, however, be only the parts of the Erotopaegnia. They were not serious poems, but light and often licentious skits on the heroic myths.
See O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der römischen Dichtung, i.; H. de la Ville de Mirmont, Étude biographique et littéraire sur le poète Laevius (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, Poëtarum latinorum reliquiae (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F. Plessis, La Poésie latine (1909), pp. 139-142.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laevulinic Acid

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​LAEVULINIC ACID (β-acetopropionic acid), C$_5$H$_8$O$_3$ or CH$_3$CO·CH$_2$·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, Ann., 1877, 188, p. 222).
CH$_3$·CO·CH·Na CH$_3$·CO·CH·CH$_2$·CO$_2$R |→|→ CH$_3$·COCH$_2$·CH$_2$·CO$_2$OH CO$_2$RCO$_2$R
It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of γ-methyloxy-glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in plates, which melt at 32.5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. Michael, Jour. prak. Chem., 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is decomposed and yields α- and β-angelica lactones. When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields n-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CH$_2$·CO]$_2$N·CH$_3$.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton Abbot

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​NEWTON ABBOT, a market town and seaport in the Ashburton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 20 m. S. by W. of Exeter by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 12,517. Beautifully situated at the head of the Teign estuary, the town grew rapidly in the 19th century. The two parish churches, St Mary’s in Wolborough, and All Saints’ in Highweek, are Perpendicular in style. St Mary’s contains a Norman font, an ancient brass lectern, buried during the Civil Wars, and some interesting heraldic ornaments which date from the 15th century. Of the 14th century chapel of St Leonard, only a tower survives. A large nunnery, called St Augustine’s Priory, was erected near the town in 1861; while eastward is the Jacobean Forde House, belonging to the earl of Devon, and visited by Charles I. and William of Orange, who first read his declaration to the people of England at Newton Abbot market-cross. The establishment of large engine works by the Great Western railway has aided the development of local industries, and there is a considerable shipping trade, fine china clay and pipeclay being worked near the towns and exported to the Potteries. Large fairs are held for the sale of agricultural produce and livestock. The portion of Newton Abbot in the parish of Highweek was formerly a separate town, known as Newton Bushel.
Probably both Newton Abbot and Newton Bushel were originally included under the name of Newton. Newton Abbot was given to the abbot of Tor by William Lord Brewer, founder of the monastery (1196). Newton Bushel was so called from Robert Bussell or Bushel, foster-child and kinsman of Theobald de Englishville, who was made lord of the manor by Henry III. in 1246.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newtown (Wales)

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​NEWTOWN (Welsh Drefnewydd, with the same meaning, formerly Llanfair Cedewain), a market town and contributory parliamentary borough of Montgomeryshire, situated on both sides of the Severn, and on the Cambrian railway, 195 m. from London. Pop. of urban district of Newtown and Llanllwchhaiarn (1901) 6500. It is connected with Shrewsbury (Amwythig) by the Montgomeryshire canal. The old Anglican church, partly Decorated and partly Perpendicular, has been superseded by the modern St Mary’s, which contains the font and rood-screen of the old building. In the old churchyard lies Robert Owen, born in 1771 at Newtown, where he died in 1858, known as “the patriarch of reason,” author of New Views of Society, &c., and one of the fathers of communism. Newtown, rather than Welshpool, is the chief seat of Welsh flannel manufacture, together with that of tweeds and shawls. It joins with Welshpool, Llanfyllin, Montgomery (Trefaldwyn), Llanidloes and Machynlleth, in returning a member to parliament.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Next Friend

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​NEXT FRIEND, in law, the phrase used for a person who represents in an action another person who is under disability to maintain a suit on his own behalf. This disability arises from infancy or mental incapacity, consequently every application to the court on behalf of an infant or a lunatic must be made through a next friend (prochein amy, proximus amicus). Previous to the Married Women’s Property Act 1882 it was also usual for a married woman to sue by a next friend, but that act, allowing a married woman to sue in all respects as a feme sole, has rendered a next friend unnecessary in her case. In the case of an infant the father is prima facie the proper person to act as next friend; in the father’s absence the testamentary guardian if any; but any person not under disability may act as next friend so long as he has no interest in the action adverse to that of the infant. A married woman cannot, however, act as next friend. An infant defends a suit, not by a next friend, but by a guardian ad litem. In the case of a lunatic, he sues by his committee, but if he has no committee, or if the committee has some interest adverse to the lunatic, he sues by his next friend. A next friend has full power over the proceedings in the action ​as if he were an ordinary plaintiff, but he is not entitled to be heard in person.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newtown (New South Wales)

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​NEWTOWN, a municipality of Cumberland county, New South Wales, Australia, 31/2 m. S.W. of Sydney. It consists chiefly of the residences of the wealthier citizens of Sydney and is connected with the city by rail and tram. As a municipality it dates from 1862. Pop (1901) 22,598.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newtownards

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​NEWTOWNARDS (pron. Newtonárds), a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, beautifully situated near the northern extremity of Strangford Lough, on a branch of the Belfast and Co. Down railway, 91/2 m. E. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 9110. The town is sheltered by the Scrabo Hills on the west and north, and possesses a fine square, in which the pedestal of an ancient cross was erected in 1636. Muslin embroidery is the principal industry. There are also mills for flax and hemp yarns, a weaving factory and a hosiery factory. The remains of the old church, originally erected in 1244, contain good Perpendicular work, and the ​family vault of the Londonderrys; there are also the parish church and Presbyterian church, with lofty spires, and a Roman Catholic chapel. In the neighbourhood there are freestone quarries.
The town owes its origin to a Dominican monastery founded in 1244 by Walter de Burgh. It was forfeited by the O’Neills, and given to the Hamiltons and Montgomeries, from whom it passed to the marquess of Londonderry. It received a charter from James I., and until the Union in 1800 returned two members to parliament. The ruined abbey of Moville, 11/2 m. N.E., is the most notable of the many ecclesiastical remains in the neighbourhood. It is attributed to St Finian (c. 550).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ngan-hui

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​NGAN-HUI (An-hwei or Gan-Hwuy), an eastern province of China, which, together with Kiang-su and Kiang-si, forms the vice-royalty of Kiang-nan. It is bounded N. by Ho-nan, E. by Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang, S. by Kiang-si and W. by Hu-peh and Ho-nan. It covers an area of 48,461 sq. m., and contains a population of 23,600,000 Its principal city is Ngan-kʽing on the Yangtsze Kiang, besides which it numbers seven prefectural cities. One district city, Ho-fei, is noted as having been the birthplace of Li Hungchang (1822–1901). The southern half of the province, that portion south of the Yangtsze Kiang, forms part of the Nan-shan, or hilly belt of the south-eastern provinces, and produces, besides cotton, coal and iron ore, large quantities of green tea. There are also considerable forest areas. Nganhui is one of the most productive provinces of China. Over the whole of its southern portion tea is largely grown, notably in the districts of Hui-chow Fu, Tung-liu, Ta-tung and. Wu-hu. The Yangtsze Kiang is the principal river of the province, and is of great importance for foreign commerce, supplying direct water communication between some of the principal tea-growing districts and the neighbourhood of Hang-chow. The only other river of importance is the Hwai-ho (see China: The Country). Wu-hu on the Yangtsze Kiang is the only open port in this province. From this port a railway runs S.E. to Wen-chow—an open seaport in Cheh-kiang province.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Newton (Massachusetts)

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​NEWTON, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 10 m. W. of Boston, on the S. bank of the Charles river, which borders it for 16 m. Pop. (1880) 16,995; (1890) 24,379; (1900) 33,587, of whom 10,068 were foreign-born, 19,006 of foreign parentage and 505 were negroes; (1910, census) 39,806. Newton is served by the Boston & Albany railway. The city, with an area of 17·98 sq. m., contains 15 villages. In Newton, the most prominent of these villages, is a stone terrace monument to John Eliot, erected on the site of Waban’s wigwam near Nonantum Hill, where Eliot founded the first Indian Church on the 28th of October 1646—the Nonantum Indians, under their chief Waban, removed to Natick in 1651. On Institution Hill, Newton Centre, is the first Baptist theological seminary in America, Newton Theological Institution, founded in 1825. Here also is the residence of Samuel Francis Smith (1808–1895), author of “America” and several missionary hymns, and pastor here in 1842–1854. In Newton Upper Falls, Echo Bridge (of the Boston Aqueduct) crosses the Charles near the falls in Hemlock Gorge Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system. Auburndale is the seat of Lasell Seminary for Young Women, founded in 1851 by Edward Lasell (1809–1852). Other of the villages are Newtonville, West Newton and Newton Highlands. The city of Newton is primarily a residential suburb of Boston; along the Charles is a part (191·12 acres) of the Charles River Reservation of the Metropolitan Park system, and the city has several attractive public parks, including Norumbega Park, on the banks of the river, with a large open-air theatre; boating, especially canoeing, on the river is very popular. The city has a public library, a high school and a technical high school. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine shop products, worsted goods and electrical apparatus; the factories utilize the water power of the falls. The value of the manufactured product in 1905 was $4,140,996. The region was settled as a part of Cambridge in 1630 and was called South Side (i.e. of the Charles), Nonantum (the Indian name), Cambridge Village, Little Cambridge or New Cambridge; in 1688 it was incorporated as a separate town and in 1691 received its present name; it annexed an island in the Charles in 1803; parts of it were annexed to Roxbury (1838) and Waltham (1849); it became a city in 1873; and in 1875 it annexed a part of Boston, with which there have been several more recent boundary adjustments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nez Percés

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​NEZ PERCÉS (in allusion to their custom of wearing nose-rings, &c.), a tribe of North American Indians of Sahaptian stock. They call themselves Shaptin (whence the stock name) but to other tribes were known as Chopunnish. Their former range was a large tract in eastern Washington and Oregon and central Idaho. Until 1877 they had been at peace with the whites. In 1875 a portion of their reservation having been taken from them, owing to the allegation that they had not carried out the treaty stipulations, difficulties arose which, two years later, caused the Nez Percés War. The disaffected portion of the tribe, numbering some 400 or 500, held out for several months against all the forces the government could bring up, but were finally captured on the Sweet Grass Hills, northern Montana. They were placed in Indian Territory, but in 1884 transferred, owing to their decrease through disease, to a healthier locality in northern Washington. The main tribe are on a reservation in northern Idaho.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quintana, Manuel José

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​QUINTANA, MANUEL JOSÉ (1772–1857), Spanish poet and man of letters, was born at Madrid on the 11th of April 1772, and after completing his studies at Salamanca was called to the bar. In 1801 he produced a tragedy, El Duque de Visco, founded on M. G. Lewis's Castle Spectre; his Pelayo (1805), written on a patriotic theme, was more successful. The first volume of his Vidas de Espafloles célebres (1807–33), containing lives of Spanish patriots, stirred the public imagination and secured Quintana the post of secretary to the Cortes during the French invasion. His proclamations and odes fanned the national enthusiasm into flame. But he was ill rewarded for his services, for on the return of Ferdinand VII. he was imprisoned at Pamplona from 1814 to 1820. He was finally given a small post in the civil service, became tutor to Queen Isabella, and was nominated senator. Though publicly “ crowned ” as the representative poet of Spain (1855), he seems to have lived in poverty. He died on the frth of March 1857. His poems, thirty-four in number, are inspired by philanthropy and patriotism; the style is occasionally gallicized, and the thought is not profound, but his nobility of sentiment and resounding rhetoric attract every generation of Spaniards.
See an excellent monograph by E. Pifieyro, Manuel José Quintana, ensayo crilico y biográfico (Paris, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quintain

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​QUINTAIN (O. Fr. quintaine, from Lat. quintana, a street between the fifth and sixth maniples of a camp, where warlike exercises took place), an instrument used in the age of chivalry in practising for the tournament. Originally perhaps the mere trunk of a tree upon which the knight practised his sword strokes, as may be seen in an ancient illustration reproduced in Strutt’s Sports and Pastimes, the quintain developed into various forms of posts at which the soldier tilted with his lance, not only on horseback but on foot and even in boats. An early form consisted of the wooden figure of a Saracen armed with shield and sword; the object being to strike the figure on the forehead directly between the eyes. This, according to Strutt, was called by the Italians “running at the armed man” or “at the Saracen.” The “pel,” or post-quintain, was generally about 6 ft. high.
As late as the 18th century running at the quintain survived in English rural districts. In one variation of the pastime the quintain was a tun filled with water, which, if the blow was a poor one, was emptied over the striker. A later form was a post with a cross-piece, from which was suspended a ring, which the horseman endeavoured to pierce with his lance while at full speed. This sport, called “tilting at the ring,” was very popular in England and on the continent of Europe in the 17th century, and is still practised as a feature of military and equestrian sport.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quinoxalines

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​QUINOXALINES (Benzopyrazines), in organic chemistry, hetero cyclic compounds containing a ring complex made up of a benzene ring and a pyrazine ring (formula I.); they are isomeric with the cinnolenes, phthalazines and quinazolines. They are formed by the condensing ortho-diamines with 1·2 diketones (Hinsberg, Ann., 1887, 237, p. 327), the parent substance of the group (quinoxaline) resulting when glyoxal is so condensed, whilst substitution derivatives arise when α-ketonic acids, α-chlorketones, α-aldehyde alcohols and α-ketone alcohols are used in place of diketones.
| C$_6$H$_4$ | NH$_2$ | + | OC·R | C$_6$H$_4$ | N:C·R | +2H$_2$O. |
| C$_6$H$_4$ | | + | | | C$_6$H$_4$ | | | +2H$_2$O. |
| C$_6$H$_4$ | NH$_2$ | + | OC·R′ | C$_6$H$_4$ | N:C·R′ | +2H$_2$O. |
In a similar manner, diamino derivatives are formed when cyanogen is condensed with ortho-diamines, and these amino compounds readily pass into the corresponding dioxy derivatives when acted upon with dilute hydrochloric acid. The quinoxalines are weak bases, and are stable towards oxidizing agents but are readily reduced to hydro derivatives. The tetrahydroquinoxalines are formed by condensing ortho-diamines with ortho-dihydroxy benzenes, and the keto-dihydro derivatives arise similarly by condensing mono-alkyl diamines with ketonic acids (Kehrmann and Messinger, Ber., 1892, 25, pp. 1628 et seq.). The azonium bases (formula II.) of this series are produced when the dihydroquinoxalines (obtained by similar condensations from the mono-alkyl-ortho-diamines) are oxidized with ferric chloride.
| I. Quinoxaline. | II. Azonium bases. |
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quinsy

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​QUINSY, a common term for acute suppurative tonsillitis (q.v.). The English word (formerly “squinzey”) is a corruption of Fr. esquinancie, from Gr. κυνάγχη (κύων, dog, and ἄγχειν, to choke), and is derived from the suffocating tendency of the ailment.