OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hildebrandt, Theodor

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​HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR (1804–1874), German painter, was born at Stettin. He was a disciple of the painter Schadow, and, on Schadow’s appointment to the presidency of a new academy in the Rhenish provinces in 1828, followed that master to Düsseldorf. Hildebrandt began by painting pictures illustrative of Goethe and Shakespeare; but in this form he followed the traditions of the stage rather than the laws of nature. He produced rapidly “Faust and Mephistopheles” (1824), “Faust and Margaret” (1825), and “Lear and Cordelia” (1828). He visited the Netherlands with Schadow in 1829, and wandered alone in 1830 to Italy; but travel did not alter his style, though it led him to cultivate alternately eclecticism and realism. At Düsseldorf, about 1830, he produced “Romeo and Juliet,” “Tancred and Clorinda,” and other works which deserved to be classed with earlier paintings; but during the same period he exhibited (1829) the “Robber” and (1832) the “Captain and his Infant Son,” examples of an affected but kindly realism which captivated the public, and marked to a certain extent an epoch in Prussian art. The picture which made Hildebrandt’s fame is the “Murder of the Children of King Edward” (1836), of which the original, afterwards frequently copied, still belongs to the Spiegel collection at Halberstadt. Comparatively late in life Hildebrandt tried his powers as an historical painter in pictures representing Wolsey and Henry VIII., but he lapsed again into the romantic in “Othello and Desdemona.” After 1847 Hildebrandt gave himself up to portrait-painting, and in that branch succeeded in obtaining a large practice. He died at Düsseldorf in 1874.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hildegard, St

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​HILDEGARD, ST (1098–1179), German abbess and mystic, was born of noble parents at Böckelheim, in the countship of Sponheim, in 1098, and from her eighth year was educated at the Benedictine cloister of Disibodenberg by Jutta, sister of the count of Sponheim, whom she succeeded as abbess in 1136. From earliest childhood she was accustomed to see visions, which increased in frequency and vividness as she approached the age of womanhood; these, however, she for many years kept almost secret, nor was it until she had reached her forty-third year (1141) that she felt constrained to divulge them. Committed to writing by her intimate friend the monk Godefridus, they now form the first and most important of her printed works, entitled Scivias (probably an abbreviation for “sciens vias” or “nosce vias Domini”) s. visionum et revelatianum libri iii., and completed in 1151. In 1147 St Bernard of Clairvaux, while at Bingen preaching the new crusade, heard of Hildegard’s revelations, and became so convinced of their reality that he not only wrote to her a letter cordially acknowledging her as a prophetess of God, but also successfully advocated her recognition as such by his friend and former pupil Pope Eugenius III. in the synod of Trèves (1148). In the same year Hildegard migrated along with eighteen of her nuns to a new convent on the Rupertsberg near Bingen, over which she presided during the remainder of her life. By means of voluminous correspondence, as well as by extensive journeys, ​in the course of which she was unwearied in the exercise of her gift of prophecy, she wielded for many years an increasing influence upon her contemporaries—an influence doubtless due to the fact that she was imbued with the most widely diffused feelings and beliefs, fears and hopes, of her time. Amongst her correspondents were Popes Anastasius IV. and Adrian IV., the emperors Conrad III. and Frederick I., and also the theologian Guibert of Gembloux, who submitted numerous questions in dogmatic theology for her determination. She died in 1179, but has never been canonized; her name, however, was received into the Roman martyrology in the 15th century, September 17th being the day fixed for her commemoration.
Her biography, which was written by two contemporaries, Godefridus and Theodoricus, was first printed at Cologne in 1566. Hildegard’s writings, besides the Scivias already mentioned and first printed in Paris in 1513, include the Liber divinorum operum, Explanatio regulae S. Benedicti, Physica and the Letters, &c., are contained in Migne, Patr. Lat. t. cxcvii., and in Cardinal Pitra’s Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata; Nova S. Hildegardis opera (Paris, 1882).
For a modern study of the saint’s writings, see Sainte Hildegarde by Pal Franche, “Les Saints” series (Paris, 1903); and U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques, bio.-bibl. 2153.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lanuvium

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​LANUVIUM (more frequently Lanivium in imperial times, mod. Civita Lavinia), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m. S.E. of Rome, a little S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated on an isolated hill projecting S. from the main mass of the Alban Hills, and commanding an extensive view over the low country between it and the sea. It was one of the members of the Latin League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome in 338 B.C. At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief magistrate and municipal council kept the titles of dictator and senatus respectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 B.C., and the possessions of which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby in Mélanges de l’école française, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, in opus reticulatum, upon the north side of which is a rectangular building in opus quadratum, probably connected with the temple of Juno. Here archaic decorative terra-cottas were discovered in excavations carried on by Lord Savile. The acropolis of the primitive city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north. The neighbourhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to Antoninus Pius.
See Notizie degli Scavi, passim. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lanzarote

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​LANZAROTE, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area, 326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of 31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine villages were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption took place accompanied by earthquakes, and two hills were thrown up. The port of Naos on the south-east of the island affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two forts. A short distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The climate is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the total failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to abandon the island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden. Teguise (pop. 3786), on the north-west coast, is the residence of the local authorities. A strait about 6 m. in width separates Lanzarote from Fuerteventura.
Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern extremity of Lanzarote by a channel 1 m. in width, which affords a capacious and safe harbour for large ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 ft. high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A few persons reside on the little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and cinders ejected at various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater of which has still a well-defined edge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lanzi, Luigi

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​LANZI, LUIGI (1732–1810), Italian archaeologist, was born in 1732 and educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the galleries of Florence, and thereafter studied Italian painting and Etruscan antiquities and language. In the one field his labours are represented by his Storia Pittorica della Italia, the first portion of which, containing the Florentine, Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools, appeared in 1792, the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In archaeology his great achievement was Saggio di lingua Etrusca (1789), followed by Saggio delle lingue Ital. antiche (1806). In his memoir on the so-called Etruscan vases (Dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente chiamati Etruschi, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived their Greek origin and characters. What was true of the antiquities would be true also, he argued, of the Etruscan language, and the object of the Saggio di lingua Etrusca was to prove that this language must be related to that of the neighbouring peoples—Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished plan of illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature and monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various styles appeared as an appendix to the Saggio di lingua Etrusca, and arose out of his minute study of the treasures then added to the Florentine collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he met with from later writers on the Etruscan language led Corssen (Sprache der Etrusker, i. p. vi.) to protest in the name of his real services to philology and archaeology. Among his other productions was an edition of Hesiod’s Works and Days, with valuable notes, and a translation in terza rima. Begun in 1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of his works closes with his Opere sacre, a series of treatises on spiritual subjects. Lanzi died on the 30th of March 1810. He was buried in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side of Michelangelo.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laoag

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​LAOAG, a town, port for coasting vessels, and capital of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Laoag river, about 5 m. from its mouth, and in the N.W. part of the island. Pop. (1903) 34,454; in 1903, after the census had been taken, the municipality of San Nicolás (pop. 1903, 10,880) was added to Laoag. Laoag is on an extensive coast plain, behind which is a picturesque range of hills; it is well built and is noted for its fine climate, the name “Laoag” signifying “clear.” It is especially well equipped for handling rice, which is shipped in large quantities; Indian corn, tobacco and sugar are also shipped. Cotton is grown in the vicinity, and is woven by the women into fabrics, which find a ready sale among the pagan tribes of the mountains. The language is Ilocano.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lanterns of the Dead

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​LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the small towers in stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of France, pierced with small openings at the top, where a light was exhibited at night to indicate the position of a cemetery. These towers were usually circular, with a small entrance in the lower part giving access to the interior, so as to raise the lamps by a pulley to the required height. One of the most perfect in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists of a series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal, and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones; it has only one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples exist at Ciron (Indre) and Antigny (Vienne).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lanza, Domenico Giovanni Giuseppe Maria

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​LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810–1882), Italian politician, was born at Casale, Piedmont, on the 15th of February 1810. He studied medicine at Turin, and practised for some years in his native place. He was one of the promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took an active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Piedmontese parliament in that year, and attached himself to the party of Cavour, devoting his attention chiefly to questions of economy and finance. He became minister of public instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour, and in 1858 minister of finance. He followed Cavour into his temporary retirement in July 1859 after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year (1860–1861) was president of the Chamber. He was minister of the interior (1864–1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the transference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza was a second time elected, in 1869, president of the Chamber. Lanza formed a new cabinet in which he was himself minister of the interior. With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize Italian finance, and resigned office when Sella’s projects were rejected in 1873. His cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and the installation of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on the 9th of March 1882.
See Enrico Tavallini, La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza (2 vols., Turin and Naples, 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lantern-fly

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​LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the homopterous division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the genus Fulgora and allied forms. They are mostly of large size, with a superficial resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called “lantern,” was luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and made use of a number of specific names, such as lanternaria, phosphorea, candelaria, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observations have failed to establish and which is now generally rejected.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laocoon

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​LAOCOON, in Greek legend a brother of Anchises, who had been a priest of Apollo, but having profaned the temple of the god he and his two sons were attacked by serpents while preparing to sacrifice a bull at the altar of Poseidon, in whose service Laocoon was then acting as priest. An additional motive for ​his punishment consisted in his having warned the Trojans against the wooden horse left by the Greeks. But, whatever his crime may have been, the punishment stands out even among the tragedies of Greek legend as marked by its horror—particularly so as it comes to us in Virgil (Aeneid, ii. 199 sq.), and as it is represented in the marble group, the Laocoon, in the Vatican. In the oldest existing version of the legend—that of Arctinus of Miletus, which has so far been preserved in the excerpts of Proclus—the calamity is lessened by the fact that only one of the two sons is killed; and this, as has been pointed out (Arch. Zeitung, 1879, p. 167), agrees with the interpretation which Goethe in his Propylaea had put on the marble group without reference to the literary tradition. He says: “The younger son struggles and is powerless, and is alarmed; the father struggles ineffectively, indeed his efforts only increase the opposition; the elder son is least of all injured, he feels neither anguish nor pain, but he is horrified at what he sees happening to his father, and he screams while he pushes the coils of the serpent off from his legs. He is thus an observer, witness, and participant in the incident, and the work is then complete.” Again, “the gradation of the incident is this: the father has become powerless among the coils of the serpent; the younger son has still strength for resistance but is wounded; the elder has a prospect of escape.” Lessing, on the other hand, maintained the view that the marble group illustrated the version of the legend given by Virgil, with such differences as were necessary from the different limits of representation imposed on the arts of sculpture and of poetry. These limits required a new definition, and this he undertook in his still famous work, Laokoon (see the edition of Hugo Blümner, Berlin, 1876, in which the subsequent criticism is collected). The date of the Laocoon being now fixed (see Agesander) to 40–20 B.C., there can be no question of copying Virgil. The group represents the extreme of a pathetic tendency in sculpture (see Greek Art, Plate I. fig. 52).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salaria, Via

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See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 3-38; N. Persichetti, Viaggio archeologico sulla Via Salaria nel Circondario di Cittàducale (Rome, 1893); and in Römische Mitteilungen (1903), 276 seq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salamanca (New York)

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​SALAMANCA, a village in Cattaraugus county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of Salamanca, about 52 m. S. by E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 4251, of whom 789 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 5792. Salamanca is served by the Erie, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg and the Pennsylvania railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Olean, N. Y., Bradford, Pennsylvania, and Little Valley (pop in 1910, 1368), the county-seat, about 8 m. N. The village is built on both sides of the Allegany river. The agricultural and industrial development of the region has been retarded by its being within the Allegany Indian Reservation (allotted originally to the Seneca Indians by the Big Tree Treaty of 1798 and still including the valley of the Allegany river for several miles above and below Salamanca); but land is now held under a 99 year lease authorized by Congress in 1892. The village is a railway centre and division terminal, and has repair shops of the Erie and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The first settlement in the district (which was included within the "Holland Purchase" of 1792–1793) was made in 1815 near the site of West Salamanca (pop. in 1910, 530), 11/2 m. W. of Salamanca, and in the same township. Salamanca (until 1873 known as East Salamanca) was incorporated in 1879, taking its name from the township, which was erected in 1854 as Buck Tooth Township and in 1862 was renamed in honour of a Spanish banker who was a large stockholder of the Atlantic & Great Western railway, built through the township this year, and later merged with the Erie railway.
See History of Cattaraugus County, New York (Philadelphia, Pa., 1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salamanca (province)

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​SALAMANCA, a frontier province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 out of the southern part of the ancient kingdom of Leon, and bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, E. by Avila, S. by Caceres and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 320,765; area, 4829 sq. m. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Duero (Portuguese Douro, q.v.), its principal rivers being the Tormes, which follows the general slope of the province towards the north-west, and after a course of 135 m. flows into the Duero, which forms part of the north-west boundary; the Yeltes and the Agueda, also tributaries of the Duero; and the Alagon, an affluent of the Tagus. The northern part of the province is flat, and at its lowest point (on the Duero) is 488 ft. above sea-level. The southern border is partly defined along the crests of the Grédos and Gata ranges, but the highest point is La Alberca (5692 ft.) in the Sierra de Peña Francia, which rises a little farther north. The rainfall is irregular; but where it is plentiful the soil is productive and there are good harvests of wine, oil, hemp, and cereals of all kinds. Forests of oak, pine, beech and chestnut cover a wide area. in the south and south-west; and timber is sent in large quantities to other parts of Spain. Sheep and cattle also find good pasturage, and out of the forty-nine Spanish provinces only Badajoz, Cáceres and Teruel have a larger number of live stock. Gold is found in the streams, and iron, lead, copper, zinc, coal and rock crystal in the hills, but the mines are only partially developed, and it is doubtful if the deposits would repay exploitation on a larger scale. The manufactures of the province are few and mostly of a low class, intended for home consumption, such as frieze, coarse cloth, hats and pottery. The capital, Salamanca (pop. 1900, 25,690), and the town of Ciudad Rodrigo} (8930) are described in separate articles. Béjar (9488) is the only other town of more than 5000 inhabitants. The railways from Zamora, Medina, Plasencia and Peñaranda converge upon the capital, whence two lines go westward into Portugal—one via Barca d’Alva to Oporto, the other via Villar Formoso to Guarda. Few Spanish provinces lose so small a number of emigrants, and the population tends gradually to increase. See also Leon.