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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Leo Allatius

From volume 1 of the work.
​Allatius (Alacci), Leo, a learned Greek of the seventeenth century, b. on the island of Chios in 1586 and d. at Rome, 19 January, 1669. He entered the Greek college at Rome in 1600, spent three years in Lucania with his countryman, Bishop Bernard Giustiniani, and then returned to Chios where he proved of great assistance to the Latin Bishop, Marco Giustiniani. In 1616, he received the degree Doctor of Medicine from the Sapienza, was made Scriptor in the Vatican library, and, later, professor of rhetoric at the Greek College, a position which he held for only two years. Pope Gregory XV sent him to Germany, in 1622, to bring to Rome the Palatinate library of Heidelberg, which Maximilian had presented to the Pope in return for war subsidies, a task which he accomplished in the face of great difficulties. In the death of Gregory XV (1623) Alatius lost his principal patron: but with the support of influential cnurchmen, he continued his researches, ​especially upon the Palatinate manuscripts. Alexander VII made him custodian of the Vatican library in 1661, where he remained till his death. With untiring energy Allatius combined a vast erudition, which he brought to bear upon literary, historical, philosophical, and theological questions. He laboured earnestly to effect the reconciliation of the Greek Church with that of Rome and to this end wrote his most important work, "De Ecclesiæ Occidentalisatque Orientalis perpetua consensione" (Cologne, 1648), in which the points of agreement between the Churches are emphasized, while their differences are minimized. He also edited or translated into Latin the writings of various Greek authors, corresponded with the foremost scholars of Europe, contributed as editor to the "Corpus Byzantinorum" (Paris), and arranged for the Publication of a "Bibliotheca Scriptorum Græcorum". He bequeathed his manuscripts (about 150 volumes) and his correspondence (over 1,000 letters) to the library of the Oratorians in Rome.
Gradius, Life in Mai, Bibliotheca Nova Patrum (Rome, 1853), VI; Legrand, Bibliographie hellenique du XVII siècle (Paris, 1893); Theiner, Die Schenkung der Heidelb. Bibl. (Munich, 1844); Lammer, De Leonis Allatii Codicibus (Freiburg, 1864); Hergenröther, in Kirchenlex.
Francis W. Grey.
# Charles Dickens

* Search for titles containing or beginning with: "Charles Dickens."
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This is a disambiguation page. It lists works that share the same title. If an article link referred you here, please consider editing it to point directly to the intended page.
* Charles Dickens. G. K. Chesterton, 1906.
* Appreciations and Criticisms of the Works of Charles Dickens. G. K. Chesterton, 1911
* "Dickens, Charles," in Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed., 1911)
* "Dickens, Charles," in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, by John William Cousin, London: J. M. Dent & Sons (1910)
* "Dickens, Charles," in The New Student's Reference Work, Chicago: F.E. Compton and Co. (1914)
* "Dickens, Charles," in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, London: Smith, Elder, & Co. (1885–1900) in 63 vols.
* "Charles Dickens" (1928), a poem by Dorothy Parker

### Author pages

* Charles Dickens, 19th century novelist
# Charles Dickens (Chesterton)

* related authors: Charles John Huffam Dickens.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, quotes, taxonomy, Wikidata item.

### Contents

* Chapter I: The Dickens Period
* Chapter II: The Boyhood of Dickens
* Chapter III: The Youth of Dickens
* Chapter IV: "The Pickwick Papers"
* Chapter V: The Great Popularity
* Chapter VI: Dickens and America
* Chapter VII: Dickens and Christmas
* Chapter VIII: The Time of Transition
* Chapter IX: Later Life and Works
* Chapter X: The Great Dickens Characters
* Chapter XI: On the Alleged Optimism of Dickens
* Chapter XII: A Note on the Future of Dickens
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1936, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 87 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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# Charles Darwin, Controversial Scientist, Dies at 73

LONDON NEWS OBITUARIES, 20 April 1882
Charles Darwin, Controversial
Scientist, Dies at 73
Yesterday, noted naturalist and controversial scientist Charles Darwin died. Mr. Darwin had been in declining health for several years. He passed at his home in Down (Kent), England.
Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, at Shrewsbury, England. Darwin gained notoriety after publication of the book, On Origin of Species, published November 24, 1859. Darwin began his academic career studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh, but soon switched to theology at Cambridge. However, the study of nature was Darwin's calling. "I was a born naturalist," he said of himself. Every aspect of nature intrigued him. He loved to collect, to fish and hunt, and to read nature books. The country town of Shrewsbury, population 20,000, was the perfect place for a "naturalist in training." Darwin's letters and notes give the impression he devoted more time to collecting, hunting and riding than to his prescribed studies at Cambridge. Yet he did well on his examinations, finishing tenth on the list of nonhonors students.
Immediately after graduation Darwin signed on the H.M.S. Beagle as naturalist and gentleman companion of Captain Robert FitzRoy. The good captain had been commissioned to survey the coasts of Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, Chile and Peru. The Beagle left Plymouth, England on December 27, 1831 and returned on October 2, 1836. While on the voyage Darwin kept a travelogue (Journal of Researches) in which he described all the places he visited. One of the most intriguing stops was the equatorial Galapagos Islands. Here Darwin studied many unusual plants and animals. When at sea, Darwin spent time reading academic works such as Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology which introduced him to the idea of uniformitarian geology and Jean Baptiste Lamarck's arguments for evolutionary thinking. After the five year voyage, Darwin spent his time sorting his collections and sending them to various specialists to be described.
The results of his voyage, the cataloguing of his collections, the ideas of other scientists and philosophers, especially Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population, and Darwin's ability to think critically led him to the most controversial biological theory ever; evolution by common descent and the principle of natural selection. However, Darwin was reluctant to publish this theory. In fact he did not publish it until approached by Alfred Russel Wallace, who had developed the same theory independently. Together they announced the theory in 1858 and Darwin's famous book was published in 1859. If we could look into the future, we would see that the debate started by Darwin goes on and on.
In January 1839 Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood, and in September 1842 the couple moved from London to the village of Down. They had twelve children, eleven of whom survive.
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Deduction

From volume 4 of the work.
(Lat. de ducere, to lead, draw out, derive from; especially, the function of deriving truth from truth). The topic will be treated in two sections:
I. As an argument or reasoning process: that kind of mediate inference by which from truths already known we advance to a knowledge of other truths necessarily implied in the former; the mental product or result of that process.
II. As a method: the deductive method, by which we increase our knowledge through a series of such inferences.
I. AS AN ARGUMENT OR REASONING PROCESS
The typical expression of deductive inference is the syllogism. The essential feature of deduction is the necessary character of the connexion between the antecedent or premises and the consequent or conclusion. Granted the truth of the antecedent judgments, the consequent must follow; and the firmness of our assent to the latter is conditioned by that of our assent to the former. The antecedent contains the ground or reason which is the motive of our assent to the consequent; the latter, therefore, cannot have greater firmness or certainty than the former. This relation of necessary sequence constitutes the formal aspect of deduction. It can be realized most clearly when the argument is expressed symbolically, either in the hypothetical form:
or in the categorial form,
The material aspect of the deductive argument is the truth or falsity of the judgments which constitute it. If these be certain and evident the deduction is called demonstration, the Aristotelian apodeixis. Since the conclusion is necessarily implied in the premises, these must contain some abstract, general principle, of which the conclusion is a special application; otherwise the conclusion could not be necessarily derived from them; and all mediate inferences must be deductive, at least in this sense, that they involve the recognition of some universal truth and do not proceed directly from particular to particular without the intervention of the universal.
AS A METHOD
When, starting from general principles, we advance by a series of deductive steps to the discovery and proof of new truths, we employ the deductive or synthetic method. But how do we become certain of those principles which form our starting-points?
This ascent from the particular to the general is called induction, or the inductive or analytic method. Comparatively little attention was paid to this method during the Middle Ages. Apparatus for the accurate observation and exact measurement of natural phenomena was needed to give the first real impetus to the cultivation of the physical, natural, or inductive sciences. In these departments of research the mind approaches reality from the side of the concrete and particular and ascends to the abstract and general, while in deduction it descends from the general to the particular. But although the mind moves in opposite directions in both methods, nevertheless the reasoning or inference proper, employed in induction, is in no sense different from deductive reasoning, for it too implies and is based on abstract, necessary truths.
P. Coffey.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Definitor (in Canon Law)

From volume 4 of the work.
An official in secular deaneries and in certain religious orders. Among regulars, a definitor is appointed as a counsellor of the provincial or general superior with certain determinate powers. (See DEFINITORS IN RELIGIOUS ORDERS.) Dioceses are usually divided into deaneries, and these deaneries are again sub-divided into districts which are sometimes called definitiones. Over each district is placed an official styled definitor, who oversees the administration of ecclesiastical property and also gives aid to the dean in the more important duties of his office. Such definitors are elected by the rural chapters with the bishop's approval, or in some cases are directly appointed by the ordinary. Anciently, their principal duty was to care for and divide the revenues of a prebend between the heirs of the deceased and the new occupant, and likewise to determine what proportion of income belonged to outgoing and incoming beneficiaries of a church. The definitor acts as the representative of the dean when the latter is absent or incapacitated by illness or irregularity. It is his duty to announce to the bishop, likewise, the death of the dean and conduct preparations for the election of a successor. It is to be observed that definitors are in no sense necessary officials of a diocese, and that the duties here assigned to them are sometimes fulfilled by others. In some decanal or rural chapters the title given to the definitor is chamberlain or treasurer.
LAURENTIUS, Institutiones Jur. Eccl. (Freiburg, 1903). Corpus Juris Canonici, c. 4, X, I, 24 (c. xiii, Cone. Tiein., an. 850).
WILLIAM H.W. FANNING
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Definitors (in Religious Orders)

From volume 4 of the work.
Generally speaking, the governing council of an order. Bergier describes them as those chosen to represent the order in general or provincial chapters, but this is not altogether correct, for the usage varies in different orders. With the Dominicans all who are sent to represent the provinces in a general chapter are definitors; amongst the Cluniac monks there existed a similar regulation (though normally in the Benedictine Order definitors have no place). On the other hand, in the Franciscan Order, definitors are elected by the general and provincial chapters to assist the general or provincial superiors in the government of the order and a similar rule exists amongst the Carmelites and the Hermits of St. Augustine. But in this case it would seem that the definitors form a sort of executive committee of the chapter, since they are subject to the legislative enactments of the chapter. Definitors, strictly so called, have a decisive vote in congregation equally with the general or provincial superior; in this they differ from mere consultors such as exist in some orders and in the Society of Jesus. Nor may the general or provincial superior act in matters of greater moment without taking the vote of the definitors. A definitor, however, has the right to vote only when present in congregation. When called to give his opinion in congregation he is bound in conscience to speak candidly according to his own judgment, even if he knows his opinion to be contrary to that of the other definitors, and if he fails to do so in matters of gravity, he is held to sin gravely. Yet when the vote is taken, he is bound to sign the declaration of the minority report. In some orders, e.g. the Capuchin, the junior definitor gives his opinion first, that the may not be influenced by the seniors; but in other orders the senior speaks first. Again, in some orders the local superiors are appointed by the definitors; in others they are elected by the local community. Thus, amongst the Franciscans, the provincial superior is selected by the provincial chapter, subject to confirmation by the minister general and his definitors, whereas the superiors of houses are appointed directly by the provincial definitors: whilst amongst the Dominicans all local superiors are elected by the local community.
BERGIER, Dictionnair de theologie (Toulouse, 1819), II; PLATUS, Praelectiones Juris Regularis (Tournai, 1890).
Father Cuthbert.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Dei gratia; Dei et Apostolicæ Sedis gratia

From volume 4 of the work.
(By the grace of God; By the grace of God and the Apostolic See)
A formulæ added to the titles of ecclesiastical dignitaries. The first (N. Dei gratiâ Episcopus N.) has been used in that form or in certain equivalents since the fifth century. Among the signatures of the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) we find names to which are added: Dei gratiâ, per gratiam Dei, Dei miseratione Episcopus N. (Mansi, Sacr. Conc. Coll., IV, 1213; VII, 137, 139, 429 sqq.). Though afterwards employed occasionally, it did not become prevalent until the eleventh century. The second form (N. Dei et Apostolicœ Sedis gratiâ Episcopus N.) is current since the eleventh century; but came into general use by archbishops and bishops only since the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The first formula expresses the Divine origin of the episcopal office; the second exhibits the union of the bishops and their submission to the See of Rome. Temporal rulers since King Pepin the Short, in the eighth century, also made use of the first formula; from the fifteenth it was employed to signify complete and independent sovereignty, in contradistinction to the sovereignty conferred by the choice of the people. For this reason the bishops in some parts of Southern Germany (Baden, Bavaria, Wurtemberg) are not allowed to use it, but must say instead: Dei Miseratione et Apostolicœ Sedis gratiâ.
BINTERIM in Katholik (1823), VII, 129 sqq.; IDEM Denkwürdigkeiten (Mainz, 1838), I; THOMASSIN, Disipline de l'eglise (Bar-le-Duc, 1864), I; PERMANEDER in Kirchenlex., s. v. Dei qratiâ; HEFELE in Kirchenlex., s. v. Apostolicœ Sedis gratiâ.
FRANCIS J. SCHAEFER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sulpicius Severus

From volume 14 of the work.
An ecclesiastical writer, born of noble parents in Aquitaine c. 360; died about 420-25. The scanty information which we possess concerning his life is derived mainly from the writings of his friend Paulinus of Nola and Gennadius. He enjoyed excellent educational advantages, studied jurisprudence, and was renowned as an eloquent lawyer. His marriage with the daughter of a wealthy consular family seemed to seal his earthly happiness. His wife, however, was snatched away by a premature death and shortly after 390 Severus renounced his brilliant career and followed his friend Paulinus into monastic retirement. Through this sudden change of life he incurred his father's displeasure, but was encouraged in his determination by his mother-in-law. He became a personal friend and enthusiastic disciple of St. Martin and lived near Eauze, at Toulouse and Luz in Southern France. His ordination to the priesthood is vouched for by Gennadius, but no details of his priestly activity have reached us. According to the same Gennadius he was caught in the toils of Pelagianism towards the close of his life and, upon discovering his error, subjected himself to lifelong silence in expiation of his imprudence in speech.
The following works are undoubtedly genuine:
"The Chronicle" ("Chronicorum Libri duo" or "Historia sacra") extends from the creation of the world to A. D. 400, but omits the historical events recorded in the New-Testament writings. It was published in or after 403 and has been preserved in a single eleventh-century manuscript. It is a source of primary importance for the history of Priscillianism and contains considerable information respecting the Arian controversy. More popular during the Middle Ages was his "Life of St. Martin", as were also the dialogues and letters which relate to the same subject. The biography was written during the lifetime of the saint, but was published only after his death. Like the dialogues, it abounds in miraculous events. Beside the, above-mentioned three letters, seven others have been attributed to Severus. These are rejected as spurious by some critics, whilst the genuineness of the first two is admitted, rightly it would seem, by others. The "World Chronicle" of the so-called Sulpicius Severus has nothing to do with the subject of this biography; it was written in Spain in the sixth century. Sulpicius Severus has been rightly styled the Christian Sallust; his diction, notably in the "Chronicle", is elegant and reminds the reader of the classical age.
His works are to be found in P. L., XX, 95-248; later edition by HALM in Corpus script. eccl. lat., I (Vienna, 1866); BERNAYS, Uber die Chronik des Sulpicius Severus (Berlin, i861); BARDENHEWER, tr. SHAHAN, Patrology (St. Louis, 1908), 451-53; BENNETT in Dict. Christ. Biog., s. v. Severus (18).
N. A. WEBER.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sulpitius

From volume 14 of the work.
Two bishops of Bourges bore this name.
(1) The first, St. Sulpitius the Severe, wrongly identified with Sulpicius Severus, the historian of St. Martin, was raised to the see in 584. He was, says St. Gregory of Tours, a man of high birth, one of the first senators of Gaul, of great oratorical talent, and expert in the art of poetical rhythms. The See of Bourges having become vacant with the death of Remigius, several candidates offered gifts to King Gontran to secure the assistance of his favour. But the latter rejected all these simoniacal gifts to favour the election of Sulpitius. He was elected, given Holy orders, and consecrated bishop. Shortly afterwards he held a council in Auvergne, to adjust the dispute which had arisen between two of his suffragans, Innocentius, Bishop of Rodez, and Ursicinus, Bishop of Cahors, with regard to parishes for which they contended. The council decided that the Bishop of Cahors should retain the contested parishes, which the Bishop of Rodez had not proved that he or his predecessors had long possessed. Sulpitius assisted at a Council of Mâcon in 585; he died in 591, his feast being inserted in the Roman Martyrology on 29 January.
(2) Sulpitius the Pious (or the Débonnaire), born at Vatan (Diocese of Bourges), of noble parents, before the end of the sixth century, devoted himself from his youth to good works and the study of Holy Scripture. Austregisilus, Bishop of Bourges, ordained him cleric of his church, then deacon, and finally made him director of his episcopal school. Clotaire II, King of the Franks, who had heard his merits spoken of, summoned him and made him chaplain of his armies. But at the death of Bishop Austregisilus (c. 624) he was recalled to Bourges to take his place. Sulpitius thenceforth laboured with much zeal and success to re-establish ecclesiastical discipline, for the relief of the poor and the conversion of the Jews. In 626 he assisted at the Council of Clichy and held several others with the bishops of his province, but nothing of them remains. He intervened with King Dagobert in behalf of his flock, of whom a too heavy tax was exacted. At the request of the same king he consecrated to the See of Cahors his treasurer St. Didier, who was his personal friend, and there are extant three letters which he addressed to him. Towards the end of his life Sulpitius took a coadjutor, Vulfolnde, and retired to a monastery which he had founded near Bourges. There he died 17 Jan., 646, which day several Manuscripts of the Hieronymian Martyrology indicate as his feast. In his honour the church bearing his name was built in Paris, from which the Society of St. Sulpice derives its own.
(1) Gregorii Turonensis Opera; Hist. Franc., ed. ARNDT AND KRUSCH, VI, 39; Acta SS., Jan., III, 582; Gallia Christiana (Paris, 1873), II, xiv-xvi.
(2) KRUSCH, Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. rerum merov. (Hanover, 1902), IV; Acta SS., II, 529; Catalogus codicum hagiographicorum bibliothecœ Bruxellensis (Brussels, 1889), II, 76; MABILLON, Acta SS. O.S.B. (Paris, 1669), II, 168; Gallia Christiana (Paris, 1873), II, xvi.
Antoine Degert.
# Chinese Without a Teacher (1922)/Vocabulary

VOCABULARY.