OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Provo

See also Provo, Utah on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PROVO, a city and the county-seat of Utah county, Utah, U.S.A., on the Provo river, 3 m. E. of Utah Lake, and about 45 m. S. by E. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1890), 5159; (1900), 6185 (1176 foreign-born); (1910) 8925. Provo is served by the Rio Grande Western and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways. It is situated at an altitude of about 4530 ft., in a region of fine scenery, Provo Canon, Bridal Veil Falls and Utah Lake being of especial interest. The city has a general hospital and is the seat of the state mental hospital and of Brigham Young University (a Mormon institution), founded by Brigham Young in 1875, opened as an academy in 1876, and incorporated in 1896; it, comprises a college and high commercial, music, arts and trades, agricultural and preparatory schools. Provo has various manufactures, including woollen goods, lime, pottery and bricks, and the city is a shipping point for a fertile agricultural and fruit-producing region. Within a radius of forty or fifty miles of Provo are a number of important mines. Provo was settled in 1849 and was chartered as a city in 1851.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Provisional Order

See also Provisional order on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PROVISIONAL ORDER, a method of procedure followed by several government departments in England, authorizing action on the part of local authorities under various acts of parliament. Procedure by provisional order is a substitute for the more expensive course of private bill legislation; it is usually employed for such purposes as alteration of areas, compulsory purchase of land, building of light railways, &c. A preliminary local inquiry is first held in public by an inspector of the department to whom application has been made to issue it. Upon the report of the inspector and other information the department decides whether or not to issue the order. The order when issued has no force until it is confirmed by parliament. For this purpose it is included with other orders in a confirming bill, introduced by the minister at the head of the department concerned. In both houses of parliament all provisional order bills are referred to examiners for compliance with standing orders. In the House of Lords, if a provisional order bill is opposed, it is referred to a select committee and then to a committee of the whole house; if not opposed, it goes, after second reading, to a committee of the whole house, and in both cases then proceeds as a public bill. In the House of Commons, the bill goes after second reading to the committee of selection or to the general committee on railway and canal bills; if unopposed it is treated as an unopposed private bill; if opposed it goes to a private bill committee, which hears evidence for and against.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyritz

See also Pyrzyce on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYRITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, 16 m. S.W. of Stargard by the railway to Ciistrin. Pop. (1905), 8600. It is still surrounded by walls with towers, and has two Evangelical churches. There are small manufactures of machinery, bricks and sugar. Excellent wheat is grown in the vicinity, while another industry is the breeding of cattle. Near the town is a fountain, erected to mark the spring in which Otto, bishop of Bamberg, baptized the first Pomeranian converts to Christianity in 1124. Pyritz became a town in 1150.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrogallol

See also Pyrogallol on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYROGALLOL, or Pyrogallic Acid, a trioxybenzene, C$_6$H$_3$(OH)$_3$ (1: 2: 3), prepared by Scheele in 1786 by heating gallic acid, C$_6$H$_3$(OH)$_3$CO$_2$H. It is also obtained by heating para-chlorphenoldisulphonic acid with potassium hydroxide. It forms white plates, melting at 132°, readily soluble in water, and subliming without decomposition. It is an energetic reducing agent, a property utilized in its application in gas analysis to absorb oxygen, and in photography (q.v.) as a developer. The aqueous solution is turned bluish black by ferrous sulphate containing a ferric salt. It does not combine with hydroxylamine, as does the isomeric phloroglucin which yields a trioxide (see Polymethylenes). Pyrogallol dimethyl ether is found in beechwood tar. Pyrogallol has antiseptic properties and is employed medicinally in the treatment of psoriasis. Eugallol, or monacetyl pyrogallol and lenigallel, or triacetyl pyrogallol, are also used.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrgos

See also Pyrgos, Elis on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYRGOS, a town of Greece, in the province of Elis and Achaea, 43 m. S.S.W. of Patras. It is the third town in importance in the Peloponnesus, and is connected with its harbour, Katakolon, 7½ m. distant, and also with Patras and Olympia, by rail. It has frequently been injured by earthquakes. Pop. (1907), 13,090.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrocatechin

See also Pyrocatechin on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PYROCATECHIN, or Pyrocatechol, ortho-dioxybenzene, C$_6$H$_4$(OH)$_2$, first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch on distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu); occurs free in kino and in beechwood tar; its sulphonic acid is present in the urine of the horse and man. It results in the alkaline fusion of many resins, and may be prepared by fusing ortho-phenolsulphonic acid, o-chlorphenol, o-bromphenol, and o-phenoldisulphonic acid with potash, or, better, by heating its methyl ether, guaiacol, C$_6$H$_4$(OH)(OCH$_3$), a constituent of beechwood tar, with hydriodic acid.
Pyrocatechin crystallizes in white rhombic prisms, which melt at 104° and boil at 245°; it is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Ferric chloride gives a green coloration with the aqueous solution, whilst the alkaline solution rapidly changes to a green and finally to a black colour on exposure to the air. It reduces silver solutions in the cold and alkaline copper on heating.
Guaiacol may be obtained directly from beechwood tar, from pyrocatechin by methylation with potash and potassium methyl sulphate at 180°, or from anisol by nitration, reduction of the ortho-nitroanisol to amino-anisol, which is then diazotized and boiled with water. It melts at 28° and boils at 250°. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application. Guaiacol carbonate is known as duotal, the phosphate as phosphatol, the phosphate as guaiaco-phosphal; phosphotal is a mixture of the phosphates of crcosote phenols. The valerianic ester of guaiacol is known as geosote, the benzoic as benzosol, the salicylic as guaiacolsalol, while the glycerin ether appears as guaiamar.
Pyrocatechin readily condenses to form heterocyclic compounds; cyclic esters are formed by phosphorus trichloride and oxychloride, carbonyl chloride, sulphuryl chloride, &c.; whilst ortho-phenylenediamine, o-aminophenol, and o-aminothiophenol give phenazine, phenoxazine and thiodiphenylamine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Punkah

See also Punkah on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNKAH (Hindostani pankha), strictly a fan. In its original sense the punkah is a portable fan, made from the leaf of the palmyra; but the word has come to be used in a special sense by Anglo-Indians for a large swinging fan, fixed to the ceiling, and pulled by a coolie during the hot weather. The date of this invention is not known, but it was familiar to the Arabs as early as the 8th century, though it does not seem to have come into common use in India before the end of the 18th century. Of recent years it has largely been supplanted by the electric fan in barracks and other large buildings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Puntarenas

See also Puntarenas on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNTARENAS, or Punta Arenas, a seaport and capital of the district (comarca) of Puntarenas, Costa Rica; on the Gulf of Nicoya, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and at the western terminus of the interoceanic railway from Limón. Pop. (1904), 3569. Puntarenas is the principal harbour of Costa Rica on the Pacific, and a port of call for the United States liners which ply between San Francisco and Panama. It has an iron pier and ample warehouse accommodation for its large and growing export trade in coffee and bananas. The district of Puntarenas comprises the entire littoral from Burica Point to the Rio de las Lajas, an affluent of the Gulf of Nicoya.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Punt

See also Punt (boat) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNT (from Lat. ponto, pontoon; connected with pons, bridge), a flat-bottomed boat, used for shallow waters, and propelled by a pole, by paddles, or occasionally by sails. Formerly the word was applied to many such flat boats used for ferries, barges, lighters, &c., but it is now generally confined to a light flat boat very long in proportion to its width, with square ends, both at stem and bow, slightly narrowing from the centre, and propelled by pushing against the bottom of the river or other water by a long pole. Such boats are much used for sport or pleasure on rivers with shallow and hard gravelly beds; a small punt with a mounted duck gun and propelled by paddles or short oars is used for wild-fowling. A professional punting championship of England was instituted in 1876, and an amateur championship in 1886. Etymologically considered, “punt” certainly was adapted from ponto, a word used by Caesar (Bell. civ. p. iii. 22) of a light vessel for transport in Gaul. Later (as by Gallius and Ausonius) it was also applied to a floating-raft used as a bridge, a pontoon, and so connected with pons, bridge.
There are two other words which must be distinguished from the above. One means, in Rugby football, to catch the ball in the hands, drop and kick it before it reaches the ground, as distinguished from a “drop-kick,” where the kick is given half-volley, as it reaches the ground. This word is probably cognate with “bunt,” a dialect word meaning to push, and both represent nasalized forms of the onomatopoeic “put” or “but.” The second, in the substantive “punter,” used in the general sense of a gambler or better, originally referred to one who at card games such as basset, baccarat, &c., stakes against the bank. Both “punt” and “punter” are to be referred to Fr. ponter, and ponte, which is usually taken as an adaptation of Span. punto, a point.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Punctuation

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNCTUATION (Lat. punctum, a point), the theory or art of “pointing” a literary composition so as to divide it properly into sentences and portions of sentences, which the “points” are used to mark at their close, with a view to precision in the meaning of a continuous set of written words, by the indication of what would be pauses or changes of expression if they were spoken. The uses of the chief “points” are explained as follows in the “Rules for Compositors” at the Oxford University Press, compiled by Mr Horace Hart, the university printer:—
The “full stop” or “period” (.) marks the end of sentence. The “colon” (:)—Greek κῶλον, a limb—is at the transition point of the sentence. The “semicolon” (;) separates different statements. The “comma” (,)—Gr. κόμμα, from κόπτειν, i.e. a piece cut off—separates clauses, phrases and particles. (The terms “period”—Greek περίοδος—“colon,” “comma,” now identified in punctuation with the signs here given, were borrowed from the Greek grammarians, who originally described either the whole sentence or a longer or shorter part of it respectively in this way.) Among other signs, the “dash” (—) marks abruptness or irregularity. The “exclamation” (!) marks surprise. The “interrogation” or “query” (?) asks a question. The apostrophe (’) marks elisions or the possessive case. “Quotes,” quotation-marks or “inverted commas”(“ ”) define quoted words. Irregularities or interpolations in a sentence are marked by various forms of bracket ( ) or parenthesis. Literary usage and the practice of printing-houses vary, however, so much that it is impossible to define exactly and shortly the part played by some of these points in a reasonable system of punctuation. The Oxford Rules already mentioned, which deal also with spelling and other pitfalls in literary composition and printing, carry the authority of such experts as Dr J. A. H. Murray and Dr Henry Bradley; and the art of punctuation may be studied also in such works as H. Beadnell’s Spelling and Punctuation, P. Allardyce’s Stops: or how to punctuate, T. L. de Vinne’s Correct Composition, and T. Lefevre’s Guide pratique du compositeur. The acceptance of a conventional system of modern punctuation is mainly due to the invention of printing, and to the ingenuity and care of individual typographers. In the earlier forms of writing the letters ran on continuously in lines; it was only by degrees that actual words were divided from one another by spacing within the line; then later came the distribution of words into sentences by means of points, and the introduction by Aldus Manutius in the 16th century of a regular system for these. The chief signs were inherited by the printers from the dots of the Greek grammarians, but often with altered meanings; thus the Greek interrogation mark (;) becomes the modern semicolon. (See Palaeography and Typography.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Punshon, William Morley

See also William Morley Punshon on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNSHON, WILLIAM MORLEY (1824–1881), English Non-conformist divine, was born at Doncaster, Yorkshire, on the 29th of May 1824. He was educated in his native town, and, after spending a few years in business, at the Wesleyan College, Richmond. In 1845 he received his first appointment, at Marden, Kent, and soon became famous as a preacher. After serving the usual period of probation he was ordained at Manchester in 1849 and for the next nineteen years travelled in several circuits, including some of the London ones (1858–1864). In 1868 he went to Chicago as the representative of the Wesleyan Methodist conference, and settling in Canada did much to advance the cause of his denomination. His preaching and lecturing drew great crowds both in the Dominion and in the United States, and he was five times president of the Canadian conference. He returned to England in 1873, was elected president of conference 1874, and in 1875 one of the missionary secretaries. He published several volumes of sermons, and a book of verse entitled Sabbath Chimes (1867, new edition 1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pundit

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PUNDIT (Hindī pandit; Skr. pandita), a learned man, a teacher, particularly one skilled in Sanskrit and Hindu law, religion and philosophy. Before the institution of the High Courts in 1862, the Supreme Court of India had a law officer styled the Pundit of the Supreme Court, who advised the English judges in points of Hindu law. The term is frequently applied, somewhat derisively, or humorously, to learned persons, to those who claim by long official or other experience to lay down the law or dictate principles of conduct.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturt, Charles

See also Charles Sturt on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​STURT, CHARLES (d. 1869), English explorer in New South Wales and in South Australia, was born in England, and entered the army, reaching the rank of captain. Having landed in Australia with his regiment (the 39th), he became interested in the geographical problems which were exciting attention. A first expedition (1828) led to the discovery of the Darling river; and a second, from which the explorer returned almost blind, made known the existence of Lake Alexandrina. From his third journey (1844–1845), in which terrible hardships had to be endured, he returned quite blind, and he never altogether recovered his sight. He was appointed surveyor-general of South Australia in 1833, and subsequently chief secretary, which position he held until 1856 when responsible government was introduced, and Captain Sturt retired on a pension and went to live at Cheltenham, England, where he died on the 16th of June 1869, before he could be invested with the dignity of K.C.M.G. to which he had been designated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturm von Sturmeck, Jacob

See also Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​STURM VON STURMECK, JACOB (1489-1553), German statesman and reformer, was born at Strassburg, where his father, Martin Sturm, was a person of some importance, on the 10th of August 1489. He was educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Freiburg, and about 1517 he entered the service of Henry, provost of Strassburg (d. 1552), a member of the Wittelsbach family. He soon became an adherent of the reformed doctrines, and leaving the service of the provost became a member of the governing body of his native city in 1524. He was responsible for the policy of Strassburg during the Peasants' War; represented the city at the Diet of Spires in 1526; and at subsequent Diets gained fame by his ardent championship of its interests. As an advocate of union among the Protestants he took part in the conference at Marburg in 1529; but when the attempts to close the breach between Lutherans and Zwinglians failed, he presented the Confessio tetrapolitana, a Zwinglian document, to the Augsburg Diet of 1530. As the representative of Strassburg Sturm signed the “protest” which was presented to the Diet of Spires in 1529, being thus one of the original “Protestants.” He was on friendly terms with Philip, landgrave of Hesse. Owing largely to his influence Strassburg joined the league of Schmalkalden in 1531. The troops of Strassburg took the field when the league attacked Charles V. in 1546; but in February 1547 the citizens were compelled to submit, when Sturm succeeded in securing very favourable terms from the emperor. He was also able to obtain for his native city some modification of the Interim issued from Augsburg in May 1548. Sturm is said to have been in the pay of Francis I. of France, but this seems very unlikely. He founded the Bibliothek and a gymnasium in Strassburg, where he died on the 30th of October 1553.
See H. Baumgarten, Jakob Sturm (Strassburg, 1876); A. Baum, Magistrat und Reformation in Strassburg bis 1529 (Strassburg, 1887); J. Rathgeber, Strassburg im 16 Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1871); O. Winckelmann, “Jakob Sturm,” in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Bd. xxxvii. (Leipzig, 1894); and Johannes Sturm, Consolatio ad senatum argentinensem de morte . . . Jacobi Sturmii (Strassburg, 1553).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturgis, Russell

See also Russell Sturgis on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​STURGIS, RUSSELL (1836–1909), American architect and art critic, was born in Baltimore county, Maryland, on the 16th of October 1836. He graduated from the Free Academy in New York (now the College of the City of New York) in 1856, and studied architecture under Leopold Eidlitz and then for two years in Munich. In 1862 he returned to the United States. He designed the Yale University chapel and the Farnham and Durfee dormitories at Yale, the Flower Hospital, the Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank of Albany, and many other buildings, but did comparatively little professional work after 1880. He was in Europe in 1880–1884; and for a short time after his return was secretary of the New York Municipal Civil Service Board. He was president of the Architectural League of New York in 1889–1893, was first president of the Fine Arts Federation in 1895–1897, and was a member of the National Society of Mural Painters, the National Sculpture Society, the National Academy of Design, and the New York chapter of the American Institute of Architects. He lectured on art at Columbia University, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Peabody Institute of Baltimore and the Art Institute of Chicago; his lectures in Chicago being published under the title The Interdependence of the Arts of Design (1905). He is best known as a writer on art and architecture. He edited A Dictionary of Architecture and Building (3 vols., 1901–1902) and the English version of Wilhelm Luebke's Outlines of the History of Art (2 vols., 1904), and he wrote European Architecture (1896), How to Judge Architecture (1903), The Appreciation of Sculpture (1904), The Appreciation of Pictures (1905), A Study of the Artist's Way of Working in the Various Handicrafts and Arts of Design (2 vols., 1905), and an unfinished History of Architecture (1906 sqq.). During his last years he was nearly blind. He died in New York on the 11th of February 1909.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturm, Julius

See also Julius Sturm on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​STURM, JULIUS (1816-1896), German poet, was born at Köstritz in the principality of Reuss on the 21st of July 1816. He studied theology at Jena from 1837 to 1841, and was appointed preceptor to the hereditary prince Henry XIV. of Reuss. In 1851 he became pastor of Göschitz near Schleiz, and in 1857 at his native village of Köstritz. In 1885 he retired with the title of Geheimkirchenrat. He died at Leipzig on the 2nd of May 1896. Sturm was a writer of lyrics and sonnets and of church poetry, breathing a spirit of deep piety and patriotism.
His religious poems were published in Fromme Lieder (pt. i., Leipzig, 1852; 12th ed., 1893; pt. ii., 1858; pt. iii., 1892), Zwei Rosen, oder das hohe Lied der Liebe (Leipzig, 1854; 2nd ed., 1892), Israelitische Lieder (3rd ed., Halle, 1881) and Palme und Krone (Leipzig, 1888). His chief lyrics were issued in Gedichte (6th ed., Leipzig, 1892), Neue Gedichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1880), Lieder und Bilder (2nd ed., 1892), Kampf- und Siegergedichte (Halle, 1870),
Neue Lieder (1880, 2nd ed., 1888), Neue lyrische Gedichte (Leipzig, 1894) and In Freud und Leid, letzte Lieder (1896).
See A. Hepding, Julius Sturm (Giessen, 1896); F. Hoffmann, Julius Sturm (Hamburg, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturge, Joseph

See also Joseph Sturge on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​STURGE, JOSEPH (1793-1859), English philanthropist and politician, was the son of a farmer in Gloucestershire. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and refused, in his business as a corn factor, to deal in grain used in the manufacture of spirits. He went to Birmingham in 1822, where he became an alderman in 1835. He was an active member of the Anti-Slavery Society, and made a tour in the West Indies, publishing on his return an account of slavery as he there saw it in The West Indies in 1837 (London, 1837). After the abolition of slavery, to which, as Lord Brougham acknowledged in the House of Lords, he had largely contributed, Sturge started and generously supported schemes for benefiting the liberated negroes. In 1841 he travelled in the United States with the poet Whittier to examine the slavery question there. On his return to England he gave his support to the Chartist movement, and in 1842 was candidate for Nottingham, but was defeated by John Walter, the proprietor of The Times. He then took up the cause of peace and arbitration, to support which he was influential in the founding of the Morning Star in 1855. The extreme narrowness of Sturge's views was shown in his opposition to the building of the Birmingham town-hall on account of his conscientious objection to the performance of sacred oratorio. He died at Birmingham on the 14th of May 1859. He married, first, in 1834, Eliza, daughter of James Cropper; and, secondly, in 1846, Hannah, daughter of Barnard Dickinson.
See Henry Richard, Memoirs of Joseph Sturge (London, 1864); John (Viscount) Morley, Life of Richard Cobden (London, 1881).