# A Handbook of Indian Art

A HANDBOOK OF INDIAN ART
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
ITS PSYCHOLOGY, STRUCTURE, AND HISTORY.From the first Muhammadan Invasion to the present day. With numerous Illustrations.
THE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA
A STUDY OF INDO-ARYAN CIVILISATION. With numerous Illustrations.
THE IDEALS OF INDIAN ART SECOND EDITION. With Illustrations.
LONDON: JOHN MURRAY
ALIKE FOR THOSE WHO FOR TO-DAY PREPARE AND THOSE THAT AFTER A TO-MORROW STARE, A MUEZZIN FROM THE TOWER OF DARKNESS CRIES: "FOOLS! YOUR REWARD IS NEITHER HERE NOR THERE!"
(Verse from Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam)
[Frontispiece
A HANDBOOK
OF INDIAN ART
BY E. B. HAVELL
AUTHOR OF "THE HISTORY OF ARYAN RULE IN INDIA"; "ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA"; "INDIAN ARCHITECTURE: ITS PSYCHOLOGY, STRUCTURE, AND HISTORY"; "IDEALS OF INDIAN ART"; "INDIAN SCULPTURE AND PAINTING," ETC.
With Illustrations
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1920
All Rights Reserved
PREFACE
The speech of H.M. the King at the opening of the School of Oriental Studies in London, and the efforts now being made by the India Society to endow a permanent Lectureship in Indian Art at the School, suggest the need of a suitable handbook for the subject. Public interest in Indian art, both in India and in Europe, has increased greatly since I made the first attempt to explain its ideals and modes of expression in my Indian Sculpture and Painting, now out of print.
The present work, embracing architecture, sculpture, and painting in its scope, aims at giving such a concise survey of the whole subject, free from dry technicalities, as will interest both the student and general reader, and serve as a useful handbook for travellers in India. At the same time it attempts a solution of several interesting problems which have exercised the minds of archæologists for many years, and gives the results of further researches in a field which still offers unlimited scope for the art student.
In this respect, therefore, it enlarges upon and sometimes revises the conclusions arrived at in my previous works. It may serve as the foundation of a full and competent history of fine art in India, which still remains to be written.
In the architectural section I have aimed at giving such an explanation as will enable the reader to perceive ​the intention of the builder, and correlate stūpa, temple, monastery, palace, mosque, and tomb with the thought and life of the period to which they belong, rather than to classify them in a dry academic manner which makes the builder's intention as unintelligible as the historian's explanation. Only when the craftsman's idea is realised will Indian architecture become a subject of living interest, an open book in which the thought and life of India are written from Vedic times down to the present day. The architecture of India will not then appear as a bewildering museum of marvels belonging to a bygone age, but as a still living tradition of practical craftsmanship constantly readapting itself to the spiritual and material needs of the age, and bearing witness to the wonderful constructive work of our Aryan predecessors, who three thousand years ago, occupying the same position in the East as their successors do to-day, laid the whole foundation of Indian civilisation upon which we are attempting to build. The spirit of the ancient Aryan empire builders will be our best guide in this great task.
The section devoted to sculpture explains the leading ideas which underlie the Buddhist and Hindu conceptions of the Deity and of divine worship, as they are expressed in the finest works of different periods. Apart from the extraordinary artistic interest of these achievements of the temple-sculptor, the study of them will assist those who wish to penetrate deeper into the religious thought of modern India.
A point of much importance for the correct classification of Indian temples is the relation of the image to its shrine or temple, as every Buddhist or Hindu image has an architectural framework appropriate for it. The indications I have given may lead the way to a more systematic treatment of a subject hitherto neg​lected by archæologists; but this is only possible for those who have the advantage of living in India.
A brief review of the different schools of Indian painting, with typical illustrations, is given in the third section of the book.
For permission to make use of official photographs and illustrations, my acknowledgments are due to the Secretary of State for India, and to the Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington; also to Mr. Norman Blount, Calcutta; Mr. C. Stanley Clarke, Curator, Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum; Mr. O. C. Gangoly; Lt.-Colonel Victor Goloubeff; Dr. Karl Madsen, Director of the Royal Museum of Art, Copenhagen; Sir John Marshall, Director-General of the Archæological Survey of India; Professor W. Rothenstein; Mr. Abanindro Nath Tagore, C.I.E., and to Lady Wantage for kind help in providing illustrations. I am further greatly indebted to Mr. F. W. Thomas, Librarian of the India Office, for his always ready assistance in details connected with the text.
E. B. H.
CONTENTS
SECTION I.ARCHITECTURE
SECTION II.SCULPTURE
SECTION III.PAINTING
LIST OF PLATES
Abbreviations.—I.O., India Office. A.S.I., Archæological Survey of India.
SCULPTURE
PAINTING
INDEX
Abul Fazl, 204; murdered, 100
Āchārya, 12 n
Adi-Buddha, the Creator, 163
Aditi, the Universal Mother, 165 n
Advāita doctrine, 88
Agni, the Fire-spirit, 7, 9, 18, 177, 181
Agnīdhra, fire-priest, 56
Agnidrīya, or fire-house, 56
Agni-sāla, or the fire-hall, 56
Agny-ādhēya, or consecration of the household fires, 7 n
Agra, 132, 134; palace, 101, 137; gardens, 102; Tāj Mahall at, 128, 141
Ahmad Shah I, 69, 120; mosque, 120
Ahmadābād, royal mosque at, 69, 120
Ahmadnagar, 125
Aihole, temple at, 166
Ajantā, rock-cut monasteries at, 21, 23, 48; fresco-paintings, 36, 38, 53, 91, 110, 196, 201, 202; stūpa-shrines, 51, 66, 76, 115, 143, 146, 147; chapter-houses, 53, 54; sculpture of Buddha, 156
Ājivihas sect, 24
Ajodhya, 3
Akasha, or Ether, 50, 68
Akasha-garbha, the Container of Ether, 164
Akbar, the Great Mogul, siege of Chitor, 69, 206; founder of the Dīn Ilāhī Order, 93, 135; five-storied pavilion, 93, 96; mosque at Fatehpur Sikri, 113, 131; founds Agra, 132, 134; tomb at Sikandra, 134; buildings, 134; ideals, 134 n
Alexander the Great, expedition to India, 4
'Ali 'Adil Shah I, 125; mosque, 127
Amalaka, 8, 57, 58, 112
Amar Singh, 206
Amarāvatī, sculptures at, 29, 35; stūpa, 38; reliefs of, 38, 199
Amenhetep III, King of Egypt, 10, 59, 151
Amrita, 168, 169
Ananta, the serpent, 43, 74 n, 164, 166, 168
Andhra dynasty, 28
Anuradhapura, statue of Buddha, 155
Arabia, conquest of Sind, 111; the Kaaba shrine, 106; architecture, 146
Aranyānī, the Spirit of the Forest, 37
Arch, the radiating, 132
Archæological Survey of India, Report on Modern Building, 144
Architecture, Arabian, 146; Bengal, 122; Buddhist, 122; Indo-Saracenic, 111; Mogul, 132; Muhammadan, 107-10; Renaissance, 130; Saracenic, 106
Ariana, mountan groves of, 7
Arjumand Bānū Begam, 137
Arjuna's Rath, 74
Art, Indian, origins, 3, 9
Aryans, sacrificial rites, 6, 7; rule in Mesopotamia, 9, 10, 59, 60, 93, 154; sacred literature, 11; construction of fire-altars, 12; status, 12; worship of the elements of nature, 13, 177; stūpas, 14; temporary structures, 15; worship of Sūrya, 15, 159; art of the craftsmen, 19; Four Truths, 20; immigrations into India, 26; war-chariots, 28 n, 159; joint-family house, 90, 96; first settlements, 160
Aryāvarta, 62, 125
Asārwā, step-wells, 121
Ashvattha, or pipal-tree, 34
Ashvins, the twin horsemen, 10
Asia, Buddhism in, 106; building craft, influence of India, 110
Asoka, Emperor, 3, 135; stūpas, 3, 47, 158, 196; conversion to Bud​dhism, 4, 19; imperial standards, 8, 40-43; edicts on the Sānchī pillar, 40; preference for Persian craftsmen, 41; death, 49 n; conquest of Orissa, 64; palace at Pātāliputra, 97
Assembly- or debating-hall, construction, 95
Assyria, seven-storied temples of, 93
Asuras, demons of darkness, 168, 169; King of the, 167
Aurangabad, 125; rock-cut monastery, 91
Aurangzīb, 64, 137; administration, 143; banishment of Hindu painters, 143, 208
Avalokītēshvara, sculpture of, 176
Avalon, A., translation of Tantra of the Great Liberation, 169 n
Avatars, the ten, 167
Bābur, gardens at Agra, 102; death, in; founder of the Mogul dynasty, 128, 132
Babylon, siege of, 9; use of the radiating arch, 132 n
Bādāmi, 78, 79, 166
Baghdad court, 111
Bāī Srī Harīra, 121
Bairām Khan, 133
Balagāmi, temple at, 89
Bali, the demon king, 167
Bambu, use in the construction of the sikhara, 9, 58, 60, 147
Barāgāon, 92 n
Barnett, Dr., Antiquities of India, 7 n, 14 n, 23 n, 30 n, 177
Baroch, 120
Bedsā, chaītya hall at, 22
"Bell-shaped" capital, the symbol of, 4, 42-5, 62
Benares, 45, 67; Hindu palaces at, 144; University, 95
Benares, Queen of, 34
Bengal, architecture, 122; thatched cottages, 122, 136
Bernier, F., 140
Besnagar, 27 n
Bhagavad Gītā, 164, 168, 192
Bhairava, the Terrible, 183 184; shrine of, 81
Bhājā, series of monolithic stūpas, 21; relic casket, 23
Bhakti, worship of, 6, 58, 60, 159, 172, 173, 184
Bhakti-marga, the path of devotion, 18, 72, 172, 173, 197
Bharhut, 19; sculptures, 23, 62; gateway, 41; representation of the lotus flower, 42; reliefs of, 199
Bhāva, sentiment and expression, 195
Bhikkus, the, 24; meetings, 32 n, 48; ancient retreats, 48; ashrams at Ajantā, 51
Bhilsā, 27
Bhoga-mandapam, 68
Bhopal State, 27, 167; mosque at, 143
Bhuvanēshvar, "Lord of the Universe," 64; temples, 64
Bidar, 125
Bihar, 24
Bihzad, 204
Bijāpur, 125; tomb at, 109; architecture, 126; Tāj Mahall, 127; size of the dome, 141 n; tributary to Shah Jahān, 141 n
Birmingham Museum, statue of Buddha, 156
Blochet, M. E., 44
Boar Incarnation, the, 167
Bodh-Gāyā, 34; monastery, 155; temple, 62
Bodhisattva, the, 35, 152, 158; cult, 58; sculptures, 160; painting of, 202
Bodhi-tree, shrine of the, 62
Bombay School of Art, 201
Borobūdūr, 161; stūpa, 35; reliefs of, 199
Brahmā, the Creator, 7 n, 61 n, 162; temple of, 7 n, 162, 163, 187; shape of the pillar, 7 n, 45; symbol of the lotus flower, 43, 95, 165; sakti, 162; four heads, 162; image, 163, 165; triune doctrine, 187
Brahman ritual, 74; conversion of fire-worshippers, 75; the cult of Saivism, 77, 174
Buddha, Gautama, 4; the passing into Pari-Nirvāna, 4; funeral, 5; teaching, 6, 20, 151; stūpas, 14; birth, 32, 80; lotus throne, 41; worship of, 63; miracle, 75; the Great Guru and Monk, 152; Supreme Head of the Sangha, 152; ideal racial type, 153; statues, 154-8, 161
Buddhas, the seven, 34
Buddhism, stūpa the sacred symbol, 19; character of the ritual, 20; meetings of the Bhikkus, 48; system of memorising, 48; spread of, 106
14; chaītya-halls, 22; legends, hieroglyhpic language, 33; sculpture in Java, 35; Church, the primitive, 46; the stūpa-house, 46; assembly-halls, 46, 49; ritual of stūpa worship, 57; temple architecture, 58; form of the shrine, 74; finial of the dome, 76; early structural monasteries, 91; architecture, 122; worship of the saints, 173; triune doctrine, 187; schools of painting, 208
Chanda, the scavenging deity, shrine to, 81 Chandēla dynasty, 67; royal chapels, 70 Chandi Sewa, temple of, 143, 161 Chandra, the Moon-god, 6, 18; pillar, 7 n, 45; cult, 210 Chandra-vamsa, the, 6 Chaturbhuja temple, 68; dimensions, 68 n Chitor, fortress of, captured, 69, 206; royal chapels, 70 Chola Empire, 174 Churning the Ocean, legend of, 168-70, 172 Colombo Museum, 179 Conjiveram, temple at, 76, 78, 85 Constantinople, domes, 127 Coomaraswamy, Dr., 208 Copenhagen, Art Museum, 161, 207 Copto-Alexandrian school, 36 Craft-guilds, 55 Cratæva religiosa, 189 n Creswell, K. A. C, Indian Antiquary, 141 n, 145 Cunningham, General, 63 Curvilinear spire or sikhara, 7, 8, 57, 122, 147 Cyrus, founds the Persian Empire, 4
Damascus, Ummayad mosque at, 145, 146 Darjeeling, 170 Datiyā, fortress, 103; palace, 100, 117 Davids, Mrs. Rhys, Buddhism, 19 n Dekhan, the, 125; temple architecture, 87 Delhi, 96, 106; the Purāna Kīlā, or Old Fort, 113; Dīwān-i-Khās, 136; the new building, 144 Deodar, the tree of the Devas, 12 Devas, tree of, 12, 13; the Shining Ones, 168-70 Dhanwantāri, physician of the Gods, 169 Dholkā, 120 Dīg, garden-palace at, 102-4 Dīlāwar State, 118 Dīn-Ilāhī, Akbar's Imperial Order, 39, 135 Dome, the aṇḍa or egg, 22; the "bulbous," 22, 108, 122, 136, 145; the lotus, 108, 136, 147; the Pathān, 112, 114; the stūpa, 108 Domes, construction, 115, 127, 146 Dravidian or non-Aryan races, 73; structure of the dome, 74
Dūrga or Devi, 176; the Inaccessible, 184; shrine at Māmallapuram, 74 Dushratta, king of the Mitanni, 10, 59, 151
Egypt, the sacred lotus of, 43 n Egyptians, use of the bud of the lotus, 42 Eightfold Path of Good Living, 6 Elephant, the six-tusked, 34 "Elephant Stables," ruin, 127 Elephanta, temple at, 80, 163, 188; sculptures, 175, 183, 203 Ellora, rock-cut monasteries, 48; stūpa-house, 54; temple of Kailāsa, 78-85; sculptures, 167, 183 Euphrates, valley of the, 9, 44, 59, 93, 154
Fa Hiān, the Chinese pilgrim, 110 Fatehpur Sikri, mosque, 113, 131; palace, 101; pavilion, 93, 96 Fergusson, James, 6, II, 40, 49, 55, 56, 57, 58, 68 n, 76, 86, 87, 93, 103, 105, 111, 124, 127, 132 n, 141, 145, 151; History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 30 n, 60, 61, 69 n, 109 Finch, William, 135
Fīrūz Shah, Sultan of Delhi, 119 Fish, the, 167 ​Foucher, A., 32, 33; The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, 75 n, 106
Frazer, J. G., The Golden Bough, 10 n
Fresco-painting, 197, 198
Gadag, 88
Gandash, Chief of the Kassites, 9
Gandhāra, Hellenistic school of, 36; ruins of, 97; sculptures, 152
Ganesha, the god of Reason, shrine, 81; the Elephant-god, 190; legend, 191; sculpture, 192
Ganges, the, 45, 51, 54, 79, 83, 121, 123; valley, 182
Gangoly, O. C., South Indian Bronzes, 177 n, 179, 185 n
Ganōsis, or wax-coating, 53 n, 198
Gateways of the Sanchi stūpa, 29-32; sign of Taurus the Bull, 32; panels, 33
Gaur, 67, 121; history, 121; maritime trade, 121; Muhammadan buildings, 123; under the empire of the Great Moguls, 124
Ghaznī, in, 112
Girnar, 71
Goa, Portuguese colony at, 186
Godaveri, the, 210
Golkonda, 125
Goloubeff, Lieut.-Col. Victor, photographs, 188, 201, 202
Gopurams or gateways, 80, 85
Greek sculpture, ganosis, 53 n, 198
Griffiths, John, Ajantā, 201
Gujerāt, 69, 120; Muhammadan school of, 119; minarets, 120; step-wells, 121
Gujerāti dynasty, 70
Gunas, the three, 80 n, 173
Guntur, 93
Gupta period, structural temples of, 63; style of architecture, 64; royal standards, 158
Gwalior, 67
Hall, H. R., Ancient History of the Near East, 6 n, 10 n, 11, 59 n, 159 n
Hanuman, the monkey-god, 172, 190, 192
Hardwar, 45
Hariti, the Buddhist Madonna, 106
Harsha, Emperor, death, 52
Havell, E. B., Handbook to Agra and the Tāj, 134 n; History of Aryan Rule in India, 78 n, 118 n, 134 n; Ideals of Indian Art, 160 n, 164 n, 165 n, 179 n, 185 n; Indian Architecture, 121 n, 134 n, 141 n, 143 n; Indian Sculpture and Painting, 179 n, 190 n, 195 n, 198 n, 210 n
Hermitages, rock-cut, 24
Herringham, Lady, 202
Himālayan valleys, 13 n
Himālayas, 26, 75, 170, 174, 182
Hīnayāna school, 19, 46, 52, 58, 158
Hindu temples, 66, 140, 144, 197; the curvilinear spire, or sikhara, 7, 8; use of the lotus-and-vase pillar, 44; towers of victory, 69, 120; doctrine of the Trimūrti, 87; palaces, 99, 144; pleasure-gardens, 102; image-making, 113 n; belief in the unity of the Godhead, 188; painting, 205, 208, 212; characteristics, 209-11
Hinduism, ritual, 6; geographical distribution of the two main sects, 77
Hindus, Essay on the Architecture of the, 45
Hindustan, 125; conquered by Muhammadans, 84
Hiranya-garbha, womb of the universe, 62 n, 162
Hiranyaksha, the demon, 166
Hittites, the, capture Babylon, 9
Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, 110, 115 n; description of the monastery of Nālanda, 92, 96, 101
Horus, the Egyptian sun-god, 24 n
Hoysala Ballāla dynasty, 89
Hughly, 124
Humāyūn, 113, 117; design of his tomb, 131, 133
Husain Shah, Sultan of Gaur, 119
Huvishka, the Kushān king, 62; monastery, 190
Hyderabad, H.H. the Nizam of, 51, 79 n
Ibrāhim II, Sultan of Bijāpūr, 126; mosque, 127, 141
India, figure-sculpture, 36, 50; the Land of the Moon, 45, 210; introduction of the sikhara temple, 60; monasteries or universities, 91, 92, 110; debating-halls, 94; philosophical contests, 94; temple mandapams, 95; ancient monuments, 97; mosques and tombs, 105, 113, 116; Muhammadan rule in, 106, 123, 129; influence on the architecture of Islam, 108-10
India, Northern, Hindu temple architecture, 7, 29 n, 76, 85, 93; the Vaishnava movement, 58, 87; way​side shrines, 62; Muhammadan iconoclasm, 64; royal chapels, 67; Muhammadan conquest, 96
India, Southern, the Saiva movement, 52, 58, 87; temples, 73, 76, 85; gateways or gopurams, 85; sculputre, 184
Indian architecture, lotus-and-vase pillar, 41, 44; art, origins, 3, 9; influence of the Vedic ritual, 12; curvilinear spire or sikhara, 57; climate, destructive influences, 160, 196; craftsmen, use of the lotus flower for the decoration of pillars, 42; demand for, 111; versatility, 123, 128-30; dome-construction, 127; work for Islam, 129; method of working, 140; house, plan of a, 90; painting, 198; realism, 200; new school of, 212; palace, plan of a, 97, 101; spoliation, 98; sculpture, the "bell-shaped" capital, 41; coating of plaster, 53 n
Indo-Aryan architecture, 58; art, 26, 39; courts, philosophical contests, 77; god-like heroes, 154; houses and palaces, 90, 96, 159; religion, lesser deities, 190
Indo-Aryans, the, 5
Indo-Muhammadan dynasty, 105; mosques, experiments in arch-construction, 119
Indo-Saracenic school of architecture, 96, 111
Indra, Wielder of the Thunderbolt, 9, 13, 18, 33, 180
Indus Valley, 182
Intonaco of plaster, 197, 198
Iranians, the, 5
Ishta-devata, worship of, 62, 79
Ishtar or Ashtaroth, the Assyrian goddess, 59
Ishvara, the Supreme Ruler, 188
Islam, architecture, influence of India, 108; mosques and tombs, 120; Sunna, the canonical law of, 108
Ismail Khan Rūmi, 138
Itmād-ud-daulah, tomb, 131, 136, 137
Ittagi, temple of, 88
Jahāngir, 100; alliance with the Sunni party, 135; tomb, 137; collection of pictures, 205; memoirs, 206
Jahāngīri Mahall, at Agra, 101
Jain cities, 71
Jainism, 4
Jaipur, craftsmen, 198
Jakanāchārya, 89
Japan, temples of, 110
Jātaka, panels, 33, 34
Jaunpur, mosques, 118
Java, Buddhist sculpture, 35; temple of Chandi Sewa, 143; examples of the Bodhisattva type, 160; statue of Vishnu, 167
Jina, or Conqueror, 68 n
Jnāna-marga, the way of knowledge, 18, 58, 72, 152, 173, 180, 183
Jumna, the, 83, 172
Kaaba, shrine, 106
Kacha and Devajāni, story of, 198
Kailāsa mountain, 70, 76, 181; rock-cut temple of, 78-85, 159; shrines, 81, 83; pyramidal tower, 81; the plinth, 82; Lankēsvara chapel, 83
Kaīlāsanatha temple, 78
Kālāri-mūrti, bronze figure of, 175
Kalasha, or jar of immortality, 58, 76
Kālī, 184
Kalinga, 64
Kaliya, the serpent, 172
Kalkin, 168
Kanārak, temple of, 9, 158
Kanauj, 3, 67
Kandarya Mahādeva temple, 68 n
Kanishka, stūpa at Peshawar, 123
Kapilavastu, palace at, 28
Kārlē, 19, 22; representation of the lotus, 42; rock-cut monasteries, 48; assembly-hall, 49, 52, 53; dimensions, 49 n; lotus pillars, 50; sculpture, 50; chapter-house, 91
Karma-marga, the path of duty, 18, 72, 192
Kassites, the, occupy Babylon, 9
Kasyapa I, King, 203
Kāthiawar peninsula, 71
Kenheri, rock-cut monasteries, 48
Khajurāho, royal chapels, 67; temple, 70
Khandēsh, 69
Khurasan, court of, 204
"Kiblah," the, 107
Kinchinjunga, 171
Kōvil, or King's house, 57
Krishna, doctrine, 168; legends, 172; river, 35, 93
Krishna I, 79
Kshatriya, the warriors, 5, 77, 182
​Kulbarga, 125
Kumbhā, Rānā of Chitor, 69, 120
Kurān, the law of, 108
Kūrma, or tortoise, 167, 168
Kuvera, god of wealth, 190; sculpture of, 190
Lahore, 137
Laknauti, 67, 121, 122
Lakshmi, Goddess of the Day, 33, 61, 164, 165, 167, 169, 171
Lankēsvara chapel, Ellora, 83
Lāvanya Yojanam, realisation of grace and beauty, 195
Layard, Sir Henry, 59
Lethaby, Prof., Architecture, 143 n
Leyden, Ethnological Museum at, 161, 163, 184
Lingam, symbol of the, 163
Linga-rāj temple, Bhuv-anēshvar, the Great, 64; date of the building, 65
Lokapālas, or Guardians of the Four Gateways of the Sky, 41
Lomas Rishi cave, 24
Lotus flowers, 8, 13, 33, 36, 41, 42, 43, 136, 145, 162, 164; amalaka, or fruit, 8, 57; dome, 136, 145, 147
Lotus-and-vase pillar, 41, 44, 114
Lumbīnī gardens, 34
Madras Museum, 176, 179
Magadha, 92 n.; builders of, 104
Mahābhārata, the, 5, 26, 151, 154, 199
Mahā-padma, or lotus crown, 136, 141 n, 147
Mahāvīra, 4
Mahāyāna doctrine, 58, 152; monasteries, 91, 115 n; school, 179
Mahēshamūrti, the five-headed form of Siva, 188
Mahisura, the buffalo-demon, 184
Mahmūd Begarah, mosque, 120
Mahmūd of Ghaznī, 111, 112
Mahmūdābād, 120
Maitreya, the Buddhist Messiah, 54, 156
Māldā, 123, 124
Mālwā, 27
Mālwā, Sultan of, 69
Māmallapuram, shrine at, 74, 76, 92; temples, 76; sculptures, 165, 172; reliefs, 184
Mānāsāra Silpa-Sastra, 57
Mandapams, or assembly-halls, 66, 95
Mandara mountain, 60, 68, 70, 168
Mandu, 118; history of, 118 n
Manohar Dās, pictures, 206
Manrique, Father, 138
Mārkandēya, legend of, 176
Marshall, Sir John, 117; Guide to Sānchī, 40
Maruts, the storm winds, 13
Mathurā, 3, 67; Jain stūpa at, 146; museum, 157, 190
Mauryan dynasty, 4, 27
Māyā, Mother of the Buddha, 33, 37, 171
Medhī, the, 15
Meghavarna, King of Ceylon, 155
Merū, mountain, 60, 61, 70, 167
Mesopotamia, 26; conical huts of, 9, 59, 147; Aryan rule in, 9, 10, 60; palaces, 44
Mewār, 69
Mīān Shah Mir, portrait of, 207
Minoan Art, 154
Mirā Bāī, royal chapel, Chitor, 70
Mirzapur district, 195
Mitanni, the, 9; sacred literature, 11
Mogul dynasty, 128; fall of, 144; architecture, 132; school of painting, 205, 208; miniatures, 207; palaces, 99, 101
Moksha, or liberation, 18, 19, 43
Monasteries, Buddhist, 91
Moon-god, Chandra, 6, 18
Mosques, 69 n, 105, 107; the grand portals, 113
Moti Masjid, 136
Mountain-worship, 70
Muhammad 'Adil Shah, tomb of, 109, 127, 131; size of the dome, 109, 127
Muhammadans, conquer Hindustan, 84, 96; destruction of temples, 99, 160; pleasure-gardens, 102; rule in India, 106, 123, 129; architecture, 107-10; tombs in India, 116; school of miniaturists, 204; painting, 204; characteristics, 209
Mulla Shah, 207
Mumtāz Mahall, 136; monument to, 137; death, 141
Murshidābād, 124
Musalman, artistic taste in calligraphy, 204
Muzaffar Shah, 119
Mysore, 89; temples, 89
Nāginis, snake-goddesses, 166
Nālāmandapam, 68
​Nālanda, university, 92, 101, 199; excavations, 92; pavilions, 92, 96
Nandi, the bull, shrine dedicated to, 80
Nandi-pada, the sign, 32
Nanha, portrait, 206
Narām Sin, stele of, 60
Nārasimha, the man-lion, 167
Nārāyana, the Eternal Spirit, 43, 74 n, 162, 166, 171, 188; relief of, 166
Narbadā river, 118
Nāsik, rock-cut monasteries, 48, 91
Nātārāja, Lord of the Dance, 176; image, 179, 183; symbol, 182
Nelumbium speciosum, 43 n
Nepal, 189, 190
Nineveh, 59
Norwich Cathedral, 49
Nūr-Jahān, Empress, 136; design of tombs, 131, 136, 137
Nūr Mahall, Empress, 131
Nymphæa cœrulea, 42
Ocean, churning the, legend, 168-70, 172
Orissa, 64, 158
Paez, 126
Painting, principles of the art of, 195
Palace, an Indian, plan of, 97, 101
Palitāna, 71.
Panch Kōsi Road, Benares, 45
Panch Mahall, five-storied pavilion, 93, 135
Panchratna, or "five-jewelled" temple, 63, 143
Pāndava, war-chiefs, training, 199
Panduah, 123
Panjab, the first Aryan settlements, 160
Pārasnath, 71
Parasu-Rama, a Brahman warrior king, 168
Pārījāta, the tree, 169
Pari-Nirvāna, the Ocean of Eternity, 4, 34
Paris, Musée Cernuschi in, 201
Parvati, the Universal Mother, 82, 84, 184, 188; shrine, 81; legend of, 191; painting, 202
Pātaliputra, 92 n; palace, 41, 97
Pathān architecture, 109; style, 112
Patna, 92 n
Pattadakal, temple at, 78, 79
Persepolis, 40; "bell-shaped" capital of, 5, 44, 45, 62
Persepolitan or lotus pillars, 50
Persia, foundation of the Empire, 4; craftsmen, art of, 107; colour effects, 107, 113; method of constructing domes, 115 n, 147; mosques, façades, 113
Perso-Greek masons, 4
Peshawar, Kanishka's stūpa at, 123
Pillar, with "bell-shaped" capital, 40; shafts, 50; varieties of, 45
Pishāchas, or demons, 53
Pitrimedha, or the sacrifice for ancestors, 14
Pradakshinā, or circumambulatory rite, 15
Prahlāda, 167
Prajnā-pāramitā, Supreme Wisdom, 43, 163
Pramānam, measurement, scale and proportion, 195
Prambānam, 161
Purānas, the, 165 n, 168, 191
Purohita, or chaplain, 8
Ra, the sun-god of Heliopolis, 6 n
Rāgas, systems of, 211
Rāg-malas, melody-pictures, 211
Rāhu, the eclipse-dragon, 54
Raigarh State, 195
Rāja Bir Singh Deva, treachery, 100
Rāja Sīrī-Sābakani, 28
Rāja Surāj-Mall, garden-palace at Dīg, 102-4
Rājagriha, 3, 92 n
Rājarāja I, Emperor, 85
Rajendra Lai Mitrā, 156 n
Rājmahal, 71, 124
Rajputana, buildings, 100
Rām Rāj, Rājā, of Vijayanagar, 125; palace, 126; killed, 126
Rām Rāz, Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, 45
Rāma, the ideal Indian king, 168, 172, 210
Rāmanūja, 76, 87, 88
Rāmāyana, the, 5, 26, 160
Rangpur, 124
Rānpur, temple at, 69, 120
Rao, T. A., Gopinath, Elements of Hindu Iconography, 163 n, 188
Rāshtrakuta dynasty, 79
Ratnāsura, the demon, 184
Rāvana, the demon-king, 172; legend 82
Rembrandt, interest in Indian painting, 210
Renaissance architecture, 130
​Rig-Veda, hymns of the, 13, 37, 165, 178
Rome, Pantheon at, 127
Rudra, "the Roarer," 13, 75
Rūpa-bheda, distinction of forms and appearances, 195, 199
Sabha-mandapam, or assembly-hall, 70
Sādā-nritta, Dance of Dissolution, 179
Sadāsiva-mūrti, 163 n
Sadriçyam, likeness or resemblance, 195
Sahserām, 113, 133
Saiva sect, 18; in Southern India, 52, 58, 87; cult, 72, 77, 173, 179, 184; temples, 73, 76, 77, 78, 88, 89, 183; form, 74; kalasha of the dome, 76; sculpture, 174, 175; portrait statuettes of the teachers, 184, 185
Saiva-Siddhāntins, teaching, 163 n
Sākyas, Prince of the, 4
Samarkand, 136, 145
Samman Burj or Jasmine Tower, 137
Samudragupta, Emperor, 155
Sānchī, 19, 21; stūpa at, 22, 27; procession paths, 27; vedikā or sacrificial railing, 28; toranas, 28; gateways, 29-32, 147; sign of Taurus the Bull, 32; panels, 33; figure of a wood-nymph, 36; characteristics of the sculpture, 38; pillar with "bell-shaped" capital, 40; representation of the lotus flower, 42; shrine at, 116 n; torso, 157, 161; reliefs of, 199
Sandhyā-nritta, dance, 179
Sangha, or Assembly-hall, 46, 90; character of the ritual of relic worship, 48; members, 151
Sangharāma, or abode of the Sangha, 90
Sankarāchārya, 88
Sapta-Matris, the seven mothers of Creation, shrine to, 81
Saracenic architecture, 106
Sarasvati, goddess of speech, 83, 162
Sarnath, statue of Buddha, 155, 157
Sat-chit-ānandam, 187 n
Sathapatha Brahmana, 56
Sattvam-rajas-tāmas, 187 n
Satuni, King of Lulaba, 60
Satya-Nārāyana, cult, 119 n
Scandinavia, custom of seeing the sun dance, 177
Sculpture, art of, 151
Sennacherib, Palace of, 59
Serpent, symbol of the, 75
Sēsha, 170
Shah Jahān, 101, 128, 135; audience hall, 96; monument of the Taj Mahall, 137-43; a strict Sunni, 139; destruction of Hindu temples, 140; mosque, the Jāmi Masjid, 143; portrait, 207
Shahdara, tomb at, 137
Sharkī dynasty, 119
Shatrunjaya, hills of, 71
Shēr Shah, mosque, 113; tomb, 114, 116, 133, 138; administration, 114
Shiah sect, 108, 126, 204
Shraddha, rites, 6, 15, 18, 25, 32, 56
Siddhartha, Prince, 28, 202
Sigirīya, frescoes, 155, 203
Sikandra, tomb at, 134
Sikhara temple, 57; construction, 9, 58, 60; introduced into India, 60; form, 61; shape, 62
Sīlabhadra, the Abbot, 93
Silpa-Sāstras, the, 7, 57, 86, 110, 128, 162, 179, 195 n
Sind, Arab conquest of, 111
Sitā, rescue of, 172
Siva, Lord of Death, 7 n, 18, 61 n, 72, 87, 175; temple, 7 n, 162, 173, 187; shape of the pillar, 7 n, 45; Lord of Kailāsa, 68; bull, Nandi, 80; trident, 80; image of, 82, 166; legends, 82, 175, 180; Lord of the Universe, 84; moon-lotus, 95; Nilakantha, 169, 171; emblems, 173; place of his abode, 174; bronze figure, 175; sakti, 176; tāmasic aspect, 183, 189; five-headed form of, 188; painting of, 202
Sivas, the Anatolian vilayet, 10
Smith, Dr. Vincent, 89; Akbar the Great Mogul, 145; History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, 36, 132 n
Smriti, 191, 200
Sruti, 191, 200
Step-wells of Gujerat, 121
Studio Magazine, 212
Stūpa, the, or King's monument, 4, 14, 56; the vedikā, 14, 17; suchi, 14; medhī, 15; temporary structures, 15; dome construction, 17, 22, 108, 115; symbol of Buddhism, 19; craftsmanship, 21; harmīkā, 22; at Sānchī, 27; transformed into a temple, 54
Stupa-house, 56; structure, 47; number of, 47; series of rock-cut, 47; at Ajantā, 51
Suchi, or cross-bar of the rail, ​Sudama or Nyagrodha, cave, 24
Sukrachārya, directions for the plan of a palace, 97, 100
Sultanganj, statue of Buddha, 156
Sunna, the canonical law of Islam, 108
Sunni sect, 105, 118
Surabhi, the divine cow, 169
Surāj Mal, portrait of, 205
Sūrya, the Sun-god, 6, 9, 18; temple, 9; image, 158; worship of, 159
Sūrya-vamsa, the, 6, 18
Sūrya-varman II, 172
Tagore, Abanindro Nath, panel in fresco, 198; leader of the school of painting, 212
Tāj Mahall monument at Agra, 114, 128, 136, 137-43; list of the chief craftsmen, 138; plan of the building, 142
Tāj Sultana, mosque, 127, 141
Taksasīla University, 92
Talikota, battle of, 126
Tāmasic or destructive power of the cosmos, 173, 183
Tanjore temple, 85, 175, 179, 185
Tāptī River, 51
Taurus mountain, 10
Taurus, the Bull, sign of, 32, 80
Tavernier, J. B., 140
Temples, instructions for the building, 7 n; construction, 66; used for royal fortresses, 99; destruction, 160
Ter, stūpa-house, 55
Theras, or Brethren, 21
Thomas, F. W. and L. A., translation of The Beginning of Buddhist Art, 75 n, 106 n
Tigris, the, 9
Timūr, devastations, 115, 118; buildings, 145
Tirthankaras, the, 70
Tīrths, or places of pilgrimage, 54, 71, 78
Tirukkadanur, 176
Torana, or gateway of a stūpa, 17, 28
Tortoise, the, 167, 168
Towers of victory, 69, 120
Trimūrti, doctrine of the, 87, 183, 187
Tri-ratna, or three jewels, 32
Udayagiri, rock-sculpture at, 167
Ujjain, 67
Umbrella, the royal, symbol of, 5, 17, 22
Ummayad mosque at Damascus, 145, 146
Undavalli monastery, 93
Universities of India, 91, 92, 110
Upanishads, the, 12, 34, 73, 180
Ushas, the Dawn Maiden, 10, 18, 33, 165; hymn to, 165
Ustād Īsā, 138
Vaikuntha Perumāl temple, 76, 85
Vāishnava sect, 18; cult, 58, 77, 88 168, 173; in Northern India, 58, 87; in Southern, 76; cult of the Kshatriyas, 77; temples, 77
Vājapūja sacrifice, 23
Vāmana, the dwarf, 167
Vāraha, the Boar, 166, 167
Varnikabhanga, use of materials and implements, 195
Varuna, the God of the Night Sky, 9, 18, 24
Vārunī, the radiance of day, 169, 170
Vatsyāyana, summary of the art of painting, 195
Vedic ritual, 6-8, 19, 56, 151; influence on the art of India, 12; the Rishis, 13; Pitrimedha, 14; "Turning the Wheel of the Law," 15; two main classes, 18; character, 19; the solar year, 30; symbols, 173; triune doctrine, 188
Vedikā, or railing, 14, 17, 28
Venice, Grand Canal of, 103
Veroneo, Geronimo, claim to the design of the Tāj Mahall, 138-40
Victoria and Albert Museum, 157, 192, 202, 206
Vidisha, 27
Vijayanagar, 126; temple at, 85, 96
Vikramāditya, 78; victories of, 157
Vimāna, the chariot, 8
Vindhya mountain 77, 84, 125
Virūpāksha, temple of, 78
Vishnu, the Preserver of the Universe, 7 n, 33, 87, 164; shrine, 7 n, 63, 162, 164, 187; shape of the pillar, 7 n, 45; blue lotus, 8, 41, 57, 95, 164; design of the standard, 42; Upholder of the Heavens, 61; image of, 61, 167, 189; temples dedicated to, 76; Container of Ether, 164; sakti, 165; reliefs of, 165; Avatars, 167; instructions for churning the ocean, 168, 172; cult of, 172; twofold aspect, 171
Vishvakarma, Architect of the Gods, 54, 197; stūpa-house, 54, 79; design of the façade, 55
Vitese trefoliata, 189 n
Vitthalaswami temple, 85
Vrita, the demon, 180
Waddell, Lamaism in Tibet, 156 n
Wāghorā, the, 51
Wantage, Lady, 206
"Wheel of the Law, Turning the," 15, 23 n, 29
Yama or Siva, Lord of Death, 18
Yoga cult., 56, 153
Yogi, the Great, 45; image of, 174, 175
Yusuf 'Adil Shah, 125, 127
Zohra Sultana, mausoleum, 127, 141
Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1934, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 89 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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