OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conway, Moncure Daniel

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​CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832–1907), American clergyman and author, was born of an old Virginia family in Stafford county, Virginia, on the 17th of March 1832. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1849, studied law for a year, and then became a Methodist minister in his native state. In 1852, owing largely to the influence of Ralph Waldo Emerson, his religious and political views underwent a radical change, and he entered the Harvard Divinity School, where he graduated in 1854. Here he fell under the influence of “transcendentalism,” and became an outspoken abolitionist. On his return to Virginia this fact and his rumoured connexion with the attempt to rescue the fugitive slave, Anthony Burns, in Boston aroused the bitter hostility of his old neighbours and friends, and in consequence he left the state. In 1854–1856 he was pastor of a Unitarian church at Washington, D.C., but his anti-slavery views brought about his dismissal. From 1856 to 1861 he was a Unitarian minister in Cincinnati, Ohio, where, also, he edited a short-lived liberal periodical called The Dial. Subsequently he was an editor of the Commonwealth in Boston, Mass., and wrote The Rejected Stone (1861) and The Golden Hour (1862), both powerful pleas for emancipation. In 1862–1863, during the Civil War, he lectured in England in behalf of the North. From 1863 to 1884 he was the minister of the South Place chapel, Finsbury, London; and during this time wrote frequently for the London press. In 1884 he returned to the United States to devote himself to literary work. In addition to those above mentioned, his publications include Tracts for To-day (1858), The Natural History of the Devil (1859), Testimonies Concerning Slavery (1864), The Earthward Pilgrimage (1870), Republican Superstitions (1872), Idols and Ideals (1871), Demonology and Devil Lore (2 vols., 1878), A Necklace of Stories (1879), Thomas Carlyle (1881), The Wandering Jew (1881), Emerson at Home and Abroad (1882), Pine and Palm (2 vols., 1887), Life and Papers of Edmund Randolph (1888), The Life of Thomas Paine with an unpublished sketch of Paine by William Cobbett (2 vols., 1892), Solomon and Solomonic Literature (1899), his Autobiography (2 vols., 1900), and My Pilgrimage to the Wise Men of the East (1906). Conway died on the 15th of November 1907.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conway, Sir William Martin

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​CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856– ), English art critic and mountaineer, son of the Rev. William Conway, afterwards canon of Westminster, was born at Rochester, and was educated at Repton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He became interested in early printing and engraving, and in 1880 made a tour of the principal libraries of Europe in pursuit of his studies, the result appearing in 1884 as a History of the Woodcutters of the Netherlands in the Fifteenth Century. His later works on art included Early Flemish Artists (1887); The Literary Remains of Albrecht Dürer (1889); The Dawn of Art in the Ancient World (1891), dealing with Chaldaean, Assyrian and Egyptian art; Early Tuscan Artists (1902). From 1884 to 1887 he was professor of art at University College, Liverpool; and in ​1901–1904 he was Slade professor of the fine arts at Cambridge. He was knighted in 1895. Sir Martin Conway early became a member of the Alpine Club, of which he was president from 1902 to 1904. In 1892 he beat the climbing record by ascending to a height of 23,000 ft. in the Himalayas in the course of an exploring and mountaineering expedition undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association. In 1896–1897 he explored the interior of Spitsbergen, and in the next year he explored and surveyed the Bolivian Andes, climbing Sorata (21,500 ft.) and Illimani (21,200 ft.). He also ascended Aconcagua (23,080 ft.) and explored Tierra del Fuego. At the Paris exhibition of 1900 he received the gold medal for mountain surveys, and the founder’s medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1905. His expeditions are described in his Climbing and Exploration in the Kara-Koram Himalayas (1894), The Alps from End to End (1895), The First Crossing of Spitsbergen (1897), The Bolivian Andes (1901), &c.; No Man’s Land, a History of Spitsbergen from . . . 1596 . . . was published in 1906.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Opladen

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​OPLADEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 10 m. N.E. from Cologne by the railway to Elberfeld and at the junction of lines to Speldorf and Bonn. Pop. (1905) 6338. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church. It has dyeing works, and manufactures of dynamite, indigo products and railway plant. Before passing to Prussia, Opladen belonged to the duchy of Berg.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ophthalmology

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​OPHTHALMOLOGY (Gr. ὀφθαλμός, eye), the science of the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the eye (see Eye and Vision). From the same Greek word come numerous other derivatives: e.g. ophthalmia, the general name for conjunctival inflammations (see Eye diseases, under Eye); and the instruments ophthalmometer and ophthalmoscope (see Vision).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Opie, Amelia

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​OPIE, AMELIA (1769–1853), English author, daughter of James Alderson, a physician in Norwich, and was born there on the 12th of November 1769. Miss Alderson had inherited radical principles and was an ardent admirer of Horne Tooke. She was intimate with the Kembles and with Mrs Siddons, with Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. In 1798 she married John Opie, the painter. The nine years of her married life were very happy, although her husband did not share her love of society. He encouraged her to write, and in 1801 she produced a novel entitled Father and Daughter, which showed genuine fancy and pathos. She published a volume of graceful verse in 1802; Adeline Mowbray followed in 1804, Simple Tales in 1806, Temper in 1812, Tales of Real Life in 1813, Valentine’s Eve in 1816, Tales of the Heart in 1818, and Madeline in 1822. At length, in 1825, through the influence of Joseph John Gurney, she joined the Society of Friends, and beyond a volume entitled Detraction Displayed, and contributions to periodicals, she wrote nothing more. The rest of her life was spent in travelling and in the exercise of charity. Mrs Opie retained her vivacity to the last, dying at Norwich on the 2nd of December 1853.
A Life by Miss C. L. Brightwell was published in 1854.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Opon

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​OPON, a town of the province of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the small island of Mactan (area about 45 sq. m.), which is separated from the island of Cebu by a channel only about 1 m. wide. Pop (1903), after the annexation of Cordova and Santa Rosa, 20,166. There are forty-four barrios, or villages, in the town, and three of these had in 1903 more than 1000 inhabitants each. The language is Visayan. Opon is a shipping and commercial suburb of Cebu city, the harbour of which is sheltered by Mactan Island. The town has large groves of coco-nut trees, and its principal industries are the cultivation of Indian corn and maguey and fishing. In the N.E. part of the town is a monument to Magellan, who discovered the Philippines in March 1521, and was slain here by the natives late in the following month.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ophites

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​OPHITES, or Ophians (Gr. ὄφις, Heb. נָהָשׁ, “snake”), known also as Naasenes, an early sect of Gnostics described by Hippolytus (Philosoph. v.), Irenaeus (adv. Haer. i. 11), Origen (Contra Celsum, vi. 25 seq.) and Epiphanius (Haer. xxvi.). The account given by Irenaeus may be taken as representative of these descriptions which vary partly as referring to different groups, partly to different dates. The honour paid by them to the serpent is connected with the old mythologies of Babylon and Egypt as well as with the popular cults of Greece and the Orient. It was particularly offensive to Christians as tending to dishonour the Creator who is set over against the serpent as bad against good. The Ophite system had its Trinity: (1) the Universal God, the First Man, (2) his conception (ἔννοια), the Second Man, (3) a female Holy Spirit. From her the Third Man (Christ) was begotten by the First and Second. Christ flew upward with his mother, and in their ascent a spark of light fell on the waters as Sophia. From this contact came Ialdabaoth the Demiurges, who in turn produced six powers and with them created the seven heavens and from the dregs of matter the Nous of serpent form, from whom are spirit and soul, evil and death. Ialdabaoth then announced himself as the Supreme, and when man (created by the six powers) gave thanks for life not to Ialdabaoth but to the First Man, Ialdabaoth created a woman (Eve) to destroy him. Then Sophia or Prunikos sent the serpent (as a benefactor) to persuade Adam and Eve to eat the tree of knowledge and so break the commandment of Ialdabaoth, who banished them from paradise to earth. After a long war between mankind aided by Prunikos against Ialdabaoth (this is the inner story of the Old Testament), the Holy Spirit sends Christ to the earth to enter (united with his sister Prunikos) the pure vessel, the virgin-born Jesus. Jesus Christ worked miracles and declared himself the Son of the First Man. Ialdabaoth instigated the Jews to kill him, but only Jesus died on the cross, for Christ and Prunikos had departed from him. Christ then raised the spiritual body of Jesus which remained on earth for eighteen months, initiating a small circle of elect disciples. Christ, received into heaven, sits at the right hand of Ialdabaoth, whom he deprives of glory and receives the souls that are his own. In some circles the serpent was identified with Prunikos. There are some resemblances to the Valentinian system, but whereas the great Archon sins in ignorance, Ialdabaoth sins against knowledge; there is also less of Greek philosophy in the Ophite system.
See King, The Gnostics and their Remains (London, 1887); G. Salmon, art. “Ophites” in Dict. Chr. Biog.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Opie, John

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​OPIE, JOHN (1761–1807), English historical and portrait painter, was born at St Agnes near Truro in May 1761. He early showed a taste for drawing, besides having at the age of twelve mastered Euclid and opened an evening school for arithmetic and writing. Before long he won some local reputation by portrait-painting; and in 1780 he started for London, under the patronage of Dr Wolcot (Peter Pindar). Opie was introduced to the town as “The Cornish Wonder,” a self-taught genius. The world of fashion, ever eager for a new sensation, was attracted; the carriages of the wealthy blocked the street in which the painter resided, and for a time he reaped a rich harvest by his portraits. But soon the fickle tide of popularity flowed past him, and the painter was left neglected. He now applied himself with redoubled diligence to correcting the defects which marred his art, meriting the praise of his rival Northcote—“Other artists paint to live; Opie lives to paint.” At the same time he sought to supplement his early education by the study of Latin and French and of the best English classics, and to polish the rudeness of his provincial manners by mixing in cultivated and learned circles. In 1786 he exhibited his first important historical subject, the “Assassination of James I.,” and in the following year the “Murder of Rizzio,” a work whose merit was recognized by the artist’s immediate election as associate of the Academy, of which he became a full member in 1788. He was employed on five subjects for Boydell’s “Shakespeare Gallery”; and until his death, on the 9th of April 1807, his practice alternated between portraiture and historical work. His productions are distinguished by breadth of handling and a certain rude vigour, individuality and freshness. They are wanting in grace, elegance and poetic feeling. Opie is also favourably known as a writer on art by his Life of Reynolds in Wolcot’s edition of Pilkington, his Letter on the Cultivation of the Fine Arts in England, in which he advocated the formation of a national gallery, and his Lectures as professor of painting to the Royal Academy, which were published in 1809, with a memoir of the artist by his widow (see above).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Opinion

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​OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think), a term used loosely in ordinary speech for an idea or an explanation of facts which is regarded as being based on evidence which is good but not conclusive. In logic it is used as a translation of Gr. δόξα, which plays a prominent part in Greek philosophy as the opposite of knowledge (ἐπιστήμη or ἀλήθεια). The distinction is drawn by Parmenides, who contrasts the sphere of truth or knowledge with that of opinion, which deals with mere appearance, error, not-being. So Plato places δόξα between αἴσθησι and διάνοια, as dealing with phenomena contrasted with non-being and being respectively. Thus Plato confines opinion to that which is subject to change. Aristotle, retaining the same idea, assigns to opinion (especially in the Ethics) the sphere of things contingent, i.e. the future: hence opinion deals with that which is probable. More generally he uses popular opinion—that which is generally held to be true (δοκεῖν)—as the starting-point of an inquiry. In modern philosophy the term has been used for various conceptions all having much the same connotation. The absence of any universally acknowledged definition, especially such as would contrast “opinion” with “belief,” “faith” and the like, deprives it of any status as a philosophic term.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gautier, Émile Théodore Léon

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​GAUTIER, ÉMILE THÉODORE LÉON (1832–1897), French literary historian, was born at Hâvre on the 8th of August 1832. He was educated at the École des Chartes, and became successively keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 1871 he became professor of palaeography at the École des Chartes. He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887, and became chief of the historical section of the national archives in 1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872) with translation and introduction of the Chanson de Roland, and Les Épopées françaises (3 vols., 1866–1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878–1897, including a Bibliographie des chansons de geste). He died in Paris on the 25th of August 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gauze

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​GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and now sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner with very fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at Gaza in Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from eastern Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in addition to being crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to right and from right to left alternately, after each shot of weft, thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are woven either plain, striped or figured; and the material receives many designations, according to its appearance and the purposes to which it is devoted. A thin cotton fabric, woven in the same way, is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by plain weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive industry in the west of Scotland during the second half of the 18th century, but on the introduction of cotton-weaving it greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes silk gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally ​to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gaur (animal)

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​GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, Bos (Bibos) gaurus, of India, miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, where it is known as seladang, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group of wild cattle characterized by the presence of a ridge on the withers, the compressed horns, and the white legs. The gaur, which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder, is specially characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the ridge between the horns. The general colour is blackish-grey. Hill-forests are the resort of this species.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gaussen, François Samuel Robert Louis

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​GAUSSEN, FRANÇOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1790–1863), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of August 1790. His father, Georg Markus Gaussen, a member of the council of two hundred, was descended from an old Languedoc family which had been scattered at the time of the religious persecutions in France. At the close of his university career at Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate relations with J. E. Cellérier, who had preceded him in the pastorate, and also with the members of the dissenting congregation at Bourg-de-Four, which, together with the Église du témoignage, had been formed under the influence of the preaching of James and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was distasteful to the pastors of Geneva (Vénérable Compagnie des Pasteurs), and on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile to it. As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in conjunction with Cellérier a French translation of the Second Helvetic Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had reached upon the nature, use and necessity of confessions of faith; and in 1830, for having discarded the official catechism of his church as being insufficiently explicit on the divinity of Christ, original sin and the doctrines of grace, he was censured and suspended by his ecclesiastical superiors. In the following year he took part in the formation of a Société Évangélique (Evangelische Gesellschaft). When this society contemplated, among other objects, the establishment of a new theological college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some time devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva and ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when he joined Merle d’Aubigné as professor of systematic theology in the college which he had helped to found. This post he continued to occupy until 1857, when he retired from the active duties of the chair. He died at Les Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June 1863.
His best-known work, entitled La Théopneustie ou pleine inspiration des saintes écritures, an elaborate defence of the doctrine of “plenary inspiration,” was originally published in Paris in 1840, and rapidly gained a wide popularity in France, as also, through translations, in England and America. It was followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise on the canon (Le Canon des saintes écritures au double point de vue de la science et de la foi), which, though also popular, has hardly been so widely read.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gautier d'Arras

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​GAUTIER D’ARRAS, French trouvère, flourished in the second half of the 12th century. Nothing is known of his biography except what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated his romance of Éracle to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. 1191); among his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne, daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and Baldwin IV., count of Hainaut. Éracle, the hero of which becomes emperor of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a roman d’aventures and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, Ille et Galeron, dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick Barbarossa, treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the lay of “Eliduc” by Marie de France.
See the Œuvres de Gautier d’Arras, ed. E. Löseth (2 vols., Paris, 1890); Hist. litt. de la France, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, Les Trouvères (1833–1843), vol. iii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gavazzi, Alessandro

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​GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809–1889), Italian preacher and patriot, was born at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to the Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards (1829) acted as professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed liberal views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position. Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the French, he carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and Jesuits in England, Scotland and North America, partly by means of a periodical, the Gavazzi Free Word. While in England he gradually went over (1855) to the Evangelical church, and became head and organizer of the Italian Protestants in London. Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as army-chaplain with Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church (Chiesa libera) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the “Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia,” and in 1875 founded in Rome the theological college of the Free Church, in which he himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died in Rome on the 9th of January 1889.
Amongst his publications are No Union with Rome (1871); The Priest in Absolution (1877); My Recollections of the Last Four Popes, &c., in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); Orations, 2 decades (1851).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salem (Ohio)

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​SALEM, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., 67 m. N.W. of Pittsburg and about the same distance S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 7582, including 667 foreign-born and 227 negroes; (1910) 8943. Salem is served by the Pennsylvania (the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago division) and the Youngstown & Ohio River railways, and by an interurban electric line to Canton. The city has a Carnegie library (1896), two beautiful cemeteries, a park, and a Home for Aged Women. It is situated in a fine agricultural region; coal is mined in the vicinity; natural gas is obtained in abundance; and the city has various manufactures. It was settled by Friends in 1806, incorporated as a town in 1830 and as a village in 1852, and chartered as a city in 1887. For several years preceding the Civil War it was a station on the “underground railway” and the headquarters of “the Western Anti-Slavery Society,” which published here the Anti-Slavery Bugle.