OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souza-Botelho, Adélaide Filleul, Marquise de

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​SOUZA-BOTELHO, ADÉLAIDE FILLEUL, Marquise de (1761–1836), French writer, was born in Paris on the 14th of May 1761. Her mother, Marie Irène Catherine de Buisson, daughter of the seigneur of Longpré, near Falaise, married a bourgeois of that town named Filleul. It was reported, though no proof is forthcoming, that Mme Filleul had been the mistress of Louis XV. Her husband became one of the king’s secretaries, and Mme Filleul made many friends, among them Marmontel. Their eldest daughter, Julie, married Abel François Poisson, marquis de Marigny (1727–1781); Adélaide married in 1779 Alexandre Sebastien de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte de Flahaut, a soldier of some reputation, who was many years her senior. In Paris she soon gathered round her a salon, in which the principal figure was Talleyrand. There are many allusions to their liaison in the diary of Gouverneur Morris. In 1785 was born her son Auguste Charles Joseph de Flahaut (q.v.), who was generally known to be Talleyrand’s son. Mme de Flahaut fled from Paris in 1792 and joined the society of émigrés at Mickleham, Surrey, described in Mme d’Arblay’s Memoirs. Her husband remained at Boulogne, where he was arrested on the 29th of January 1793 and guillotined. Mme de Flahaut now supported herself by writing novels, of which the first, Adèle de Sénange (London, 1794), which is partly autobiographical, was the most famous. She presently left London for Switzerland, where she met Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. She travelled in his company to Hamburg, where she lived for two years, earning her living as a milliner. She returned to Paris in 1798, and on the 17th of October 1802 she married José Maria de Souza-Botelho Mourão e Vasconcellos (1758–1825), Portuguese minister plenipotentiary in Paris. Her husband was recalled in 1804, and was offered the St Petersburg embassy; but in the next year he resigned, to settle permanently in Paris, where he had many friends, among them the historian Sismondi. He spent his time chiefly in the preparation of a beautiful edition of the Lusiads of Camoens, which he completed in 1817. Mme de Souza lost her social power after the fall of the First Empire, and was deserted even by Talleyrand, although he continued his patronage of Charles de Flahaut. Her husband died in 1825, and after the accession of Louis Philippe she lived in comparative retirement till her death on the 19th of April 1836. She brought up her grandson, Charles, duc de Morny, her son’s natural son by Queen Hortense. Among her later novels were La Comtesse de Fargy (1822) and La Duchesse de Guise (1831). Her complete works were published in 1811–1822.
See Baron A. de Maricourt, Madame de Souza et sa famille (1907); Lettres inédites de J. C. L. de Sismondi ... et de Madame de Souza (Paris, 1863), ed. St René Taillandier; Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femmes (1844); and for Mme de Filleul, MM. de Goncourt, Les Maîtresses de Louis XV. (1860) and J. F. Marmontel (1804).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southwell

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​SOUTHWELL, a cathedral city in the Newark parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, 16 m. N.E. of Nottingham by a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 3161. The minster church of St Mary became a cathedral on the foundation of the episcopal see in 1884. The see covers the greater part of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, with small portions of Leicestershire, Lincolnshire and Staffordshire. The foundation of the earliest church here is attributed to the missionary Paulinus in the first half of the 7th century. Another followed, after the devastations of the Northmen, in 960, on the founda- tion of King Edgar. The building of the present church began in the reign of Henry I. Henry VIII., after the dissolution of the monasteries, contemplated the erection of the church into a cathedral. The cathedral is a magnificent cruciform building, 306 ft. in length, with massive Norman nave (61 ft. wide), transepts, central and two western towers; and Early English choir with transepts. There is an octagonal chapter house, resembling that at York, exhibiting the Decorated style in highest development. It is connected with the church by a cloister. The archbishops of York had a palace here dating from the 15th century. The "great chamber" was restored in 1882, and since 1904 the building has been converted into a residence for the bishops of Southwell.
The erection of the church at Southwell (Sudwelle, Suwell, Suthwell), probably the cause of the origin of the town, is attributed to the archbishop of York in the 7th century. In 958 land at Southwell was granted to the archbishop by Edwy. A detailed description of the great manor is given in Domesday. Southwell remained under the lordship of the see of York until it was taken over by the ecclesiastical commissioners. It was called a borough in the 13th century and down to the 17th, but no charter of incorporation is known. The town never returned representatives to parliament. In the reign of Edward I. the archbishop claimed by prescriptive right a five-days' fair at Pentecost, a three-days' fair at the translation of St Thomas and a Saturday market. Fairs are now held in April and December. The market was still held on Saturdays in 1894, but was then very small.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southwold

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​SOUTHWOLD, a municipal borough and watering-place in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 12 m. S. by W. of Lowestoft, the terminus of the Southwold railway, which connects with the Great Eastern at Halesworth. Pop. (1901), 2800. The church of St Edmund's is a Perpendicular flint structure. In 1900 a pier 270 yds. long was constructed, and serves as a calling-place for pleasure steamers. A fine common south of the town is used for golf, lawn-tennis, cricket, and other sports. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 612 acres.
Southwold (Sudwold, Suwold, Suthwaud) owes its origin and prosperity to its herring fisheries, which were considerable in 1086, while the importance of its harbour increased with the decay of Dunwich. In 1461 the men of the town, tenants of the manor which had been granted by the monks of Bury St Edmunds to Gilbert, earl of Clare, and had passed to the Crown with the honour of Clare, claimed exemption from toll, pontage and similar dues as their prescriptive right. An act of 1489 incorporated the bailiffs and commonalty of the town and exempted them from harbour dues. These liberties were confirmed in 1505 by Henry VII., who also granted the corporation the town and manor to hold at fee-farm with certain rights of jurisdiction. Confirmatory chapters were granted by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Elizabeth, James I. and Charles II., and the town was governed by a royal charter of 1689 until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The weekly market, now the property of the corporation, was granted to the abbot of St Edmunds as lord of the manor in 1227 together with a yearly fair on the vigil of the feast of St Philip and St James. A fair is still held on Trinity Monday. In 1672 Southwold Bay, usually abbreviated as Solebay, was the scene of a battle between the English fleet under the duke of York and the Dutch under Ruyter, the French fleet holding aloof. The English suffered much, but the Dutch withdrew.
See " Victoria County History ": Suffolk ; T. Gardner, An Historical account of Dunwich, Blithburgh and Southwold (ed. 1754).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sovereign

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​SOVEREIGN, originally an adjective, meaning “supreme,” especially having supreme or paramount power. The word in Middle English was soverain or sovcreyn, and was taken through Old French from Low Latin superanus, chief, principal. The intrusive “g,” which is due to a popular confusion of the termination of the word with “reign,” dates, according to Skeat, from about 1570. The form “sovran,” borrowed by Milton from Italian sovrano, soprano, is chiefly found as a poetical usage. As a substantive “sovereign” is applied to the supreme head of a state (see Sovereignty), and to the standard English gold coin, worth 20 shillings or £1 (see Pound). The gold sovereign was first struck in the reign of Henry VII. (1489); it was of gold of the standard fineness (994·8) and weighed 240 grains. It bore the figure of the king crowned, in royal mantle, seated on the throne, and holding the sceptre and orb. The sovereign was coined in successive reigns until that of James I., when the name “unite” was given to the coin to mark the union of the two kingdoms. The gold coinage of the kingdom was, until 1816, a secondary part of the monetary system, but in that year the silver standard was discontinued and a gold standard adopted. The sovereign was chosen the new unit of the currency, and the first issue took place in 1817. Its weight was fixed at 123·274 grains; its fineness at 916·66 or twenty-two carats. These standards of weight and fineness are those still in force. At the same time was issued the half-sovereign, of weight in proportion. The weight of 934½ sovereigns is exactly equivalent to twenty Troy pounds, and the weight of each individual sovereign is calculated on this basis. The sovereign is eleven-twelfths pure gold and one-twelfth alloy, copper being usual. The light colour of early Australian sovereigns was due to the use of silver instead of copper. Five-pound pieces were coined in the reigns of Queen Victoria and Edward VII. They were also authorized in the reign of George III. (as were two-pound pieces), but the dies were not completed before the death of that sovereign. Specimens were, however, subsequently struck. There were also some pattern pieces struck in the reign of George IV. Two-pound pieces were issued in the reign of George IV.; they were struck in the reign of William IV., but not issued for circulation; they are current coins of the reigns of Victoria and Edward VII. (See also Mint; Money.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southworth, Emma Dorothy Eliza Nevitte

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​SOUTHWORTH, EMMA DOROTHY ELIZA NEVITTE (1810–1899), American novelist, was born in Washington, D.C., on the 26th of December 1819. She studied in a school kept by her stepfather, Joshua L. Henshaw, and in 1840 married Frederick H. Southworth, of Utica, N.Y. After 1843 she supported herself by teaching. Her first story, " The Irish Refugee," was published in the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. Her first novel, " Retribution," a serial for the National Era, published in book form in 1846, was so well received that she gave up teaching and became a regular contributor to various periodicals, especially the New York Ledger. She lived in Georgetown, D.C., until 1876, then in Yonkers, N.Y., and again in Georgetown, D.C., where she died on the 30th of June 1899.
Her novels numbered more than sixty ; some of them were translated into German, French and Spanish ; in 1872 an edition of thirty-five volumes was published in Philadelphia. They include The Deserted Wife (1850); Mark Sutherland (1853); Hickory Hall (1855); Unknown (1874); Gloria (1877); The Trail of the Serpent (1879); Nearest and Dearest (1881); The Mother's Secret (1883); An Exile's Bride (1887); The Hidden Hand (1888); and Broken Pledges (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souvestre, Émile

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​SOUVESTRE, ÉMILE (1806–1854), French novelist, was born on the 15th of April 1806. He was the son of a civil engineer, a native of Morlaix. He was by turns a bookseller's assistant, a private schoolmaster, a journalist, and master at the grammar schools of Brest and of Mulhausen. He settled in Paris in 1836, where he was made (1848) professor in a school for the instruction of civil servants. He began his literary career with a drama, played at the Théâtre français in 1828, the Siège de Missolonghi. In novel writing he did much better than for the stage, although he deliberately aimed at making the novel an engine of moral instruction. His best work is undoubtedly to be found in the charming Derniers Bretons (4 vols., 1835–1837) and Foyer breton (1844), where the folk-lore and natural features of his native province are worked up into story form, and in Un Philosophe sous les toils, which received in 1851 a well deserved academic prize. He also wrote a number of other works—novels, dramas, essays and miscellanies. He died in Paris on the 5th of July 1854.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souvré, Gilles de

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​SOUVRE, GILLES DE, Marquis de Courtanvaux, Baron de Lezines (c. 1540–1626), marshal of France, belonged to ​an old family of the Perche. He accompanied the duke of Anjc:i to Poland in 1573, and was appointed master of the wardrobe and captain of Vincennes when Anjou became Henry III. He remained in favour, despite the opposition of the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis, fought at Coutras, defended Tours against the Leaguers, was named chevalier de Saint Esprit and governor of Touraine (1585), and was one of the first to recognize Henry IV. (1589), who subsequently entrusted him with the education of the dauphin. Louis XIII. rewarded him with the title of marshal in 1613. He died in Paris in 1626.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sowar

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​SOWAR (Hind. and Pers. suwar, a horseman), the name in Anglo-Indian usage for a horse-soldier belonging to the cavalry troops of the native armies of British India and the feudatory states. It is also used more specifically of a mounted orderly, escort or guard.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plan

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​PLAN (from Lat. planus, flat), a diagram on a flat surface; hence by analogy any deliberate scheme or design. In architecture, a “plan” is a horizontal geometrical section of the walls of a building, or indications, on a horizontal plane, of the relative positions of the walls and partitions, with the various openings, such as windows and doors, recesses and projections, chimneys and chimney-breasts, columns, pilasters, &c. This term is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of design (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planck, Gottlieb Jakob

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​PLANCK, GOTTLIEB JAKOB (1751-1833), German Protestant divine and historian, was born at Nurtingen in Württemberg, where his father was a notary, on the 15th of November 1751. Educated for the Protestant ministry at Blaubeuren, Bebenhausen and Tübingen, he became repentent at Tübingen in 1774, preacher at Stuttgart in 1780, and professor of theology at Göttingen in 1784. At Tübingen he wrote Das Tagebuch eines neuen Ehemannes. In 1781 he published anonymously the first volume of his Geschichte des protestantischen Lehrbegriffs; the second, also anonymous, appearing in 1783, and it was completed in six volumes in 1800. It was followed by an extensive Geschichte der christlich-kirchlichen Gesellschaftsverfassung in five volumes (1803-1809). Both are works of considerable importance, and are characterized by abundant learning. He died on the 31st of August 1833. His son Heinrich Ludwig Planck (1785-1831), also professor of theology at Göttingen, published Bemerkungen über den ersten Brief an den Timotheus (1808) and Abriss d. philos. Religionslehre (1821).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planck, Karl Christian

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​PLANCK, KARL CHRISTIAN (1819–1880), German philosopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 17th of January 1819. He studied at Tübingen, where he became doctor of philosophy in 1840 and Privatdozent in 1848. During this period the influence of Reiff led him to oppose the dominant Hegelianism of the time. In 1850–1851 he published his great book, Die Weltalter, in which he developed a complete original system of philosophy, based on the realistic view that thought should proceed from nature to the highest forms of existence in the spiritual life. Not only did Planck oppose the idealism of his confreres, his views were, in another aspect, directly antagonistic to the Darwinian theory of descent, which he specifically attacked in Wahrheit und Flachheit des Darwinismus (Nördlingen, 1872). The natural consequence of this individuality of opinion was that his books were practically disregarded, and Planck was deeply incensed. The ill success of Die Weltalter nerved him to new efforts, and he repeated his views in Katechismus des Rechts (1852), Grundlinen einer Wissenschaft der Natur (1864), Seele und Geist (1871), and numerous other books, which, however, met with no better fate. In the meantime he left Tubingen for Ulm, whence he came finally to the seminary of Maulbronn. He died on the 7th of June 1880 in an asylum after a short period of nervous prostration. After his death a summary of his work came into the hands of K. Köstlin (author of Aesthetics, 1869), who published it in 1881 under the title Testament eines Deutschen, Philosophie der Natur und der Menschheit. Planck’s views were elaborately developed, but his method of exposition told heavily against their acceptance. He regarded himself as the Messiah of the German people.
Beside the works above quoted, he wrote System des reinen Idealismus (1851); Anthropologie und Psychologie auf naturwissenschaftlicher Grundlage (1874); a political treatise, Bismarck: Süddeutschland und der deutsche Nationalstaat (1872); and Logisches Causalgesetz und natürliche Zweckmässigkeit (1874).
See Umfrid, Karl Planck, dessert Werke und Wirken (Tübingen, 1881); and Schmidt, “Das Lebensideal Karl Christian Plancks,” in the Vorträge der philosophischen Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plane

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​PLANE. 1. In botany, the common name of a handsome tree known botanically as Platanus orientalis, a native of Greece and western Asia, a favourite shade-tree of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and introduced by the latter to south-west Europe.
Plane (Platanus orientalis).
1, Leaf, 1/4 nat size.
2 and 3, Base of leaf-stalk showing bud-protecting cap, about 1/4 nat. size.
4, Male, 5, Female inflorescence.
6, Head of fruits, about 1/2 nat. size.
7, A fruit with enclosed seed, cut lengthwise.
It is one of the most successful trees in London and other large towns; the smooth face of the leaf is easily washed by rain; and the periodical peeling of the bark also serves to get rid of impurities. It is a large tree with widely spreading branches and alternate, palmately five-lobed leaves, resembling those of the sycamore in shape, but quite hairless and of a brighter green. The bud in the leaf axil is protected during its development by the hollow base of the leaf-stalk, which lifts off like an extinguisher when the leaf falls in autumn. The minute, unisexual flowers are borne in dense pendulous heads, which contain either male or female flowers; the small one-seeded fruits are densely crowded in a ball, from which they gradually separate in drying, and are readily carried by the wind. The wood, which is hard and heavy, though not strong, is used in Persia and other countries of western Asia for house construction and furniture. A variety of forms are known in cultivation, the commonest being the maple-leaved (acerifolia), the London plane, which has usually three-lobed leaves; var. laciniata has very deeply much divided leaves, and var. variegata, variegated foliage. Platanus occidentalis, an allied species, is a native of the United States, being most abundant and growing to its largest size in the bottom lands of the basins of the lower Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. It was introduced into England early in the 17th century, and is occasionally met with in western and central Europe. Professor C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) refers to it as the most massive if not the tallest, deciduous-leaved tree of the North American forest; it is known in America as sycamore and buttonwood. It differs from P. orientates in its less deeply lobed, more leathery pubescent leaves and in the usually solitary balls of fruit.
2. The name of a carpenter’s hand-tool, used for levelling and smoothing (Lat. planus, level) the surface of wood. The machine tool used for a similar purpose for metals is generally known as a planing-machine or planer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plait

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​PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plicitum, folded, plicare, to fold), properly a fold, especially a fold of cloth, now usually in the collateral form “pleat.” “Plait” is now principally applied to entwined strands of ribbon, hair, straw or fibre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planche, Jean Baptiste Gustave

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​PLANCHE, JEAN BAPTISTE GUSTAVE (1808–1857), French critic, was born in Paris on the 16th of February 1808. Introduced by Alfred de Vigny to François Buloz, he began to write for the Revue des deux mondes, and continued to do so until 1840. He resumed his connection with the journal in 1846 and contributed to it until his death in Paris on the 18th of September 1857. Gustave Planche was an altogether honest critic and refused to accept a place from Napoleon III. for fear of compromising his freedom. He was in early a fervent admirer of George Sand, and he lavished praise on De Vigny. But he had nothing but scorn for Victor Hugo, whose earlier dramas he characterized as odes, those following the drama Le Roi s'amuse as antitheses, and the later ones as nothing but spectacle. His critical papers were collected under the titles: Portraits littéraires (1836-1849); Nouveaux portraits littéraires (1854); and art criticisms, Études sur l'école française (1855).
See Ernest Montégut, in the Revue des deux mondes (June 1858); Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques littéraires XIX$^e$ siècle (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Planceer

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​PLANCEER, or Planchier (O. Fr. plancier, or planchier, planking), in architecture, a term sometimes used in the same sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the corona in a cornice.