OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Clifford, John

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​CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836– ), British Nonconformist minister and politician, son of a warp-machinist at Sawley, Derbyshire, was born on the 16th of October 1836. As a boy he worked in a lace factory, where he attracted the notice of the leaders of the Baptist community, who sent him to the academy at Leicester and the Baptist college at Nottingham to be educated for the ministry. In 1858 he was called to Praed Street chapel, Paddington (London), and while officiating there he attended University College and pursued his education by working at the British Museum. He matriculated at London University (1859), and took its B.A. degree (1861), B.Sc. (1862), M.A. (1864), and LL.B. (1866), and in 1883 he was given the honorary degree of D.D. by Bates College, U.S.A., being known therefrom as Dr Clifford. This degree, from an American college of minor academic status, afterwards led to sarcastic allusions, but Dr Clifford had not courted it, and his London University achievements were evidence enough of his intellectual equipment. At Praed Street chapel he gradually obtained a ​large following, and in 1877 Westbourne Park chapel was opened for him. As a preacher, writer, propagandist and ardent Liberal politician, he became a power in the Nonconformist body. He was president of the London Baptist Association in 1879, of the Baptist Union in 1888 and 1899, and of the National Council of Evangelical Churches in 1898. His chief prominence in politics, however, dates from 1903 onwards in consequence of his advocacy of “passive resistance” to the Education Act of 1902. Into this movement he threw himself with militant ardour, his own goods being distrained upon, with those of numerous other Nonconformists, rather than that any contribution should be made by them in taxation for the purpose of an Education Act which in their opinion was calculated to support denominational religious teaching in the schools. The “passive resistance” movement, with Dr Clifford as its chief leader, had a large share in the defeat of the Unionist government in January 1906, and his efforts were then directed to getting a new act passed which should be undenominational in character. The rejection of Mr Birrell’s bill in 1906 by the House of Lords was accordingly accompanied by denunciations of that body from Dr Clifford and his followers; but as year by year went by, up to 1909, with nothing but failure on the part of the Liberal ministry to arrive at any solution of the education problem,—failure due now not to the House of Lords but to the inherent difficulties of the subject (see Education),—it became increasingly clear to the public generally that the easy denunciations of the act of 1902, which had played so large a part in the elections of 1906, were not so simple to carry into practice, and that a compromise in which the denominationalists would have their say would have to be the result. Meanwhile “passive resistance” lost its interest, though Dr Clifford and his followers continued to protest against their treatment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bloom

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​BLOOM (from A.S. blôma, a flower), the blossom of flowering plants, or the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit; hence applied to the surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy appearance on the varnish of painting due to moisture; also, in metallurgy, a term used of the rough billets of iron and steel, which have undergone a preliminary hammering or rolling, and are ready for further working.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bloomfield

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​BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., about 12 m. W. of New York, and directly adjoining the city of Newark on the N. Pop. (1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5.42 sq. m. Bloomfield is served by the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and by several electric lines connecting with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange and other neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presbyterian, 1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There is a Central Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another park. Among the town’s manufactures are silk and woollen goods, paper, electric elevators, electric lamps, rubber goods, safety pins, hats, cream separators, brushes and novelties. The value of the town’s factory products increased from $3,370,924 in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37.8%. First settled about 1670–1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the principal settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In 1796 it was named Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph Bloomfield (1753–1823), who served (1775–1778) in the War of American Independence, reaching the rank of major, was governor of New Jersey in 1801–1802 and 1803–1812, brigadier-general in the United States army during the War of 1812, and a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821. The township of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it were subsequently set off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and Glen Ridge (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blondel, David

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​BLONDEL, DAVID (1591–1655), French Protestant clergyman, was born at Châlons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of April 1655. In 1650 he succeeded G. J. Vossius in the professorship of history at Amsterdam. His works were very numerous; in some of them he showed a remarkable critical faculty, as in his dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, 1657), in which he came to the conclusion, now universally accepted, that the whole story is a mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was excited against him on account of this book.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blood-Money

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​BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a criminal to justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty paid in old days by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim. These fines completely protected the offender from the vengeance of the injured family. The system was common among the Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to the introduction of Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated according to the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which further settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable: blood-money could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some acts, such as killing any one in a church or while asleep, or within the precincts of the royal palace, were “bot-less”; and the death penalty was inflicted. Such a criminal was outlawed, and his enemies could kill him wherever they found him.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bloodstone

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​BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope, which is a variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with bright red spots, splashes and streaks. The green colour is due to a chloritic mineral; the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds are opaque, resembling in this respect jasper, and some writers have sought to restrict the name “bloodstone” to green jasper, with red markings, thus making heliotrope a translucent and bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient, such a distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of bloodstone comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is cut and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-handles and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very widely distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle of Rum in the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities. Haematite (Gr. αἷμα, blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also sometimes called “bloodstone.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blondel, Jacques François

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​BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANÇOIS (1705–1774), French architect, began life as an architectural engraver, but developed into an architect of considerable distinction, if of no great ​originality. As architect to Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily did much in the rococo manner, although it would seem that he conformed to fashion rather than to artistic conviction. He was among the earliest founders of schools of architecture in France, and for this he was distinguished by the Academy; but he is now best remembered by his voluminous work L’Architecture française, in which he was the continuator of Marot. The book is a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of which have disappeared or been remodelled.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bloomer, Amelia Jenks

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​BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818–1894), American dress-reformer and women’s rights advocate, was born at Homer, New ​York, on the 27th of May 1818. After her marriage in 1840 she established a periodical called The Lily, which had some success. In 1849 she took up the idea—previously originated by Mrs Elizabeth Smith Miller—of a reform in woman’s dress, and the wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round the ankles. The name of “bloomers” gradually became popularly attached to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women. Until her death on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took a prominent part in the temperance campaign and in that for woman’s suffrage.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blondin

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​BLONDIN (1824–1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat, was born at St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824. His real name was Jean François Gravelet. When five years old he was sent to the École de Gymnase at Lyons and, after six months’ training as an acrobat, made his first public appearance as “The Little Wonder.” His superior skill and grace as well as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a popular favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long, 160 ft. above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859, a number of times, always with different theatric variations: blindfold, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man on his back, sitting down midway while he made and ate an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first appeared in London, at the Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts on a rope stretched across the central transept, 170 ft. from the ground. In 1862 he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal Palace, and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance being given at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London, on the 19th of February 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conseil de Famille

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​CONSEIL DE FAMILLE (“family council”), in France, an institution for the protection of the interests of minors. By the Code Civil (art. 407–410) it is composed of seven members. The local justice of the peace (juge de paix) is the presiding officer. The other six members must be relations of the minor, chosen from the mother’s and father’s side of the family respectively (three on each side). The Code gives in minute detail rules for choosing these relations. Meetings of the family council are held in private, five of the members constituting a quorum. The council has power to appoint a guardian to the minor; to authorize marriage or oppose it; to audit the accounts and decide questions concerning the minor’s estate. The French family council is founded on the Roman law of tutelage, and has a long and useful history.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Consanguinity

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​CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, in law, the connexion or relation of persons descended from the same stock or common ancestor (vinculum personarum ab eodem stipite descendentium). This consanguinity is either lineal or collateral. Lineal consanguinity is that which subsists between persons of whom one is descended in a direct line from the other, while collateral relations descend from the same stock or ancestor, but do not descend the one from the other. Collateral kinsmen, then, are such as lineally spring from one and the same ancestor, who is the stirps, or root, as well as the stipes, trunk or common stock, whence these relations branch out. It will be seen that the modern idea of consanguinity is larger than that of agnatio in the civil law, which was limited to connexion through males, and was modified by the ceremonies of adoption and emancipation, and also than that of cognatio, which did not go beyond the sixth generation, and was made the basis of Justinian’s law of succession. The more limited meaning of consanguinei was brothers or sisters by the same father, as opposed to uterini, brothers or sisters by the same mother. The degrees of collateral consanguinity were differently reckoned in the civil and in the canon law. “The civil law reckons the number of descents between the persons on both sides from the common ancestor. The canon law counts the number of descents between the common ancestor and the two persons on one side only,” and always on the side of the person who is more distant from the common ancestor. English law follows the canon law in beginning at the common ancestor and reckoning downwards. The question of consanguinity owes its great importance to the relationship it bears to the laws of marriage and inheritance. For instance, the law forbids marriage between persons within certain degrees of consanguinity and affinity, a prohibition which applies with equal force to a bastard as well as to those born in wedlock. The laws of inheritance and descent are regulated in a great measure according to consanguinity, however much they may vary in different jurisdictions.
Apart from those countries which have made either the civil or the canon law the basis of reckoning degrees of consanguinity (and practically all civilized countries adopt one or other), it is impossible to describe any method or system, for they are as various as the countries and tribes. See, however, the article Indian Law; and consult Lewis H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1870); J. F. McLennan, On Primitive Marriage (Edinburgh, 1865): E. A. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage (2nd ed., London, 1894); E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (1902); A. Lang and J. J. Atkinson, Social Origins and Primal Law (1903); E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (4th ed., 1903). See also Affinity; Marriage; Inheritance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conrart, Valentin

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​CONRART (or Conrard), VALENTIN (1603–1675), one of the founders of the French Academy, was born in Paris of Calvinist parents. He was educated for a commercial life; but after his father’s death in 1620 he began to come into contact with men of letters, and soon acquired a literary reputation, though he wrote nothing for many years. He was made councillor and secretary to the king; and in 1629 his house became the resort of men of letters, who met to talk over literary subjects, and to read and mutually criticize their works. Cardinal Richelieu offered the society his protection, and in this way (1635) the French Academy was created. Its first meetings were held in the house of Conrart, who was unanimously elected secretary, and discharged the duties of his post for forty-three years, till his death on the 23rd of September 1675. The most important of Conrart’s works is his Mémoires sur l’histoire de son temps published by L. J. N. de Monmerqué in 1825.
See also R. Kerviler and Édouard de Barthelemy, Conrart, sa vie et sa correspondance (1881); C. B. Petitot, Mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de France, tome xlviii.; and Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (19 juillet 1858).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hay, Gilbert

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​HAY, GILBERT, or “Sir Gilbert the Haye” (fl. 1450), Scottish poet and translator, was perhaps a kinsman of the house of Errol. If he be the student named in the registers of the university of St Andrews in 1418–1419, his birth may be fixed about 1403. He was in France in 1432, perhaps some years earlier, for a “Gilbert de la Haye” is mentioned as present at Reims, in July 1430, at the coronation of Charles VII. He has left it on record, in the Prologue to his Buke of the Law of Armys, that he was “chaumerlayn umquhyle to the maist worthy King Charles of France.” In 1456 he was back in Scotland, in the service of the chancellor, William, earl of Orkney and Caithness, “in his castell of Rosselyn,” south of Edinburgh. The date of his death is unknown.
Hay is named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his Lament for the Makaris, and by Sir David Lyndsay (q.v.) in his Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo. His only political work is The Buik of Alexander the Conquerour, of which a portion, in copy, remains at Taymouth Castle. He has left three translations, extant in one volume (in old binding) in the collection of Abbotsford: (a) The Buke of the Law of Armys or The Buke of Bataillis, a translation of Honoré Bonet’s Arbre des batailles; (b) The Buke of the Order of Knichthood from the Livre de l’ordre de chevalerie; and (c) The Buke of the Governaunce of Princes, from a French version of the pseudo-Aristotelian Secreta secretorum. The second of these precedes Caxton’s independent translation by at least ten years.
For the Buik of Alexander see Albert Herrmann’s The Taymouth Castle MS. of Sir Gilbert Hay’s Buik, &c. (Berlin, 1898). The complete Abbotsford MS. has been reprinted by the Scottish Text Society (ed. J. H. Stevenson). The first volume, containing The Buke of the Law of Armys, appeared in 1901. The Order of Knichthood was printed by David Laing for the Abbotsford Club (1847). See also S.T.S. edition (u.s.) “Introduction” and Gregory Smith’s Specimens of Middle Scots, in which annotated extracts are given from the Abbotsford MS., the oldest known example of literary Scots prose.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawtrey, Charles Henry

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​HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY (1858– ), English actor, was born at Eton, where his father was master of the lower school, and educated at Rugby and Oxford. He took to the stage in 1881, and in 1883 adapted von Moser’s Bibliothekar as The Private Secretary, which had an enormous success. He then appeared in London in a number of modern plays, in which he was conspicuous as a comedian. He was unapproachable for parts in which cool imperturbable lying constituted the leading characteristic. Among his later successes A Message from Mars was particularly popular in London and in America.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haxthausen, August Franz Ludwig Maria von

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​HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA, Freiherr von (1792–1866), German political economist, was born near Paderborn in Westphalia on the 3rd of February 1792. Having studied at the school of mining at Klausthal, and having served in the Hanoverian army, he entered the university of Göttingen in 1815. Finishing his course there in 1818 he was engaged in managing his estates and in studying the land laws. The result of his studies appeared in 1829 when he published Über die Agrarverfassung in den Fürstentümern Paderborn und Corvey, a work which attracted much attention and which procured for its author a commission to investigate and report upon the land laws of the Prussian provinces with a view to a new code. After nine years of labour he published in 1839 an exhaustive treatise, Die ländliche Verfassung in der Provinz Preussen, and in 1843, at the request of the emperor Nicholas, he undertook a similar work for Russia, the fruits of his investigations in that country being contained in his Studien über die innern Zustände des Volkslebens, und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands (Hanover, 1847–1852). He received various honours, was a member of the combined diet in Berlin in 1847 and 1848, and afterwards of the Prussian upper house. Haxthausen died at Hanover on the 31st of December 1866.
In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote Die ländliche Verfassung Russlands (Leipzig, 1866). His Studien has been translated into French and into English by R. Farie as The Russian Empire (1856). Other works of his which have appeared in English are: Transcaucasia; Sketches of the Nations and Races between the Black Sea and the Caspian (1854), and The Tribes of the Caucasus (1855). Haxthausen edited Das konstitutionelle Prinzip (Leipzig, 1864), a collection of political writings by various authors, which has been translated into French (1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hay (New South Wales)

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​HAY, a town of Waradgery county, New South Wales, Australia, on the Murrumbidgee river, 454 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901), 3012. It is the cathedral town of the Anglican diocese of Riverina, the terminus of the South Western railway, and the principal depot for the wool produced at the numerous stations on the banks of the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan rivers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawtrey, Edward Craven

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​HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789–1862), English educationalist, was born at Burnham on the 7th of May 1789, the son of the vicar of the parish. He was educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, and in 1814 was appointed assistant master at Eton under Dr Keate. In 1834 he became headmaster of the college, and his administration was a vigorous one. New buildings were erected, including the school library and the sanatorium, the college chapel was restored, the Old Christopher Inn was closed, and the custom of “Montem,” the collection by street begging of funds for the university expenses of the captain of the school, was suppressed. He is supposed to have suggested the prince consort’s modern language prizes, while the prize for English essay he founded himself. In 1852 he became provost of Eton, and in 1854 vicar of Mapledurham. He died on the 27th of January 1862, and was buried in the Eton College chapel. On account of his command of languages ancient and modern, he was known in London as “the English Mezzofanti,” and he was a book collector of the finest taste. Among his own books are some excellent translations from the English into Italian, German and Greek. He had a considerable reputation as a writer of English hexameters and as a judge of Homeric translation.