# Natural History, Birds/Conirostres

TRIBE IV. CONIROSTRES.
This also is an immense assemblage of species, only less numerous than the last, comprising, like it, birds of much diversity of size, form, structure, and habit. Naturalists consider the Conirostres as displaying the highest degree of organization in all their parts collectively, and consequently this Tribe is typical not only in the Passerine Order, but in the whole Class of Birds. The principal character by which they are associated is, that the beak, though varying greatly in shape and comparative size, is yet for the most part short, but thick, and very strong, more or less conical in form, and in general destitute of any notch at the tip. In one extensive tropical group, however, that of the gaily coloured Tanagers of America, the beak, though decidedly of conirostral form, is distinctly notched, and this probably constitutes one link of connexion between this tribe and the preceding. The feet are, ​upon the whole, formed rather for perching than for walking, though many genera walk on the ground habitually.
Seeds and grain of various kinds may be mentioned as the principal food of the "hard billed"
HEAD OP PYRRHULA VIOLACEA.
birds; and for the opening of the different capsules and seed vessels, as well as for the crushing of the often hard seeds themselves, their stout and horny beaks are peculiarly fitted. At the same time not a few add insects to a vegetable diet, and some may be said to be almost omnivorous. In proportion as the form of the beak deviates from that of a short and broad cone, does the appetite vary from an exclusive seed-diet. So very extensive a tribe we should expect to find represented in all countries of the globe, and so it is. Yet perhaps we may consider it as affecting rather the temperate and colder than the warmer regions of the earth, particularly the very ​numerous family of Finches, (Fringilladæ), which is typical of the whole. The other families are Corvidæ, Paradiseacæ, Sturnidæ, Colidæ, Musophagadæ, and Bucerotidæ.
Family I. Corvidæ.
(Crows.)
These are among the largest of the Passerine birds, but though widely spread, are comparatively few in number. Their beak is very powerful, more or less compressed at the sides, conical, but long, the upper mandible generally arched, the gape nearly straight, the nostrils concealed by stiff bristles pointing forwards. Their plumage is of dark and unobtrusive colours, often black more or less glossed, and occasionally varied with gray or white. The group denominated Jays, however, form an exception to this sombre coloration, for they are mostly arrayed in the richest azure and purple. These too are more exclusively arboreal than the other Corvidæ, which walk a great deal on the ground.
The Crows are birds of firm and compact structure; their wings are long, pointed, and powerful; their feet and claws robust. In disposition they are bold and daring, extremely sagacious, easily tamed and made familiar. Most of them have the faculty of imitating the sounds which they hear, and even the words of human language, with much precision, but their natural voices are loud, harsh, and guttural. They evince a remarkable propensity for thieving, and hiding substances that are of no use whatever to them, particularly if ​these display polished surfaces, or brilliant colours. They are omnivorous in their appetite; insects and their larvæ, grain, fruits, bread, flesh, both in a recent state and in putridity, and even small living animals,—all by turns are devoured by these birds with relish.
The species are most abundant in the northern hemisphere; but the great equatorial islands of the Indian Archipelago have some genera peculiar to themselves.
Genus. Corvus. (Linn.)
The beak in the typical Crows is large, strong, nearly straight, but the upper mandible more or less arched to the point, which is sometimes very slightly notched; the sides are compressed, and the edges cutting; the nostrils oval, covered with stiff bristles; the wings rather long, pointed, the fourth quill longest; the tail moderate or short, with the extremity even or rounded; the feet formed for walking, the lateral toes strong, and nearly equal; the claws strong, large, and curved.
These are large birds, almost always clothed in black plumage, with the beak and feet of the same colour. They are very voracious, frequently associating in large flocks, which, as their appetite is almost universal, often commit much havoc upon the fruits of human industry.
The largest and most powerful species of the genus is the well-known Raven (Corvus corax, (Linn.), celebrated even from the time of the universal Deluge. It is upwards of two feet in length, and four in expanse of wing. Its plumage is of a deep glossy black, with steel-blue ​refelctions. Its watchful cunning, sagacity, and thievishness are well known. It is remarkable that the individuals of the species which inhabit the wildest and most remote regions of North America, far
RAVEN
from the abodes of civilized man, should display the same propensity for stealing and carrying off pieces of metal and other shining bodies, totally useless to it,—as in Europe. Mr. Kendall, when crossing the elevated lands that divide the waters that fall into Hudson's Bay from those that empty themselves into the Polar Sea, observed a Raven flying with something in its claws, pursued by a number of clamorous companions. On firing, the bird dropped the contested treasure, which proved to be the lock of a chest.
​The habits of the Raven in a state of nature, are so graphically described in a paper in the "Zoologist," for 1843, that we shall extract it almost entire. "The Raven, or as we call him in Scotland, the 'Corbie,' is a bold, hardy, and strong-pinioned fowl. He is said to be black, and so he appears at a distance, but when inspected more nearly, his feathers are found to be of a glossy blue. The strength and structure of his beak and talons indicate his carnivorous nature; and we find in the days of falconry he was trained to that sport: but he does not seem to have recourse to rapine and murder unless irritated, or hard pressed by hunger, for he prefers carrion just entering on a putrid state to a victim recently slain. He is known throughout the Old Continent from the Arctic Seas to the Cape of Good Hope, and in America, from Hudson's Bay to Mexico. He is seen in the remotest isles of the Polar Seas, and within the Torrid zone; and is the only fowl whose character remains unchanged by the extremes of heat and cold. He constantly traverses the mountain-regions; and breathing a pure atmosphere, he lives to a great age, and is able to make the most laborious flights from one country to another.
"The Corbie is well known to the shepherd on all the hilly tracts of Scotland. His common cry is croak, but when in a state of excitement he utters another sound, which if I could manage to express it by letters, I should spell thus—whii-ur: this is repeated with great rapidity, a strong accent being laid on the two i-s, and the ur, or last ​syllable, seeming to proceed from a collapsing of the throat after its distension in pronouncing the first. With this cry he very frequently intermixes an other, something like clung, uttered very much as by a human voice, only a little wilder in the sound. The Ravens are excited to these cries when the shepherd or his dog seems likely to discover a carcase on which they have been rioting and feasting.
"In Ravens the senses of sight and smell are remarkably acute and powerful. Perched usually on some tall cliff that commands a wide survey, these faculties are in constant and rapid exercise, and all the movements of the bird are regulated in accordance with the information thus procured. The smell of death is so grateful to them that they utter a loud croak of satisfaction instantly on perceiving it. In passing over sheep, if a tainted smell is perceptible, they cry vehemently. From this propensity in the Raven to announce his satisfaction in the smell of death, has probably arisen the common notion that he is aware of its approach among the human race, and foretells it by his croakings. I have no doubt the idea is founded in truth, although I think the coming event is not communicated to the Raven by an immediate or supernatural impulse, but that in passing over a human habitation from which a sickly or cadaverous smell may escape, it is perfectly natural for him to announce his perception of it by his cries.
"The Raven lives at perpetual variance with all the other feathered tribes. Even those species which are far his superiors he annoys incessantly with his attacks, especially when loaded with ​food, carrying it either to their young or to a spot where they can devour it without interruption. I once saw a Goshawk carrying what I supposed to be a Grouse; this was evidently dead, and sticking out behind the bird, gave it a very curious appearance. Three or four Corbies were high in the air, making from every quarter repeated attacks on the Goshawk, and endeavouring to rob him of his prey. At length one of them was just striking the noble bird, when, relaxing his hold, the dead creature, whatever it might be, fell straight for the earth. The Hawk dived after it with a rapidity perfectly astonishing, and, I think, before it had descended thirty fathoms, struck his talons into it, and bore it safely away from among his angry assailants.
"Nor is this enmity with the Corbie confined to the feathered tribes: sundry of our quadrupeds live in constant warfare with the ill-conditioned fowl. If you see a Corbie hovering and screaming over a linn or athwart the face of a rock, you may be sure that some animal has attracted his attention. Perhaps a fox is basking on a sunny slope; or the wild cat, cautiously seeking a safe footing whence to spring on some unwary bird that has its nest among the cliffs; or perhaps the supple weasel, sporting about, or examining every cranny to find a safe retreat: I have seen the Corbie vexing each of these. The fox will sometimes stretch up his neck and snap at his assailant, when he has made a sudden dive, but the bird eludes the danger, and continues his persecution as before.
"The Corbie, thus feared by some creatures, hated by others, and most especially detested by ​the shepherd, on account of certain bloody designs against his fleecy charge, whenever driven by hunger to the attack, makes his nest in the deepest retirement, in solitude the most inaccessible. He selects a leafless, sapless branch of some stunted tree, a mountain-birch or service, jutting out from the face of a perpendicular rock, and hanging over an abyss hundreds of fathoms deep, the bottom often beset with sharp and pointed rocks. It makes one shudder to think of a living creature being precipitated from the top; yet here the female Corbie sits secure, and far more fearless, in far less agitation of spirits, than if her nest were placed in a flowery meadow. The nest is constructed of the decayed stems of heather, skilfully and carefully wattled together with twigs of other trees. A layer of moss is next supplied to fill the interstices, and thus render the mass more compact; this layer is thickest at the bottom, and in places, where the outwork of heather has been made too slight, the inside is partially lined with sprigs of the fly-bent, but principally with wool. Here are deposited the eggs, and here the callow brood are fed and nourished, and kept dry and warm. The eggs are five, six, or seven in number, of a bluish colour, blotched with irregular spots of brown. The order in which they are deposited is scarcely ever seen, for it rarely happens that a human being can approach sufficiently near for that purpose. The young Corbies, however, are seldom permitted to escape; for the shepherd, seeking the spot, perilous though it be, smashes the eggs with stones hurled from above, and batters the nest to pieces. He sometimes postpones his ​revenge until the young ones, full grown and fat, are peeping over the brink of the nest, and almost ready to abandon it altogether. He would always delay his attack till this period, but as the young advance in age and size, the more extensively and recklessly do their parents cater for their support.
"When Ravens set out on a long journey they always travel in pairs, and so high in the air, that were it not for their frequent crying, they would escape notice altogether. So great is the height at which they fly, that no cliff or peak, however lofty, can cause them to swerve from the direct course on which they are bent."
In the southern parts of Britain, where precipitous rocks are uncommon, the Raven usually selects as its breeding-place some lofty tree, using the same for successive years. White, in his charming "Natural History of Selborne," has mentioned such an one, and recorded the tragical fate of its possessor. "In the centre of this grove," says he, "there stood an oak, which, though shapely and tall on the whole, bulged out into a large excrescence about the middle of the stem. On this a pair of Ravens had fixed their residence for such a series of years, that the oak was distinguished by the title of the Raven-tree. Many were the attempts of the neighbouring youths to get at this eyry; the difficulty whetted their inclinations, and each was ambitious of surmounting the arduous task. But when they arrived at the swelling, it jutted out so in their way, and was so far beyond their grasp, that the most daring lads were awed, and acknowledged the undertaking to be too ​hazardous. So the Ravens built on, nest upon nest, in perfect security, till the fatal day arrived in which the wood was to be levelled. It was in the month of February, when those birds usually sit. The saw was applied to the butt, the wedges were inserted in the opening, the wood echoed to the heavy blows of the beetle or mallet, the tree nodded to its fall; but still the dam sat on. At last, when it gave way, the bird was flung from her nest; and though parental affection deserved a better fate, was whipped down by the twigs, which brought her dead to the ground."
Family II. Paradiseadæ
(Birds of Paradise.)
The Family which we come now to describe, though very limited in extent, contains the most singular and the most magnificent of the feathered tribes. Natives of the remote island of New Guinea, to which they are almost confined, for a long time they were known to Europe only by the mutilated skins which from time to time found their way hither, among the rarities of Indian commerce, and by the strange and extravagant fables with which tradition had embellished their history. Natural history with our forefathers was very largely fabulous, but with no animals had fiction been more busy than with these Birds of Paradise. "From one fabulist to another came the tradition (losing nothing, as is usual with traditions, in its descent), that these 'gay creatures of the element' passed their whole existence in ​sailing in the air, where all the functions of life were carried on, even to the production of their eggs and young. The dew and the vapours were said to be their only food, nor were they ever supposed to touch the earth till the moment of their death, never taking rest except by suspending themselves from the branches of trees by the shafts of the two elongated feathers which form a characteristic of this beautiful race. The various names applied to them kept up the delusion that originated in the craft of the inhabitants of the eastern countries where they are found; for the natives scarcely ever produced a skin in former times from which they had not carefully extirpated the feet. Nor was it only the extreme elegance and richness of their feathers that caused these birds to be sought as the plume for the turbans of oriental chiefs; for he who wore that plume, relying implicitly on the romantic accounts of the life and habits of the bird, and impressed with its sacred names, believed that he bore a charmed life, and that he should be invulnerable even where the fight raged most furiously."
The sober accounts of honest travellers, as Pigafetta, Bontius, and others, who described the birds from their own observation as having feet, and as feeding on small birds and large insects,—were rejected with contempt by closet naturalists, and they themselves were accused, in no measured terms, of falsehood. Even after specimens had been brought to Holland, with their feet attached, and after the enumeration in the published Catalogue of Tradescant's Museum in England, of "Birds of Paradise, or Manucodiata, whereof ​divers sorts, some with, some without legs," Jonston, in Holland, could still write oracularly. "It is peculiar to them all to be without feet; although Aristotle asserts that no bird is without feet, and Pigafetta assigns to them feet a hand-breadth in length." So difficult is the eradication of a favourite fable!
In their general structure, the Birds of Paradise have a considerable resemblance to the Crows, which they approach also in size; the skins which are brought to Europe being evidently much contracted by the great heat employed in drying them. They have the beak long, strong, with the upper outline curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is notched; the base of the upper mandible is concealed by short feathers, which also cover the nostrils. The wings are long and rounded; the tail varying in length, even at the extremity, or else rounded. The feet (tarsi) are robust, long, and covered by a single lengthened scale; the toes long and strong, especially the hind-toe; the claws long, strong, and curved. The sides of the body, the neck, the breast, the tail, and sometimes the head are ornamented with lengthened and peculiarly developed showy feathers; the plumage of the face and throat is commonly of a scaly or velvety texture, and most richly glossed with metallic reflections, and other parts of the body are frequently arrayed in rich and brilliant hues.
Genus Samalia. (Vieill.)
The species of the Birds of Paradise, though not exceeding seven in number, yet present so ​much diversity as to be divided into several genera. Of these the genus Samalia, which contains the species best known, is thus characterized.
BIRDS OF PARADISE. (Samalia apoda et Lophorina superba.)
The beak is robust, convex above, furnished at the base with velvet feathers, straight, compressed at the sides, and jagged towards the tip. The sides of the belly and the flanks are adorned with ​very long, flexible, decomposed feathers; or else the back of the neck is furnished with elevated plumes, stiff, and of moderate length.
The Great Emerald (Samalia apoda, Linn.), represented in the upper figure of the above engraving, is about as large as a pigeon; the body generally is of a fine maronne brown, the fore-head clothed with close-set feathers of a velvety black, shot with emerald-green; the top of the head and upper part of the neck are brilliant yellow; the upper part of the throat golden-green; the front of the neck violet-brown; the flanks are adorned with bundles of very long plumes, with loose beards of a yellowish hue; these extend far beyond the tail-feathers; two long horny and downy shafts, set with stiff hairs, terminating in a point, proceed from the sides of the rump, and sweeping in a circular direction extend to the length of two feet. This is the description of the male; the female is destitute of the long floating plumes, and her coat, though still richly coloured, is less lustrous than that of her consort.
Our knowledge of these beautiful birds in a state of nature is almost entirely due to the observations of M. Lesson, who, though he laments the shortness of his stay at New Guinea, which lasted but thirteen days, appears to have made good use of his time. "The Birds of Paradise," remarks this naturalist, "or, at least, the Emerald (S. apoda) the only species concerning which we possess authentic intelligence, live in troops in the vast forests of the country of the Papuans, a group of islands situated under the equator. … They are birds of passage, changing their quarters according to the monsoons. The females congregate in ​troops, assemble upon the tops of the highest trees in the forests, and all cry together to call the males. These last are always alone in the midst of some fifteen females, which compose their seraglio, after the manner of the gallinaceous birds."
M. Lesson, after remarking that the number of birds brought to the ship by the natives was so great as to make it probable that they are very abundant, proceeds thus:—
"The Manucode (Cincinnurus regius, Vieill.) presented itself twice in our shooting excursions, and we killed the male and female. This species would seem to be monogamous, or perhaps it is only separated into pairs at the period of laying. In the woods this bird has no brilliancy; its fine coloured plumage is not discovered, and the tints of the female are dull. It loves to take its station on the teak trees, whose ample foliage shelters it, and whose small fruit forms its nourishment.
"Soon after my arrival in this land of promise for the naturalist [New Guinea], I was on a shooting excursion. Scarcely had I walked some hundred paces in those ancient forests, the daughters of time, whose sombre depth was perhaps the most magnificent and stately sight that I had ever seen,–when a Bird of Paradise struck my view; it flew gracefully, and in undulations; the feathers of its sides formed an elegant and aerial plume, which, without exaggeration, bore no remote resemblance to a brilliant meteor. Surprised, astounded, enjoying an inexpressible gratification, I devoured this splendid bird with my eyes; but my emotion was so great that I forgot to shoot at it, and did not recollect that I had a gun in my hand till it was far away.
MANUCODE.
"One can scarcely have a just idea of the Paradise-birds from the skins which the Papuans sell to the Malays, and which come to us in ​Europe. These people formerly hunted the birds to decorate the turbans of their chiefs. They call them mambéfore in their language, and kill them during the night by climbing the trees where they perch, and shooting them with arrows made for the purpose, and very short, which they make with the stem of the leaves of a palm. … All the art of the inhabitants is directed to taking off the feet, skinning, thrusting a little stick through the body, and drying it in the smoke. Some, more adroit, at the solicitation of the Chinese merchants, dry them with the feet on. The price of a Bird of Paradise among the Papuans of the coast, is a piastre at least. We killed, during our stay at New Guinea, a score of these birds, which I prepared, for the most part.
"The Emerald, when alive, is of the size of a common Jay; its beak and its feet are bluish; the irides are of a brilliant yellow; its motions are lively and agile; and, in general, it never perches except upon the summit of the most lofty trees. When it descends, it is for the purpose of eating the fruits of the lesser trees, or when the sun in full power compels it to seek the shade. It has a fancy for certain trees, and makes the neighbourhood re-echo with its piercing voice. The cry became fatal, because it indicated to us the movements of the bird. We were on the watch for it, and it was thus that we came to kill these birds; for when a male Bird of Paradise has perched, and hears a rustling in the silence of the forest, he is silent, and does not move. His call is voike, voike, voike, voiko, strongly articulated. The cry of the female is the same, but she raises it much more feebly. The latter, deprived of the ​brilliant plumage of the male, is clad in sombre attire. We met with them, assembled in scores, on every tree, while the males, always solitary, appeared but rarely.
"It is at the rising and setting of the sun that the Bird of Paradise goes to seek its food. In the middle of the day it remains hidden under the ample foliage of the teak-tree, and comes not forth. He seems to dread the scorching heat of the sun, and to be unwilling to expose himself to the attacks of a rival. …
"In order to shoot Birds of Paradise, travellers, who visit New Guinea, should remember that it is necessary to leave the ship early in the morning, to arrive at the foot of a teak-tree or fig-tree, which these birds frequent for the sake of their fruit, before half-past four, and to remain motionless till some of the males, urged by hunger, light upon the branches within range. It is indispensably requisite to have a gun which will carry very far with effect, and that the grains of shot should be large; for it is very difficult to kill an Emerald outright; and if he be only wounded, it is very seldom that he is not lost in thickets so dense that there is no finding the way without a compass."
In Mr. Bennett's "Wanderings in New South Wales," &c., there are many interesting details of an individual of this beautiful species, which he saw in captivity in Mr. Beale's aviary at Macao; both this specimen, and a pair which M. Lesson saw caged at Amboyna, were fed with boiled rice, and such large insects as grasshoppers and cock-roaches.
Family III. Sturnidæ.
(Starlings.)
The extensive and widely distributed Family before us, comprises species, for the most part, above the average size of Passerine birds, but yet inferior to the Crows. They are in general social, associating in flocks, often immensely numerous; feeding much on the ground, and spreading destruction among the cultivated fields, or following herds of cattle for the sake of the parasitical insects which infest their bodies, or such as they disturb from the grass on which they graze. Hence their legs and feet are robust and powerful, and their gait stately, and frequently swaggering, like that of the Corvidæ. Their beak is nearly straight, stout at the base, diminishing regularly to a sharp point, which is not distinctly notched; the ridge ascends upon the forehead, dividing the plumage of that part. The texture of this organ is particularly hard and firm, and its form is well adapted to the penetration of the earth in search of worms and subterranean larvæ.
The plumage of the Starlings, though commonly of dark colours, has a peculiar richness; black, glossed with lustrous reflections of steel-blue, purple, or green, is the prevailing hue. Occasionally, however, this is relieved by brighter tints, as broad masses of crimson or yellow, and, in a few instances, of white; as in the genera Icterus, Xanthornis, and others. The numerous species are scattered over every part of the world.
Genus Sturnus. (Linn.)
The beak in the Starlings proper is almost straight, pointed, depressed from the base, rather wider than high; the ridge convex and rounded, the point almost imperceptibly notched. The nostrils are basal, and lateral, partially closed by a prominent membrane. The wings are lengthened and pointed; the first feather so short as to be rudimentary, the second the longest; the tail short, somewhat forked. The feet are of moderate size, formed for walking; the lateral toes equal in length, and united to the middle one as far as the first joint.
We have but one British representative of this genus, the common Starling, or Stare (Sturnus vulgaris, Linn.), but this is abundant in most parts of the kingdom. It is a beautiful bird, both in its form, and in the colours of its plumage, which, combining with its sprightly manners, its intelligence, docility, memory, and power of imitating various sounds, have made it a general favourite. The general hue of the plumage is almost black, glossed with brilliant purple and green reflections in the changing lights; the feathers are tipped with triangular points of yellowish-white, which gives an agreeable character of star-like dotting to the whole; in the course of the winter, many of these points fall off, particularly on the under parts, when the plumage is more uniform in hue. The beak is brilliant yellow.
"The Starling," observes Bechstein, "becomes wonderfully familiar in the house; as docile and cunning as a dog; he is always gay, wakeful, soon ​knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself to their humours. In his solemn tottering step, he appears to go stupidly forward; but nothing escapes
STARLING
his eye. He learns to pronounce words without having his tongue cut, which proves the uselessness of this cruel operation. He repeats correctly the airs which are taught him, as does also the female, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the room with ​him. It must be owned that his acquirements are very uncertain; he forgets as fast as he learns, or he mixes up the old and new in utter confusion. … Not only are the young susceptible of these instructions, the oldest even shew the most astonishing docility."
In our own country the Starling appears to be partially migratory; large numbers, that during the summer were spread over the kingdom, accumulating in winter in the most southern counties, as Devonshire and Cornwall; returning thence as soon as the frosty weather has broken up. Some, however, even in the north, content themselves with a removal to the sea side, where, even in the hardest weather, they can find subsistence in the marine worms and polypes, in obtaining which they display much ingenuity. Insinuating its sharp pointed beak under the rounded pebbles of the beach, the Starling skilfully turns them over with a sudden jerk, and immediately seizes and devours whatever may have been sheltered beneath.
At the breeding season these birds frequent old ruined buildings, church-steeples, or even inhabited houses, hollow and decayed trees in lonely woods, or rocky cliffs overhanging the sea. But at other times they resort to low, marshy grounds, covered with reeds or beds of osiers, among which they roost nightly in incredible numbers. About an hour before dark all the hosts that have been feeding in the vicinity congregate into one vast phalanx, which, before they retire to rest, perform the most complex and beautiful evolutions, wheeling and sweeping in the air, separating and uniting, forming the most regular and varied ​figures, as if animated by a common impulse, or obeying a definite word of command. They will form themselves into a triangular body, so compact as not to permit the sky to be seen between them, then shoot into a long pear-shaped figure, expand like a sheet, wheel into a ball, as Pliny long ago observed, each individual apparently striving to get into the centre, with a promptitude more like that of an army under review than the actions of birds. At length, after many feints to alight and resumptions of the aerial manoeuvres, the whole army descends upon the reeds with much clamour, which is kept up for some time after they have taken their places for the night.
Of these peculiarities in the economy of this bird, Mr. Yarrell has furnished some interesting illustrations. "I am indebted," observes this eminent zoologist, "to the kindness of the late Dr. Goodenough, Dean of Wells, for the following account of an extraordinary haunt of Starlings on the estate of W. Miles, Esq., at King's Weston:—'This locality is an evergreen plantation of arbutus, laurustinus, &c., covering some acres, to which these birds repair in an evening–I was going to say, and I believe I might with truth say—by millions, from the low grounds about the Severn, where their noise and stench are something altogether unusual. By packing in such myriads upon the evergreens, they have stripped them of their leaves, except just at the tops, and have driven the Pheasants, for whom the plantation was intended, quite away from the ground. In the daytime, when the birds are not there, the stench is still excessive. Mr. Miles was about to cut the whole plantation down to get rid of them, two ​years ago, but I begged him not to do so, on account of the curiosity of the scene, and he has since been well pleased that he abstained.'
"Another instance of a similar character was communicated to me in March last (1845), by Robert Ball, Esq., of Dublin. 'In the mass of thorn-trees at the upper end of the Zoological Garden in the Phoenix Park, sleep every night, from the end of October to about the end of March, from 150,000 to 200,000 Starlings. This enormous number may appear an exaggeration, yet it is the estimate of many observations. When these Starlings were first observed, they were estimated at from 15,000 to 20,000; but during three years they seem to have increased tenfold.'"
The simple nest of the Starling is composed of twigs, slender roots, dry leaves, grass, straw, and feathers. Like the Swallows, it often returns to the same nest year after year only taking care to clean it out. It lays, twice in the year, from four to seven eggs, of a delicate pale blue or ashy green hue, which are hatched in about sixteen days. In some parts of Germany, the peasants breed Starlings like domestic pigeons; they eat the young, which they take before they are fully fledged; thus they obtain three broods, the last of which, however, they do not molest, both in order not to discourage the parent birds, and also not to diminish this branch of economy
A communication to the pages of the "Zoologist," from Dr. Morris of York, contains some interesting particulars of these birds' nest-building. "I stood this morning," observes the Doctor, ​"for nearly an hour, watching a pair of Starlings. They had chosen a hole in a tree close to me for their nest, in the construction of which the female alone was engaged: the male sate near, looking on, but never fetching any materials; he seemed to be a sort of guard or sentinel, as he repeatedly drove off some sparrows that were too inquisitive as to the progress the nest was making. The female, in her arduous task, made on an average, by my watch, three trips per minute, with small twigs and bits of dry grass, which she picked up near the tree. Sometimes she took three or four small ones at one time, so that at this rate, supposing her to work for only six hours, she would have brought together upwards of a thousand sticks, &c., which would be more than sufficient to form her nest."
Mr. Jesse, noticing the difference of character among birds, describes that of the Starling in the following terms:—" There is a great variety of character amongst birds; some appear moping and melancholy, and others full of joy and hilarity. One variety of bird (the Titmouse) is always restless and on the move, while another, the Heron, for instance, is grave and thoughtful in its habits, and slow and methodical in its movements. The bird, however, which amuses me most, is the Starling. There is an oddity in all he does; he appears curious and observant; in short, a sort of Paul Pry amongst his species. He has a great deal of sociability and amusing fun in his disposition, accompanied by great restlessness, and yet apparent good fellowship and good humour. The Jackdaw comes next to him in these respects; but I know of no bird whose character is more ​strongly marked than that of the Starling. He is easily tamed, and when in a state of confinement his good spirits do not forsake him, and he appears to reconcile himself to his situation with great philosophy."
Family IV. Fringilladæ.
(Finches.)
The great strength thus communicated to the beak, well adapts it for the functions it is ordained to perform, for the food of these birds consists very largely of seeds, often inclosed in ​woody capsules of great hardness, or the kernels of stone-fruits, which must either be opened by a forcible wrench, or crushed by strong pressure. At the season of incubation, many species live extensively on caterpillars, and the larvae of other insects, with which the young are almost exclusively fed; and there are some numerous genera, in which a fruit or seed diet is at all times largely varied by insects. In such cases, as the Tanagers for example, the upper mandible is more or less obviously notched at the tip, as in the slender-billed Dentirostres; and, for the same purpose, the more secure holding of a living and active prey.
The Finches are spread over the whole world, as might be supposed of so very extensive a Family; in general, the individuals of each species are abundant, and many associate in flocks. They are considered to possess the peculiarities of the Class in very high development; they are in general much admired for their clean neat appearance, their often brilliant colours, their docility of manners, and their sprightliness; and these qualities, united with their small size, the facility of supplying them with food, and the power of song with which very many species are endowed, render them the most suitable of all birds for the confinement of a cage;—hence they are general favourites in the houses of the rich and the poor.
Genus Carduelis. (Briss.)
We have, in the Goldfinches, an example of the Fringilladæ with the beak of only moderate thickness, or which might even be characterized ​as slender, but of very regularly conic form. It is rather lengthened, compressed, and drawn to a sharp point, the edges slightly curved; the nostrils are placed on each side of the base, covered by small feathers. The wings are long and pointed; the first, second, and third quills nearly equal, and longest. The tail is of moderate length, and forked. The legs and feet are somewhat short; the lateral toes equal; the claws curved, slender, and acute.
With the exception of the Canary, there is no cage-bird which is so universal a favourite as the pretty common Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans, Steph.), and none more deservedly so. The cleanness and smoothness of its chastely-coloured body-plumage, its crimson head, admirably set off with white and velvet-black, its tail and wings of black, tipped with white, and the broad band of rich golden yellow, which crosses the latter, render it one of the most beautiful of British birds. It is characterized, moreover, by an extreme docility. It may be readily taught to draw its own food and water from reservoirs, by means of a little bucket attached to a cord; and actions much more wonderful than this, individuals have been trained to perform. Exhibitions are by no means rare, in the metropolis, of Finches of this and other species, brought to perform many amusing tricks, and to go through complicated and difficult manoeuvres with precision at the word of command, and even to stand discharges of gunpowder without manifesting any signs of fear. The Sieur Roman, who some years ago exhibited Goldfinches, Linnets, and Canaries in this country, had brought them to a surprising pitch of ​obedient docility. One would feign to be dead, and suffer itself to be held up by the tail or claw, without exhibiting any signs of life; another would stand on its head, elevating its tail and feet in the air; a third would imitate a Dutch milkmaid
GOLDFINCH.
going to market with her pails on her shoulders; a fourth mimicked a Venetian girl looking out at a window; a fifth represented a soldier, mounting guard as a sentinel; a sixth was a cannonier, with a cap on its head, a firelock on its shoulder, and a match in its claws, with which it discharged a little cannon. This bird also pretended to be wounded, and was wheeled in a barrow to the hospital, after which, to shew that its misfortune was only feigned, it flew away before the ​company. A seventh turned a sort of windmill; and an eighth stood in the midst of some fireworks which were discharged all round it, without exhibiting the least symptoms of terror.
The attachment which the Goldfinch often displays towards its master or mistress, is another pleasing trait in its character. Instances of its recognition of persons, with confiding familiarity towards them, are sufficiently common. The following example is given by the translator of the English edition of Bechstein's Cage-Birds:—"Madame——had a Goldfinch that never saw her go out without making every effort in his power to quit his cage and follow her, and welcomed her return with every mark of extreme delight; as soon as she approached, a thousand little actions shewed his pleasure and satisfaction; if she presented her finger, he caressed it a long time, uttering a low joyous murmur. This attachment was so exclusive, that if his mistress, to prove it, substituted another person's finger for her own, he would peck it sharply, while one of his mistress's placed between two of this person's, would be immediately distinguished and caressed accordingly."
The song of the Goldfinch is cheerful and pleasing, though it lacks the depth of tone, and rich variety of modulation, which marks that of some of the Thrushes and Warblers. "It is a mixture of tones and harmonies," says Bechstein, "more or less dwelt upon, and the oftener the sound fink is introduced, the more it is admired amongst us. There are some Goldfinches that utter it only once or twice in their strains, while ​others will repeat it four or five times following." It has the advantage, also, of being continued in confinement during the greater part of the year, being interrupted only during the period of moulting.
In a wild state this beautiful and pleasant little bird is found in all parts of Europe; it is spread commonly, though not abundantly, over the British Islands, decreasing, however, towards the northern parts. It flits hither and thither in small flocks, frequenting, in spring, gardens and orchards. In the autumn and winter, the flocks are somewhat more numerous, being reinforced by the birds of the season, and they now seek waste places occupied by syngenesious plants, or such as have their seeds often furnished with down, arranged on a sort of head or broad cushion. The common thistles are great favourites with this bird; and hence both its scientific appellation of Carduelis (cardials, a thistle, Lat.), and its German name of Distelfink, or Thistle-finch. The groundsel, also, which ripens its seed throughout the whole year, is eagerly sought by the Goldfinch.
"I love to hear the Goldfinch twit and twit. And see him pick the groundsel's feathered seeds; And then in bower of apple-blossom perched, Trim his gay suit, and pay us with a song."
"If watched," observes Mr. Yarrell, "while thus feeding, they may be seen climbing and clinging in all directions about the stems, picking out their favourite portions. If approached too near, the little party, one by one, move off to the next ​nearest patch, with undulating flight, twittering as they rise:—
'Each outstretched wing A fairy fan, with golden sticks adorned,'
and thus roving in small flocks, through the autumn and winter, living almost entirely on various seeds, particularly those of the different species of thistle, they perform good service to the agriculturist by consuming the prolific source of many a noxious weed."
There is no European bird that equals the Goldfinch in the beauty, compactness, and neatness of its nest. It is often built on a fruit tree in the orchard, on some small and weak branch. The outer part is composed of fine moss, lichen, blades of grass, fine twigs and roots, wool, cotton, worsted, &c., all beautifully felted together, and rounded so that no ragged ends shall project; and lined with down from the catkins of the willow, with feathers and hair, made very smooth. But birds in general will take the materials that they can most readily obtain, provided these can be adapted to their purpose. "On the 10th of May, 1792," remarks Bolton, "I observed a pair of Goldfinches beginning to make their nest in my garden; they had formed the groundwork of moss, grass, &c., as usual, but on my scattering small parcels of wool in different parts of the garden, they in a great measure left off the use of their own stuff, and employed the wool. Afterwards I gave them cotton, on which they rejected the wool, and proceeded with the cotton; the third day I supplied them with fine down, on which they forsook both the other, and finished their ​work with this last article. The nest when completed was somewhat larger than is usually made by this bird, but retained the pretty roundness of figure, and neatness of workmanship which is proper to the Goldfinch. The nest was completed in the space of three days, and remained unoccupied for the space of four days, the first egg not being laid till the seventh day from beginning the work."
NEST OF GOLDFINCH.
The Goldfinch raises but one brood in the season. The eggs are four or five in number; of a pale bluish hue, marked with red spots and freckles, mingled with streaks and dashes of purplish ​brown, often forming a rude crown around the larger end.
In addition to the poetical allusions to this favourite bird, already quoted, we subjoin the accurate description of its nest by Grahame, the biographer of the birds of Scotland :—
"The Goldfinch weaves, with willow-down inlaid,
And cannach-tufts, his wonderful abode.
Sometimes, suspended at the limber end
Of plane-tree spray, among thg broad-leafed shoots,
The tiny hammock swings to every gale;
Sometimes in closest thickets 'tis concealed;
Sometimes in hedge luxuriant, where the briar,
The bramble, and the plum-tree branch,
Warp through the thorn, surmounted by the flowers
Of climbing vetch, and honeysuckle wild."
Family V. Coliadæ.
(Colies)
A few singularly-formed birds constitute the present Family, whose relations have been the subject of considerable diversity of opinion among ornithologists. Their beak is short, powerful, conical, somewhat compressed at the sides, the two mandibles being arched, the point of the upper slightly overhanging the lower. The feathers of the tail are much graduated, exceedingly long and rigid; they are but ten in number, thus varying from what is customary among birds, the almost constant number being twelve, and agreeing in this respect with the Swifts; as they do also in another remarkable peculiarity, that the hind toe is capable of being turned forwards, so that all the four toes point in one direction. These ​coincidences in structure with the Swifts, in points almost exclusively peculiar to them, are the more singular, because these birds do not manifest any affinity, nor even resemblance in their general form, or in their habits.
The Colies are birds confined to Africa and India; they live much in trees, climbing about somewhat in the manner of Parrots; they are social in disposition, living in large flocks, and even breeding in society, constructing numerous nests in the same bushes. It is reported that they sleep suspended from a branch, with their heads downwards, many of them together; and that when the weather is cold, as it sometimes is in South Africa, they are found so benumbed in the morning, that they may be readily taken one after another, without an effort to escape. This curious statement is given by no less accurate an observer than Le Vaillant.
Genus Colius. (Gmel.)
​The plumage of these birds is short, dense, and smooth, with a silky appearance; the feathers of the body are furnished with an accessory plume, those on the lower part of the back are very short, those of the head are lengthened, forming a long pointed crest, which can be erected at pleasure. The prevailing colours are sombre, as grey or ashen, from which circumstance, and from that of their crawling about trees, they are denominated at the Cape of Good Hope, Muys-vögel, or Mouse-birds.
These birds subsist mainly on fruits, the buds of trees, and the tender sprouts of vegetables; from the mischief which they do in the gardens of the colonists, devouring the shoots of the culinary plants as fast as they appear, they are much disliked. They walk badly on the ground, but are expert climbers, clinging to the branches in all sorts of attitudes. They sail from bush to bush in a long row, one after another, alighting always near the ground, and clambering to the topmost twigs, with the assistance of their beak and long stiff tail, picking off the buds or berries as they ascend; and they do not pass to the next bush till the whole flock is ready, when they again sail along in the same regular succession. Their cry is monotonous, the windpipe (trachea) being furnished with only a single pair of vocal muscles; and that of the largest species is said to resemble the bleating of a lamb. Their bodies are much more heavy and massive than would be supposed at first appearance, the plumage lying very flat and close.
The nests of the Colies, which, as already remarked, are placed in groups, are spacious and of a round form; in each of these is deposited ​five or six eggs. Their flesh is said to be of delicate flavour, and is prized not only by man, as it constitutes the ordinary food of several species of birds of prey.
SENEGAL COLY.
We illustrate the genus, concerning which comparatively little is known, by the above species (Colius Senegalensis, Lath.), which, as its name ​imports, is a native of West Africa. The general hue of its plumage is pearl-grey, with greenish reflections; the forehead is yellow, and the abdomen ruddy: a naked reddish skin surrounds the eye.
Family VI. Musophagadæ.
(Plantain-eaters.)
This also is a Family of very limited extent, but its members are birds of unusual elegance and richness of plumage. They have a short beak, with the upper mandible high, and much arched in its superior outline, the edges cut into minute saw-like teeth; the lower mandible thin and narrow. The feet are short, and formed for climbing, the outer toe being capable of a partial reversion; it is, however, connected with the middle toe by a short membrane. The tail, as in the last Family, consists of but ten feathers. The nostrils are simply pierced in the horny substance of the beak. The plumage is, for the most part, adorned with brilliant colours, and the head is generally clothed with a long and elegant crest. The Plantain-eaters have been, by some ornithologists, supposed to approach the Gallinaceous birds; but this affinity seems not to be borne out by their anatomical structure. Mr. Yarrell having dissected a Touraco (Corythaix persa) which had died in the menagerie of the Zoological Society, found the general appearance of its internal anatomy inclining rather to the Passerine than to the Gallinaceous type. In their habits they display some affinity to the Toucans among the ​Scansores, with which they are probably connected by the intervention of the Hornbills, the Family which will next come under our notice. Mr. Swainson places them here, immediately before the Scansores, intermediate between the Finches and the Hornbills. He remarks that those which shew an affinity to the Bullfinches are small (referring here, we presume, to the Chilian Plant-cutter, Phytotoma); while others, whose size and peculiar structure assimilate them more to the Hornbills, are of a size proportionate to those birds; observing that they possess a short, but very strong and thick bill, more or less curved on the top, the cutting margins being minutely serrated like the teeth of a saw. Their food is stated to be entirely vegetable, and that of the most tender and delicate description; and Mr. Swainson remarks that it is singular to observe that the beak in this Family (in outward appearance much stronger than that of the Finches) should yet be employed in procuring the softest vegetable food; while the short beak, posterior nostrils, hopping gait, and purely vegetable food, are all exemplified in such birds as Buceros galeatus, and proclaim the affinity of the Plantain-eaters to the Hornbills.
These birds are confined to Africa, where they subsist almost exclusively on fruits: their movements are light and elegant in the extreme, in this respect, differing greatly from the Colies; they pass with an easy gliding flight from tree to tree. The first and fourth toes being directed laterally, they are said to perch, for the most part, lengthwise on the horizontal branches, along which they walk, clasping the bough with their ​two laterally disposed toes, while the other two are pointing forwards. They live either in pairs, or in families, according to the season; nest, like the Parrots, in the hollows of decayed trees, where they lay four eggs of a delicate whiteness.
Genus Corythaix. (Illig.)
The generic characters of the Touracos are the following:—The beak short, rather small, high, and greatly compressed; the frontal feathers reposing over, and concealing the nostrils: the ridge (culmen) high, and curving downwards to the tip: the lower mandible narrow: both mandibles distinctly notched at the tip, and finely serrated. The wings short, rounded; the first three quills graduated. The tail long, broad, and rounded at the extremity. The feet short, and strong; the middle toe longer than the tarsus; the lateral toes equal; the hind toe shortest; the external toe capable of being turned one fourth of the way backward. The claws short, thick, and much compressed.
The Touracos are among the most charming of birds, having not only brilliance of colour to recommend them, but great elegance of form, and grace of motion. Their long and broad tail, and their high pointed crest, add much to their beauty. Their colour is almost always rich green, set off with gorgeous crimson or purple on the expanded wing. One of the most lovely of the known species, which now amount to seven in all, is the Fire-crested Touraco (Corythaix erythrolophus, Vieill.) of Western Africa, an individual of which species lived for some time in the gardens of the ​Zoological Society in the Regent's Park. The crest, which is copious, is of a red hue; the sides of the head, the ears, and the chin, as well as a
FIRE-CRESTED TOURACO.
patch around the eye, are white; the eye itself is large, red, and brilliant; the general plumage is ​green, inclining to bluish on the under parts; the quill-feathers are rich purple or violet; the beak is yellow; the feet greyish-black. The long silky crest of this beautiful bird, when under any excitement, is elevated into a somewhat conical form, compressed at the sides; and, when erected, imparts to the head an appearance as if covered with a helmet. The generic name applied to the bird alludes to this fancied resemblance, the word Corythaix (κορνθαϊξ), signifying one that moves the helmet. In a state of repose the crest-feathers fall down upon the head, and project behind.
We know but little of the manners of the Touracos in their native forests. Le Vaillant informs us that they usually keep on the highest branches of lofty trees, where, to the no small irritation of the eager naturalist, they were beyond the reach of his fowling-piece. An accident, in connexion with one of these birds, occurred to that enterprising traveller, which might have proved as tragical to him, as a similar misfortune did to the unhappy Drummond in the Sandwich Islands. Having succeeded, after many efforts, in bringing a Touraco to the ground, Le Vaillant searched for it in vain, and stamping with rage at his disappointment, he broke through into one of the covered pits which the Hottentots constructed for the entrapping of the large and ferocious animals, particularly elephants. "As soon" observes the naturalist, "as I began to recover from my surprise, I looked round to see how I might extricate myself from my embarrassing position, extremely happy that I had not been impaled on the sharp-pointed stake, placed upright in the bottom of the pit, and no less rejoiced that I found in it no company. I ​was, however, apprehensive that some might arrive every moment, especially if I should be compelled to remain there all night." To obviate such a necessity, he fired his fowling-piece at intervals; and at length heard shots in reply, which proved to be those of his faithful Hottentot attendants, by whom he was quickly delivered from his perilous situation. He did not, however, forget his Touraco, the innocent occasion of his misfortune; and now, by the aid of the dogs, which had accompanied the Hottentots, it was at length found, squatting under a thick bush. He afterwards set snares for them upon the trees to which they resorted to feed, and by these means captured them alive.
Family VII. Bucerotidæ.
(Hornbills.)
The enormous development, and singular protuberances of the beak in this Family, at once arrest the attention of the observer. In many of the species this organ is not only considerably larger than the head, but has an immense projection on its summit of various uncouth form, sometimes resembling a horn, sometimes the crest of a helmet, &c., which not unfrequently encroaches upon the skull far up towards, or even beyond, the crown of the head. The edges of both mandibles are more or less notched or jagged very irregularly, as if chopped with a blunt knife; but this is observed only in adult birds, and may perhaps be the result of the hardness of some description of their food.
​The great size of the beak naturally induces the idea of great weight; and we wonder at the strength requisite for the bird to support and wield an organ so apparently heavy. The appearance, however, is deceptive; for by a beautiful provision of Creative wisdom, the horny case being thin, and the bony core being hollowed into numberless cells of various sizes and forms, with very thin walls between them, the requisite firmness of this organ is maintained, and associated with a surprising lightness.
HEAD OF BUCEROS NIPALENSIS.
The remaining characters of the Family may be thus briefly summed up. The nostrils are situated at the base of the beak, and are more or less rounded; the tongue is fleshy, and resembling that of the Accipitres, short and deep in the throat; the wings are rather short; the tail long, broad, and more or less rounded at the extremity, consisting of only ten feathers; the feet short, strong, and formed for walking and perching; ​the outmost and inmost toes are both united to the central one at the base; the claws are short and blunt.
The Hornbills are birds of large size; few are smaller than a Crow, and some are much larger than a Raven; they are generally clad in sombre plumage, frequently relieved, however, with white in large masses; the beak and naked skin of the face often display bright colours during life. Their distribution is limited to Africa, India, and the great adjacent islands.
The singular structure of these birds, and the paucity of our information concerning their habits in a state of nature, have caused much diversity of opinion as to their true position and affinities. It is now, however, pretty well agreed that their nearest relations are to the Crows on the one hand, and to the Toucans on the other, and that they thus form a very interesting link of connexion between the Passerine or perching and the Scansorial or climbing birds. Professor Owen, by his dissection of a young specimen of Buceros cavatus (Shaw) that died at the Gardens of the Zoological Society, discovered some curious particulars in its anatomy, which tended to indicate the true place of the Family, as just stated.
Genus Buceros. (Linn.)
The technical characters of this genus have already been sufficiently indicated in those of the Family; as the two solitary species which have been separated from all the others, to form distinct genera, differ only in some slight peculiarities in the structure of the feet.
​Upwards of twenty species of this genus are named, which are all natives of Africa, or India and its archipelago. Comparatively little is known of any of them, except so much as may be gained by inspection of their dried skins preserved in museums; though these evidences of their existence were very early objects of curiosity to Europeans, and conspicuously noted in catalogues, as "Horned Ravens," and "Rhinocerot-birds." Bontius, describing one under the name of "Indian Raven" (the Buceros hydrocorax of Linn.), which he met with in the Moluccas, observes, that it walks in the manner of the Crow of our countries, but differs much in disposition from our Crows, inasmuch as it feeds not on carrion, but most especially on nutmegs, devouring them so greedily as to do serious damage. Its flesh is very delicate, and when roasted has an aromatic flavour, evidently derived from its food. Of another species, "the Horned Indian Raven, or Topan, called the Rhinocerot-bird," he says, "This horned bird, as it casts a strong smell, so it hath a foul look, much exceeding the European Raven in bigness. It lives upon carrion and garbage, that is, the carcasses and entrails of animals; and waits upon the hunters who kill wild cattle, boars, and stags, to gorge itself with the offals." Major-General Hardwicke, in his account of Buceros galeatus, Linn., in the " Linnean Transactions," vol. xiv., thus describes the habits of the Hornbills generally:—"The progressive motion of the birds of this genus, although their feet are formed for walking, is always by jumping or hopping. I have kept several species alive, and they all moved in the same manner. In a state of ​nature these birds, in this part of India (Malacca), live on wild fruits. In confinement they feed freely on plantains and on boiled rice. At night they perch with great security, though the largeness of the foot seems better suited to rest on the ground." Other writers state that these birds feed also upon small quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, pressing them flat in their beak, then tossing them in the air, catching them in the throat, and swallowing them whole. In this latter habit, no less than in the omnivorous character of their appetite, the Hornbills present a remarkable resemblance to the Toucans.
Mr. G. R. Gray, in his beautiful work on "The Genera of Birds," thus sums up the habits of this singular genus:—" They are usually observed singly, or in small or large parties, in the dense forests or jungles, perched or squatted longitudinally on the highest branches, especially those of elevated and decayed trees in the neighbourhood of rivers. On the approach of day-light they leave their roosting-places, and proceed to the neighbouring forests in search of fruit-bearing trees, hopping from branch to branch for the fruits which constitute their food; and when evening returns they again repair to the place that they had left at day-light. When they have cleared one neighbourhood of its food, they resort to a fresh locality; which occasions them to be observed at different periods in various places.... Their flight is heavy and straight, generally at a considerable height; and they make a remarkable noise in striking the air with their wings. The cry consists of a short hoarse croak, but when the bird is excited this is changed to a ​loud discordant noise. They perforate the trunks of trees from the side, making a hollow in the wood, in which the nest is formed; and the female usually lays four eggs." The noise alluded to in the above description, produced by the flapping of their heavy wings in flight, combined with that occasioned by the clattering of their mandibles, is said to be so great as to inspire terror, when the cause is unknown; and to resemble those flaws of rough and sudden winds, which often rise so unexpectedly in tropical regions, and blow so violently. The larger species are extremely shy, and difficult of approach: like some of the Corvidæ, they usually perch on the leafless branches of the loftiest trees, when their vision, unimpeded by foliage, ranges over a wide extent.
The singular excrescences which in most of the species arise from the beak, sometimes equalling that organ, large as it is, in size, not only in different species vary much in form and size, but even in the same species at different stages of its life; indeed, in very young birds there is no trace of its existence. The perpendicular furrows which are seen on the sides of the upper mandible, are supposed by the Europeans resident in the Moluccas to be dependent on age, one being acquired every season; and hence they give the Hornbills the appellation of Jerar-vogel, or Year-birds. We have remarked on its lightness, owing to its cellular structure, permeated by air; but it is also observable that the bones of the body and limbs are more completely penetrated by this ​fluid than those of any other birds; for Professor Owen found that air passed into the extreme bones of the wing, and into the joints of the toes. The eyelids are fringed with stout and stiff lashes, the object of which may be to protect the eyes
HORNBILL
from particles of dust and rotten wood falling on them, when engaged in excavating decayed trees for the purpose of incubation. The Crotophaga, whose beak presents an analogy to that of the Hornbills, has the eyes similarly protected: this bird, however, does not excavate trees.
​"We select for illustration of the genus the Concave Hornbill (Buceros cavatus, Shaw), a specimen of which lived for sometime at the menagerie of the Zoological Society in the Regent's Park. It is thus described. The throat and face are black; the neck dirty straw-yellow, the feathers of the nape greatly lengthened: the body and wings black, the quills and their coverts tipped with white; the tail white, crossed with a band of black; its coverts, both above and below, are also white. The feet are black, and the beak yellowish, inclining to scarlet at the tip.
The Concave Hornbill is a native of India, the Himalayan mountains, Java, and most of the great islands adjacent. "Its food," observes Mr. Gould, "like that of other Hornbills, consists of fruits, berries, flesh, and even carrion; in short, it may be considered as strictly omnivorous." Professor Owen remarks that the specimen dissected by him was observed when alive to be more attached to animal than to vegetable food, and would quit any other substance, if a dead mouse were offered to it. This it would swallow entire, after squeezing it twice or thrice with the beak, and no castings were noticed. Petiver, however, has borne testimony to its habit of regurgitation.
Respecting the purpose to be fulfilled by the great size and remarkable appurtenances of the beak in this genus, we have nothing better to offer than ingenious conjectures: as a specimen of which we may quote the remarks of an eminent zoologist, Mr. W. C. L. Martin, though they do not appear to us very satisfactory. "Active and alert, notwithstanding the magnitude of their ​beaks, these birds lightly traverse the branches of the forests and leap from one to another till the highest is attained: they then often stop and utter a loud roaring sound, which may be heard at a considerable distance..... The noise thus uttered, and which is most probably their call-note, throws a light upon the design of the hollow protuberance surmounting the bill; it acts as a sounding-board, increasing the reverberations of the air. With regard to the huge beak itself, many conjectures have been entertained as to its peculiar uses. It has been suggested as a reason for its development, that it perhaps constitutes a necessary weapon of defence against monkeys and other animals, which may seek to assail its nest; while some have supposed that it might be employed in dragging snakes and lizards from their lurking places, or young birds and eggs from the recesses of the trunks of aged trees."
* ↑ The Prince of Canino, however, and some other ornithologists distinguish the American Raven as the Corvus catototl, Wagl.
* ↑ Zoologist, i. 215.
* ↑ White's Selborne, Letter I. First series.
* ↑ Penny Cyclop. iv. 419.
* ↑ Voyage de la Coquille.
* ↑ Cage-birds (Lond. 1838), p. 187.
* ↑ Brit. Birds, ii. 43.
* ↑ Bechstein.
* ↑ Gleanings, 177.
* ↑ Syme's Brit. Song-birds.
* ↑ Hurdis's Evening Walk.
* ↑ Brit. Birds, i. 541.
* ↑ Harmonia Ruralis, Pref. vi.
* ↑ Birds of Scotland, 49.
* ↑ The Humming-birds, however, have also but ten tail-feathers; the Poultry-birds have from fourteen to eighteen.
* ↑ Our engraving is copied from a figure in the "Penny Cyclopædia," xvi. 30, which was taken from this specimen during life.
* ↑ The knife-like ridge on the summit of the beak in Crotophaga ani, is in like manner totally wanting in the young bird; as we have found by personal observation.
* ↑ Gould's Cent, of Birds.
* ↑ Pict. Mus. i. 350.