# Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology/Chapter 12

CHAPTER XII.
§ 531-555.—THE GEOLOGICAL AGENCY OF THE WINDS.
531. The sea and air regarded as parts of the same machine.—Properly to appreciate the various offices which the winds and the waves perform, we must regard nature as a whole, for all the departments thereof are intimately connected. If we attempt to study in one of them, we often find ourselves tracing clews which insensibly lead us off into others, and before we are aware, we discover ourselves exploring the chambers of some other department. The study of drifts takes the geologist out to sea, and reminds him that a knowledge of waves, winds, and currents, of navigation and hydrography, are closely and intimately connected with his speciality. The astronomer directs his telescope to the most remote star or to the nearest planet in the sky, and makes an observation upon it. He cannot reduce this observation, nor make any use of it, until he has availed himself of certain principles of optics—until he has consulted the thermometer, gauged the atmosphere, and considered the effect of heat in changing its powders of refraction. In order to adjust the pendulum of his clock to the right length, he has to measure the water of the sea and weigh the earth. He, too, must therefore go into the study of the tides; he must examine the earth's crust, and consider the matter of which it is composed, from pole to pole, circumference to centre; and in doing this, he finds himself, in his researches, alongside of the navigator, the geologist, and the meteorologist, with a host of other good fellows, each one holding on by the same thread, and following it up into the same labyrinth—all, it may be, with different objects in view, but nevertheless, each one feeling sure that ho is to be led into chambers where here are stores of knowledge and instruction especially for him. And thus, in undertaking to explore the physical geography of the sea, I have found myself standing side by side with the geologist on the land, and with him, far away from the sea-shore, engaged ​in considering marine fossils, changes of climates, the effects of deserts upon the winds, or the influence of mountains upon rains, or some of the many phenomena which the inland basins of the earth—those immense indentations on its surface that have no sea-drainage—present for contemplation and study.
532. The level of the Dead Sea.—Among the most interesting of these last is that of the Dead Sea. Lieutenant Lynch, of the United States Navy, has run a level from that sea to the Mediterranean, and finds the former to be about one thousand three hundred feet below the general sea-level of the earth. In seeking to account for this great difference of water-level, the geologist examines the neighbouring region, and calls to his aid the forces of elevation and depression which are supposed to have resided in the neighbourhood; he then points to them as the agents which did the work. Truly they are mighty agents, and they have diversified the surface of the earth with the most towering monuments of their power. But is it necessary to suppose that they resided in the vicinity of this region? May they not have come from the sea, and been, if not in this case, at least in the case of other inland basins, as far removed as the other hemisphere? This is a question which I do not pretend to answer definitely. But the inquiry as to the geological agency of the winds in such cases is a question which my investigations have suggested. It has its seat in the sea, and therefore I propound it as one which, in accounting for the formation of this or that inland basin, is worthy, at least, of consideration.
633. An ancient river from it.—Is there any evidence that the annual amount of precipitation upon the water-shed of the Dead Sea, at some former period, was greater than the annual amount of evaporation horn it now is? If yea, from what part of the sea did the vapour that supplied the excess of that precipitation come, and what has cut off that supply? The mere elevation of the rim and depression of the lake basin would not cut it off. If we establish the fact that the Dead Sea at a former period did send a river to the ocean, we carry along w4th this fact the admission that when that sea overflowed into that river, then the water that fell from the clouds over the Dead Sea basin was more than the winds could convert into vapour and carry away again; the river carried off the excess to the ocean whence it came (§ 267).
534. Precipitation and evaporation in the Dead Sea valley.—In the ​basin of the Dead Sea, in the basin of the Caspian, of the Sea of Aral, and in the other inland basins of Asia, we are entitled to infer that the precipitation and evaporation are at this time exactly equal. Were it not so, the level of these seas would be rising or sinking. If the precipitation were in excess, these seas would be gradually becoming fuller; and if the evaporation were in excess, they would be gradually drying up; but observation does not show, nor history tell us, that either is the case. As far as we know, the level of these seas is as permanent as that of the ocean, and it is difficult to realize the existence of subterranean channels between them and the great ocean. Were there such a channel, the Dead Sea being the lower, it would be the recipient of ocean waters ; and we cannot conceive how it should be such a recipient without ultimately rising to the level of its feeder.
535. Whence come its rains?—It may be that the question suggested by my researches has no bearing upon the Dead Sea; that local elevations and subsidences alone were concerned in placing the level of its waters where it is. But is it probable that throughout all the geological periods, during all the changes that have taken place in the distribution of land and water surface over the earth, the winds, which in the general channels of circulation pass over the Dead Sea, have alone been unchanged? Throughout all ages, periods, and formations, is it probable that the winds have brought us just as much moisture to that sea as they now bring, and have just taken up as much water from it as they now carry off? Obviously and clearly not. The salt-beds, the water-marks, the geological formations, and other facts traced by Nature's own hand upon the tablets of the rock, all indicate plainly enough that not only the Dead Sea, but the Caspian also, had upon them, in former periods, more abundant rains than they now have. Where did the vapour for those rains come from? and what has stopped the supply? Surely not the elevation or depression of the Dead Sea basin. My researches with regard to the winds have suggested the probability (§ 290) that the vapour which is condensed into rains for the lake valley, and which the St. Lawrence carries off to the Atlantic Ocean, is taken up by the south-east trade winds of the Pacific Ocean. Suppose this to be the case, and that the winds which bring this vapour arrive with it in the lake country at a mean dew-point of 50°. Let us also admit the south-west winds to be the rain ​winds for the lakes generally, as well as for the Mississippi Valley; they are also, speaking generally, the rain winds of Europe, and, I have no doubt, of extra-tropical Asia also.
536. The influence of mountain ranges.—Now suppose a certain mountain range, hundreds of miles to the south-west of the lakes, but across the path of these winds, with their dew-point at 50°, were to be suddenly elevated, and its crest pushed into the regions of snow, having a mean temperature at its summit of 30° Fahrenheit. The winds, in passing that range, would be subjected to a mean dew-point of 30°; and, not meeting (§ 297) with any more evaporating surface between such range and the lakes, they would have no longer any moisture to deposit at the supposed lake temperature of 50°; for they could not yield their moisture to anything above 30°. Consequently, the amount of precipitation in the lake country would fall off; the winds which feed the lakes would cease to bring as much water as the lakes now give to the St. Lawrence. In such a case, that river and the Niagara would drain them to the level of their own beds; evaporation would be increased by reason of the dryness of the atmosphere and the want of rain, and the lakes would sink to that level at which, as in the case of the Caspian Sea, the precipitation and evaporation would finally become equal.
537. How the level of Caspians is reduced.—There is a self-regulating principle that would bring about this equality; for as the water in the lakes becomes lower, the area of its surface would be diminished, and the amount of vapour taken from it would consequently become less and less as the surface was lowered, until the amount of water evaporated would become equal to the amount rained down again, precisely in the same way that the amount of water evaporated from the sea is exactly equal to the whole amount poured back into it by the rains, the fogs, and the dews. Thus the great lakes of this continent would remain inland seas at a permanent level; the salt brought from the soil by the washings of the rivers and rains would cease to be taken off to the ocean as it now is; and finally, too, the great American lakes, in the process of ages, would become first brackish, and then briny. Now suppose the water basins which hold the lakes to be over a thousand fathoms (six thousand feet) deep. We know they are not more than four hundred and ​twenty feet deep; but suppose them to be six thousand feet deep. The process of evaporation, after the St. Lawrence has gone dry, might go on until one or two thousand feet or more were lost from the surface, and we should then have another instance of the level of an island water-basin being far below the sea-level, as in the case of the Dead Sea; or it would become a rainless district, when the lakes themselves would go dry. Or let us take another case for illustration. Corallines are at work about the Gulf Stream; they have built up the Florida Reefs on one side, and the Bahama Banks on the other. Suppose they should build up a dam across the Florida Pass, and obstruct the Gulf 'Stream? and that, in like manner, they were to connect Cuba with Yucatan by damming up the Yucatan Pass, so that the waters of the Atlantic should cease to flow into the Gulf of Mexico. What should we have? The depth of the marine basin which holds the waters of that Gulf is, in the deepest part, about a mile. We should therefore have, by stopping up the channels between the Gulf and the Atlantic, not a sea-level in the Gulf, but we should have a mean level between evaporation and precipitation. If the former were in excess, the level of the Gulf waters would sink down until the surface exposed to the air would be just sufficient to return to the atmosphere, as vapour, the amount of water discharged by the rivers—the Mississippi and others—into the Gulf. As the waters were lowered, the extent of evaporating surface would grow less and less, until Nature should establish the proper ratio between the ability of the air to take up and the capacity of the clouds to let down. Thus we might have a sea whose level would be much farther below the water-level of the ocean than is the Dead Sea.
538. The formation of inland basins—a third process.—There is still another process, besides the one already alluded to, by which the drainage of these inland basins may, through the agency of the winds, have been cut off by the great salt seas, and that is by the elevation of continents from the bottom of the sea in distant regions of the earth, and the substitution caused thereby of dry land instead of water for the winds to blow upon. Now suppose that a continent should rise up in that part of the ocean, wherever it may be, that supplies the clouds with the vapour that makes the rain for the hydrographic basin of the great American lakes. What would be the result? Why, surely, fewer clouds and less rain, which would involve a change of ​climate in the lake country; an increase of evaporation from it, because a decrease of precipitation upon it; and, consequently, a diminution of cloudy screens to protect the waters of the lakes from being sucked up by the rays of the sun; and consequently, too, there would follow a low stage for water-courses, and a lowering of the lake-level would ensue.
539. Examples.—So far, I have instanced these cases only hypothetically; but, both in regard to the hydrographical basins of the Mexican Gulf and American lakes, I have confined myself strictly to analogies. Mountain ranges have been upheaved across the course of the winds, and continents have been raised from the bottom of the sea; and, no doubt, the influence of such upheavals has been felt in remote regions by means of the winds, and the effects which a greater or less amount of moisture brought by them would produce. In the case of the Salt Lake of Utah, we have an example of drainage that has been cut off, and an illustration of the process by which Nature equalizes the evaporation and precipitation. To do this, in this instance, she is salting up the basin which received the drainage of this inland water-shed. Here we have the appearance, I am told, of an old channel by which the water used to flow from this basin to the sea. Supposing there was such a time and such a water-course, the water returned through it to the ocean was the amount by which the precipitation used to exceed the evaporation over the whole extent of country drained through this now dry bed of a river. The winds have had something to do with this; they are the agents which used to bring more moisture from the sea to this water-shed than they carried away; and they are the agents which now carry off from that valley more moisture than is brought to it, and which, therefore, are making a salt-bed of places that used to be covered by water. In like manner, there is evidence that the great American lakes formerly had a drainage with the Gulf of Mexico; for boats or canoes have been actually known, in former years, and in times of freshets, to pass from the Mississippi River over into the lakes. At low water, the bed of a dry river can be traced between them. Now the Salt Lake of Utah is to the southward and westward of our northern lake basin; that is the quarter (§ 357) whence the rain-winds have been supposed to come. May not the same cause which lessened the precipitation or increased the evaporation in the Salt Lake water-shed, have done the same for the water-shed of the great ​American system of lakes? If the mountains to the west—the Sierra Nevada, for instance—stand higher now than they formerly did, and if the winds which feed the Salt Lake valley with precipitation formerly had, as I suppose they now have, to pass the summits of these mountains, it is easy to perceive why the winds should not convey as much vapour across them now as they did when the summit of the range was lower and not so cool. The Andes, in the trade-wind region of South America, stand up so high, that the wind, in order to cross them, has to part with all its moisture (§ 297), and consequently there is, on the west side, a rainless region. Now suppose a range of such mountains as these to be elevated across the track of the winds which supply the lake country with rains; it is easy to perceive how the whole country to the leeward of such range, and now watered by the vapour which such winds bring, would be converted into a rainless region. I have used these hypothetical cases to illustrate a position which any philosopher, who considers the geological agency of the winds, may with propriety consult, when he is told of an inland basin the water-level of which, it is evident, was once higher than it now is; and that position is that, though the evidences of a higher water-level be unmistakable and conclusive, it does not follow therefore that there has been a subsidence of the lake basin itself, or an upheaval of the water-shed drained by it. The cause which has produced this change in the water level, instead of being local and near, may be remote; it may have its seat in the obstructions to "the wind in his circuits," which have been interposed in some other quarter of the world, which obstructions may prevent the winds from taking up or from bearing off their wonted supplies of moisture for the region whose water-level has been lowered.
540. The influence of the South American continent upon the climate of the Dead Sea.—Having therefore, I hope, made clear the meaning of the question proposed, by showing the manner in which wands may become important geological agents, and having explained how the upheaving of a mountain range in one part of the world may, through the winds, bear upon the physical geography of the sea, affect climates, and produce geological phenomena in another, I return to the Dead Sea and the great inland basins of Asia, and ask, How far is it possible for the elevation of the South American continent, and the upheaval of its mountains, to have had any effect upon the water-level of those ​seas? There are indications (§ 535) that they all once had a higher water-level than they now have, and that formerly the amount of precipitation was greater than it now is; then what has become of the sources of vapour? What has diminished its supply? Its supply would be diminished (§ 638) either by the substitution of dry land for water-surface in those parts of the ocean which used to supply that vapour; or the quantity of vapour deposited in the hydrographical basins of those seas would have been lessened if a snow-capped range of mountains {§ 536) had been elevated across the path of these winds, between the places where they were supplied with vapour and these basins. A chain of evidence which it would be difficult to set aside is contained in the chapters IV., VI., and VII., going to show that the vapour which supplies the extra-tropical regions of the north with rains comes, in all probability, from the trade-wind regions of the southern hemisphere.
541. The path of the S.E. trade-winds over into the northern hemisphere.—Now if it be true that the trade-winds from that part of the world take up there water which is to be rained in the extra-tropical north, the path ascribed to the south-east trades cf Africa and America, after they descend and become the prevailing south-west winds of the northern hemisphere, should pass over a region of less precipitation generally than they would do if, while performing the office of south-east trades, they had blown over water instead of land. The south-east trade-winds, with their load of vapour, whether great or small, take, after ascending in the equatorial calms, a north-easterly direction; they continue to flow in the upper regions of the air in that direction until they cross the tropic of Cancer. The places of least rain, then, between this tropic and the pole, should be precisely those places which depend for their rains upon the vapour which the winds that blow over south-east trade-wind Africa and America convey. Now, if we could trace the path of the winds through the extra-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere, we should be able to identify the track of these Andean winds by the droppings of the clouds; for the path of the winds which depend for their moisture upon such sources of supply as the dry land of Central South America and Africa cannot overshadow a country that is watered well. It is a remarkable fact that the countries in the extra-tropical regions of the north that are situated to the north-east of the south-east ​trade-winds of South Africa and America—that these countries, over which theory makes these winds to blow, include all the great deserts of Asia, and the districts of least precipitation in Europe. A line from the Galapagos Islands through Florence in Italy, another from the mouth of the Amazon through Aleppo in Holy Land (Plate VII.), would, after passing the tropic of Cancer, mark upon the surface of the earth the route of these winds; this is that "lee country" (§ 298) which, if such be the system of atmospherical circulation, ought to be scantily supplied with rains. Now the hyetographic map of Europe, in Johnston's beautiful Physical Atlas, places the region of least precipitation between these two lines (Plate VII.).
542. Relays for supplying them with vapour by the way.—It would seem that Nature, as if to reclaim this "lee" land from the desert, had stationed by the wayside of these winds a succession of inland seas to serve them as relays for supplying them with moisture. There is the Mediterranean, with its arms, the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, all of which are situated exactly in this direction, as though these sheets of water were designed, in the grand system of aqueous arrangements, to supply with fresh vapour winds that had already left rain enough behind them to make an Amazon and an Orinoco of. Now that there has been such an elevation of land out of the water, we infer from the fact that the Andes were once covered by the sea, for their tops are now crowned with the remains of marine animals. When they and their continent were submerged—admitting that Europe in general outline was then as it now is—it cannot be supposed, if the circulation of vapour were then such as it is supposed now to be, that the climates of that part of the Old World which is under the lee of those mountains were then as scantily supplied with moisture as they now are. When the sea covered South America, nearly all the vapour which is now precipitated upon the Amazonian water-shed was conveyed thence by the winds, and distributed, it may be supposed, among the countries situated along the route (Plate VII.) ascribed to them.
543. Adjustments in this hygrometry of Caspians.—If ever the Caspian Sea exposed a larger surface for evaporation than it now does—and no doubt it did; if the precipitation in that valley ever exceeded the evaporation from it, as it does in all valleys drained into the open sea, then there must have been a change of hygrometrical conditions there. And admitting the ​vapour-springs for that valley to be situated in the direction supposed, the rising up of a continent from the bottom of the sea, or the upheaval of a range of mountains in certain parts of America, Africa, or Spain, across the route of the winds which brought the rain for the Caspian water-shed, might have been sufficient to rob them of the moisture which they were wont to carry away and precipitate upon this great inland basin. See how the Andes have made Atacama a desert, and of Western Peru a rainless country: these regions have been made rainless simply by the rising up of a mountain range between them and the vapour-springs in the ocean which feed with moisture the winds that blow over those now rainless regions.
544. Countries in the temperate zone of this hemisphere that are under the lee of land in the trade-wind regions of the other are dry countries.—That part of Asia, then, which is under the lee of southern trade-wind Africa, lies to the north of the tropic of Cancer, and between two lines, the one passing through Cape Palmas and Medina, the other through Aden and Delhi. Being extended to the equator, they will include that part of it which is crossed by the continental south-east trade-winds of Africa after they have traversed the greatest extent of land surface (Plate VII.). The range which lies between the two lines which represent the course of the American winds with their vapours, and the two lines which represent the course of the African winds with their vapours, is the range which is under the lee of winds that have, for the most part, traversed water surface or the ocean in their circuit as south-east trade-winds. But a bare inspection of Plate VII. will show that the south-east trade-winds which cross the equator between longitude 15° and 50° west, and which are supposed to blow over into this hemisphere between these two ranges, have traversed land as well as water; and the Trade-wind Chart shows that it is precisely those winds which, in the summer and fall, are converted into south-west monsoons for supplying the whole extent of Guinea with rains to make rivers of. Those winds, therefore, it would seem, leave much of their moisture behind them, and pass along to their channels in the grand system of circulation, for the most part, as dry winds. Moreover, it is not to be supposed that the channels through which the winds blow that cross the equator at the several places named are ​as sharply defined in nature as the lines suggested, or as Plate VII. would represent them to be.
545. Their situation, and the range of dry minds.—The whole region of the extra-tropical Old World that is included within the ranges marked is the region which has most land to windward of it in the southern hemisphere. Now it is a curious coincidence, at least, that all the great extra-tropical deserts of the earth, with those regions in Europe and Asia which have the least amount of precipitation upon them, should lie within this range. That they are situated under the lee of the southern continents, and have but little rain, may be a coincidence, I admit; but that these deserts of the Old World are placed where they are is no coincidence—no accident: they are placed where they are, and as they are, by design; and in being so placed, it was intended that they should subserve some grand purpose in the terrestrial economy. Let us see, therefore, if we can discover any other marks of that design—any of the purposes to be subserved by such an arrangement—and trace any connection between that arrangement and the supposition which I maintain as to the place where the winds that blow over these regions derive their vapours. It will be remarked ,at once that all the inland seas of Asia, and all those of Europe except the semi-fresh-water gulfs of the north, are within this range. The Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, the Black, and the Caspian, all fall within it. And why are they planted there? Why are they arranged to the north-east and south-west under this lee, and in the very direction in which theory makes this breadth of thirsty winds to prevail? Clearly and obviously, one of the purposes in the divine economy was, that they might replenish with vapour the winds that are almost vapourless when they arrive at these regions in the general system of circulation. And why should these winds be almost vapourless? They are almost vapourless because their route, in the general system of circulation, is such, that they are not brought into contact with a water-surface from which the needful supplies of vapour are to be had; or, being obtained, the supplies have since been taken away by the cool tops of mountain ranges over which these winds have had to pass.
546. The Mediterranean within it.—In the Mediterranean, the evaporation is greater than the precipitation. Upon the Red Sea there never falls a drop of rain; it is all evaporation. Are ​we not, therefore, entitled to regard the Red Sea as a make-weight, thrown in to regulate the proportion of cloud and sunshine, and to dispense rain to certain parts of the earth in due season and in proper quantities? Have we not, in these two facts evidence conclusive that the winds which blow over these two seas come, for the most part, from a dry country—from regions which contain few or no pools to furnish supplies of vapour?
547. Heavy evaporation.—Indeed, so scantily supplied with vapour are the winds which pass in the general channels of circulation over the water-shed and sea-basin of the Mediterranean, that they take up there more water as vapour than they deposit as rain. But, throwing out of the question what is taken up from the surface of the Mediterranean itself, these winds deposit more water upon the water-shed whose drainage leads into the sea than they take up from it again. The excess is to be found in the rivers which discharge themselves into the Mediterranean; but so thirsty are the winds which blow across-the bosom of that sea, that they not only take up again all the water that those rivers pour into it, but they are supposed by philosophers to create a demand for an immense current from the Atlantic to supply the waste. It is estimated that three times as much water as the Mediterranean receives from its rivers is evaporated from its surface. This may be an over-estimate, but the fact that evaporation from it is in excess of the. precipitation, is made obvious by the current which the Atlantic sends into it through the Straits of Gibraltar; and the difference we may rest assured, whether it be much or little, is carried off to modify climate elsewhere—to refresh with showers and make fruitful some other parts of the earth.
548. The winds that give rains to Siberian rivers have to cross the steppes of Asia.—The great inland basin of Asia, which contains the Sea of Aral and the Caspian, is situated on the route which this hypothesis requires these thirsty winds from south-east trade-wind Africa and America to take; and so scant of vapour are these winds when they arrive in this basin, that they have no moisture to leave behind; just as much as they pour down they take up again and carry off. We know (§ 267) that the volume of water returned by the rivers, the rains, and the dews, into the whole ocean, is exactly equal to the volume which the whole ocean gives back to the atmosphere; as far as our ​knowledge extends, the level of each of these two seas is as permanent as that of the great ocean itself. Therefore, the volume of water discharged by rivers, the rains, and the dews, into these two seas, is exactly equal to the volume which these two seas give back as vapour to the atmosphere. These winds, therefore, do not begin permanently to lay down their load of moisture, be it great or small, until they cross the Oural Mountains. On the steppes of Issam, after they have supplied the Amazon and the other great equatorial rivers of the south, we find them first beginning to lay down more moisture than they take up again. In the Obi, the Yenesi, and the Lena is to be found the volume that indicates the load of water which these winds have brought from the southern hemisphere, from the Mediterranean, and the Red Sea; for in these almost hyper-borean river-basins do we find the first instance in which, throughout the entire range assigned these winds, they have, after supplying the Amazon, etc., left more water behind them than they have taken up again and carried off. The low temperatures of Siberian Asia are quite sufficient to extract from these winds the remnants of vapour which the cool mountain-tops, and mighty rivers of the southern hemisphere have left in them.
549. How climates in one hemisphere depend upon the arrangement of land in the other, and upon the course of the winds.—Here I may be permitted to pause, that I may call attention to another remarkable coincidence, and admire the marks of design, the beautiful and exquisite adjustments that we here see provided, to insure the perfect workings of the great aqueous and atmospherical machine. This coincidence—may I not call it cause and effect?—is between the hygrometrical conditions of all the countries within, and the hygrometrical conditions of all the countries without, the range included within the lines which I have drawn (Plate VII.) to represent the route in the northern hemisphere of the south-east trade-winds after they have blown their course over the land in South Africa and America. Both to the right and left of this range are countries included between the same parallels in which it is, yet these countries all receive more water from the atmosphere than they give back to it again; they all have rivers running into the sea. On the one hand, there is in Europe the Rhine, the Elbe, and all the great rivers that empty into the Atlantic; on the other hand, there are in Asia the Ganges, and all the great Chinese rivers; and in ​North America, in the latitude of the Caspian Sea, is our great system of fresh-water lakes; all of these receive from the atmosphere immense volumes of water, and pour it back into the sea in streams the most majestic. It is remarkable that none of these copiously-supplied water-sheds have to the south-west of them, in the trade-wind regions of the southern hemisphere, any considerable body of land; they are, all of them, under the lee of evaporating surfaces in the trade-wind regions of the south. Only those countries in the extra-tropical north which I have described as lying under the lee of trade-wind South America and Africa are scantily supplied with rains. Pray examine Plate VII. in this connection. It tends to confirm the views taken in Chapter VII. The surface of the Caspian Sea is about equal to that of our lakes; in it, evaporation is just equal to the precipitation. Our lakes are between the same parallels, and about the same distance from the western coast of America that the Caspian Sea is from the western coast of Europe; and yet the waters discharged by the St. Lawrence give us an idea of how greatly the precipitation upon its hydrographic basin is in excess of the evaporation. To windward of the lakes, and in the trade-wind regions of the southern hemisphere, is no land; but to windward of the Caspian Sea, and in the trade-wind region of the southern hemisphere, there is land. Therefore, supposing the course of the vapour-distributing winds to be such as I maintain it to be, ought they not to carry more water from the ocean to the American lakes than it is possible for them to carry from the land—from the interior of South Africa and America—to the valley of the Caspian Sea? In like manner (§ 365), extra-tropical New Holland and South Africa have each land—not water—to the windward of them in the trade-wind regions of the northern hemisphere, where, according to this hypothesis, the vapour for their rains ought to be taken up: they are both countries of little rain; but extra-tropical South America has, in the trade-wind region to windward of it in the northern hemisphere, a great extent of ocean, and the amount of precipitation (§ 299) in extra-tropical South America is wonderful. The coincidence, therefore, is remarkable, that the countries in the extra-tropical regions of this hemisphere, which lie to the north-east of large districts of land in the trade-wind regions of the other hemisphere, should be scantily supplied with rains; and likewise that those so situated in the extra-tropical ​south, with regard to land in the trade-wind region of the north, should also be scantily supplied with rains.
550. Terrestrial adaptations.—Having thus remarked upon these dry coincidences, let us contemplate the beautiful harmony displayed in the arrangement of the land and water, as we find them along this conjectural "wind-road." (Plate VII.) Those who admit design in terrestrial adaptations, or who have studied the economy of cosmical arrangements, will not be loth to grant that by design the atmosphere keeps in circulation a certain amount of moisture; that the water of which this moisture is made is supplied by the aqueous surface of the earth, and that it is to be returned to the seas again through rivers and the process of precipitation; for were it not so, there would be a permanent increase or decrease of the quantity of water thus put and kept in circulation by the winds, which would be followed by a corresponding change of hygrometrical conditions, which, in turn, would draw after it permanent changes of climate; and permanent changes of climate would involve the ultimate well-being of myriads of organisms, both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The quantity of moisture that the atmosphere keeps in circulation is, no doubt, just that quantity which is best suited to the well-being,'and most adapted to the proper development of the vegetable and animal kingdoms; and that quantity is dependent upon the arrangement and the proportions that we see in nature between the land and the water—between mountain and desert, river and sea. If the seas and evaporating surfaces were changed, and removed from the places they occupy to other places, the principal places of precipitation probably would also be changed: whole families of plants would wither and die for want of cloud and sunshine, dry and wet, in proper proportions and in due season: and, with the blight of plants, whole tribes of animals would also perish. Under such a chance arrangement, man would no longer be able to rely upon the early and the latter rain, or to count with certainty upon the rains being sent in due season for seed-time and harvest. And that the rain will be sent in due season we are assured from on high; and when we recollect who it is that "sendeth" it, we feel the conviction strong within us, that He who sendeth the rain has the winds for his messengers; and that they may do his bidding, the land and the sea were arranged, both as to position and relative proportions, where they are, and as they are.
​551. The Red Sea and its vapours.—It should be borne in mind that, by this hypothesis, the south-east trade-winds, after they rise up at the equator (Plate I.), have to overleap the north-east trade-winds. Consequently, they do not touch the earth until near the tropic of Cancer (see the bearded arrows, Plate VII.), more frequently to the north than to the south of it; but for a part of every year, the place where these vaulting south-east trades first strike the earth, after leaving the other hemisphere, is very near this tropic. On the equatorial side of it, be it remembered, the north-east trade-winds blow; on the polar side, what were the south-east trades, and what are now the prevailing south-westerly winds of our hemisphere, prevail. Now examine Plate VII., and it will be seen that the upper half of the Red Sea is north of the tropic of Cancer; the lower half is to the south of it; that the latter is within the north-east trade-wind region; the former, in the region where the south-west passage winds are the prevailing winds. The River Tigris is probably evaporated from the upper half of this sea by these winds; while the north-east trade-winds take up from the lower half those vapours which feed the Nile with rain, and which the clouds deliver to the cold demands of the Mountains of the Moon. Thus there are two "wind-roads" crossing this sea: to the windward of it, each road runs through a rainless region; to the leeward there is, in each case, a river rained down. The Persian Gulf lies, for the most part, in the track of the south-west winds; to the windward of the Persian Gulf is a desert; to the leeward, the River Indus. This is the route by which theory would require the vapour from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf to be conveyed, and this is the direction in which we find indications that it is conveyed. For to leeward do we find, in each case, a river, telling to us, by signs not to be mistaken, that it receives more water from the clouds than it gives back to the wands.
552. Certain seas and deserts considered as counterpoises in the terrestrial machinery.—Is it not a curious circumstance, that the winds which travel the road suggested from the southern hemisphere should, when they touch the earth on the polar side of the tropic of Cancer, be so thirst}', more thirsty, much more, than those which travel on either side of their path, and which are supposed to have come from southern seas, not from southern lands? The Mediterranean has to give those winds three times as much vapour as it receives from them (§ 547); the Red Sea ​gives them as much as they can take, and receives nothing back in return but a little dew (§ 376); the Persian Gulf also gives more than it receives. What becomes of the rest? Doubtless it is given to the winds, that they may bear it off to distant regions, and make lands fruitful, that but for these sources of supply would be almost rainless, if not entirely arid, waste, and barren. These seas and arms of the ocean now present themselves to the mind as counterpoises in the great hygrometrical machinery of our planet.—As sheets of water placed where they are to balance the land in the trade-wind region of South America and South Africa, they now present themselves. When the foundations of the earth were laid, the Great Architect "measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out the heavens with a span, and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, "and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance;" and hence we know that they are arranged both according to proportion and to place. Here, then, we see harmony in the winds, design in the mountains, order in the sea, arrangement for the dust, and form for the desert. Here are signs of beauty and works of grandeur; and we may now fancy that, in this exquisite system of adaptations and compensations, we can almost behold, in the Red and Mediterranean Seas, the very waters that were held in the hollow of the Almighty hand when He weighed the Andes and balanced the hills of Africa in the comprehensive scales. In that great inland basin of Asia which holds the Caspian Sea, and embraces an area of one million and a half of geographical square miles, we see the water-surface so exquisitely adjusted, that it is just sufficient, and no more, to return to the atmosphere as vapour exactly as much moisture as the atmosphere lends in rain to the rivers of that basin—a beautiful illustration of the fact that the span of the heavens was meted out according to the measure of the waters. Thus we are entitled to regard (§ 542) the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and Persian Gulf as relays, distributed along the route of these thirsty winds from the continents of the other hemisphere, to supply them with vapours, or to restore to them that which they have left behind to feed the sources of the Amazon, the Niger, and the Congo.
553. Hypothesis supported by facts.—The hypothesis that the winds from South Africa and America do take the course through Europe and Asia which I have marked out for them (Plate VII.), is supported by so many coincidences, to say the least, that we ​are entitled to regard it as probably correct, until a train of coincidences at least as striking can be adduced to show that such is not the case. Returning once more to a consideration of the geological agency of the winds in accounting for the depression of the Dead Sea, we now see the fact palpably brought out before us, that if the Straits of Gibraltar were to be barred up, so that no water could pass through them, we should have a great depression of water-level in the Mediterranean. Three times as much water (§ 547) is evaporated from that sea as is returned to it through the rivers. A portion of water evaporated from it is probably rained down and returned to it through the rivers; but, supposing it to be barred up: as the demand upon it for vapour would exceed the supply by rains and rivers, it would commence to dry up; as it sinks down, the area exposed for evaporation would decrease, and the supplies to the rivers would diminish, until finally there would be established between the evaporation and precipitation an equilibrium, as in the Dead and Caspian Seas. But, for aught we know, the water-level of the Mediterranean might, before this equilibrium were attained, have to reach a stage far below that of the Dead Sea level. The Lake Tadjura is now in the act of attaining such an equilibrium. There are connected with it the remains of a channel by which the water ran into the sea; but the surface of the lake is now five hundred feet below the sea-level, and it is salting up. If not in the Dead Sea, do we not, in the valley of this lake, find outcropping some reason for the question, What have the winds had to do with the phenomena before us?
554. How, by the winds, the age of certain geological phenomena in our Hemisphere may he compared with the age of those in the other.—The winds, in this sense, are geological agents of great power. It is not impossible but that they may afford us the means of comparing, directly, geological events which have taken place in one hemisphere, with geological events in another: e.g., the tops of the Andes were once at the bottom of the sea.—which is the oldest formation, that of the Dead Sea or the Andes? If the former be the older, then the climate of the Dead Sea must have been hygrometrically very different from what it now is. In regarding the winds as geological agents, we can no longer consider them as the type of instability. We should rather treat them in the light of ancient and faithful chroniclers, which, upon being rightly consulted, will reveal to us truths that Nature has ​written upon their wings in characters as legible and enduring as any with which she has ever engraved the history of geological events upon the tablet of the rock.
555. The Andes older than the Dead Sea as an inland water.—The waters of Lake Titicaca, which receives the drainage of the great inland basin of the Andes, are only brackish, not salt. Hence we may infer that this lake has not been standing long enough to become briny, like the waters of the Dead Sea; consequently, it belongs to a more recent period. On the other hand, it will also be interesting to hear that my friend Captain [Francis] Lynch informs me that, in his exploration of the Dead Sea, he saw what he took to be the dry bed of a river that once flowed from it. And thus we have two more links, stout and strong, to add to the chain of circumstantial evidence going to sustain the testimony of this strange and fickle witness which I have called up from the sea to testify in this presence concerning the works of Nature, and to tell us which be the older—the Andes, watching the stars with their hoary heads, or the Dead Sea, sleeping upon its ancient beds of crystal salt.
* ↑ The quantity of dew in England is about five inches during a year.—Glaisher
* ↑ Series of Maury's Wind and Current Charts.
* ↑ Vide article "Physical Geography," Encyclopædia Britannica.