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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Segantini, Giovanni

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​SEGANTINI, GIOVANNI (1858–1899), Italian painter, was born at Arco in the Trentino on the 15th of June 1858. His mother, who died in 1863, belonged to an old family of the mountain country. His father, who' was a man of the people, went to Milan, whence he set forth with another son to seek his fortune, leaving Giovanni behind. At the age of seven the child ran away; he was found perishing of cold and hunger, and was obliged to earn his bread by keeping the flocks on thehills. He spent his long hours of solitude in drawing. Owing to his fame having reached the ears of a syndic, he was sent back to Milan; but, unable to endure domestic life, he soon escaped again, and led a wandering life till he met at Arco with his half-Brother, who offered him the place of cashier in his provision shop. After more flights and more returns, Segantini remained at Milan to attend classes at the Brera, earning a living meanwhile by giving lessons and painting portraits. His first picture, “The Choir of Sant Antonio,” was noticed for its powerful quality. After painting this, however, he shook himself free by degrees of academical teaching, as in his picture “The Ship.” He subsequently painted “The Falconer” and “The Dead Hero,” and then settled in Brianza, near Como. There he gave himself up to the study of mountain life, and became in truth the painter of ​the Alps. At this time he painted the “Ave Maria,” which took a gold medal at the Amsterdam Exhibition (1883), “Mothers,” “After a Storm in the Alps,” “A Kiss,” and “Moonlight Effect.” Deeply impressed by Millet, the artist nevertheless quickly strove to reassert his individuality, as may be seen in “The Drinking-place,” which gained a gold medal in Paris (1889), “In the Sheep-fold,” “By the Spinning-wheel,” and “ Ploughing in the Engadine,” for which he was awarded a gold medal at the Turin Exhibition (1892). Besides those works in which he studied simple effects of light and Alpine scenery, such as “Midday on the Alps” and “Winter at Savognino,” he also painted symbolical subjects: “The Punishment of Luxury,” and the “Unnatural Mothers” (in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool). Segantini died at Maloja in October 1899. An exhibition of his works was held in London, and afterwards at Brussels in 1899, and at Milan in 1900.
Authorities.—H. Zimmern, Magazine of Art (London, 1897); W. Ritter, Gazette des beaux-arts (Paris, 1898); Robert de la Sizeranne, Revue de l’art (Paris, 1899); and Revue des deux mondes (Paris, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Segesta

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​SEGESTA (Gr.Ἔγεστα), an ancient city of Sicily, 8 m. W.S.W. of the modern Alcamo and about 15 m. E.S.E. of Eryx. It was a city of the Elymi, but, though the Elymi were regarded as barbari, Segesta, in its relations with its neighbours, was almost like a Greek city. Disputes with Selinus over questions of boundary seem to have been frequent from 580 B.C. onwards. In 454 B.C. we hear of dealings—possibly even an alliance—with Athens (the authority is a fragmentary inscription, see E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, ii. 554), and in 426 an alliance was concluded by Laches. One of the ostensible objects of the Athenian expedition to Sicily in 415 was to aid Segesta against Selinus in a dispute, not only as to questions of boundary, but as to rights of marriage. After the Athenian débâcle, the Segestans turned to Carthage; but when Hannibal in 409 B.C. firmly established the Carthaginian power in western Sicily, Segesta sank to the position of a dependent ally, and was indeed besieged by Dionysius in 397, being at last relieved by Himilco. In 307 Agathocles marched on the city, massacred 10,000 men, sold the rest of the inhabitants into slavery and changed its name to Dicaeopolis; but it soon recovered its old name and returned to the Carthaginians. Early in the First Punic War, however, the inhabitants, having massacred the Carthaginian garrison and allied themselves with Rome, had to stand a severe siege from the Carthaginians. Segesta was treated with favour by the Romans, retaining its freedom and immunity from tithe; indeed it seems probable that the municipal constitution of Eryx was suppressed and its territory assigned to Segesta. It received Latin rights before Caesar's concession of them to the rest of Sicily.
The site is now absolutely deserted. The town lay upon the Monte Varvaro (1345 ft.); considerable remains of its external walls, of houses and of a temple of Demeter are to be seen. The theatre is well preserved: its diameter is 205 ft. It is partly hewn in the rock, the rest (especially the back wall of the stage) being of very roughly hewn, long, thin blocks of hard limestone, approximately rectangular, with smaller pieces filling up the interstices. To the W.N.W., 350 ft. below the theatre, is a temple, 2001/2 ft. long and 861/4 wide, including the steps: it is a hexastyle peripteros, and has 36 columns, 29 ft. in height, 61/2 ft. in lower diameter. The building was, however, not completed; the cella was never built, and the columns, not having been fluted, have a heavy appearance. It is, however, extremely well preserved. Its style p aces the date of its construction between 430 and 420, so that the interruption of the work must be due to the events of 416 or of 409 B.C. The Thermae Segestanae were situated about 5 m. to the north on the road to Castellammare: the hot springs are still in use. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Segusio

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​SEGUSIO (mod. Susa, q.v.), an ancient town in north Liguria, the capital of the Cottii (see Cottii Regnum). Here the son of King Donnus, Cottius—who held the rank of imperial praefect over the fourteen tribes over which his father had ruled as king, so that in the inscription he calls himself “M. Iulius regis Donni f(ilius) Cottius praefectus civitatium quae subscriptae sunt”—erected a triumphal arch in honour of Augustus in 9–8 B.C., which is still standing. The style of the sculptures on the frieze is quite barbaric, with archaic elements, and is probably derived from Gaul. His tomb, situated near the city walls, mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, has long since disappeared. Claudius restored the royal titles to the family; but, after the death of its last member, Nero made the district into a province, and the town into a municipium. It was strongly fortified and garrisoned, and remains of its walls, including those of a double-arched gate, exist, while inscriptions testify to its importance, one of them mentioning baths erected by Gratian. Constantine captured the town, which offered some resistance to him, on his march against Maxentius.
See F. Genin, Susa Antica (Saluzzo, 1886); E. Ferrero, L’Arc d’Auguste à Suse (Turin, 1901); F. Studniczka, Jahrbuch des K. D. archäologischen Instituts, xviii. (1903), 1 sqq.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Segesvár

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​SEGESVÁR (Ger. Schässburg), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Nagy-Küküllö, 126 m. S.E. of Koloszvár by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,857. Amongst the principal buildings are a Gothic church of the 15th century, the town and county hall, a German gymnasium with a good collection of antiquities, and the municipal museum. In front of the county hall is a bronze statue of the Hungarian poet Alexander Petöfi (1823–1849), erected in 1897. Segesvár has a good woollen and linen trade, as well as exports of wine and fruit.
Segesvár was founded by Saxon colonists at the end of the 12th century; its Latin name was Castrum Sex. Here, on the 31st of July 1849, the Hungarian army under Bem was defeated by the overwhelming numbers of the Russian General Lüders. Petöfi is generally believed to have met his end in this battle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Segovia (province)

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​SEGOVIA, a province of central Spain, formerly part of Old Castile, bounded on the N. and N.E. by the provinces of Burgos and Soria, S.E. by Guadalajara and Madrid, S.W. by Avila, and N.W. by Valladolid. Pop. (1900) 159,243; area, 2635 sq. m. The greater portion of the country consists of an arable tableland, some 2500 ft. above the sea, monotonous enough in appearance, and burnt to a dull brown during summer, but yet producing some of the finest corn in the Peninsula. Along the whole south-eastern boundary the Sierra de Guadarrama rises up suddenly, like a huge barrier, separating Old from New Castile and the basin of the Duero from that of the Tagus. The province is well watered by the streams which rise in the Guadarrama range and How northwards to the Duero, and by careful irrigation. The Eresma, Cega, Duraton and Riaza are the principal watercourses. Except the capital, Segovia, there is no town of more than 5000 inhabitants; but Sepulveda and other small towns contain monuments of some historical and ecclesiastical interest. At the foot of the Navacerrada pass lies the royal demesne and summer residence of La Granja (q.v.). After the completion (1883) of the railway from Medina del Campo to the city of Segovia, and its subsequent extensions to Madrid and Aranda de Duero, the towns adjoining these lines showed signs of increased prosperity and animation. There are manufactures on a small scale of coarse pottery, dyes, paper, alcohol, rosin, hats, pins and needles, flour, oil and beer. Such prosperity, however, as Segovia retains is dependent upon its agricultural produce—wheat, rye, barley, peas, hemp, flax, &c.—together with the rearing of sheep, cattle, mules and pigs. There are extensive forests in the sierras, which yield excellent granite, marble and limestone; but the difficulty of transport has prevented any systematic development of these resources.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sehore

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SEHORE, a British station in Central India, within the state of Bhopal, with a station on the Bhopal-Ujjain section of the Indian Midland railway, 24 m. E. from Bhopal. Pop. (1901) 16,864. It is the headquarters of the political agent for Bhopal, and a British military cantonment. For many years it was also the headquarters of the Bhopal contingent, raised in 1818, which was in 1903 incorporated in the Indian army. It is an important centre of trade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo, Herennius

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​PHILO, HERENNIUS, of Byblus, Greek grammarian, was born, according to Suidas, in A.D. 42. He lived into the reign of Hadrian, of which he wrote a history, now lost. He was the author of various works: On the Acquisition and Choice of Books; On Cities and their Famous Men, epitomized by the grammarian Aelius Serenus, and one of the chief authorities used by Hesychius and Stephanus of Byzantium; On Synonyms, of which there is extant an epitome by Ammonius Grammaticus. But he is chiefly known for his translation of the Phoenician history of Sanchuniathon, who was said to have lived before the Trojan war Of this work considerable fragments have been preserved, chiefly by Eusebius in the Praeparatio evangelica (i. 9, 10; iv. 16). They present a euhemeristic réchauffé of Phoenician theology and mythology, which is represented as translated from the original Phoenician. Sanchuniathon is probably an imaginary personage, whose name is formed from that of the Phoenician god Sanchon.
Editions of the fragments by J. C. Orelli (1826) and C. Muller, Frag. hist. graec. vol. iii. In 1836 F. Wagenfeld brought out what claimed to be a complete translation by Philo (from a MS. discovered in a convent in Portugal, now considered spurious). There are English translations by I. P. Cory (1828) and Bishop R. Cumberland (1720).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philoctetes

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​PHILOCTETES, in Greek legend, son of Poeas king of the Malians of Mt Oeta, one of the suitors of Helen and a celebrated hero of the Trojan War. Homer merely states that he was distinguished for his prowess with the bow; that he was bitten by a snake on the journey to Troy and left behind in the island of Lemnos; and that he subsequently returned home in safety. These brief allusions were elaborated by the “cyclic” poets, and the adventures of Philoctetes formed the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the later form of the story Philoctetes was the friend and armour-bearer of Heracles, who presented him with his bow and poisoned arrows as a reward for kindling the fire on Mt Oeta, on which the hero immolated himself. Philoctetes remained at Lemnos till the tenth year of the war. An oracle having declared that Troy could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles, Odysseus and Diomedes (or Neoptolemus) were sent to fetch Philoctetes. On his arrival before Troy he was healed of his wound by Machaon, and slew Paris; shortly afterwards the City was taken. On his return to his own country, finding that a revolt had broken out against him, he again took ship and sailed for Italy, where he founded Petilia and Cremissa. He fell fighting on the side of a band of Rhodian colonists against some later immigrants from Pallene in Achaea. His tomb and sanctuary were shown at Macalla, on the coast of Bruttium.
Of the Aeschylean and Euripidean tragedies only a few fragments remain; of the two by Sophocles, one is extant, the other, dealing with the fortunes of Philoctetes before Troy, is lost. Some light is thrown upon the lost plays by Dio Chrysostom, who in one of his discourses (52) describes his reading of the three tragedies, and in another (59) gives a prose version of the opening of the Philoctetes of Euripides. Philoctetes was also the subject of tragedies by Achaeus of Eretria, Euphorion of Chalcis and the Roman tragedian Accius. According to F. Marx (Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum, 1904, p. 673–685), Philoctetes did not appear in the original legend of Troy. He is a form of the Lemnian Hephaestus, who alighted on the island when flung out of Olympus by Zeus. Like him, he is lame and an outcast for nine years; like him, he is brought back in time of need. His connexion with the fall of Troy indicates that the fire-god himself set fire to the city; in like manner no other than the fire-god was thought worthy to kindle the pyre of Heracles.
See Homer, Iliad, ii. 718, Odyssey, iii. 190, viii. 219; Sophocles, Philoctetes, and Jebb’s Introduction; Diod. Sic. iv. 38; Philostratus, Heroica, 6; Strabo vi. 254; Hyginus, Fab. 36, 102.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo of Larissa

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​PHILO OF LARISSA, Greek philosopher of the first half of the 1st century B.C. During the Mithradatic wars he left Athens and took up his residence in Rome. He was a pupil of Clitomachus, whom he succeeded as head of the Third or New Academy. According to Sextus Empiricus, he was the founder of the Fourth Academy, but other writers refuse to admit the separate existence of more than three academies (see Academy, Greek). In Rome he lectured on rhetoric and philosophy, and collected around him many eminent pupils, amongst whom Cicero was the most famous and the most enthusiastic. None of his works is extant; our knowledge of his views is derived from Numenius, Sextus Empiricus and Cicero. In general, his philosophy was a reaction against the sceptic or agnostic position of the Middle and New Academy in favour of the dogmatism of Plato
See Grysar, Die Akademiker Philo und Antiochus (1849); Hermann, De Philone Larissaeo (Göttingen, 1851 and 1855).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philochorus

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​PHILOCHORUS, of Athens, Greek historian during the 3rd century B.C., was a member of a priestly family. He was a seer and interpreter of signs, and a man of considerable influence. He was strongly anti-Macedonian in politics, and a bitter opponent of Demetrius Poliorcetes. When Antigonus Gonatas, the son of the latter, besieged and captured Athens (261), Philochorus was put to death for having supported Ptolemy Philadelphus, who had encouraged the Athenians in their resistance to Macedonia. His investigations into the usages and customs of his native Attica were embodied in an Atthis, in seventeen books, a history of Athens from the earliest times to 262 B.C. Considerable fragments are preserved in the lexicographers, scholiasts, Athenaeus, and elsewhere. The work was epitomized by the author himself, and later by Asinius Pollio of Tralles (perhaps a freedman of the famous Gaius Asinius Pollio). Philochorus also wrote on oracles, divination and sacrifices; the mythology and religious observances of the tetrapolis of Attica; the myths of Sophocles; the lives of Euripides and Pythagoras; the foundation of Salamis. He compiled chronological lists of the archons and Olympiads, and made a collection of Attic inscriptions, the first of its kind in Greece.
Fragments and life in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, vol. i (1841); A. Böckh, Gesammelte kleine Schriften, vol. v. (1871), on the plan of the work; J. Strenge, Quaestiones phitochoreae (Göttingen, 1868); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philodemus

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​PHILODEMUS, Epicurean philosopher and poet, was born at Gadara in Coele-Syria early in the 1st century B.C., and ​settled in Rome in the time of Cicero. He was a friend of Calpurnius Piso, and was implicated in his profligacy by Cicero (in Pisonem, 29), who, however, praises him warmly for his philosophic views and for the elegans lascivia of his poems (cf. Horace, Satires, 1.2. 120). The Greek anthology contains thirty-four of his epigrams. From the excavations of the villa at Herculaneum (q.v.) there have been recovered thirty-six treatises attributed to Philodemus, and it has been suggested that the villa was actually owned by him; but this is generally denied. These works deal with music, rhetoric, ethics, signs, virtues and vices, and defend the Epicurean standpoint against the Stoics and the Peripatetics.
The Rhetoric has been edited by Sudhaus (1892–1895); the De Ira and the De Pietate by Gomperz (1864 to 1865); the De Musica by Kempke (1884); De Vitiis by Ussing (1868); De Morte by Mekler (1886). See Hercul. Volum. (Oxford, 1824 and 1861); Mayor on Cicero’s De Natura deorum (1871).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phillpotts, Henry

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​PHILLPOTTS, HENRY (1778–1869), English bishop, was born at Bridgwater on the 6th of May 1778, and was educated at Gloucester College school and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He became a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1795, took orders in 1802, and was select university preacher in 1804. In 1805 he received the living of Stainton-le-Street, Durham, and in addition was appointed to Bishop Middleham, Durham, in the succeeding year. For twenty years he was chaplain to Shute Barrington, bishop of Durham. He was appointed vicar of Gateshead in 1808, prebendary of Durham in 1809, and vicar of St Margaret, Durham, in 1810. After holding the rich living of Stanhope, Durham from 1820, and the deanery of Chester from 1828, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1831, holding with the see a residentiary canonry at Durham. His published works include numerous speeches and pamphlets, including those connected with his well-known Roman Catholic controversy with Charles Butler (1750–1832). He was an energetic supporter of the Tory party, even when it acted contrary to his views in passing the Roman Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829. He died on the 18th of September 1869. “Henry of Exeter,” as he was commonly called, was one of the most striking figures in the English Church of the 18th century. His intellect was strong rather than broad, his position being that of the traditional High Churchman, with little sympathy either with the Evangelicals or with the Tractarians. On the one hand the famous Gorham judgment was the outcome of his refusal to institute to the living of Brampford Speke a clergyman George Cornelius Gorham (1787–1857), who had openly disavowed his belief in baptismal regeneration; on the other he denounced the equally famous Tract XC. in his episcopal charge of 1843. As bishop he was a strict disciplinarian, and ​did much to restore order in a diocese of which the clergy had become extraordinarily demoralized. Though accused of avarice and pluralism, Phillpotts was generous in his gifts to the church, founding the theological college at Exeter and spending large sums on the restoration of the cathedral.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo (poet)

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​PHILO, Jewish Hellenist, and author of an epic poem in Greek hexameters on the history of Jerusalem. Alexander Polyhistor (c. 105-35 B.C.) quotes several passages of the poem, and is the source of the extracts in Eusebius (Praeparatio evangelica, ix. 20, 24, 37). This is probably the Philo who is mentioned by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, i. 21, 141) and by Josephus (Contra Apionem, i. 23), who calls him “the elder.”
See M. Philippson's work on the Jewish poets Ezechiel and Philo (Berlin, 1830).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philo of Byzantium

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​PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, Greek writer on mechanics, flourished during the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (according to some, a century earlier). He was the author of a large work Μηχανικὴ σύνταξις), of which the fourth and (in epitome) fifth books are extant, treating of missiles, the construction of fortresses, provisioning, attack and defence (ed. R. Schone, 1893, with German translation in H. Köchly’s Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller, vol. i. 1853; E. A. Rochas d’Aiglun, Poliorcétique des Grecs, 1872). Another portion of the work, on pneumatic engines, has been preserved in the form of a Latin translation (De ingeniis spiritualibus) made from an Arabic version (ed. W Schmidt, with German translation, in the works of Heron of Alexandria, vol. i, in “Teubner Series,” 1899; with French translation by Rochas, La Science des philosophers . . . dans l’antiquité, 1882).
A little treatise On the Seven Wonders of the World, wrongly attributed to Philo, probably belongs to the 6th century A.D. It is printed in R. Hercher’s Aelian (1858).