OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lyallpur

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​LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It was constituted in 1904 to comprise the “Chenab Colony,” being the waste portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
See Chenab Colony Gazetteer (Lahore, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lycaeus

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​LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, Λύχαιον ὄρος: mod. Diaphorti), a mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit. This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died within the year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipetsk

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​LIPETSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 108 m. by rail W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank of the river Voronezh. Pop. (1897) 16,353. The town is built of wood and the streets are unpaved. There are sugar, tallow, and leather works, and distilleries, and an active trade in horses, cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The Lipetsk mineral springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of Peter the Great and attract a good many visitors.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lippstadt

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​LIPPSTADT, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the main line to Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery in 1185. The manufactures include cigar-making, distilling, carriage-building and metal-working.
Lippstadt was founded in 1168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights over one half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to the counts of the Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with Brandenburg. In 1850 the prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his share to Prussia when this joint lordship ceased. In 1620 Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in 1757 by the French.
See Chalybäus, Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte (Lippstadt, 1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipa

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​LIPA, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934. Lipa is on high ground at the intersection of old military roads, is noted for its cool and healthy climate, and is one of the largest and wealthiest inland towns of the archipelago. Many of its houses have two storeys above the ground-floor, and its church and convent together form a very large building. The surrounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane, Indian corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee was begun here on a large scale about the middle of the 19th century and was increased gradually until 1889–1890 when an insect pest destroyed the trees. The language of Lipa is Tagalog.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipan

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​LIPAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. Their former range was central Texas. Later they were driven into Mexico. They were pure nomads, lived entirely by hunting, and were perhaps the most daring of the Texas Indians. A few survivors were brought back from Mexico in 1905 and placed on a reservation in New Mexico.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lippe (river)

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​LIPPE, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises near Lippspringe under the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald, and, after being joined by the Alme, the Pader and the Ahse on the left, and by the Stever on the right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a course of 154 m. It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and barges, by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water. The river is important for the transport facilities it affords to the rich agricultural districts of Westphalia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lippspringe

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​LIPPSPRINGE, a town and watering-place in the Prussian province of Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and the Liborius Quelle, for which it is famous, are saline waters of a temperature of 70° F., and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. Lippspringe is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century, ​and here in the 13th century the order of the Templars established a stronghold. It received civic rights about 1400.
See Dammann, Der Kurort Lippspringe (Paderborn, 1900); Königer, Lippspringe (Berlin, 1893); and Frey, Lippspringe, Kurort für Lungenkranke (Paderborn, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipari Islands

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​LIPARI ISLANDS (anc. Αἰόλου νῆσοι, or Aeoliae Insulae), a group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are seven in number—Lipari (Lipara, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli (Strongyle), Salina (Didyme, pop. in 1901, 4934), Filicuri (Phoenicusa), Alicuri (Ericusa), Vulcano (Hiera, Therasia or Thermissa), the mythical abode of Hephaestus, and Panaria (Euonymus). The island of Aiolie, the home of Aiolos, lord of the winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his wanderings, has generally been identified with one of this group. A colony of Cnidians and Rhodians was established on Lipara in 580–577 B.C. The inhabitants were allied with the Syracusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427 B.C., and by the Carthaginians in 397 B.C., while Agathocles plundered a temple on Lipara in 301 B.C. During the Punic wars the islands were a Carthaginian naval station of some importance until the Romans took possession of them in 252 B.C. Sextus Pompeius also used them as a naval base. Under the Empire the islands served as a place of banishment for political prisoners. In the middle ages they frequently changed hands. The island of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855), which bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times. It is the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs and vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times. Pumicestone is exported.
Stromboli, 22 m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano, ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at night. Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and produces good Malmsey wine: it takes its name from the salt-works on the south coast. Vulcano, 1/2 m. ​S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, but have since been abandoned.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria, Die Liparischen Inseln, 8 vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lip

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​LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. Lippe, Dan. laebe; Lat. labium is cognate), one of the two fleshy protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other animals, hence transferred to such objects as resemble a lip, the edge of a circular or other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound, or of any fissure in anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the Latin labium is more usually employed. It is also used of any projecting edge, as in coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses are derived from the connexion with the mouth as the organ of speech. In architecture “lip moulding” is a term given to a moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base mouldings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples in France and Italy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghat

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​GHAT, or Rhat, an oasis and town, forming part of the Turkish vilayet of Tripoli. Ghat is an important centre of the caravan trade between the Nigerian states and the seaports of the Mediterranean (see Tripoli).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghats

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​GHATS, or Ghauts (literally “the Landing Stairs” from the sea, or “Passes”), two ranges of mountains extending along the eastern and western shores of the Indian peninsula. The word properly applies to the passes through the mountains, but from an early date was transferred by Europeans to the mountains themselves.
The Eastern Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges down the Madras coast. They begin in the Orissa district of Balasore, pass southwards through Cuttack and Puri, enter the Madras presidency in Ganjam, and sweep southwards through the districts of Vizagapatam, Godavari, Nellore, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly. They run at a distance of 50 to 150 m. from the coast, except in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the Bay of Bengal. Their geological formation is granite, with gneiss and mica slate, with clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone overlying. The average elevation is about 1500 ft., but several hills in Ganjam are between 4000 and 5000 ft. high. For the most part there is a broad expanse of low land between their base and the sea, and their line is pierced by the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery rivers.
The Western Ghats (Sahyadri in Sanskrit) start from the south of the Tapti valley, and run south through the districts of Khandesh, Nasik, Thana, Satara, Ratnagiri, Kanara and Malabar, and the states of Cochin and Travancore, meeting the Eastern Ghats at an angle near Cape Comorin. The range of the Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the exception of a gap or valley 25 m. across, known as the Palghat gap, through which runs the principal railway of the south of India. The length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap, and south of this about 200 m. to the extreme south of the peninsula. In many parts there is only a narrow strip of coast between the hills and the sea; at one point they rise in magnificent precipices and headlands out of the ocean. The average elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the western side facing the sea, but with a more gradual slope on the east to the plains below. The highest peaks in the northern section are Kalsubai, 5427 ft.; Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and Mahabaleshwar, where is the summer capital of the government of Bombay, 4700 ft. South of Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases, and attains its maximum towards Coorg, where the highest peaks vary from 5500 to 7000 ft., and where the main range joins the interior Nilgiri hills. South of the Palghat gap, the peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as 8000 ft. The geological formation is trap in the northern and gneiss in the southern section.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghaziabad

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​GHAZIABAD, a town of British India in Meerut district of the United Provinces, 12 m. from Delhi and 28 m. from Meerut. Pop. (1901) 11,275. The town was founded in 1740 by Ghazi-ud-din, son of Azaf Jah, first nizam of the Deccan, and takes its name from its founder. It has considerably risen in importance as the point of junction of the East Indian, the North-Western and the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway systems. The town has a trade in grain and hides.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghazipur

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​GHAZIPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Benares division of the United Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of the Ganges, 44 m. E. of Benares. It is the headquarters of the government opium department, where all the opium from the United Provinces is collected and manufactured under a monopoly. There are also scent distilleries, using the produce of the rose-gardens in the vicinity. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general of India, died at Ghazipur in 1805, and a domed monument and marble statue (by Flaxman) are erected over his grave. Pop. (1901) 39,429.
The district of Ghazipur has an area of 1389 sq. m. It forms part of the great alluvial plain of the Ganges, which divides it into two unequal portions. The northern subdivision lies ​between the Gumti and the Gogra, whose confluences with the main stream mark its eastern and western limits respectively. The southern tract is a much smaller strip of country, enclosed between the Karamnasa and the great river itself. There are no hills in the district. A few lakes are scattered here and there, formed where the rivers have deserted their ancient channels. The largest is that of Suraha, once a northern bend of the Ganges, but now an almost isolated sheet of water, 5 m. long by about 4 broad. Ghazipur is said to be one of the hottest and dampest districts in the United Provinces. In 1901 the population was 913,818, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade. Sugar refining is the chief industry, and provides the principal article of export. The main line of the East Indian railway traverses the southern portion of the district, with a branch to the Ganges bank opposite Ghazipur town; the northern portion is served by the Bengal & North-Western system.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghee

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​GHEE (Hindustani ghi), a kind of clarified butter made in the East. The best is prepared from butter of the milk of cows, the less esteemed from that of buffaloes. The butter is melted over a slow fire, and set aside to cool; the thick, opaque, whitish, and more fluid portion, or ghee, representing the greater bulk of the butter, is then removed. The less liquid residue, mixed with ground-nut oil, is sold as an inferior kind of ghee. It may be obtained also by boiling butter over a clear fire, skimming it the while, and, when all the water has evaporated, straining it through a cloth. Ghee which is rancid or tainted, as is often that of the Indian bazaars, is said to be rendered sweet by boiling with leaves of the Moringa pterygosperma or horse-radish tree. In India ghee is one of the commonest articles of diet, and indeed enters into the composition of everything eaten by the Brahmans. It is also extensively used in Indian religious ceremonies, being offered as a sacrifice to idols, which are at times bathed in it. Sanskrit treatises on therapeutics describe ghee as cooling, emollient and stomachic, as capable of increasing the mental powers, and of improving the voice and personal appearance, and as useful in eye-diseases, tympanitis, painful dyspepsia, wounds, ulcers and other affections. Old ghee is in special repute among the Hindus as a medicinal agent, and its efficacy as an external application is believed by them to increase with its age. Ghee more than ten years old, the purāna ghrita of Sanskrit materia medicas, has a strong odour and the colour of lac. Some specimens which have been much longer preserved—and “clarified butter a hundred years old is often heard of”—have an earthy look, and are quite dry and hard, and nearly inodorous. Medicated ghee is made by warming ordinary ghee ​to remove contained water, melting, after the addition of a little turmeric juice, in a metal pan at a gentle heat, and then boiling with the prepared drugs till all moisture is expelled, and straining through a cloth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gheel

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​GHEEL, or Geel, a town of Belgium, about 30 m. E. of Antwerp and in the same province. Pop. (1904) 14,087. It is remarkable on account of the colony of insane persons which has existed there for many centuries. The legend reads that in the year 600 Dymphna, an Irish princess, was executed here by her father, and in consequence of certain miracles she had effected she was canonized and made the patron saint of the insane. The old Gothic church is dedicated to her, and in the choir is a shrine, enclosing her relics, with fine panel paintings representing incidents in her life by, probably, a contemporary of Memling. The colony of the insane is established in the farms and houses round the little place within a circumference of 30 m. and is said to have existed since the 13th century. This area is divided into four sections, each having a doctor and a superintendent attached to it. The Gheel system is regarded as the most humane method of dealing with the insane who have no homicidal tendencies, as it keeps up as long as possible their interest in life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ghazi

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​GHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghazā, to fight), the name given to Mahommedans who have vowed to exterminate unbelievers by the sword. It is also used as a title of honour, generally translated “the Victorious,” in the Ottoman empire for military officers of high rank, who have distinguished themselves in the field against non-Moslem enemies; thus it was conferred on Osman Pasha after his famous defence of Plevna.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicias (statesman)

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​NICIAS (d. 414 B.C.), a soldier and statesman in ancient Athens, inherited from his father Niceratus a considerable fortune invested mainly in the silver mines of Laurium. Evidence of his wealth is found in the fact that he had no less than 1000 slaves whom he hired out. He gravitated naturally to the aristocratic party, and was several times colleague with Pericles in the strategia. On the death of Pericles he was left leader of the aristocrats against the advanced party of Cleon (q.v.). He made use of his wealth both to buy off enemies (especially informers) and to acquire popularity by the magnificent way in which he discharged various public services, especially those connected with the state religion, of which he was a strong supporter. In the field he displayed extreme caution, and prior to the great Sicilian expedition achieved a number of minor military successes. In 421 he took a prominent part in the arrangement of the “Peace of Nicias,” which terminated the first decade of the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). He now entered with varying success upon a period of rivalry with Alcibiades, the details of which are largely matters of conjecture. So bitter was the strife that the ostracism of one seemed inevitable, but by a temporary coalition they secured instead the banishment of the demagogue Hyperbolus (417). In 415 he was appointed with Alcibiades and Lamachus to command the Sicilian expedition, and, after the flight of Alcibiades (q.v.) and the death of Lamachus, was practically the sole commander, the much more capable Demosthenes, who was sent to his aid, being apparently of comparatively little weight. How far it is just to attribute to his excessive caution and his blind faith in omens the disastrous failure it is difficult to say. At all events it is clear that the management of so great an enterprise was a task far beyond his powers. He was a man of conventional respectability and mechanical piety, without the originality which was required to meet the crisis which faced him. His popularity with the aristocratic party in Athens is, however, strikingly shown by the lament of Thucydides over his death: “He assuredly, among all Greeks of my time, least deserved to come to so extreme a pitch of ill-fortune, considering his exact performance of established duties to the divinity” (vii. 86, Grote’s version).
Besides Thucydides see Plutarch’s Nicias and Diod. xii. 83; also the general authorities on the history of Greece, and the article Peloponnesian War.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nickname

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​NICKNAME, a name given to a person in addition to his personal names, Christian and surname, either as a playful or familiar form of address or as a mark of ridicule, contempt or hatred. The Middle English form of the word, nekename, shows that it is a corruption of “an ekename” (i.e. “added” name; eke, earlier eche, from the root seen in Lat. augere, Gr. αὐξάνειν), and is therefore equivalent to the Lat. agnomen.
There is an interesting list of national nicknames in Notes and Queries, 9th series, 4, 212-214.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicholson, Henry Alleyne

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​NICHOLSON, HENRY ALLEYNE (1844–1899), British palaeontologist and zoologist, son of Dr John Nicholson, a biblical scholar, was born at Penrith on the 11th of September 1844. He was educated at Appleby Grammar School and at the universities of Göttingen (Ph.D., 1866) and Edinburgh (D.Sc., 1867; M.D., 1869). Geology had early attracted his attention, and his first publication was a thesis for his D.Sc. degree On the Geology of Cumberland and Westmoreland (1868). In 1871 he was appointed professor of natural history in the university of Toronto; in 1874 professor of biology in the Durham College of Science and in 1875 professor of natural history in the university of St Andrews. This last post he held until 1882, when he became regius professor of natural history in the university of Aberdeen. He was elected F.R.S. in 1897. His original work was mainly on fossil invertebrata (graptolites, stromatoporoids and corals); but he did much field work, especially in the Lake district, where he laboured in company with Professor R. Harkness and afterwards with Dr J. E. Marr. He was awarded the Lyell Medal by the Geological Society in 1888. He died at Aberdeen on the 19th of January 1899.
Publications.—Ancient Life-History of the Earth (1877); Manual of Zoology (of which there were 7 editions) and other text-books of Zoology; Manual of Palaeontology (1872, 3rd ed., 2 vols., with R. Lydekker, 1889); Monograph of the Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District in Ayrshire (with R. Etheridge, jun.) (1878–1880); Monograph of the British Stromatoporoids in Palaeontograph. Soc. (1886–1892).
Obituary, with portrait, by Dr G. J. Hinde, in Geol. Mag. (March 1899).