# An Etymological Dictionary of the German Language/N (full text)

* A - B - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S-Sch - Se-Su - T - U - V - W - Z
N.
na, particle, ‘well then! now!’ ModHG. only, unknown to MidHG.; scarcely identical with the interrog. particle na, which Notker (OHG.) uses at the end and in the middle of interrog. sentences expressed negatively.
Nabe, f., from the equiv. MidHG. nabe, OHG. naba, f., ‘nave (of a wheel)’; corresponding to Du. naaf, aaf, nave (see Näber, Natter), AS. nafu, f., E. nave, OIc. nǫf, f., all of which have the same meaning; Goth. *naba, f., is by chance not recorded. Both the word and the idea are OAryan (primit. form nobhâ); comp. OInd. nãbhi, f., and nãbhya, n., ‘nave (of a wheel).’ Undoubtedly the cognates discussed under Nabel with the meaning ‘navel’ are primit. allied, the Ind. word nâbhi just quoted also signifying ‘navel,’ as well as Lett. naba, f., which is exactly equiv. in sound to OHG. naba. Hence Lat. umbo (for *onbo, *nobo), ‘boss (of a shield),’ may also be connected with umbilîcus, ‘navel’; comp. Gr. ὀμφαλός, ‘navel, boss (of a shield).’ With regard to the antiquity of the terms denoting parts of a waggon see Rad, Achse, Lünse, and Deichsel.
Nabel, m., ‘navel,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nabel, OHG. nabolo, m.; corresponding to Du. navel, AS. nafela, E. navel, OIc. nafle, m., ‘navel’; Goth. *nabala is by chance not recorded. A common Aryan word in the primit. forms nobhelo-, onbhelo-; comp. Gr. ὀμφαλός, Lat. umbilîcus (for *unbilîcus, *nobilîcus), Sans. nâbhîla, OIr. imbliu, ‘navel.’ These words are primit. l- derivatives of OAryan nóbkâ, onbhâ, ‘nave, navel,’ appearing in Nabe. In other cases the OAryan terms for parts of the body are mostly underived forms (see Herz and Ohr).
Naber, Näber, m., ‘auger, gimlet,’ from MidHG. nęgber, nagcber, m., a strange corruption (probably by connection with Nagel) of nębe-gêr, nabe-gêr, m., ‘auger’ (comp. Essig). Corresponding to OHG. naba-gêr, m., ‘auger,’ lit. ‘spear, pointed iron tool to bore naves,’ also AS. nafogâr, ‘auger,’ MidE. nevagǫ̂r, nauger, E. auger (with regard to the apparent loss of an initial n comp. E. adder, equiv. to ModHG. Otter; similarly Du. avegaar, ‘auger,’ as well as aaf, are, ‘nave’), equiv. to OLG. nabugêr, Scand. nafarr, ‘auger.’ An OTeut. compound, whence Finn. napakaira, ‘auger.’
nach, prep., ‘after, behind, in accordance with,’ from MidHG. nâch, OHG. nâh, prep., ‘after, near to, beside’; comp. Goth. nêhw, nêhwa. prep., ‘near to’; allied to the adj. nahe, OHG. nâh, Goth. nêhws.
nachahmen, see ahmen.
Nachbar, m., ‘neighbour,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nâchgebûr, OHG. nâhgibûr, nâhgibûro, m.; corresponding to Du. nabuur, AS. nêhhebûr, m., E. neighbour; a common West Teut. compound, pointing to Goth. *nêhwagabûr, m.; it signifies ‘he who lives near to another.’ Comp. Bauer.
Nachen, m., ‘boat, skiff,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nache, OHG. nahho, m.; corresponding to OSax. naco, Du. naak, aak (respecting the form without n see Näber), AS. naca, m. (obsolete in later E.); OIc. nǫkkve, m., ‘boat’; Goth. *naqa, m., is by chance not recorded (see also Rahn). Its origin is obscure; perhaps Lat. nâv-is, Gr. ναῦ-ς, Sans. nãus, are allied, Lat. nav- being changed to naq. Comp. queck.
nachschlagen, see Geschlecht.
Nächste, m., the superl. of nahe used as a subst., ‘neighbour, fellow-man’; comp. OHG. nâhisto, m., ‘neighbour’; in Goth. nêhwundja, m., ‘neighbour.’
Nacht, f., ‘night,’ from the equiv. OHG. and MidHG. naht, f.; corresponding to Goth. nahts, OIc. nótt, AS. neaht, niht, E. night, Du. nacht, OSax. naht, f.; a common OTeut. naht-, f., from common Aryan nokt-, ‘night.’ Comp. Lat. nox (stem nocti-), Gr. νύξ (νυκτ-), Sans. nákta-, naktan-, n., nákti-, f., Lith. naktìs, OSlov. noštĭ. While the word ‘night’ is common to all the Aryan languages, they differ considerably in the terms for ‘day’; this is due to the fact that time in the primit. Aryan period was counted by nights and not by days; relics of this method are seen in Fastnacht, ‘Shrove Tuesday,’ Weihnachten, ‘Christmas,’ and E. fortnight, sennight (comp. Ostern and Osten). Only a few main divisions of time, such as Monat and Jahr, are widely diffused.
Nachtigall, f., ‘nightingale,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nahtegal, OHG. nahte-gala, f.; a term common to the West Teut. languages for ‘luscinia,’ prop. ‘singer in the ​night’ (allied to OTeut. galan, ‘to sing’); OSax. nahtigala, Du. nachtegaal, AS. nihtegale, E. nightingale.
Nacken, m., ‘nape,’ from MidHG. nacke, nac (gen. -ckes), m., ‘hind part of the head, nape,’ OHG. nac hnac (cch), m.; comp. Du. nek, AS. hnëcca, m., ‘neck, nape,’ E. neck, OIc. hnakke, m., ‘hind part of the head’ (Goth. *hnakka, *hnikka, is wanting). In Suab. and Franc. Anfe or Genick is mostly used, and in Bav. Genäck (the Bav. meaning of nacken, ‘bone,’ is remarkable). The graded form with ë (AS. hnëcca) parallel to a-o is preserved by ModHG. in Genick; E. nape (AS. hnapa?) seems to be a corresponding form with a medial labial. In the non-Teut. languages the word may be cognate with OIr. cnocc, OBret. cnoch, ‘hill, elevation’ (stem cnocco-).
nackt, nackend, adj., ‘naked, bare, nude,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nackt, nackent, OHG. nacchut, nahhut, adj.; corresponding to Du. naakt, AS. nacod, E. naked, OIc. nǫkkverðr, Goth. naqaþs, with the same meaning; a partic. derivative (see falt) naqe-dó from pre-Teut. nogetó- (OIr. nocht, ‘naked,’ from the prim. form nokto-). In Ind. the form nagná occurs with a particip. na for ta; OSlov. nagŭ, Lith. nu̇gas, ‘naked,’ are formed without a suffix. Nothing further is known concerning the Aryan root nō̆g (allied to Lat. nûdus for *novdus, *nogvidus?), which has a bearing on the history of civilisation, since it implies the correlative ‘non-naked,’ i.e. ‘clad,’ and thus assumes that a sort of dress was worn in the primit. Aryan period. See also bar.
Nadel, f., ‘needle,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nâdel, OHG. nâdal, nâdala, f.; corresponding to Goth. nêþla, OIc. nál, AS. nœ̂dl, f., E. needle, Du. naald, OSax. nâdla. A common Teut. form for ‘needle,’ with the suffix þlô- (tlâ-), from the root nê (Radel, lit. ‘an instrument for sewing), appearing in ModHG. nähen.
Nagel, m., from the equiv. MidHG. nagel, OHG. nagal, f., ‘nail’; corresponding to OSax. nagal, Du. nagel, AS. nœgel, E. nail, OIc. nagl, ‘nail’; Goth. *nagls may be deduced from the recorded vb. nagljan, ‘to nail.’ The West Teut. words have mostly the double sense ‘nail of the finger or toe’ and ‘wooden, iron nail.’ The former meaning, in accordance with the corresponding words in the other Aryan languages, is the original one (in OIc. there is a distinction between nagl, ‘finger-nail,’ and nagle, ‘wooden, iron nail’). Teut. naglo- originated in Aryan noghlo-, or rather nokhló-; comp. OInd. nakhá, m. and n., ‘finger or toe nail, claw of birds,’ Gr. ὀνυχ- (nom. ὄνυξ), ‘claw, talon, hoof,’ then also ‘hook,’ Lat. unguis, ‘claw, talon,’ OSlov. nogŭtĭ, ‘nail, claw’ (from OSlov. nogà, f., ‘foot’); Lith. nágas, ‘finger-nail,’ nagà, ‘horse's hoof.’ ‘The root nokh, nogh, is unknown; it must not be sought for in nagen, the root of which was rather pre-Teut. ghnagh. See Nelke.
nagen, vb., ‘to gnaw, nibble,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nagen, OHG. nagan, with the earlier variant gnagan; comp. OSax. and AS. gnagan, E. to gnaw, OIc. gnaga, ‘to gnaw.’ There are also forms with initial k instead of g, Du. knagen, OLG. cnagan, likewise HG. chnagan, ‘to gnaw’; the form nagen originated in gnagen. To the Teut. root gnag, knag, no correspondences have been found as yet in the non-Teut. languages.
nah, adj., ‘near, impending,’ from MidHG. nâch (inflect. nâher), OHG. nâh (inflect. nâhêr), adj., ‘near’; corresponding to OSax. nâh, LG. and Du. na, AS. neáh, E. nigh, adj. (whence the comp. AS. neár, adv., E. near; superl. next, E. next); OIc. nár, Goth. néhws, ‘near.’ To the Goth. stem nêhwa- (for further derivatives see under Nachbar and nah) we should have expected néko-, nêqe-, in the non-Teut. languages, but they do not occur. Gr. ἐγγύς, ‘near,’ is no more equiv. in sound to nahe than Sans. nā̆́huša, ‘neighbouring."—
nahe, adv., from the equiv. MidHG. nâhe, OHG. nâho, adv., ‘near, nearly.’—
Nähe, f., ‘nearness, proximity,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nœhe, OHG. nâhî, f.; an abstract of the adj. nâh.
nähen, vb., ‘to sew, stitch,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nœjen, OHG. nâjan; corresponding only to Du. naaijen; Goth. *naian is wanting, neither is the word found in the other Teut. languages. The verbal stem nê contained in nähen was at one time more widely diffused in the Teut. group, as may be inferred from the common Teut. Nadel (nêþlô-); comp. further Naht. In the non-Teut. languages a root nê, ‘to spin,’ is found, which is usually connected with the root of nähen; comp. Lat. neo, Gr. νέω, ‘I spin,’ νῆμα, ‘thread,’ νῆτρον, ‘spindle’; to this is allied a root snâ in OIr. snáthe, ‘thread,’ snâthat, ‘needle’ ​(comp. Schnur). The cognates were probably borrowed in pre-historic times by one tribe from another (comp. mahlen), so that nähen may not be a genuine Teut. word.
-nahr in nahrhaft, from MidHG. nar, OHG. nara, f., ‘rescue, maintaining, sustenance,’ To this is allied the derivative Nahrung, f., ‘nourishment, food,’ from MidHG. narunge, f., maintenance, nourishment’; allied to nähren.
nähren, vb., ‘to nourish, support, foster,’ from MidHG. nęrn, nęrigen, OHG. nęren, nęrian; prop. causative of genesen, hence ‘to cause to recover, make healthy, heal, rescue, keep alive.’ The modern gene is found as early as MidHG. The word corresponds to OSax. nęrian, AS. nęrigan, Goth. nasjan, ‘to rescue.’ The change of s (for z) to West Teut. and Scand. r at the end of the stem in causative vbs. is normal (comp. lehren); allied to OIc. nœ́ra. See nahrhaft and genesen.
Naht, f., ‘seam,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. nât, f.; corresponding to Du. naad. Allied to nähen, root né (Goth. *néþs), and to OHG. nâtâri, nâteri, MidHG. nâtœre, m., ‘sewer, tailor,’ of which the fem. form is MidHG. nâtœrîn, ModHG. Nähterin. See Nadel and nähen.
naiv, adj., ‘naïve, artless,’ borrowed in the last cent. from Fr. naïf.
Name, m., ‘name,’ from the equiv. MidHG. name, OHG. namo, m. This word, to which there are corresponding terms in all the Teut. and Aryan languages, is of the greatest antiquity, and is most widely diffused. Comp. OSax. namo, Du. naam, AS. nǫma, nama, m., E. name; Goth. namô, n. OIc. nafn, n. (for namn), ‘name’; equiv. to the corresponding Sans. nãman-, Gr. ὄ-νουα, Lat. nômen, OSlov. imę, n. (from *ĭn-men, *n-men), Pruss. emmens, OIr. ainm. The Aryan primit. form may have been nō̆men-. Aryan nômen is indicated by MidHG. bennomen and Du. noemen, ‘to name,’ yet the OSlov. and OIr. words present some phonetic difficulties. Formerly Gr. ὄνομα and Lat. nômen were derived from the root γνω-, gnô-, ‘to recognise’ comp. E. to know, see kennen), so that Aryan nō̆men would represent gnômen, and have orig. signified ‘means of recognition’; this view wants phonetic confirmation. Others derive Name from the root nem in nehmen, so that the word would mean ‘that which is accepted,’ which is likewise improbable; see further nennen and nämlich.
Napf, m., ‘bowl, basin,’ from MidHG. napf, OHG. napf, for an earlier hnapf, m., ‘goblet, dish’; corresponding to MidLG. and Du. nap, ‘bowl,’ AS. hnœp (gen. hnœppes), ‘goblet.’ Of obscure origin. The Teut. cognates passed into Rom.; comp. Ital. nappo, Fr. hanap, ‘goblet.’
Narbe, f. (apparently hardly known in UpG.), ‘scar,’ from the equiv. MidHG. narwe, late OHG. narwa, f., lit. ‘narrowness, contraction’; a fem. subst. from the adj. narwa- (OSax. naru, AS. nearu, E. narrow), ‘narrow’ (comp. Nehrung). Comp. in the non-Teut. languages, Lith. nèr-ti, ‘to thread (a needle),’ narvà, ‘cell of the queen-bee.’
Narde, f. ‘nard, spikenard,’ from the equiv. MidHG. narde, OHG. narda, f.; formed from Gr. and Lat. νάρδος, nardus, introduced also through the translation of the Bible into other languages.
Narr, m., ‘fool,’ from MidHG. and MidLG. narre, m., ‘simpleton, fool,’ OHG. narro, m. ‘madman’; a word peculiar to G., the origin of which is totally obscure. The derivation from MidLat. nârio, ‘sneerer, scoffer, subsannans,’ is not satisfactory, since the Lat. word would be represented by a different form in G.; moreover, there is no reason, as far as the meaning is concerned, to suppose that the word was borrowed (see Gaukler). Allied to OHG. snurring, MidHG. snürrine, ‘buffoon, fool’?.
Narwal, m., ‘sea-unicorn,’ ModHG. only, borrowed from Dan. and Swed. narhval (equiv. to OIc. ná-hvalr), whence also E. narwal. The origin of these cognates, introduced from the North, is obscure. See Walfisch.
naschen, vb., ‘to pilfer dainties,’ from MidHG. naschen, OHG. nascôn, ‘to partake of dainties, pilfer dainties’; for *hnaskôn, allied to Goth. hnasqus, ‘soft, tender,’ AS. hnęsče, ‘soft, tender,’ E. nesh?.
Nase, f., ‘nose,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nase, OHG. nasa, f.; corresponding terms occur in the other Teut. languages, but Goth. *nasa is by chance not recorded. OIc. nǫs, f. (for nasu, nasô); AS. (with gradation o, a) nosu, nasu, E. nose (the form with a in the stem appears in numerous AS. compounds as nœs-), Du. neus. Like other terms for parts of the body, this too is common Aryan (see Fuß, Herz, Ohr, Niere, Zahn, &c.); comp. OInd. nā̆sâ, nas, f.. ​OSlov. nosŭ, m., Lith. nósis, Lat. nâsus, nâres. See further Nüstern.
naß, adj., ‘wet, moist,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. naȥ, adj.; corresponding to Goth. *nata-, nom. *nats, ‘wet’ (deduced from natjan; see netzen); OSax. and Du. nat. Teut. nata- can scarcely be connected with Sans. nadĭ, f., ‘river,’ because the latter is derived from a root nad, ‘to rush, roar.’ Perhaps Gr. νοτερός, ‘wet’ (νοτέω, ‘I am wet’), points, like the Teut. cognates, to a root not, nod (comp. Naß with Gr. κότος). Netz likewise may be primit. allied; see Netz and netzen. —
Naß, n., ‘humidity,’ from MidHG. naȥ, n., ‘fluid, moistness’; the adj. naß used as a neut. subst. —
Nässe, f., ‘humidity, moisture,’ from MidHG. nezze, OHG. nezzl, f., an abstract from naß.
Natter, f., ‘adder, viper, asp,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nâter, nâtere, OHG. nâtara, f.; corresponding to OSax. nâdra, Du. adder (for nadder; see under Nabe, Näber), AS. nœ̂ddre, E. adder (likewise, with the loss of the initial n, see Otter). Goth. *nêdro is wanting, the graded form nadrs, m., ‘adder,’ being used; OIc. naðr, naðra, ‘adder.’ A specifically Teut. word, the early history of which is not quite clear; it can scarcely be connected with Lat. natrix, ‘water-snake,’ which belongs to nare, natare, ‘to swim.’
Naue, f., ‘barque,’ from MidHG. nâwe, nœwe, f. and m., ‘small ship,’ espec. ‘ferryboat’; not primit. allied to Lat. nâvis, but rather borrowed from it in the MidHG. period. The Teut. cognate of Lat. nâvis, Gr. νηῦς, Sans. nãus, is OIc. nór, ‘ship,’ of which we should have expected the corresponding MidHG. form *nuowe. It is certainly remarkable that the Teut. primit. word corresponding to the Aryan terms adduced has been preserved only in Scand.
Nebel, m., ‘mist, fog, haze,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nëbel, OHG. nëbul; corresponding to OSax. nëbal, m., Du. nevel (in E. mist; see Mist). Goth. *nibls is wanting; allied to the OIc. compounds with nifl-, ‘darkness,’ to which njól, ‘night,’ is akin (comp. AS. nifol, ‘dark’). OHG. nëbul, from pre-Teut. nebholo-, corresponds to Gr. νεφέλη, ‘cloud, mist,’ Gr. νέφος, ‘cloud, mist,’ Lat. nĕbula, ‘mist,’ Sans. nábhas, n., ‘mist, cloud, dampness,’ OSlov. nebo (stem nebes-), n., ‘sky,’ OIr. nel, ‘cloud.’
neben, adv. and prepos., ‘beside, along with, in addition to,’ from MidHG. nëben, shortened form of enében, OHG. nëben, inében, ‘beside’; as a compound of in and eben it signifies lit. ‘in the same line with,’ similarly AS. on efn, on emn, ‘alongside.’ Comp. the following word.
nebst, prep., ‘along with, together with,’ first occurs in early ModHG., with the variant nebenst. Borrowed from Du., in which nevens, ‘near to,’ occurs, which is etymologically equiv. to neben.
necken, vb., ‘to tease, banter,’ from MidHG. (MidG.) nęcken, ‘to excite the appetite,’ to which is allied MidHG. (MidG.) nachaft, ‘malicious, crafty,’ nac-heit, ‘malice, cunning’; not found in OHG. Of obscure origin. See Schabernack.
Neffe, m. (with abnormal ff), ‘nephew,’ from MidHG. nëve, OHG. něvo, m.; orig. existing in all the OTeut. dials. (now obsolete in Suab. and Bav.). The meaning in the older languages was not so definite as at present; MidHG. nëve, most frequently means ‘sister's son,’ also more rarely ‘brother's son,’ likewise ‘uncle,’ then generally ‘relative’; Du. neef, ‘grandson, nephew, cousin,’ AS. nëfa, ‘grandson, nephew’ (E. nephew is based on Fr. neveu), OIc. nefe, m., ‘relative.’ Goth. *nifa, m., is by chance not recorded. The cognates are primitive and common to the Aryan group; Teut. *nefôd, nom. sing. (of which there is a fem. form niftî; see Nichte), from pre-Teut. népôt, appears in Ind. nápât (stem náptṛ), ‘descendant, son, grandson,’ Lat. nepos, ‘grandson,’ Gr. ἀνεψιός, ‘first cousin,’ νέποδες, ‘brood,’ OIr. nia, ‘sister’s son.’ With regard to the fluctuation of meaning see Braut, Oheim, Vetter, and Schwager.
nehmen, vb., ‘to take, accept,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nëmen, OHG. nëman; a common Teut. str. vb. with the same signification throughout the group; comp. Goth., OSax., and AS. niman, OIc. nema. The most nearly allied in sense to these are Lat. emere and OIr. em (OSlov. imą?), ‘to take,’ with which nehmen is connected in sound if its initial n is the relic of a particle. OTeut. nëman may, however, be compared more probably with Gr. νέμω, ‘to distribute, pasture’ (trans.) γέμος (νόμος), ‘pasturage,’ equiv. to Lat. nemus, ‘grove,’ Gr. γόμος, ‘law,’ in which case it is especially connected with the mid. vb. νέμεσϑαι, ‘to distribute among themselves, possess, consider as, hold.’
Nehrung, f., ‘a long narrow strip of ​land separating a Haff from the sea,’ first occurs in ModHG., allied to MidHG. (14th cent.) Nerge, ‘Kurische Nehrung’: “since Nehrung is a narrow strip of land, it may be derived from OSax. naru, ‘narrow.’” See Narbe.
Neid, m., ‘envy, grudge,’ from MidHG. nît (gen. nîdes), m., ‘hostile disposition, warlike fury, grudge, jealousy, envy,’ OHG. nîd, m., ‘hatred, anger, envy.’ It corresponds to OSax. nîð, m., ‘zeal, hostile conflict, hatred,’ Du. nijd, m., ‘envy,’ AS. nîþ, m., ‘endeavour, effort, hostility’ (obsolete in E.). In East Teut. the corresponding word is neut., Goth. neiþ, n., ‘envy,’ OIc. nið, n., ‘disgrace, opprobrious term.’ Teut. *nîþa-, connected with Lat. nîtor, ‘to exert oneself’? —
Neidnagel, see Niet.
neigen, vb., ‘to tilt, bend, incline,’ from MidHG. nîgen, str. vb., ‘to bow,’ and neigen, wk. vb., ‘to cause to bow, humiliate, lower’; OHG. nîgan, from hnîgan, str. vb., ‘to bow,’ and neigen, wk. vb., ‘to incline, bend.’ It corresponds to OSax. hnîgan, hnêgian, AS. hnîgan, hnœ̂gan, Goth. hneiwan, vb., ‘to bow, sink,’ hnaiwjan, vb., ‘to humiliate, bend’ (for *hneigwan, *hnaigwjan); the wk. vb. is the causative of the str. vb. The Teut. root hnîgw, from pre-Teut. knī̆gh (or rather knī̆q?), is uncertain in the other Aryan languages. Perhaps Lat. co-nîveo, nîco, nicto, ‘to wink, nod,’ are connected with the Teut. cognates.
nein, adv., ‘no,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. nein (negative adv.); so too OSax. nên (in the Heliand), ‘no’; derived from the Goth. adv. of negation ni, OHG. ni, MidHG. en-ne (which also appears in the n of nicht, nie, and nirgend), and the neut. of the indefinite article OHG., MidHG., and ModHG. ein, equiv. to Goth. ains; nein is therefore ‘not one’ (comp. nichts, meaning ‘not something’). The approximate source of E. no is the equiv. AS. nâ (OIc. nei), in Goth. nê, ‘no.’ The Goth. negative ni, etymologically cognate with un- and ohne, belongs to the same class as Gr. νη (e.g. νη-κερδής, ‘unprofitable’), Lat. nĕ (in nĕfas) and nē̆, ‘not, lest, in order that not,’ Sans. na, OSlov. ne, ‘not,’ Lith. ne, ‘not.’
Nelke, f., ‘pink carnation,’ a LG. form for Nägelchen (LG. negęlkin), n.; in MidHG. nęgellîn, n., ‘clove.’ Comp. Ic. negull, m., ‘clove,’ Du. nagelbloem, ‘carnation.’
nennen, vb., ‘to name,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. nęnnen (also nęmmen); originated in namnjan by the assimilation of mn; a verbal noun from Name (OHG. namo). Comp. Goth. namnjan from namô, AS. nam an, wk. vb., equiv. to E. to name (AS. also nęmnan, equiv. to OSax. nęmnian). See Name and the remarks there on Du. noemen, ‘to name.’
nergeln, nörgeln, vb., ‘to grumble, growl,’ ModHG. only, of obscure origin; in Bav. the vb. signifies ‘to speak indistinctly’ (espec. in a guttural fashion or through the nose). Allied perhaps to Du. nurken, ‘to grumble, growl’?.
Nerv, m., ‘nerve, sinew,’ ModHG. only, from Lat. nervus.
Nessel, f., ‘nettle,’ from the equiv. MidHG. neȥȥel, OHG. nęȥȥila, f.; corresponding to MidLG. and Du. netel, AS. nętele, f., E. nettle; allied to earlier OHG. equiv. naȥȥa (the same as Ic. nǫtr?), ‘nettle.’ Goth. *natus, f., and *natilô, f., ‘nettle,’ are by chance not recorded. Since the HG. word can never lave had an initial h before the n., Gr. κνίδη, ‘stinging nettle,’ cannot be regarded as a cognate. The word has more correctly been connected with the common Teut. Netz (Goth. nati), on the assumption that nets in early times were made of nettle-threads. Further cognates are wanting. The term has also been compared with Pruss. noatis, Lith. noterė, and OIr. nenaid.
Nest, n., ‘nest, haunt,’ from MidHG. and OHG. nëst, n., ‘nest, resting-place for birds and also for sucking animals’; corresponding to MidLG., Du., AS., and E. nest; Goth. *nista- is wanting. The cognates are primit.; the OTeut. form previous to the permutation of consonants was nizdo-, which is indicated likewise b Sans. nîḍa-s, ‘lair of animals,’ also ‘dwelling,’ as well as by OIr. net, ‘nest,’ Lat. nîdus, ‘nest,’ for *nizdus (Lith. lìzdas and Slav. gnězdo, ‘nest,’ are abnormal). The form nizdo- is prop. a compound of the root sed, ‘to sit, seat oneself,’ and the verbal particle ni preserved in Sans. (see nieder); nizdo-, from ni-sedó-, therefore means lit. ‘place of settling’; comp. Sans. ni-sad, ‘to sit down, settle.’ In Lat. and Teut. nîdus and nest assumed the special meaning ‘bird's nest’; similarly in Scand. a general word for ‘couch’ (Gr. κοίτη) was restricted to a bear's haunt (OIc. híþ); it belongs, like Gr. κοίτη, κεῖμαι to the Aryan root çî, ‘to lie’). The Goth. term for ‘nest’ is sitl, ​lit. ‘seat,’ which therefore is of a cognate root with Nest.
Nestel, f. and m., ‘lace,’ from MidHG. nęstel, f., OHG. nęstilo, m., nęstila, f.,‘knot of ribbons, bow, lace (for stays, &c.), bandage’; allied to MidLG. and Du. nestel, ‘girdle, lace,’ OIc. nist, niste, n., ‘stitching needle,’ and with further gradation OHG. nusta, f., ‘tying together,’ as well as nuska, MidHG. nüsche, ‘clasp of a cloak’ If st and sk in these words be regarded as a part of the derivative, they may be compared with Lat. necto, ‘to join’ (and the Sans. root nah, ‘to connect’?). OHG. nęstilo (Goth. *nastila) has also been connected with Lat. nôdus (for *nozdus, like nîdus from *nizdus; see Nest). The form *nastila passed into Rom.; comp. Ital. nastro, ‘silk ribbon.’
nett, adj., ‘neat, nice, pretty,’ first occurs in early ModHG.; from Du. and Fr. net (Lat. nitidus).
Netz, n., ‘net,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nętze, OHG. nęzzi, n.; corresponding to OSax. nęt (and nętti), n., Du., AS., and E. net, Goth. nati, OIc. net, n., ‘net’; a common Teut. term, to which the graded Scand. nȯt, ‘large net,’ is allied. The etymology is obscure; it is scarcely allied to naß, Teut. *nata-; it is rather connected with Nessel, with which it may be based on a pre-Teut. root nū̆d, ‘to sew, knit.’ Comp. also Lat. nassa, ‘creel, net.’
netzen, vb., ‘to wet, moisten,’ from MidHG. nętzen, OHG. nęzzen (Goth. natjan), ‘to wet’; a verbal noun from naß.
neu, adj., ‘new, fresh, modern, novel,’ from the equiv. MidHG. niuwe, niu, OHG. niuwi. Corresponding forms exist in the Teut. and Aryan group; Goth. niujis, OIc. nŷr, AS. níwe, E. new, Du. nieuw, OSax. niuwi. Teut. niuja, from pre-Teut. néuyo-, appears also in Sans. návyas (and návas), Lith. naújas (OSlov. novŭ, Lat. novus, Gr. νέος), The prim. meaning of this primit. Aryan neujo-, newo, cannot be determined with certainty; it is probably connected with the OAryan particle nū̆, ‘now,’ so what was new was regarded as ‘that which has just come into being’ (comp. nun). Its relation to the following word is very doubtful.
neun, num., ‘nine,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. niun; corresponding to Goth. niun, ‘nine,’ OSax. nigun, Du. negen, AS. nigun, E. nine, OIc. níu (all these represent *nī̆jun?); a common Aryan numeral, like all the units. Comp. Sans. návan, Lat. novem, Gr. ἐννέα, OIr. nói. It has been supposed that the common Aryan word for neun (newn) is derived from neu (néwos), ‘nine’ being regarded as the ‘new number’ of the third tetrad; the system of reckoning by fours must be assumed as the oldest in the Aryan languages, since the numeral acht, ‘eight,’ is a dual form.
nicht, particle, ‘not,’ from MidHG. niht, pronom. subst., ‘nothing,’ OHG. niwiht, neowiht, ‘not’; it is used even in OHG. and MidHG. to strengthen the negative ni, en. In the 12th cent. this negative begins to be omitted, and towards the end of the 15th cent. it entirely disappears, its place being taken by nicht. In zu nichte machen, ‘to bring to nought, ruin,’ and mit nichten, ‘by no means,’ nicht is still used as a subst. (see Niete), OHG. neowiht is a compound from ni eo wiht, ‘never a whit’ (comp. Wicht); so OSax. neowiht, Du. niet, AS. nâwiht, náuht, E. not and naught; Goth. ni waíhts, ‘nothing,’ ni waíhtai, ‘by no means.’ See nein, nie, noch, and nur.
Nichte, f., ‘niece,’ ModHG. only (unknown to UpG. dialects in which Base is used), from LG. nicht, in MidHG. niftel, OHG. niftila, f. (dimin. of OHG. nift); comp. AS. nift, OIc. nipt. These are fem. forms of Neffe, pointing to Goth. *nifti, pre-Teut. neptî, f., from nepôt, m. The meaning of Nichte fluctuates as in the case of Neffe; MidHG. niftel, ‘niece, mother's sister, first cousin,’ OIc. nipt, ‘sister’s daughter, niece,’ OHG. nift, ‘neptis privigna.’ Comp. also Lat. neptis, ‘granddaughter,’ with nepos; Sans. naptî, f., ‘daughter, granddaughter,’ with nâpât.
nichts, pronom. subst., ‘nothing,’ ModHG. only, in MidHG. niht. It originated from MidHG. nihtes niht, an emphatic form of the simple niht, which was ultimately omitted; the ModHG. dial. form nichtst is probably based directly on the MidHG. phrase, which in late MidHG. appears as nihtzit.
Nickel, m. and n., ‘nickel,’ ModHG. only, from the equiv. Swed. nickel.
nicken, vb., ‘to nod, doze,’ from MidHG. nicken, OHG. nicchen; the iterative of neigen (like schmücken of schmiegen, bücken of biegen). Nacken is not allied.
nie, adv., from the equiv. MidHG. nie, OHG. nio, neo, ‘never’; a compound of ni and eo, ‘not ever,’ like OSax. nio from ni io, AS. nâ from ne â; in Goth. the ​two words were kept separate, ni aiw, ‘never.’ With regard to the negative ni see nicht; and for OHG. io, Goth. aiw, Comp. je.
nied, prep., ‘below,’ from MidHG. nide, ‘under, below,’ OHG. nida, prep., ‘under, beneath’; allied to nieder.
nieden (in hienieden), adv., ‘below, beneath,’ from MidHG. niden, nidene, OHG. nidana, adv.,‘below’; comp. OSax. nithana, AS. neoþan (from AS. beneoþan is derived E. beneath); allied to nieder.
nieder, adv., from the equiv. MidHG. nider, OHG. nidar, adv., ‘down, downward’; corresponding to OSax. nithar, Du. neder, AS. niþer, E. nether, OIc. niðr; Goth. *niþar, is by chance not recorded. A derivative of the Aryan verbal particle ni, ‘down’ (see Nest), which is preserved in other Teut. forms (see nied and nieden); comp. OSlov. nizŭ, ‘below,’ as well as Sans. ni, ‘down,’ and Sans. nitarâm, which is closely allied to the Teut. adv. — nieder, as an adj., ‘nether, lower, base,’ has been recently formed from the adv. OHG. nidari, MidHG. nider, nidere, adj., ‘nether, low’; akin to OSax. nithiri.
niedlich, adj., ‘pleasant, pretty, nice,’ from MidHG. *nietich, of which only the adv. nietlîche, ‘zealously, diligently,’ is recorded; late OHG. nietsam, ‘desiderabilis, desirable, pleasant’; comp. OSax. niudsam, ‘pleasant.’ The cognates are connected with OHG. niot, m., ‘lively longing, zealous endeavour,’ OSax. niud, AS. neód, ‘zeal, longing.’
Niednagel, Neidnagel, m., see Niet.
niemals, see nie and mal.
niemand, pron. with an excrescent final d (as in Mond), from nie and man, ‘nobody’; comp. MidHG. nieman, niemen, OHG. nioman, ‘nobody’; see nie and jemand.
Niere, f., ‘kidney,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nier, niere, OHG. nioro, m. (OHG. also ‘testicle’); corresponding to Du. nier, f., MidE. and MidLG. nêre (to which are allied E. kidney, MidE. kidenêre, from AS. *cȳ̆dneóre, *cȳ̆dneóra?, ‘kidney’; in Scand. nýra, ‘kidney,’ with i- mutation. If the latter indicates Goth. *niuzô, n., the Teut. class has no further cognates; but if we are to assume Goth. *niurô, niurjô, corresponding forms may be found in the other Aryan languages, which have numerous terms for parts of the body in common with Teut.; Goth. *niurô for *niwrô, *negwrô, from Pre-Teut. *neghrôn, which is represented in Gr. by an equiv. γεφρός, ‘kidney, testicle’ (φ for gh); akin further to Lat. nefrones. With regard to Goth. *niu- for *niw-, *nigw-, see Au.
niesen, vb., ‘to sneeze,’ from the equiv. MidHG. niesen, OHG. niosan, str. vb.; corresponding to Du. niezen, OIc. hnjósa (to which hnore, m., ‘sneezing,’ is allied), MidE. nêsin; also AS. fneôsan, MidE. fnêsen, equiv. to Du. fniezen, ‘to sneeze.’ The two Teut. roots hnus and fnus seem to have been orig. identical; with these are connected MidE. snêsen, E. to sneeze. The pre-Teut. root qnus, ksnus, may be onomatopoetic.
Nieswurz, m., ‘hellebore,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nieswurz, f.; akin to the preceding word. The name is due to the fact that the pulverised root has been used from the earliest times to produce sneezing.
Nießbrauch, m., ‘usufruct,’ allied to nießen; see genießen.
Niet, n., from the equiv. MidHG. niet, m. and f., ‘bolt’; OHG. *hniot is not recorded with this sense. The word is connected with OHG. hniotan, ‘to fasten,’ OIc. hnjóða, vb., ‘to strike, hammer, fix firmly’; the Teut. root hnud, pre-Teut. knut, has not yet been found in other languages.
Niete, f., ‘blank (in a lottery)’; “adopted in the first half of the 18th cent. after the introduction of lotteries in the Du. fashion, from the equiv. Du. niet, m. and n., ‘nothing, nought,’ the gender of which was changed to fem.; the Du. word exactly corresponded orig. to ModHG. nichts, nicht.” See the latter words.
Niftel, f., see Nichte.
nimmer, adv., ‘never, never again,’ from MidHG. niemer, nimmer, nimer (from nie mêr), ‘never (of present and future actions)’; comp. ModHG. nimmer in the sense of ‘no more, never again,’ for which nimmermehr is used in preference. From MidHG. niemêr, nimmêr, ‘never more.’ Both forms are derivatives of OHG. nio and mêr (like AS. nœ̂fre, E. never, from *nâmire); nimmermehr contains the second component twice. See nicht and nie.
nippen, vb., ModHG. only, from LG. and Du. nippen, ‘to sip’; in Henneb. and Bav. nepfen, nöpfen, with the HG. pf. Comp. further AS. nipele, E. nipple?.
Nippsache, f., ‘toy, trinket,’ ModHG. only, formed from Fr. nippe.
​ nirgend, nirgends, adv., ‘nowhere,’ from MidHG. niergen, niergent; see irgend.
nisteln, nisten, vb., ‘to build a nest, nestle,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nistein, nisten, OHG. nisten; a verbal noun from Nest. Comp. AS. nistlian, E. to nestle, Du. nestelen.
Niß, f., ‘nit,’ from the equiv. MidHG. niȥ (ȥȥ), f., for hniȥ; corresponding to Du. neet, AS. hnitu, f., and the equiv. E. nit; Goth. *hnits is not recorded. According to the permutation of consonants Gr. κονίς, plur. κονίδες, ‘eggs of lice, bugs, fleas,’ &c., may be akin, if the words in both languages be based on knid. It has also been connected with Slav. gnida. Nuß is not allied.
nit, the same as nicht.
Nix, m., ‘nixey, water-fairy,’ from MidHG. (very rare) nickes, OHG. nihhus, n. and m., ‘crocodile’; comp. AS. nicor, ‘hippopotamus,’ E. nick, ‘water-sprite’ (Old Nick, applied to the devil), MidDu. nicker, ‘water-sprite,’ OIc. nykr (from *niqiza), ‘water-sprite in the form of a hippopotamus,’ also ‘hippopotamus.’ The OHG. and MidHG. sense ‘crocodile’ is easily associated with the other meanings of the cognates; the prim. signification may be ‘fabulous sea-monster.’ The word is probably based on a Teut. root niq from pre-Teut. nig (Sans. nij, Gr. νίπτω), ‘to wash oneself’; thus Nix would mean orig. ‘a sea-animal that delights in bathing, sea-spirit,’ while the masc. Nix, like AS. nicor, points to Goth. *niqiza, *nikuza-, the corresponding fem. Nixe, preserved only in HG., indicates Goth. *niqisi; OHG. nicchessa, MidHG. *nickese, *nixe, in waȥȥernixe, f., ‘female water-sprite,’ for which in MidHG. męrwîp and męrmeit are used.
Nobistrug, m., ‘underwold, hell,’ borrowed, like Krug, ‘tavern,’ the second part of the compound, in early ModHG. from LG. The first component is MidHG. abis, abyss, m., ‘abyss,’ whence with n prefixed (comp. Ital. nabisso, from the usual combination in abysso), the LG. form Nobisfrung, hence lit. ‘tavern in hell’
noch (1.), adv., from the equiv. MidHG. nock, OHG. noh, ‘still’; corresponding to OSax. noh, Du. nog, Goth. nauk, ‘still’; a compound of nu, ‘now,’ and h, equiv. to Lat. que, Gr. τε, Sans. ca, ‘and also’; therefore the orig. meaning is probably ‘also now,’ or ‘even, just now’; comp. nun, and with regard to Goth. h-, equiv. to Lat. que, see noch (2).
noch (2.), conj., ‘nor,’ from MidHG. noch, OHG. noh, ‘nor, not even, and not even’; OHG. noh—nok, MidHG. noch-, noch, ‘neither—nor,’ also even in MidHG. wëder—noch. Corresponding to OSax. noh, Du. noch; in Goth. nih, ‘nor, not even,’ Goth. nih—nih, ‘neither—nor.’ Goth. nih is exactly equiv. to Lat. ne-que (with regard to Goth. ni, Lat. ne, see nicht). The particle -h, -uh, corresponding to Lat. que, Gr. τε, Sans. ca, ‘and,’ had a definite meaning in Goth.
Nock, n., ‘yard-arm,’ ModHG. only, borrowed, like other nautical terms, from LG.; comp. Du. nock,. ‘summit, point.’
None, f., ‘afternoon prayers,’ from MidHG. nône, OHG. nôna, f., ‘hora nôna, the ninth hour of the day’ (reckoned from six A.M.), also ‘the prayers said at that hour.’ The term was borrowed during the OHG. period from Lat. nôna (scil. hora; comp. Fr. none, Ital. nona); comp. also OSax. nôna, nôn, AS. nôn, E. noon (the difference in time is said to be due to the shifting of the canonical ‘nona’ to midday).
Nonne, f., ‘nun,’ from the equiv. MidHG. nunne, OHG. nunna, f.; corresponding to Du. non, MidLG. and AS. nunne, f., E. nun, adopted, like the previous word, in connection with monastic life, both in G. and E. about the beginning of the 9th cent., from Lat. nonna (Gr. νόννα), which passed also into Rom.; comp. Fr. nonne, nonnain, ‘nun,’ Ital. nonna, ‘grandmother,’ like Ital. nonno, ‘grandfather.’ The early history of the cognates is obscure; late Lat. nonna was an ‘expressíon of reverence’ (hence its meaning in Ital.).—
Nonne, f., ‘gelded sow,’ is, like the corresponding words in MidHG. and Du., identical with Nonne, ‘nun,’ and was thus termed for sexual reasons.
Nord, m. (almost obsolete in the UpG. vernacular), ‘north,’ from MidHG. nort (gen. nordes), m. and n., OHG. nord, m.; corresponding terms are found in all the OTeut. languages (whence Ital. norte and Fr. nord), the names of the cardinal points being formed independently in Teut.; in this case the Aryan languages possess no common term. Comp. OSax. *north (recorded only as an adv. ‘northwards’), AS. norþ, m., E. north. Goth. *naúrþs, or rather *naúrþr (equiv. to OIc. norðr), is by chance not recorded. It has been ​connected with Gr. νέρτερος, ‘that which exists below, lower down,’ which would involve the assumption that the word was coined at a period when the Teutons were descending the northern slope of a mountain range. Yet it must also be remembered that Umbr. nertro signifies ‘on the left.’ — To this Norden, m., ‘northern region,’ is allied; from MidHG. (MidG.) norden, OHG. nordan. n.; comp. also Süden.
Norne, f., ModHG. only, naturalised, espec. by Klopstock, from the equiv. OIc. norn (plur. norner), ‘goddess of fate’; the origin of the term is disputed.
Nößel, n., ‘pint’ (nearly), allied to MidHG. nœȥelîn (ö?), n., ‘a small liquid measure,’ dimin. of an obsolete primit. word, the origin of which is obscure.
Not, f., ‘need, compulsion, distress,’ from MidHG. and OHG. nôt, f. (seldom masc.), ‘toil, oppression, danger, struggle, compulsion’; a common Teut. form; comp. Goth. nauþs, f., ‘necessity, compulsion, force,’ OIc. nauðr, f., ‘necessity,’ AS. nŷd, neád, f., E. need, Du. nood, OSax. nôd. The common Teut. stems naudi, nauþi, from pre-Teut. nauti-, have been connected with Pruss. nauti-, ‘distress’; nau- (see genau) is probably the root. —
Notdurft, f., ‘necessaries’ (of life), from MidHG. nôt-durft, f., ‘necessity, need, needs of nature, want of necessaries, livelihood,’ OHG. nôtduruft, f. (OSax. nôdthurft); allied to Goth. naudiþaurfts, adj., ‘necessary.’ —
Noterbe, m., early ModHG., equiv. to ‘necessary, legitimate heir, who may not be passed over.’ —
Notwehr, f., ‘self-defence,’ from MidHG. nôtwęr, f., ‘warding off force.’ —
Notzucht, f., ‘rape,’ formed from MidHG. (Lower Rhen.) nôtzühten, ‘to ravish, violate,’ and also the equiv. MidHG. nôtzogen, lit. ‘to treat in a violent manner,’ even in OHG. nôtzogôn (MidHG. and OHG. nôtnumft, ‘rape’).
Note, f., ‘note, annotation,’ from Lat. nota (Fr. note); in the sense of ‘musical note, melody,’ note appears even in MidHG.
nu, adv., ‘well now, well,’ equiv. to nun.
nüchtern, adj., from the equiv. MidHG. nüchtern, nüchter, OHG. nuohturn, nuohtarnîn, adj., ‘without food or drink, fasting, temperate,’ comp. Du. nuchter, AS. nixtnig. The assumption that the word is based on Lat. nocturnus does not suffice to explain the meaning of nüchtern, since the Lat. term signifies only ‘nocturnal, at night’; nor is it possible to regard OHG. nuohturn as a genuine Teut. derivative of Aryan nō̆kt, ‘night’ (OIc. nótt), since it must have been equiv. in meaning to Lat. nocturnus. It may more probably be compared with Gr. νηφάλιος, ‘I am sober,’ νηφάλιος, νήπτης, ‘sober, without wine,’ the φ-π of which may represent an old guttural. In spite of this probable connection of the root, the suffix of nüchtern is still obscure,
Nücke, Nucke, f., ‘freak, artfulness,’ ModHG. only, from LG. nücke; comp. Du. nuk, ‘freak.’
Nudel, f., ‘vermicelli, dumpling,’ first occurs in ModHG., whence Fr. nouilles; of obscure origin.
nun, adv., ‘now, at present,’ from MidHG. and OHG. nu (with the variant nû), ‘at the present time, now,’ rarely in MidHG. with the adverbial suffix n (nun, nuon). Further in ModHG. nu (from MidHG. n); corresponding to OSax. nū̆, Du. nu, AS. nū̆, E. now, Goth. nū̆, ‘now.’ A common Teut. temporal adv.; comp. Sans. nu, nû, ‘now,’ nûnam, ‘now,’ Gr. νύ, νῦν, Lat. nunc (with the c of hi-c), OSlov. nyně, ‘now,’ Lith. nu. Comp. neu and noch (1).
nur, adv., ‘only, simply,’ from MidHG. newœre, OHG. niwâri (OSax. ne wâri); lit. ‘it would not be, if it were not.’ MidHG. and the ModHG. dials. have numerous intermediate forms between n-wœre and ModHG. nur, espec. nœ̂r, neur, niur, nuor. For the negative ne see nicht.
Nüster, f., ‘nostril,’ ModHG. only, from LG. nuster, E. nostril, is demonstrably a compound, signifying lit. ‘nose-hole’ (comp. AS. nœs-þŷrel, nos-þyrl), We cannot so positively assume that the G. word is also a compound, for the l of the E. word is wanting. Hence some etymologists regard it as an r- derivative from nos- (a graded form of Nase, comp. earlier ModHG. nuseln, in Logau, ‘to snivel’), with a t inserted, and connect it with Lith. nasraì, ‘mouth, jaw,’ and OSlov. nozdri, ‘nostrils.’ Niesen is not allied; comp. Nase.
Nuß (1.), f., ‘nut,’ from the equiv. MidHG. and OHG. nuȥ, f., neither cognate with nor borrowed from Lat. nux (nucem). It is rather a genuine Teut. world, orig. with initial h; comp. OIc. hnot, f., AS. hnutu, f., E. nut, Du. noot (Goth. *hnuts, f., is wanting). The genuine Teut. cognates point to a pre-Teut. knud-, which appears with the same sense in OIr. cnú.
Nuß (2.), f., ‘blow, push,’ ModHG. ​simply; only apparently identical with the preceding word (comp. Dachtel); historically, however, it is probably allied to Goth. hnutô, ‘prick.’
Nute, f., from the equiv. MidHG. nuot, f., ‘joint, groove’; allied to OHG. hnuo, nuoa, ‘groove,’ as well as OHG. nuoil, MidHG. nuowel, nüejel, ‘groove, plane,’ nuotîsen, ‘iron of a groove plane.’ MidHG. nüejen, vb. (OHG. nuoen, from *hnôjan, ‘to smooth, fit exactly,’ also belongs to a Teut. root hnô.
nütze, adj., ‘useful,’ from MidHG. nütze, OHG. nuzzi, adj., ‘profitable’; Goth. un-nuts, ‘useless’; comp. AS. nytt, ‘useful.’ Allied to genießen, where other derivatives and cognates of the str. vb. are adduced.