OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥarīrī

See also Al-Hariri of Basra on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ḤARĪRĪ [Abū Maḥommed ul-Qāsim ibn ’Ali ibn Maḥommed al-Ḥarīrī,] i.e. “the manufacturer or seller of silk”] (1054–1122), Arabian writer, was born at Baṣra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashān, a village near Baṣra. He is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem the Mulḥat ul-ʽIrāb (French trans. Les Récréations grammaticales with notes by L. Pinto, Paris 1885–1889; extracts in S. de Sacy’s Anthologie arabe, pp. 145–151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated called Ḍurrat ul-Ghawwās (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letters sin and shin (ed. in Arnold’s Chrestomathy, pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fifty maqāmas (see Arabia: Literature, section “Belles Lettres”). These were written in rhymed prose like those of Hamadhānī, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric.
The Maqāmas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850), and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries, especially with that of Sharīshī (d. 1222). (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥasan and Ḥosain

See also Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ḤASAN and ḤOSAIN (or Ḥusein), sons of the fourth Mahommedan caliph Ali by his wife Fatima, daughter of Mahomet. On Ali’s death Ḥasan was proclaimed caliph, but the strength of Moawiya who had rebelled against Ali was such that he resigned his claim on condition that he should have the disposal of the treasure stored at Kufa, with the revenues of Darabjird. This secret negotiation came to the ears of Ḥasan’s supporters, a mutiny broke out and Ḥasan was wounded. He retired to Medina where he died about 669. The story that he was poisoned at Moawiya’s instigation is generally discredited (see Caliphate, sect. B, § 1). Subsequently his brother Ḥosain was invited by partisans in Kufa to revolt against Moawiya’s successor Yazid. He was, however, defeated and killed at Kerbela on the 10th of October (Muharram) 680 (see Caliphate, sect. B, § 2 ad init.). Ḥosain is the hero of the Passion Play which is performed annually (e.g. at Kerbela) on the anniversary of his death by the Shi’ites of Persia and India, to whom from the earliest times the family of Ali are the only true descendants of Mahomet. The play lasts for several days and concludes with the carrying out of the coffins (tabūt) of the martyrs to an open place in the neighbourhood.
See Sir Wm. Muir, The Caliphate (1883); Sir Lewis Pelly, The Miracle Play of Hasan and Hosein (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥasan ul-Baṣrī

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​ḤASAN UL-BAṢRĪ [Abū Sa‘ūd ul-Ḥasan ibn Abī–l-Ḥasan Yassār ul-Baṣrī], (642–728 or 737), Arabian theologian, was born at Medina. His father was a freedman of Zaid ibn Thābit, one of the Anṣār (Helpers of the Prophet), his mother a client of Umm Salama, a wife of Mahomet. Tradition says that Umm Salama often nursed Ḥasan in his infancy. He was thus one of the Tābi‘ūn (i.e. of the generation that succeeded the Helpers). He became a teacher of Baṣra and founded a school there. Among his pupils was Wāṣil ibn ‘Atā, the founder of the Mo‘tazilites. He himself was a great supporter of orthodoxy and the most important representative of asceticism in the time of its first development. With him fear is the basis of morality, and sadness the characteristic of his religion. Life is only a pilgrimage, and comfort must be denied to subdue the passions. Many writers testify to the purity of his life and to his excelling in the virtues of Mahomet’s own companions. He was “as if he were in the other world.” In politics, too, he adhered to the earliest principles of Islam, being strictly opposed to the inherited caliphate of the Omayyads and a believer in the election of the caliph.
His life is given in Nawāwī’s Biographical Dictionary (ed. F. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1842–1847). Cf. R. Dozy, Essai sur l’histoire de l’islamisme, pp. 201 sqq. (Leiden and Paris, 1879); A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichtliche Streifzüge, p. 5 seq.; R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, pp. 225–227 (London, 1907). (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥassān ibn Thābit

See also Hassan ibn Thabit on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​HASSĀN IBN THĀBIT (died 674), Arabian poet, was born in Yathrib (Medina), a member of the tribe Khazraj. In his youth he travelled to Hira and Damascus, then settled in Medina, where, after the advent of Mahomet, he accepted Islam and wrote poems in defence of the prophet. His poetry is regarded as commonplace and lacking in distinction.
His diwan has been published at Bombay (1864), Tunis (1864) and Lahore (1878). See H. Hirschfeld’s “Prolegomena to an edition of the Diwan of Hassan” in Transactions of Oriental Congress (London, 1892).  (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥasdai ibn Shaprut

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​ḤASDAI IBN SHAPRUT, the founder of the new culture of the Jews in Moorish Spain in the 10th century. He was both physician and minister to Caliph Abd ar-Raḥman III. in Cordova. A man of wide learning and culture, he encouraged the settlement of Jewish scholars in Andalusia, and his patronage of literature, science and art promoted the Jewish renaissance in Europe. Poetry, philology, philosophy all flourished under his encouragement, and his name was handed down to posterity as the first of the many Spanish Jews who combined diplomatic skill with artistic culture. This type was the creation of the Moors in Andalusia, and the Jews ably seconded the Mahommedans in the effort to make life at once broad and deep.  (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥārith ibn Ḥilliza ul-Yashkurī

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​ḤĀRITH IBN ḤILLIZA UL-YASHKURĪ, pre-Islamic Arabian poet of the tribe of Bakr, famous as the author of one of the poems generally received among the Moʽallakāt (q.v.). Nothing is known of the details of his life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ḥishām ibn al-Kalbī

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​HISHĀM IBN AL-KALBĪ [Abū-l Mundhir Hishām ibn Maḥommed ibn us-Sā’b ul-Kalb] (d. c. 819), Arabic historian, ​was born in Kufa, but spent much of his life in Bagdad. Like his father, on whose authority he relied largely, he collected information about the genealogies and history of the ancient Arabs. According to the Fihrist (see Nadīm) he wrote 140 works. As independent works they have almost entirely ceased to exist, but his account of the genealogies of the Arabs is continually quoted in the Kitāb ul-Aghāni.
Large extracts from another of his works, the Kitāb ul-Asnām, are contained in the Khizānat ul-Adab (iii. 242-246) and in the geography of Yāqūt (q.v.). These latter have been translated with comments by J. Wellhausen in his Reste des arabischen Heidentums (2nd ed., Berlin, 1897). (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ṣaffārids

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​ṢAFFĀRIDS, a Persian dynasty of the 9th century, founded by Yaḳub (Yaqub) b. Laith b. Saffār (“copper smith”) about 866, who, originally a leader of bandits and outlaws, became governor of Sejistan. He soon added to his province Herat, Fars, Balkh and Tokharistan, overthrew the Tahirids in Khorasan, and, nominally still dependent on the caliphs of Bagdad, established a dynasty in Sejistan (see Caliphate, section C, Abbasids, § 10, and Persia: History, section B). Soon after 900 the dynasty became subordinate to the Sāmānids (q.v.) and few of its rulers had any real authority. Under the last of the dynasty, Taj ud-din Binaltagin (1225–1229), a usurper of the royal family of the Khwarizm shahs, the country was captured by the Mongols.
See S. Lane Poole, Mahommedan Dynasties (1894), p. 129; Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888), vol. i. p. 137; on the later Ṣaffārids, H. Sauvaire, in the Numismatic Chronicle (1881).
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽie
### Pʽie.
#### 萍$^{-1}$

    Moss-like substance which grows on stagnant water.

#### 票$^{3-}$

    A government warrant; a broker's ticket; a written order.

#### 摽$^{3-}$

    To strike; to beat or lay the hand upon the breast; to make a signal.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽin
### Pʽin.
#### 屛$^{-1}$

    A screen inside a door; to screen; cover; reject.

#### 缾$^{-1}$

    A pitcher or other utensil for containing wine.

#### 貧$^{-1}$

    Indigent; poor.

#### 頻$^{-1}$

    Urgent; pressing; precipitate; uninterrupted; continually.

#### 嚬$^{-1}$

    To contract the eyebrows, as in smiling, anger or sorrow.

#### 蘋$^{-1}$

    Name of a plant which grows on the surface of water.

#### 顰$^{-1}$

    To frown; contract the eyebrows.

#### 㰋$^2$

    The apple-tree.

#### 牝$^2$

    Female; the female organ of generation.

#### 砭$^2$

    A stone needle; to probe; to probe.

#### 貶$^2$

    To censure; blame; detract from; injure.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽit
### Pʽit.
#### 匹$^4$

    A pair; to correspond to; a husband or wife; intimate; single; a numeral of horses.

#### 疋$^4$

    A roll or piece of silk or cloth; a numeral of cloth.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽeng
### Pʽeng.
#### 平$^{-1}$

    Even; equal; just; level; tranquil; to level; to subjugate.

#### 坪$^{-1}$

    Level ground.

#### 秤$^{-1}$

    To weigh; a certain weight.

#### 評$^{-1}$

    To deliberate; arrange; decide; fix; criticise.

#### 憑$^{-1}$

    Leaning on; proof; what may be proved.

#### 朋$^{-1}$

    Of the same school, class or society; an equal; a friend.

#### 鵬$^{-1}$

    A fabulous bird transformed into a fish.

#### 烹$^1$

    To boil water or other substances; to cook.

#### 聘$^{3-}$

    To ask; inquire of; invite; to betroth; an embassy of peace.

#### 騁$^{3-}$

    To walk; run; press forward at full speed.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽe
### Pʽe.
#### 帕$^{3-}$

    A napkin; handkerchief; ornaments for the head. ​

#### 袙$^{3-}$

    A turban; napkin to cover the forehead; apron.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽek
### Pʽek.
#### 辟$^4$

    A title of royal personages; majestic; punishment; laws.

#### 劈$^4$

    To strike or break open; to tear; split; cut.

#### 擘$^4$

    To open; break; the fingers.

#### 癖$^4$

    Indigestion; costiveness; a craving appetite; phlegm.

#### 襞$^4$

    To fold or plait garments.

#### 闢$^4$

    To shake; burst forth or open; to expand; retire.

#### 霹$^4$

    The shock and noise of thunder; crashing of an earthquake.

#### 珀$^4$

    Amber.

#### 碧$^4$

    A stone of azure or bluish color.

#### 魄$^4$

    The animal soul; sentient principle; form.

#### 匐$^4$

    To fall prostate; to go on the hands and knees; to hasten.

#### 蔔$^4$

    A species of turnip.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽi
### Pʽi.
#### 疲$^{-1}$

    Fatigued; wearied; lassitude; weakness.

#### 披$^1$

    To open; spread out; spread over; cast off; break.

#### 鄙$^2$

    A small confined city; rustic; low; vulgar; vicious.

#### 丕$^2$

    Large; to present to; to receive with respect.

#### 坯$^2$

    To erect a mound; to fill up; add; increase.

#### 邳$^2$

    Name of a place.

#### 痞$^2$

    Pain; disease; a gathering in the abdomen; stoppage.

#### 嬖$^{3-}$

    Partiality for; blind affection; depraved; a prostitute.

#### 譬$^{3-}$

    To make a comparison; to compare; illustrate; a parable.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽia
### Pʽia.
#### 僻$^4$

    Mean; low; depraved; licentious; deflected.

#### 癖$^4$

    See Pʽek
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽien
### Pʽien.
#### 偏$^{-1}$

    Lateral; inclined; partial to; selfish; depraved; bent upon; side.

#### 篇$^{-1}$

    A leaf or section of a book; writing on a slip of bamboo.

#### 編$^{-1}$

    To arrange together in proper order; to bind; plait.

#### 翩$^{-1}$

    To fly swiftly; crowd and bustle; troops and banners.

#### 蝙$^{-1}$

    A bat; also the name of a fish.

#### 褊$^{-1}$

    Small; straight; cramped; narrow.

#### 蹁$^{-1}$

    Lame or distorted about the foot; the knee pan. ​

#### 便$^{-1}$

    Continuous talking.

#### 扁$^2$

    A tablet with an inscription; flat.

#### 片$^{3-}$

    A splinter; fragment; a bit; a slip; to divide; judge.

#### 騙$^{3-}$

    To mount a horse; to cheat; deceive; take advantage of.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Pʽio
### Pʽio.
#### 剽$^1$

    To prick an ulcer; to cut off; rob; plunder; swift; urgent.

#### 嘌$^1$

    Irregular; without rule, law or limit.

#### 慓$^1$

    Urgent; pressed; vehement.

#### 標$^1$

    The highest point of a tree; a signal; sign board; a warrant.

#### 瓢$^1$

    A species of gourd of which drinking cups are made.

#### 螵$^1$

    A species of spider.

#### 驃$^1$

    A fleet horse; strong and valorous.

#### 飄$^1$

    A whirlwind; a sudden and violent wind; blown about.

#### 麃$^1$

    Name of an animal resembling a deer; martial.

#### 瀌$^1$

    Rain and snow blended; a fall of sleet.

#### 穮$^1$

    To eradicate weeds from a field.

#### 藨$^1$

    A plant of which mats and sandals are made.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 6/35

[Sidenote: 35. In what sense the wars were religious wars.]
In this sense the contest might be called a religious war, as the hostilities were commenced on religious grounds. Because the Koreish persecuted the Moslems, and expelled them for the reason that they had forsaken the religion of their forefathers, i.e., idolatry, and embraced the faith of Islam, the worship of One True God; but it was never a religious war in the sense of attacking the unbelievers aggressively to impose his own religion forcibly on them. How much is Sir W. Muir in the wrong, who says, that fighting was prescribed on religious grounds? "Hostilities," he says, "indeed, were justified by the 'expulsion' of the believers from Mecca. But the main and true issue of the warfare was not disguised to be the victory of Islam. They were to fight 'until the religion became the Lord's alone.'"

## Footnotes

* ↑ The Life of Mahomet, Vol. III, p. 79.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 5/32

[Sidenote: 32. Tabúk, the last expedition.]
The last expedition of Mohammad was that of Tabúk, and it was also purely defensive. The travellers and traders arriving from Syria brought news of the gathering of a large army on the borders of Syria. A year's pay, they said, had been advanced by the Greek or Roman Emperor, who was then at Hims, in order that the soldiers might be well-furnished for a long campaign; the tribes of the Syrian desert, the Bani Lakhm, Judzam, Amila, and Ghussan were flocking around the Roman Eagles, and the vanguard was already at Balcâ. Mohammad at once resolved to meet this danger. When he arrived in the vicinity of the Syrian border at Tabúk, he found no troops to oppose him. There were no signs of impending danger, and he therefore returned with his army to Medina. This was in the ninth year of the Hegira.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 4/30

[Sidenote: 30. The judgment of Sâd.]
The Bani Koreiza had surrendered themselves to the judgment of Sâd, an Awsite of their allies, Bani Aws. To this Mohammad agreed. Sâd decreed that the male captives should be slaughtered. Mohammad, disapproving the judgment, remarked to Sâd: "Thou hast decided like the decision of a king," meaning thereby a despotic monarch. The best authentic tradition in Bokhari (Kitáb-ul-Jihád) has the word 'Malik,' monarch; but in other three places of Bokhari, Kitabul Monakib, Maghazi, and Istizan, the narrator has a doubt whether the word was "Allah" or Malik. Moslim, in his collection, has also 'Malik,' and in one place the sentence is not given at all. It was only to eulogize the memory of Sâd after his death, that some of the narrators of the story gave out that Mohammad had said that Sâd had decided like the decision of a Malak, angel; or some narrators interpreted the word Malik, king, as meaning God; and therefore put the word Allah in their traditions. Mohammad never said "Malak", meaning angel, or Malik, allegorically meaning "Allah"; he simply said Malik, literally meaning a king or monarch.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 4/31

[Sidenote: 31. Defensive character of the expedition against the Jews of Khyber.]
The expedition against the Jews of Khyber was purely defensive in its character. They had, since the Jews of the tribe of Nazeer and Koreiza being banished from Medina in consequence of their treason against the Moslem commonwealth, had joined them, been guilty of inciting the surrounding tribes to attack upon Medina, and had made alliance with the Bani Ghatafán, who had taken a prominent part among the confederates who had besieged Medina at the battle of the Ditch, to make a combined attack upon Medina. They, especially Abul Hukeik, the chief of Bani Nazeer, had excited the Bani Fezára and other Beduoin tribes to commit incursions on Medina. They had made a combination with the Bani Sád-Ibn Bakr to make inroads on the Moslims. Bani Sád, a branch of Hawazin, were among the confederates who had besieged Medina. Lately, Oseir Ibn Zárim, the chief of Nazeer at Khyber, maintained the same relations with Bani Ghatafán, as their former chief had, to make a combined attack on Medina. The Bani Ghatafán, with their branches of Bani Fezára and Bani Murra, in league with those of Khyber, were always plotting mischief in the vicinity of Fadak at Khyber. They (the Ghatafán) had continued for a long time to alarm Medina with threatened attacks. At the seventh year of the Hegira timely information was received by Mohammad of the combined preparation of Khyber and Ghatafán. He rapidly set forth in his defence, and marched to Khyber at once. He took up a position at Rají, between Khyber and Ghatafán, to cut off their mutual assistance. So it was not a sudden and unprovoked invasion, as Sir W. Muir calls it. He writes: "Mahomet probably waited for some act of aggression on the part of the Jews of Kheibar (it was the fertile lands and villages of that tribe which he had destined for his followers), or on the part of their allies, the Bani Ghatafán, to furnish the excuse for an attack. But no such opportunity offering, he resolved, in the autumn of this year, on a sudden and unprovoked invasion of their territory." It will appear from what I have stated above, that the invasion of Khyber was purely defensive in its character.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Life of Mahomet, Vol. IV, p. 61.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 5

V.—The Christians or Romans.
* 32. Tabúk, the last expedition
* 33. Description of the wars concluded
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 5/33

[Sidenote: 33. The conclusion.]
This concludes the description of all the wars of the Prophet. I hope I have shown, on good and reasonable grounds, and from the surest and most authentic sources, that the wars were not of an offensive and aggressive character; but, on the contrary, they were wars of defence and protection. The early Moslems were wronged, because they believed in the faith of Mohammad; they were deprived of their civil and religious rights, were driven forth from their homes and their properties, and after all were attacked first, by the Koreish and their confederates, the Jews and other Arabian tribes. They fought neither for revenge, nor to impose the faith of Mohammad by force of arms, nor for the plunder of the caravans which passed in proximity to their city. The permission to fight was only given to the believers because they were fought against or were attacked first, and had been wronged and driven from their homes without just cause. They therefore took up arms against those who first compelled them to fly from their homes, and then attacked them. This was in full accordance, therefore, with the law of nations and the sacred law of nature. The people of Medina had only pledged themselves to protect Mohammad from his enemies. They could not, and would not, have gone forth or allowed Mohammad and his ansárs to go forth to plunder the caravan of the Koreish passing by Medina.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 6

VI.—The Intolerance.
* 34. Mohammad never taught intolerance
* 35. In what sense the wars were religious wars
* 36. The alleged verses of intolerance explained
* 37. Sir William Muir quoted
* 38. Comment on the above quotation
* 39. Object of Mohammad's wars
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 6/34

[Sidenote: 34. Mohammad never taught intolerance.]
Those people are greatly mistaken who say, that "the one common duty laid upon the Faithful is to be the agents of God's vengeance on those who believe not. These are to be slaughtered until they pay tribute, when they are allowed to go to Hell in their own way without further molestation." Mohammad did not wage war against the Koreish and the Jews because they did not believe in his mission, nor because he was to be the instrument of God's vengeance on them; on the contrary, he said, "He was no more than a warner."
"The truth is from your Lord, let him then who will, believe; and let him who will, be an unbeliever."
"Let there be no compulsion in religion." "Verily, they who believe, and the Jews, and the Sabeites, and the Christians, whoever of them believeth in God and in the last day, and doth what is right, on them shall come no fear, neither shall they be put to grief." Even during active hostilities, those who did not believe were allowed to come and hear the preaching, and were then conveyed to their place of safety. Nor were the wars of Mohammad to exact tribute from the unbelievers. The tribute was only imposed upon those who had sought his protection, and even then they were exempted from other regular taxes which the Moslems paid to their Commonwealth.
On the contrary, as has already been shown, Mohammad merely took up arms in the instances of self-preservation. Had he neglected to defend himself after his settlement at Medina against the continued attacks of the Koreish and their allies, he with his followers would, in all probability, have been exterminated. They fought in defence of their lives as well as their moral and religious liberties.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Islam under the Arabs, by Major R.D. Osborne, London, 1876, p. 27.
* ↑ XVIII, 28.
* ↑ II, 257.
* ↑ V, 73.
* ↑ IX, 6.