OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perga

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​PERGA (mod. Murtana), an ancient city of Pamphylia, situated about 8 m. inland, at the junction of a small stream (Sari Su) with the Cestrus. It was a centre of native influences as contrasted with the Greek, which were predominant in Attalia, and it was a great seat of the worship of “Queen” Artemis, here represented as a human-headed cone and a purely Anatolian nature goddess. There Paul and Barnabas began their first mission in Asia Minor (Acts ix. 13). A much frequented route into Phrygia and the Maeander valley began at Perga, and Alexander made it the starting-point of his invasion of inner Asia Minor. Long the metropolis of Pamphylia Secunda, it was superseded in Byzantine times by its port Attalia, which became a metropolis in 1084. The extensive ruins all lie in the plain south of the Acropolis. The walls are well preserved, but of late Roman or Byzantine construction. The lines of intersecting streets can easily be made out, and there are ruins of two sets of baths, two basilicas and a forum. But the most notable monument is the theatre, which lies outside the walls on the south-west, near the stadium. This is as perfect as those of Myra and Patara, but larger than either, and yields the palm only to those of Aspendus and Side. Modern Murtana is a large village, long under the domination of the Dere Beys of the Tekke Oglu family.
See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylia et de la Pisidie, vol. i. (1890); Sir W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire (1893). (D. G. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pereyaslavl Zalyeskiy

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​PEREYASLAVL (called Zalyeskiy, or “Beyond the Forest,” to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after which it was named), one of the oldest and most interesting cities in middle Russia, situated in the government of Vladimir, 45 m. N.E. of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshchéevo. Pop. 8662. Pereyaslavl was formerly remarkable for the number and importance of its ecclesiastical foundations. Among those still standing are the 12th-century cathedral, with ancient wall-paintings and the graves of Demetrius, son of Alexander Nevsky, and other princes, and a church founded by Eudoxia (Euphrosyne), wife of Demetrius Donskoi, in the close of the 14th century. It is by its extensive cotton manufactures that Pereyaslavl is now best known. The fisheries in the lake (20 m sq. in extent and 175 ft. deep) have long been of great value.
Founded in 1152 by Yuryi Dolgoruki, prince of Suzdal, Pereyaslavl soon began to play a considerable part in the history of the country From 1195 till 1302 it had princes of its own; and the princes of Moscow, to whom it was at the latter date ​bequeathed, kept it (apart from some temporary alienations in the 14th century) as part of their patrimony throughout the 15th and 16th centuries Lake Pleshchéevo was the scene of Peter the Great’ss first attempts (1691) at creating a fleet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russell of Thornhaugh, William, 1st Baron

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​RUSSELL OF THORNHAUGH, WILLIAM, 1st Baron (c. 1558–1613), English soldier, was a younger son of Francis Russell, 2nd earl of Bedford, and was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. After spending a few years abroad, he went to Ireland in 1580, and having seen some service in that country he was knighted in September 1581. In 1585 he joined the English forces in the Netherlands, being made lieutenant-general of cavalry; in September 1586 he so distinguished himself at Zutphen that the Spaniards pronounced him “a devil and not a man”; and in 1587 he became governor of Flushing in succession to his late friend, Sir Philip Sidney. He differed with the estates of Holland and with his, superior, Lord Willoughby de Eresby; consequently, on his own initiative, he was recalled to England in July 1588. In May 1594 Russell was made lord deputy of Ireland in place of Sir William Fitzwilliam. He relieved Enniskillen, but his attempts to capture the insurgent leaders, Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone, and Fiagh MacHugh O’Byrne, came to nothing. In May 1595 Sir John Norris landed in Ireland, his orders being to help the lord deputy in his difficult task. Russell was somewhat chagrined at the choice, as he and Norris were not very good friends, but for a short time they acted together against the rebels in the N. of Ireland. Russell then led an expedition into Connaught, but soon he and Norris were at variance. Having captured O’Byrne in May 1597, Russell laid down his office and left Ireland later in the month. In 1603 he was created Baron Russell of Thornhaugh, and he died on the 9th of August 1613. In 1627 his only son Francis succeeded his cousin Edward as 4th earl of Bedford.
Russell’s Journal of his doings in Ireland is in the Carew MSS., and many of his letters are in the British Museum. See J. H. Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (1833), and R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. iii. (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russell, Thomas

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​RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762–1788), English poet, was born at Beaminster, early in 1762. He was the son of John Russell, an attorney at Bridport, in Dorsetshire, and his mother was Miss Virtue Brickle, of Shaftesbury. He was educated at the grammar school of Bridport, and in 1777 proceeded to Winchester, where he stayed three years, under Dr Joseph Warton, and Thomas Warton, the professor of poetry. In 1780 Russell became a member of New College, Oxford. He graduated B.A. in 1784 and was ordained priest in 1786. During his residence at the university he devoted himself to French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Provencal and even German literature. His health, however, broke down, and he retired to Bristol hot wells to drink the waters; but in vain, for he died there on the 31st of July 1788. He was buried in Powerstock churchyard, Dorset. In 1789 was published a thin volume, containing his Sonnets and Miscellaneous Poems, now a very rare book. It contained twenty-three sonnets, of regular form, and a few paraphrases and original lyrics. The sonnets are the best, and it is by right of these that Russell takes his place as one of the most interesting precursors of the romantic school. “ War, Love, the Wizard, and the Fay he sung ”in other words, he rejected entirely the narrow circle of subjects laid down for 18th-century poets. In this he was certainly influenced both by Chatterton and by Collins. But he was still more clearly the disciple of Petrarch, of Boccaccio and of Camoens, each of whom he had carefully and enthusiastically studied. His Sonnet, “Suppos'd to be written at Lemnos,” is his masterpiece, and is unquestionably the greatest English sonnet of the 18th century
The anonymous editor of Russell's solitary volume is said to, have been William Howley (1766–1848), long afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, who was a youthful bachelor of New College when Russell, who had been his tutor, died. His memoir of the poet is very perfunctory, and the fullest account of Russell is that published in 1897 by T. Seccombe.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russell, William Clark

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​RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844–), British author, was born at the Carlton House Hotel, New York, on the 24th of February 1844, the son of Henry Russell, author of “ Cheer, Boys, Cheer, ” and other popular songs. He went to school at Winchester, and then at Boulogne, joining the merchant service at thirteen, and serving for eight years. This apprenticeship to a seafaring life was turned to account in a series of stories which have fascinated two generations of boy readers. John Holdsworth, Chief Mate (1874), immediately made his reputation. Other successful stories were: The Wreck of the Grosvenor (1875), in which he pleaded for better food for English seamen; The Frozen Pirate (1877), An Ocean Tragedy (1881), The Emigrant Ship (1894), The Ship, Her Story (1894), The Convict Ship (1895), What Cheer! (1895), The Two Captains (1897), The Romance of a Midshipman (1898), The Ship's Adventure (1899), Overdue (1903), Abandoned (1904), His Island Princess (1905). He joined the staff of the Newcastle Daily Chronicle, and afterwards became a leader writer on the Daily Telegraph, but the double labour of journalism and novel writing threatened his health, and he resigned in 1887. Many of the papers which he contributed to the Daily Telegraph were collected in volume form in Round the Galley Fire and other volumes. He also wrote a Life of Lord Collingwood (1891), and, with W. H. Jacques, Nelson and the Naval Supremacy of England (New York, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Gelais, Melin de

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​SAINT-GELAIS, MELIN DE (1487–1558), French poet, was born at Angoulême on the 3rd of November 1487. He was the natural son of Octavien de St Gelais (1466–1502), afterwards bishop of Angoulême, himself a poet who had translated the Aeneid into French. Melin, who had studied at Bologna and Padua, had the reputation of being doctor, astrologer and musician as well as poet. He returned to France in 1515, and soon gained favour at the court of Francis I. by his skill in light verse. He was made almoner to the Dauphin, abbot of Reclus in the diocese of Troyes and librarian to the king at Fontainebleau. He enjoyed immense popularity until the appearance of Du Bellay’s Deffense et illustration . . . in 1549, where St Gelais was not excepted from the scorn poured on contemporary poets. He attempted to ridicule the innovators by reading aloud the Odes of Ronsard with burlesque emphasis before Henry II., when the king’s sister, Margaret of Valois, seized the book and read them herself. Ronsard accepted Saint-Gelais’s apology for this incident, but Du Bellay satirized the offender in the Poète courtesan. In 1554 he collaborated, perhaps with François Habert (1520–1574?), in a translation of the Sophonisbe of Trissino which was represented (1554) before Catherine de Medicis at Blois. Saint-Gelais was the champion of the style marotique and the earliest of French sonneteers. He died in 1558.
His Œuvres were edited in 1873 (3 vols., Bibl. elzévirienne) by Prosper Blanchemain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Georges, Georges Henri Vernoy de

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​SAINT-GEORGES, GEORGES HENRI VERNOY DE (1799–1875), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of November 1799. Saint-Louis ou les deux dîners (1823), a vaudeville written in collaboration with Alexandre Tardif, was followed by a series of operas and ballets. In 1829 he became manager of the Opéra Comique. Among his more famous libretti are: Le Val d’Andorre (1848) for Halévy, and La Fille du régiment (1840) for Donizetti. He wrote some fifty pieces in collaboration with Eugène Scribe, Adolphe de Leuven, or Joseph Mazillier, and a great number in collaboration with other authors. Among his novels may be mentioned Un Mariage de prince. Saint-Georges died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Hilaire, Augustin François César Prouvénçal de

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​SAINT-HILAIRE, AUGUSTIN FRANÇOIS CÉSAR PROUVENÇAL DE, commonly known as August de (1799–1853), French botanist and traveller, was born at Orleans on the 4th of October 1799. He began to publish memoirs on botanical subjects at an early age. In 1816–1822 and in 1830 he travelled in South America, especially in south and central Brazil, and the results of his study of the rich flora of the regions through which he passed appeared in several books and numerous articles in scientific journals. The works by which he is best known are the Flora Brasiliae Meridionalis (3 vols., folio, with 192 coloured plates, 1825–1832), published in conjunction with A. de Jussieu and J. Cambessèdes, Histoire des plantes les plus remarquables du Brésil et de Paraguay (1 vol. 4to, 30 plates, 1824), Plantes usuelles des Brésiliens (1 vol. 4to, 70 plates, 1827–1828), also in conjunction with De Jussieu and Cambessèdes, and Voyage dans le district des diamants et sur le littoral du Brésil (2 vols., 8vo, 1833). His Leçons de botanique, comprenant principalement la morphologie végétale (1840), was a comprehensive exposition of botanical morphology and of its application to systematic botany. He died at Orleans on the 30th of September 1853.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Lambert, Jean François de

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​SAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE (1716–1803), French poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was established in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his court at Lunéville. He left the army after the Hanoverian campaign of 1756–57, and devoted himself to literature, producing a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never read, many articles for the Encyclopédie, and some miscellaneous works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame, however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus’s mistress, Whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Thémire, when Voltaire in 1748 came to Lunéville with the marquise de Châtelet. Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with Madame d’Houdetot, Rousseau’s Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, continued for the whole lives of himself and his mistress. Saint-Lambert’s later years were given to philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des mœurs chez toutes les nations on catéchisme universel, and published his Œuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the 9th of February 1803. Madame d’Houdetot survived until the 28th of January 1813.
See G. Maugras, La Cour de Lunéville (1904) and La Marquise de Boufflers (1907); also the literature dealing with Rousseau and Voltaire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Bon, Simone Arturo

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​SAINT-BON, SIMONE ARTURO (1823–1892), Italian admiral, was born at Chambéry on the 20th of March 1823. Leaving the Naval Academy in 1847, he attained the rank of commander in 1860, and that of vice-admiral in 1867. He took part in the Crimean war, distinguished himself in 1860 at the siege of Ancona, and was decorated for valour at the siege of Gaeta. At the battle of Lissa, in 1866, his vessel, the “Formidabile,” forced the entrance of the port of San Giorgio and silenced the Austrian batteries, for which exploit he received a gold medal. In 1873 he was elected deputy, and appointed by Minghetti to be minister of marine, in which position he revolutionized the Italian navy. Insisting upon the need for large battleships with high powers of attack and defence, and capable of fighting as single units, he introduced the colossal types of which the “Duilio” and the “Dandolo” were the earliest examples. Falling from power with the Right in 1876, he resumed active service, but in 1891 was again appointed minister of marine. He died on the 26th of November 1892, while still in office. He is remembered in Italy as the originator of the modern Italian fleet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Cyran

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SAINT-CYRAN, a French Benedictine abbey in the province of Berry, now comprised in the department of the Loiret. From 1620 to 1643 it was held by the famous Jansenist reformer, Du Vergier (q.v.), who is consequently often spoken of by French writers as the Abbé de Saint-Cyran.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saint-Germain, Claude Louis, Comte de

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​ SAINT-GERMAIN, CLAUDE LOUIS, Comte de (1707-1778), French general, was born on the 15th of April 1707, at the Château of Vertamboz. Educated at Jesuit schools, he intended to enter the priesthood, but at the last minute obtained from ​ Louis XV. an appointment as sub-lieutenant. He left France, according to the gossip of the time, because of a duel; served under the elector palatine; fought for Hungary against the Turks, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession (1740) joined the army of the elector of Bavaria (who later became emperor under the name of Charles VII.), displaying such bravery that he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant field-marshal. He left Bavaria on the death of Charles VII., and after brief service under Frederick the Great joined Marshal Saxe in the Netherlands and was created a field-marshal of the French army. He distinguished himself especially at Lawfeld, Rancoux and Maastricht. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War (1756) he was appointed lieutenant-general, and although he showed greater ability than any of his fellow-commanders and was admired by his soldiers, he fell a victim to court intrigues, professional jealousy and hostile criticism. He resigned his commission in 1760 and accepted an appointment as field-marshal from Frederick V. of Denmark, being charged in 1762 with the reorganization of the Danish army. On the death of Frederick in 1766 he returned to France, bought a small estate in Alsace near Lauterbach, and devoted his time to religion and farming. A financial crisis swept away the funds that he had saved from his Danish service and rendered him dependent on the bounty of the French ministry of war. Saint-Germain was presented at court by the reformers Turgot and Malesherbes, and was appointed minister of war by Louis XVI. on the 25th of October 1775. He sought to lessen the number of officers and to establish order and regularity in the service. His efforts to introduce Prussian discipline in the French army brought on such opposition that he resigned in September 1777. He accepted quarters from the king and a pension of 40,000 livres, and died in his apartment at the arsenal on the 15th of January 1778.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/String

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​STRING, a general term for thin cord, or stout thread, a line or cord on which objects are strung. The O. Eng. word is streng, cf. Dan. streng, Ger. Strang, and meant that which is strongly or tightly twisted; it is related to “strong,” and is to be referred to the root seen also in Lat. stringere, to draw tight, whence “stringent” and “strict,” and in Gr. στραγγάλη, a halter, whence comes “strangle,” to choke, throttle. The word is particularly used of the cord of a bow, and of the stretched cords of gut and wire upon a musical instrument, the vibration of which produces the tones (see Stringed Instruments below). In architecture the term “string-course” is applied to the projecting course or moulding running horizontally along the face of a building.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Strip

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​STRIP, to remove or tear off the outer covering of anything, hence to rob or plunder; also a narrow long piece of stuff or material, or a mark or division narrow in proportion to its length distinguished from its ground or surroundings by colour or other variation of texture, character, &c.; a stripe; this last word is a variant of “strip,” a particular meaning, that of a stroke or lash of a whip, is either due to the original meaning of “strip,” to flay, or to the long narrow mark or wheat left by a blow. The O. Eng. strypan, to strip, is cognate with Du. stroopen, Ger. streifen, and the root is possibly seen in “strike,” Lat. stringere. “To strip” has many technical meanings, e.g. to separate the tobacco leaf from the stems, to remove the overlying soil from a mineral deposit before opening and working it, to turn a gun-barrel in a lathe, &c. In architecture, a “strip-pilaster” is a narrow pilaster such as is found in Saxon work and in the Italian Romanesque churches. “Stripling,” a youth, is apparently a diminutive of “strip,” in the sense of a young growing lad.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stromness

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​STROMNESS, a police burgh and seaport, in the island of Pomona, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2450. It is situated on the side of a well-sheltered bay, 14 m. by steamer west of Kirkwall. Many of the houses are within tidal limits and furnished with quays and jetties. The harbour admits vessels of all sizes and is provided with a pier and slips. The deep-sea fishery attracts hundreds of boats from the north of Scotland, and most of the catch is cured for the English, German and Dutch markets. Stromness is in daily communication with Scrabster pier (Thurso), and at frequent intervals with Kirkwall by coach and also by steamer. It is a port of call for ships trading with the north of Europe as well as for vessels outward bound to the Arctic regions, Hudson Bay and Canada. The magnificent scenery of the west coast of Pomona is commonly visited from Stromness. The tour includes Black Craig (400 ft.), on which the schooner " Star of Dundee " was wrecked in 1834; the grand stacks of North Gaulton Castle and Yesnaby Castle ; the Hole of Row, a natural arch carved out by the ocean; Birsay, where are the ruins of the palace built by Robert Stewart, earl of Orkney (d. 1592), natural son of James V., the traces of a church which is believed to have been built by Jarl Thorfinn on his return from Rome, in which the remains of St Magnus reposed until their burial in Kirkwall Cathedral, and, on the Broch of Birsay (95 ft. high), the ruins of St Peter’s church.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Strode, Ralph

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​STRODE, RALPH (fl. 1350-1400), English schoolman, was probably a native of the West Midlands. He was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford, before 1360, and famous as a teacher of logic and philosophy and a writer on educational subjects. He belonged, like Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura, to that " School of the Middle " which mediated between realists and nominalists. Besides his Logica, which has not survived, he wrote Consequentiae, a treatise on the syllogism, and Obligationes or Scholastica militia, a series of " formal exercises in scholastic dialectics." He had some not unfriendly controversy with his colleague John Wyclif, against whom he defended the possession of wealth by the clergy, , and held that in the Church abuses were better than disturbance. He also attacked Wyclif 's doctrine of predestination. His positions are gathered from Wyclif's Responsiones ad Rodolphum Strodum (MS. 3926, ​Vienna Imperial Library). Strode is also associated with John Gower in Chaucer’s dedication of Troylus and Cryseyde, and Strode himself, according to the 15th-century Vetus catalogus of fellows of Merton, was a “poeta nobilis.” Leland and Bale confirm this testimony, and Professor I. Gollancz has suggested the identification of the Phantasma Radulphi attributed to Strode in the Vetus catalogue with the beautiful 14th-century elegiac poem The Pearl. If this hold good, Strode wrote also Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight. From 1375 to 1385 this Strode or another of the same name was common sergeant of the city of London; he died in 1387.
See Prantl, Geschichte der Logik; for an attempt to distinguish between Strode the schoolman and Strode the poet, see J. T. T. Brown, in The Scottish Antiquary (1897), vol. xii.