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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 26:10

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 26:11

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Verhaeren, Émile

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​VERHAEREN, ÉMILE (1855–), Belgian poet, was born at Saint-Amand, near Antwerp, on the 21st of May 1855. He was sent to school at Ghent, where he formed a friendship with Georges Rodenbach. He studied at the university of Louvain, and there started a journal, La Semaine, which he edited in conjunction with the operatic singer Van Dyck. La Semaine was suppressed by the authorities, as was its successor, Le Type, in which Verhaeren had as fellow-workers Max Waller, Iwan Gilkin and Albert Giraud. In 1881 he was admitted to the bar at Brussels, but he soon devoted his whole energies to literature, and especially to the organs of “young Belgium,” La Jeune Belgique and L’Art moderne, making himself especially the champion of the impressionist painters. Verhaeren learnt his art of poetry from the great Flemish artists, and in his early robust works, Les Flamandes (1883) and Les Moines (1886), he displays similar qualities of strength, sometimes degenerating into violence. A period of physical weakness followed, translated into terms of poetry in three volumes of verse, Les Soirs (1887), Les Débâcles (1888) and Les Flambeaux noirs (1889). Au bord de la route (1890) and Les Apparus dans mes chemins (1891) followed. Verhaeren then passed from applying his pictorial method to psychological studies to the task of individualizing the towns, villages and fields of his native country, the first outcome being his Campagnes hallucinees (1893). In Villages illusoires he describes the tragedy of the fields and farms deserted by the people in their race to the towns, and in Les Villes tentaculaires (1895) the great industrial centres devouring the surrounding country. Later volumes of poems are Les Heures claires (1896), Les Visages de la vie (1899), Les Petites Légendes (1900), Les Forces tumultueuses (1901); Les Tendresses premieres (1904). In 1898 he wrote a lyric drama Les Aubes, in 1900 a four-act piece Le Cloître, represented both in Brussels and Paris, and in 1901 a historical drama Philippe II.
The poems of Émile Verhaeren were translated into English by Alma Strettel (1899); and Les Aubes by Mr Arthur Symons (1898). A long list of articles dealing with Verhaeren is to be found in Poètes d’Aujourd’hui (1900) of A. van Bever and Paul Léautaud.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Verkhne-Udinsk

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​VERKHNE-UDINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia, province of Transbaikalia, on the right bank of the Uda, at its confluence with the Selenga, 102 m. by rail E. of Lake Baikal, to which steamers ply. Pop. (1883) 4130; (1897) 8002. It was founded as a small fort in 1668, and is a centre for the overland trade in tea with China, and an emporium both for grain and animal products, exported, and for metals, machinery and manufactured goods, imported. Its yearly fair is of great importance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vermandois

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​VERMANDOIS, a French countship composed originally of the two burgraviates (châtellenies) of St Quentin (Aisne) and Peronne (Somme). Herbert I., the earliest of its hereditary counts, was descended in direct male line from the emperor Charlemagne, and was killed in 902 by an assassin in the pay of Baldwin II., count of Flanders. His son, Herbert II. (902–943), a man absolutely devoid of scruples, considerably increased the territorial power of the house of Vermandois, and kept the lawful king of France, the unlucky Charles the Simple, prisoner for six years. His successors, Albert I., Herbert III., Albert II., Otto and Herbert IV., were unimportant. In 1077 the last male of the first house of Vermandois, Herbert IV., received the countship of Valois in right of his wife. He died soon afterwards, leaving his inheritance to his daughter Adela. whose first husband was Hugh the Great, the brother of king Philip I. Hugh was one of the leaders of the first crusade, and died in 1102 at Tarsus in Cilicia. The eldest son of Hugh and Adela was count Raoul (Rudolph) I. (c. 1120–1152), who married Alix of Guyenne, sister of the queen, Eleanor, and had by her three children: Raoul (Rudolph) II., the Leper (count from 1152-67); Isabelle, who possessed from 1167 to 1183 the countships of Vermandois, Valois and Amiens conjointly with her husband, Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders; and Eleanor. By the terms of a treaty concluded in 1185 with the king, Philip Augustus, the count of Flanders kept the countship of Vermandois until his death, in 1191. At this date a new arrangement gave Eleanor (d. 1213) a life interest in the eastern part of Vermandois, together with the title of countess of St Quentin, and the king entered immediately into possession of Péronne and its dependencies.
See Anselme, Histoire généalogique de la maison royale de France (1726), i. 48–51 and 531–34; Colliette, Mémoires pour l’histoire du Vermandois (1771–72).  (A. Lo.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vermicelli

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​VERMICELLI (plural of Ital. vermicello, little worm, Lat. vermicellus, diminutive of vermis, worm), the name of a kind of paste, made of the granular meal of certain hard wheats, and used as a food. It is made into worm-like threads, whence its name, and differs from macaroni only in being made solid and not in hollow tubes. “Spaghetti” (dim. of spago, a small cord) is a larger kind of vermicelli. In Italy these various pastes form a staple article of food. In other countries “vermicelli” is used in soups and puddings, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vermilion

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​VERMILION, a scarlet pigment composed of mercuric sulphide, HgS. It may be obtained direct from pure and bright coloured portions of the native ore cinnabar, or, artificially, by subliming a mixture of mercury and sulphur. The product is ground and levitated; and when dry it is ready for use. It is also prepared by digesting precipitated mercuric sulphide with an alkaline sulphide for some hours; it is said that Chinese Vermilion owes its superiority to being made in this way. In addition to its brilliance, vermilion is a pigment of great intensity and durability, remaining unaffected by'acid fumes. Being costly, it is much subject to adulteration; but the fraudulent additions may easily be detected by volatilization, which in the case of pure vermilion leaves no residue. See Pigments and Mercury.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vermin

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​VERMIN (Fr. vermine, formed as if from Lat. verminus, vermis, a norm), the collective name applied to various classes of objectionable, harmful or destructive animals. To gamekeepers and those interested in the preservation of game, all animals such as the pole-cat, weasel, stoat, hawks, owls, &c., which destroy the eggs or young of preserved birds, are classed as “vermin,” and the same term includes rats, mice, &c. It is also the collective name given to all those disgusting and objectionable insects that infest human beings, houses, &c., when allowed to be in a filthy and unsanitary condition, such as bugs, fieas, lice, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Verlat, Michel Marie Charles

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​VERLAT, MICHEL MARIE CHARLES (1824–1890), Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp on the 25th of November 1824. He was a pupil of Nicaise de Keyser, and studied at the Antwerp Academy. In 1842 appeared his first important picture, “Pippin the Short Killing a Lion.” About 1849 he went to Paris, where he worked under Ary Scheffer. In 1855 he won a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle at Paris with his “Tiger Attacking a Herd of Buffaloes,” and in 1858 exhibited “Le Coup de collier” (now in the Antwerp Gallery) at the Paris Salon. In 1866 he was appointed director of the Academy at Weimar, where he painted some fine portraits, notably those of the grand-duchess of Saxony and of the musician Liszt. Soon after his return to Antwerp in 1875 he visited Palestine, and brought back a large number of interesting pictures, including “Vox Populi” (Antwerp Gallery), “The Tomb of Jesus,” and “The Flight into Egypt.” In 1885 he was appointed director of the Antwerp Academy. Other important works by Verlat are the panoramas of the battle of Waterloo and the treaty of San Stefano, “Christ between the Two Thieves,” “Defending the Flock” (Antwerp Gallery), “Oxen Ploughing in Palestine” (Antwerp Gallery), “Godfrey of Bouillon at the Siege of Jerusalem” (Brussels Gallery), and “Sheep-Dog Defending the Flock” (Brussels Gallery). He executed a series of original etchings, and published in 1879 a book on the Antwerp Academy. He died at Antwerp on the 23rd of October 1890.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyruvic Acid

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​PYRUVIC ACID, or Pyroracemic Acid, CH$_3$CO⋅CO$_2$H, an organic acid first obtained by J. Berzelius by the dry distillation of tartaric or racemic acids (Pogg. Ann., 1835, 36, p. 1). It may be prepared by boiling α-dichlorpropionic acid with silver oxide; by the hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide with hydrochloric acid (J. Claisen and J. Shadwell, Ber., 1878. 11, pp. 620, 1563); and by warming oxalacetic ester with a 10% solution of sulphuric acid. It is usually made by distilling tartaric acid with potassium bisulphate at about 200–250° C., the crude product being afterwards fractionated. It is a liquid which boils at about 165° C. (with partial decomposition); it may be solidified, and when pure melts at 13·6° C. (L. Simon Bull. Soc. Chim., 1895 [3],13, p. 335). It is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. It reduces ammoniacal silver solutions. When heated with hydrochloric acid to 100° C. it yields carbon dioxide and pyrotartaric acid, C$_5$H$_8$O$_4$, and when warmed with dilute sulphuric acid to 150° C. it gives carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde. Sodium amalgam or zinc and hydrochloric acid reduce it to lactic acid, whilst hydriodic acid gives propionic acid. It readily condenses with aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of sulphuric acid. It is somewhat readily oxidized; nitric acid gives carbonic and oxalic acids, and chromic acid, carbonic and acetic acids. It forms a well-crystallized hydrazone with phenylhydrazine; and α-nitroso propionic acid with hydroxylamine. It is monobasic and yields salts which only crystallize with great difficulty; when liberated from these salts by a mineral acid it forms a syrupy nonvolatile mass. In aqueous solution it gives a red colour with ferric chloride. It shows characteristic ketone reactions, yielding a bisulphite compound and combining with hydrocyanic acid to form the nitrile of α-oxyisosuccinic acid. When warmed with baryta water it gives uvitic acid.
Pyruvic nitrile, or acetyl cyanide, CH$_3$CO⋅CN, may be prepared by the action of silver cyanide on acetyl chloride; or of acetyl chloride on nitrosoacetone (L. Claisen and O. Manasse, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2196). It is a liquid which boils at 93° C. and with caustic alkalis polymerizes to diacetyldicyanide.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pythagoras (of Rhegium)

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PYTHAGORAS, of Rhegium, a noted Greek sculptor of the 5th century B.C., a contemporary of Myron and Polyclitus, and their rival in making statues of athletes. He was born at Samos and migrated in his youth to Rhegium in Italy. He made a statue of Philoctetes notable for the physical expression of pain, an Apollo shooting the Python at Delphi, and a man singing to the lyre. He is said to have introduced improvements in the rendering of muscles, veins and hair.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyrrhotite

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​PYRRHOTITE, a mineral species consisting of iron sulphide and crystallizing in the hexagonal system. The formula is Fe$_n$S$_{n+1}$ where n may vary from 5 to 16; usually it is Fe$_7$S$_8$ or Fe$_{11}$S$_{12}$, the latter being also the composition of the artificially prepared compound. Small amounts of nickel and cobalt
Crystals have the form of hexagonal plates bounded at their edges by faces of a hexagonal prism and pyramids, which are deeply striated horizontally. More frequently, however, the mineral is massive, with a laminar or granular structure. The colour is bronze-yellow and the lustre metallic; the streak is greyish-black. The hardness is 4 and the specific gravity 4.58–4.64. The mineral is magnetic, sometimes with polarity, and it is therefore often called “magnetic pyrites.”
Pyrrhotite occurs in metalliferous veins, and as grains and plates disseminated through various rocks. In the gabbros and norites of Norway and Sweden it has been concentrated by magmatic differentiation at the margins of the igneous masses. Large bodies of massive pyrrhotite occur at Bodenmais in Bavaria and in Wheal Jane near Truro in Cornwall. Crystallized specimens are from the metalliferous veins at Morro Velho in Brazil, Kongsberg in Norway, and Andreasberg in the Harz. Crystals of pyrrhotite have also been observed in meteoric stones; but iron sulphide appears more commonly in meteorites, especially in meteoric irons, as troilite (FeS), which, if really distinct from pyrrhotite, has not been met with in terrestrial rocks. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pythis

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​PYTHIS, or Pythius, one of the most noted Greek architects of the later age. He cultivated the Ionic style, in which he constructed the temple of Athena at Priene. The dedicatory inscription, which is in the British Museum, records that the founder was Alexander the Great. Pythis also made a great marble quadriga which surmounted the Mausoleum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Python

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* Fig. 1.—Head of Boa canina.
* Fig. 2.—Head of Python reticulatus.
PYTHON, a genus of very large snakes of the family Boidae (see Snakes) inhabiting the tropical parts of Africa, Asia and Australia. They differ from the true boas (q.v.) with which they are often confounded by carrying a few teeth in the premaxilla, by the double row of subcaudal shields and by the possession of a pair of supraorbital bones. Most of them have pits in some of the upper and lower labial shields.
Python reticulatus is the commonest species in Indo-China and the Malay Islands; four upper labial shields on either side are pitted. It is, next to the Anaconda, one of the largest of all snakes, some specimens being known which measured about 30 ft. in length. P. molurus, scarcely smaller, is the python or rock-snake of India and Ceylon. The African species are much smaller, up to 15 ft. in length, e.g. P. sebae of tropical and southern Africa and the beautiful P. regius of West Africa. P. spilotes is the “carpet-snake” of Australia and New Guinea. A small relative of pythons is Loxocemus bicolor of South Mexico, the only New World example.
The giant pythons could no doubt overpower and kill by constriction almost any large mammal, since such snakes weigh hundredweights and possess terrific strength, but the width of their mouth—although marvellously distensible—has, of course, a limit, and this is probably drawn at the size of a goat. Before a python swallows such large prey, its bones are crushed and the body is mangled, into the shape of a sausage. The snake begins with the head, and a great quantity of saliva is discharged over the body of the victim as it is hooked into the throat by the alternately right and left forward motions of the distended well-toothed jaws. If for any reason a snake should disgorge its prey, this will be found smothered with slime. Hence the fable that they cover it with saliva before deglutition.
Fig. 3.—Python reticulatus (India).
Most pythons are rather ill-tempered, differing in this respect from the boas. They are chiefly arboreal, and prefer localities in the vicinity of water to which mammals and birds, their usual prey, resort. They move, climb and swim with equal facility. The female collects her eggs, sometimes as many as one hundred, into a heap, round which she coils herself, covering them so that her head rests in the centre on the top. In this position the snake remains without food throughout the whole period of incubation, or rather keeping guard, for about two months. (H. F. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mute

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​MUTE (Lat. mutus, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For the human physical incapacity see Deaf and Dumb. In phonetics (q.v.) a “mute” letter is one which (like p or g) represents no individual sound. The name of “mutes” is given, for obvious reasons, to the undertaker’s assistants at a funeral. In music a “mute” (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibrations. Its use is marked by the sign c.s. (con sordino), and its cessation by s.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden or mufllle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments a leather, wooden or papier mâché pad in the shape of a pear with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument, by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are muted or “muffled” either by the pressure of the hand on the head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the “snares,” or by loosening the “snares.” The muting of a pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musurus, Marcus

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​MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1474–1517), Greek scholar, was born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he ​returned to Venice, where he filled a similar post. In 1516 he was summoned to Rome by Leo X., who appointed him archbishop of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the Peloponnese, but he died before he left Italy. Since 1493 Musurus had been associated with the famous printer Aldus Manutius, and belonged to the “Neacademia,” a society founded by Manutius and other learned men for the promotion of Greek studies. Many of the Aldine classics were brought out under Musurus’s supervision, and he is credited with the first editions of the scholia of Aristophanes (1498), Athenaeus (1514), Hesychius (1514), Pausanias (1516).
See R. Menge’s De M. Musuri vita studiis ingenio, in vol. 5 of M. Schmidt's edition of Hesychius (1868).