# Theophrastus's History of Stones/An Idea of an Artificial Arrangement of Fossils, according to unalterable Characters, and superadded Qualities

Presents Hill's classification system of minerals. See also his early History of Fossils in the General Natural History (1748), Fossils Arranged (1771), and Spatogensia (1772) for alternative and expanded treatments of the same subject of classification.
APPENDIX II.
AN
IDEA of an Artificial Arrangement of Fossils, according to unalterable Characters, and superadded Qualities:
ALSO
Of a Natural Method; according to their Ascent toward their greatest Perfection.
FOSSILS may be arranged, according to the following permanent Characters, into
Two Series,
1. Simple, 2. Compound,
According to the Purity or Mixture in the Body. Each of these into Five Tribes, by
Adding the Ideas of
| 1.—Vitrifiable, | 4.—Incombustible, |
| 2.—Inflammable, | 5.—Soluble in Water, |
| 3.—Calcinable, | 6.—Metalline. |
These into Orders, by superadding the Idea of
| 1.—Pellucid, | 4.—Alkaline, | 7.—Plated, | 10.—Uniform, |
| 2.—Opake, | 5.—Solid, | 8.—Thready, | 11.—Malleable, |
| 3.—Neutral, | 6.—Fluid, | 9—Granulated, | 12.—Friable. |
These into Genera, by superadding the Idea of
| 1. Form. | by Trial by Acids, and by Steel. |
These into Species, by superadding the Idea of
1. Gravity.
These into Varieties, by superadding to all this the Ideas of
1. Colour from Mixture. 1. Shape from Mixture.
And these into Varieties of Varieties, by superadding the Ideas of
1. Colour from double Mixture. 2. Shape from double Mixture.
And under these come all Individuals,
Example.
From the most complete of the Tribes.
An unorganized natural Body, is a Fossil.
Add the Idea pure, :
| | It becomes Simple Fossil. | This is its Series. |
| Add to these calcinable, ||
| | It becomes Limey Fossil. | This is its Tribe. |
| Add to these pellucid, ||
| | It becomes light Limey Fossil. | This is its Order. |
| Add to these soluble in Acids, ||
| | It becomes light Limey soluble Fossil. | This is its Family. |
| Add to these again transparent, ||
| | It becomes Spar. | This is its Genus. |
| Add to these a columnar Figure, ||
| | It becomes Columnar Spar. | This is its Species. |
| Add to these a yellow Colour, ||
| | It becomes Topazine Spar. | This is a Variety. |
| Add to these a blue Colour, ||
| | It becomes Smaragdine Spar. | This is a Variety of a Variety. |
After this there can be only the Difference of Bigness; and that distinguishes Individuals.
FOSSILS.
Series 1.—Simple. Series 2.—Compound.
Series I. Simple Fossils. :
| Tribe | 1. | —Vitrifiable | Crystal. |
| | 2. | —Calcinable | Spar. |
| | 3. | —Inflammable | Sulphur. |
| | 4. | —Incombustible | Talc. |
| | 5. | —Soluble in Water | Salt. |
| | 6. | —Metalline Ores. | Ores. |
| TRIBE I. |||
| Simple Vitrifiable Fossils. |||
| Order | 1. | ———Pellucid | Crystal. |
| | 2. | ———Opake. | Earth neutral. |
| | Family 1.—Brittle. 2.—Tough. | Family 1.—Brittle. 2.—Tough. |
| TRIBE II. |||
| Simple Calcinable Fossils. |||
| Order | 1. | —Pellucid. |
| | 2. | —Opake. |
| | Family 1.—Soluble in Acids. 2.—Indissoluble. ​ | Family 1.—Soluble in Acids. 2.—Indissoluble. ​ |
| TRIBE II. ORDER I. FAMILY I. |||
| Simple calcinable Fossils soluble in Acids. |||
| Class | 1.—Pellucid. | Spars. |
| | 2.—Opake | Earths alkaline. |
| FAMILY II. |||
| Simple calcinable Fossils not soluble in Acids. |||
| Class | 1.—Plated | Selenite. |
| | 2.—Thready | Striated Talc. |
| | 3.—Granulated | Plaister. |
| TRIBE III. |||
| Simple inflammable Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Solid | Sulphur. |
| | 2.—Fluid | Naphtha. |
| TRIBE IV. |||
| Simple incombustible Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Plated | Talc. |
| | 2.—Thready | Asbestos. |
| TRIBE V. |||
| Simple soluble Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Neutral | Rock Salt. |
| | 2.—Alkaline | Natrum. |
| TRIBE VI. |||
| Simple Metalline Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Malleable | Metals. |
| | 2—Friable | Semi-metals. ​ |
| SERIES II. Compound Fossils. |||
| Tribe | 1.—Earthy | Loams. |
| | 2.—Stony | Stones. |
| | 3.—Metalline | Ores. |
| TRIBE I. |||
| Compound Earthy Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Firm in Water | Loams. |
| | 2.—Swelling in Water | Marles. |
| TRIBE II. |||
| Compound stony Fossils. |||
| Order | 1.—Vitrifiable | Stones. |
| | 2.—Calcinable | Marbles. |
| | 3-—Saline | Alum Ores. |
| TRIBE III. |||
| Compound Metalline Fossills. |||
| Order | 1.—Sulphureous. |
| | 2.—Saline |
| | 3.—Arsenical. |
FOSSILS.
SERIES I. TRIBE I. ORDER I.
Simple vitrifiable pellucid Fossils.
Genus 1.—Gems.
Generic Character.
Untouched by Acids, giving Fire with Steel; hard, bright.
Species 1.—Diamond.
Specific Character.
An Octohædron of unequal Sides, impenetrable, colourless, pellucid.
Varieties
1. In Shape.
1. Columnar Diamond.
A Column of fix Angles with two short Pyramids.
2.—Squared Diamond.
A Column of four Angles, with truncated Ends.
3.—Pebble. Diamond.
Without Angles, rounded or irregular.
2. In Colour.
4. Red Diamond.
Diamond coloured by Gold:
5.—Yellow Diamond.
Diamond coloured by Lead.
6.—Blue Diamond.
7.—Green Diamonds.
Diamonds, both coloured by Copper.
Variety of Variety.
8.—Purple Diamond.
Diamond coloured by Gold and Copper.
Species 2.—Sapphire.
Specific Character.
A hexangular Column of six unequal Sides tapering from the Base, and terminated by a Pyramid of the same Angles, colourless, pellucid.
Varieties.
1. In Shape.
1.—Pyramidal Sapphire.
An hexangular Pyramid of unequal Sides.
2.—Columnar Sapphire.
An hexangular Column of unequal Sides, with two low Pyramids.
3.—Pebble Sapphire.
Without Angles, of an oval flatted Shape.
2. In Colour.
4.—Red Sapphire, called Ruby.
Sapphire coloured by Gold.
5.—Yellow Sapphire, called Topaz.
Sapphire coloured by Lead.
6.—Blue Sapphire, called Sapphire.
7.—Green Sapphire, called Emerald.
Sapphires both coloured by Copper.
8.—Flamy Sapphire, called Hyacinth.
9.-Crimson Sapphire, called Garnet.
Sapphires both coloured by Iron,
Varieties of Varieties.
10.—Firey Sapphire, called Carbuncle.
Sapphire coloured by Gold, with a little Copper.
11.—Purple Sapphire, called Amethyst.
Sapphire coloured: by Iron and Copper.
​12.—Blue green Sapphire, called Aqua Marine.
Sapphire, coloured by Copper and Lead.
13.—Yellow green Sapphire, called Chrysolite:
Sapphire coloured by Copper and more Lead.
14.—Coarse green Sapphire,called Prasius.
Sapphire coloured by Copper and Manganese.
These are the Oriental Gems.
They are all found in pebble or columnar Forms; singly and in Clusters; and of different Bignesses.
There are also Crystals of these Colours, which are called occidental Gems of the same Names.
We know the Ingredients which give their Colour, by Experiments in colouring Glass and Pastes.
These with the Colour give no Addition of Weight.
There is beside all these a debased Sapphire, fouled by Earth.
Species 3.—Crystal.
Specific Character,
An hexangular Column of six equal Sides, of the same Tickness from End to End; and terminated each way by an hexangular Pyramid; colourless, pellucid.
Varteties.
1. In Shape.
$^a$ By Accident in their Concretion.
A Crystal of 18 Planes in a short Column, and two long Pyramids.
2.—Bellyed Crystal,
of 12 Planes, in two hexangular Pyramids, base to base.
3.—Edgy Crystal,
of 16 Planes, in two octangular Pyramids, base to base.
of 12 Planes in a hexangular Pyramid, on an hexangular Column:
5.—Broad Crystal,
of 10 Planes in a pentangular Column, and pentangular Pyramid.
6.—Planed Crystal,
of 20 Planes in decangular Columns, and decangular Pyramid.
7.—Oblique Crystal,
A Crystal of 12 Planes, with the Pyramid set on obliquely.
$^b$ By the Influence of Metals,
8.—Cubic Crystal.
Crystal shaped by Lead.
9.—Pyramidal Crystal.
Crystal shaped by Tin.
10.—Rhomboidal Crystal.
Crystal shaped by Iron.
$^c$ Unshaped.
11.—Pebble Crystal.
Crystal without Angles in roundish Masses.
Varieties of Crystal.
2. In Colour.
12.—Yellow Crystal, called Occidental Topaz.
Crystal coloured by Lead.
13.—Blue Crystal, called Occidental Sapphire.
14.—Green Crystal, called Occidental Emerald.
Crystals both coloured by Copper.
Variety of Varieties.
15.—Purple Crystal, called Occidental Amethyst.
3. By Impurities.
16.—Whitish Crystal.
Crystal debased by a white Earth.
17.—Brown Crystal.
Crystal debased by a dusky Earth.
​Upon this Plan it will not not be difficult for an accustomed Mind to arrange the whole Fossile World; and this may serve to give the intended Idea of an artificial Arrangement.
A general Instance of the Method of finding the Places of the several Species, may be seen in the Exordiums of the Spatogenesia. As for Example;
Of the Origin of Spar.
The Series of Fossils make one great Circle; for ever returning into itself.
There are a few primitive Bodies; Chalk, Clay, Bitumen, Talc, and the Mineral Acid.
These, variously mixed, form many different compound Fossils: Which mingling, in some Places, farther with one another, give Decompounds.
These (in other Places) give up their several Primitives again to Water: Which delivers them pure in some other Parts; ready to form mixt and compound Bodies again.
To trace them thro' these Combinations, and to their natural Analysis again, is the whole Business of the Student in this Science: For here is no Distinction but by Mixture: No Origin from Egg, or Seed.
A great deal of pure Clay mixed with a little Quantity of various Stones, forms the different Clays.
And a great deal of Stone with a little of the Clays, forms the various Species of Stones.
​An Instance of this Course of Nature appears in the philosophic History of Spar.
1. The Primitives, as we have seen, are Water, Bitumen, Chalk, Clay, Talc, and Mineral Acid: To these the Operations of the Air, and Fire give great Powers of acting. We thus find
2. Heavy Vapours, formed of Air, and much Water. These, pervading all Things,
3. Meet the Mineral Acid, and uniting with it; if they run clear to the Surface, afford Medicinal Springs; but
4. Thus united, they may fall upon Bitumen: This is no where more frequent than in Limestone Rocks; and often stands in Puddles, in their natural Hollows.
5. By this Mixture, uniting in its Course, is formed a real, tho' a fluid Sulphur: For Sulphur is nothing else; nor can be formed by any other Mean.
6. This Sulphur, not yet conereted, passes in its liquid Form thro' the Pores of the ​Limestone; dissolving Part of its purer Chalk as it goes.
7. Water thus saturated with the Principles of Sulphur, and with Chalk, keeps on its gradual Course horizontally thro' the same Lime Rock, till it meets a Fissure; a perpendicular Crack, or Opening; dividing one Part of the Rock from another. Here it ouzes forth: and meeting with a lighter Air, hangs; and evaporates slowly.
8. Slow Evaporation, and perfect Rest, are the Requisites of Crystalization. The Sulphur and pure Chalk thus united, form one solid Body; which crystalizing gradually, appears in regular rhomboidal Particles: and is the Substance we call Spar.
NATIVE FOSSILS.
CLASS III.
SPAR. SPATUM.
A pure Fossil; composed of Brittle Rhombs.
SPAR is known from Talc by its Want of Elasticity;
———from Selenite by its Want of Flexibility;
———from Crystal by its Dullness, and by fermenting with Acids.
It is heavier than any of the three other pellucid Fossils; and is known from all Bodies in the World (when pure enough to be seen through) by its doubling Lines laid under; and viewed through it.
This last Property has been suppofed peculiar to that Species of Spar called Island Crystal: And the greatest Writers, Linnæus, Wallerius, Cronstedt, and the long et cætera, have separated ​that Body from the pure Rhombic Spar; which they suppofed not to have the double Refraction. But this Power resides in all Spar I have examined: And is of its Nature: As it arises from the internal Construction of the Body, which is made up of smaller Rhombs, applied one to another.
The very Atoms of Spar are Rhombic; and those smallest Pieces into which it may be separated by gentle Acids, without Solution, applied to the Microscope over a Line proportionably fine, have the same Power.
No Body has this Construction except Spar; therefore no other natural or artificial Substance has this Power of double Refraction. Even Sir Isaac Newton has said, Crystal has something of this Power; in vain: For no Authority can stand against the Testimony of the Senses. All different Mediums vary in Refraction; but this peculiar Power resides only in a pellucid Body formed of connected Rhombs.
The State of Refraction in the pellucid natural Bodies is this,
1. Talc in thick Masses elevates the Line.
2. Selenite waves it.
3. Crystal distorts it,
4. Spar gives it double.
All Spar does this, even that which takes the Form of Crystal, in Pyramids, and Columns: Therefore even the variously angulated ​Forms of Spar are composed of Rhombs; and the Construction of Spar, and of Crystal, are perfectly different, even while their Forms are the same.
Spar is seldom found original, and free: A few pure Rhombs; and two Columns, double pointed, which were dug in the Hartz Forest; are all I have of it.
Nature has mixed its Particles among the Matter of the Marbles and Limestones; from whence it is washed forth by the pervading Water, and left slowly by it, in their Cracks and, Fissures; where it assumes these various Forms:
1. Pure Rhombs of a larger Size.
2. Rude Masses, formed of coarse connected Rhombs.
3. Plates composed of connected Rhombs.
4. Columnar, Pyramidial, and Cubic Figures, fixed upon the Surface of these rude Masses.
In this latter Cafe the rude Mass continues uncoloured, and is the Root; and the columnar or pyramidal Figures rife from it frequently yellow, often of other Colours: These cut into a Kind of Gems, but still have the double ​Refraction equally with that Part we call the Root.
5. Icicles and Dropstones.
That the Spar formed in Fissures of Rocks, is thus washed out of the Limestone itself is certain:
Because none but Limestone Rocks have Spar in their Fissures; Rocks of Crystaline Matter, or formed of vitrifiable Stone, have Crystal; never Spar in their Cracks.
Linnæus wonders at the Nature of that Force which split the Rocks into these Cracks: But probably the Cause is very familiar; they were formed moist, and cracked in drying.
Spar grows continually; for wheresoever there is a Crack in a Limestone Rock, new, or old; Spar always fills it; and over-runs the Surface.
Letters cut hollow in a living Rock of Limestone, fill up, in a Course of Years, with Spar; and what were made in Creux are found in Relief. This has been seen in Gothland by the eminent Swede; and in the Grotto of Antiparos by Tournefort. The very Time may be determined by the Dates, which are often a Part of the Inscription; but it is always long. The Spar stands higher as the Time is more distant: and has been feen in some Places a Quarter of an Inch above the Level of the Surface.
If there could want a Proof of the continual Growth of Spar, the Stalactites would shew it; and the Incrustations, in what are called our ​petrifying Springs; but that is a fouler Sort: There is in Norway a Pyramid of Spar two Inches long, which was once mine; in which two Branches of the solid Heath Moss, or Lichen, are perfectly embodied.
It has been thought the Spar in Cracks of Rocks was brought from elsewhere by Water; or was and is originally in all Water: The latter is the Opinion of Linnæus; Henkell maintains the former. But if either were the Case, Spar would be sometimes found in vitrescent Rocks, and Crystal in those of Limestone; which Observation denies.
Spar they say will be formed where Water can be retained; but indeed also where it cannot; 'tis enough that it ouzes slowly: Nay, not Water alone dissolves Spar; but it can be retained in Vapour. I have from Cornwall Incrustations of true Stalavtite, formed in the Pipes of Fire Engines in the Mines, at Heighths to which the Water never ascends, by many Feet; but only Vapour.
Mundick is also thus a Creature of the Air, in many Places. I have trigonal Pyramids of Spar, which hung from the Top of the Bauman's Cave, in the Hartz, covered with Cubic Mundick; there is none in the Spar itself; and from the particular Circumstances of the Specimen, Water could not have lodged upon it, only Vapour.
Spar is one Thing, of one Weight, one Hardness, and when pure can never be mistaken for any other Fossil. It is liable to have ​other Bodies mixt with it; and to be altered in its Condition by that Mixture: But 'tis itself the same. Wallerius distinguithes three Degrees of Hardness in this Fossil; but they are owing to those Mixtures; the least hard is the true Condition of Spar; the other Degrees arise from Iron, or other Additions.
It is the Opinion of Linnæus, that Spar owes its angulated Form to Sea Salt; and the Crystals to other Salts: But there is no Warrant in Nature for this Judgment. Salts are acrid, and dissolve in Water. These Fossils have neither of those Qualities: And who shall tell us that the Property of forming itself into regularly angulated Figures is peculiar to Salts? We have no Authority to believe it is wanting in Crystal, and Spar; and we have the Evidence of our Senses that they have it.
The ingenious and ingenuous Cronstedt well observes, these Figures ought not to be ascribed to Salts, till the Presence of such Salts can be proved in them.
The calcarious Nature of Spar is of its Essence; and no Form, nor all the other Characters in the World, could constitute a Thing a Spar that wanted this. They all ferment with Acids, and they burn to Lime: Nor is this latter Quality equivocal, as some would think, because by the Fire of a great Burning Glass, Spar vitrifies. This is not the Fire, when we speak of Lime; and it can be a Test of nothing because all Things vitrify before it: ​That is the extreme Force of Fire: And the ultimate Effect of Fire on all Bodies is Vitrification.
Linnæus says, the Spar he calls Natro-spatosum, scarce does effervesce with Acids: And it may be added, that the Particles of that Spar are, scarcely at all rhombic: Spar and Crystal are mixt in those Bodies; and they have mixt Qualities; but still as there is some Spar, there is some Effervescence.
'Tis vain to give the Forms of Spar to Natrum; for we not only find no Natrum there, but different Spars have Forms of different Salts; and the great Patron of the Salt System allows, that fome of them affect the various angulated Figures of Alum, Sea-Salt, Vitriol, and the refst. 'Tis true, they resemble those Forms; but they have not those Forms exactly: Nor is either of these, or any other Salt whatever, to be found existing in any of them.
But whither will not the Wind of Theory blow even the steadiest Judgments? The foremost of the Writers, who favour this System, because there are in Spars certain Forms that do not, agree with those of any known Salt, fancies for the Formation of these that there exist Salts, not otherwise known to us, but by this Operation. When Theory can reach this Heighth, it may do what it pleases: To create Causes, because we see Effects that seem to us to require them, is to make all Things easy; and at the cheapest Rate.
​If we can ever bring Spar, after Solution, to recrystallize, as Salt; we shall see all Things explained in this Particular. 'Tis what I have tried four Years, with poor Success; and I have now, requested the ablest Chymist that we have, to join with me in the Attempt. What may arise under his experienced Hand, I know not: All I have found is, that the swifter the Fluid is evaporated, the coarser is the Matter left behind; and the more Length of Time is given, the nearer it approaches to a Promise of Crystals.
I think when this shall be accomplished, we shall find all Spar to be but one Thing; differing only according to the other Matters mixed with it. 'Tis said, the Selenite powdered and mixt in Water affords Crystals; and Kabler gives the Authority of an eminent Metallurgist for it: With me neither has this succeeded yet; But I have no Despair; and tho' it never should succeed with me, it may with others: When that is seen, the other, more important as it is, need not be supposed impossible.
Nothing is more familiar than the Production of what it is the Custom to call, Selenitical Salts; Urine affords them; and some Preparations of Sulphur; but to recrystalize Selenite is, to produce, from a clear Fluid, pellucid dodecahacedral Rhombs, flexile, not elastic, and not soluble again in Water: And he who shall effect this, need not despair of recrystalizing also Spar.
​The Salts in Urine that has stood long come nearer the Nature of Fossils than any Thing we know; and Tartar, formed from Wine, is very difficult of Solution: Yet both these may be melted in pure Water. The Salt produced by flow Crystalization from a Lixivium of Lime and Sulphur, comes nearest of all to Spar; but still it is but an Approach; and not a Sameness: As he who is well acquainted with all the Qualities of the vitriolated Tartar will perceive: Nor do I conceive Henkel's Receipt, formed on the same Foundation, would go any farther: But till Men speak plain,'‘tis vain to war against their buried Meaning.
In fine, the Formation of Spar is yet a Subject of Enquiry: Its Atoms are all Spar; each Particle into which we can without Violence divide it, is the same in all Respects as the Whole: And as the Fossil World admits no Generation, or Birth, by Egg, or Seed, it seems most probable that all the Variety of Forms in which we see this Protean Mineral, are owing to no Cause beside the Arrangement of Rhombs into as many Forms as they are capable of producing. It fills the Cracks of its own Rocks: And of no other: For Crystal Columns rise from crystaline Rocks; and from metallic Masses, fractur'd, grow Pyrite; each separated from the great mixt Body we see split; and each formed into Figures by its own Laws, without the Intervention of Salt, or other Matter.
​We find hollow Crystals, and we have hollow Pyramids of Spar; but 'tis a rash Thought, tho' of a great Man, to imagine that a Crystal of Salt was first formed in these Cases; and when the stony Coat was finished over, it melted away again: This is Imagination: But there is not a hollow Stalactite that may not shew the Senses, and convince the Reason, that this Shell of Spar, or Crystal, may be formed without a solid Nucleus.
There are no entire Rocks of Spar; and they who thought they had seen such of Crystal, perhaps mistook pure Ice for them. Both Spar and Crystal rife in general from foul Stones; and they who thought Ice grew to them in Time, were scarce more pardonable than such as took Ice for them. Scheukzer has seen the Difficulty of accounting for their Forms, and joined the Lamentation of Philosophers upon that Subject; for the Salt System was not then in being: But the old Pliny has not only lamented this Difficulty, but assigned its Cause; and this a Cause to overthrow that System utterly: It is, that tho' the Figures be all regular, they are not all alike; or all resolvable into the same Laws.
'Tis an invidious Office, and unpleasing, to dwell upon the Errors of those who wrote before; but these are so received, and so established, that there is no other Way to Truth.
Wallerius says, that Spar is composed of rhombic and pyramidal Particles: And ​therfore breaks into, both these Forms. It is unwillingly I dissent in a few Particulars, from an Author with whom Reason and Observation command me to agree in a great many: But this is a Doctrine which strikes at the Root of all accurate Knowledge in respect of this Body.
By this Account Spar would be two Things, not one: Its Atoms would have two Figures; and we should lose the great Distinction by which it is kept separate from all other Bodies. I have examined this Point with all possible Attention; and find the pyramidal Figures of Spar, whether in greater or smaller Pieces, to be a secondary Form; composed always of Rhombs: But the rhombic Figure never to have any Form in its constituent Parts beside its own. The Pyramids, great or small, separate into Rhombs; the Rhombs never into Pyramids. The true Way of dividing Spar is, by an Acid, carefully managed; for the Parts are always separated, before they are dissolved.
It is a singular and a just Observation of the same Author, that no pentagonal Spar has ever been found; tho' Angles in most other Numbers are frequent; but this is not to be attributed with him, to an imaginary Salt, Alcaline, and Muriatic; it rests upon a much more solid Base: Which is, that the particular Figure of the Rhombs of Spar, admit the constructing any other angulated Form, only not pentagonal.
​It has been said, that Island Cryftal shines in the Dark after it has been calcined in Manner of the Bolonian Stone; but this is not particular to that Species: It is the Quality of all Spar as Spar; only there requires great Nicety in the Calcination: Perhaps Selenite also has this Power. Linnæus refers the Bolonian Stone to Spars: To me it has appeared rather a Selenite; and of all Bodies in Nature, most of Kin to that Species of Selenite we call the Star, upon the waxen Vein. I have therefore retained it in that Place, till more of this scarce Fossil comes in my Way for Trial: If it proves Spar, 'tis easily removed into that Class; and thus, and only thus, we can arrive at Truth; after a thousand Errors.
That the Hog Spar affords Flowers on Sublimation, has been urged as a great Proof of its containing Salts of some Kind or other; known or unknown: But surely this Property is more naturally resolved into another Source. All Bitumens yield Flowers on Sublimation; and we have the Testimony of our Senses to the Presence of a Bitumen in the Lapis Suillus: It stinks of it. Nay more, there is a Smell of Sulphur in all Spar, when calcined: Henkel and Wallerius, as well as I, have found it; and if we could give way to any Thought of Secondary Forms in a Fossil whose Construction appears perfectly homogene, and simple, my Sense of it would be, not to seek them in imaginary Salts, but real Sulphur.
​We see the Way Art imitates it best, is by the Crystals of a Liquor in which Lime and Sulphur have been boiled. Sulphur is thus disclosed on the calcining of Spar; and for the other Ingredient, Lime, we cannot be at a Loss; since it has been observed, no Spar is ever produced in Cracks of any Rocks, except those of Limestone: Nay, and what may strengthen this Opinion, the Lime of Spar is weaker than that of Limestone, which a little Sulphur may cause. All this, is but Conjecture; and is delivered as such, and no other; but yet it rests on the Testimonies of the Senses; not on the Flights of the Imagination: And it is by Conjecture, in these dark and difficult Researches, we must arrive at Truth.
I claim no better Authority for many of the particular Observations here, than for this general one; they are indeed all founded on Examination, and Experiments, now made on the Occasion; but they are Examinations and Experiments made only on the Bodies in my own scanty Store: I invite, I sollicit, and intreat with my best Earnestness, others to repeat them on their own. If they answer as in mine, the Doctrines are established; if they differ, there is no one in the World to whom that Truth will be more welcome than to myself. To equivocate about an Error, is pitiful: to attempt to justify it, is disingenuous: No Man should be ashamed of setting right his own Mistakes (especially in ​Matters where Mistakes are unavoidable) whether by his own or others Observation. With how many hundred Errors did the Species Plantarum make its first Appearance; how many of them have been rectified; and how many yet remain to be set right? Yet no one, ever blamed Linnæus for his first Conjectures; nor has the World seen any other Book of Science of equal Value.
Such Errors are the Children of imperfect Information; and must be found in all who attempt to write for general Utility.
Let others therefore freely repeat these my Experiments, and add more of their own; and with an honest Freedom tell the Result of all: My single Attention can only make a few Experiments, where true Knowledge demands a thousand: But the Result of different Trials will bring forth Truth.
It never was more needed in Philosophy than in the Part before us; for with all the Plausibility of System, we cannot but perceive, upon, this free and fair Enquiry, that the Student in Fossils has yet to work upon a Chaos: And that the Paths into a better Light, are stopped and closed up utterly: Not by Ignorance; but what is much worse, by authenticated Error; authenticated even by greatest Names. We must unwind this Charm, if ever we hope to gain the right Clue to lead us thro' the Labyrinth of Nature: We.mutt break the fated Talisman; and all the seemingly impregnable ​Structures will vanish: The Ground will be clear before us; and if we lose ourselves in the open Way, 'tis easy to be set right again.
Spar formed by Nature, as above related, may either concrete in its pure State as soon as made; or it may pass, while yet fluid, thro' various Strata of earthy, saline, Mineral, and other Matter, and receive great Changes both in Form and Colour from them: It may appear to us therefore, according to. these Circumstances, either
in its own pure State of a colourless Rhomb;
or foul'd by Earths; or tinged by Metals;
or plated, by an Admixture of Talc;
or rendered cubic by the Natrane Marle; and those Cubes stained to a Mimickry of Gems by Metals;
or it may be shaped into Polygons by an aluminous Earth;
or thrown into Pyramids, with or without Columns, by the Salts of Mineral Waters:
Or from the mere Nature of its Concretion, it may appear as Curtains spread upon a Wall:
as Icicles hanging from a Roof;
or Globules drop'd upon the Floor;
or as a Coat upon Mosses, or Shells, or various other Matters.
According to these Accidents it may be thrown ate a Kind of Method, under the Terms Genus and Species, to great Advantage. ​The obvious Characters giving an artificial Method; and the Consideration of their Origin a natural one.
Nor is it more difficult, with due Care and Attention, to follow the several other Fossils thro' their gradual Approaches to Perfection, in their various Kinds; and by marking the Degrees and Steps of this Ascent, to lay down a sure Foundation of the most desirable of all Attainments in this Study, a natural Method: Dividing them into Genera, Species, Varieties; and a yet subordinate. Distinction to all, Varieties of Varieties. For Instance;
Marles,
In their Ascent to Ochre, assume the following Names and Characters:
1. White Marle—Melinum of the Antients.
| This takes in | Chalk, | and becomes, |
| | The Cimolia of the Antients. |
| | Bole, | and becomes, |
| | | The Collyrium Samium of the Antients. |
| | Clay, | and becomes, |
| | The Marga Fungosai. |
| Spar, and becomes, |
| | Lac Lunæ. |
| Talc, and becomes, |
| | The Aster Samius of the Antients. |
2. Brown Marle—Fullers Earth.
| This takes in | blue Clay, and becomes, | blue Clay, and becomes, |
| | | The Blue Marle of Staffordshire. |
| brown Clay, and becomes, ||
| | | The Brown Marle of Sussex. |
| | Sand, which is Crystal, and becomes, |
| | The Terra Saponaria of Kentman. |
3. Red Marle—Reddle.
| This takes in | Fullers Earth, and becomes, | Fullers Earth, and becomes, |
| | {gap}} | The Marga Saxatilis Incarnata of Worm. |
| Bole, and becomes, ||
| | | The Rubrica Fabrilis of Kentman. |
| Clay, and becomes, ||
| | The Red Stony Marle of Yorkshire. |
4. Black Marle
| This takes in decayed | Animals and Vegetables, and becomes, |
| | Garden Mould.}} |
This is shown by their Decomposition; and proved by their specific Gravities.
Variety of Variety.
This Cimolia, taking in Bole, becomes,
The TERRA MELITENSIS of the Shops,
This Fungosa takes in Chalk, and becomes,
The TERRA CHIA of the Shops.
This Lac Lunæ takes in Chalk, and becomes,
The GYPSUM TYMPHAICUM of the Antients.
This blue Marle takes in Morochthus, and becomes,
The MARGA COLUMBINA of Pliny.
This brown Marle takes in Chalk, and becomes,
The MARBLED MARLE of Yorkshire.
yellow Clay and Sand, and becomes,
The YELLOW MARLE of Sussex.
Clay and Selenites, and becomes,
The STONY MARLE of Staffordshire.
This Saponaria takes in White Tripela, and becomes,
The TERRA NOCERIANA of the Shops.
This Rubrica Fabrilis takes in Clay, and becomes,
The HEAVY RED MARLE of Kent.
Red Bole, and becomes,
The ALMAGRA of Spain.
Ochres,
In their Ascent to Tripelas, assume the following Names and Characters,
1. White Ochre—The Terra Melia of the Antients.
2. Yellow Ochre—The Ochra Attica of the Antients.
| This takes in Bole, | and becomes, |
| | The Hard Ochre of the Painters. |
| This takes in Iron, | and becomes, |
| | The Pensylvanian Ochre. |
3. Red Ochre—The Sil Atticum of the Antients.
| Spar, | and becomes, |
| | The Florida Ochre. |
| Clay, | and becomes, |
| | The Red Virginian Ochre. |
4+ Purple Ochre—The Terra Sinopica of the Antients.
| Crysal, and becomes, | Crysal, and becomes, |
| | The Sil Marmorosum of the Antients, |
| Iron, | and becomes, |
| | The Ochre of Dean. |
5. Brown Ochre—Umber.
| This takes in | putrified Wood, and becomes, |
| | Cologn Earth. |
6.—Green Ochre—-The Lapis Armenus of the Antients.
| This takes in | white Sand, and becomes, |
| | The Green Ochre of Germany. |
7. Black Ochre.
Variety of Variety.
| This hard Ochre takes in | Clay, and becomes, |
| | The HEAVY OCHRE of Yorkshire. |
| This takes in Lead, and | becomes, |
| | The GIALLOLINO OF NAPLES. |
| This Sil Atticum takes in | Chalk and Bole, and becomes, |
| | The BENGAL EARTH. |
| This Terra Sinopica takes | in White Bole and Clay, and becomes, |
| | The VENETIAN RED BOLE. |
| This Green Ochre of Germany takes in Copper, and becomes, ||
| | GREEN MINE OCHRE. |
Tripelas,
In their Ascent to Boles, assume the following Names and Characters.
1. White Tripela—-The Creta Argentaria of the Antients.
* Ochre, and becomes,
* The Common Tripela, or Gleba Alanar.
* blue Clay, and becomes,
* The Terra Melia of Dioscorides.
* Spar, and becomes,
* Hard Chalk,
2. Brown Tripela—called Rotten Stone.
| Spar, | and becomes, |
| | The French Rotten Stone. |
| Talc, | and becomes, |
| | The Wiltshire Rotten Stone. |
3. Red Tripela.
| This takes in Talc, | and becomes, |
| | Laminated Tripela. |
​Thes several Varieties are not found to admit of any other Mixture.
Boles,
In their Ascent to Clays, assume the following Names and Characters.
1. White Bole—The White Bole Armenic of the Shops.
* Chalk, and becomes,
* The Frankfort Earth of the Shops.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Terra Lignicensis of the Shops.
* Clay, and becomes,
* The Terra Melitensis of the Shops.
* Spar, and becomes,
* The White Tuscan Earth.
* Crystal, and becomes,
* The Terra Lemnia Alba of the Shops.
2. Yellow Bole—The Yellow Lemnian Earth of the Shops.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Terra Lignicensis Lutea of the Shops.
* Clay, and becomes,
* The Bolus Toccaviensis of the Shops.
* Spar, and becomes,
* The Bole Armenic of Galen.
* Iron, and becomes,
* 1}}The Terra Livonica Lutea of the Shops.
* Copper, and becomes,
* The Green Bole of England.
3. Brown Bole—The Silesian Bole, or Axungia Solis.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Pale German Bole.
* Clay, and becomes,
* The Gosselaer Bole.
4. Orange Bole—The Bolus Bohemica of Kentman.
5. Red Bole—Red Bole Armenic.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Carolina Bole.
* Tripela, and becomes,
* The Terra Portugalica of the Shops.
* Clay, and becomes,
* The Terra Sigillata rubra magni Ducis.
Variety of Variety.
This Frankfort Earth takes in White Clay, and becomes, BENGAL BOLE.
This Malta Earth takes in Natron, and becomes, The TERRA ERETRIA of the Antients.
This Gosselaer Bole, takes in Pnigitis, and becomes, SPOTTED BOLE. 16.
This Bole Armenic takes in Bitumen and Natron, and becomes, The TERRA LEMNIA RUBRA.
This Carolina Bole taking in Spar, becomes, The BOLE OF BLOIS.
This Portugal Earth taking in Marle, becomes, The TERRA TURCICA of the Shops.
This Tuscan Earth taking in Marle, becomes, The TERRA LIVONICA of the Shops.
Spar and Clay, becomes. The EARTH OF STRIGA.
Clays,
As they advance in Purity, assume the following Names and Characters.
1. White Clay—Tobacco Pipe Clay of Pole.
* blue Clay, and becomes,
* The Pipe Clay of Northampton.
* Spar, and becomes,
* The Paretonium of the Antients.
2. Yellow Clay—Brewers Clay.
* Chalk, and becomes,
* The Yellow Pot Earth of Stafdordshire.
* Crystal, and becomes,
* Hedgerly Loam.
* White Sand, and becomes,
* Northamptonshire Pot Earth.
* Pale yellow Sand, and becomes,
* Common Loam, or Brick Earth,
3. Brecon Clay—from Chedder Rocks.
* a fine black Marle, and becomes,
* The Marbled Earth or Lemnos.
* Selenites, and becomes,
* Fine Tile Cray.
* Yellow Sand, and becomes,
* Founders Clay.
4. Blue Clay—in the Cracks of Strata.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Coarse Pot Earth of Leicestershire.
* Bole, and becomes,
* One of the China Earths.
* Yellow Sand, and becomes,
* Shropshire Pot Earth.
* Talc, and becomes,
* The Northampton Clay.
5. Green Clay—from Ochre Pits.
* Marle, and becomes,
* The Mendip Clay.
* Selenites, and becomes,
* The Dorset Clay.
6. Red Clay.—Mahogany Earth of the Isle of Wight.
* Spar, and becomes,
* The Fine red Staffordshire Earth.
* Crystal, and becomes,
* The Pale Staffordshire Earth.
7. Black Clay—The Pnigites of Galen,
| This takes in | White Clay, and becomes, |
| | The Sussex Pipe Clay. |
Variety of Variety.
This Northampton Pipe Clay takes in yellow Sand, and becomes, :
| | | COMMMON POT EARTH. |
| | White Sand, and becomes, | White Sand, and becomes, |
| | | The HARSH CLAY OF STAFFORDSHIRE. |
| | Brown Sand, and becomes, | Brown Sand, and becomes, |
| | | The FINE STAFFORDSHIRE EARTH. |
| | Large pale yellow Sand, and becomes, | Large pale yellow Sand, and becomes, |
| | | FINE GREY BRICK EARTH. |
| This Paretonium takes in White Sand, and becomes, |||
| | | GOLT. |
| | Yellow Sand, and becomes, | Yellow Sand, and becomes, |
| | | LEICESTERSHIRE POT EARTH. |
| This yellow Stafford Earth takes in Crystal Sand, and becomes, |||
| | | POOR EARTH OF STAFFORDSHIRE. |
| | Talc, and becomes, | Talc, and becomes, |
| | | SHROPSHIRE BRICK EARTH. |
| | With yellow and white Sand and Talc, | With yellow and white Sand and Talc, |
| | | DORSET BRICK EARTH. |
| This Tile | Clay taking in white Clay, becomes, | Clay taking in white Clay, becomes, |
| | | The HARD STAFFORDSHIRE EARTH. |
| | Spar, becomes, | Spar, becomes, |
| | | The OXFORDSHIRE FLOOR CLAY. |
| This Founders Clay takes in a large white Sand, and becomes, |||
| | | The RED BRICK CLAY. |
| | Garden Mould, and becomes, | Garden Mould, and becomes, |
| | | TILLAGE LAND. |
| This Shropshire Pot Earth takes in Spar, and becomes, |||
| | | GALLYPOT EARTH. |
| | Selenites, | and becomes, |
| | | BLUE BRICK EARTH. |
| This Mendip Clay takes in Spar, and becomes, |||
| | | The GREEN HAMPSHIRE EARTH. |
| This Stafforshire Red takes in Spar, and becomes |||
| | | The PURPLE STAFFORDSHIRE EARTH. |
| | Brown Clay, and becomes, | Brown Clay, and becomes, |
| | | COARSE BRICK EARTH. |
| | Iron, and becomes, | Iron, and becomes, |
| | | The RED LAND of Rowell. |
| This Sussex Pipe Clay takes in Selenites, and becomes, |||
| | | The LIGHT MENDIP CLAY |
​And in this Manner may the whole Fossil World be arranged, upon the certain Principles of Decomposition, and the specific Gravities of the several separate Parts: It will be a Work of Time; but the Plan is here.
FINIS.
* ↑ Here Fossils begin to have distinct Names.
* ↑ The Blue mixt with the former Yellow producing a Green.
* ↑ Common Salt will shoot in Cubes, Pyramids, and Parellopipeds, but it is still common Salt; the same Species of Body under this Variety of Form.
* ↑ Colours are Additions to the Body, not Changes of the Species.
* ↑ The Electric Æther of the under World; present every where, but only seen concentrated, or in its Mixtures. It affects some Things, Bitumen most: And avoids others.
* ↑ At Naples; in the Venetian Territories; and in Persia, this is very common.
* ↑ Absolute Sulphur may be made by Art with Ease and Certainty this Way. The Acid of Vitriol, with. any Thing inflammable, affords it.
* ↑ Limestone is only coloured, hardened Chalk; and Marble is the same. Marble is a purer Limestone, and Limestone a coarser Marble.
* ↑ Spar supposed to be one Thing, is therefore a mixed Body, and so are the purest Salts. We can make a Substance of the Nature of Spar, by crystalizing the Lixivium of Lime and Sulphur.
* ↑ The Stone from which the Swedish Acid: before described is obtained, has been added to these; but erroneously. It is a distinct Body.
* ↑ This Chia takes in White Bole, and becomes, The PIPE EARTH of the Isle of Wight.
* ↑ This marbled Marle takes in Sea Shells, and becomes, The SHELLY MARLE of Sussex.
* ↑ This Almagra takes in yellow Sand, and becomes, The SIL SYRICUM of the Antients.
* ↑ There is also a pure yellow Ochre of Chalybeate Springs, which is the Earth of Iron.
* ↑ This Venetian Red takes in Iron, and becomes, The PERSIAN EARTH of Ormuz.
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