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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salem (Oregon)

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​SALEM, the capital of Oregon, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Marion county, on the east bank of the Willamette river, 52 m. S.S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1900), 4258, including 522 foreign-born; (1910) 14,094. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, by the Oregon Electric line (to Portland), and by a steamship line to Portland. The city is in the centre of the Willamette Valley, a rich farming and fruit-growing country. It has wide, well shaded streets, and two public parks. Among the public buildings and institutions are the State Capitol, the State Library, a city public library, the county court-house, the Federal building, the state penitentiary and several charitable institutions. Salem is the seat of Willamette University (Methodist Episcopal, 1844), an outgrowth of the mission work of the Methodist Episcopal church begun in 1834 about 10 m. below the site of the present city; of the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic, 1860) and of two business colleges. Immediately north of the city at Chemawa is the Salem (non-reservation) government school for Indians, with an excellently equipped hospital. Water power is derived (in part, by an 18 m. canal) from the Santiam, an affluent of the Willamette river. The city is a market for the produce of the Willamette Valley. The settlement here, gathering about the Methodist mission and school, began to grow in the decade 1840-1850. Salem was chartered as a city in 1853, and in 1860 was made the capital of the state. It grew rapidly after 1900, and its territory was increased in 1903.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salem (Virginia)

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​SALEM, a town and the county-seat (since 1838) of Roanoke county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Roanoke river, about 60 m. W. by S. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900), 3412, including 798 negroes; (1910) 3849. It is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Virginian railways, and has electric railway connexion with Roanoke, about 6 m. E. The town is a summer resort about 1000 ft. above the sea, surrounded by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge mountains. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in the vicinity. Salem is the seat of a Lutheran Orphan Home (1888), of the Baptist Orphanage of Virginia (1892) and of Roanoke College (co-educational; Lutheran; chartered, 1853). The town is in a dairying, agricultural and fruit-growing region. The Roanoke river provides water-power. The water supply is obtained from a spring within the town limits, from which there flows about 576,000 gallons a day, and from an artesian well. This part of Roanoke county was granted in 1767 to General Andrew Lewis, to whom there is a monument in East Hill Cemetery, where he is buried. Salem, laid out in 1802, was incorporated as a town in 1813.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salep

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​SALEP (Arab. saḥleb, Gr. ὄρχις), a drug extensively used in oriental countries as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections. It probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the “doctrine of signatures.”
It is not used in European medicine. It consists of the tuberous roots of various species of Orchis and Eulophia, which are decorticated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then dried. Its most important constituent is a mucilaginous substance which it yields with cold Water to the extent of 48%.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saleyer

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​SALEYER (Dutch, Saleijer), a group of islands belonging to the government of Celebes and its dependencies in the Dutch East Indies, numbering altogether 73, the principal being Saleyer, Tambalongang, Pulasi and Bahuluwang; between 5° 36′ and 7° 25, S. and 119° 50′ and 121° 30′ E. The main island, Saleyer, is over 50 m. long and very narrow; area, 248 sq. m. The strait separating it from Celebes is more than 100 fathoms deep and, running in a strong current, is dangerous for native ships to navigate. The strata of the island are all sedimentary rocks: coralline limestone, occasionally sandstone; everywhere, except in the north and north-west, covered by a fertile soil. The watershed is a chain running throughout the island from N. to S., reaching in Bontona Haru 5840 ft., sloping steeply to the east coast.
The population, mainly a mixed race of Macassars, Buginese, the natives of Luvu and Buton, is estimated at 57,000 on the main island and 24,000 on the dependent isles. They use the Macassar language, are for the most part nominally Mahommedans (though many heathen customs survive), and support themselves by agriculture, fishing, seafaring, trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast) and weaving. Field work is largely performed by a servile class. Raw and prepared cotton, tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, coco-nuts and coco-nut oil, and salt are exported. There are frequent emigrations to Celebes and other parts of the archipelago. For that reason, and also on account of its excellent horses and numerous buffaloes, Saleyer is often compared with Madura, being of the same importance to Celebes as is Madura to Java.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salem (New Jersey)

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​SALEM, a city and the county-seat of Salem county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on Salem Creek, about 38 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900), 5811, of whom 263 were foreign-born and 809 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census), 6614. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railroad, and has steamer connexion with Philadelphia. Among its institutions is the John Tyler Library, established as Salem Library in 1804 and said to be the third oldest public library in the state. In Finn’s Point National Cemetery, about 4 m. N. of Salem, there are buried some 2460 Confederate soldiers, who died during the Civil War while prisoners of war at Fort Delaware, on an island in Delaware river nearly opposite the mouth of Salem Creek. Salem lies in a rich agricultural region. Among the city’s manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables, condiments, glass-ware, brass and iron-work, hosiery, linoleum and oil-cloth. Near the present site in 1643 colonists from Sweden built Fort Elfsborg; but the Swedish settlers in 1655 submitted to the Dutch at New Amsterdam, and the latter in turn surrendered to the English in 1664. In 1675 John Fenwicke, an English Quaker, entered the Delaware river and founded the first permanent English settlement on the Delaware (which he called Salem). After purchasing lands from the Indians, Fenwicke attempted to maintain an independent government, but in 1682 he submitted to the authority of the proprietors of West Jersey. During the War of Independence Salem was plundered on the 17th of March 1778 by British troops under Colonel Charles Mawhood, and on the following day a portion of these troops fought a sharp but indecisive engagement at Quinton’s Bridge, 3 m. S. of the town, with American militia under Colonel Benjamin Holmes. Salem was incorporated as a town in 1695, and was chartered as a city in 1858.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salers

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​SALERS, a village of central France, in the department of Cantal, 30 m. N. of Aurillac by road. Pop. (1906), 659. Salers dates from the 9th or 10th century and its lords were already powerful in the rrth century. It is finely situated on a plateau overlooking the valley of the Maronne. It is a quaint old town with a church of the 13th and 15th centuries, remains of its ancient ramparts and many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. Salers has given its name to a celebrated breed of red cattle raised in the district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salesbury, William

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​SALESBURY (or Salisbury), WILLIAM (c. 1520–c. 1600), Welsh scholar, was a native of Denbighshire, being the son of Foulke Salesbury, who belonged to a family said to be descended from a certain Adam of Salzburg, a member of the ducal house of Bavaria, who came to England in the 11th century. Salesbury was educated at Oxford, where he accepted the Protestant ​faith, but he passed most of his life at Llanrwst, working at his literary undertakings. The greatest Welsh scholar of his time, Salesbury was acquainted with nine languages, including Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and was learned in philology and botany. He died about 1600. About 1546 he edited a collection of Welsh proverbs (Oll synwyr pen kembero), probably the first book printed in Welsh, and in 1547 his Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe was published (facsimile edition, 1877). In 1563 the English parliament ordered the Welsh bishops to arrange for the translation of the Scriptures and the book of common prayer into Welsh. The New Testament was assigned to Salesbury, who had previously translated parts of it. He received valuable assistance from Richard Davies, bishop of St Davids, and also from Thomas Huet, or Hewett (d. 1591), but he himself did the greater part of the work. The translation was made from the Greek, but Latin versions were consulted, and in October 1567 the New Testament was published for the first time in Welsh. This translation never became very popular, but it served as the basis for the new one made by Bishop William Morgan (c. 1547–1604). Salesbury and Davies continued to work together, translating various Writings into Welsh, until about 1576 when the literary partnership was broken. After this event, Salesbury, although continuing his studies, produced nothing of importance.
Other noteworthy members of the family (the modern spelling is Salusbury) are: John Salesbury (c. 1500–1573), who held many preferment’s under the Tudor sovereigns and was bishop of Sodor and Ma; from 1571 to 1573; Thomas Salesbury (c. 1555–1586), an associate of Anthony Babington, who was executed for conspiring against Queen Elizabeth; Henry Salesbury (1561–c. 1637), the author of a Welsh grammar published in 1593; Thomas Salesbury (d. 1643), a poet, who probably fought for Charles I. at Edgehill; and another royalist, William Salesbury (c. 1580–c. 1659), governor of Denbigh Castle, which, in 1646, he gallantly defended in the interests of the king.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sealing Wax

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​SEALING WAX. In medieval times, when the principal use of sealing wax was for attaching the impression of seals to official documents, the composition used consisted of a mixture of Venice turpentine, beeswax and colouring matter, usually Vermilion. The preparation now employed contains no wax. Fine red stationery sealing wax is composed of about seven parts by weight of shellac, four of Venice turpentine, and three to four of Vermilion. The resins are melted together in an earthenware pot over a moderate fire, and the colouring matter is added slowly with careful stirring. The mass when taken from the fire is poured into oiled tin moulds the form of the sticks required, and when hard the sticks are polished by passing them rapidly over a charcoal fire, or through a spirit flame, which melts the superficial film. For the brightest qualities of sealing wax bleached lac is employed, and a proportion of perfuming matter—storax or balsam of Peru—is added. In the commoner qualities considerable admixtures of chalk, carbonate of magnesia, baryta white or other earthy matters are employed, and for the various colours appropriate mineral pigments. In inferior waxes ordinary resin takes the place of lac, and the dragon gum of Australia (from Xanthorrhoea hastilis) and other resins are similarly substituted. Such waxes, used for bottling, parcelling and other coarser applications, run thin when heated, and are comparatively brittle, whereas fine wax should soften slowly and is tenacious and adhesive.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seaman, Owen

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​SEAMAN, OWEN (1861–), English humorist and author, was educated at Shrewsbury school and Clare College, Cambridge, where he took a first-class in the classical tripos in 1883; in the next year he became a master at Rossall school; and in 1890 he was appointed professor of literature at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1897. He was introduced to Punch in 1894, with his “Rhyme of the Kipperling,” a parody of Rudyard Kipling’s “Rhyme of the Three Sealers.” He also wrote for The National Observer and The World. In 1894 he published a volume of parodies which is a classic of its kind, Horace at Cambridge, followed by The Battle of the Bays (1896), In Cap and Bells (1899), Borrowed Plumes (1902), A Harvest of Chaff (1904). He joined the staff of Punch in 1897, and shortly afterwards became assistant-editor, succeeding Sir F. C. Burnand as editor in 1906.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seaton, Sir John Colborne, 1st Baron

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​SEATON, SIR JOHN COLBORNE, 1st Baron (1778-1863), British held marshal, was born at Lyndhurst, Hants, on the 16th of February 1778 and entered the 20th (Lancashire Fusiliers) in 1794, winning thereafter every step in his regimental promotion without purchase. He first saw service in the fielder expedition of 1799, and as a captain he took part in Sir Ralph Abercromby's expedition to Egypt in 1801. He distinguished himself at Maida, and soon afterwards was brought under the notice of Sir John Moore, who obtained a majority for him and madehim his military secretary. In this capacity he served through the Corunna campaign, and Sir John Moore's dying request that he should be given a lieutenant-colonelcy was at once complied with. In the summer of 1809 Lieut.-Colonel Colborne was again in the Peninsula, and before taking command of the 66th regiment, he witnessed the defeat of the Spaniards at Ocafia. With the 66th he was present at Busaco and shared in the defence of the ​lines of Torres Vedras, and next year, after temporarily commanding a brigade with distinction at the battle of Albuera, he was gazetted to command the famous 52nd Light Infantry (Oxfordshire and Bucks L.I.)with which corps he is most closely identified. He led it and was very severely wounded at Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), and only rejoined in July 1814. Shortly afterwards he was placed in temporary charge of a brigade of the Light Division which he commanded in the Pyrenees engagements and the battles of Orthes and Toulouse. At the peace he was made colonel, aide-de-camp to the Prince Regent and K.C.B. In 1815 Colborne and the 52nd at Waterloo played a brilliant part in the repulse of the Old Guard at the close of the day. Promoted major-general in 1825, Colborne was soon afterwards made lieutenant-governor of Guernsey. In 1830 he served as lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. In 1838 at the moment of his vacating the post on promotion to lieutenant-general, the rebellion broke out, and he was ordered to assume the functions of governor-general and commander-in-chief. He quickly repressed the revolt, and in 1839, returning home, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Seaton of Seaton in Devonshire. From 1843 to 1849 he was high commissioner of the Ionian islands. In 1854 he was promoted full general, and from 1855 to 1860 he was commander-in-chief in Ireland. He died at Torquay on the 17th of April 1863.
See the Life by G. C. Moore Smith (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sealsfield, Charles

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​ SEALSFIELD, CHARLES, the pseudonym of Karl Anton Postl (1793-1864), German novelist, who was born on the 3rd of March 1793 at Poppitz near Znaim in Moravia. His schooling completed, he entered the Kreuzherrenorden in Prague, where he became a priest, but in the autumn of 1822 he fled to America, where he assumed the name of Charles Sealsfield. In 1826 he returned to Germany and published a book on America (Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika), which was followed by an outspoken criticism of Austria, written in English (Austria as it is, 1828) and published anonymously in London. Meanwhile he had returned to America, where he published his first novel, also in English, Tokeah, or the White Rose (1828). He now turned journalist, first in New York and subsequently in Paris and London, as correspondent for various journals. In 1832 he settled in Switzerland, and in 1860 purchased a small estate near Solothurn. Here he died on the 26th of May 1864. His will first revealed the fact that he was the former monk, Postl.
It is as a German novelist that he is best known. His Tokeah appeared in German under the title Der Legitime und die Republikaner (1838), and was followed by Der Virey und die Aristokraten (1835). Lebensbilder aus beiden Hemisphären (1835-1837), Sturm-, Land- und Seebilder (1838), Das Kajütenbuch, oder Nationale Charakteristiken (1842). Sealsfield occupies an important position in the development of the German historical novel at a period when Scott's influence was beginning to wane. He endeavoured to widen the scope of historical fiction, to describe great national and political movements, without forfeiting the sympathy of his readers for the individual characters of the story.
Sealsfield's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 18 vols. (1843-1846); his chief novels are also to be obtained in modern reprints. See Kertbény, Erinnerungen an Sealsfield (1864); L. Schmolle, Charles Sealsfield (1875); L. Hamburger, Sealsfield-Postl, bisher unveröffentlichte Briefe (1879); A. B. Faust, Charles Sealsfield, der Dichter beider Hemisphären (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Search

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​SEARCH, or Visit and Search, a term used in international law and apparently derived in some confused way from the French word visite, which means search, combined with the English translation of the word visite. An attempt made by some writers to distinguish between visit and search only leads to misunderstanding. Search is the exact English equivalent of visits, and in the translation of the Declaration of London (Feb. 26, 1909) the translator has rightly rendered it as such (art. 63).
The right of search belongs to belligerents alone. Its object is to verify the nationality of the vessel and if neutral to ascertain whether it carries contraband. The consequence of resistance to search is capture and trial in a Prize Court. “ Forcible resistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of stoppage, search and capture,” says art. 63, of the Declaration of London, 1909, “ involves in all cases the condemnation of the vessel. The cargo is liable to the same treatment as the cargo of an enemy vessel. Goods belonging to the master or owner of the vessel are treated as enemy goods.” At the Hague Conference of 1907 the question of the liability to search of mail-ships gave rise to much discussion based on incidents arising out of the South African and Russo-Japanese Wars. It was ultimately decided that postal correspondence of neutrals and even of belligerents, and whether official or private, found on board a neutral or even an enemy ship should be “ inviolable,” and that though the ship should be detained, this correspondence had to be forwarded to its destination by the captor “ with the least possible delay.” The only exception to this exemption is correspondence destined for or proceeding from a blockaded port. As regards the mail-ships themselves, apart from this inviolability of the correspondence, no exemption or privilege is extended beyond the injunction that they should not be searched, except when absolutely necessary, and then only “ with as much consideration and expedition as possible,” which might just as well be said of all ships stopped or searched on the high seas. (T. Ba.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Season

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​SEASON (O. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year), a period of time, in particular, that of the four periods into which the year is divided by the changing of the temperature, rainfall, and growth and decay of vegetation due to the annual motion of the sun in declination. Divided strictly according to this motion the year falls into four nearly equal seasons, “spring” (i.e. the springing time, when vegetation rises or shoots), “summer” (O. Eng. sumer, cf. Dutch zomer, Ger. Sommer, probably connected with Skt. sama, year), “autumn” (Lat. autumnus, auctumnus, from augere, to increase, the period of ripening or fruiting) and “winter” (common Teutonic, possibly a nasalized form. of root seen in “wet”). (See further Climate, Meteorology.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oschersleben

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​OSCHERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Bode, 24 m. by rail S.W. of Magdeburg, and at the junction of lines to Halberstadt and Jerxheim. Pop. (1905) 13,271. Among its industrial establishments are sugar-refineries, iron-foundries, breweries, machine-shops and brick works. Oschersleben is first mentioned in 803, and belonged in the later middle ages to the bishops of Halberstadt.