OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, Sir Donald Martin

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​STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–1900), British field marshal, son of Robert Stewart of Forres, Elginshire, was born at Mount Pleasant, near Forres, on the 1st of March 1824. Educated at schools at Findhorn, Dufftown and Elgin, and at Aberdeen University, he entered the Bengal army in 1840, and served in 1854 and 1855 in the frontier expeditions against the Mohmands, and Afridis Aka and Bari Khel (medal and clasp). In the Indian Mutiny in 1857 Stewart, after a famous ride from Agra to Delhi with despatches, served on the staff at the siege and capture of Delhi and of Lucknow, and afterwards through the campaign in Rohilkhand (medal and two clasps, and brevet-major and lieutenant-colonel). For nine years he was assistant and deputy-adjutant-general of the Bengal army, commanded the Bengal brigade in the Abyssinian expedition in 1867 (medal and C.B.), and became a major-general in 1868. He reorganized the penal settlement of the Andaman Islands, where he was commandant when Lord Mayo was assassinated, and, after holding the Lahore command, was promoted lieutenant-general in 1877, and commanded the Kandahar field force in the Afghan War in 1878 (K.C.B. and thanks of parliament). In 1880 he made a difficult march from Kandahar to Kabul, fighting on the way the battles of Ahmed Khel and Urzu, and held supreme military and civil command in northern Afghanistan. On hearing of the Maiwand disaster, he despatched Sir Frederick Roberts with a division on his celebrated march from Kabul to Kandahar, and himself led the rest of the army back to India by the Khyber Pass (medal with clasp, G.C.B., C.I.E., baronetcy, and thanks of parliament). Promoted general in 1881, he was for five years commander-in-chief in India, and afterwards member of the council of the secretary of state for India until his death. He was made G.C.S.I, in 1885, promoted to be field marshal in 1894, and appointed governor of Chelsea Hospital in 1895. He died at Algiers on the 26th of March 1900.
See G. R. Elsmie, Sir Donald Stewart (1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stewart, Sir William

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​STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540-c. 1605), Scottish politician, began life as a soldier in the Netherlands, where he became a colonel and entered into communications with Lord Burghley on the progress of affairs. In the year 1582 he was in Scotland, where James VI. made him captain of his guard. Having visited the English court in the king’s interest in 1583, Stewart helped to free James from William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and to restore James Stewart, earl of Arran, to power; he was made a privy councillor and for a time assisted Arran to govern Scotland. In 1584 he captured Gowrie at Dundee. In 1585 he and Arran lost their power, and Stewart went to Denmark and France on secret errands for the king. He commanded the ships which conveyed James and his bride Anne from Denmark in 1590, and the same year was sent ​on an embassy to the German princes. Twice he went on missions to the Netherlands, and in 1594 he was knighted and was given lands at Houston. He died before 1606. His only son, Frederick (c. 1590–1625), who was created a peer as Lord Pittenweem in 1609, died childless in December 1625.
Sir William Stewart of Houston is often confused with Sir William Stewart of Monkton (d. 1588), a brother of James Stewart, earl of Arran, who was killed in a fight in Edinburgh in July 1588, and also with Sir William Stewart of Caverstoun.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stibnite

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​STIBNITE, a mineral consisting of antimony sulphide, Sb$_2$S$_3$, occurring as bladed or acicuclar orthorhombic crystals; an important ore of antimony. It was mentioned by Dioscorides and Pliny under the names stimmi, stibi and platyophthalmon (πλατυόφθαλμον); the last name refers to the use which the ancients made of the powdered mineral for darkening the eyebrows to increase the apparent size of the eyes. Antimonite is a name in common use for this species. The crystals are prismatic in habit, deeply furrowed longitudinally, and usually terminated by acute pyramidal planes. There is a perfect cleavage (010) parallel to the length of the crystals, and the basal plane (001) is a plane of gliding; the latter gives rise to very characteristic transverse striations or nicks on the cleavage surfaces of crystals which have been bent. The colour is lead-grey, and the lustre metallic and brilliant: crystals become dull on prolonged exposure to light. Cleavage flakes of extreme thinness transmit a small amount of red light, but are more transparent for heat rays. The mineral is quite soft (H.=2), and has a specific gravity of 4·6. Stibnite occurs with quartz in beds and veins in gneisses and schists, or with blende, galena, &c., in metalliferous veins. Magnificent groups of brilliant crystals, up to 20 in. in length, are abundant in the extensive antimony mine of Ichinokawa, province of Iyo, Japan. Large, but dull, crystals have also been found at Lubilhac in Haute-Loire, France. Prismatic and acicular crystals often penetrating tabular crystals of barytes, are common at Felsöbánya near Magy-Bánya and Kremnitz in Hungary.
 (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spinello Aretino

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​SPINELLO ARETINO (c. 1330-c. 1410), Italian painter, the son of a Florentine named Luca, who had taken refuge in Arezzo in 1310 when exiled with the rest of the Ghibelline party, was born at Arezzo about 1330. Spinello was a pupil of Jacopo di Casentino, a follower of Giotto, and his own style was a sort of link between the school of Giotto and that of Siena. In the early part of his life he worked in Florence as an assistant to his master Jacopo while painting frescoes in the church of the Carmine and in Sta Maria Novella. Between 1360 and 1384 he was occupied in painting many frescoes in and near Arezzo, almost all of which have now perished. After the sack of Arezzo in 1384 Spinello returned to Florence, and in 1387-1388 with some assistants covered the walls and vault of the sacristy of S. Miniato near Florence with a series of frescoes, the chief of which represent scenes from the life of St Benedict. These still exist, though in a sadly restored condition; they are very Giotto-like in composition, but have some of the Siena decorative brilliance of colour. In 1391-1392 Spinello was painting six frescoes, which still remain on the south wall of the Pisan Campo Santo, representing miracles of St Potitus and St Ephesus. For these he received 270 gold florins. Among his later works the chief are the very fine series of frescoes painted in 1407-1408 on the walls and vault of a chapel in the municipal buildings of Siena; these also have suffered much from repainting, but still are the finest of Spinello's existing frescoes. Sixteen of these represent the war of Frederick Barbarossa against the republic of Venice. Spinello died at Arezzo about 1410.
Spinello's frescoes are all strong and highly decorative works, drawn with much spirit, and are very superior in style to his panel pictures, many of which appear to be mere bottega productions. The academy of Florence possesses a panel of the “Madonna and Saints,” which is chiefly interesting for its signature — “Hoc opus pinxit Spinellus Luce Aritio D.I.A.(1391).” The easel pictures which are to be found in the various galleries of Europe give little or no notion of Spinello's power as a painter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spina

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​SPINA (Lat. for a thorn, or prickle, also backbone, whence spine), in architecture, the term given to the low podium wall which divided the circus of the Romans and round which the chariots ran; at each end of it was the meta or goal. On coins, gems and bas-reliefs it is shown with numerous other features on it, such as obelisks (of which those from the spina of the Circus Maximus are now in the piazzas of the Lateran and del Popolo), small aedicula or pairs of columns carrying an entablature, altars, statues, trophies, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spinach

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​SPINACH (Spinacia oleracea), an annual plant, a member of the natural order Chenopodiaceae, which has been long cultivated for the sake of its succulent leaves. It is probably of Persian origin, being introduced into Europe about the 15th century. It should be grown on good ground, well worked and well manured; and for the summer crops abundant watering will be necessary.
The first sowing of winter spinach should be made early in August, and another towards the end of that month, in some sheltered but not shaded situation, in rows 18 in. apart — the plants, as they advance, being thinned, and the ground hoed. By the beginning of winter the outer leaves will have become fit for use, and if the weather is mild successive gatherings may be obtained up to the beginning of May. The prickly-seeded and the Flanders are the best for winter; and these should be thinned out early in the autumn to about 2 in. apart, and later on to 6 in. The lettuce-leaved is a good succulent winter sort, but not quite so hardy. To afford a succession of summer spinach, the seeds should be sown about the middle of February, and again in March; after this period small quantities should be sown once a fortnight, as summer spinach lasts but a very short time. They are generally sown in shallow drills, between the lines of peas. If a plot of ground has to be wholly occupied, the rows should be about 1 ft. apart. The round-seeded is the best sort for summer use.
The Orach or Mountain Spinach (Atriplex hortensis), a member of the same order, is a tall-growing hardy annual, whose leaves, though coarsely flavoured, are used as a substitute for spinach, and to correct the acidity of sorrel. The white and the green are the most desirable varieties. The plant should be grown quickly in rich soil. It may be sown in rows 2 ft. apart, and about the same distance in the row, about March, and for succession again in June. If needful, water must be freely given, so as to maintain a rapid growth.
The New Zealand Spinach (Tetragonia expansar), natural order Ficoideae, is a half-hardy annual, native of New Zealand, sometimes used as a substitute for spinach during the summer months, but in every way inferior to it. The seeds should be sown in March, on a gentle hot-bed, having been previously steeped in water for several hours. The seedlings should be potted, and placed under a frame till the end of May, and should then be planted out in light rich soil. The young leaves are those which are gathered for use, a succession being produced during summer and autumn.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spillikins

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​SPILLIKINS (M.D., spelleken, little pin), or Jackstraws (originally “jerk-straws”), a game of some antiquity played with a set of slender sticks of wood, bone or ivory, from 3 to 6 in. long, generally carved to represent weapons and utensils of various kinds, which are thrown in a heap haphazard upon the table. The players then endeavour in turn to extricate from the heap, one at a time, as many straws as possible, without moving any except the one angled for. The player obtaining the most straws wins. The game is called in French jonchets and in German Federspiel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spielhagen, Friedrich von

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​SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1829- ), German novelist, was born at Magdeburg on the 24th of February 1829. He was brought up at Stralsund, where his father was in 1835 appointed government architect; he attended the gymnasium there, and studied law, and subsequently literature and philosophy, at the universities of Berlin, Bonn and Greifswald. On leaving the university he became a master in a gymnasium at Leipzig, but upon his father's death in 1854 devoted himself entirely to writing. After publishing Klara Vere (1857) and Auf der Düne (1858), he obtained a striking success with Problematische Naturen (1860-1861), one of the best novels of its time; it was followed by Die von Hohenstein (1863), In Reih' und Glied (1866), Hammer und Amboss (1869), Deutsche Pioniere (1870), Allzeit voran! (1872), Sturmflut (1876), Plattland (1878), Quisisana (1880) , Angela (1881) , Uhlenhans (1884), Ein neuer Pharao (1889), Faustulus (1897) and Freigeboren (1900). Spielhagen's best work was produced between the years 1860 and 1876; he wrote nothing after Sturmflut which can be compared with that powerful romance. His novels combine two elements of especial power, the masculine assertion of liberty which renders him the favourite of the intelligent and progressive citizen, and the ruthless war he wages against the self-indulgence of the age. His love of the sea, derived from an early residence at Stralsund, introduces an element of poetry into his novels which is somewhat rare in German fiction. Spielhagen's dramatic productions, Hans und Grete (1868) and Liebe für Liebe (1875), and others, cannot compare with his novels. From 1878-1884 he was editor of Westermann's Monatshefte.
Spielhagen's Sämtliche Werke were published in 1871 in sixteen volumes, in 1878 in fourteen volumes; his Sämtliche Romane in 1898 (22 vols.), and these were followed by a new series in 1902. See his autobiography, Finder und Erfinder (2 vols., 1890); also G. Karpeles, F. Spielhagen (1889), and H. and J. Hart, Kritische Waffengange (1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spiess, Christian Heinrich

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​SPIESS, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1755-1799), German writer of romances, was born at Freiberg in Saxony on the 4th of April 1755. For a time an actor, he was appointed in 1788 controller on the estate of a certain Count Künigl at Betzdikau in Bohemia, where he died, almost insane, the result of his weird fancies, on the 17th of August 1799.
Spiess, in his Ritter-, Räuber- und Geister-Romane, as they are called — stories of knights, robbers and ghosts of the “dark” ages — the idea of which he borrowed from Goethe's Götz von Berlichingen and Schiller's Räuber and Geisterseher, was the founder of the German Schauerroman (shocker), a style of writing continued, though in a finer vein, by Karl Gottlob Cramer (1758-1817) and by Goethe's brother-in-law, Christian August Vulpius. These stories, though appealing largely to the vulgar taste, made Spiess one of the most widely read authors of his day. The most popular was a ghost story of the 13th century, Das Petermännchen (1793); among others were Der alte Überall und Nirgends (1792); Die Löwenritter (1794), and Hans Heiling, vierter und letzter Regent der Erd- Luft- Feuer- und Wasser- Geister (1798). Beside numerous comedies, Spiess wrote, anticipating Schiller, a tragedy Maria Stuart (1784), which was in the same year performed at the court theatre in Vienna.
See Karl Goedeke, Grundriss, v. 506 sqq.; Müller-Fraureuth, Die Ritter- und Räuberromane (Halle, 1894).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Burdett, Sir Henry

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BURDETT, SIR HENRY (1847-1920), English economist and philanthropist, was born at Gilmorton, Leics., March 18 1847. He began life in a bank at Birmingham, but was elected in 1874 secretary to the Queen's hospital in that city. In 1880 he became secretary to the share and loan department of the Stock Exchange and also a member of the committee of management of the Seamen's Hospital Society. Finance and hospitals, especially in connexion with nursing, were the two main interests of his life. He published Burdett's Official Intelligence of Securities, and also Burdett's Hospitals and Charities, as well as works on the national debt, local taxation, The Hospitals and Asylums of the World (4 vols. with plates), and many other works on economic and hospital problems. It was largely due to him that King Edward VII. established his Hospital Fund for London. He also founded and edited The Hospital newspaper. He was created K.C.B. in 1897 and K.C.V.O. in 1908. He died in London April 29 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Böhm-Ermolli, Eduard, Freiherr von

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​BÖHM-ERMOLLI, EDUARD, Freiherr von (1856–), Austro-Hungarian field-marshal, was born in 1856 at Ancona, then an Austrian garrison town. He entered the army, serving in the cavalry and on the general staff. In the World War he commanded the 2nd Army, fighting first in Serbia, then against the Russians in Galicia and Poland. In the operation of the pursuit of the enemy after the battle of Gorlice he captured the Galician capital, Lemberg, on June 22 1915. He also played a distinguished part in the summer offensive of 1917. After the conclusion of the peace of Brest-Litovsk he marched into the Ukraine, and directed from Odessa the measures for turning to account the resources of that country. In numerous battles Böhm-Ermolli showed his capacity as a general in the field, and was highly appreciated by the Germans.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Burleson, Albert Sidney

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BURLESON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1863-), American lawyer and politician, was born at San Marcos, Tex., June 7 1863. He graduated from the university of Texas in 1884 and was admitted to the bar in 1885. For five years he was assistant city attorney in Austin, and from 1891 to 1898 was attorney of the 26th judicial district of Texas. From 1899 to 1913 he was a member of Congress and was Postmaster-General in President Wilson's Cabinet from 1913 to 1921. Soon after taking office in 1913 he aroused a storm of protest, especially on the part of the large daily newspapers, by declaring that he would enforce the law (requiring publications to print, among other things, a sworn statement of paid circulation), which had been held in abeyance by his predecessor until its constitutionality might be confirmed. The Supreme Court enjoined him from carrying out his purpose. During the World War he issued,
in 1915, an order barring unneutral envelopes and cards from the mails, and after America became a belligerent he instituted a censorship designed to suppress treasonable and seditious newspapers. The purpose was reasonable, but it was impossible to draw an ideal line and the result was a general alienation of the press. Later he introduced the “zone system,” whereby postage on second-class mail was charged according to distance. In Aug. 1918 the telephone and telegraph systems were taken over temporarily by the Government and their control vested in the postmaster-general. He was an avowed advocate of permanent Government ownership of the telegraph and telephone, and in Dec. 1918 urged legislation to that end. In Nov. 1918, five days after the Armistice was signed, he took over the cables. He aroused the hostility of labour by his opposition to organization and strikes among postal employees. As early as 1913 he had urged repeal of the law allowing them to organize. He was interested in extending the parcel post, and worked for the promotion of aerial mail service.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bánffy, Dezsö, Baron

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​BÁNFFY, DEZSÖ [Desiderius], Baron (1843-1911), Hungarian statesman (see 3.315). In 1906 Banffy, who had joined the coalition in opposition to the Government, broke with it on the military questions at issue with the King-Emperor, which he wished to eliminate, and in 1908 he became leader of the progressive elements and, as president of the Franchise League, began an agitation for universal, secret and equal suffrage (see 13.920, 921). In 1910 he became president of the Reform Club. He died May 24 1911.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bülow, Karl von

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BÜLOW, KARL VON (1846-1921), German field-marshal, was born in Berlin March 24 1846 and joined the 2nd Guards regiment of infantry in 1864. He gained distinction at Königgrätz in the war of 1866, served through the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, winning the Iron Cross (2nd class), and, after holding various staff appointments, became colonel of the 4th Guards regiment in 1894. Three years later he was promoted major-general and was transferred to the War Office. In 1900 he was promoted lieutenant-general and in 1901 was general commanding the Guards division. In 1912 he attained the rank of generaloberst and was entrusted with the III. Army Inspection. He was thus marked out for high command, and on the outbreak of the World War he was placed in charge of the II. Army, which invaded Belgium. He occupied Liége (Aug. 7) and advanced to the Marne. He commanded the I. and VII. Armies during the retreat and at the battles of the Aisne, thus incurring responsibility in the eyes of the public for the failure to take Paris. In Jan. 1915 he was promoted field-marshal and in June 1916 was, by his own wish, placed on the retired list. He died in Berlin Aug. 31 1921.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bunting, Sir Percy William

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BUNTING, SIR PERCY WILLIAM (1836-1911), British journalist, was born at Manchester Feb. 1 1836 and was educated at Owen's College, Manchester, and Pembroke College, Cambridge. In 1859 he was classed as 21st wrangler, and three years later was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. In 1882 he became editor of the Contemporary Review, and henceforth devoted himself to journalism, becoming also editor of the Methodist Times from 1902 to 1907 in succession to Hugh Price Hughes. In 1908 he was knighted. Throughout his life he was an active supporter of Wesleyan Methodism, being the grandson of Jabez Bunting, a distinguished Wesleyan divine (see 4.802). He died in London July 22 1911.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Burbidge, Sir Richard

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​ BURBIDGE, SIR RICHARD, 1st Bart. (1847-1917), English merchant, was born in Wiltshire March 2 1847. He was educated at Devizes and Melksham and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to a provision merchant in Oxford St., London, afterwards starting in business as a provision merchant at the age of 19. Fourteen years later he became general superintendent of the Army and Navy Auxiliary Stores. In 1882 he was appointed general manager of Whiteley's, Westbourne Grove, and in 1891 entered the service of Harrods, Brompton Road, of which he was afterwards managing director. By 1916 he had increased its profits from £16,000 to over £200,000, and it had become one of the largest of the London stores. He had also done a good deal to ensure shorter working hours for shop assistants. Mr. Burbidge was the “private citizen” who anonymously presented about £30,000 to the fund for acquiring the Crystal Palace for the public in 1913. During the World War he was responsible for the building and fitting up of two hospitals in Belgium and was a member of many Government committees, including the advisory committee of the Ministry of Munitions and the committee of inquiry into the Royal Aircraft workings, of which he was chairman. He was created a baronet in 1916. He died in London May 31 1917, being succeeded as second baronet by his son R. Woodman Burbidge (b. 1872), who in 1921 became chairman of Harrods.
See Mrs. Stuart Menzies, Modern Men of Mark (1920).