OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tabor

See also Tábor on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TABOR, a town in western Bohemia, on the Francis-Joseph railway, 104 kilometres from Prague. Pop. (1908) 10,703. It is the chief town of a government district and the seat of a provincial law-court, and also of an industrial school. The town was founded in 1420 by the more advanced party of the church-reformers or Hussites, who, as it became their centre, soon began to be known as the Taborites. The town is situated on the summit of an isolated hill separated from the surrounding country by the Luznice stream and by an extensive pond, to which the Hussites gave the biblical name of Jordan. The historical importance of the city of Tabor only ceased when it was captured by King George of Poděbrad in 1452. Though a large part of the ancient fortifications has recently been demolished, Tabor—or Hradiste Hory Tabor, the castle of the Tabor Hill, as it was called in the Hussite period—has still preserved many memorials of its past fame. In the centre of the city is the market-place (rynk). Only very narrow streets lead to it, to render the approach to it more difficult in time of war. In the centre of the market-place is the statue of Žižka, the greatest of the Taborite leaders. Here also is the diaconal church, built in 1516 in the style of the Bohemian Renaissance, and the town hall, in connexion with which a museum has been founded, which contains interesting memorials of the Hussite period. Some parts of the ancient fortifications and the very ancient Kotnov tower also still exist.
See Thir, Hradiste Hory Tabor (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tacna

See also Tacna on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TACNA, a northern province of Chile, in dispute with Peru from 1893 onwards, bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia, S. by Tarapaca, and W. by the Pacific. Area, 9251 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 24,160. It belongs to the desert region of the Pacific coast, and is valuable because of its deposits of nitrate of soda and some undeveloped mineral resources. There are a few fertile spots near the mountains, where mountain streams afford irrigation and potable water, and support small populations, but in general Tacna is occupied for mining purposes only. None of its streams crosses the entire width of the province; they are all lost in its desert sands. The climate is hot, and earthquakes are frequent and sometimes violent. There is one railway in the province, running from the city of Tacna to Arica (q.v.), and in 1910 another from Arica to La Paz, Bolivia, was under construction by the Chilean government. The province consists of two departments, Tacna and Arica, which once formed part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Its capital is Tacna (pop. 1895, 9418; 1902, estimated 11,504), a small inland town 48 m. by rail from Arica, in a fertile valley among the foothills of the Andes. Existence is made possible in this oasis by a small mountain stream, also called Tacna, which supports a scanty vegetation. The town owes its existence to the Bolivian trade from La Paz and Oruro, and is the residence of a number of foreign merchants. Tacna was captured by a Chilean force under General Baquedano on the 27th of May 1880.
At the close of the war between Chile and Peru (1879–1883), the terms of the treaty of Ancon (signed by representatives of the two countries on the 20th of October 1883) were practically dictated by Chile, and by one of the provisions the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica were to be occupied and exploited by Chile for a period of ten years, when a plebiscite should be taken of their inhabitants to determine whether they would remain with Chile or return to Peru, the country acquiring the two provinces in this manner to pay the other $10,000,000. At the termination of the period Peru wished the plebiscite to be left to the original population, while Chile wanted it to include the large number of Chilean labourers sent into the province. Chile refused to submit the dispute to arbitration, and it remained unsettled. Meanwhile Chile expelled the Peruvian priests, and treated the province more like a conquered territory than a temporary pledge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tacitus, Marcus Claudius

See also Marcus Claudius Tacitus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS, Roman emperor from the 25th of September A.D. 275 to April 276, was a native of Interamna (Terni) in Umbria. In the course of his long life he held various civil offices, including that of consul in 273, with universal respect. Six months after the assassination of Aurelian he was chosen by the senate to succeed him, and the choice was cordially ratified by the army. During his brief reign he set on foot some domestic reforms, and sought to revive the authority of the senate, but, after a victory over the Goths in Cilicia, he succumbed to hardship and fatigue (or was slain by his own soldiers) at Tyana in Cappadocia. Tacitus, besides being a man of immense wealth (which he bequeathed to the state), ​had considerable literary culture, and was proud to claim descent from the historian, whose works he caused to be transcribed at the public expense and placed in the public libraries. Tacitus possessed many admirable qualities, but his gentle character and advanced age unfitted him for the throne in such lawless times.
See Life by Vopiscus in Historiae Augustae Scriptores; also Eutropius, ix. 10; Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 36; Zonaras xii. 28; H. Schiller, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, i. 1883; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, iii. 2871 ff.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thorwaldsen, Bertel

See also Bertel Thorwaldsen on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THORWALDSEN, BERTEL (1770–1844) Danish sculptor, the son of an Icelander who had settled in Denmark, and there carried on the trade of a wood-carver, was born in Copenhagen on the 19th of November 1770. While very young he learnt to assist his father; at the age of deven he entered the Copenhagen school of art, and soon began to show his exceptional talents. In 1792 he won the highest prize, the travelling studentship, and in 1796 he started for Italy in a Danish man-of-war. On the 8th of March 1797 he arrived in Rome, where Canova was at the height of his popularity. Thorwaldsen’s first success was the model for a statue of Jason, which was highly praised by Canova, and he received the commission to execute it in marble from Thomas Hope, a wealthy English art-patron. From that lime Thorwaldsen’s success was assured, and he did not leave Italy for twenty-three years. In 1819 he returned to Denmark, where he was commissioned to make the colossal series of statues of Christ and the twelve apostles which are now in the Fruenkirche in Copenhagen. These were executed after his return to Rome, and were not completed till 1838, when Thorwaldsen again returned to Denmark. He died suddenly in the Copenhagen theatre on the 24th of March 2844 and bequeathed a great part of his fortune for the building and endowment of a museum in Copenhagen, and also left to fill it all his collection of works of art and the models for all his sculpture—a very large collection, exhibited to the greatest possible advantage. Tbonraldsea is buried in the courtyard of this museum, under a bed of roses, by his own special wish.
On the whole Thorwaldsen was the most successful of all the imitators of classical sculpture, and many of his statues of pagan deities are modelled with much of the antique feeling for breadth and purity of design. His attempts at Christian sculpture, such as the tomb of Pius VII. in St Peter’s and the “Christ and Apostles” at Copenhagen, are less successful, and were not in accordance with the sculptor’s real sympathies, which were purely dassic. Thorwaldsen worked sometimes with feverish eagerness; at other times he was idle for many months together. A great number of his best works exist in private collections in England. His not very successful statue of Lord Byron, after being ref osed a place in Westminster Abbey, was finally deposited in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. The most widely popular among Thorwaldsen’s works have been some of his bas-reliefs, such as the “Night” and the “Morning,” which he is said to have modelled in one day.
See Eugène Plon. Thorwaldsen, sa vie, &c. (Paris, 1880); Andersen, B. Thorwaldsen (Berlin. 1845): Killerup. Thorwaldsen’s Arbeiten, &c (Copenhagen, 1852): Thieie, Thormaldsen’s Leben (Leipzig. 1852–1856): C A. Rosenberg. Thorwaldsen . . . mit 146 Abbildungen (1896: "Künstlermonographien." No. 16): S. Trier, Thorvaldsen (1903); A. Wilde, Erindringer om Jerickau og Thorvaldsen (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thouars

See also Thouars on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOUARS, a town of western France, in the department of Deux-Sévres, on the right bank of the Thouet, 24 m. S. by W. of Saumur on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), 5321. A massive stronghold built in the first half of the 17th century by the La Tremoille family, and now used as a prison, stands on a rocky eminence overlooking the river, towards which it has a frontage of nearly 400 ft. The adjoining Sainte-Chapelle dating from the early years of the 16th century is in the Gothic style with Renaissance details, and was built by Gabrielle de Bourbon, wife of Louis II. of La Tremoille. The church of St Medard, rebuilt in the 15th century, preserves a doorway of a previous Romanesque building. That of St Laon (12th and 15th centuries) was formerly attached to an abbey, the buildings (17th century) of which serve as town-hall. It has a fine square tower in the Romanesque style and contains the sculptured tomb of the abbot Nicholas. Remains of the ramparts of the town dating from the 13th century and flanked by huge towers are still to be seen, and a bridge of the same period crosses the Thouet. The manufacture of furniture and wooden shoes, and the preparation of veterinary medicine and lime, are carried on. Wine, livestock and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade.
Thouars, which probably existed in the Gallo-Roman period, became in the 9th century the seat of powerful viscounts, who in later times were zealous supporters of the English. In 1372 the latter were expelled from the town by Bertrand du Guesclin. In 1563 Charles IX. created Louis III., the head of the family of La Tremoille, duke of Thouars. In 1793 the Vendeans took the town by assault.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thouret, Jacques Guillaume

See also Jacques Guillaume Thouret on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOURET, JACQUES GUILLAUME (1746–1794), French revolutionist, was born at Pont l’Eveque. He was the son of a notary, and became an avocat at the parlement of Rouen. In 1789 he Was elected deputy to the states-general by the third estate of Rouen, and in the Constituent Assembly his eloquence gained him great influence. Like so many lawyers of his time, he was violently opposed to the clergy, and strongly supported the secularization of church property. He also obtained the suppression of the religious orders and of all ecclesiastical privileges, and actively contributed to the change of the judiciary and administrative system. He was one of the promoters of the decree of 1790 by which France was divided into departments, and was four times president of the Constituent Assembly. After its dissolution he became president of the court of cassation. He was included in the proscription of the Girondists, whose political opinions he shared, and was executed in Paris. Besides his speeches and reports he wrote an Abrégé des révolutions de l’ancien gouvernement français and Tableau chronologique de l'histoire ancienne et moderne.
His brother, Michel Augustin Thouret (1748–1810), a physician, was a keen opponent of the ideas of Mesmer and a promoter of vaccination in France.
See F. Aulard, Les Orateurs de l’assemblée constituante (2nd ed., Paris, 1905); E. Carette and A. Sanson, Thouret . . . sa vie, ses œuvres (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thrall

See also Thrall on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THRALL, a slave, a captive or bondman, a term especially applied to the serfs (Lat. servi) of the early northern Teutonic peoples. It only occurs in Old English as a word borrowed from the Norse, the proper term in Old English being “theow” (þreow); the Icel. þraell (Dan. trael, Swed. trâl) is probably represented by O. H. Ger. dregil, trigil, trikil, a slave, and would therefore be derived from the root meaning “to run,” seen in O. Eng. þraegian, Goth, thagjan, cf. Gr. τρέχειν; Skeat (Etym. Dict., 1898) compares the “trochilus” (Gr. τροχίλος), the small bird that according to Herodotus waits or attends on the crocodile and picks insects out of his teeth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thoth

See also Thoth on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOTH, the Greek name of the Egyptian god of letters, invention and wisdom (e.g. Thowt, Zḥwty), the mouthpiece and recorder of the gods, and arbiter of their disputes. Thoth is found on the earliest monuments symbolized by an ibis (Ibis aethiopica, still not uncommon in Nubia), which bird was sacred to him. In the Pyramid texts Thoth is already closely associated with the Osiris myth, having aided the god by his science and knowledge of magic, and demonstrated the justice of his claims in the contest with Set. Thoth presided over writing, measuring and calculation, and is prominent in the scene of the weighing of the soul. He was often identified with the moon as a divider of time, and in this connexion, during the New Empire, the ape first appears as his sacred animal. Thoth was identified by the Greeks with Hermes, and Hermes Trismegistus (q.v.) is a late development of the Egyptian god. Geographically the worship of Thoth in Lower Egypt centred in the Hermopolite nome, contiguous to the Busirite and Mendesian nomes. This was the district anciently called Zḥwt, and the god’s name Zḥwty means simply “him of Zḥwt.” But Hermopolis Magna in Upper Egypt, now Eshmunain, was a city of greater political importance than Hermopolis in Lower Egypt.
See E. A. W. Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians; and specially Egypt: Ancient, § Religion.  (F. Ll. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reggio Calabria

See also Reggio Calabria on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​REGGIO CALABRIA (anc. Regium, q.v.), a town and archiepiscopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the province of Reggio, on the Strait of Messina, 248 m. S.S.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1906) 39,941 (town); 48,362 (commune). It is the terminus of the railways from Naples along the west coast, and from Metaponto along the east coast of Calabria. The straits are here about 7 m. wide, and the distance to Messina nearly 10 m. The ferryboats to Messina therefore cross by preference from Villa S. Giovanni, 8 m. N. of Reggio, whence the distance is only 5 m. In 1894 the town suffered from an earthquake, though less severely than in 1783. It was totally destroyed, however, by the great earthquake of December 1908; in the centre of the town about 35,000 out of 40,000 persons perished. The cathedral, which dated from the 17th century, and the ancient castle which rose above it, were wrecked. Great damage was done by a seismic wave following the shock. The sea front was swept away, and the level of the land hereabouts was lowered. (See further Messina.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reggio nell' Emilia

See also Reggio nell' Emilia on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Reggio nell' Emilia (till 1859 part of the duchy of Modena), 38 m. by rail N.W. of Bologna. Pop. (1906) 19,681 (town), 64,548 (commune). The cathedral, originally erected in the 12th century, was reconstructed in the 15th and 16th; the facade shows traces of both periods, the Renaissance work being complete only in the lower portion. S. Prospero, close by, has a façade of 1504, in which are incorporated six marble lions belonging to the original Romanesque edifice. The Madonna della Ghiara, built in 1597 in the form of a Greek cross, and restored in 1900, is beautifully proportioned and finely decorated in stucco and with frescoes of the Bolognese school of the early 17th century. There are several good palaces of the early Renaissance, a fine theatre (1857) and a museum containing important palaeo-ethnological collections, ancient and medieval sculptures, and the natural history collection of Spallanzani. Lodovico Ariosto, the poet (1474–1533), was born in Reggie, and his father's house is still preserved. The industries embrace the making of cheese, objects in cement, matches, and brushes, the production of silkworms, and printing; and the town is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It lies on the main line between Bologna and Milan, and is connected by branch lines with Guastalla and Sassuolo (hence a line to Modena).
Regium Lepidi or Regium Lepidum was probably founded by M. Aemilius Lepidus at the time of the construction of the Via Aemilia (187 B.C.). It lay upon this road, half-way between Mutina and Parma. It was during the Roman period a flourishing municipium, but perhaps never became a colony; and it is associated with no event more interesting than the assassination of M. Brutus, the father of Caesar's friend and foe. The bishopric dates perhaps from the 4th century A.D. Under the Lombards the town was the seat of dukes and counts; in the 12th and 13th centuries it formed a flourishing republic, busied in surrounding itself with walls (1229), controlling the Crostolo and constructing navigable canals to the Po, coining money of its own, and establishing prosperous schools. About 1290 it first passed into the hands of Obizzo d'Este, and the authority of the Este family was after many vicissitudes more formally recognized in 1409. In the contest for liberty which began in 1796 and closed with annexation to Piedmont in 1859, Reggio took vigorous part.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Refresher

See also Refresher on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
REFRESHER, in English legal phraseology, a further or additional fee paid to counsel where a case is adjourned from one term or sittings to another, or where it extends over more than one day and occupies, either on the first day or partly on the first and partly on a subsequent day or days, more than five hours without being concluded. The refresher allowed for every clear day subsequent to that on which the five hours have expired is five to ten guineas for a leading counsel and from three to seven guineas for other counsel, but the taxing master is at liberty to allow larger fees in special circumstances. See Rules of the Supreme Court, O.65, r. 48.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tomato

See also Tomato and Solanaceae on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TOMATO, Lycopersicum esculentum (Nat. Ord. Solanaceae), a tender annual, native of South America, probably Peru. The fruit is much esteemed in salads and as a vegetable. Efforts have been made to popularize it for dessert, with varying success.
Plants intended to fruit out of doors during the summer should be raised from seed sown at the end of February or early in March, under glass, in a temperature of about 60°. Pots, pans or shallow boxes are suitable for the purpose. The compost should be light and fresh, preferably of loam, sand and leaf mould in equal proportions.
As soon as the young plants appear they should be fully exposed to sunlight, as near the glass as practicable. When the second pair of leaves appear they should be potted singly in pots of about 3 in. diameter, using slightly richer compost and less sand. This operation should on no account be deferred. The next shift should be into pots 7–8 in. diameter, the compost mostly loam, enriched with the ashes of plants, &c., from the refuse heap. The first flowers will appear towards the end of April or early in May. The pollen should be gathered and applied to the stigmas of the flowers by hand. The plants should be fit for planting out early in June, and should bear at least two clusters of rapidly growing fruits. They should be planted in the sunniest and warmest position available. It is customary to confine the plants to one shoot, pinching off all lateral shoots as they appear. Owing to the fickleness of the English climate it is of the utmost importance that the setting of fruit should be secured early. Manure should be applied sparingly to tomatoes until the crops become heavy.
Under glass, without artificial heat, tomatoes succeed well. In cold, sunless seasons, however, the crops are seldom remunerative. The culture is substantially as advised for out of doors. In heated structures tomatoes may be produced all the year round. They are always a small and precarious crop during winter, however. During summer the crops are usually heavier and of better flavour, even in favourable seasons, than from out of doors. It is necessary to provide a succession of plants to replace those that are being worn out by heavy cropping. Periodical sowings are therefore necessary. Some prefer to raise the plants intended for winter fruiting by cuttings inserted in August. Planting out is usually effected on shallow benches in small quantities of moderately rich soil, and the shoots trained on wires near the glass. As more nourishment is required, new soil is added. In this way excessive luxuriance, to which the tomato is so addicted, is avoided. The plants should never be allowed to become dry—they are large consumers of water.
The following varieties comprise some of the best in cultivation: Large Smooth Red Fruited.—The Hastings, Conference, Ham Green Favourite Perfection. Yellow Fruited.—Chiswick Peach, Golden Jubilee, Carter’s Greengage. Early Varieties for Outdoor Culture.—Chemin, Frogmore Selected.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tomb

See also Tomb on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TOMB (Gr. τύμβα, τύμβος, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell), a general term for a place of burial for the dead, including the excavation or cavity in which the body is laid and the superstructure which marks the place. (See Burial and Funeral Rites.)
The various forms which the tomb has taken throughout the ages are treated under such heads as Barrow; Cairn; Tumulus; Cenotaph; Sarcophagus; &c.