OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Trumpet, Speaking and Hearing

See also Hearing aid and Megaphone on Wikipedia; Trumpet, Speaking and Hearing in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TRUMPET, Speaking and Hearing.The speaking trumpet, though some instrument of the kind appears to have been in earlier use in more than one part of the world, is connected in its modern form with the name of Athanasius Kircher and that of Sir Samuel Morland, who in 1670 proposed to the Royal Society of London the question of the best form for a speaking trumpet. Lambert, in the Berlin Memoirs for 1763, seems to have been the first to give a theory of the action of this instrument, based on an altogether imaginary analogy with the behaviour of light. In this theory, which is still commonly put forward, it is assumed that sound, like light, can be propagated in rays. This, however, is possible only when the aperture through which the wave-disturbance passes into free air is large compared with the wave-length. If the fusiform mouth of the speaking trumpet were half a mile or so in radius, Lambert's theory might give an approximation to the truth. But with trumpets whose aperture is only a foot in diameter at most the problem is one of diffraction; and it has not yet been seriously studied from this point of view.
In the case of the hearing trumpet, the disturbance is propagated along the converging tube much in the same way as the tide-wave is propagated up the estuary of a tidal river.
Until the theory has been rigorously worked out the only safe course to adopt in manufacturing either class of instruments is to be guided by the results of varied trials.
The theoretical foundations of the subject will be found in Lord Rayleigh's Sound and in Sir G. Airy's Tides and Waves, respectively. In speaking and hearing trumpets alike all reverberation of the instrument should be avoided by making it thick and of the least elastic materials, and by covering it externally with cloth.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Frankenstein

See also Frankenstein, Rhineland-Palatinate, on Wikipedia, Frankenstein on Wikisource, Frankenstein on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Frænum

See also Frenulum on Wikipedia, frænum on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Frascati

See also Frascati on Wikipedia, Frascati on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Frænum Linguæ

See also Frenulum on Wikipedia, frænum on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Frænum Penis

See also Frenulum on Wikipedia, frænum on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/In Chief

See also Chief (heraldry) on Wikipedia, chief on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​In Chief, imports something borne in the chief part or top of the escutcheon.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Franker

See also Franeker on Wikipedia, Franeker on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Franstat

See also Wschowa on Wikipedia, Wschowa on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Franks

See also Frangistan on Wikipedia, Frank on Wiktionary, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, First Edition/Macao

See also Macau on Wikipedia, and the Encyclopædia Britannica, 1st edition, disclaimer.
​MACAO, an island of China, in the province of Canton, fifty miles south of Canton.
Macao, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir Henry Lytton Earle Bulwer

See also Henry Bulwer, 1st Baron Dalling and Bulwer on Wikipedia; Henry Bulwer, 1st Baron Dalling and Bulwer, at Wikipedia; William Henry Lytton Earle Bulwer, Baron Dalling and Bulwer, in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
BULWER, Sir Henry Lytton Earle (1804-1872), statesman and diplomatist, created a peer, under the title of Baron Dalling and Bulwer, in 1871. See Dalling.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir James George Robert Graham

See also Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet on Wikipedia; Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet, on Wikipedia, Sir James Robert George Graham in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
​GRAHAM, Sir James George Robert, Bart. (1792-1861), a well-known British statesman, was born at Naworth, Cumberland, 1st June 1792. From Westminster school he duly passed to Queen's College, Cambridge; and shortly after quitting the university, while making the "grand tour" abroad, he became private secretary to the British minister in Sicily, in which capacity he not only acquired much useful experience but also rendered some important services. Shortly after his return to England he, in 1818, after a contest of extraordinary keenness, was returned to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death; and in 1826 he again entered parliament as representative for Carlisle. In the same year he published a pamphlet entitled Corn and Currency, which brought him into considerable prominence in the political world as a man of advanced Liberal opinions; and having been returned in 1830 for the county of Cumberland, he became one of the most energetic advocates in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland; but dissensions on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert Peel as secretary of state for the home department, and this post he retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium, in Scotland at least, by his unconciliating policy on the church question prior to the "disruption " of 1843; and in 1844 the detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855, until the appointment of a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war put him upon his defence, and ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He continued, however, as a private member to exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion until his death, which occurred at Netherby, Cumberland, 26th October 1861.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir John Pringle

See also Sir John Pringle, 1st Baronet on Wikipedia; Sir John Pringle in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​ PRINGLE, Sir John (1707-1782), a distinguished physician, was the younger son of Sir John Pringle of Stitchel, Roxburghshire, and was born on the 10th of April 1707. He was educated at home under a private tutor, and subsequently at St Andrews, at Edinburgh, and at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of physic. At the last-named university he was an intimate friend of Van Swieten and Haller. He at first settled in Edinburgh as a physician, but was soon after appointed assistant and successor to the professor of moral philosophy in the university. In 1742 he became physician to the earl of Stair, then commanding the British army in Flanders, and in 1745 was appointed by the duke of Cumberland physician-general to the forces in the Low Countries. In 1749, having settled in London, he was made physician in ordinary to the duke of Cumberland; and he afterwards received other court appointments as physician, and in 1766 a baronetcy. He read a series of papers to the Royal Society, which are to be found in the Transactions, and which gained for him the Copley gold medal. His first book was Observations on the Nature and Cure of Hospital and Jayl-Fevers (London, 1750). He married in 1752 a daughter of Dr Oliver, a physician in Bath; and in the same year he published his important work, Observations on the Diseases of the Army in Camp and Garrison, which went through many editions and was also translated into French, German, Italian, and Spanish. After having acted for many years as a member of the council of the Royal Society, he was in November 1772 elected president of that body. In this capacity he delivered and published, in connexion with the annual assignments of the Copley medal, six “discourses,” which were afterwards collected into a single volume (1783). In 1776 he published A Discourse on Improvements in preserving the Health of Mariners. After passing his seventieth year he resigned his presidency and removed to Edinburgh in 1780, but returned to London in September 1781, and died in January following. There is a monument to him in Westminster Abbey, executed by Nollekens.
A Life of Pringle by Kippis is prefixed to the volume containing the Six Discourses. The library of the College of Physicians of Edinburgh possesses ten folio volumes of his unedited MSS., including an essay “on air, climate, diet, and exercise.” There are Éloges on Pringle by Vicq d'Azyr and Condorcet.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir Henry Ellis

See also Henry Ellis (librarian) on Wikipedia; Henry Ellis on Wikipedia; Sir Henry Ellis in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
ELLIS, Sir Henry (1777–1869), a distinguished antiquarian writer, for many years principal librarian to the British Museum, was born in London of a Yorkshire family in 1777. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, and at St John's College, Oxford, where he took his degree and obtained a fellowship. After having held for a few months a sub-librarianship in the Bodleian, he was appointed to a similar post in the British Museum in 1800. In 1827 he became chief librarian, and he discharged the duties of the ofﬁce with great efﬁciency and urbanity until 1856, when he resigned on account of advancing age. During the reign of William IV. he was made a knight of Hanover. He died on the 15th January 1869. Sir Henry Ellis's life was one of very considerable literary activity. His ﬁrst work of importance was the preparation of a new edition of Brand's Popular Antiquities, which appeared in 1813. In 1816 he was selected by the Commissioners of Public Records to write the introduction to Domesday Book, a task which he discharged with much learning, though several of his views have not stood the test of later criticism. His Original Letters Illustrative of English History (ﬁrst series, 1824; second series, 1827) are compiled chieﬂy from manuscripts in the British Museum and the State Paper Ofﬁce, and have been of considerable service to historical writers. To the Library of Entertaining Knowledge he contributed four volumes on the Elgin and Townley Marbles. Sir Henry was for many years joint-secretary of the Society of Antiquaries.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy

See also Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy on Wikipedia; Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy and the Jejeebhoy baronets on Wikipedia; Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
JEJEEBHOY, Sir Jamsetjee (1783–1859), a Parsee merchant and great public benefactor, was born of poor parents in Bombay, July 15, 1783. Left an orphan while still very young, he had many difficulties to overcome at the outset of the mercantile career he chose for himself. On one occasion the ship in which he and all his goods were was captured by the French, and the young merchant was landed penniless at the Cape of Good Hope. Thence he procured a passage to Bombay through the charity of some Dutch ladies; and, resolutely beginning life afresh, he rose to be one of the most opulent Parsee merchants in India. His lavish benevolence, which recognized no difference of nation, sect, or class, and extended even to the brute creation, has won him enduring honour. In 1822 he paid the debts of all the poor debtors in Bombay jail; he enriched his native city with a hospital and an educational establishment for Parsee children, a school of art and other benevolent institutions, and contributed largely to the Grant Medical College, while to the public works at Bombay, Nowsaree, and elsewhere he gave large grants, as well as to the patriotic fund and the Indian sufferers fund after the mutiny. Eleven schools owe their foundation to his munificence, in which 2710 Parsee children are educated. It is estimated that he gave away upwards of 26 lakhs of rupees. Knighted in 1842, he was promoted to a baronetcy in 1857; a statue was voted to him in 1856, and was unveiled in Bombay town-hall on August 1, 1859. At his death on April 15, 1859, his property was estimated at 8,550,000 rupees. According to an act of the legislative council of India, the name Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy must be assumed by all his successors in the baronetcy. His son (1811–1877) was prominent as the head of the Parsee community in Bombay, and exercised a considerable influence among the Europeans. He was a member of the legislative council of Bombay.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Sir John Hayward

See also John Hayward (historian) on Wikipedia; John Hayward on Wikipedia, Sir John Hayward in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
HAYWARD, Sir John (c. 1560–1627), one of the earliest writers of English history as distinguished from the old chroniclers, was born about 1560 at or near Felixstow on the coast of Suffolk. According to a statement in his will he “received the means of his education” out of the parish of Felixstow. It is affirmed by the old authorities that he studied at Cambridge and took the degree of doctor in civil law, but his name does not occur in any of the registers. In 1599 he published The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie the IIII., extending to the end of the first yeare of his raigne, which, from its dedication to the earl of Essex, and a passage it contained on hereditary rights, led to the author’s imprisonment by Elizabeth. The queen also caused Francis Bacon to search the book for “places in it that might be drawn within case of treason,” who reported, “For treason surely I find none, but for felony very many,”—explaining that many of his sentences had been stolen from Cornelius Tacitus. Notwithstanding this jocular exculpation Hayward was continued in prison, in all probability until after the death of the queen. On the accession of James I. he courted that monarch’s favour by the publication of two political pamphlets—On the Right of Succession (1603), and A Treatise of Union of England and Scotland (1604); and in 1610 he was appointed historiographer along with Camden of the college which King James attempted to found at Chelsea. In 1613 he published his Lives of the Three Norman Kings of England, which he wrote at the request of Prince Henry. In 1616 he was admitted an advocate of Doctors Commons, and in 1619 he received the honour of knighthood. He died 27th June 1627. Among his manuscripts was found The Life and Raigne of K. Edward VI., first published in 1630, and Certain Yeres of Queen Elizabeth’s Raigne, the beginning of which was printed in an edition of the Reign of Edward VI., published in 1636, but which was first published in a complete form in 1840, for the Camden Society, under the editorship of John Bruce, who prefixed an introduction on the life and writings of the author. Hayward was conscientious and diligent in obtaining information, and, although his reasoning on questions of morality is often childish, his descriptions are generally graphic and vigorous. Notwithstanding his imprisonment by Elizabeth, his portrait of the qualities of her mind and person is flattering rather than detractive.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Hancock, Winfield Scott

See also Winfield Scott Hancock on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Hancock, Winfield Scott (1824-1886), American officer, was born in Montgomery county, Pa., Feb. 14, 1824. He graduated at West Point in 1844, served with credit in Scott's campaign in Mexico and on frontier duty until 1861, when he held the rank of captain. Having been appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, he served in the army of the Potomac throughout its existence. For distinguished service on the peninsula and at South Mountain and Antietam, he was given a division and the rank of major-general, and in 1863 he was placed in command of the second corps for his services at Fredericksburgh and Chancellorsville. His crowning glory was won at Gettysburgh. Reynolds fell on the first day, and Hancock was sent forward by Meade to arrange the line until the commander could arrive. On the second and third days Hancock commanded the left centre, on Cemetery Ridge, where, just in the moment of victory, he was severely wounded. He received the thanks of Congress, and returned to the command of his corps early in 1864, in time to take part in Grant's campaigns of that year. He distinguished himself again and again at the Wilderness, at Spotsylvania, and in the Cold Harbor and Petersburgh operations. At the end of the war he commanded various departments, having been made a major-general in the regular army. From September 1867 to March 1868 he commanded the department of the Gulf, under the Reconstruction Acts; and certain orders issued by him, particularly those of Nov. 29 and Dec. 5, 1867, declaring that the military power was meant only to uphold, not to control, the civil power, and declining to exercise arbitrary powers, were so satisfactory to the Democratic party that in 1880 it nominated him for the presidency. He was defeated by Garfield, but retained his position as senior major-general of the army, and the warm regard of the country. He died at Governor's Island, N.Y., Feb. 9, 1886.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Colfax, Schuyler

See also Schuyler Colfax on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Colfax, Schuyler, vice-president of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born in New York city, March 23, 1823. At the age of thirteen he removed to South Bend, Ind., studied law, became a newspaper editor, and entered political life as a Whig, afterwards a Republican. Defeated in the Congressional election of 1851, he was successful at the next, and served in the house of representatives from 1855 to 1869. He was speaker of the house from 1863 to 1869. In 1868 he was nominated by the Republicans for the office of vice-president, and was elected, serving until 1873. He died Jan. 13, 1885. See Martin's Life of Colfax (1868).
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Hood, John Bell

See also John Bell Hood on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Hood, John Bell (1831-1879), American officer in the Confederate service, was born at Owingsville, Ky., June 29, 1831. He graduated at West Point in 1853, and continued to serve in the United States army until 1861, when he entered the Confederate service. Rising rapidly from a first-lieutenancy to the command of the Texas brigade, he distinguished himself on the peninsula, in the seven days battles at Antietam, and at Gettysburgh, where he lost the use of an arm. He was now a major-general, and was sent to command a division in Bragg's army. He took a leading part in the battle of Chickamauga, where he lost a leg, but returned to duty within six months. He commanded a corps during Johnston's retreat before Sherman, in the early months of 1864; and, when Davis had decided on removing Johnston, Hood was appointed to the command of the army. He accepted reluctantly, and his position was not a pleasant one. He succeeded a general in whom the army had confidence; he was to reverse that general's policy, and he was to carry out a plan of campaign which had been prepared for him by the Confederate president. His obedience was painfully accurate. He assumed the offensive as soon as he took command, fought several severe battles, and soon found himself under necessity of evacuating Atlanta (Sept. 2, 1864). Sherman had outflanked him; and the Confederate administration came to the desperate resolution of ordering him to move west and then north into Tennessee. He was checked at Franklin, where he lost many of his best officers; and in the final battle of Nashville (Dec. 15) his army was completely beaten, and almost lost its organization. The command of its remnants was transferred to General Richard Taylor, and Hood retired from active service. He died of yellow fever at New Orleans, Aug. 30, 1879.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/United States/Burr, Aaron

See also Aaron Burr on Wikipedia; the 11th edition; and the disclaimer. This appears in a biographical appendix of Section I (History and Constitution) of the United States article. The section was written by Alexander Johnston.
​Burr, Aaron (1756-1836), vice-president of the United States from 1801 to 1805, was born at Newark, N.J., Feb. 6, 1756, being the son of Rev. Aaron Burr, president of Princeton College, and grandson of Rev. Jonathan Edwards. He graduated at Princeton in 1772, served as an officer in the revolutionary army, becoming lieutenant-colonel, and in 1779 resigned and studied law. He began practice in New York, where the leading lawyers were disfranchised or under a cloud by reason of Toryism, and was successful almost at once, his leading competitor being Hamilton. He was a Republican United States senator, 1791-97, and introduced into the Republican party of his State that semi-military organization which now marks all successful parties. Presidential electors were then generally chosen by State legislatures, and Burr's skilful management obtained a legislature in 1800 with a Republican majority. The Republican leaders at Washington at once named him as the candidate to be voted for with Jefferson. All the Republican electors voted for the two, giving them a majority of the electoral votes, 73 each. But this, as the constitution then stood (§ 120), elected neither; the house of representatives was to choose between them. The house had a Federalist majority, and was disposed to make Burr president, in order to baulk Jefferson and his party. It was not until the 36th ballot that Jefferson was chosen, and Burr never recovered his party's confidence. He was not re-nominated in 1804; and in the same year he shot his great rival, Hamilton, in a duel near New York city. In 1807 he was tried for an expedition against Mexico, but was acquitted. For some years he lived abroad, but in 1812 he returned to New York city and resumed the practice of law. He died on Staten Island, N.Y., Sept. 14, 1836. Burr's great ability, his influence over young men and over women, the immorality of his private life, the misfortunes of his career and the stoical patience with which he bore them, have made him a remarkable figure in American history. He is buried at Princeton, N.J.—See Parton's Life of Burr, Knapp's Life of Burr, Davis's Memoir of Burr, and Private Journal of Burr.