OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Isly

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​ISLY, the name of a small river on the Moroccan-Algerian frontier, a sub-tributary of the Tafna, famous as the scene of the greatest victory of the French army in the Algerian wars. The intervention of Morocco on the side of Abd-el-Kader led at once to the bombardment of Tangier by the French fleet under the prince de Joinville, and the advance of the French army of General Bugeaud (1844). The enemy, 45,000 strong, was found to be encamped on the Isly river near Kudiat-el-Khodra. Bugeaud disposed of some 6500 infantry and 1500 cavalry, with a few pieces of artillery. In his own words, the formation adopted was “a boar’s head.” With the army were Lamoricière, Pélissier and other officers destined to achieve distinction. On the 14th of August the “boar’s head” crossed the river about 9 m. to the N.W. of Kudiat and advanced upon the Moorish camp; it was immediately attacked on all sides by great masses of cavalry; but the volleys of the steady French infantry broke the force of every charge, and at the right moment the French cavalry in two bodies, each of the strength of a brigade, broke out and charged. One brigade stormed the Moorish camp (near Kudiat) in the face of artillery fire, the other sustained a desperate conflict on the right wing with a large body of Moorish horse which had not charged; and only the arrival of infantry put an end to the resistance in this quarter. A general rally of the Moorish forces was followed by another action in which ​they endeavoured to retake the camp. Bugeaud’s forces, which had originally faced S. when crossing the river, had now changed direction until they faced almost W. Near Kudiat-el-Khodra the Moors had rallied in considerable force, and prepared to retake their camp. The French, however, continued to attack in perfect combination, and after a stubborn resistance the Moors once more gave way. For this great victory, which was quickly followed by proposals of peace, Bugeaud was made duc d’Isly.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ismay, Thomas Henry

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​ISMAY, THOMAS HENRY (1837–1899), British shipowner, was born at Maryport, Cumberland, on the 7th of January 1837. He received his education at Croft House School, Carlisle, and at the age of sixteen was apprenticed to Messrs Imrie & Tomlinson, shipowners and brokers, of Liverpool. He then travelled for a time, visiting the ports of South America, and on returning to Liverpool started in business for himself. In 1867 he took over the White Star line of Australian clippers, and in 1868, perceiving the great future which was open to steam navigation, established, in conjunction with William Imrie, the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, which has since become famous as the White Star Line. While continuing the Australian service, the firm determined to engage in the American trade, and to that end ordered from Messrs Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, the first Oceanic (3807 tons), which was launched in 1870. This vessel may fairly be said to have marked an era in North Atlantic travel. The same is true of the successive types of steamer which Ismay, with the co-operation of the Belfast shipbuilding firm, subsequently provided for the American trade. To Ismay is mainly due the credit of the arrangement by which some of the fastest ships of the British mercantile marine are held at the disposal of the government in case of war. The origin of this plan dates from the Russo-Turkish war, when there seemed a likelihood of England being involved in hostilities with Russia, and when, therefore, Ismay offered the admiralty the use of the White Star fleet. In 1892 he retired from partnership in the firm of Ismay, Imrie and Co., though he retained the chairmanship of the White Star Company. He served on several important committees and was a member of the royal commission in 1888 on army and navy administration. He was always most generous in his contributions to charities for the relief of sailors, and in 1887 he contributed £20,000 towards a pension fund for Liverpool sailors. He died at Birkenhead on the 23rd of November 1899.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ismail Hadji Maulvi-Mohammed

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​ISMAIL HADJI MAULVI-MOHAMMED (1781–1831), Mussulman reformer, was born at Pholah near Delhi. In co-operation with Syed Ahmed he attempted to free Indian Mahommedanism from the influence of the native early Indian faiths. The two men travelled extensively for many years and visited Mecca. In the Wahhabite movement they found much that was akin to their own views, and on returning to India preached the new doctrine of a pure Islam, and gathered many adherents. The official Mahommedan leaders, however, regarded their propaganda with disfavour, and the dispute led to the reformers being interdicted by the British government in 1827. The little company then moved to Punjab where, aided by an Afghan chief, they declared war on the Sikhs and made Peshawar the capital of the theocratic community which they wished to establish (1829). Deserted by the Afghans they had to leave Peshawar, and Ismail Hadji fell in battle against the Sikhs amid the Pakhli mountains (1831). The movement survived him, and some adherents are still found in the mountains of the north-west frontier.
Ismail’s book Taqouaīyat el Imān was published in Hindustani and translated in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xiii. 1852.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ismailia

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​ISMAILIA, a town of Lower Egypt, the central station on the Suez Canal, on the N.W. shore of Lake Timsa, about 50 m. from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and 93 m. N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 10,373. It was laid out in 1863, in connexion with the construction of the canal, and is named after the khedive Ismail. It is divided into two quarters by the road leading from the landing-place to the railway station, and has numerous public offices, warehouses and other buildings, including a palace of the khedive, used as a hospital during the British military operations in 1882, but subsequently allowed to fall into a dilapidated condition. The broad macadamized streets and regular squares bordered with trees give the town an attractive appearance; and it has the advantage, a rare one in Egypt, of being surrounded on three sides by flourishing gardens. The Quai Mehemet Ali, which lies along the canal for upwards of a mile, contains the châlet occupied by Ferdinand de Lesseps during the building of the canal. At the end of the quay are the works for supplying Port Said with water. On the other side of the lake are the so-called Quarries of the Hyenas, from which the building material for the town was obtained.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Precinct

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​PRECINCT (from Lat. praecingere, to encircle, enclose, surround, prae and cingere, to gird), an enclosure, a space within the boundaries, marked by walls or fences or by an imaginary line, of a building or group of buildings, especially used of such a space belonging to a cathedral or other religious building. The word is frequently used, indefinitely, of the neighbourhood or environs of a place or building. In the United States of America it is applied to various minor territorial divisions or districts, for electoral or judicial purposes. In some of the states they correspond to the “township” as the principal subdivision of the “ county.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Predella

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​PREDELLA, the Italian word for a footstool or kneeling-stool, hence applied to the step or platform on which an altar rests, and to a shelf raised above the altar at the back, a super altar or gradino. The face both of the step and shelf are frequently decorated with sculpture or painting, and the term “predella” is frequently given to the sculpture or painting so used, and, further, to any painting that is a pendant to a larger work.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Precious

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​PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. précieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium), costly or of high value, particularly used in political economy of those metals which are “ valuable enough to be used as a standard of value and abundant enough for coinage ” (The Century Dictionary). The term is thus practically confined to gold and silver. Platinum in theory may be included as it was used for coinage in Russia in 1828; the fluctuations in the value of the metal caused its discontinuance in 1845 (see Gold, Silver and Money). “Precious stones” include those gems which are valued for ornament and jewelry. “Strictly speaking the only precious stones are the diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald, though the term is often extended to the opal, notwithstanding its lack of hardness, and to the pearl ... strictly an animal product,” G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North America (1890) (see Gem, and Lapidary and Gem Cutting). A particular use of “precious” as meaning fastidious, over-refined, is taken from the French précieux, familiar in the appellation of Les Précieuses, given to the social and literary circle of ladies which centred round the Hôtel de Rambouillet in the 17th century (see Rambouillet, Catherine de Vivonne, Marquise de).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Predicament

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​PREDICAMENT, now used only in the sense of a dangerous or unpleasant position or situation. It meant properly that which is " predicated " or affirmed (Lat. praedicare) of anything, in logic, one of the ten Aristotelian categories (see Category), and so any definite state or condition. The use of " predicament " in the sense of " bad predicament," without the limiting adjective, is paralleled by " plight," for " bad plight," " success " for " good success."
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Predication

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PREDICATION (from Lat. praedicare, to state, assert), in logic, the term which denotes the joining of a predicate to a subject in a judgment or proposition. The statement "all men are mortal" is to predicate mortality of all men. In other words a judgment is made up of a subject and a, predicate joined by a copula. Since the true unit of thought is the judgment, since all concepts or universals exist only in continuous thinking (judging), the theory of predication is a fundamental part of logic. The true relation of subject and predicate has not been determined with unanimity, various logicians emphasizing different aspects of the process (see Logic). The logical use of "predicate" is to be distinguished from the grammatical, which includes the verb, whether it be the verb "to be" in its various forms, or another verb. The simple grammatical sentence "he strokes the dog" the first word is the subject, while "strokes the dog" is the predicate, including verb and object. In logic every proposition is reducible to the form "A is B," "B" being the predicate. Thus the logical form of "he strokes the dog" would be "he is stroking the dog" or some other periphrasis which liberates and determines the logical predicate. The true significance of the logical copula is difficult. It cannot be described simply as a third (i.e. separate part) of the judgment, because until two terms are enjoined by it they are not subject and predicate. Much discussion has raged round the question whether the use of the verb "to be" as the copula implies that existence is predicated by the subject. It may be taken as generally agreed that this is not the case (see further Logic, and the textbooks).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Preceptor

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​PRECEPTOR, a teacher or instructor, the classical meaning of the Latin praeceptor, from praecipere, literally to take in advance, hence to give rules or “ precepts,” advise, teach. As an educational term in English the word is familiar through the College of Preceptors, a chartered Society chiefly composed of private teachers; it was incorporated in 1849 and was one of the first professional bodies to institute regular courses of pedagogic lectures and to award after examination the titles of licentiate and associate to teachers. It also holds examinations for pupils. In post-classical Latin praeceptor meant a commander, praecipere, to order, enjoin, and the term was adopted by the Knights Templars for the heads of the provincial communities of knights established on their estates. These communities and the estates themselves were known as “ preceptories,” and answered to the “ commanderies ” of the Hospitallers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Precession of the Equinoxes

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​PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, in astronomy, the term assigned to the progressive motion of the equinox, because it takes place in a direction from east towards west, opposite to that in which planets move, and in which longitudes are measured. The equinox being defined as the point of intersection of the equator and ecliptic, its motion arises from the fact that both of these great circles are in continuous though slow motion. The motion of the ecliptic is due to the action of the planets on the earth, which produces a slow progressive change in the position of the plane of the earth's orbit, and therefore of the ecliptic. This motion takes place round a diameter of the celestial sphere as an axis or nodal line, which intersects the sphere in two points, which are at present in longitudes about 173° and 353°. The direction of the motion around this axis is such that from the limits 353° through 0° to 173°, which includes the vernal equinox, the motion is towards the south, while, in the remainder of the circle, it is towards the north. At the present time the rate of the motion is 46.7" per century. In consequence of the smallness of the angle, 7°, which the axis of motion makes with the line of the equinoxes, its effect on the precession is quite small, now amounting to only 0.14” per annum. Owing to its cause this small part of the precession is called “ planetary.”
The motion of the equator is due to the combined action of the sun and moon on the equatorial protuberance of the earth (see Astronomy). Owing to its cause this largest part of the precession is called “ luni-solar.” Its fundamental law is that the mean celestial pole at each instant (see Nutation) moves at right angles to the circle joining it to the pole of the ecliptic as that instant. Hence if the pole of the ecliptic were fixed, the celestial pole would revolve around it in a circle at a constant distance equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic. Owing, however, to the slow change in the position of the pole of the ecliptic, the motion is only approximately in a circle, and the obliquity ​varies slowly from century to century. At the present time the rate of motion measured on a great circle is about 20″ per year; that is to say both the pole and the plane of the equator move through this angle annually. But when measured around the pole of the ecliptic as a centre the motion is about 2.5 times this or, at present, 50.37″ annually. This is the present amount of the luni-solar precession which, if it remained constant, would carry the pole completely round in a period of 25,730 years. But the exact period varies slightly, owing to the motion of the pole of the ecliptic. The combined effect of the luni-solar and planetary precession or the total motion of the equinox is called the general precession. Its annual amount during our time is 50.2564+0.02220″ T, T being the time reckoned from 1900 in centuries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Preconization

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​PRECONIZATION (Late Lat. praeconizatio, from praeconizare, to proclaim, Lat. praeco, a public crier), a public proclamation or announcement. In this sense it is practically obsolete; but the word is still technically used of the solemn proclamation of new bishops, and of the sees to which they are appointed, made by the pope in the consistory of cardinals (see Bishop). In the English ecclesiastical courts “praeconize” is also still used in the sense of “to summon by name.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Programme

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​PROGRAMME, or Program, in its original use, following that of Gr. πρόγραμμα, a public notice (προγράφειν, to make public by writing), now chiefly in the sense of a printed notice containing the items of a musical concert, with the names of the pieces to be performed, the composers and the performers, or of a theatrical performance, with the characters, actors, scenes, &c. In a wider sense the word is used of a syllabus or scheme of study, order of proceedings or the like, or of a catalogue or schedule containing the chief points in a course of action, and so, politically, in the sense of a list of the principal objects on which a party proposes to base its legislative course of action, as in the “Newcastle Programme” of 1891, drawn up by the Liberal Federation. The spelling “program,” now general in America, was that first in use in England, and so continued till the French form “programme” was adopted at the beginning of the 19th century. The New English Dictionary considers the earlier and modern American spelling preferable, on the analogy of “diagram,” “telegram,” “cryptogram” and the like. Scott and Carlyle always used “program.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prolocutor

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​PROLOCUTOR, one who speaks for others (Lat. pro, for, and loqui, to speak); specifically the chairman of the lower house of convocation in the two provinces of the Church of England, who presides in that house and acts as representative and spokesman in the upper house. He is elected by the lower house, subject to the approval of the metropolitan. (See Convocation.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prokopovich, Theofan

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​PROKOPOVICH, THEOFAN (1681–1736), Russian archbishop and statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the Great, was sprung from a merchant family. He brilliantly distinguished himself at the Orthodox academy of Kiev, subsequently completing his education in Poland (for which purpose he turned Uniate), and at Rome in the College of the Propaganda. Primed with all the knowledge of the West, he returned home to seek his fortune, and, as the Orthodox monk, became one of the professors at, and subsequently rector of, the academy of Kiev. He entirely reformed the teaching of theology there, substituting the historical method of the German theologians for the antiquated Orthodox scholastic system. In 1709 Peter the Great, while passing through Kiev, was struck by the eloquence of Prokopovich in a sermon on “ the most glorious victory,” i.e. Poltava, and in 1716 summoned him to Petersburg. From henceforth it was Theofan's duty and pleasure to explain the new ideas and justify the most alarming innovations from the pulpit. So invaluable, indeed, did he become to the civil power, that, despite the determined opposition of the Russian clergy, who regarded “ the Light of Kiev ” as an interloper and semi-heretic, he was rapidly promoted, becoming, in 1718, bishop of Pskov, and finally, in 1724, archbishop of Novgorod. As the author of “ the spiritual regulation ” for the reform of the Russian Church, Theofan must, indeed, be regarded as the creator of “ the spiritual department ” superseding the patriarchate, and better known by its later name of “ the holy synod,” of which he was made the vice-president. Penetrated by the conviction that ignorance was the worst of the inveterate evils of old Russia, a pitiless enemy of superstition of every sort, a reformer by nature, overflowing with energy and resource, and with a singularly lucid mind armed at all points by a far reaching erudition, Prokopovich was the soul of the reforming party after the death of Peter the Great. To him also belongs the great merit of liberating Russian preaching from the fetters of Polish turgidity and affectation by introducing popular themes and a simple style into Orthodox pulpit eloquence.
See I. Chistovitch, Theofan Prokopooieh and his Times (Rus.; Petersburg, 1868); P. Morozov, Theophan Prokopooieh as a Writer (Rus.; Petersburg, 1880).  (R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prolegomenon

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​PROLEGOMENON (Gr. for “ that which is said beforehand,” προλέγειν, to speak, say before), a preface or introduction to a book, especially a preliminary introductory essay to a learned work, or a treatise which serves as a general survey or introduction to the study of some subject or as a special survey of the subject. The word is more often used in the plural.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Proletariat

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​PROLETARIAT, or Proletariate, a term borrowed from the French and used collectively of those classes of a political community who depend for their livelihood on their daily labour, the wage-earning, operative class as opposed to the capital owning class. It is of frequent use by those social reformers who base their theories on the supposed antagonism of capital and labour. The Latin proletarius, from which the word was formed, was the name given to the body of citizens possessed of no property and who therefore served the state with their children (proles, offspring). This division of the members of the state was traditionally ascribed to Servius Tullius.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slocum, Henry Warner

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​SLOCUM, HENRY WARNER (1827–1894), American general, was born at Delphi, Onondaga county, New York, on the 24th of September 1827, and graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1852. He resigned from the army in 1856 to practise law at Syracuse, N.Y., and in 1859 he was a member of the state Assembly. When the Civil War broke out he became colonel (May 1861) of the 27th New York Volunteers, and was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers (August 1861) and major-general of volunteers (July 1862). He fought in all the Virginia campaigns from the first battle of Bull Run, where he led a regiment, to Gettysburg, where he commanded the XII. corps. With that corps he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 under Hooker’s command to the Tennessee Valley, and took part in the battle of Chattanooga. He remained with the Army of the Cumberland after his corps was merged into that of Hooker, took part in the Atlanta campaign, and after Hooker’s retirement succeeded to the command of the XX. corps (late XI. and XII.). He commanded the Atlanta garrison, and with Sherman took part in the “march to the sea,” and subsequently in the Carolinas campaign from Savannah to Goldsboro, as commander of the left wing. He resigned from the army in September 1865, resumed professional practice at Brooklyn, and was a Democratic representative in Congress in 1869–1873 and again in 1883–1885. In 1876–1884 he was president of the Brooklyn city board of public works. He died at Brooklyn on the 14th of April 1894. A monument of General Slocum by Frederick MacMonnies was unveiled at Brooklyn, N.Y., on the 30th of May 1905.