OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Witsius, Hermann

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​WITSIUS, HERMANN (1636–1708), Dutch theologian, was born at Enkhuysen, North Holland, and studied at Groningen, Leiden and Utrecht. He was ordained to the ministry, becoming pastor at Westwoud in 1656 and afterwards at Wormeren, Goesen and Leeuwaarden, and became professor of divinity successively at Franeker (1675) and at Utrecht (1680). In 1698 he went to Leiden as the successor of Friedrich Spanheim the younger (1632–1701). He died at Leiden on the 22nd of October 1708.
Witsius tried to mediate between the orthodox theology and the “federal” system of Johannes Cocceius, but did not succeed in pleasing either party. The more important of his works are: Judaeus christianizans—circa principia fidei et SS. Trinitatem (Utrecht, 1661); De oeconomia foederum Dei cum hominibus (1677, still regarded as one of the clearest and most suggestive expositions of the so-called “federal” theology); Diatribe de septem epistolarum apocalypticarum sensu historico ac prophetico (Franeker, 1678); Exercitationes sacrae in symbolum quod apostolorum dicitur et in orationem Dominicam (Franeker, 1681); Miscellanea sacra (Utrecht, 1692–1700, 2 vols.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Witten

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​WITTEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, favourably situated among the coal-fields of the Ruhr, 14 m. E. of Essen and 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905) 35,841. It is an important seat of the steel industry. Other industries are the making of soap, chemicals and beer. Witten was made a town in 1825.
See Hassel, Wittener Ortskunde und Ortsgesetze (Witten, 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Witney

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​WITNEY, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on the river Windrush, a tributary of the Thames, 75½ m. W.N.W. of London on the East Gloucestershire branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3574. The urban district was extended in 1898 to include portions of the scattered villages of Hailey and ​Curbridge. Witney is the seat of an old-established industry in blanket-making, and gloves and other woollen goods are also made. The broad main street contains several picturesque houses of the 17th century and later, and in it stands the Butter Cross, supported on columns and dating from 1683. The grammar school was founded in 1683, and a Blue Coat School in 1723. The great church of St Mary is one of the finest in the county. It is cruciform with a lofty central tower and spire, the latter considered to be a direct development of the early spire of the cathedral at Oxford. The tower is Early English, but the church exhibits the other styles, including a remarkable Norman porch. At Coggs, in the water-meadows bordering the river immediately below Witney, a priory was attached to the Benedictine Priory of Fécamp, and of this there are Early English remains in the vicarage, while the church is mainly Decorated. The foundation, however, dates from the 11th century.
The manor of Witney (Wyttineye, Wytnay, Wytney) was held by the see of Winchester before the Conquest. It was sold in 1649, but was given back to the bishopric at the Restoration. In the middle of the 18th century it was leased by the bishop of Winchester to the duke of Marlborough. Witney was a borough by prescription at least as early as 1278, and sent representatives to parliament with more or less regularity from 1304 to 1330. The government was by the steward and bailiffs of the bishop of Winchester, assisted by constables, wardmen and other officers. A woollen industry was probably established at an early date, for there is reference to a fulling mill in a charter of King Edgar dated 909. In 1641 the blanket-makers petitioned the crown against vexatious trade regulations; in 1673 the town is described as “driving a good trade for blankets and rugs.” In 1711 the blanket-makers obtained a charter making them into a company, consisting of a master, assistants, two wardens and a commonalty. In 1231 the bishop of Winchester received a grant of a five days’ fair at Witney at the feast of St Leonard. In 1278 the bishop was declared to have at Witney a weekly market on Thursday and two fairs on the day of Ascension and on St Leonard’s day. A further grant of two yearly fairs was made in 1414 to the bishop of Winchester at his manor of Witney, namely, on the vigil and day of St Clement the Pope, and at the feast of St Barnabas.
See J. A. Giles, History of Witney (London, 1852); Victoria County History, Oxon; W. J. Monk, History of Witney (1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Youghal

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​YOUGHAL (pronounced Yawl), a seaport, market town and watering-place of county Cork, Ireland, on the W. side of the Blackwater estuary, and on the Cork & Youghal branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, 263/4 m. E. of Cork. Pop. (1901) 5393- The collegiate church of St Mary, in the later Decorated style, was erected in the 11th century, but rebuilt in the 13th, and since that time frequently restored. It contains a beautiful monument to the 1st earl of Cork. The college was founded by an earl of Desmond in 1464. There are still a few fragments of the Dominican friary founded in 1269. The Clock Gate (1771) is noticeable, and portions of the old walls are to be seen. Myrtle Grove was formerly the residence of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was mayor of Youghal in 1588–89, and is said to have first cultivated the potato here. The harbour is safe and commodious, but has a bar at the mouth. At the N. extremity of the harbour the river is crossed by a bridge on wooden piles. The principal exports are corn and other agricultural produce; the imports are coal, culm, timber and slate. Coarse earthenware and bricks are manufactured. Fine point-lace commanding high prices is made by the Presentation Sisters. The Blackwater is famous for salmon, and sea-fishing is important. The Strand, the modern portion of the town, has all the attributes of a seaside resort.
Youghal (Eschaill, “the Yew wood”) was made a settlement of the Northmen in the 9th century, and was incorporated by King John in 1209. The Franciscan monastery, founded at Youghal by FitzGerald in 1224, was the earliest house of that order in Ireland. Sir Roger Mortimer landed at Youghal in 1317. The town was plundered by the earl of Desmond in 1579. In 1641 it was garrisoned and defended by the earl of Cork. In 1649 it declared for the parliament, and was occupied as his headquarters by Cromwell. It sent two members to parliament from 1374 till the Union, after that only one down to 1885.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Young, Charles Mayne

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​YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856), English actor, was the son of a surgeon. His first stage appearance was in Liverpool in 1798 as Douglas, in Home's tragedy. His first London appearance was in 1807 as Hamlet. With the decline of John Philip Kemble, and until the coming of Kean and Macready, he was the leading English tragedian. He retired in 1832.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Young, Brigham

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​YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801–1877), second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, was born in Whittingham, Vermont, on the 1st of June 1801. He died in Salt Lake City, Utah, on the 29th of August 1877. (See Mormons.)
# A Basic Guide to Open Educational Resources/Intro

Acknowledgements
Although I bear full responsibility for the work – and particularly the mistakes – contained in this Guide, its development is the product of several years of work and incorporates the inputs and ideas of many different people. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the contributions of the following to this Guide:
* Andrew Moore, who assisted with providing some of the Answers to the 'Frequently Asked Questions';
* Merridy Wilson-Strydom, who wrote the original version of Appendix One;
* Donna Preston and Sarah Hoosen, who wrote most of Appendix Five;
* Monge Tlaka, Sarah Hoosen, and Jenny Louw, whose tireless work in compiling the catalogue of OER sites in the OER Africa website has generated Appendix Six;
* Tony Mays, who compiled the original material on the OER Africa website that now appears in Appendices Seven and Eight, as well as sections of the report on policy; and
* Monica Mawoyo, who wrote Appendix Four and supported me in copy editing of the final report.
* Jacquie Withers, who completed a full copy edit of the draft report.
* Several colleagues from UNESCO and COL, who provided valuable feedback on drafts of the Guide.
Neil Butcher
Overview of the Guide
This Guide comprises three sections. The first – a summary of the key issues – is presented in the form of a set of ‘Frequently Asked Questions’. Its purpose is to provide readers with a quick and user-friendly introduction to Open Educational Resources (OER) and some of the key issues to think about when exploring how to use OER most effectively.
The second section is a more comprehensive analysis of these issues, presented in the form of a traditional research paper. For those who have a deeper interest in OER, this section will assist with making the case for OER more substantively.
The third section is a set of appendices, containing more detailed information about specific areas of relevance to OER. These are aimed at people who are looking for substantive information regarding a specific area of interest.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wên-chow-fu

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​WÊN-CHOW-FU, a prefectural city in the province of Cheh-kiang, China, and one of the five ports opened by the Chifu convention to foreign trade, situated (28° 1′ N., 120° 31′ E.) on the south bank of the river Gow, about 20 m from the sea. The population is estimated at 80,000. The site is said to have been chosen by Kwo P'oh (A.D. 276–324), a celebrated antiquary who recognized in the adjacent mountain peaks a correspondence with the stars in the constellation of the Great Bear, from which circumstance the town was first known as the Tow or Great Bear city. Subsequently the appearance in its vicinity of a white deer carrying a flower in its mouth was deemed so favourable an omen as to more than justify the change of its name to Luh or Deer city. Its present name, which signifies the "mild district," and is correctly descriptive of the climate, though not of the inhabitants, was given to it during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The walls, which were built in the 10th century, are about 4 m in circumference, 35 ft. in height, and 12 ft broad at the top. The streets are paved with brick and are wide, straight and clean. The gates, seven in number, were erected in 1598. Wên-chow is about 1560 m S S E by road from Peking and 600 m E S E of Hankow. The British consul and the customs outdoor staff occupy foreign-built houses on Conquest Island, which lies abreast of the city. The neighbourhood is hilly and pretty, while opposite the north-west gate Conquest Island forms a picturesque object. The island is, however, more beautiful than healthy. The port, which was opened to foreign trade in 1876, has not justified the expectations which were formed of it as a commercial centre, and in 1908 the direct foreign trade was valued at £19,000 only.
There is no foreign settlement at Wên-chow, and the foreign residents are mainly officials and missionaries. The tea trade of Wên-chow-Fu, formerly important, has declined owing to careless cultivation. A considerable native export trade in wood, charcoal, bamboo, medicines, paper umbrellas, oranges, otter skins and tobacco leaf is carried on. The imports are chiefly cotton yam and piece goods, kerosene oil, palm-leaf fans, aniline dyes, sugar and matches.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wāqidī

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​WĀQIDĪ [Abū ‘Abdallah Mahommed ibn ‘Umar ul-Wāqidī] (747-823), Arabian historian, was born at Medina, where he became a corn-dealer but was compelled to flee from his creditors (owing largely to his generosity) to Bagdad. Here the Barmecide vizier Yaḥyā b. Khālid (see Barmecides) gave him means and ​made him cadi in the western district of the city. In 819 he was transferred to Rosafa (Rusāfa) on the east side. His greatest work is the Kitāb ul-Maghāzi, or history of Mahomet’s campaigns.
The first third of the Kitāb ul-Maghāzi (one leaf missing) was published by A. von Kremer from a Damascus MS. (Calcutta, 1856). Sprenger in his Leben Muhammad’s used a British Museum MS. containing the first half, all but one leaf. J. Wellhausen published an abridged German translation from another British Museum MS. under the title Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882).
Ascribed to Wāqidī, but probably written at the time of the Crusades to incite the Moslems against the Christians, are several works on the conquests of Islam. One of the best known is the Futūḥ ush-Shām, edited by W. Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1854–1862; Cairo, 1865). M. J. de Goeje, in his Mémoires sur la conquête de la Syrie (Leiden, 1900), holds that this work is founded on that of Abu Hudhaifa ul-Bukhārī, which in turn is an edition of the real Wāqidī.
See Arabia, Literature, section “History.”  (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wyvern

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​WYVERN, or Wivern, the name of an heraldic monster, with the forepart of a winged dragon and the hind part of a serpent or lizard (see Heraldry). The earlier spelling of the word was wiver or wivere; O. Eng. wyvre; O. Fr. wivre, mod. givre. It is a doublet of “viper,” with an excrescent n, as in “bittern,” M. Eng. bitore.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/X

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​X the twenty-fourth letter of the English alphabet. Its position and form are derived from the Latin alphabet, which received them from the Western Greek alphabet. The alphabet of the Western Greeks differed from the Ionic, which is the Greek alphabet now in general use, by the shape and position of X and of some other consonants. The Ionic alphabet placed x (ξ) immediately after N and, in the oldest records, in the form , from which the ordinary Greek capital Ξ was developed. The position and shape of this symbol show clearly that it was taken from the Semitic Samekh, which on the Moabite stone appears as 𐤎. Why the Greeks attached this value to the symbol is not clear; in Semitic the symbol indicates the ordinary s. Still less clear is the origin of the form X, which in the Ionic alphabet stands for χ (k followed by a breath). In a very ancient alphabet on a small vase found in 1882 at Formello near the ancient Veii in Etruria, a symbol appears after N consisting of three horizontal and three vertical lines, . From this it has been suggested that both forms of the Greek x are derived, Ξ by removing the vertical lines, X in its earliest form by removing the four marginal lines. The Ionic symbol, however, corresponds closely to the earliest Phoenician, so that this theory is not very plausible for Ξ, and there are various other possibilities for the development of X (see Alphabet). This symbol appears in the very early Latin inscriptions found in the Roman Forum in 1899 as . In its usual value as ks it is superfluous. In the Ionic alphabet it was useful, because there it represented a single sound, which before the invention of the symbol had to be represented by kh. In the alphabet in use officially at Athens before 403 B.C. x was written by χσ (khs). In English there is an interesting variation of pronunciation in many words according to the position of the accent: if the accent precedes, x is pronounced ks; if it follows, x is pronounced gz: compare éxit (eksit) with exáct (egzact).
The symbol X was used both by the Romans and the Etruscans for the numeral 10. Which borrowed from the other is uncertain, but the Etruscans did not use X as part of their alphabet. X with a horizontal line over it was used for 10,000, and when a line on each side was added, |X|, for a million.  (P. Gi.)
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Catharine Sforza

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CATHARINE SFORZA,
Natural daughter of Galeas Sforza, Duke of Milan, in 1466 acquired celebrity for her courage and presence of mind. She married Jerome Riario, Prince of Forli, who was some time after assassinated by Francis Del Orsa, who had revolted against him. Catharine, with her children, fell into the hands of Orsa, but contrived to escape to Rimini, which still continued faithful to her, and which she defended with such determined bravery against her enemies, who threatened to put her children to death if she did not surrender, that she was at length restored to sovereign power. She then married John de Medicis, a man of noble family, but not ​particularly distinguished for talents or courage. Catharine still had to sustain herself; and, in 1500, ably defended Forli against Cæsar Borgia, Duke Valentino, the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander the Sixth. Being obliged to surrender, she was confined in the castle of San Angelo, but soon set at liberty, though never restored to her dominions. She died soon after. She is praised by a French historian for her talents, courage, military powers, and her beauty.
Sforza, Isabella, of the same family as the preceding, was distinguished in the sixteenth century for her learning. Her letters possessed great merit. One of them was a letter of consolation, written to Bonna Sforza, widow of the King of Poland; and one was in vindication of poetry.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Catharine St., of Bologna

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CATHARINE ST.,
A saint of the Romish church, canonized by Pope Clement the Seventh. She was born at Bologna in 1413, and admitted a nun at Ferrara, in 1432. She was afterwards abbess of a convent at Bologna, where she died in 1463. She wrote a book of "Revelations," and several pieces in Latin and Italian.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Catharine Parr

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CATHARINE PARR,
Sixth and last wife of Henry the Eighth, was the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Parr, of Kendal, and was at an early age distinguished for her learning and good sense. She was first married to Edward Burghe, and secondly to John Neville, Lord Latimer; and after his death attracted the notice and admiration of Henry the Eighth, whose queen she became in 1543. Her zealous encouragement of the reformed religion excited the anger and jealousy of Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, the Chancellor Wriothesley, and others of the popish faction, who conspired to ruin her with the king. Taking advantage of one of his moments of irritation, they accused her of heresy and treason, and prevailed upon the king to sign a warrant for her committal to the Tower. This being accidentally discovered to her, she repaired to the king, who purposely turned the conversation to religious subjects, and began to sound her opinions. Aware of his purpose, she humbly replied, "that on such topics she always, as became her sex and station, referred herself to his majesty; as he, under God, was her only supreme head and governor here on earth." And so judiciously did she conduct herself on this occasion, that she obtained a restoration of the king's favour, which she kept until his death, when he left her a legacy of four thousand pounds, besides her jointure, "for her great love, obedience, chasteness of life, and wisdom." She afterwards espoused the Lord Admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, uncle to Edward the Sixth; but these nuptials proved unhappy. ​and involved her in troubles and difficulties. She died in childbed in 1548, not without suspicion of poison.
She was a zealous promoter of the Reformation, and with several other ladies of the court secretly patronized Anne Askew, who was tortured, but in vain, to discover the names of court Mends. With the view of putting the Scriptures into the hands of the people, Catharine employed persons of learning to translate into English the paraphrase of Erasmus on the New Testament, and engaged the Lady Mary, afterwards queen, to translate the paraphrase on St. John, and wrote a Latin epistle to her on the subject. Among her papers after her death was found a composition, entitled "Queen Catharine Parr's Lamentations of a Sinner, bewailing the ignorance of her blind Life," and was a contrite meditation on the years she had passed in popish fasts and pilgrimages. It was published with a preface by the great Lord Burleigh, in 1548. In her lifetime she published a volume of "Prayers or Meditations, wherein the mind is stirred patiently to suffer all afflictions, and to set at nought the vaine prosperitie of this worlde, and also to long for the everlasting felicitee." Many of her letters have been printed.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Catharine of Braganza

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CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA,
Wife of Charles the Second, King of England, and daughter of John the Fourth of Portugal, was born in 1638. In 1661, she was married to Charles the Second, in whose court she long endured all the neglect and mortification his dissolute conduct was calculated to inflict on her. This endurance was rendered more difficult by her having no children; but she supported her situation with great equanimity.
Lord Clarendon says of Catharine—"The queen had beauty and wit enough to make herself agreeable to the king; yet she had been, according to the mode and discipline of her country, bred in a monastery, where she had seen only the women who attended her, and conversed with the religious who resided there; and, without doubt, in her inclinations, was enough disposed to have been one of the number. And from this restraint she was called out to be a great queen, and to a free conversation in a court that was to be upon the matter new formed, and reduced from the manners of a licentious age, to the old rules and limits which had been observed in better times; to which regular and decent conformity the present disposition of men and women was not enough inclined to submit, nor the king to exact. After some struggle she submitted to the king's licentious conduct, and from that time lived on easy terms with him till his death." After Charles died, Catharine was treated with much respect.
In 1693, she returned to Portugal, where, in 1704, she was made regent by her brother, Don Pedro, whose increasing infirmities rendered retirement necessary. In this situation, Catharine showed considerable abilities, carrying on the war with Spain with great firmness and success. She died in 1705.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Ceconia, or Cesenia

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CECONIA, or CESENIA,
Wife of Caligula, Emperor of Rome, was killed by Julius Lupus, A. D. 41, while weeping over the body of her murdered husband. ​When she saw the assassin approaching, and discovered his purpose, she calmly presented her breast to his sword, urging him to finish the tragedy his companions had begun. Her two daughters died by the same hand.