OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Physharmonica

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​PHYSHARMONICA, a keyboard instrument fitted with free-reeds, a kind of harmonium much used in Germany. The physharmonica resembles a small harmonium, but is differentiated from it by having no stops; being without percussion action, it does not speak readily or clearly. As in the harmonium, the bellows are worked by the feet by an alternate movement, which also affords a means of varying the dynamic force of the tone according as more or less energetic pedalling increases or decreases the pressure of the wind supply. The physharmonica was invented in 1818 by Anton Häckel, of Vienna; in the original instrument the bellows were placed right and left immediately under the shallow wind-chest, and were worked by means of pedals connected by stout wire. A specimen, having a compass of four octaves and a very sweet tone, is preserved in the collection of Paul de Wit, formerly in Leipzig, now transferred to Cologne. (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Physical Phenomena

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​PHYSICAL PHENOMENA, in the terminology of spiritualism and psychical research, molar or molecular phenomena in the physical world not traceable to ordinary causes and referred to the action of spirits or of mediums in abnormal psychical states. Among the phenomena or alleged phenomena are: materialization, levitation or elongation of the medium; passage of matter through matter, alteration of weight in a balance, tying of knots in an endless cord, apports (objects brought from a distance) and movements of objects (telekinesis); the production of writing, imprints of plaster or other objects; raps, voices and other sounds, including music; spirit photographs; lights and perfumes. To these may be added immunity against the effects of fire and the untying of ropes.
Analogous phenomena are found in many parts of the world (see Poltergeist; Firewalking); spectral lights are associated with the tombs of Mahommedan saints, with Buddhist shrines, with religious revivals, with Red Indian and other magicians, &c., and as sporadic phenomena in the Highlands and Norway. Levitation is asserted of Australian wizards, the rope trick of Eskimo angekoks; glyphs and direct writing are found in Mexican and Tibetan cults.
See F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality, ii. 506; Journal S. P. R., vi. 309 sq. (N. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pianosa

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​PIANOSA (anc. Planasia), an island of Italy, belonging to the province of Leghorn, and forming part of the commune of Marciana (Elba), from which it is 71/2 m. S.W. Pop. (1881), 774. As its name indicates, it is quite flat, and the highest point is only 95 ft. above sea-level. Its area is 6 sq. m. Augustus banished to it his grandson, Agrippa Postumus, and some ruins of baths near the harbour still bear his name. It changed hands more than once in the wars between Pisa and Genoa in the 12th and 13th centuries, from 1390 it belonged to the prince of Piombino, but was depopulated in 1553 by the Turkish fleet, and only resettled at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1857 a penal colony was established here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunter, Robert Mercer Taliaferro

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​HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (1809–1887), American statesman, was born in Essex county, Virginia, on the 21st of April 1809. He entered the university of Virginia in his seventeenth year and was one of its first graduates; he then studied law at the Winchester (Va.) Law School, and in 1830 was admitted to the bar. From 1835 to 1837 he was a member of the Virginia house of delegates; from 1837 to 1843 and from 1845 to 1847 was a member of the national house of representatives, being Speaker from 1839 to 1841; and from 1847 to 1861 he was in the senate, where he was chairman of the finance committee (1850–1861). He is credited with having brought about a reduction of the quantity of silver in the smaller coins; he was the author of the Tariff Act of 1857 and of the bonded-warehouse system, and was one of the first to advocate civil service reform. In 1853 he declined President Fillmore’s offer to make him secretary of state. At the National Democratic Convention at Charleston, S.C., in 1860 he was the Virginia delegation’s choice as candidate for the presidency of the United States, but was defeated for the nomination by Stephen A. Douglas. Hunter did not regard Lincoln’s election as being of itself a sufficient cause for secession, and on the 11th of January 1861 he proposed an elaborate but impracticable scheme for the adjustment of differences between the North and the South, but when this and several other efforts to the same end had failed he quietly urged his own state to pass the ordinance of secession. From 1861 to 1862 he was secretary of state in the Southern Confederacy; and from 1862 to 1865 was a member of the Confederate senate, in which he was, at times, a caustic critic of the Davis administration. He was one of the commissioners to treat at the Hampton Roads Conference in 1865 (see Lincoln, Abraham), and after the surrender of General Lee was summoned by President Lincoln to Richmond to confer regarding the restoration of Virginia in the Union. From 1874 to 1880 he was treasurer of Virginia, and from 1885 until his death near Lloyds, Virginia, on the 18th of July 1887, was collector of the Port of Tappahannock, Virginia.
See Martha T. Hunter, A Memoir of Robert M. T. Hunter (Washington, 1903) for his private life, and D. R. Anderson, Robert Mercer Taliaferro Hunter, in the John P. Branch Historical Papers of Randolph Macon College (vol. ii. No. 2, 1906), for his public career.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunter, William Alexander

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​HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844–1898), Scottish jurist and politician, was born in Aberdeen on the 8th of May 1844, and educated at Aberdeen grammar school and university. He entered the Middle Temple, and was called to the English bar in 1867, but then was occupied mainly with teaching. In 1869 he was appointed professor of Roman law at University College, London, and in 1878 professor of jurisprudence, resigning that chair in 1882. His name became well known during this period as the author of a standard work on Roman law, Roman Law in the Order of a Code, together with a smaller introductory volume for students, Introduction to Roman Law. After 1882 Hunter took up politics and was elected to parliament for Aberdeen as a Liberal in 1885. In the House of Commons he was a prominent supporter of Charles Bradlaugh, he was the first to advocate old age pensions, and in 1890 carried a proposal to free elementary education in Scotland. In 1895 his health broke down; he retired from parliament in 1896 and died on the 21st of July 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunt, Robert

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​HUNT, ROBERT (1807–1887), English natural philosopher, was born at Devonport on the 6th of September 1807. His father, a naval officer, was drowned while Robert was a youth. He began to study in London for the medical profession, but ill-health caused him to return to the west of England, and in 1840 he became secretary to the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society at Falmouth. Here he was brought into contact with Robert Were Fox, and carried on some physical and chemical investigations with him. He took up photography with great zeal, following Daguerre’s discovery, and introducing new processes. His Manual of Photography (1841, ed. 5, 1857) was the first English treatise on the subject. He also experimented generally on the action of light, and published Researches on Light (1844). In 1845 he accepted the invitation of Sir Henry de la Beche to become keeper of mining records at the Museum of Economic (afterwards “Practical”) Geology, and when the school of mines was established in 1851 he lectured for two years on mechanical science, and afterwards for a short time on ​experimental physics. His principal work was the collection and editing of the Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, and this he continued to the date of his retirement (1883), when the mining record office was transferred to the Home Office. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854. In 1884 he published a large volume on British Mining, in which the subject was dealt with very fully from an historical as well as a practical point of view. He also edited the fifth and some later editions of Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Mines and Manufactures. He died in London on the 17th of October 1887. A mineralogical museum at Redruth has been established in his memory.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunt, Thomas Sterry

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​HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826–1892), American geologist and chemist, was born at Norwich, Conn., on the 5th of September 1826. He lost his father when twelve years old, and had to earn his own livelihood. In the course of two years he found employment in a printing office, in an apothecary’s shop, in a book store and as a clerk. He became interested in natural science, and especially in chemical and medical studies, and in 1845 he was elected a member of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists at Yale—a body which four years later became the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1848 he read a paper in Philadelphia On Acid Springs and Gypsum Deposits of the Onondaga Salt Group. At Yale he became assistant to Professor B. Silliman, Jun., and in 1846 was appointed chemist to the Geological Survey of Vermont. In 1847 he was appointed to similar duties on the Canadian Geological Survey at Montreal under Sir William Logan, and this post he held until 1872. In 1859 he was elected F.R.S., and he was one of the original members and president of the Royal Society of Canada. He was a frequent contributor to scientific journals, writing on the crystalline limestones, the origin of continents, the chemistry of the primeval earth, on serpentines, &c. He also wrote a notable “Essay on the History of the names Cambrian and Silurian” (Canadian Naturalist, 1872), in which the claims of Sedgwick, with respect to the grouping of the Cambrian strata, were forcibly advocated. He died in New York City on the 12th of February 1892.
His publications include Chemical and Geological Essays (1875, ed. 2, 1879); Mineral Physiology and Physiography (1886); A New Basis for Chemistry (1887, ed. 3, 1891); Systematic Mineralogy (1891). See an obituary notice by Persifor Frazer, Amer. Geologist (xi. Jan. 1893), with portrait.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunt, William Henry

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​HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790–1864), English water-colour painter, was born near Long Acre, London, on the 28th of March 1790. He was apprenticed about 1805 to John Varley, the landscape-painter, with whom he remained five or six years, exhibiting three oil pictures at the Royal Academy in 1807. He was early connected with the Society of Painters in Water-colour, of which body, then in a transition state, he was elected associate in 1824, and full member in 1827. To its exhibitions he was until the year of his death one of the most prolific contributors. Many years of Hunt’s uneventful and industrious life were passed at Hastings. He died of apoplexy on the 10th of February 1864. Hunt was one of the creators of the English school of water-colour painting. His subjects, especially those of his later life, are extremely simple; but, by the delicacy, humour and fine power of their treatment, they rank second to works of the highest art only. Considered technically, his works exhibit all the resources of the water-colour painter’s craft, from the purest transparent tinting to the boldest use of body-colour, rough paper and scraping for texture. His sense of colour is perhaps as true as that of any English artist. “He was,” says Ruskin, “take him for all in all, the finest painter of still life that ever existed.” Several characteristic examples of Hunt’s work, as the “Boy and Goat,” “Brown Study” and “Plums, Primroses and Birds’ Nests” are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schreiberhau

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​ SCHREIBERHAU, a village and climatic health resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, situated in the valley of the Zacken in the Riesengebirge, 1900 ft. above the sea, 16 m. S.W. from Hirschberg by the railway to Grünthal. Pop. (1905) 4994. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and works for the making and polishing of glass. It is a popular resort, being visited by about 10,000 visitors annually.
See Kloidt, Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge (Breslau, 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schultens

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​SCHULTENS, the name of three Dutch Orientalists. The first and most important, Albert Schultens (1686–1750), was born at Groningen. He studied for the church at Groningen and Leiden, applying himself specially to Hebrew and the cognate tongues. His dissertation on The Use of Arabic in the Interpretation of Scripture appeared in 1706. After a visit to Reland in Utrecht he returned to Groningen (1708); then, having taken his degree in theology (1709), he again went to Leiden, and devoted himself to the study of the MS. collections there till in 1711 he became pastor at Wassenaer. Disliking parochial work, in 1713 he took the Hebrew chair at Franeker, which he held till 1729, when he was transferred to Leiden as rector of the collegium theologicum, or seminary for poor students. From 1732 till his death (at Leiden on the 26th of January 1750) he was professor of Oriental languages at Leiden. Schultens was the chief Arabic teacher of his time, and in some sense a restorer of Arabic studies, but he differed from J. J. Reiske and A. I. De Sacy in mainly regarding Arabic as a handmaid to Hebrew. He vindicated the value of comparative study of the Semitic tongues against those who, like Gousset, regarded Hebrew as a sacred tongue with which comparative philology has nothing to do. His principal works were Origines Hebraeae (2 vols., 1724, 1738), a second edition of which, with the De defectibus linguae Hebraeae (1731), appeared in 1761; Job (1737); Proverbs (1748); Vetus et regia via hebraezandi (1738); Monumenta vetustiora Arabum (1740), &c.
His son, John James Schultens (1716–1778), became professor at Herborn in 1742, and afterwards succeeded to his father’s chair. He was in turn succeeded by his son, Henry Albert Schultens (1749–1793), who, however, left comparatively little behind him, having succumbed to excessive work while preparing an edition of Meidani, of which only a part appeared posthumously (1795).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schröter, Johann Hieronymus

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​SCHRÖTER, JOHANN HIERONYMUS (1745–1816), German astronomer, was born at Erfurt on the 30th of August 1745. Having studied law at Göttingen, he became chief magistrate at Lilienthal, near Bremen, in 1788. Here he built an observatory, and, equipped in 1785 by a 7-ft. reflector by Herschel, and later by a 13-ft. reflector by Johann Gottlieb Friedrich Schrader of Kiel, he made his famous observations on the surface features of the moon and planets. His work was ruined in 1813 by the French under Vandamme, who destroyed his books, writings and observatory; he never recovered from the catastrophe, and died on the 29th of August 1816.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel

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​SCHUBART, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DANIEL (1730–1791), German poet, was born at Obersontheim in Swabia (now the kingdom of Württemberg) on the 24th of March 1739, and entered the university of Erlangen in 1758 as a student of theology. He led a dissolute life, and after two years' stay was summoned home by his parents. After attempting to earn a livelihood as private tutor and as assistant preacher, his musical talents gained him the appointment of organist in Geislingen, and subsequently in Ludwigsburg; but in consequence of his wild life and blasphemy, which found expression in a parody of the litany, he was expelled the country. He then visited in turn Heilbronn, Mannheim, Munich and Augsburg. In the last-named town he made a considerable stay, began his Deutsche Chronik (1774–1778) and eked out a subsistence by reciting from the latest works of prominent poets. Owing to a bitter attack upon the Jesuits, he was expelled from Augsburg and fled to Ulm, where he was arrested in 1777 and confined in the fortress of Hohenasperg. Here he met with lenient treatment, and he beguiled the time by a study of mystical works and in composing poetry. His Sämtliche Gedichte appeared in two volumes at Stuttgart in 1785–1786 (new edition by G. Hauff, Leipzig, 1884, in Reclam’s Universal-Bibliothek); in this collection most of the pieces are characterized by the bombast of the “Sturm und Drang” period. He was set at liberty in 1787, at the instance of Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, and expressed his gratitude in Hymnus auf Friedrich den Grossen. Schubart was now appointed musical director and manager of the theatre at Stuttgart, where he continued his Deutsche Chronik and began his autobiography, Schubarts Leben und Gesinnungen (2 vols., 1791–1793), but before its completion he died at Stuttgart on the 10th of October 1791. His Gesammelte Schriften und Schicksale appeared in 8 vols. (Stuttgart, 1839–1840).
See D. F. Strauss, Schubarts Leben in seinen Briefen (2 vols., 1849; 2nd ed., 1878); G. Hauff, Christian Daniel Schubart (1885); and E. Nägele, Aus Schubarts Leben und Wirken (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schrijver, Peter

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​SCHRIJVER, PETER (1576–1660), Dutch author, better known as Scriverius, was born at Haarlem on the 12th of January 1576. He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he formed a close intimacy with Daniel Heinsius. He belonged to the party of Oldenbarneveldt and Grotius, and brought down the displeasure of the government by a copy of Latin verses in honour of their friend Hoogerbeets. Most of his life was passed in Leiden, but in 1650 he became blind, and the last years of his life were spent in his son’s house at Oudewater, where he died on the 30th of April 1660.
He is best known as a scholar by his notes on Martial, Ausonius, the Pervigilium Veneris; editions of the poems of Scaliger (Leiden, 1615), of the De re militari of Vegetius Renatus, the tragedies of Seneca (P. Scriverii collectanea veterum tragicorum, 1621), &c. His Opera anecdota, philologica, et poëtica (Utrecht, 1738) were edited by A. H. Westerhovius, and his Nederduitsche Gedichten (1738) by S. Dockes. He made many valuable contributions to the history of Holland: Batavia Illustrata (4 parts, Leiden, 1609); Corte historische Beschryvinghe der Nederlandscher Oorlogen (1612); Inferioris Germaniae . . . historia (1611, 4 parts); Beschryvinghe van Out Batavien (Arnheim, 1612); Het oude gontsche Chronycxken van Hollandt, edited by him, and printed at Amsterdam in 1663; Principes Hollandiae Zelandiae et Frisiae (Haarlem, 1650), translated (1678) into Dutch by Pieter Brugman.
See Peerlkamp, Vitae Belgarum qui latina carmina scripserunt (Brussels, 1822), and J. H. Hoeufft, Parnassus latino-belgicus (Amsterdam, 1819).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schröder, Friedrich Ludwig

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​SCHRÖDER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1744–1816), German actor, manager and dramatist, was born in Schwerin on the 3rd of November 1744. Shortly after his birth, his mother, Sophie Charlotte Schröder (1714–1792), separated from her husband, and joining a theatrical company toured with success in Poland and Russia. Subsequently she married Konrad Ernst Ackermann and appeared with, his company in many German cities, finally settling in Hamburg. Young Schröder early showed considerable talent, but his childhood was rendered so unhappy by his stepfather that he ran away from home and learnt the trade of a shoemaker. He rejoined his parents, however, in 1759, and became an actor. In 1764 he appeared with the Ackermann company in Hamburg, playing leading comedy parts; but these he soon exchanged for the tragic roles in which he became famous. These included Hamlet, Lear and Philip in Schiller’s Don Carlos, After Ackermann’s death in 1771 Schröder and his mother took over the management of the Hamburg theatre, and he began to write plays—largely adaptations from the English, making his first success with the comedy Die Arglistige. In 1780 he left Hamburg, and after a tour with his wife, Anna Christina Hart, a former pupil, accepted an engagement at the Court theatre in Vienna. In 1785 Schröder again took over his Hamburg management and conducted the theatre with marked ability until his retirement in 1798. The Hamburg theatre again falling into decay, the master was once more summoned to assist in its ​rehabilitation, and in 1811 he returned to it for one year. He died on the 3rd of September 1816, As an actor Schröder was the first to depart from the stilted style of former tragedians; as a manager he raised the standard of plays presented and first brought Shakespeare before the German public. Schröder’s Dramatische Werke, with an introduction by Tieck, were published in four volumes (Berlin, 1831).
See B. Litzmann, Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (Hamburg, 1890–1894); R. Blum in the Allgemeines Theater-Lexikon (1842); and Brunier, Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (Leipzig, 1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schröder, Sophie

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​SCHRÖDER, SOPHIE (1781–1868), German actress, was born at Paderborn on the 23rd of February 1781, the daughter of an actor, Gottfried Bürger. She made her first appearance in opera at St Petersburg, in 1793. On Kotzebue’s recommendation she was engaged for the Vienna Court theatre in 1798, and here and in Munich and Hamburg she won great successes in tragic rôles like Marie Stuart, Phèdre, Merope, Lady Macbeth, and Isabella in The Bride of Messina, which gave her the reputation of being “the German Siddons.” She retired in 1840 and lived in Augsburg and Munich until her death on the 25th of February 1868. She had married, in 1795, an actor, Stollmers (properly Smets), from whom she separated in 1799. In 1804 she married the tenor Friedrich Schröder, and on his death in 1825, an actor, Kunst. Mme Schröder’s eldest daughter was the opera singer, Wilhelmine Devrient-Schröder (q.v.).
See Ph. Schmidt, Sophie Schröder (Vienna, 1870); also Das Lexikon der deutscher Bühnen-Angehörigen.