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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Arethas of Caesarea

From volume 1 of the work.
Born at Patrae, Greece, about 860; was, like all the eminent men of that time, a disciple of Photius. He became Archbishop of Caesarea early in the tenth century, and is reckoned one of the most scholarly theologians of the Greek Church. He is the compiler of the oldest extant Greek commentary (scholia) on the Apocalypse, for which he made considerable use of the similar work of his predecessor, Andrew of Caesarea. It was first printed in 1535 as an appendix to the works of Oecumenius and is found in P.G., CVI, 493. Dr. Ehrhard inclines to the opinion that he wrote other Scriptural commentaries. To his interest in the earliest Christian literature, caught perhaps from the above-named Andrew, we owe the Arethas Codex (Paris, Gr. 451), through which the text of the Greek Christian Apologists has, in great measure, reached us (Bardenhewer, Patrologie, 40). He is also known as a commentator of Plato and Lucian; the famous manuscript of Plato (Codex Clarkianus), taken from Patmos to London, was copied by order of Arethas. Other important Greek manuscripts, e.g. of Euclides, the rhetor Aristides, and perhaps of Dio Chrysostom, are owing to him. Not a few of his minor writings, contained in a Moscow manuscript, are said still to await an editor (see P.G., loc. cit., 787). Krumbacher emphasizes his fondness for ancient classical Greek literature and the original sources of Christian theology, in spite of the feet that he lived in a "dark" century, and was far away from any of the few remaining centres of erudition. The latest known date of his life is 932.
KRUMBACHER, Geschichte der byzantin. Litteratur, 2d ed. (Munich, 1897), 524; EHRHARD, ib., 131; GEBHARD AND HARNACK, in Texte und Untersuchungen, I, 1-2 (Leipzig, 1882), 36-46; MAAS, in Melanges Graux (Paris, 1884), 749-766; WATTENBACH, Anleitung zur griech. Palaeographie, 3d ed. (1895), 61; VON OTTO, Das Zeitalter des Erzbischofs Arethas, in Zeitschr. f. wissenschaftl. Theologie (1878), XXI, 539.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aribo

From volume 1 of the work.
Archbishop of Mainz; date of birth unknown; d. 6 April, 1032; son of Arbo, Count Palatine in Laubenthal, and Adela, and one of the most important churchmen of his time. Choosing an ecclesiastical career, he became successively deacon in the church of Salzburg, and chaplain to his kinsman, the Emperor, Henry II, who appointed him to the Archbishopric of Mainz. His consecration took place 1 October, 1021, with great pomp. The following year he revived the famous Gandersheim controversy which concerned the rival claims of the bishops of Hildesheim and the archbishops of Mainz to jurisdiction over the convent of Gandersheim, situated on the boundary between the two dioceses, but from time immemorial subject to Hildesheim. Having advanced his claims without success in the synods of Frankfurt (1027) and Poehlde (1029), Aribo finally renounced them in Merseburg (1030), admitting his error, and promising future silence. Aribo figured prominently in the politics of the time. On the death of Henry II, which brought the male line of the Saxon emperors to an end, the spiritual and temporal princes of the empire assembled to elect a new sovereign, and it was Aribo's candidate who was chosen, under the title of Conrad II, and was anointed by him in Mainz. The powerful discourse preached on this occasion shows the deep spirituality of Aribo's nature. Under Conrad he filled the office of chancellor for Germany and Italy. There are records of two journeys to Rome, the first to the Lateran Council (1027) and the second just before his death. He finished the convent of Goess in Styria begun by his father and devoted earnest efforts to the rebuilding and decoration of the cathedral which had been destroyed by fire in 1009. It was Aribo who obtained for the archbishops of Mainz the right of coinage. His internal administration of the diocese was most energetic and capable. His zeal for the reform of ecclesiastical discipline is evidenced by the Council of Seligenstadt which he convened in the first year of his episcopate (August, 1022). Later he practically reorganized the archdiocese. His interest in education prompted him to summon Ekkehard IV of St. Gall to take charge of the schools of Mainz. His own intellectual powers were of no mean order as is manifested by his taste for poetry and his own treatise on "The Fifteen Gradual Psalms," whence he is termed in his epitaph suavis psalmigraphus. Aribo's contemporaries unite in praise of his character - his disinterestedness and capability. Despite the brusqueness of his nature and the severity of his discipline, he enjoyed the confidence and respect of his suffragans. His moral character has been proved unimpeachable.
WILL in Kirchenlex., s.v.; HAUCK, Kg. Deutschl., III, 531; MUELLER, Erzbischof Aribo von Mainz (Goettingen, 1880).
F.M. RUDGE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Argos

From volume 1 of the work.
A titular see of Peloponnesian Greece, from the fifth to the twelfth century, about twenty miles southwest of Corinth. It was considered the oldest city of Greece and was once the head of the Doric League, and in its time one of the largest and most populous of the Greek cities. Argos was famous in Greek antiquity for the worship of Hera (Juno), and her great temple, the Heræum (fully excavated in 1831), was considered one of the most magnificent monuments of Greek architecture. In the fifth century, B.C., the city was also famous for its temple of Apollo, the chief Doric sanctuary, and as the seat of celebrated schools of sculpture and music, especially the flute. Its medieval history is told by Carl Hopf (Chroniques gréco-romanes, Paris, 1873, XXIX-XXX, 236-242), and by Gregorovius (Gesch. der Stadt. Athen., Stuttgart, 1889, I, 364, and II passim). In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it was the seat of a diocese, being then held successively by the French Dukes of Athens and the Byzantines; in 1463 it passed under Ottoman rule.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Apse Chapel

From volume 1 of the work.
A chapel radiating tangentially from one of the bays or divisions of the apse, and reached generally by a semicircular passageway, or ambulatory, exteriorly to the walls or piers of the apse. In plan, the normal type of the tangential chapel is semicircular; some, however, are pentagonal, and some composed of a small circle, serving as choir, and part of a large circle, as nave; some are oblong with eastern apses. In England, sometimes an ambulatory connects the north and south aisles of the choir and from the ambulatory projects an eastern chapel or chapels. The eastern chevet of Westminster Abbey. surrounded by five apsidal chapels, is the only complete example of this feature in England. The common source of the ambulatory and radiating chapels seems to have been the church of St. Martin of Tours, where originally there was a choir of two bays, and an apse of five bays, surrounded by a single ambulatory and five radiating chapels. Altars, which had before cumbered the nave, could now be placed in the new radiating chapels of the ambulatory, which afforded the necessary access to them. Each apsidal chapel could be treated as a sanctuary, to be entered only by the officiating, priest and his attendants, and the ambulatory served as the necessary nave for the worshippers. The usual number of these radiating chapels is three. Apse chapels are often found in the cathedrals of the Benedictine foundations, and occasionally in those of the Cluniac reform. St. Martin of Tours, St. Savin, and Cluny have five choir chapels; Amiens, Beauvais Cologne, and Le Mans have seven apsidal chapels. No ambulatory with tangential chapels is older than about A. D. 900. The peri-apsidal plan of Westminster Abbey, commenced in 1050 by Edward the Confessor, anticipated Cluny by thirty-nine years, a plan which was reproduced at Gloucester in 1089 and at Norwich in 1096. Radiating chapels are almost entirely a continental plan and most frequently found in French and Gothic structures. In England the apse chapel is very rare, owing to the generally square termination of the nave. Traces of an early apsidal treatment are found in Canterbury Cathedral. In continental churches the central apse chapel was often the Lady-chapel. In England the Lady-chapel was generally placed at the side.
MOORE, Gothic architecture (London 1890); BLOXAM Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture (11th ed., London. 1882); BOND, Gothic Architecture in England, (London, 1906).
THOMAS H. POOLE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Apsidiole

From volume 1 of the work.
(Also written ABSIDIALE), a small or secondary apse, one of the apses on either side of the main apse in a triapsidal church, or one of the apse-chapels when they project on the exterior of the church, particularly if the projection resembles an apse in shape. Bond (Gothic Architecture in England, 163) says that the Norman plan of eastern limb which the Norman builders brought over to England at the Conquest, contained a central apse flanked by apsidioles.
THOMAS H. POOLE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Apparitor

From volume 1 of the work.
The official name given to an officer in ecclesiastical courts designated to serve the summons, to arrest a person accused, and, in ecclesiastico-civil procedure, to take possession, physically or formally, of the property in dispute, in order to secure the execution of the judge's sentence, in countries where the ecclesiastical forum, in its substantial integrity, is recognized. He thus acts as constable and sheriff. His guarantee of his delivery of the summons is evidence of the knowledge of the summoned of his obligation to appear, either to stand trial, to give testimony, or to do whatever else may be legally enjoined by the judge; his statement becomes the basis of a charge of contumacy against anyone refusing to obey summons.
R.L. BURTSELL
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aquarians

From volume 1 of the work.
(Gr., Hydroparastatai; Lat., Aquarii).
A name given to several sects in the early Church. The Ebionites, as St. Epiphanies tells us, had a idolatrous veneration for water (aqua), which they regarded as the source of life. The Manichaean sects rejected the use of wine as something evil. The name, however, seems to have been given chiefly to the followers of Tatian, of whom Theodoret speaks as follows: "Tatian, after the death of his master, Justin the Martyr, set himself up as the author of a heresy. Among the things he rejected were marriage, and the use of animal food and wine. Tatian is the father of the Aquarians, and of the Encratites. They are called Hydroparastatae, because they offer water instead of wine [in the Eucharist]; and Encratites because they neither drink wine nor eat animal food. From these they abstain because they abhor them as something evil. . . ." They are mentioned by St. Irenaeus and by Clement of Alexandria. St. Augustine in his "Catalogue of Heresies" says: "The Aquarians are so called because in the cup of the Sacrament they offer water, not that which the whole Church offers." St. John Chrysostom, arguing against the Aquarians, declared that Our Lord drank wine after His Resurrection in order to prove that at the institution of the Eucharist also He had used wine. At the time of St. Cyprian the practice existed in some parts of Africa of using water instead of wine in the celebration of the Eucharist. He strongly condemned it in one of his letters, ascribing it, however, to ignorance and simplicity rather than to a heretical spirit.
EPIPHANIUS, Adv. Hoer. in P.G., XLI, 432; THEODORET, Hoer. Fab., ibid., LXXXIII, 359; IRENAEUS, Contra Hoer., ibid., VII, 1123; CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA, Strom., ibid., VIII, 313; CHRYSOSTOM, In Matt., hom., lxxxii, ibid., LVIII, 740; CYPRIAN, Epist., lxiii, in P.L., IV, 384 sqq.; AUGUSTINE, Hoer., ibid., XLII, 42.
B. GULDNER
# CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Denmark

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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucas d'Achéry

From volume 1 of the work.
​Achéry, Lucas d', a French Benedictine (Maurist), born 1609 at Saint Quentin in Picardy; died in the monastery of St. Germain des Prés at Paris, 29 April, 1685. He was a profound student of medieval historical and theological materials, mostly in original manuscripts, to the collection, elucidation, and printing of which he devoted his whole life. He entered the Order of St. Benedict at an early age, was professed at the Abbey of the Blessed Trinity, Vendôme, 4 October, 1632, but his health soon obliged him to remove to Paris. He became a member (1637) of the monastery of St. Germain des Pré, and in his long sojourn of nearly fifty years scarcely ever quitted its walls. As librarian of the monastery he was soon acquainted with its rich treasures of medieval history and theology, and by a continuous correspondence with other monasteries, both in and out of France, he soon made himself a bibliographical authority of the first rank, especially in all that pertained to the unedited or forgotten writings of medieval scholars. His first important work was an edition (Paris, 1645) of the "Epistle of Barnabas", whose Greek text had been prepared for the press, before his death, by the Maurist Hugo Ménard. D'Achéry's "Asceticorum vulgo spiritualium opusculorum Indiculus" (Paris, 1645) served as a guide to his confrè, Claude Chantelou, in the preparation of the five volumes of his "Bibliotheca Patrum ascetica" (Paris, 1661). In 1648 he published all the works of Blessed Lanfrac of Canterbury (P. L., CL, 9). He published and edited for the first time the works of Abbot Guibert of Nogent (Paris, 1661) with an appendix of minor writings of an ecclesiastical character. In 1656 he edited the "Regula Solitaria" of the ninth century priest Grimlaicus (Grimlaic), a spiritual guide for hermits. His principal work, however, is the famous "Spicilegium, sive Collectio veterum aliquot scriptorum qui in Galliae bibliothecis, maxime Benedictinorum, latuerunt" (Paris, 1655–77), continued by Baluze and Martène, to whom we owe an enlarged and improved edition (Paris, 1723). D'Achéry collected the historical materials for the great work known as "Acta Ordinis S. Benedicti" but Mabillon added so much to it in the way of prefaces, notes, and "excursus" that it is justly accounted as his work. D'Achéry was the soul of the noble Maurist movement, and a type of the medieval Benedictine, humble and self-sacrificing, virtuous and learned. Despite continued illness he was foremost in all the labours of the French Benedictines of St. Maur, and was the master of many of the most illustrious among them, e.g. Mabillon. His valuable correspondence is preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris.
Dupin, Bibliotéque des auteurs ecclés., XVIII, 1445; Tassin, Hist. litt. de la compagnie de S. Maur; Pez, Biblioth. Mauriana, I, 31; Bäumer, Mabillon (1892), 29.
Thomas J. Shahan.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucius Ferraris

From volume 6 of the work.
An eighteenth-century canonist of the Franciscan Order. The exact dates of his birth and death are unknown, but he was born at Solero, near Alessandria in Northern Italy. He was also professor, provincial of his order, and consultor of the Holy Office. It would seem he died before 1763. He is the author of the "Prompta Bibliotheca canonica, juridica, moralis, theologica, necnon ascetica, polemica, rubricistica, historica", a veritable encyclopedia of religious knowledge. The first edition of this work appeared at Bologna, in 1746. A second edition, much enlarged, also a third, were published by the author himself. The fourth edition, dating from 1763 seems to have been published after his death. This, like those which followed it, contains the additions which the author had made to the second edition under the title of additiones auctoris, and also other enlargements (additiones ex aliena manu) inserted in their respective places in the body of the work (and no longer in the appendix as in the former editions) and supplements. The various editions thus differ from each of her. The most recent are: that of the Benedictines (Naples, 1844-55), reproduced by Migne (Paris, 1861-1863), and an edition published at Paris 1884. A new edition was published at Rome in 1899 at the press of the Propaganda in eight volumes, with a volume of supplements, edited by the Jesuit, Bucceroni, containing several dissertations and the recent and important documents of the Holy See. This supplement serves to keep up to date the work of Ferraris, which will ever remain a precious mine of information, although it is sometimes possible to reproach the author with laxism.
A. VAN HOVE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucius Perpetuus Aurelianus Marius Maximus

From volume 9 of the work.
Roman historian, lived c. 165-230. No connected account of his life exists, but he is frequently quoted as an authority in the first half of the "Historia Augusta", and Valesius and Borghesi have identified him (Fragm. hist. Rom., p. xxv sq.) with the prefect of the same name, mentioned both in the inscriptions and by Dion Cassius. According to these he served in the Roman army, received prætorian rank at Rome, took part as commander in the campaigns in Gaul, Belgium, Germany, and Coele-Syria, and was employed in high offices of administration. During the reign of the Emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) he was made consul for the first time shortly after 197, and in 217 Macrinus appointed him prefect. In the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235) he was, in 223, appointed consul for the second time and governed the Provinces of Asia and Africa as proconsul, these offices being due to the special favour of the emperor. Later, Marius Maximus devoted himself to historical writing and wrote biographies of the emperors from Nerva (96-98) to Heliogabalus (d. 222). As the biographies stop with Heliogabalus, although Maximus was intimately connected with Alexander Severus, it is supposed that he did not survive the latter emperor during whose reign, it is thought, his work was probably written. The history of the earlier emperors is not extant, but it can be inferred from the fragments preserved that he adopted the method and views of Suetonius of whose biographies of the emperors his work was a continuation. His description of the lives and acts of the emperors is influenced by his friendliness towards the senate. His style is diffuse and detailed. Often he introduces personal occurrences, and offers official instruments and records of the senate as documentary proof. The biographies of Marius Maximus were greatly admired by his contemporaries and were especially read by the Roman senators. Some of the biographies were continued and enlarged by other writers. Ælius Junius Cordus wrote supplementary lives of the usurpers, Cæsars, and coadjutor-emperors, up to Alexander Severus.
KARL HOEBER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Lucius Vitellius

From volume 15 of the work.
Proclaimed Roman Emperor by the soldiers at Cologne during the civil war of A.D. 69; d. at Rome, 21 Dec., 69. The Emperor Galba had placed Vitellius at the head of the army of the Lower Rhine, because he considered Vitellius, who lived only for the pleasures of the table, incapable of conspiring. After Galba's death, when Otho proved incapable of maintaining his position, the soldiers of Lower Germany proclaimed Vitellius as Caesar, while the adjoining provinces also acknowledged him. The two vigorous legates, Alienus Caecina and Fabius Valens, led the armies of the Upper and Lower Rhine towards Italy, the troops robbing and plundering the provinces through which they marched. Otho transferred to his generals the command of the imperial army then being collected in northern Italy. Otho's army was completely defeated and the greater part of his troops killed at the battle of Bedriacum (Cremona). Meanwhile Vitellius was advancing with the last of the army of the Rhine by way of Lugdunum (Lyons) in Gaul towards Italy. With an undisciplined force of 60,000 men he marched towards Rome. Here his generals ruled with unlimited sway. The news from the East constantly grew more ominous, for Vespasian was proclaimed emperor and received the homage of his soldiers at Berytus, while the legions in Egypt and the Danubian provinces swore loyalty to him. Vitellius saw himself forced to prepare for war against Vespasian and sent Caecina to northern Italy. Here the latter divided his forces and entered into negotiations with Vespasian's generals, opening the way for the defeat of the adherents of Vitellius in the battle of Cremona. Vitellius made a few attempts to check the victorious advance of his opponent, and even tried to collect a new army at Rome, but both officers and soldiers soon laid down their arms. When the emperor saw that all was lost he abdicated. A desperate struggle arose in Rome between the contending parties and the Capitoline temple and many palaces were destroyed by fire. Vespasian's adherents captured Rome and Vitellius was killed by his enemies. As the Emperor Vespasian and his army were still a long way from Rome, the government was carried on for a time by Vespasian's son, Titus Flavius Domitianus.
KORTH, Koln im Mittelalter. Annalen des hist. Vereins fur d. Niederrhein, no. L (1890); see ORTHO.
KARL HOEBER