# A Treatise on Geology

CONTENTS.
| PREFACE |
| CHAPTER I. |
| INTRODUCTORY VIEWS. |
| | Page |
| Objects of Geological Science | 1 |
| Means of Geological Investigation | 6 |
| Scale of Geological Time | 8 |
| Series of Stratified Rocks | 9 |
| Lapse of Time inferred from the Nature of the Series of Rocks | 10 |
| Antiquity of the Surface | 11 |
| Nature of the Scale of Time | 12 |
| Terms of the Scale of Geological Time | 12 |
| Series of Terms on the Scale of Geological Time | 14 |
| Interruptions in the Series of Time | 16 |
| Length of the Scale of Time | 17 |
| Means of Investigation of Facts | 18 |
| Means of Interpretation of Phenomena | 20 |
| CHAP. II. |
| GENERAL REASONINGS CONCERNING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE GLOBE. |
| Chemical Data as to the exterior Parts of the Earth | 23 |
| Proportions per cent, of Oxygen in Earths, Minerals, and Rocks | 24 |
| Physical Data as to the interior Constitution of the Earth | 26 |
| Mass of the Globe, whence derived | 28 |
| CHAP. III. |
| GENERAL TRUTHS CONCERNING THE STRUCTURE OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE GLOBE. |
| Structure of the external Parts of the Globe | 33 |
| Forms of Rock Masses | 35 |
| Position of Rocks. Declination of Strata | 36 |
| Local Declinations and unusual Positions of Strata | 39 |
| Faults | 40 |
| Extent and Frequency of Faults | 42 |
| Relation of Faults, Mineral Veins, Dikes, &c. to the great Lines of disturbed Rocks | 44 ​ |
| Origin of stratified and unstratified Rocks | 45 |
| Relative Periods of disturbed Stratification | 49 |
| CHAP. IV. |
| SERIES OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. |
| Sections and Maps of Strata | 53 |
| Table of British stratified Deposits | 54 |
| Varieties of Stratification | 59 |
| Divisional Structures of Rocks | 62 |
| Geographical Relations of Joints | 65 |
| Cleavage | 67 |
| CHAP. V. |
| ORGANIC REMAINS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. |
| Fossil Plants | 69 |
| Table of their Geological Distribution | 73 |
| Fossil Zoophyta | 73 |
| Table of certain Groups | 76 |
| Fossil Mollusca | 77 |
| Table of proportionate Number of Species at different Geological Periods | 80 |
| Table of proportionate Number of Species in the different Orders or Classes of Mollusca in different Geological Periods | 81 |
| Table of Genera containing many living Species of Gasteropoda | 82 |
| Table of Genera containing many Fossil Species of Conchifera | 83 |
| Table of Genera of Cephalopoda | 83 |
| Table of Subgenera of Ammonites | 84 |
| Articulated Animals | 84 |
| Table of Crustacea | 85 |
| Fossil Fishes | 86 |
| Agassiz's. Classification of Fishes | 88 |
| Table | 90 |
| Fossil Reptiles | 91 |
| Owen's System of Fossil Saurians | 92 |
| Fossil Birds | 95 |
| Fossil Mammalia | 95 |
| Marsupial of Stonesfield | 97 |
| Table of Mammalia | 99 |
| General Considerations | 100 |
| CHAP. VI. |
| HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE STRATIFIED ROCKS IN THE CRUST OF THE EARTH. |
| Introductory Remarks | 107 |
| Granitic Basis of the Crust of the Earth | 108 ​ |
| Granite Veins | 109 |
| Metamorphism of Rocks | 110 |
| Hypozoic Strata. |
| Gneiss and Mica Schist System | 111 |
| Composition | 111 |
| Lamination | 114 |
| Stratification | 115 |
| Succession and Thickness of its Strata | 117 |
| Organic Life | 118 |
| Extent of Country occupied by | 119 |
| Physical Geography | 120 |
| Igneous Rocks | 121 |
| General Inference concerning | 122 |
| Palæozoic Strata. |
| Lower Cambrian System of Sedgwick | 124 |
| Composition | 125 |
| Structure | 126 |
| Cleavage | 128 |
| Succession of its Strata | 128 |
| Organic Remains | 131 |
| Geographical Extent | 132 |
| Physical Geography | 133 |
| Igneous Rocks | 134 |
| Silurian System of Murchison | 136 |
| Composition | 136 |
| Structure | 136 |
| Succession and Thickness of its Strata | 138 |
| Table of the Strata | 139 |
| Organic Remains | 140 |
| Tables of ditto | 141-144 |
| Figures of ditto | 145 |
| Geographical Extent | 146 |
| Figure exhibiting ditto | 147 |
| Physical Geography | 148 |
| Igneous Rocks | 148 |
| Mineral Veins | 149 |
| Close of the Silurian Period, and ensuing Disturbances of the Crust of the Globe | 149 |
| Figures exhibiting ditto | 151-153 |
| Devonian System | 154 |
| Composition | 154 |
| Organic Remains | 156 |
| Tables exhibiting ditto | 157 |
| Figures of ditto | 158-159 |
| Geographical Extent | 160 |
| Carboniferous System | 162 |
| Composition | 162 |
| Structure | 160 |
| Figures of ditto | 164-165 |
| Succession and Thickness of its Strata | 166 ​ |
| Organic Remains | 170 |
| Figures of ditto | 171,173,175 |
| Physical Geography | 175 |
| Geographical Extent | 177 |
| Igneous Rocks | 184 |
| General View of the Circumstances under which the Carboniferous System was deposited | 186 |
| Extent of British Coal Fields under superior Strata Disturbances of the Carboniferous System | 193 |
| Figures illustrating ditto | 194-195 |
| Permian System (Magnesian Limestone Series of England) | 195 |
| Composition | 196 |
| Structure of its Deposition | 197 |
| Divisional Planes | 197 |
| Succession and Thickness of its Strata | 197 |
| Organic Remains | 198 |
| Table of ditto | 199 |
| Figures of ditto | 200 |
| Table of Fauna of | 201 |
| Geographical Extent | 202 |
| Mesozoic Strata. |
| Triassic System (Part of Saliferous of former Editions) | 203 |
| Composition | 203 |
| Organic Remains | 205 |
| Geographical Extent | 206 |
| Physical Geography | 208 |
| Igneous Rocks | 208 |
| Origin and Aggregation of the Materials of the Triassic and Permian Systems | 209 |
| Origin of Rock Salt and Gypsum | 210 |
| Oolitic System | 214 |
| Composition | 214 |
| Structure | 217 |
| Divisional Planes | 217 |
| Series of Strata | 218 |
| Table exhibiting ditto | 219 |
| Figures illustrating ditto | 220-221 |
| Organic Remains | 222 |
| Tables of ditto | 222-224 |
| Figures of ditto | 224-225 |
| Geographical Extent | 226 |
| Figure of ditto | 229 |
| Physical Geography | 230 |
| Figure illustrating ditto | 230 |
| General Review of the System | 231 |
| Cretaceous System | 233 |
| Composition | 233 |
| Stratification | 235 |
| Succession of its Strata | 236 ​ |
| Organic Remains | 237 |
| Figures of ditto | 238-240 |
| Geographical Extent | 240 |
| Physical Geography | 242 |
| Igneous Rocks | 243 |
| Close of the Secondary Period, and ensuing Disturbances of the Crust of the Globe | 244 |
| Cainozoic or Tertiary Strata.. (Supercretaceous Deposits, &c.) | 249 |
| Composition | 250 |
| Structure and Stratification | 251 |
| Divisional Planes | 252 |
| Succession and Thickness of its Strata | 252 |
| Freshwater Formations | 254 |
| Geographical Extent and Physical Geography | 260 |
| Organic Remains | 264 |
| In Marine Deposits | 272 |
| In Lacustrine and Lignitic Deposits of known Era | 273 |
| In Lacustrine Deposits of doubtful Era | 275 |
| Figures of ditto | 275 |
| Disturbing Movements during and after the Tertiary Period | 276 |
| Post-Tertiary and Modern Strata (including Pleistocene and other Deposits) |
| View of the Relation of these to Tertiary Strata | 278 |
| Classification of | 281 |
| Detrital Deposits | 281 |
| Erratic Block Group | 283 |
| Ossiferous Gravel, Pebbly Clay, Sand, &c. | 298 |
| Ossiferous Caves and Fissures | 303 |
| General Table of Vertebral Remains in Post-Tertiary Accumulations | 304 |
| Description of Caverns | 310 |
| General Considerations on "Diluvial" Phenomena | 316 |
| Zoological and Botanical Character of "Diluvial" Period | 319 |
| Ancient Marine Deposits | 321 |
| Raised Beaches | 321 |
| Change of Level of Land adjoining the Baltic | 324 |
| Marine Deposits in Progress | 329 |
| Coral Reefs | 329 |
| Mr. Stutchbury's Views of | 330 |
| Mr. Darwin, on Coral Islands | 333 |
| Shell Beds | 336 |
| Classes of Shells | 340 |
| Banks of Sand, Clay, Gravel, &c. | 341 |
CONTENTS.
TO
THE SECOND VOLUME.
CHAPTER VI.─continued. :
| HISTORICAL VIEW OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. ||
| | Page |
| Post-Tertiary Strata, continued. |
| Fluviatile and Lacustrine Deposits | 1 |
| Ancient Valley Formations | 2 |
| Fluviatile Deposits in | 3 |
| Rock Terraces in | 6 |
| Fluviatile Deposits | 8 |
| Waste of the Earth's Surface | 9 |
| Effects of Rain | 10 |
| Effects of Frost | 11 |
| Effects of Springs | 19 |
| Effects of Rivers | 20 |
| Lakes on the Course of Rivers | 23 |
| Deep Lakes on the Course of a River | 24 |
| New Lands at the Mouths of Rivers | 27 |
| Estuary and Shore Deposits | 31 |
| Lacustrine Deposits | 36 |
| Classification of Fossil Mammalia | 39 |
| Eocene or Lower Tertiary Period | 41 |
| Organic Remains of the Paris Basin | 41 |
| Organic Remains of the Quarries of Binstead | 42 |
| Middle Tertiary Period | 43 |
| Fossil Remains of the upper Freshwater Beds of the Paris Basin | 43 |
| Organic Remains of various Freshwater Beds | 44-47 ​ |
| Lakes of the Pleiocene and Diluvial Period | 48 |
| Fossil Mammalia of the upper Val d'Arno | 48 |
| Series of Deposits in the upper Val d'Arno | 49 |
| Series of Deposits at Bielbecks | 50 |
| Organic Remains at Bielbecks | 50 |
| Fossil Shells of the Valley of the Thames | 51 |
| Charlesworth's Classification of Mammaliferous Strata | 52 |
| Modern Lacustrine Deposits | 53 |
| Analysis of the Deposition | 55 |
| Subterranean and Submarine Forests | 57 |
| Buried Trees on the Course of a River | 57 |
| Series of Beds associated with Tin Ore at Sandrycock, Cornwall | 60 |
| Turf Moors | 62 |
| Antiquity of Subterranean Forests | 64 |
| General Considerations | 68 |
| CHAP. VII. ||
| UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS IN THE CRUST OF THE EARTH. ||
| General Remarks | 71 |
| Igneous Origin | 71 |
| Geological Age | 72 |
| Composition | 72 |
| Mineral Composition of Unstratified Rocks | 80 |
| Scrope's Synopsis of Volcanic Rocks.─Trachyte | 83 |
| Greystone.─Basalt | 84 |
| Elements of the Old Rocks of Fusion.─Division I. Felspathic | 84 |
| Division II.─Hornblende, Augite, &c Felspathic | 84 |
| Division III. Hornblendic, Augitic, &c. | 85 |
| Mixed Rocks | 86 |
| Gradations among Igneous Rocks | 87 |
| Chemical Composition of the Rocks of Igneous Origin | 90 |
| Analysis of Minerals in Igneous Products | 91 |
| Table of Varieties of Mica | 92 |
| Table of Varieties of Granite | 92 |
| Table of Varieties of Sienite | 93 |
| Table of Combinations of Felspar | 93 |
| Analysis of Serpentine | 94 |
| Table of Felspathic Compounds analogous to Granite | 94 |
| Analyses of Pumice, compact Lava of Calabria, Basalt | 95 |
| Exterior Forms of the Masses of Igneous Rocks | 95 |
| Interposed Beds | 95 |
| Overlying Masses | 97 |
| Fissures | 97 |
| Dykes | 98 |
| Veins | 99 ​ |
| Internal Divisions of Igneous Rocks | 108 |
| Phenomena Observed where Igneous Rocks come in contact with Stratified Masses | 109 |
| Induration of Stratified Rocks | 109 |
| Alteration of the Structure of Rocks by Heat | 111 |
| Metamorphic Rocks | 125 |
| Re-arrangement of the Particles of Rocks | 126 |
| Alteration of the Chemical Nature of Rocks | 131 |
| Dolomitic Limestone | 133 |
| Generation of New Minerals | 136 |
| Metamorphic Slates | 139 |
| Succession of Metamorphic Slates | 140 |
| Metamorphic Mica Schist, Gneiss, &c. | 143 |
| Relative Antiquity of Pyrogeuous Rocks | 145 |
| Table of the Principal Disturbances of the Stratification of the British Islands, with the Igneous Rocks observed in connection therewith | 152 |
| Class I.─Before the Deposition of Old Red Sandstone | 152 |
| Class II.─Before the Deposition of the Lias | 153 |
| Class III.─Before the Deposition of the Lower Green Sand | 154 |
| Class IV.─Since the Deposition of the Chalk | 154 |
| CHAP. VIII. ||
| MINERAL VEINS. ||
| Remarks | 155 |
| Geographical Distribution | 156 |
| Occurrence of Mineral Veins near Centres of Igneous Action | 159 |
| Relations of Veins to the Substance and Structure of the Neighbouring Rocks | 163 |
| Relation of Veins to each other | 171 |
| First Class.─Oldest Tin Veins | 171 |
| Second Class.─More recent Tin Lodes | 171 |
| Third Class.─Oldest East and West Copper Lodes | 172 |
| Fourth Class.─Contra Copper Lodes | 172 |
| Fifth Class.─Cross Courses | 173 |
| Sixth Class.─More recent Copper Lodes | 173 |
| Seventh Class.─Cross Flukans | 173 |
| Eighth Class.─Slides | 173 |
| Deposits of Metallic Veins in Cornwall | 174 |
| Theory of Mineral Veins | 177 |
| Veins are of posterior Date to the Rocks which they traverse | 178 |
| Description of Huel Peever Vein | 180 |
| Origin of Vein Fissures | 188 |
| Filling of the Fissures | 192 |
| Recapitulation | 196 ​ |
| CHAP. IX. ||
| MODERN EFFECTS OF HEAT ON THE GLOBE. ||
| | Page |
| Remarks | 200 |
| Volcanic Action | 201 |
| Origin of Volcanos | 202 |
| Volcanos in Action | 208 |
| Dispersion of Ashes, Stones, Mud, &c. | 213 |
| Extinction of Volcanos | 216 |
| Extinct Volcanos | 220 |
| Geographical Distribution of Volcanos. | 221 |
| Asiatic Volcanos | 227 |
| American Volcanos | 229 |
| African Volcanos | 231 |
| Australian | 232 |
| Indian Ocean | 232 |
| Pacific Ocean | 232 |
| Geological Age of Volcanos | 233 |
| Volcanic Eruption Forces.─Earthquakes | 234 |
| Ejection of Ashes and Stones | 235 |
| New Mountains formed | 236 |
| New Islands raised | 236 |
| Earthquakes | 242 |
| Hypotheses of Volcanic Action | 248 |
| Thermal Springs | 252 |
| Warm Springs of the British Islands, yielding Nitrogen, &c. | 255 |
| Warm Springs of a Part of Germany, &c., yielding Carbonic Acid, &c. | 256 |
| Warm Springs of the Pyrenees | 256 |
| Warm Springs of Volcanic Countries | 257 |
| Summary of their Geological Relations to existing Volcanos | 259 |
| Experimental Inquiries into the Heat of the Globe | 262 |
| First Class of Experiments.—Metalliferous Veins | 270 |
| Tables of Temperatures of Water at different Depths in the Mines of Freyberg | 270 |
| Account of Temperatures of Water at different Depths in various Countries | 271 |
| Second Class of Experiments.—Stratified Rocks | 272 |
| Account of the Temperatures of Water at various Depths in different Mines | 273 |
| Cordier's Summary of Observations in the Coal Mines of Carmeaux, Littry, and Decise | 274 |
| Summary of Observations on Subterranean Temperatures in Rocks | 275 |
| Third Class of Experiments.—Artesian Wells | 276 |
| Tables of Temperatures of Water, with Mean Results | 276 ​ |
| CHAP. X. ||
| STATE OF GEOLOGICAL THEORY. ||
| | Page |
| General Observations | 277 |
| Physical Geography | 286 |
| Distribution of Land and Sea | 286 |
| Heights and Depths | 288 |
| Displacements of Stratified Rocks | 289 |
| Direction | 292 |
| Production of Longitudinal Fissures | 299 |
| Formation of Transverse Fissures | 300 |
| Formation of Fissures in a Conical Elevation | 300 |
| Faults | 301 |
| Periods of Ordinary and Critical Action | 301 |
| Primary Period.—Carboniferous Period | 302 |
| Oolitic and Cretaceous.—Periods Eocene Period of Mr. Lyell | 303 |
| Modern Period of Ordinary Action | 304 |
| Climate | 305 |
| Conclusion | 315 |
| CHAP. XI. ||
| POPULAR VIEWS AND ECONOMICAL APPLICATIONS OF GEOLOGY. ||
| Introductory Remarks | 317 |
| Aspect of the Earth's Surface | 319 |
| Outline of Land and Sea | 320 |
| Undulations of the Interior | 322 |
| Scenery | 324 |
| Economical Applications of Geology | 326 |
| Agriculture | 326 |
| Construction of Roads, Railways, Canals, &c. | 329 |
| Building Materials | 330 |
| Coal and other Mineral Products | 331 |
| INDEX. ||
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
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