OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Enterprise and Adventure/The English Flag at the North Pole

THE ENGLISH FLAG AT THE NORTH POLE.
One of the most interesting episodes in the numerous narratives of voyages to the Polar regions, is that of the planting of the British flag on the spot of the North Magnetic Pole, in the spring of 1831. This ceremony was performed by Commander Ross during his second voyage, on which he left England in 1829. After a winter of extraordinary severity, during which the thermometer fell to ninety-two degrees below freezing point, a slight amelioration in the weather enabled Commander Ross to make a number of exploratory journeys, during which, by careful observations, he was enabled to determine the position of the pole as in lat. 70° 5' 17' N, and long. 96° 46' 45" W., being to the southward of Cape Nikolai, on the western shore of Boothia, a considerable distance from the spot up to that time assigned to it by ​astronomers. Here Ross erected an observatory, as near, he says, to the magnetic pole as the limited means which he possessed enabled him to determine. The amount of the dip, as indicated by his dipping needle, was 89° 59', being thus within one minute of the vertical; while the proximity of this pole, if not its actual existence where they stood, was further confirmed by the total inaction of the several horizontal needles then in his possession.
As soon as he had satisfied his mind on the subject, Commander Ross made known to his fellow-voyagers the gratifying result of their labours; and it was then that mid mutual congratulations the little band fixed the British flag on the spot and took possession of the North Magnetic Pole and its adjoining territory in the name of Great Britain and King William the Fourth. "We had abundance," he continues, "of materials for building on the fragments of limestone that covered the beach, and we therefore erected a cairn of some magnitude, under which we buried a canister containing a record of the interesting fact, only regretting that we had not the means of constructing a pyramid of more importance and of strength sufficient to withstand the assaults of time and of the Esquimaux. Had it been a pyramid as large as that of Cheops, I am not quite sure that it would have done more than satisfy our ambition under the feelings of that exciting day."
It has since been found that the centre of magnetic intensity is a moveable point revolving within the Frigid Zone, but this discovery does not detract from the substantial correctness of Ross's experiments.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aarhuus

See also Aarhus on Wikipedia; Aarhus in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​Aarhuus, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9′ N., long. 10° 12′ E. It is the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark. The town also contains a lyceum, museum, and library. Aarhuus is a place of extensive trade. It has a good and safe harbour, has regular steam communication with Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits, leather, and gloves are exported, and there are sugar refineries, and manufactures of wool, cotton, and tobacco. Population (1870), 15,020.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aa

See also Aa#Rivers on Wikipedia; Aa in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​Aa, the name of about forty small European rivers. The word is derived from the old German aha, cognate to the Latin aqua, water. The following are the more important streams of this name:—a river of Holland, in North Brabant, which joins the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc; two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of Livonia, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea at Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldeker and Hallwyler into the Aar.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aachen

See also Aachen on Wikipedia; Aachen in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​Aachen. See Aix-la-Chapelle.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aard-vark

See also Aardvark on Wikipedia; Aard-vark in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​Aard-vark (earth-pig), an animal very common in South Africa, measuring upwards of three feet in length, and having a general resemblance to a short-legged pig. It feeds on ants, and is of nocturnal habits, and very timid and harmless. Its flesh is used as food, and when suitably preserved is considered a delicacy. The animal is the only known species of its genus (Orycteropus), and belongs to the order Edentata of the mammalia. The same prefix Aard appears in the name of the Aard-wolf (Proteles Lalandii), a rare animal found in Caffraria, which is said to partake of the characters of the dog and civet. See Mammalia.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aalen

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​Aalen, a walled town of Würtemberg, pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps about 50 miles E. of Stuttgart. Woollen and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 till 1802, when it was annexed to Würtemberg. Population (1871), 5552.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aar

See also Aar on Wikipedia; Aar in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
​Aar, or Aare, the most considerable river in Switzerland, after the Rhine and Rhone. It rises in the glaciers ​of the Finster-aarhorn, Schreckhorn, and Grimsel, in the canton of Bern; and at the Handeck in the valley of Hash forms a magnificent water-fall of above 150 feet in height. It then falls successively into the lakes Brienz and Thun, and, emerging from the latter, flows through the cantons of Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, emptying itself into the Rhine, opposite Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles. Its principal tributary streams are the Kander, Saane, and Thiele on the left, and the Emmen, Surin, Aa, Reuss, and Limmat, on the right. On its banks are situated Unterseen, Thun, Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, Aarburg, and Aarau. The Aar is a beautiful silvery river, abounding in fish, and is navigable from the Rhine as far as the Lake of Thun. Several small rivers in Germany have the same name.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aalborg

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​Aalborg, a city and seaport of Denmark, is situated on the Liimfiord, about 15 miles from its junction with the Cattegat. It is the capital of the district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of the province of Jutland. The city is a place of considerable commercial importance, and contains a cathedral and a school of navigation. Soap, tobacco, and leather are manufactured; there are several distilleries; and the herring fishery is extensively prosecuted. Grain and herring are largely exported, as are also to a smaller extent wool, cattle, skins, tallow, salt provisions, and spirits. The harbour, which is good and safe, though difficult of access, is entered by about 800 vessels annually, and there is direct steam communication with Copenhagen. The district is celebrated for its breed of horses. Population (1870), 11,953.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Aarau

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​Aarau, the chief town of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland, is situated at the foot of the Jura mountains, on the right bank of the river Aar, 41 miles N.E. of Bern. It is well built, and contains a town-hall, barracks, several small museums, and a library rich in histories of Switzerland. There is a cannon foundry at Aarau, and among the principal manufactures are silk, cotton, and leather; also cutlery and mathematical instruments, which are held in great repute. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are partially covered with vines, and the vicinity of the town is attractive. About ten miles distant along the right bank of the Aar are the famous baths of Schinznach. Population, 5449.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Clytæmnestra

See also Clytemnestra on Wikipedia; Clytemnestra at Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CLYTÆMNESTRA, the daughter of Tyndareus and Leda, and wife of Agamemnon. See Agamemnon.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Cnossus

See also Knossos on Wikipedia; Knossos and Modern Knossos at Wikipedia; Cnossus in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
CNOSSUS, or Gnossus, the most important city of Crete, on the left bank of the Cseratus, a small stream which falls into the sea on the north side of the island. The city was situated at a distance of about 3 miles from the coast, and, according to the old traditions, was founded by Minos, the mythical king of Crete. The locality was associated with a number of the most interesting legends of Grecian mythology, particularly with those which related to Jupiter, who was said to have been born, to have been married, and to have been buried in the vicinity. Cnossus is also assigned as the site of the fabled labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined, and a physical basis for the legend may perhaps have been found in the caverns and excavations of the district. As the city was originally peopled by Dorians, the manners, customs, and political institutions of its inhabitants were all Dcrian. Along with Gortyna and Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy over the whole of Crete ; and it always took a prominent part in the civil wars which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the same fate, and became a Roman colony. ^Enesidemus, the sceptic philosopher, and Chersiphron, the architect of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnobsus.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Clusium

See also Clusium on Wikipedia; Clusium at Wikipedia; Clusium in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
CLUSIUM. See Chiusi.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Clyde

See also River Clyde on Wikipedia; River & Firth of Clyde at Wikipedia; Clyde in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
CLYDE, the most important river of Scotland, and the third in point of magnitude, has its origin from numerous small streams rising at a height of about 1400 feet above the level of the sea, in the mountains which separate Lanarkshire from the counties of Peebles and Dumfries. It flows first in a northerly direction, with a slight inclina tion eastward as far as Biggar, where, in time of floods, a junction is sometimes established with the system of the Tweed by means of the Biggar Water. After uniting with the Douglas near Harperfield, it takes a north-west course, passing Lanark, k Hamilton, and Glasgow, and merges in the Firth of Clyde below Dumbarton. From its source to Dumbarton it is about 73 miles in length, the direct district being about 52. Its principal tributaries are the Douglas, the Nethan, the Avon, and the Cart from the left, and the Medwyn, the Mouse, the Calder, the Kelvin, and the Leven from the right. Of the celebrated Falls of Clyde, three are above and one below Lanark ; the uppermost is Bon- nington Linn, the height of which is about 30 feet ; the second is Corra Linn, where the water dashes over the rock in three distinct leaps, and resumes its course at a level 84 feet lower. Dundaff Linn is a small fall of 10 feet ; and at Stonebyres there are three successive falls, together measuring 76 feet in height. At high water the Clyde is navigable to Glasgow for the largest class of merchant vessels. See Glasgow.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Cluny

See also Cluny on Wikipedia; Cluny at Wikipedia; Cluny in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
CLUNY, or Clugni, a town of France, in the department of Saone-et-Loire, about twelve miles by rail north-west of Macon, on the left bank of the Grone, a tributary of the Saone, crossed there by two bridges. It is a place of upwards of 4000 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable agricultural trade, and the manufacture of pottery, paper, and vinegar. The main interest in the town is due to its specimens of mediæval architecture, which include, besides its celebrated abbey, the church of Notre Dame, dating from the 13th century; the church of Saint Marcel with a beautiful spire ; the ruins of Saint Mayeul ; portions of the ancient fortifications ; and a number of picturesque houses belonging to various periods from the 12th century downwards, classed among the historic monuments of France. A mere village at the time when William the Pious and Bernon, abbot of Gigny and Baume, laid the foundations of what was destined to be one of the principal monasteries of Europe, it gradually increased with the development of the religious fraternity, and was raised to the rank of a town. Before the erection of St Peter's at Rome, the abbey church, which was consecrated by Innocent II., was recognized as the largest building of its kind in Europe, its length being no less than G56 feet and its breadth 130. During the wars of the 16th century the abbatial buildings were greatly damaged ; and in the Revolution of 1789 a great part of them were completely demolished. Restorations have since been effected at various times, and different portions of the enormous pile are appropriated to civic purposes. The abbot s palace contains a museum and a library ; the cloisters are occupied by a school ; and the site of the abbey church affords room for a Government stud. The 12th century was the period at which the monks of Cluny reached the height of their prosperity ; and about that time no fewer than 2000 religious establishments throughout Europe acknowledged allegiance. Shortly after they began to decline from the ancient rigidity of their rule ; and their influence gave way before the rising power of the Cistercians. Among the great men whom they have produced are Gregory VII., Urban II., and Pascal II. The town residence erected in Paris by the abbots of Cluny about the end of the 10th century is still extant, and, under the name of Hotel de Cluny, is occupied by the Sommerard archaeo logical collection ; but the College de Cluny, which was founded in 1269 by Ives de Vergy, has disappeared.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Coanza

See also Cuanza River on Wikipedia; Cuanza River at Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
COANZA, or Quanza, an important river of Western Africa, in the country of Angola. It takes its rise in the Mossamba Mountains, not far from the source of the Cunene, probably in 14 S. lat., and its total length is about 600 miles It receives a large number of tributaries, the most important of which are the Loando and the Cutato in the upper part of its course, the Gango and the Quige in the middle portion, and the Lucalla in the lower. Its progress is broken by several falls, and in the last 200 miles of its journey it descends no less than 4800 feet This diminishes its value as a means of transit ; but it is navigable for large boats about 140 miles from its mouth, which is situated 50 miles south of Loando, in 9 15 S. lat. It there forms a number of islands, and pours into the sea a turbid current, which is visible for some distance outwards by its contrast of colour.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tsarskoye Selo

See also Tsarskoye Selo on Wikipedia; Tsarskoye Selo in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TSARSKOYE SELO, a district town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, and an imperial residence, 18 miles to the south of the capital, is situated on the Duderhof Hills and consists of the town proper, surrounded by several villages and a German colony, which are summer resorts for the inhabitants of St Petersburg, and the imperial parks and palaces. The town is built according-to a regular plan, and its houses, a great number of which have been erected by the crown, are nearly all surrounded by gardens. The cathedral of St Sophia is a miniature copy of that at Constantinople. The town has two gymnasia for boys and girls. The imperial parks and gardens cover 1680 acres; the chief of them is the "old" garden containing the "old palace," built by Rastrelli, the gallery of Cameron adorned with fine statues, and numerous pavilions and kiosks. The population numbered 15,000 in 1885.
When Peter I. took possession of the mouth of the Neva a Finnish village, Saari-mois, stood on the site now occupied by the town, and its Russified name Sarskaya was changed into Tsarskoye when Peter I. presented it to his wife Catherine. It was especially embellished by Elizabeth. Under Catherine II., a town, Sophia, was built close by, but its inhabitants were transferred to Tsarskoye Selo under Alexander I. The railway connecting the town with St Petersburg (1838) was the first to be constructed in Russia.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tschudi

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TSCHUDI, or Schudy, the name of one of the oldest and most distinguished families of the land of Glarus, Switzerland. From 1029 to 1253 a member of the clan held the office of steward of the abbess of Säckingen on the Rhine, the lady of the manor; and after Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352 various members of the family held high political offices at home, and were distinguished abroad as soldiers and in other ways. In literature, its most eminent member was Giles or Ægidius Tschudi (1505-1572), who, after having served his native land in various offices, in 1558 became the chief magistrate or "landammann." Originally inclined to moderation, he became later in life more and more devoted to the cause of the counter-Reformation. It is, however, as the historian of the Swiss Confederation that he is best known; by incessant wanderings and unwearied researches amongst original documents he collected material for three great works, which therefore can never wholly lose their value, though his researches have been largely supplemented and corrected by those of more recent students. In 1538 his book on Rhaetia, written in 1528, was published in Latin and in German—De prisca ac vera Alpina Rhætia, or Die uralt wahrhafftig Alpisch Rhätia.
His other works were not published until long after his death.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tsaritsyn

See also Tsaritsyn on Wikipedia; Tsaritsyn in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TSARITSYN, a district town of the government of Saratoff, Russia, situated on the right bank of the lower Volga where it suddenly turns towards the south-east, only 40 miles distant from the Don. It is the terminus of a railway line which begins at Riga and, running southeastwards, crosses all the main lines which radiate from Moscow to the south. It is also connected by rail with Katatch on the Don, where merchandise from the Sea of Azoff is disembarked and transported by rail to Tsaritsyn, to be sent thence by rail or steamer to different parts of Russia. Corn from Middle Russia for Astrakhan is trans ferred from the railway to boats at Tsaritsyn; timber and wooden wares from the upper Volga are unloaded here and sent by rail to Katatch; and fish, salt, and fruits sent from Astrakhan by boat up the Volga are here unloaded and despatched by rail to the interior of Russia. The town has grown rapidly since the completion of the rail way system, and has a large trade in naphtha from Baku, which is shipped up the Volga to Tsaritsyn and sent thence by rail to the interior of Russia. The railway between the Baskunchak salt lakes of Astrakhan and the Volga has made Tsaritsyn also a depot for the salt trade. In 1882 10,000,000 cwts. of merchandise, valued at one million sterling, were lauded at Tsaritsyn, and since then the figures have notably increased. In addition Tsaritsyn is the centre of the trade connected with the mustard plantations of Sarepta, Dubovka, and the neighbourhood; 170,000 cwts. of mustard seed are either ground or con verted into oil annually, the exports being 70,000 cwts. of mustard and half the corresponding quantity of oil (valued at 250,000). The fisheries of the place are also important. The population (6750 in 1861) numbered 31,220 in 1882. It is still larger in summer, Tsaritsyn having become the gathering -place of poor people in search of work, and the misery and filth in its poorer quarters are very great. The buildings of the town do not improve proportionately with the increase of wealth. They include a (wooden) theatre, a public library, and two gymnasia for boys and girls. The old church of St John (end of 16th century) is a fine specimen of the architecture of its period.
Tsaritsyn was founded in the 16th century, when a fort was erected to prevent the incursions of the free Cossacks and runaway serfs who gathered on the lower Volga, as also those of the Kalmucks and Circassians. In 1606 Tsaritsyn took part in the rising in favour of the false Demetrius, and Razin took the town in 1670. The Kalmucks and Circassians of the Kuban attacked it repeatedly in the 17th century, so that it had to be fortified by a strong earthen and palisaded wall, traces of which are still visible.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tse-nan Foo

See also Jinan on Wikipedia; Chi-nan Fu in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
TSE-NAN FOO, the capital city of the province of Shan-tung in China, stands in 36° 40′ N. lat. and 117° 1′ E. long. It is situated in one of the earliest settled districts of the empire, and figures repeatedly in the records of the wars which troubled the country during the six centuries that preceded the Christian era. On the establishment of the Han dynasty (b.c. 206) it had the name which it now bears; but during the next 200 years it was known at different periods as P’ing-yuen, Ts’ien-sh’ing, and Po-hai. In the 4th century its name was changed to Tse; and by the founder of the T’ang dynasty (618–907) it was christened Lin-tsze, by which name it was known until the overthrow of the Mongol dynasty in the 14th century, when the name of Tse-nan was restored to it. The city, which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow river (Hoang-Ho), and at a short distance from its banks, is surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall, strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall, and beyond this again a mud rampart. The streets are full of good shops, among which book, picture, and flower shops are conspicuous. There are two fine examination halls, one for bachelors of arts and the other for doctors of law, several handsome temples, and a metropolitan “drum” tower. The most noticeable feature about the city is three springs outside the west gate, which throw up as many streams of tepid water to a height of about 2 feet. This water, which is pleasant to the taste, and is highly prized for its healing qualities, flows in such abundant quantities that it fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern quarter of the city. With the taste which Chinamen always show in such matters, the lake is divided into a number of water avenues by floating banks, on which flowers and trees are skilfully arranged, and is further adorned with several picturesque summer houses, which form points of attraction to picnic parties and pleasure-seekers during the warmer months. Its waters abound with many species of edible fish. The population of the town is reckoned at about 100,000, among whom are 2000 Mohammedan families. The city is the centre of a Roman Catholic see, and has opened its gates to several Protestant missionary bodies.
See Williamson, Journeys in North China, London, 1870.