OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Menzel, Adolph Friedrich Erdmann von

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​MENZEL, ADOLPH FRIEDRICH ERDMANN VON (1815–1905), German artist, was born at Breslau on the 8th of December 1815. His father was at the head of a school for girls, and intended to educate his son as a professor; but he would not thwart his taste for art. Left an orphan in 1832, Menzel had to maintain his family. In 1833 Sachse of Berlin published his first work, an album of pen-and-ink drawings reproduced on stone, to illustrate Goethe’s little poem, “Künstlers Erdenwallen.” He executed lithographs in the same manner to illustrate Denkwürdigkeiten aus der brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte, pp. 834–836; “The Five Senses” and “The Prayer,” as well as diplomas for various corporations and societies. From 1839 to 1842 he produced 400 drawings, reviving at the same time the technique of engraving on wood, to illustrate the Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen (“History of Frederick the Great”) by Franz Kugler. He subsequently brought out Friedrichs des Grossen Armee in ihrer Uniformirung (“The Uniforms of the Army under Frederick the Great”), Soldaten Friedrichs des Grossen (“The Soldiers of Frederick the Great”); and finally, by ​order of the king Frederick William IV, he illustrated the works of Frederick the Great, Illustrationen zu den Werken Friedrichs des Grossen (1843–1849). By these works Menzel established his claim to be considered one of the first, if not actually the first, of the illustrators of his day in his own line. Meanwhile Menzel had set himself to study unaided the art of painting, and he soon produced a great number and variety of pictures, always showing keen observation and honest workmanship—subjects dealing with the life and achievements of Frederick the Great, and scenes of everyday life, such as “In the Tuileries,” “The Ball Supper,” and “At Confession.” Among the most important of these works are “The Forge” (1875) and “The Market-place at Verona.” Invited to paint “The Coronation of William I. at Koenigsberg,” he produced an exact representation of the ceremony without regard to the traditions of official painting. Menzel died at Berlin on the 9th of February 1905. In Germany he received many honours, and was the first painter to be given the order of the Black Eagle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meppel

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​MEPPEL, a town in the province of Drente, Holland, 161/2 m. by rail N. by E. of Zwolle. Pop. (1903), 10,470. It is favourably situated at the confluence of a number of canals and rivers which communicate hence with the Zuider Zee by the Meppeler Diep, and rose rapidly into prominence in the 19th century. The chief business is in butter, eggs, cattle and pigs, while bleaching, dyeing and shipbuilding are also carried on here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mequinez

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​MEQUINEZ (the Spanish form of the Arabic Miknasa), a city of Morocco, situated 1600 ft. above the sea, about 70 m. from the west coast and 36 m. W.S.W. of Fez, on the road to Rabat, in 33° 56′ N., 5° 50′ W. The town wall with its four-cornered towers is pierced by nine gates, one, the Báb Bardain, with fine tile-work. A lower wall of wider circuit protects the luxuriant gardens in the outskirts. Mequinez at a distance appears a city of palaces, but it possesses few buildings of any note except the palace and the mosque of Mulai Ismail, which serves as the royal burying-place. The palace, founded in 1634, was described in 1821 by John Windus in his Journey to Mequinez (London 1825) as “about 4 m. in circumference, the whole building exceeding massy, and the walls in every part very thick; the outward one about a mile long and 25 ft. thick.” The interior is composed of oblong court-yards surrounded by buildings and arcades. These buildings are more or less square with pyramidal roofs ornamented outside with green glazed tiles, and inside with ​richly carved and painted woodwork in Mauresque style. The walls are tiled to a height of 4 or 5 ft., and above they are finished in plaster, whitewashed or carved into filigree work. The population numbers being between thirty and forty thousand. Idrisi, writing in A.D. 1100, calls the place Takarart, and describes it as an ordinary citadel, from which the town gradually developed, taking its name from the Miknasa Berbers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Galilee (architecture)

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​GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or chapel which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case at Durham and Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name is sometimes given to the south-west porch. The name is said to be derived from the scriptural expression “Galilee of the Gentiles” (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are supposed to have been used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably served chiefly for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. The Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they were related, or from which they could hear divine service. The foundation of what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at the west end of Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were placed there before interment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Galignani, Giovanni Antonio

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​GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752–1821), newspaper publisher, was born at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some time in London, he went to Paris, where he started in 1800 an English library, and in 1808 a monthly publication, the Repertory of English Literature. In 1814 he began to publish, in Paris, Galignani’s Messenger, a daily paper printed in English. At his death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his two sons, Jean-Antoine (1796–1873) and Guillaume (1798–1882). Under their management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to promote good feeling between England and France. The brothers established and endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. In recognition of their generosity the city of Corbeil erected a monument in their honour. In 1884 the Galignani family disposed of their interest in Galignani’s Messenger, and from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the paper appeared under the title of the Daily Messenger.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Galion

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​GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); (1910) 7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Erie railways, and by an interurban electric railway. The city is about 1165 ft. above sea level, and has extensive railway shops (of the Erie railway) and manufactories of brick and tile machinery, carriages and wagons, and grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in 1831, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a city in 1878.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Galgācus

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​GALGĀCUS, or perhaps rather Calgācus, a Caledonian chief who led the tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman army under Cn. Julius Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated at the battle of Mons Graupius (Tac. Agric. 29). The name recurs much later, in Adamnan’s Life of Columba, in the name of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or Roboretum Calgachi, “the wood of Calgacus”: it may be Celtic and denote “the man with the sword.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Galiani, Ferdinando

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​GALIANI, FERDINANDO (1728–1787), Italian economist, was born at Chieti on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully educated by his uncle Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the Church. Galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit. At the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his Trattato della moneta, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government. The other, Raccolta in Morte del Boia, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In this volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani’s political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and his liberal minister Tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. His economic reputation was made by a book written in French and published in Paris, namely, his Dialogues sur le commerce des blés. This work, by its light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded, delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which Plato and Molière might have been combined! The author, says Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to this trade is to have no system—countries differently circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment. He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the mercantilists—holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples on the 30th of October 1787, Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends a correspondence, which was published in 1818.
See L’Abate Galiani, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his correspondence with Tanucci in Viesseux’s L’Archivio storico (Florence, 1878).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kew

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​KEW, a township in the Kingston parliamentary division of Surrey, England, situated on the south bank of the Thames, 6 m. W.S.W. of Hyde Park Corner, London. Pop. (1901), 2699. A stone bridge of seven arches, erected in 1789, connecting Kew with Brentford on the other side of the river, was replaced by a bridge of three arches opened by Edward VII. in 1903 and named after him. Kew has increased greatly as a residential suburb of London; the old village consisted chiefly of a row of houses with gardens attached, situated on the north side of a green, to the south of which is the church and churchyard and at the west the principal entrance to Kew Gardens. From remains found in the bed of the river near Kew bridge it has been conjectured that the village marks the site of an old British settlement. The name first occurs in a document of the reign of Henry VII., where it is spelt Kayhough. The church of St Anne (1714) has a mausoleum containing the tomb of the duke of Cambridge (d. 1850) son of George III., and is also the burial-place of Thomas Gainsborough the artist, Jeremiah Meyer the painter of miniatures (d. 1789), John Zoffany the artist (d. 1810), Joshua Kirby the architect (d. 1774), and William Aiton the botanist and director of Kew Gardens (d. 1793).
The free school originally endowed by Lady Capel in 1721 received special benefactions from George IV., and the title of “the king’s free school.”
​The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated in the exotic garden formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the princess dowager, widow of Frederick, prince of Wales, and by George III., aided by the skill of William Aiton and of Sir Joseph Banks. In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a national establishment, and transferred to the department of woods and forests. The gardens proper, which originally contained only about 11 acres, were subsequently increased to 75 acres, and the pleasure grounds or arboretum adjoining extend to 270 acres. There are extensive conservatories, botanical museums, including the magnificent herbarium and a library. A lofty Chinese pagoda was erected in 1761. A flagstaff 159 ft. high is made out of the fine single trunk of a Douglas pine. In the neighbouring Richmond Old Park is the important Kew Observatory.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ketteler, Wilhelm Emmanuel, Baron von

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​KETTELER, WILHELM EMMANUEL, Baron von (1811–1877), German theologian and politician, was born at Harkotten, in Bavaria, on the 25th of December 1811. He studied theology at Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848, and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight, energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz, by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle’s Socialistic views, and published his Die Arbeitfrage und das Christenthum. When the question of papal infallibility arose, he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August 1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in the Kulturkampf provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never to “go to Canossa.” To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and declared the Rhine to be a “Catholic river.” He died at Burghausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877.  (J. J. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kettering

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​KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays, clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kettle, Sir Rupert Alfred

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​KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817–1894), English county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the 9th of January 1817. His family had for some time been connected with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882). He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board, he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the organization of a system of arbitration between employers and employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th of October 1894 at Wolverhampton.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ketenes

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​KETENES, in chemistry, a group of organic compounds which may be considered as internal anhydrides of acetic acid and its substitution derivatives. Two classes may be distinguished: the aldo-ketenes, including ketene itself, together with its mono-alkyl derivatives and carbon suboxide, and the keto-ketenes which comprise the dialkyl ketenes. The aldo-ketenes are colourless compounds which are not capable of autoxidation, are polymerized by pyridine or quinoline, and are inert towards compounds containing the groupings C:N and C:O. The keto-ketenes are coloured compounds, which undergo autoxidation readily, form ketene bases on the addition of pyridine and quinoline, and yield addition compounds with substances containing the C:N and C:O groupings. The ketenes are usually obtained by the action of zinc on ethereal or ethyl acetate solutions of halogen substituted acid chlorides or bromides. They are characterized by their additive reactions: combining with water to form acids, with alcohols to form esters, and with primary amines to form amides.
Ketene, CH$_2$:CO, was discovered by N. T. M. Wilsmore (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, vol. 91, p. 1938) among the gaseous products formed ​when a platinum wire is electrically heated under the surface of acetic anhydride. It is also obtained by the action of zinc on bromacetyl bromide (H. Staudinger, Ber. 1908, 41, p. 594). At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but it may be condensed to a liquid and finally solidified, the solid melting at −151° C. It is characterized by its penetrating smell. On standing for some time a brown-coloured liquid is obtained, from which a colourless liquid boiling at 126–127° C., has been isolated (Wilsmore, ibid., 1908, 93, p. 946). Although originally described as acetylketen, it has proved to be a cyclic compound (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4908). It is soluble in water, the solution showing an acid reaction, owing to the formation of aceto-acetic acid, and with alkalis it yields acetates. It differs from the simple ketenes in that it is apparently unacted upon by phenols and alcohols. Dimethyl ketene, (CH$_3$)$_2$C:CO$_1$ obtained by the action of zinc on α-brom-isobutyryl bromide, is a yellowish coloured liquid. At ordinary temperatures it rapidly polymerizes (probably to a tetramethylcylobutanedione). It boils at 34° C (750 mm.) (Staudinger, Ber. 1905, 38, p. 1735; 1908, 41, p. 2208). Oxygen rapidly converts it into a white explosive solid. Diethyl ketene, (C$_2$H$_5$)$_2$C:CO, is formed on heating diethylmalonic anhydride (Staudinger, ibid.). Diphenyl ketene, (C$_6$H$_5$)$_2$C:CO, obtained by the action of zinc on diphenyl-chloracetyl chloride, is an orange-red liquid which boils at 146° C. (12 mm.). It does not polymerize. Magnesium phenyl bromide gives triphenyl vinyl alcohol.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Keti

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​KETI, a seaport of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 2127. It is an important seat of trade, where seaborne goods are transferred to and from river boats.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kewanee

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​KEWANEE, a city of Henry county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. W. part of the state, about 55 m. N. by W. of Peoria. Pop. (1900), 8382, of whom 2006 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 9307. It is served by the Chicago Burlington & Quincy railroad and by the Galesburg & Kewanee Electric railway. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products, boilers, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, pipe and fittings, working-men’s gloves, &c. In 1905 the total factory product was valued at $6,729,381, or 61.5% more than in 1900. Kewanee was settled in 1836 by people from Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was first chartered as a city in 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hesperides

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​HESPERIDES, in Greek mythology, maidens who guarded the golden apples which Earth gave Hera on her marriage to Zeus. According to Hesiod (Theogony, 215) they were the daughters of Erebus and Night; in later accounts, of Atlas and Hesperis, or of Phorcys and Ceto (schol. on Apoll. Rhod. iv. 1399; Diod. Sic. iv. 27). They were usually supposed to be three in number—Aegle, Erytheia, Hesperis (or Hesperethusa); according to some, four, or even seven. They lived far away in the west at the borders of Ocean, where the sun sets. Hence the sun (according to Mimnermus ap. Athenaeum xi. p. 470) sails in the golden bowl made by Hephaestus from the abode of the Hesperides to the land where he rises again. According to other accounts their home was among the Hyperboreans. The golden apples grew on a tree guarded by Ladon, the ever-watchful dragon. The sun is often in German and Lithuanian legends described as the apple that hangs on the tree of the nightly heaven, while the dragon, the envious power, keeps the light back from men till some beneficent power takes it from him. Heracles is the hero who brings back the golden apples to mankind again. Like Perseus, he first applies to the Nymphs, who help him to learn where the garden is. Arrived there he slays the dragon and carries the apples to Argos; and finally, like Perseus, he gives them to Athena. The Hesperides are, like the Sirens, possessed of the gift of delightful song. The apples appear to have been the symbol of love and fruitfulness, and are introduced at the marriages of Cadmus and Harmonia and Peleus and Thetis. The golden apples, the gift of Aphrodite to Hippomenes before his race with Atalanta, were also plucked from the garden of the Hesperides.