OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oeben, Jean François

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​OEBEN, JEAN FRANÇOIS, French 18th-century cabinetmaker, is believed to have been of German or Flemish origin; the date of his birth is unknown, but he was dead before 1767. In 1752, twenty years after Boulle’s death, we find him occupying an apartment in the Louvre sublet to him by Charles Joseph Boulle, whose pupil he may have been. He has sometimes been confused with Simon Oeben, presumably a relative, who signed a fine bureau in the Jones collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. J. F. Oeben is also represented in that collection by a pair of inlaid corner-cupboards. These with a bureau and a chiffonier in the Garde Meuble in which bouquets of flowers are delicately inlaid in choice woods are his best-known and most admirable achievements. He appears to have worked extensively for the marquise de Pompadour by whose influence he was granted lodgings at the Gobelins and the title of “Ébéniste du Roi” in 1754. There he remained until 1760, when he obtained an apartment and workshops at the Arsenal. His work in marquetry is of very great distinction, but he would probably never have enjoyed so great a reputation had it not been for his connexion with the famous Bureau du Roi, made for Louis XV., which appears to have owed its inception to him, notwithstanding that it was not completed until some considerable time after his death and is signed by J. H. Riesener (q.v.) only. Documentary evidence under the hand of the king shows that it was ordered from Oeben in 1760, the year in which he moved to the Arsenal. The known work of Oeben possesses genuine grace and beauty; as craftsmanship it is of the first rank, and it is remarkable that, despite his Teutonic or Flemish origin, it is typically French in character.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odofredus

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​ODOFREDUS, an Italian jurist of the 13th century. He was born at Bologna and studied law under Balduinus and Accursius. After having practised as an advocate both in Italy and France, he became professor at Bologna in 1228. The commentaries on Roman law attributed to him are valuable as showing the growth of the study of law in Italy, and for their biographical details of the jurists of the 12th and 13th centuries. Odofredus died at Bologna on the 3rd of December 1265.
Over his name appeared Lecturae in codicem (Lyons, 1480) Lecturae in digestum vetus (Paris, 1504), Summa de libellis formandis (Strassburg, 1510), Lecturae in tres libros (Venice, 1514), and Lecturae in digestum novum (Lyons, 1552).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münsterberg

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​MÜNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are also sulphur springs. Münsterberg was formerly the capital of the principality of the same name, which existed from the 14th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey of Heinrichau.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mādhava Āchārya

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​MĀDHAVA ĀCHĀRYA (fl. c. 1380), Hindu statesman and philosopher, lived at the court of Vijayanagar (the modern Humpi in the district of Bellary), the vigorous Southern Hindu kingdom that so long withstood Mahommedan influence and aggression. His younger brother Sāyaṇa (d. 1387) was associated with him in the administration and was a famous commentator on the Rigveda. Sāyaṇa’s commentaries were influenced by and dedicated to Mādhava, who is best known as the author of the Sarvadarsana Samgraha (Compendium of Speculations). With remarkable mental detachment he places himself in the position of an adherent of sixteen distinct systems. Mādhava also wrote a commentary on the Mīmāṃsā Sūtras. He died as abbot of the monastery of Sringeri.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münster am Stein

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​MÜNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 21/2 m. S. of Kreuznach, on the railway from Bingerbrück to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rheingrafenstein (12th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients annually.
See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Münster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1886) and Messer, Führer durch Bad Kreuznach und Münster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Māmertinus, Claudius

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​MĀMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS (4th century A.D.), one of the Latin panegyrists. After the death of Julian, by whom he was evidently regarded with special favour, he was praefect of Italy (365) under Valens and Valentinian, but was subsequently (368) deprived of his office for embezzlement. He was the author of an extant speech of thanks to Julian for raising him to the consulship, delivered on the 1st of January 362 at Constantinople. Two panegyrical addresses (also extant) to Maximian (emperor A.D. 286–305) are attributed to an older magister Mamertinus, but it is probable that the corrupt MS. superscription contains the word memoriae, and that they are by an unknown magister memoriae (an official whose duty consisted in communicating imperial rescripts and decisions to the public). The first of these was delivered on the birthday of Rome (April 21, 289), probably at Maximian’s palace at Augusta Trevirorum (Trèves), the second in 290 or 291, on the birthday of the emperor. By some they are attributed to Eumenius (q.v.) who was a magister memoriae and the author of at least one (if not more) panegyrics.
The three speeches will be found in E. Bāhrens, Panegyrici latini (1874); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 417. 7.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mōng Nai

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​MŌNG NAI (called by the Burmese and on most old maps Monē), one of the largest and most important of the states in the eastern subdivision of the southern Shan States of Burma. The state of Kéng Tawng (Burmese Kyaing Taung) is a dependency of Mōng Nai. It lies approximately between 20° 10′ and 21° N. and between 97° 30′ and 98° 45′ E., and occupies an area of 2717 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 44,252, of whom more than five-sixths are Shans. The Salween river bounds it on the east. The main state and the sub-state of Kēng Tawng consist of two plains with a ridge between them. There is much flat rice bottom, but a considerable portion consists of gently undulating plain-land. In the central plain rice is the only crop. Outside this considerable quantities of sugar are produced. Tobacco of a quality highly esteemed by the Shans is grown in the Nawng Wawp circle at an altitude of 3100 ft. above sea-level; gram, ​thanatpet (a leaf used for cigar-wrappers), and garden crops are the chief produce otherwise. In the outlying tracts quantities of coarse native paper are manufactured from the bark of a species of mulberry, and much is exported to other parts of the Shan States.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münster (Alsace)

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​MÜNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the 7th century, and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its ​neighbourhood is the ruin of Schwarzenberg. The Münstertal, or Gregoriental, which is watered by the river Fecht, is famous for its cheese.
See Rathgeber, Münster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Münster im St Gregoriental (Münster, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münzer, Thomas

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​MÜNZER, THOMAS (c. 1489–1525), German religious enthusiast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 15th century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating in theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous adherents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion from this city also. At Easter 1523 Münzer came to Allstedt, and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, where he made extensive alterations in the services. His violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation for which Münzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding his own for some time he left the town and went to Mühlhausen, where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar to his own. The union of Münzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturbance in this city and both were expelled. Münzer went to Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. He denounced established governments, and advocated common ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany he returned to Mühlhausen, overthrew the governing body of the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of Germany; and as the peasantry around Mühlhausen were imbued with Münzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at Frankenhausen; but on the 15th of May 1525 the peasants were dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Münzer and executed him on the 27th at Mühlhausen. Before his ​death he is said to have written a letter admitting the justice of his sentence.
His Aussgetrückte Emplössung des falschen Glaubens has been edited by R. Jordan (Mühlhausen, 1901), and a life of Münzer, Die Histori von Thome Müntzer des Anfengers der döringischen Uffrur, has been attributed to Philip Melanchthon (Hagenau, 1525). See G. T. Strobel, Leben, Schriften und Lehren Thomä Müntzers (Nuremberg, 1795); J. K. Seidemann, Thomas Münzer (Leipzig, 1842); O. Merx, Thomas Münzer und Heinrich Pfeiffer (Göttingen, 1889); G. Wolfrau, Thomas Münzer in Allstedt (Jena, 1852).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Münsterberg, Hugo

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​MÜNSTERBERG, HUGO (1863–), German-American psychophysiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 professor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more important works are Beiträge zur experimentellen Psychologie (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889–1892); Psychology and Life (New York, 1899); Grundzüge der Psychologie (Leipzig, 1900); American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophie der Werte (Leipzig, 1908); Aus Deutsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified with the modern developments of experimental psychology ​(see Psychology), and his sociological writings display the acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study of American life and manners.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mōng Pai

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​MŌNG PAI (called Mobyē by the Burmese), the most south-westerly of the British Shan States of Burma. It has an approximate area of 1000 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 19,351. The general character of the country is hilly, rising westwards in a gentle slope from the chief stream, the Nam Hpilu or Balu. ​This is navigable for native boats throughout the year to the point where it sinks underground in Karen-ni. The chief cultivation is rice, with about two acres of dry or hill rice to one of wet bottom. The hill fields are left fallow for ten years after two years’ cultivation. The chief, the Sawbwa Hkun Yōn, held charge through the reigns of four Burmese kings, and submitted early in 1887 on the first arrival of British troops. He abdicated in favour of his son in 1890, and died a few years later.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyatigorsk

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​PYATIGORSK, a town and watering-place of Russian Caucasia, in the province of Terek, 141 m. by rail N.W. of Vladikavkaz. Pop. (1882), 13,670; (1897), 18,638. It owes its origin to its mineral waters, which have long been known to the inhabitants of Caucasia. The sulphur springs, about fifteen in number, come from a great depth, and vary in temperature from 75° to 96° F.; they are used both for drinking and for bathing. The first buildings were erected in 1812, and in 1830 the name of Pyatigorsk (“town of the five mountains”) was given to the new settlement. Its subsequent rapid increase was greatly stimulated by the completion of the railway connexion with Rostov-on-the-Don. The town is charmingly situated on a small plateau, 1680 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Beshtau, Mashuk and three other outliers of the Caucasus range, which protect it on the north. The snow-covered summits of the Elbruz are visible to the south. The most noteworthy features are a cathedral, a monument to the poet M. Y. Lermontov (1814–1841), and a hydropathic.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pylome

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​PYLOME, in Zoology, the name given to the principal opening (or openings) of the shell (theca, test) of such Protozoa as possess one. (See Foraminifera, Radiolaria.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pycnostyle

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​PYCNOSTYLE (Gr. πυκνός, close, compact, and στῦλος, column), the architectural term given by Vitruvius to the intercolumniation of the columns of a temple, when this was equal to 11/2 diameters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pye, Henry James

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​PYE, HENRY JAMES (1745–1813), English poet laureate, was born in London on the 20th of February 1745, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. His father, a Berkshire landowner, died in 1766, leaving him a legacy of debt amounting to £50,000, and the burning of his home at Great Faringdon further increased his difficulties. In 1784 he was elected M.P. for Berkshire. He was obliged to sell the paternal estate, and, retiring from Parliament in 1790, became a police magistrate for Westminster. Although he had no command of language and was destitute of poetic feeling, his ambition was to obtain recognition as a poet, and he published many volumes of verse. Of all he wrote his prose Summary of the Duties of a Justice of the Peace out of Sessions (1808) is most worthy of record. He was made poet laureate in 1790, perhaps as a reward for his faithful support of Pitt in the House of Commons. The appointment was looked on as ridiculous, and his birthday odes were a continual source of contempt. His most elaborate poem was an epic, Alfred (1801). He was the first poet laureate to receive a fixed salary of £27 instead of the historic tierce of Canary wine. He died at Pinner, Middlesex, on the 11th of August 1813.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pyle, Howard

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​PYLE, HOWARD (1853–), American artist and writer, was born at Wilmington, Delaware, on the 5th of March 1853. He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and first attracted attention by his line drawings after the manner of Albrecht Dürer. His brilliant work as an illustrator made him one of the foremost of American artists, his drawings to illustrate American colonial life, particularly in New England and New Amsterdam, being especially noteworthy; and he published a number of books of fiction, written and illustrated by himself. He also became prominent in decorative painting, his works including “The Battle of Nashville” for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota, and “The Landing of Carteret” for the Essex county court house, Newark, New Jersey. At his home in Wilmington, Delaware, he established a school of art, instruction being gratuitous, and many successful American illustrators were educated there. In 1907 Howard Pyle was elected a member of the National Academy of Design.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pygmalion

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​PYGMALION, in Greek mythology, son of Cilix, and grandson of Agenor, king of Cyprus. He fell in love with an ivory statue he had made; Aphrodite granted life to the image, and Pygmalion married the miraculously-born virgin (Ovid, Metam. x. 243). There is no ancient authority for the introduction of the name Galatea into the story. Pygmalion is also the name given in Virgil (Aeneid, i, 347) to a king of Tyre, who murdered Sychaeus, the husband of his sister Dido.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Convulsions

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​CONVULSIONS, the pathological condition of body associated with abnormal, violent and spasmodic contractions and relaxations of the muscles, taking the form of a fit. Convulsions may be a symptom resulting from various diseases, but the term is commonly restricted to the infantile variety, occurring in association with teething, or other causes which upset the child’s nervous system. The treatment (plunging into a hot bath, or administration of chloroform) must be prompt, as convulsions are responsible for a large part of infant mortality.
The name “Convulsionaries” (Fr. Convulsionnaires) was given to certain Jansenist fanatics in France in the 18th century, owing to the convulsions, regarded by them as proofs of divine inspiration, which were the result of their religious ecstasies (see Jansenism). The term “Convulsionists” is sometimes applied to them, as also, more loosely, to other religious enthusiasts who exhibit the same symptoms.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conway

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​CONWAY (Conwy, or Aberconwy), a municipal borough in the Arfon parliamentary division of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 14 m. by the London & North-Western railway from Bangor, and 225 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 4681. The town is enclosed by a high wall, roughly triangular, about 1 m. round, with twenty-one dilapidated round towers, pierced by three principal gateways with two strong towers. The castle in the south-east angle, built in 1284 by Edward I., was inhabited, in 1389, by Richard II., who here agreed to abdicate. Held for Charles I. by Archbishop Williams, it was taken by General Mytton in 1646. Dismantled by the new proprietor, Earl Conway, it remains a ruin. It is oblong, with eight massive towers, and has, within, a hall 130 ft. in length, known as Llewelyn’s. The parliamentary borough of Conway, returning, with five other towns, one member, extends over to the right bank of the stream Conwy (Conway). In 1885 the mayor of Conway was made a constable. Llandudno with Great and Little Orme’s Heads are at some 4 m. distance. Two bridges, a tubular for the railway (40 ft. shorter than that of the Menai) and a suspension, designed by Stephenson (1846–1848) and Telford (1822–1826) respectively, cross the stream. St Mary’s church is Gothic; the Elizabethan Plâs Mawr is the locale of the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art. There are still some fragments of the 1185 Cistercian Abbey. There are golf links here and at Llandudno. The Conwy stream, on which a steamboat runs from Deganwy (2 m. below Conway town) to Trefriw, opposite Llanrwst, in summer, has some coasting trade in sulphur and slates. It is about 30 m. long, its valley (a haunt of artists) containing the towns last mentioned and Bettws y coed. Its pearls are mentioned in Drayton’s Polyolbion and Spenser’s Faerie Queene. Pearl fisheries existed at Conway for many centuries, dating back to the Roman occupation. Tacitus, Agricola, 12, says of Britain “gignit et Oceanus margarita, sed subfusca ac liventia,” as are those found to-day. Diganhwy (Dyganwy, Deganwy) is mentioned in the Mabinogion (Geraint and Enid), if the reading is sound; it is certainly mentioned in the Annales Cambriae (years 812–822) and in the Black Book of Caerfyrddin (Carmarthen), xxiii. 1. Caer-hyn, 41/2 m. from Conway, is on the highroad from London to Holyhead, and is the Conovium of the Romans. The site of the camp can still be traced, consisting of a square, strengthened by four parallel walls, extending to a distance from the main work. The camp is on a height, with the Conwy in front and a wood on each flank. At the foot of the hill, near the stream, was a Roman bath, with walls, pavement and pillars. Camden’s Britannia mentions tiles, with marks of the 10th or Antoninus’s legion, as being found here, perhaps mistakenly. Gleini nadroedd (possibly amulets) and vitrum have been found here. In Bwlch y ddwy faen (“two rock ravine”), on the way to Aber, are the remains of a Roman road and antiquities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conway, Hugh

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​CONWAY, HUGH, the nom-de-plume of Frederick John Fargus (1847–1885), English novelist, who was born at Bristol on the 26th of December 1847, the son of an auctioneer. He was intended for his father’s business, but at the age of thirteen joined the training-ship “Conway” in the Mersey. In deference to his father’s wishes, however, he gave up the idea of becoming a sailor, and returned to Bristol, where he was articled to a firm of accountants till on his father’s death in 1868 he took over the family business. While a clerk he had written the words for various songs, adopting the nom-de-plume Hugh Conway in memory of his days on the training-ship. Mr Arrowsmith, the Bristol printer and publisher, took an interest in his work, and Fargus’s first short story appeared in Arrowsmith’s Miscellany. In 1883 Fargus published through Arrowsmith his first long story, Called Back, of which over 350,000 copies were sold within four years. A dramatic version of this book was produced in London in 1884, and in this year Fargus published another story, Dark Days. Ordered to the Riviera for his health, he caught typhoid fever, and died at Monte Carlo on the 15th of May 1885. Several other books from his pen appeared posthumously, notably A Family Affair.