# Advanced Australia/Chapter 7

Chapter VII
NEW ZEALAND
ONE'S first impressions of New Zealand, or Maori-land, are distinctly favourable. Seen from the coast, it is a more pleasant land than Australia; though, even after passing through Australia, the traveller from the old country, still measuring all things in his heart by our ancient and time-stained buildings, and by the bright verdure of our country districts, will find something strange, almost menacing, as of a transitory civilisation still struggling with unconquered nature, in the numerous wooden buildings and the darker green of the Bush. But, after all. New Zealand being subject to occasional shocks of earthquake, wooden buildings are perhaps safer than those of brick and stone. Besides which, quarries are few and far between. Enfin, it is not the fashion yet to build great houses before the land is tamed. It is much the same with the landowners as with the miners of the country, one of whom lately voiced his contempt for a Russian gold dredger he had seen, fitted with carpeted saloons, cosy cabins, and the electric light. "In this country," he said, "we spend our surpluses, not on carpets, but in the construction of more dredges." It is the true spirit of the Anglo-Saxon: especially when (as in the Australasian colonies) he is not possessed of much capital. However, most of the principal places of business and warehouses in the chief towns are now being erected ​in brick, and on entering the port of Wellington one sees a goodly array of warehouses and public buildings.
Wellington is rapidly becoming the distributing centre of the whole of the colony of New Zealand, of which it became the seat of government in 1865. Here Parliament holds its sittings; to Wellington, also, most of the principal banks and places of business are transferring their headquarters; and the numerous lines of steamers which make it their chief port of call testify to its being regarded as the capital of New Zealand. Situated on a narrow strip of land, lying at the base of a range of high hills, it may easily be imagined that it is not an ideal site for a city. But its geographical position in Cook Strait, which traverses the centre of the colony and is provided with a magnificent harbour, demanded that here the capital should be; and, with the disregard of personal convenience which is such a characteristic of colonial life, here it has been built. To make up for the want of flat land, large areas of the harbour have been reclaimed; and even comparatively young colonists can remember when the waters of Port Nicholson washed over what are now the principal streets in the business portion of the city.
Auckland, the former capital, "The Queen of the North," far surpasses Wellington in beauty, and somewhat in size, while her harbour is a yachtman's paradise. The climate, however, is warmer and more humid than that of Wellington; and her geographical^ position, isolated from the other centres, is also against her. Auckland is the port of arrival and departure for the San Francisco mail boats; though Wellington, where the wharf appliances are of a very high order of excellence, is the port of arrival and departure of the Canadian, or All-British line. Christchurch, on the east coast of the Middle Island, the capital of Canterbury Province, was ​originally a Church of England settlement, and presents more of the characteristics of an English town than any other place in the colony. The district is wholly flat, and is liable to be swept by fierce north-west winds. Further south is Dunedin, the capital of Otago, originally a Scotch settlement, but rendered cosmopolitan at the time of the gold discoveries. Dunedin is essentially hilly and picturesque. The business part is situated on level land near the harbour, and the residences occupy the sloping hills which rise on the west side of the city.
New Zealand is first a pastoral, secondly an agricultural, and thirdly a mining country. Ten million acres are laid down with sown grasses, and in the Middle Island a large area is covered with native grasses, all useful for grazing purposes. This great extent of pasture has made the colony a leading producer of wool and meat; democratic agrarian legislation is encouraging agriculture (though New Zealand, like West Australia, still imports wheat); and the yield of gold has been over fifty-four millions sterling in value to the present time. The first authenticated visitor to the islands was that doughty navigator Tasman, who sailed from Java in a cock-boat in August 1642; visited Mauritius; discovered and named Van Diemen's Land; and sighted New Zealand (which was apparently already marked on the Dutch charts) in December. Captain Cook, not having access to the Dutch charts, any more than Columbus had known of the Viking charts in the Vatican, was obliged to rediscover New Zealand for us, one hundred and twenty-seven years after Tasman; and he was followed by the French, as usual two months too late. The missionaries landed in 1814; colonisation companies followed; an expedition, under Colonel Wakefield (there is always a Wakefield), was despatched from London in 1839; and annexation by the Crown ​followed in 1840. The Middle Island is the size of England and Wales; the North Island is half as big again as Scotland; and for practical purposes there is no South Island at all.
"Nearly all the public works of New Zealand," says the official guide, "are in the hands of the Government of the colony, and in the early days they simply kept pace with the spread of settlement. In 1870, however, a great impetus was given to the progress of the whole country by the inauguration of the 'Public Works and Immigration Policy,' which provided for carrying out works in advance of settlement. Railways, roads, and water-races were constructed, and immigration was conducted on a large scale. As a consequence, the population increased from 267,000 in 1871 to 501,000 in 1881." This is the discreet (or official) way of saying that Sir Julius Vogel adopted, as Sir John Forrest has adopted in Western Australia, a bold policy of borrowing British money, with the difference that Vogel was provident enough to help to meet the interest, by introducing population to lighten (by sharing) the burden. However, the policy was pushed too far; and the country suffered from a terrible reaction, from which it has only lately recovered. The inhabitants of the colony now number nearly 750,000. But they seldom mention the name of the man who doubled their resources, and their population, in ten years: preferring to point to the steady perseverance (for which they are undoubtedly entitled to admiration) with which they set themselves to work, as did the Victorians after their disasters, to redeem their credit by increasing their output.
To the newcomer, in the summer time, the climate appears to be warmer than in England, especially as you go north. The air is not relaxing, and hot winds, ​such as are so often met with in Australia, are infrequent. In winter, snow and frost are met with in the higher country, and in the southern portion of the Middle Island. In the North Island, except on the ranges, snow is seldom seen, and the frosts are of a very mild nature compared with those of even the warmer parts of England. Their place is taken by cold southerly winds, generally accompanied by heavy falls of rain and sleet. As to the scenery, it is equal to that found in any part of the world. For grandeur and majesty it would be difficult to surpass the Southern Alps, or the West Coast Sounds and the lake districts in the Middle Island, which are very properly called by the guide-books "a scenic wonderland." In the North Island is the Wanganui river, similarly called the New Zealand Rhine. This is traversed for the greater part of its length by well-appointed, flat-bottomed paddle steamers, starting at frequent intervals from the thriving and beautifully laid-out town of Wanganui, which is within about eight hours train journey from Wellington. A journey up this river is simply delightful, fresh pictures meeting you at every turn, while the glimpses one gets of the Maori in his native home give an added charm to the trip. But the real wonderland of New Zealand is Roturua and the adjoining district. Forests of extraordinary luxuriance and beauty clothe the mountains and border the extensive plateaux, and hot lakes, boiling geysers, and thermal springs are met with everywhere; in fact, hundreds of hot springs exist within the district, besides numerous mud volcanoes, fumaroles, and solfataras. The mineral waters and baths are highly esteemed in the treatment of various diseases, and at Roturua the Government has established a well-equipped sanatorium, which is in charge of a highly-qualified medical man. The famous Pink and White Terraces, and the Lake of ​mahana, were blown up in 1886; but the district, whose natural facilities for cooking are applied by the Maories to their potatoes as well as by the invalid to his lumbago, has been proclaimed a National Park.
Society, of course, radiates from Government House, Wellington, where resides his Excellency the Governor, the Earl of Ranfurly, K.C.M.G. New Zealand has of late years been particularly fortunate in its Governors. Lord Glasgow, who preceded the Earl of Ranfurly, was esteemed by all classes of society for his kindly and unassuming manner, and his genial yet dignified bearing. It was no easy task to follow such an one in the Governorship of the colony. But the Earl of Ranfurly is already displaying qualities which cannot fail to make him popular; and his hospitality is of the most generous description.
Next in importance to the Governor is the Premier, the Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, LL.D,, P.C. (to give him his full title; "Digger Dick" he used to be called in his gold-mining days on the West Coast): a man who forced his way to the front rank of New Zealand politics by sheer strength of brain and will, and has for years retained his position by the exercise of the same valuable qualities. Tall, upright, of portly habit, with a commanding presence, Mr Seddon knows exactly what he wants, and generally manages to get it. (It is a thing worth observing, that most successful colonial statesmen are portly, and most of them are also bluff.) As a politician, he stands head and shoulders above all his Ministers, while his tactics are the dismay of the Opposition. "Unscrupulous" his political enemies call him; but for all that they admire his strength of will and ability as a party leader, and the untiring energy he displays in the prosecution of his plans. Next to him comes the Minister of Lands, the Hon. John ​M'Kenzie, a big, and (also) bluff, outspoken, hot-headed Scotchman, fierce in the political battle, and always ready for the fray; but having the reputation of straightforwardness and honesty in his endeavour to settle the people on the land. He is not so strong physically as a Minister requires to be in New Zealand, and there is some talk of his retiring early in the New Year. The Hon. A. J. Cadman is Minister of Mines and Railways—an arduous billet in a country where nearly all the railways are owned by the Government, and where the Minister is expected to show a surplus of revenue over expenditure at the end of every year. Mr Cadman is quiet, self-contained, and methodical, but a good departmental man, and an indefatigable worker. The Minister for Public Works is the Hon. W. Hall-Jones. He was a builder and contractor before he was chosen a member of the Ministry some three or four year ago, and hails from Kent, England. He devotes himself assiduously to running his department, and also to supervising matters relating to the Customs and Marine, in all of which he succeeds remarkably well. The Minister of Defence and Justice is the Hon. T. Thompson. He has charge of the Police Department, among others; and there is some talk of his being forced to resign, in consequence of the inquiries of a Royal Commission into the state of the police force of the colony, which is under direct Government control. The Hon. W. C. Walker is the Minister of Education, with a seat in the Upper House. Last of all comes the Hon. James Carroll, member of the Executive as representing the native race. "Jima Kara," as he is called by the Maoris, is a half-caste—a well educated, genial, good-tempered sort of being, on whom care sits lightly, and who goes through life as if ministerial responsibility was a thing of naught. He is excellent ​company—can sing a good song or tell a good "yarn" in the most approved style, and is much in request at social functions. When his natural indolence is for the time overcome, he can speak with telling effect: in fact, he is one of the orators of the House of Representatives: and there are few empty benches when "Jimmy" is opening the floodgates of his eloquence. The Opposition in Parliament is led by Captain Russell, a wealthy squatter from Hawke's Bay, one of the richest districts in the colony. Tall, and still retaining a decided military bearing, he is courteous and kindly in his demeanour. There are seventy-four members of the popular Chamber, the House of Representatives, four of them being Maoris. Each of the white members represents about 10,000 constituents: and all but one of the natives require the assistance of an interpreter when addressing the House. As a rule they only speak on matters directly affecting the native race. The nominated Chamber is known as the Legislative Council. Unlike members of the powerful Upper Houses of Victoria and Western Australia, who are elected on a wide property basis, Members of the Legislative Council here hold their seats, as in Queensland, under writ of summons from the Governor, and are very cavalierly treated, on occasion, by the Representative Assembly. Two members of the Council are aboriginal native chiefs. Formerly members were appointed by the Government of the day for life: the term now is seven years, though Councillors may be re-appointed. Female suffrage, as in South Australia, has made but little difference in politics. Of the 319,000 adults of both sexes in the colony, the extraordinary proportion of 96 per cent, are on the rolls, of whom 76 per cent, voted at the last general election. It is a remarkable fact that 197,000 men, almost the full number of adult males in the colony, ​are on the electoral rolls. New Zealand is the most perfect and in some ways the most prosperous democracy in the world.
For a young country, New Zealand is fairly well supplied with railways, although an agitation is on foot to raise a large loan for the purpose of completing, more expeditiously than can be done otherwise, the main trunk lines through the centre of the two islands. Travelling by rail is somewhat more expensive than in England, and the trains run at a lesser speed, especially in some parts of the North Island, where the gradients are steep and the curves sharp. The country, however, is well served by its railways, which, with three unimportant exceptions, are owned by the Government and under the control of a Department, at the head of which is the Minister of Railways, who is beset with numberless applications for new lines in all parts of the country. Coastal communication is chiefly maintained by the Union Shipping Company of New Zealand, which also provides a fine fleet of fast steamers for communication with the Australian Colonies. But there are few good harbours in the North Island, and navigation has been shown by a series of wrecks, comparable only to the successive disasters which spoiled the route by the north of Queensland to Europe for the saloon passenger traffic, to be highly dangerous.
In a colony like New Zealand, chiefly devoted to pasture and agriculture, the system under which the lands of the colony are administered is a matter of supreme importance. The distinguishing feature of the present land system of the colony is State-ownership of the soil with a perpetual tenancy for the occupier—in fact, a considerable portion of the Crown lands is disposed of for terms of 999 years. Settlers may, however, take up land for cash, or on lease with a purchasing clause, or on lease ​in perpetuity, at a rental of 4 per cent, on the capital value. A system that is daily growing in favour is known as the "Improved Farm Settlements" plan, which may be briefly explained as follows:—In order to find work for the unemployed, considerable areas of bush-covered Crown lands have been set aside, and small contracts, for clearing, burning the bush, and sowing it with grass, have been let. The land is then sub-divided into small farms, and let on lease in perpetuity, at a figure sufficient to cover the cost of clearing, etc., together with a fair rental of the land. The size of holdings averages 100 acres. By the Land for Settlement Act, too, the Government has the power to compel owners of large blocks of land to sell them to the Crown; and these properties are, when acquired, sub-divided into small farms not more than 320 acres in extent. The Government is also yearly purchasing large areas of native reserves; and it will thus be seen that there is no lack of land on which persons, even with small means, may settle and make a home for themselves. Further, by an Act passed in 1894, the Government was empowered to borrow money for the purpose of lending it to farmers on the security of a first mortgage on their land, the amount being payable by instalments; and there are not wanting signs that the operation of the Act has resulted in a great deal of relief being afforded to struggling settlers. Most of this agrarian legislation, it will be seen, has its parallels in Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales, though these colonies, for the most part, have been able to improve upon New Zealand precedents. Western Australia, characteristically, contented itself with starting a State Agricultural Bank, which appears to have used up its available capital mostly in loans to wealthy absentees.
Closely associated with the colony's land system is the ​dairy industry, which has made marvellous strides within the last few years, and has developed into one of the settled industries of the colony. It is under the special care of the Minister for Lands, himself a farmer, and during his term of office the Government have been at great pains to assist in its development. Dairy experts have been introduced to the colony, their business being to instruct the farmers and factory owners in all the most approved methods of butter and cheese manufacture; and graders are employed examining all butter and cheese for export, and branding each packet with its proper quality. The export of butter and cheese from the colony for the year 1898 amounted to nearly £540,000, as against £211,801 for 1889—a big stride to make in ten years.
The frozen meat industry is also a very large factor in the prosperity of the colony, and the freezing works are in full work during the greater part of the year in almost every part of the country. The protracted drought in Australia has reduced the number of sheep depastured by many millions. New Zealand escaped with a loss of only a few hundreds of thousands, and still has 19,210,702 to her credit. The prodigious advance which the frozen meat export trade of this colony has made since its establishment seventeen years ago may be gauged by the fact that whereas in 1882 1,707,328 lbs. were exported, in 1898 there were 159,223,720 lbs., and during the first half of this year 106,008,848 lbs. The value of all the exports in 1 898 was £10,500,000; the value of New Zealand produce exported, £10,325,000, being at the rate of £13, 17s. 9d. per head of population, as against £13s, 6s. for the previous year.
Gold to the value of £53,372,634 had been obtained in New Zealand prior to December 31st, 1897, and the ​value of the gold obtained during 1897 was £980,204; during 1898, £1,080,691, an increase of £100,500. There are extensive coal mines, but little has been done towards working the other minerals in the colony. The wool clip for 1898 was 154,000,000 lbs., worth about £4,700,000, showing an increase of 65 per cent, in eleven years. There were 19,500,000 sheep in the colony in 1898, as against 15,000,000 in 1888, the growth being chiefly in the small flocks, which number 12,886 of under 500 as against 6,579 in 1888, while those of 20,000 and upwards have decreased. This is because the small owners are better able to cope with the rabbit difficulty than the large runholders.
The total declared value of the imports in 1898 amounted to £8,230,600, as compared with £8,055,223 in 1897, and £7,137,320 in 1896. The excess of exports over imports, excluding specie, was nearly £2,250,000.
The cost of living in the colony is estimated at about £35, 6s. 1d. per head of the population. But the average rate of wages is distinctly higher than in Great Britain, and the average income of the New Zealander is £37, as against £29 for the Briton and £32 in the United States. Bread is 1½d. per lb., beef 3¾d., mutton 3d.; while agricultural labourers get about 15s. weekly, with board, and artizans about 10s. daily, without. There is £19 per head deposited in the banks, and the estimated private wealth of £201,000,000 works out at £271 to the individual, in 1898: to which must be added the public wealth, of about £45,000,000.
Manufactories and works show a satisfactory increase over the previous years.
Generally speaking, the Revenue duties are not protective. Clothing and boots are, however, subject to a ​heavy tax, as both the clothing and boot-making industries are being developed. An agitation is now on foot to take the duties off the necessaries of life. Under the Assessment Act of 1891, there is an ordinary land tax on the actual value of land, an owner being allowed to deduct any amount owing by him secured by a registered mortgage. The value of all improvements is exempted: besides which, an exemption of £500 is allowed when the balance, after making the above deductions, does not exceed £1,500. Above that a smaller exemption is made, which ceases when the balance amounts to £2,500. Mortgages are subject to the land tax. There is also a graduated land tax, which commences when the unimproved value is £5,000, the present value of all improvements, but not mortgages, being deducted. Twenty per cent, additional tax is levied in the case of persons who have been absent from the colony for three years or more. Income-tax is levied on all incomes above £300; and a deduction of £300 is made from taxable incomes. Companies are not allowed the £300 exemption, and pay a higher tax than individuals. Seventy-five per cent, of the colony's revenue is raised by the Customs and Excise duties.
A noteworthy feature of the Government which now holds, and has held for eight years, the reins of power in New Zealand is the several Acts passed for the benefit of the working classes. The whole body of legislation known in New Zealand as the "Labour Laws" has been collected and published by the Department of Labour, in a pamphlet which contains in its preface the following passage:—
"The labour laws have been passed in the effort to regulate certain conditions affecting employer and employed. Their scope embraces many difficult positions into which the exigencies of modern industrial life have ​forced those engaged in trades and handicrafts. The general tendency of these laws is to ameliorate the position of the worker by preventing social oppression through undue influences, or through unsatisfactory conditions of sanitation. It will undoubtedly be found that, with the advance of time, these laws are capable of improvement and amendment; but they have already done much to make the lives of operatives of fuller and more healthy growth, and their aim is to prevent the installation of abuses before such abuses attain formidable dimensions."
The laws referred to comprise the appended statutes and regulations made under various Acts:—
"The Conspiracy Law Amendment Act, 1894."
"The Contractors' and Workmen's Lien Act, 1892."
"The Employers' Liability Act, 1882," with amendments of 1891 and 1892.
"The Factories Act, 1894," and Amendment Act, 1896.
"The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1894," with amendments, 1895, 1896, and 1898.
Labour in Coal-mines: Extract from "The Coal-mines Act, 1891."
Labour in Coal-mines: Regulations for the management and administration of funds and moneys under section 69 of "The Coal-mines Act, 1891."
"The Master and Apprentice Act, 1865." Master and Apprentice: Extract from "The Criminal Code Act, 1893," sections 150 and 213.
"The Mining Act, 1898."
"The Servants' Registry Offices Act, 1895."
"The Shearer's Accommodation Act, 1898."
"The Shipping and Seamen's Act, 1877," with Amendment Acts of 1885, 1890, 1894, 1895, and 1896.
"The Shops and Shop-assistants Act, 1894," with Amendment Acts of 1895 and 1896.
​"The Sunday Labour in Mines Prevention Act, 1897."
"The Trade Union Act, 1878," and Amendment Act, 1896.
"The Truck Act, 1891."
"The Wages Attachment Act, 1895."
"The Workmen's Wages Act, 1893."
Chief among these is the Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which provides for the settlement of all trade disputes before Boards of Conciliation in the first place, and Courts of Arbitration, whose awards can be enforced in the same manner as an award of the Supreme Court.
Societies consisting of five or more employers, or of seven or more workers, may be registered and become subject to the jurisdiction of the Board and Court appointed by the Act. Any such society may bring a disputed case before the Board of Conciliation appointed for the district, and, if the Board fails to effect a settlement, the dispute may be referred to the Court of Arbitration. The amount, however, for which such an award may be enforced against an association is limited to £500.
The manner in which the Act has operated may generally be regarded as satisfactory; and, although its existence has undoubtedly tended to bring into prominence a number of disputes about small matters which would otherwise probably never have been mentioned, on the other hand, it must be admitted that it has succeeded in finding a settlement for more than one cause of disagreement between employers and employed which, but for it, would have resulted in strikes and lock-outs. Some difficulty has lately arisen in regard to the Conciliation Board at Wellington. One of the members was away from the colony, another laid aside by illness, and yet another absent on business. The consequent difficulty ​of getting a quorum to sit or adjudicate on certain trade disputes was rapidly coming to be felt as a grievance by the workmen concerned, when the unexpected arrival of the two absentees solved the problem. It is probable, however, that the Government will next session move to amend the law so as to provide for such contingencies.
"The Factories Act" is a consolidation of previous legislation, with some important additions. New Zealand has been divided into factory districts under the charge of a chief inspector and 163 local inspectors. As a "factory" or "work-room" includes any place in which two or more persons are engaged in working for hire or reward in any handicraft, there are few operatives who do not come within the scope of the Act. Children under fourteen years of age are not allowed to be employed, and the hours of labour, holidays, etc., of women and youths under sixteen are strictly regulated. Good ventilation, sanitary accommodation, and general cleanliness of buildings are points dwelt upon; while machinery has to be properly guarded, fire-escapes provided, and dangerous occupations especially classified. In order to assist the system of free general education which prevails in the colony, young persons are not allowed to work in factories till they have passed the fourth standard of the State schools, or an equivalent examination. To prevent the introduction of "sweating," articles made, or partly made, in private dwellings, or unregistered workshops, have to be labelled when offered for sale, so that goods so manufactured (often in unsanitary premises) may not be placed in the market in competition with work done in properly inspected factories. Any person removing such labels is liable to a heavy fine. The Factory Inspectors also exercise supervision over the sleeping accommodation provided for shearers in country districts. ​As the sheep-runs and farms are widely scattered, sometimes in the rough and remote back-country, this part of the work of inspection is no easy task. A woman Inspector of Factories also gives her assistance to the duties of the department, travelling from place to place, and particularly looking into the condition of the operative women and girls.
The duration of the hours of business in shops is limited by "The Shops and Shop- Assistants Act," and "The Shops and Shop-Assistants Act Amendment Act." These provide for the closing of all shops in towns and boroughs for one afternoon half-holiday in each week. A few shops, such as those of chemists, fruiterers, eating-house keepers, etc., are exempted from the general closing, on account of their convenience to the public; but assistants in such establishments, in the bars of hotels, and in country stores, must have a half-holiday on some day of the week. Small shops carried on by Europeans without paid assistants are also exempt from closing on the general half-holiday, but must close on one afternoon in each week. The hours of work for women and young persons are defined; sitting accommodation must be provided, and precautions as to the necessary time for meals, sanitary accommodation, etc., are enforced. The Act also enumerates the working-hours, holidays, etc., of clerks employed in banks, mercantile offices, etc.
"The Employers' Liability Act," added to and amended in 1891 and 1892, is designed to protect workmen from negligence on the part of employers, by defining under what circumstances compensation for injury or death may be recoverable. The Act covers all employments except that of domestic servants, and does not allow of any "contracting out" by agreement on the part of employer and employed. Another Act of this character has regard ​to the payment of workmen's wages, providing that if a workman shall demand payment of wages twenty-four hours or more after they are due, and the contractor does not pay such wages, the workman may legally attach all moneys due to the contractor from the employer until he is paid, "The Servants' Registry Office Act" regulates registry offices for domestic or farm servants, preventing friendless or uneducated people from becoming the prey of unscrupulous persons who formerly made a living out of fees by duping applicants for situations. The registry office keepers pay a licensing fee to the Government; must produce a certificate of good character when applying for a license; must keep books open to inspection; and are not allowed to keep lodging-houses for servants.
Combinations or associations of persons for regulating the relations between masters and masters, or masters and workmen, or workmen and workmen, are directed by the "Trade Union Act." The "Conspiracy Law Amendment Act" permits any combination of persons in furtherance of a trade dispute, provided that any act performed by such combination or society would not be unlawful if done by one person. "Such action," naively adds the Secretary to the Department of Labour, "must not include riot, sedition, or crime against the State"; a remark which somehow suggests that it may include riots or crimes against the employer. "The Wages Attachment Act" prevents wages below £2 a week being attached for debt; though it does not prevent any workman being sued for debt in the ordinary course.
The New Zealand democracy really, though no Australian would admit it, leads Australia; as will be acknowledged by any one who, after acquainting himself with the above body of law, will examine recent ​legislation in the other colonies. And it will be seen that the antipodean wages-man and his wife, given a free hand, lose no time in securing, through the action of their paid Parliamentary delegates, their economic position; while, with equal decision, they agree to leave the burden of taxation on the employer.
Last year the Legislature of New Zealand passed a statute entituled "The Divorce Act, 1898," which was assented to by Her Majesty in April 1899. The new Act places persons of either sex practically on an equality as regards petitions for dissolution of marriage; the same grounds, in substance, for a decree of divorce applying to man or woman.
Besides this important alteration of the law, the grounds for divorce are extended as under:—
1. Adultery, on either side.
2. Wilful desertion continuously during five years or more.
3. Habitual drunkenness on the part of husband, along with failing to support wife; or drunkenness and neglect, with unfitness to discharge household duties on the part of the wife.
4. Conviction, with sentence of imprisonment or penal servitude for seven years or upwards, for attempting to take life of petitioner.
An Act of similar tenor was passed in New South Wales several years ago, and one is now, or was lately, before the Legislature of Western Australia.
Finally, it will be interesting to consider the operation of a Local Option Poll.
Under "The Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, 1893," each electoral district constituted for the election of a member of Parliament is a licensing district, and ​Parliamentary electors are also electors under the Licensing Acts.
The licensing poll is taken at every General Election. The questions for the decision of the voters are—
1. Whether the number of licenses existing in the district shall continue?
2. Whether the number shall be reduced?
3. Whether any licenses whatever shall be granted?
The voter may vote for one or two of these proposals, but no more.
The method of determining the result of the poll in each district is as follows:—
(1.) If the number of votes recorded in favour of the continuance of existing licenses is an absolute majority of all the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is carried, and the licenses continue until the next poll.
(2.) If the number of votes recorded in favour of a reduction of licenses is an absolute majority of the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is carried; and the Licensing Committee then reduces publicans' licenses by not less than 5 per cent, or more than 25 per cent, of the total number.
(3.) If the number of votes recorded in favour of the proposal that no license shall be granted is not less than three-fifths of the voters whose votes were recorded, the proposal is carried; and no licenses can be granted.
(4.) If none of the proposals respecting licenses are carried by the prescribed majority, the licenses continue as they are until next poll.
The result of a poll taken in December 1896, in sixty-two licensing districts, was that nearly 1 40,000 votes were cast in favour of proposal (1), the continuance of existing ​licenses; 94,500 for (2) reduction and 98,300 for (3) no license. In fifty-two districts the majority was for continuance; in four a majority, but not the necessary three-fifths majority, voted for prohibition; and in the remaining six no proposal was carried. In this poll, it must be remembered, half the electors were women.
Education in New Zealand, as in the other colonies, is free (that is to say, it is provided for by annual vote by Parliament out of the Consolidated Fund); secular; and compulsory. The system is administered by a Government Department, through Education Boards, which in turn are served by school committees in charge of the sub-divisions of the various school districts. Technical education is yet comparatively in its infancy; but the urgent necessity for some proper and complete system of technical education is generally recognised, and there is every probability that the disadvantage under which New Zealand is labouring in this respect will be removed in the course of a very few years. There is a University of New Zealand; affiliated colleges being situated at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. There are also schools for the instruction of native children, and the usual industrial schools under Government control.
The people of New Zealand may be generally regarded as sober and law-abiding. Serious crimes are rare, while drunkenness, which used to be so frequent among the old-time hands, in the days of the gold rushes, when money was plentiful, is becoming every day less frequent, especially among the younger members of the community.
While the New-Zealand-born formed at the last census 63 per cent, of the whole population of the colony, they contribute not more that 25 per cent, of the prisoners received in gaol. Of the New-Zealand-born population, however, a large number are under 15 years of age, a ​period of life at which there are very few prisoners; another comparison, therefore, is necessary. It is found, then, that the New-Zealand-born over 15 years formed 44 per cent of the total population; but, as before stated, New-Zealanders constitute less than 25 per cent, of the total in their gaols.
The cities and the large towns are well kept, and usually up-to-date, although many of the small settlements in newly opened-up districts are still in a very primitive condition. The people are sociable and hospitable, fond of pleasure and all kinds of out-door sports, horse-racing being the form of amusement to which the greater number are addicted. Every little country settlement, as is the prevalent custom all over Australasia, has one or more race meetings every year, while meetings at which considerable money prizes are given are held several times a year at the principal centres of the colony. In cricket, New Zealand has yet much to learn; but at football her representatives have achieved a very large measure of success whenever they have travelled outside their own borders.
In regard to assisted emigration, it is now announced that the Agent-General is prepared to receive applications from intending settlers for passages at reduced fares, by the Shaw, Savill, and Albion Company's and the New Zealand Shipping Company's steamers.
Application forms and all particulars can be obtained from the Agent-General for New Zealand, 13 Victoria Street, London, S.W., and also from the agents in the United Kingom of the above companies.
It would be impossible to conclude without some reference to the Maoris, who held the country when it was first discovered, and who, unlike most savages to whom we have taken the blessings of civilisation, remain in ​possession of a very fair proportion of their inheritance to-day. They are said, by those amusing gentlemen who theorise about races, to be the remote descendants of the early inhabitants of India, who, driven from that peninsula by the Aryans, learned navigation in Java and Borneo, and, driven again from there by the Malays, sailed all over the Pacific, and very likely to Mexico and Peru. In any case, a section, either of these Polynesians or of some other persons of the same name, amalgamated with the indigenes of Fiji, and their progeny, becoming a species of Normans of the Pacific, conquered Samoa, Tahiti, the Sandwich Islands, and finally New Zealand, where they arrived in a fleet of canoes about the year 1350. These are the folk, now called Maories, whom Mr S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., an authority on the subject, describes as "daring voyagers, in comparison with whom the most noted European navigators of the Middle Ages were mere coasters. The Polynesian chronicles relate voyages extending from Fiji to Easter Island, from New Zealand to the Hawaii group, and even to the Antarctic regions. They were never equalled as voyagers until the sixteenth century, which saw such an extension of nautical enterprise, originating in Europe." When the colony was first occupied by Europeans, the Maoris were found to be a brave and warlike nation, fighting for the love of conflict, and practising cannibalism for want of butchers' meat. Real swine being introduced to their notice, they readily gave up "long pig;" and when the wars between the British and Maoris took place at a later date, they acquitted themselves like men, making a gallant stand, often-times with success, against their better armed and better equipped adversaries. Now, "Nous avons changé tout cela" The Maori and the white man have, so to speak, coalesced, and live together in peace and amity. Gradually their ​numbers are being thinned by disease, and, though slowly, they appear to be experiencing the inevitable fate of a weaker race coming into contact with a stronger one. Generally, the tribes hold land in common, on which they subsist; others hold large areas of land, and are comparatively wealthy; while others again, having sold their land, find it difficult to procure enough to live on. However, as they still have left them some 10,000,000 acres, valued at £3,000,000; and as they only number 40,000 souls (exclusive of 5000 half-castes of all sorts), it will be seen they are not without resources. And their representatives in the Legislature hold a record for stone-walling. For the rest, strong and active in body, and of undoubted ability, they make excellent farm hands; but their natural indolence is a decided disadvantage. They are good horsemen, are fond of racing, and dearly love to talk, some of their "huis" or meetings extending over several days. Generally law-abiding, they easily succumb to diseases brought on by intemperance and the insanitary conditions under which they live. Steps are being taken to provide them, where possible, with medical aid, and to instil in their minds some understanding of the laws of hygiene; and if this is done, there is every reason to hope that the decadence of the Maori may be arrested for very many years. But to anyone desirous of obtaining information about them, let me recommend a charming book, entitled "Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori." It is most delightful reading, and full of details of Maori life.
It has for some time past been generally admitted by the leading technical journals that New Zealand leads the world in one department of mining—that of gold-dredging: a special and cryptic branch of the art, indeed, which is all but unknown, as yet, elsewhere. ​"It will be observed from the returns published monthly in the New Zealand Mines Record" says that journal under date of May 1899, "that gold-dredging is one of the colony's most stable industries. It has gone on steadily increasing for many years past; and engineers, owners, and masters of dredges have been quietly perfecting their appliances to such an extent that it is generally acknowledged that in no other part of the world is this branch of mining so economically and scientifically carried on as it is in New Zealand. This has all been accomplished without booming, and shareholders have received substantial profits. There is danger just now of a solid industry being made a catspaw of by some of the company promoters, whose chief aim is the flotation of scrip, and those who are asked to go in for new enterprises should make full inquiry as to the probabilities of obtaining something like an adequate return on the capital they are asked to invest." "The consequences of booming," the editor goes on to remark, "are … fatal to those who get in too late." But how much temptation there is locally to boom may be, perhaps, vaguely gathered by the uninitiated from the annexed fragments, culled from the up-country press, which are informative enough in their way:—
"A report has been published in several papers that the Ranfurly dredge (Electric Company) last week obtained 1008 ounces. We are authoritatively informed that, although the dredge in question is getting very good returns, nothing has yet been obtained nearly as large as that quoted above. We are informed (on the best authority) that the record weekly yield for the Electric dredges stands at 647 ounces, which yield was obtained by the Electric No. 1 dredge nearly two years ago. This constitutes, we also imagine, the record for the river—in New Zealand, for that matter. It is ​admitted, however, that the Ranfurly dredge is very familiar with three-figures returns, and, when she reaches some proved ground a little ahead of where she is now working, it is expected that she will easily beat the above-mentioned record."—Alexandra Herald.
" Some of those individuals who were enterprising enough to peg out river claims on the Mataura recently have received offers from Dunedin and elsewhere of £50 and £70 for a quarter share in single claims. Faith in the Mataura for dredging purposes is not, evidently, confined to Gore alone. So intense has been the craze all over the district for pegging out claims that one local timber firm disposed of forty pounds' worth of pegs during this month. This sum represents about four thousand pegs. A little above Gore, on the north side, it is estimated that within a radius of a mile there are pegs on private property and river-banks sufficient to close-board a 200-acre paddock."—Mataura Ensign.
"What the return of 400 ounces 17 dwt. by the Magnetic really means may be understood from the following calculation:—Allowing 10 ounces 17 dwt. for the payment of expenses, which is ample, it means a clear profit of 390 ounces, or £1511, 5s., for one week's operations. On a capital of £7000 this gives a profit of 21⅓ per cent, per week, or 1108 per cent, per annum. A dividend of 2s. per share was declared about ten days ago. The next monthly dividend, with returns like last week's, should be nearly equal to the paid-up capital of the company. This dredge has only been working about five months, has paid off nearly £3000 of debt, declared a 2s. dividend, and is still on the jugular."—Cromwell Argus.
What 'on the jugular' may mean it is hard for a home-keeping Briton to say. What should they know ​of English who only England know? But it is clear that a number of small local syndicates have been making good money, and most of us would understand 1000 per cent. That it is understood locally is clear. It was reported in September that since the beginning of the year seventy-four companies, with capital aggregating £600,000, have been formed. In Victoria, as we have seen, the craze has caught on. The river banks are being pegged there also, and dredges are being set to eat their way through them into the worked-out alluvial flats, as well as to tear up the river beds themselves. The knowing mining "crowd" of Ballarat and Bendigo are not ashamed to admit that for once they must learn of another colony. They get their managers and (to begin with) their machinery from New Zealand. And that others besides Victorians are not above taking a hint may be seen from the following, also taken from a Maori-land paper of recent date. " Orders for three dredges have been placed with (Messrs So and So) of Dunedin, for Siberia. These dredges, which are to be built from the designs of Mr (——), consulting engineer, are to be of the type of the dredge near Cromwell, and are to be delivered f.o.b. at Dunedin on the 1st August next. The engines are to be made in England, and the hulls are to be constructed of Siberian timber, which grows plentifully in the vicinity of the river where the dredges are to be placed. Mr Heine, a Russian gentleman, who lately made a tour of Central Otago with a companion, and placed the order in this colony for the dredges, stated to an interviewer that his claim extends a hundred miles along the course of the river in Siberia, and that there are several dredges already at work in that region, but of a very different type to those in Central Otago, which require only two men at each ​shift, while on the Siberian dredges there are about a dozen men on each shift." "Mr Heine, a Russian gentleman," is obviously a man of intelligence. But is there not, in the British Empire also, and as far, may be, from New Zealand as from Russia, "timber which grows plentifully in the vicinity of rivers" on which dredges might be placed? Have we not streams of our own, in Africa or in Canada, better than all the waters of Siberia? And have our concessionaires in China taken counsel of New Zealand managers?