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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchell, Maria

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​MITCHELL, MARIA (1818–1889), American astronomer, was born of Quaker ancestry on the island of Nantucket on the 1st of August 1818. Her father, William Mitchell (1791–1869), was a school teacher and self-taught astronomer, who rated chronometers for Nantucket Whalers, was an overseer of Harvard University (1857–1865), and for a time was employed by the United States Coast Survey. As early as 1831 (during the annular eclipse of the sun) she had been her father’s assistant in his observations. On the 1st of October 1847 she discovered a telescopic comet (seen by De Vico Oct. 3, by W. R. Dawes Oct. 7, by Madame Rümker Oct. 11), and for this discovery she received a gold medal from the King of Denmark, and was elected (1848) to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and (1850) to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1861 she removed from Nantucket to Lynn, where she used a large equatorial telescope presented to her by the women of America; and there she lived until 1865, when she became professor of astronomy and director of the observatory at Vassar College; in 1888 she became professor emeritus. In 1874 she began making photographs of the sun, and for years she made a special study of Jupiter and Saturn. She died at ​Lynn on the 28th of June 1889. In 1908 an observatory was established in her honour at Nantucket.
See Phebe Mitchell Kendall, Maria Mitchell: Life, Letters and Journals (Boston, 1896); In Memoriam (Poughkeepsie, 1889), by her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W. Whitney; and a sketch by her brother, Henry Mitchell (1830–1902), himself a well-known hydrographer, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xxv. (1889–1890), pp. 331–343.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone

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​MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (1792–1855), Australian explorer, was born at Craigend, Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the 16th of June 1792. From 1808 to the end of the Peninsular War he served in Wellington’s army, and was raised to the rank of major. He was appointed to survey the battlefields of the Peninsula, and his map of the Lower Pyrenees is still admired. In 1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor-general, and afterwards surveyor-general of New South Wales. He made four exploring expeditions between 1831 and 1846, and discovered the Peel, the Namoi, the Gwyder and other rivers, traced the course of the Darling and Glenelg, and was the first to penetrate into that portion of the country which he named Australia Felix. His last expedition was mainly devoted to the discovery of a route between Sydney and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and during the journey he explored the Fitzroy Downs, and discovered the Balonne, Victoria, Warrego and other streams. In 1838, while in England, Mitchell published his Three Expeditions into the Interior of East Australia. In 1839 he was knighted and made a D.C.L. of Oxford. During this visit he took with him some of the first specimens of gold and the first diamond found in Australia. In 1848 the narrative of his second expedition was published in London, Journal of an Expedition into the Interior of Tropical Australia. In 1851 he was sent to report on the Bathurst goldfields, and in 1853 he again visited England and patented his boomerang propeller for steamers. He died at Darling Point, Sydney, on the 5th of October 1855.
Besides the above works, Mitchell wrote a book on Geographical and Military Surveying (1827), an Australian Geography, and a translation of the Lusiad of Camoens. During his tenure of office as surveyor-general he published an admirable map (still in use) of the settled districts of New South Wales.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchelstown

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​MITCHELSTOWN, a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, situated between the Kilworth and Galty Mountains, on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2146. Here is the Protestant Kingston College, a home for poor gentlefolk, founded by James, Lord Kingston, in 1760. The seat of the earls of Kingston was built in 1823. It is a massive castellated structure, among the finest of its kind in Ireland. The Mitchelstown limestone caves, exhibiting beautiful stalactite formations, are 6 m. distant in Co. Tipperary (q.v.). On the 9th of September 1887 Mitchelstown was the scene of a riot in connexion with the Irish Nationalist “plan of campaign.” The police were compelled to fire on the rioters, and two men were killed, after which the coroner’s jury brought in a verdict of wilful murder against the police. This verdict was ignored by the government, and subsequently quashed by the Queen’s Bench in Dublin, but additional feeling was roused in respect of the incident owing to a message later sent by Mr Gladstone ending with the words “Remember Mitchelstown.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mistress

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​MISTRESS (adapted from O. Fr. maistresse, mod. maîtresse, the feminine of maistre, maître, master), a woman who has authority, particularly over a household. As a form of address or term of courtesy the word is used in the same sense as “madam.” It was formerly used indifferently of married or unmarried women, but now, written in the abbreviated form “Mrs” (pronounced “missis”), it is practically confined to married women and prefixed to the surname; it is frequently retained, however, in the case of spinster cooks or housekeepers, as a title of dignity; as the female equivalent of “master” the word is used in other senses by analogy, e.g. of Rome as “the mistress of the world,” Venice “the mistress of the Adriatic,” &c. From the common use of “master” as a teacher, “mistress” is similarly used. The old usage of the word for a lady-love or sweetheart has degenerated into that of paramour. “Miss” a shortened form of “mistress,” is the term of address for a girl or unmarried woman; it is prefixed to the surname in the case of the eldest or only daughter of a family, and to the Christian names in the case of the younger daughters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitau

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​MITAU (Russian, Mitava; Lettish, Yelgava), a town of Russia, capital of the government of Courland, 29 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, on the right bank of the river Aa, in a fertile plain which rises only 12 ft. above sea level, and has probably given its name to the town (Mitte in der Aue). Pop. (1897), 35,011 inhabitants, mainly Germans, but including also Jews (6500), Letts (5000) and Russians. At high water the plain and sometimes also the town are inundated. Mitau is surrounded by a canal occupying the place of former fortifications. It has regular, broad streets, bordered with the mansions of the German nobility, who reside at the capital of Courland. Mitau is well provided with educational institutions, and is also the seat of the Lettish Literary Society. The old castle (1266) of the dukes of Courland, situated on an island in the river, was destroyed by Duke Biren, who erected in its place (1738–1772) a spacious palace, now occupied by the governor and the courts. Manufactures are few, those of wax-cloth, linen, soap, ink and beer being the most important.
Mitau is supposed to have been founded in 1266 by Conrad Mandern, grand-master of the order of the Brethren of the Sword. In 1345, when it was plundered by the Lithuanians, it was already an important town. In 1561 it became the residence of the dukes of Courland. During the 17th century it was thrice taken by the Swedes. Russia annexed it with Courland in 1795. It was the residence (1798–1801 and 1804–1807) of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.). In 1812 it was taken by Napoleon I.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marinette

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​MARINETTE, a city and the county-seat of Marinette county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 162 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W. shore of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Menominee River. Pop. (1890), 11,523; (1900), 16,195, of whom 5542 were foreign-born; (1905), 15,354; (1910), 14,610. It is served directly by the Wisconsin & Michigan, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and by several steamboat lines connecting with lake ports; and is connected by ferry with Frankfort, Michigan (served by the Ann Arbor railroad). The city has a fine harbour and a considerable commerce in iron and lumber products. Five bridges connect Marinette with Menominee, Michigan, on the other side of the river. Marinette has a Federal building; the Stephenson public library, founded by Senator Isaac Stephenson (b. 1829), a local “lumber king”; a county agricultural school and training school for rural teachers, and three public parks. The Northern Chautauqua Assembly holds its annual summer session in Chautauqua Park, on the shore of Green Bay. The growth of Marinette began with the development of the neighbouring pine forests; and the manufacture of lumber and lumber products has always been its principal industry. The water-power of the Menominee River is largely utilized for the manufacture of paper and flour. Other manufactures are boxes, furniture and woodware, boats, boilers and agricultural machinery. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $3,633,399. The first white settlement was made here on the site of a Menominee Indian village in 1830, and the city was named in honour of the daughter of an Indian chief, Marinette (Jacobs), whose name was a composite of Marie and Antoinette. A city charter was granted in 1887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marini, Giambattista

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​MARINI (or Marino), GIAMBATTISTA (1560–1625), Italian poet, was born at Naples on the 18th of October 1569. After a somewhat disreputable youth, during which he became known for his Canzone de’ baci, he secured the powerful patronage of Cardinal Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied from Rome to Ravenna and Turin. An edition of his poems, La Lira, was published at Venice in 1602–1614. His ungoverned pen and disordered life compelled him to leave Turin and take refuge from 1615 to 1622 in Paris, where he was favourably recognized by Marie de’ Medici. There his long poem Adone was published in 1623. He died at Naples on the 25th of March 1625. The licence, extravagance and conceits of Marini, the chief of the school of “Secentisti” (see Italy: Literature), were characteristic of a period of literary decadence.
See M. Menghini, G. B. Marini (Rome, 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mario, Giuseppe

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​MARIO, GIUSEPPE, Count of Candia (1810–1883), Italian singer, the most famous tenor of the 19th century, son of General di Candia, was born at Cagliari in 1810. His career as a singer was the result of accidental circumstances. While serving as an officer in the Sardinian army he was imprisoned at Cagliari for some trifling offence. When his period of confinement was over, he resigned his commission. His resignation was refused, and he fled to Paris. There his success as an amateur vocalist produced an offer of an engagement at the Opera. He studied singing for two years under M. Ponchard and Signor Bordogni, and made his début in 1838 as the hero of Meyerheer’s Robert le Diable. His success was immediate and complete, but he did not stay long at the Opera. In 1839 he joined the company of the Théâtre Italien, which then included Malibran, Sontag, Persiani and Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache. His first appearance here was made in the character of Nemorino in Donizetti’s Elisir d’Amore. He sang in London for the first time in the same year. His success in Italian opera far surpassed that which he had won in French, and in a short time he acquired a European reputation. He had a handsome face and a graceful figure, and his voice, though less powerful than that of Rubini or that of Tamberlik, had a velvety softness and richness which have never been equalled. Experience gave him ease as an actor, but he never excelled in tragic parts. He was an ideal stage lover, and he retained the grace and charm of youth long after his voice had begun to show signs of decay. He created very few new parts, that of Ernesto in Don Pasquale (1843) being perhaps the only one deserving of mention. Among the most successful of his other parts were Otello in Rossini’s opera of that name, Gennaro in Lucrezia Borgia, Alamviva in Il Barbiere di Siviglia, Fernando in La Favorita, and Manrico in Il Trovatore. Mario made occasional appearances in oratorio singing at the Birmingham Festival of 1849 and at the Hereford Festival of 1855, and undertook various concert tours in the United Kingdom, but his name is principally associated with triumphs in the theatre. In 1856 he married Giulia Grisi, the famous soprano, by whom he had five daughters. Mario bade farewell to the stage in 1871. He died at Rome in reduced circumstances on the 11th of December 1883.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marino

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​MARINO, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 m. S.E. of it by rail, and also accessible by electric tramway. Pop. (1901), 7307. It is picturesquely situated on a spur of the Alban Hills, 1165 ft. above sea level, and occupies the site of the ancient Castrimoenium, a municipium of no great importance, though the surrounding district, which now produces much wine, is full of remains of ancient villas. The origin of the name is uncertain; perhaps it is derived from the medieval Morena (itself derived from the Latin Murena, from one of the Roman owners of the district), a name originally given to the lower ground between the 9th and 11th mile of the Via Latina. In the early 13th century it belonged to the Frangipani family, but passed into the hands of the Orsini in 1266. In 1378 a battle took place here between the partisans of Urban VI. and those of the anti-pope Clement VII. of Geneva (the Orsini having taken the side of the latter), who were, however, defeated; and in 1399 Marino was apparently under the Papacy. In 1408 it passed to the Colonna family, to whom it still belongs. There are some remains of the medieval fortifications.
See G. Tomassetti, La Via latina nel medio evo (Rome, 1886), p. 96 seq.; T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iv. (1907).  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marinus of Tyre

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​MARINUS OF TYRE, geographer and mathematician, the founder of mathematical geography, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He lived before Ptolemy, who acknowledges his great obligations to him. His chief merits were that he assigned to each place its proper latitude and longitude, and introduced improvements in the construction of his maps. He also carefully studied the works of his predecessors and the diaries of travellers. His geographical treatise is lost.
See A. Forbiger, Handbuch der alten Geographie, vol. i. (1842); E. H. Bunbury, Hist. of Ancient Geography (1879), ii. p. 519; and especially E. H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen (1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marinus (philosopher)

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​MARINUS, neo-Platonist philosopher, was born in Palestine and was early converted to the old Greek religion. He came to Athens at a time when, with the exception of Proclus, there was a great dearth of eminent men in the neo-Platonic school. It was for this reason rather than for any striking ability of his own that he succeeded to the headship of the school on the death of Proclus. During this period the professors of the old Greek religion suffered severe persecution at the hands of the Christians and Marinus was compelled to seek refuge at Epidaurus. His chief work was a biography of Proclus, which is extant. It was first published with the works of Marcus Antoninus in 1559; it was republished separately by Fabricius at Hamburg in 1700, and re-edited in 1814 by Boissonade with emendations and notes. Other philosophical works are attributed to him, including commentaries on Aristotle and on the Philebus. It is said that he destroyed the latter because Isidore, his successor, expressed disapproval of it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marinus (popes)

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​MARINUS, the name of two popes. Marinus I., sometimes called Martin II., pope from 882 to 884, was the son of a Tuscan priest, and entered the church at an early age, becoming a deacon about 862. Three successive popes sent him as legate to Constantinople, his mission in each case having reference to ​the controversy excited by Photius (q.v.); and having become an archdeacon and a bishop, he also negotiated on behalf of pope John VIII. with the emperor Charles the Fat. About the end of December 882 he succeeded John VIII. as pope, but his election did not pass unchallenged either in eastern or in western Europe. However, having secured his position, Marinus restored Formosus, cardinal-bishop of Porto, and anathematized Photius. This pope was on friendly terms with the English king, Alfred the Great. He died in May 884, and was succeeded by Adrian III.
Marinus II., sometimes called Martin III., pope from 942 to 946, was merely the puppet of Alberic (d. 954), prince and senator of the Romans. He died in May 946, and was succeeded by Agapetus II.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marion, Henri François

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​MARION, HENRI FRANÇOIS (1846–1896), French philosopher and educationalist, was born at Saint-Parize-en-Viry (Nièvre) on the 9th of September 1846. He studied at Nevers, and at the École Normale, where he graduated in 1868. After occupying several minor positions, he returned to Paris in 1875 as professor ​of the Lycée Henri IV., and in 1880 he became docteur-ès-lettres. In the same year he was elected a member of the Council of Public Instruction, and devoted himself to improving the scheme of French education, especially in girls’ schools. He was largely instrumental in the foundation of écoles normales in provincial towns, and himself gave courses of lectures on psychology and practical ethics in their early days. He died in Paris on the 5th of April 1896.
His chief philosophical works were an edition of the Théodicée of Leibnitz (1874), a monograph on Locke (1878), Devoirs et droits de l’homme (1880), Glissonius utrum Leibnitio de natura substantiae cogitanti quidquam tribuerit (1880); De La solidarité morale (4th ed., 1893). His lectures at Fontenoy have been published in two volumes entitled Leçons de psychologie appliquée à l’éducation, and Leçons de morale; those delivered at the Sorbonne are collected in L’Éducation dans l’université (1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Morpeth

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​MORPETH, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of Northumberland, England, situated in a fine valley on the Wansbeck, 171/2 m. N. of Newcastle by the North Eastern railway the junction of several branches with the main line. Pop. (1901), 6158. The Wansbeck winds round the town on the west, south and east, and a rivulet, the Cottingburn, bounds it on the north. The parish church of St Mary, a plain building of the 14th century, is situated on Kirk Hill, a short distance from the town. It has a good example of a Jesse window. Nothing remains of the old castle except the gateway. The valley of the Wansbeck above Morpeth is well wooded and very picturesque. By its side are fragments of Newminster Abbey, a wealthy foundation of the 12th century, occupied by monks from Fountains in Yorkshire; and Mitford, with its Norman and Early English church, and ruins of a Norman castle and a manor-house of the 17th century. To the north of Morpeth a good specimen of the peel tower of the 15th century is seen at Cockley Park. Industries of Morpeth include tanning, brewing, malting, iron and brass founding, and the manufacture of flannels, agricultural implements, and bricks and tiles. The parliamentary borough, within the Wansbeck division of the county, returns one member and extends 8 m. eastward to the coast, including the town of Blyth. Morpeth is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 328 acres.
The manor of Morpeth is said to have been granted to William de Merlay soon after the Conquest and passed with the borough from his family to those of Graystock, Dacre and Howard, earls of Carlisle, with whom it remains. The town is a borough by prescription and grew up round the castle attributed to the above William de Merlay. About the end of the 12th century Roger de Merlay the younger granted the burgesses right to hold of him and his heirs “as freely as the charter of the king purported which he held of the king by gift.” Charles II. incorporated the town in 1662 under the government of two bailiffs who were chosen every year in the following manner: the bailiffs for the time being chose two juries from whom the commonalty elected four burgesses, and from these four the steward of the lord of the manor appointed the bailiffs for the ensuing year. This was continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. In 1200 a market on Wednesday and a fair on the Feast of St Mary Magdalene were granted to Roger de Merlay, and in 1285 the fair was extended for two days. The market rights still belong to the lord of the manor.