OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count

Edition of 1905. See also Benjamin Thompson on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RUM'FORD, Benjamin Thompson, Count (1753-1814). An American physicist, born at Woburn, Mass. He entered a merchant's office at Salem at the age of thirteen, at the same time studying medicine and physics. In 1772 he married a rich widow of that place, and was made major of militia by the English Governor. The distrust of the colonists at this period of the outbreak of the American Revolution drove him to Boston, and when Washington compelled the evacuation of Boston. Thompson was sent to England as bearer of dispatches. In London he won the favor of the Government and received an appointment in the Colonial Office and was soon afterwards made Under Secretary of State. Continuing, at the same time, his scientific investigations, he was elected, in 1779, Fellow of the Royal Society. On the resignation of North's Ministry he returned to America, and fought for the royal cause. At the end of the Revolutionary War he obtained permission from the British Government to enter military service in Bavaria, and in 1784 he was settled at Munich as aide-de-camp and chamberlain to the reigning sovereign. He rapidly rose to the ranks of major-general, councilor of State, lieutenant-general, Minister of War, and was created count of the Holy Roman Empire, when he chose Rumford (now Concord, N. H.), where his fortunes had begun, as his titular designation. In 1795 he visited London, where he published the results of his experience and the records of his labors in Bavaria. Having long and carefully studied the phenomena of heat, he set himself to devise a remedy for the smoky chimneys which were one of the greatest nuisances at that time in England, and discovered the principles upon which fireplaces and chinmeys have since been constructed. In 1799 he retired from Bavarian service and returned to London, where, at his instance, the Royal Institution was founded in the following year. He finally settled in Paris; devoted himself to improvements in artillery and illumination; founded a professorship in Harvard College of the application of science to the arts of living; married the widow of Lavoisier, and died at Auteuil, near Paris, after making many important bequests to the Royal Society of London, the American Academy of Sciences, and Harvard University. A memoir of Rmnford by George E. Ellis was published, with a complete edition of his works, in 1872 (Boston). Rumford is chiefly remembered for his experiments on the nature of heat. In 1798 he showed that the temperature of a body may be raised without heat being communicated to it as such; that the heat contained, for instance, in a metallic body may be increased by boring. On the basis of this fact he maintained, in his Enquiry concerning the Source of Heat which is excited by Friction (read before the Royal Society on January 25, 1798), that heat is not an imponderable substance, as it was generally assumed to he in those days.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rowley Regis

Edition of 1905. See also Rowley Regis on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROWLEY REGIS. A town in Staffordshire, England, 5 miles west of Birmingham (Map: England, E 4). It has extensive coal-mining and iron industries. Population, in 1891, 30,800; in 1901, 34,670.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rugendas, Georg Philipp

Edition of 1905. See also Georg Philipp Rugendas on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RU'GENDAS, Georg Philipp (1666-1742). A German battle and military genre painter and engraver, born at Augsburg. He was a pupil of Isaac (or Jacob) Fischer, an historical painter, took Bourguignon, Lembke, and Tempesta for his models, but formed his style more especially through the study of the various phases of the military profession, from real life. He continued his studies for two years in Vienna, and in 1692 under Molinari in Venice, thence went to Rome. During the siege and pillage of Augsburg in 1703 he exposed himself to great danger by drawing, in the midst of the engagements, the scenes around him. The six etchings resulting from this are perhaps the most meritorious part of his work. His oil paintings, spirited in drawing, but defective in coloring, may best be studied in the Brunswick Gallery, which contains nine battle-pieces by him. Consult the monograph by Count Stillfried (Berlin, 1879).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louis William I.

Edition of 1905. See also Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LOUIS WILLIAM I., Margrave of Baden-Baden (1655-1707). He was the son of Ferdinand Maximilian, heir to the throne of Baden. He was born in Paris, brought up in Baden, and served under Montecuculi against the French. After the Treaty of Nimeguen (1678), he fought against the Turks, in 1683 at Vienna, in 1689 at Nissa, in 1690 in Transylvania, in 1691 at Slankamen. In 1693 he was on the Rhine, captured Heidelberg, and fought in Alsace. During the War of the Spanish Succession he served under Marlborough, and became field-marshal in 1704. He was an excellent military engineer.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louisiana Grass

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ LOUISIANA GRASS. See Paspalum.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louis the Great

Edition of 1905. See also Louis I of Hungary on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LOUIS (I.) THE GREAT (c.1326-82). King of Hungary from 1342 to 1382. He was the son of Charles Robert, King of Hungary. He was an indefatigable warrior and generally victorious. His long war against Queen Joanna of Naples (see Joanna I.) was indecisive, although for a time Louis wore the crown of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. With Venice he waged three wars and succeeded, in 1357, in expelling the Venetians from all the Dalmatian cities. In 1352 he had brought Moldavia under his power. In 1365 he won a great victory over the Turks. In 1370 he succeeded Casimir as King of Poland, to which the latter had already by conquest united Calicia. He was succeeded in Hungary and Poland by his daughter Mary, who became the wife of Sigismund of Brandenburg, subsequently Holy Roman Emperor. Louis was renowned for his chivalry and the splendor of his Court. He increased the royal power, gave charters to the cities, encouraged commerce and education, and reformed the administration of justice, thus on the one hand improving the welfare of his country, on the other, by his costly wars, menacing all prosperity. Consult Horváth, Geschichte Ungarns, vol. i. (2d ed., German trans., Budapest, 1876).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louisiade Archipelago

Edition of 1905. See also Louisiade Archipelago on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ LOUISIADE (lo͞o-ē′zē̇-äd′) ARCHIPELAGO. A group of islands in Oceanica, situated at the southeastern extremity of British New Guinea, to which it belongs (Map: Australasia, H 4). It consists of three large islands—Saint Aignan, Southeast Island, and Rossel, each with an area of from 100 to 300 square miles—and numerous small islets and reefs. The large islands are mountainous, having peaks which rise to a height of over 3000 feet, while the islets are chiefly of coral formation. The group is inhabited by savages of Papuan race. The islands were discovered by Torres in 1606, and taken by the British in 1888.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louisiana (Missouri)

Edition of 1905. See also Louisiana, Missouri on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ LOUISIANA. A city in Pike County, Mo., 86 miles northwest of Saint Louis; on the Mississippi River, and on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Chicago and Alton, and other railroads (Map: Missouri, E 2). It has a public school library of 3000 volumes. The city controls an important trade, particularly in fruit, produce, tobacco, grain, live stock, etc.; and among its industrial plants are nurseries, flour and lumber mills, manufactories of buttons, tobacco, cigars, carriages, and wagons, a stone quarry, lime kiln, brick yards, etc. The nurseries here are very extensive, ranking among the largest in the United States. Population, in 1890, 5090; in 1900, 5131.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louis Napoleon

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ LOUIS NAPOLEON, Fr. pron. lo͞o′ē̇′ nȧ′pō̇′lā̇-ôN′. See Napoleon III.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Louis the German

Edition of 1905. See also Louis the German on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​LOUIS THE GERMAN (c.804-876). King of the Eastern Franks from 843 to 876. He was the third son of the Emperor Louis the Pious, and when his father in 817 made a division of the Empire among his sons, Louis received a kingdom centring around Bavaria. This was the nucleus of the Kingdom of Germany. In the later divisions, between 829 and 840, Louis always retained Bavaria. During these years he was engaged in almost consfant struggles against his father or against his brothers. After the death of Louis the Pious, in 840, he joined with Charles the Bald against Lothair. In 841, in the battle of Fontonoy, he and Charles defeated Lothair and forced the latter in 843 to agree to a fresh division of the Empire in the Treaty of Verdun. Louis remained King of the German or East Frankish Kingdom, ruling over Bavarians, Swabians, Franconians, and Saxons. He had to defend his dominions against Slavic invaders on one side and Northmen on another. In 858 he invaded the West Frankish Kingdom and conquered it in part; but in 860 he made peace, resigning his conquests to Charles the Bald. In 870 he forced Charles the Bald to make the Treaty of Mersen, by which the Lotharingian territories were divided between the West Frankish and the German kingdoms. He died at Frankfort, August 28, 876. Consult Dümmler, Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches (2 vols., 2d ed., Berlin, 1887).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Brooks

Edition of 1905. See also Brooks Adams on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Brooks (1848—). An American lawyer and social essayist. He was born at Quincy, Mass., a son of Charles Francis Adams (q.v.). He was educated in Quincy, in Washington, and in Europe, according to the changes of his father's residence. He graduated at Harvard in 1870, was admitted to the bar, and practiced law till 1881. He has since contributed much to magazines, and has published The Gold Standard, The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887), a study in the evolution of religious freedom, an historical essay, The Law of Civilization and Decay, and America's Economic Supremacy (1900). His works are characterized by subtlety and originality.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams

Edition of 1905. See also Adams, Massachusetts on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS. A town, including the villages of Renfrew, Maple Grove, and Zylonite, in Berkshire Co., Mass., 16 miles north of Pittsfield, on the Hoosac River and the Pittsfield and North Adams branch of the Boston and Albany Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, A 2). Within the town limits is Greylock Mountain (3535 feet), the highest point in Massachusetts. The town has a public library of over 7000 volumes, and manufactures cotton and woolen goods, paper, foundry products, shirts, etc. Laid out and settled as “East Hoosuck” in 1749, Adams was incorporated under its present name (in honor of Samuel Adams) in 1778. It originally included both North and South Adams. The government is administered by town meeting. Pop., 1890, 9213; 1900, 11,134. Consult: J. G. Holland, History of Western Massachusetts (Springfield, 1855).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Abigail Smith

* related authors: Abigail Adams.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, quotes, Wikidata item.
Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Abigail Smith (1744-1818). The wife of John Adams, second President of the United States, and daughter of Rev. William Smith, minister of the Congregational church at Weymouth, Mass. She was born at Weymouth, Mass., and died at Quincy, Mass. Through her mother, Elizabeth Quincy, she was descended from the Puritan preacher, Thomas Shepard of Cambridge, and though of defective education, delicate health, and nervous temperament, she was one of the most influential women of her day, and one of its most vigorous and elegant stylists, owing little to teaching but much to influence and environment. During and after the Revolutionary War, she was at times separated from her husband, who was a delegate to Congress and who afterward engaged in diplomatic business in Europe. Joining him in France in 1784, she accompanied him to London, where she had unpleasant social experiences. From 1789 to 1801 she lived at Washington, then till her death at Braintree, in what is now Quincy. The Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife, published with a memoir by C. F. Adams (1876), show her ​to have been a woman of keenness, sagacity, and geniality, and throw very valuable light on the history and social life of her time.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Charles Baker

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Baker Adams on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Charles Baker (1814-53). An American naturalist. He was born at Dorchester, Mass. He graduated at Amherst; assisted Prof. Edward Hitchcock in the geological survey of New York; became tutor at Amherst, 1836; professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury College, Vermont, 1838 to 1847, and was professor of astronomy and zoölogy at Amherst from 1847 till his death. From 1845 to 1847 he was State geologist of Vermont. He went several times to the West Indies in the interest of science; wrote on conchology, and with the assistance of Prof. Alonzo Gray, of Brooklyn, published an elementary work on geology.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Charles Follen

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Follen Adams on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Charles Follen (1842—). A humorous dialect poet. He was born at Dorchester, Mass., and was educated in the common schools. He served in the Civil War, and was wounded and captured at Gettysburg. In 1872 he began poetic production, cultivating the ballad in German dialect. His verses are collected under the titles Leedle Yawcob Strauss and Other Poems (1878), and Dialect Ballads (1887).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Acorus

Edition of 1905. See also Acorus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AC'ORUS (Gk. ἄκορος, akoros, sweet-flag). A genus of plants of the natural order Araceæ. (See Arum.) The plants of this genus have a leaf-like scape, which bears upon its side a dense, cylindrical, greenish spike of flowers. Here belongs the Sweet-flag (Acorus calamus), which was brought to Europe from Asia in the fifteenth century, but has become naturalized in England, Germany, etc., growing in marshes and ditches. In North America it is found from Nova Scotia to Florida, and west through Minnesota and Iowa. Its root (rhizome) is perennial, divided into long joints about the thickness of the thumb, has a bitterish, acrid taste, and is very aromatic. It is a powerful medicine of transient tonic effect, occasionally used, especially in cases of weak digestion. In many places on the Continent of Europe it is found in confectionery shops sliced and prepared with sugar. It is also used to correct the empyreumatic odor of spirits and to give them a peculiar flavor. It is called Calamus root. In Great Britain it is chiefly employed by perfumers in the manufacture of hair powder. The other species of Acorus are likewise aromatic, and are applied to the same uses. Acorus gramineus is cultivated in China. Some fossil species of Acorus have been found in rocks of the Tertiary Age in North America and on the island of Spitzbergen, and in later formations in other parts of the world.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Alvin

Edition of 1905. See also Alvin Adams on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Alvin (1804-77). The founder of Adams Express Company of America. He was born at Andover, Vt., and in 1840 established between New York and Boston an express route which, subsequently extended, led in 1854 to the incorporation of the Adams Express Company. Consult: Stimson, History of the Express Business (New York, 1881).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Adams, Charles Francis

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Francis Adams, Sr. on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ADAMS, Charles Francis (1807-86). An American diplomat and statesman, the son of President J. Q. Adams. He was born in Boston; spent the years 1809 to 1817 with his father in Europe, chiefly in Russia and England; prepared for college at the Boston Latin School, and graduated at Harvard in 1825. He then spent several years in Washington, and later studied law in the office of Daniel Webster (at Boston) from November, 1828, to January, 1829, when he was admitted to the bar, though he never practiced. During the next ten years he devoted himself chiefly to literary pursuits, contributing many papers to magazines, writing an able political pamphlet entitled, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (Boston, 1835), and editing the Letters of Abigail and John Adams (1840-41). From 1841 to 1840 he was a member of the State Legislature, serving three years in the House and two in the Senate; and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Boston Whig, and as such was the leader of that wing of his party called the “Conscience Whigs.” In 1848 he presided over the Free Soil Convention at Buffalo, and was unanimously nominated for vice-president, but after the election retired to Quincy, Mass., and spent several years in editing the Works of John Adams (10 volumes, 1850-56). In 1858 he was elected to Congress as a Republican, and served with marked ability until May, 1861, when he was sent as United States Minister to England. Here he remained for seven years, and during the Civil War rendered invaluable services to his government. In face of the pronounced sympathy for the South manifested by the aristocracy and the upper social classes generally and of the favoritism at times of the British government itself, he preserved throughout a dignified demeanor and performed his duties with such ability as to earn for himself a place second only to that of Franklin in the history of American diplomacy. Indeed, many years later Lowell said: “None of our generals in the field, not Grant himself, did us better or more trying service than he in his forlorn outpost in London.” He returned to America in 1868, and was elected to the presidency of Harvard in the following year, but declined to serve. In 1872 he barely failed of a nomination to the presidency at the hands of the Liberal Republicans. He was the arbitrator for the United States at Geneva in 1871 and 1872 (see Alabama Claims), and to him is due in great part the credit for the successful settlement of all difficulties with England growing out of the controversy of the Civil War. On his return he was engaged for several years in editing the Diary of John Quincy Adams (12 volumes, 1874-77). Both in politics and diplomacy Mr. Adams was austere, dignified, eminently sincere, and independent to a fault. As an authoritative biography consult C. F. Adams, Jr., Life of Charles Francis Adams (Boston, 1900), in the American Statesmen Series.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Acosta, Gabriel

Edition of 1905. See also Uriel da Costa on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ACOSTA, ȧ-kōs'tȧ, Gabriel, later Uriel (1594?-1647) A Portuguese philosopher, descended from a Jewish family. He was born at Oporto. After being educated in the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, when twenty-five years of age he became skeptical, and then adopted the Jewish faith; but as the profession of such was not allowed him in his own country, he fled to Amsterdam, where he was formally received into the Jewish community, and changed his name, which had been Gabriel, to Uriel. But what he conceived to be the Pharisaism and spiritual pride of the Amsterdam Jews disgusted him, and he opposed many of their ideas, and especially denied that the doctrine of immortality had any Mosaic sanction. Hence he became involved in a controversy with his rabbinical teachers. On account of his work, entitled Examen dos tradiçoens Phariseas conferidas con a ley escrita (“Examination of Pharisaic Traditions Compared with the Scripture”), 1624, he was charged with atheism by the Jews before the city magistracy and fined. He was also excommunicated, and so remained for seven years, when he recanted after ignominious treatment. He died in 1647 by suicide. His autobiography was first published by P. Limborch in Latin, 1687; ​English translation, London, 1740; Latin and German edition, H. Jellinek, Leipzig, 1847. He is the hero of an effective tragedy by Gutzkow.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Forrest, Nathan Bedford

See also Nathan Bedford Forrest on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Forrest, Nathan Bedford, a Confederate general, was born in Bedford County, Tenn., on July 13, 1821, He raised a cavalry regiment at the outbreak of the Civil War, and was engaged in the battle of Shiloh. He was an able and daring cavalry leader, commanded the cavalry at Chattanooga and fought at Chickamauga. In April, 1864, he captured Fort Pillow; was promoted to be lieutenant-general in 1865; and surrendered at Gainesville on May 9 of the same year. Forrest died at Memphis, Tenn., Oct. 29, 1877.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fort Donelson

See also Fort Donelson National Battlefield on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Fort Don'elson, an historic post in Tennessee, on Cumberland River, 12 miles east of Fort Henry. It was strongly fortified by the Confederates during the Civil War, and in 1862, when held by General Floyd with 15,000 troops, was attacked by Commodore Foote, who was driven back. But the forces of General Grant, coming up from the capture of Fort Henry, defeated the Confederate force, which came out of the fort to meet them. General Floyd and a part of his force escaped during the night, and the following day General Buckner, who was next in command, surrendered with about 14,000 men.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Florida Keys

See also Florida Keys on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Florida Keys are a group or chain of small islands stretching south from the southern coast of the Florida peninsula. There are thousands of them, many of them of coral formation and most of them submerged by high tide. The longest of them is Key Largo, and the southernmost of any importance is Key West: Here is the city of Key West, the site of a naval station, with a population of 21,174, and a place of considerable commercial importance. It has lines of steamers connecting with the chief cities of the Atlantic coast. Its chief industry is the manufacture of cigars, and it also has a large trade in fish, fruit, tobacco, vegetables and sponges.
A vast and unique enterprise, the greatest engineering feat of recent years, is the railroad, which has been constructed from the mainland to Key West, a distance of 130 miles, bridging long stretches of open sea, with an equal distance built up on submerged swamps and shallows. The open water is bridged by miles of concrete viaducts, the shallows built up with solid ​ embankments of rock, and all made to withstand the assaults of the sea, driven by tropical storms.
This undertaking was the work of the late Henry M. Flagler, who had previously built a road along the Atlantic seaboard from Jacksonville to Miami, with its series of magnificent hotels. His ultimate plan was to connect Key West with Havana by ferries which would carry solid trains, thus extending rail passenger and freight passage from New York into the island of Cuba.
BUILDING PIER OF CONCRETE WITH STEEL REËNFORCEMENT :
BUILDING CONCRETE ARCHES. SHOWING FRAMEWORK :
SECTION OF FLORIDA KEYS RAILROAD. BUILT ACROSS OPEN SEA :
# The New Student's Reference Work/Flotow, Friedrich, Freiherr von

See also Friedrich von Flotow on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Flotow (flō′tṓ), Friedrich, Freiherr von, a German composer, was born at Teutendorf in Mecklenburg, Germany, on April 26, 1812. He is chiefly celebrated for his operas Martha and Stradella, pleasing compositions of light and lively music. He died at Darmstadt on Jan. 23, 1883.