OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harlech

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​HARLECH (perhaps for Hardd lech, fair slate, or Harleigh, an Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m. from Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian railway. Pop. 900. Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of Harlech, about half a mile from the sea. Discovery of Roman coins makes it probable that it was once occupied by the Romans. In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), daughter of Bran Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, perhaps by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen, and replaced about A.D. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. In the early 10th century, Harlech castle was, apparently, repaired by Colwyn, lord of Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North Wales tribes, and thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure dates, like many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps even from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles, but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have been square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and turrets. Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460, Margaret, wife of Henry VI., defeated at Northampton, took refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion held it for the Lancastrians, until famine, rather than Edward IV., made him surrender. From this time is said to date the air “March of the men of Harlech” (Rhyfelgerdd gwyr Harlech). The castle was alternately Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made Harlech a free borough, and it was formerly the county town. It is in the parish of Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though interesting from an antiquarian point of view, the district around, especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the valley), is dreary and desolate, ​e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, Rhinog fawr and Rhinog fach (cliffs); an exception is the verdant Cwm bychan (little combe or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the men of Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harlequin

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​HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and acrobatic character who gives his name to the “harlequinade,” attired in mask and parti-coloured and spangled tights, and provided with a sword like a bat, by which, himself invisible, he works wonders. It has generally been assumed that Harlequin was transferred to France from the “Arlecchino” of Italian medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr Driesen in his Ursprung des Harlekins (Berlin, 1904) shows that this is incorrect. An old French “Harlekin” (Herlekin, Hellequin and other variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100; he had already become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal appearance and character; in 1262 a number of harlekins appear in a play by Adam de la Halle as the intermediaries of King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in courting Morgan le Fay; and it was not till much later that the French Harlekin was transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical French form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air, deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light and aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian to the French stage, being imported by Marivaux into light comedy; and his various attributes gradually became amalgamated into the latter form taken in pantomime.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harless, Gottlieb Christoph

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​HARLESS (originally Harles), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH (1738–1815), German classical scholar and bibliographer, was born at Culmbach in Bavaria on the 21st of June 1738. He studied at Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1765 he was appointed professor of oriental languages and eloquence at the Gymnasium Casimirianum in Coburg, in 1770 professor of poetry and eloquence at Erlangen, and in 1776 librarian of the university. He held his professorship for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of November 1815. Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous editions of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical judgment, although valuable at the time as giving the student the results of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded. But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in connexion with the great Bibliotheca Graeca of J. A. Fabricius, of which he published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790–1809, not quite completed),—a task for which he was peculiarly qualified. He also wrote much on the history and bibliography of Greek and Latin literature.
His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harless (1818).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harless, Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von

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​HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806–1879), German divine, was born at Nuremberg on the 21st of November 1806, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen and Halle. He was appointed professor of theology at Erlangen in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong Lutheran and exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court preacher in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at Munich. His chief works were Theologische Encyklopädie und Methodologie (1837) and Die christliche Ethik (1842, Eng. trans. 1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few years earlier, written an autobiography under the title Bruchstücke aus dem Leben eines süddeutschen Theologen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harlingen

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​HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland, on the Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal from Leeuwarden (151/2 m. E.). It is connected by steam tramway by way of Bolswaard with Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Harlingen has become the most considerable seaport of Friesland since the construction of the large outer harbour in 1870–1877, and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are regular sailings to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect the inner harbour from the high tides. The only noteworthy buildings are the town hall (1730–1733), the West church, which consists of a part of the former castle of Harlingen, the Roman Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the schools of navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese, cattle, sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable import trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the Twente factories. The local industries are unimportant, consisting of saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and margarine factories.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harmattan

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​HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows during December, January and February on the coast of Upper Guinea, bringing a high dense haze of red dust which darkens the air. The natives smear their bodies with oil or fat while this parching wind is blowing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harmodius

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​HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate friend of Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of the tyrant Hippias, endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the good graces of Harmodius, but, failing in the attempt, revenged himself by putting a public affront on Harmodius’s sister at a solemn festival. Thereupon the two friends conspired with a few others to murder both the tyrants during the armed procession at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the people were allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle in Ath. Pol.). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias, and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely attacked and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down on the spot by the guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured and tortured to death. When Hippias was expelled (510), Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most popular of Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the Prytaneum, and their names were celebrated in popular songs and scolia (after-dinner songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of these songs, attributed to a certain Callistratus, is preserved in Athenaeus (p. 695). Their statues by Antenor in the agora were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new ones by Critius and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back the originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at Naples, for which see article Greek Art, Pl. I. fig. 50.
See Köpp in Neue Jahrb. f. klass. Altert. (1902), p. 609.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harlay de Champvallon, François de

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​HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANÇOIS DE (1625–1695), 5th archbishop of Paris, was born in that city on the 14th of August 1625. Nephew of François de Harlay, archbishop of Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of Jumièges immediately on leaving the Collège de Navarre, and he was only twenty-six when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the king for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was erected into a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the order of the Saint Esprit and a member of the French Academy. During the early part of his political career he was a firm adherent of Mazarin, and is said to have helped to procure his return from exile. His private life gave rise to much scandal, but he had a great capacity for business, considerable learning, and was an eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely secured the favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the Gallican Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him of truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses of the king’s marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated by her for using his influence with the king to keep the matter secret. He had a weekly audience of Louis XIV. in company with Père la Chaise on the affairs of the Church in Paris, but his influence gradually declined, and Saint-Simon, who bore him no good will for his harsh attitude to the Jansenists, says that his friends deserted him as the royal favour waned, until at last most of his time was spent at Conflans in company with the duchess of Lesdiguières, who alone was faithful to him. He urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great severity to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal and spiritual lord. He died suddenly, without having received the sacraments, on the 6th of August 1695. His funeral discourse was delivered by the Père Gaillard, and Mme de Sévigné made on the occasion the severe comment that there were only two trifles to make this a difficult matter—his life and his death.
See Abbé Legendre, Vita Francisci de Harlay (Paris, 1720) and Éloge de Harlay (1695); Saint-Simon, Mémoires (vol. ii., ed. A. de Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the Lettres of Mme de Sévigné.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harmonia

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​HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When the government of Thebes was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena, Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All the gods honoured the wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the gods) presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who possessed it. With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade her husband Amphiaraus to undertake the expedition against Thebes. It led to the death of Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus and his sons. Even after it had been deposited in the temple of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful influence continued. Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred War (352 B.C.) carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had worn it for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the house, and she perished in the flames. According to another account, Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter of Zeus and Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of the mystic rites celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48). Finally, Harmonia is rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite Pandemos, the love that unites all people, the personification of order and civic unity, corresponding to the Roman Concordia.
Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, Erotica, 25; L. Preller, Griech. Mythol.; Crusius in Roscher’s Lexikon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harmonic

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​HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone which accompanies the fundamental or primary tone of a vibrating string, reed, &c.; the more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and octave (see Sound; Harmony). A harmonic proportion in arithmetic and algebra is such that the reciprocals of the proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, if a, b, c be in harmonic proportion then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in arithmetical proportion; this leads to the relation 2/b＝ac/(a＋c). A harmonic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals form an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is: ​1＋1/2＋1/3＋1/4＋. . . (see Algebra and Arithmetic). The occurrence of a similar proportion between segments of lines is the foundation of such phrases as harmonic section, harmonic ratio, harmonic conjugates, &c. (see Geometry: II. Projective). The connexion between acoustical and mathematical harmonicals is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery that a vibrating string when stopped at 1/2 and 2/3 of its length yielded the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, 1 2/3, 1/2 being said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic proportion. The mathematical investigation of the form of a vibrating string led to such phrases as harmonic curve, harmonic motion, harmonic function, harmonic analysis, &c. (see Mechanics and Spherical Harmonics).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrosphere

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​HYDROSPHERE (Gr. ὕδωρ, water, and σφαῖρα, sphere), in physical geography, a name given to the whole mass of the water of the oceans, which fills the depressions in the earth’s crust, and covers nearly three-quarters of its surface. The name is used in distinction from the atmosphere, the earth’s envelope of air, the lithosphere (Gr. λίθος, rock) or solid crust of the earth, and the centrosphere or interior mass within the crust. To these “spheres” some writers add, by figurative usage, the terms “biosphere,” or life-sphere, to cover all living things, both animals and plants, and “psychosphere,” or mind-sphere, covering all the products of human intelligence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrography

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​HYDROGRAPHY (Gr. ὕδωρ, water, and γράφειν, to write), the science dealing with all the waters of the earth’s surface, including the description of their physical features and conditions; the preparation of charts and maps showing the position of lakes, rivers, seas and oceans, the contour of the sea-bottom, the position of shallows, deeps, reefs and the direction and volume of currents; a scientific description of the position, volume, configuration, motion and condition of all the waters of the earth. See also Surveying (Nautical) and Ocean and Oceanography. The Hydrographic Department of the British Admiralty, established in 1795, undertakes the making of charts for the admiralty, and is under the charge of the hydrographer to the admiralty (see Chart).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrolysis

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​HYDROLYSIS (Gr. ὕδωρ, water, λύειν, to loosen), in chemistry, a decomposition brought about by water after the manner shown in the equation R·X + H·OH = R·H + X·OH. Modern research has proved that such reactions are not occasioned by water acting as H$_2$O, but really by its ions (hydrions and hydroxidions), for the velocity is proportional (in accordance with the law of chemical mass action) to the concentration of these ions. This fact explains the so-called “catalytic” action of acids and bases in decomposing such compounds as the esters. The term “saponification” (Lat. sapo, soap) has the same meaning, but it is more properly restricted to the hydrolysis of the fats, i.e. glyceryl esters of organic acids, into glycerin and a soap (see Chemical Action).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrodynamics

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​HYDRODYNAMICS (Gr. ὕδωρ, water, δύναμις, strength), the branch of hydromechanics which discusses the motion of fluids (see Hydromechanics).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Daniell, Thomas

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​DANIELL, THOMAS (1749–1840), English landscape painter, was born at the Chertsey inn, kept by his father, in 1749, and apprenticed to an heraldic painter. Daniell, however, was animated with a love of the romantic and beautiful in architecture and nature. Up to 1784 he painted topographical subjects and flower pieces. By this time his two nephews (see below) had come under his influence, the younger, Samuel, being apprenticed to Medland the landscape engraver, and the elder, William, being under his own care. In this year (1784) he embarked for India accompanied by William, and found at Calcutta ample encouragement. Here he remained ten years, and on returning to London he published his largest work, Oriental Scenery, in six large volumes, not completed till 1808. From 1795 till 1828 he continued to exhibit Eastern subjects, temples, jungle hunts, &c., and at the same time continued the publication of illustrated works. These are—Views of Calcutta; Oriental Scenery, 144 plates; Views in Egypt; Excavations at Ellora; Picturesque Voyage to China. These were for the most part executed in aquatint. He was elected an Academician in 1799, fellow of the Royal Society about the same time, and at different times member of several minor societies. His nephews both died before him; his Indian period had made him independent, and he lived a bachelor life in much respect at Kensington till his death on the 19th of March 1840.
William Daniell (1769–1837), his nephew, was fourteen when he accompanied his uncle to India. His own publications, engraved in aquatint, were—Voyage to India; Zoography; Animated Nature; Views of London; Views of Bootan, a work prepared from his uncle’s sketches; and a Voyage Round Great Britain, which occupied him several years. The British Institution made him an award of £100 for a “Battle of Trafalgar,” and he was elected R.A. in 1822. He turned to panorama painting before his death, beginning in 1832 with Madras, the picture being enlivened by a representation of the Hindu mode of taming wild elephants.
Samuel Daniell, William’s younger brother, was brought up as an engraver, and first appears as an exhibitor in 1792. A few years later he went to the Cape and travelled into the interior of Africa, with his sketching materials in his haversack. The drawings he made there were published, after his return, in his African Scenery. He did not rest long at home, but left for Ceylon in 1806, where he spent the remaining years of his life, publishing The Scenery, Animals and Natives of Ceylon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Daniel of Kiev

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​DANIEL (Danil), of Kiev, the earliest Russian travel-writer, and one of the leading Russian travellers in the middle ages. He journeyed to Syria and other parts of the Levant about 1106–1107. He was the igumen, or abbot, of a monastery probably near Chernigov in Little Russia: some identify him with one Daniel, bishop of Suriev (fl. 1115–1122). He visited Palestine in the reign of Baldwin I., Latin king of Jerusalem (1100–1118), and apparently soon after the crusading capture of Acre (1104); he claims to have accompanied Baldwin, who treated him with marked friendliness, on an expedition against Damascus (c. 1107). Though Daniel’s narrative, beginning (as it practically ends) at Constantinople, omits some of the most interesting sections of his journey, his work has considerable value. His picture of the Holy Land preserves a record of conditions (such as the Saracen raiding almost up to the walls of Christian Jerusalem, and the friendly relations subsisting between Roman and Eastern churches in Syria) peculiarly characteristic of the time; his account of Jerusalem itself is remarkably clear, minute and accurate; his three excursions—to the Dead Sea and Lower Jordan (which last he compares to a river of Little Russia, the Snov), to Bethlehem and Hebron, and towards Damascus—gave him an exceptional knowledge of certain regions. In spite of some extraordinary blunders in topography and history, his observant and detailed record, marked by evident good faith, is among the most valuable of medieval documents relating to Palestine: it is also important in the history of the Russian language, and in the study of ritual and liturgy (from its description of the Easter services in Jerusalem, the Descent of the Holy Fire, &c.). Several Russian friends and companions, from Kiev and Old Novgorod, are recorded by Daniel as present with him at the Easter Eve “miracle,” in the church of the Holy Sepulchre.
There are seventy-six MSS. of Daniel’s Narrative, of which only five are anterior to A.D. 1500; the oldest is of 1475 (St Petersburg, Library of Ecclesiastical History 9/1086). Three editions exist, of which I. P. Sakharov’s (St Petersburg, 1849) is perhaps the best known (in Narratives of the Russian People, vol. ii. bk. viii. pp. 1-45). See also the French version in Itinéraires russes en orient, ed M$^e$ B. de Khitrovo (Geneva, 1889) (Société de l’orient latin); and the account of Daniel in C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 155-174. (C. R. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dannat, William T.

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​DANNAT, WILLIAM T. (1853– ), American artist, was born in New York city in 1853. He was a pupil of the Royal Academy of Munich and of Munkacsy, and became an accomplished draughtsman and a distinguished figure and portrait painter. He early attracted attention with sketches and pictures made in Spain, and a large composition, “The Quartette,” now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, was one of the successes of the Paris Salon of 1884. Dannat settled in Paris, ​became an officer of the Legion of Honour, and is represented in the Luxembourg.