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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren, Mercy

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​WARREN, MERCY (1728-1814), American writer, sister of James Otis (q.v.), was born at Barnstable, Mass., and in 1754 married James Warren (1726-1808) of Plymouth Mass., a college friend of her brother. Her literary inclinations were fostered by both these men, and she began early to write poems and prose essays. As member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1766-1774) and its speaker (1776-1777 and 1787-1788), member (1774 and 1775) and president (1775) of the Provincial Congress, and paymaster-general in 1775, James Warren took a leading part in the events of the American revolutionary period, and his wife followed its progress with keen interest. Her gifts of satire were utilized in her political dramas, The Adulator (1773) and The Group (1775); and John Adams, whose wife Abigail was Mercy Warren's close friend, encouraged her to further efforts. Her tragedies, “The Sack of Rome” and “The Ladies of Castile,” were included in her Poems, Dramatic and Miscellaneous (1790), dedicated to General Washington. Apart from their historical interest among the beginnings of American literature, Mercy Warren's poems have no permanent value. In 1805 she published a History of the American Revolution, which was coloured by somewhat outspoken personal criticism and was bitterly resented by John Adams (see his correspondence, published by the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1878). James Warren died in 1808, and his wife followed him on the 19th of October 1814.
See Elizabeth F. Ellet, Women of the Revolution (1856; new ed., 1900); an article by Annie Russell Marble in the New England Magazine (April 1903); Alice Brown, Mercy Warren (New York, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren, Minton

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​WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907), an American classical scholar, was born at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, on the 29th of January 1850, a descendant of Richard Warren, who sailed in the “Mayflower” in 1620. He was educated at Tufts College and subsequently at Yale. After three years as a schoolmaster, he went to Germany to complete his studies in comparative philology and especially in Latin language and literature. Having taken the degree of doctor of philosophy at Strassburg in 1879, he returned to the United States as Latin professor at Johns Hopkins University. In 1899 he was appointed Latin professor at Harvard. His life-work was a new edition of Terence, which, however, he left unfinished at his death. He was director of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome (1897-1899), and president of the American Philological Association (1898). Among his publications are: “Enclitic Ne in Early Latin” (Strassburg dissert., reprinted in Amer. Journ. of Philol., 1881); On Latin Glossaries, with especial reference to the Codex Sangallensis (St. Gall Glossary) (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1885); The Stele Inscription in the Roman Forum (Amer. Journ. of Philol., vol. xxviii. No. 3, and separately in 1908). He died on the 26th of November 1907.
See Harvard Magazine (Jan. 1908) and W. M. Lindsay in Classical Review (Feb. 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren (Ohio)

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​WARREN, a city and the county-seat of Trumbull county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Mahoning river, about 50 m. S.E. of Cleveland, and 14 m. N. W. of Youngstown. Pop. (1890) 5973, (1900) 8529 (1161 foreign-born); (1910) 11,081. Warren is served by the Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways. The city has a public library and a hospital. The surrounding country is devoted to farming, dairying and coal and iron mining. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $2,414,379. The first permanent white settlement on the site of Warren (Then owned by Connecticut) was made in 1799 by settlers from Washington county, Pennsylvania. Warren was named in honour of a surveyor—Moses Warren, of New Lyme, Connecticut—employed by the Connecticut Land Company, which sold the land to the first settlers. The county was named in honour of Governor Jonathan Trumbull of Connecticut. Warren was chartered as a city in 1834. For several years before September 1909 Warren was the national headquarters of the National American Woman’s Suffrage Association.
See History of Trumbull and Mahoning Counties (2 vols., Cleveland, Ohio, 1882), and H. T. Upton, History of Trumbull County (Chicago, 1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren, Joseph

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​WARREN, JOSEPH (1741-1775), American politician, was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 11th of June 1741. He graduated from Harvard College in 1759, taught in a school at Roxbury in 1760-1761, studied medicine, and began to practise in Boston in 1764. The Stamp Act agitation aroused his interest in public questions. He soon became associated with Samuel Adams, John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., as a leader of the popular party, and contributed articles and letters to the Boston Gazette over the signature “True Patriot.” The efforts of Samuel Adams to secure the appointment of committees of correspondence met with his hearty support, and he and Adams were the two leading members of the first Boston committee of correspondence, chosen in 1772. As chairman of a committee appointed for the purpose, he drafted the famous “Suffolk Resolves,” which were unanimously adopted by a convention at Milton (q.v.) on the 9th of September 1774. These “resolves” urged forcible opposition to Great Britain if it should prove to be necessary, pledged submission to such measures as the Continental Congress might recommend, and favoured the calling of a provincial congress. Warren was a member of the first three provincial congresses (1774-1775), president of the third, and an active member of the committee of public safety. He took an active part in the fighting on the 19th of April, was appointed major-general of the Massachusetts troops, next in rank to Artemas Ward, on the 14th of June 1775; and three days later, before his commission was made out, he took part as a volunteer, under the orders of Putnam and Prescott, in the battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill), where he was killed. Next to the Adamses, Warren was the most influential leader of the extreme Whig faction in Massachusetts. His tragic death strengthened their zeal for the popular cause and helped to prepare the way for the acceptance of the Declaration of Independence. Warren's speeches are typical examples of the old style of American political eloquence. His best-known orations were those delivered in Old South Church on the second and fifth anniversaries (1772 and 1775) of the “Boston Massacre.”
The standard biography is Richard Frothingham's Life and Times of Joseph Warren (Boston, 1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren, Sir John Borlase

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​WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, Bart. (1753-1822), English admiral, was born at Stapleford, Nottinghamshire, on the 2nd of September 1753, being the son and heir of John Borlase Warren (d. 1775) of Stapleford and Little Marlow. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and in 1771 entered the navy as an able seaman; in 1774 he became member of parliament for Marlow; and in 1775 he was created a baronet, the baronetcy held by his ancestors, the Borlases, having become extinct in 1689. His career as a seaman really began in 1777, and two years later he obtained command of a ship. In April 1794, in charge of a squadron of frigates, Warren captured three French frigates, and in similar ways he did excellent service for some time in protecting British trade. In 1796 he is said to have captured or destroyed 220 vessels. Perhaps his best deed in the service was the defeat in October 1798 of a French fleet, carrying 5000 men, which it was intended to land in Ireland, a plan which he completely frustrated. In 1802 he was sent to St Petersburg as ambassador extraordinary, but he did not forsake the sea, and in 1806 he captured a large French warship, the “Marengo.” He became an admiral in 1810, and was commander-in-chief on the North American station in 1813-1814. He died on the 27th of February 1822. His two sons predeceased their father, and his daughter and heiress, Frances Maria (1784-1837), married George Charles Venables-Vernon, 4th Lord Vernon (1779-1835). Their son was George John Warren Vernon, 5th Lord Vernon (1803-1866).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warrensburg

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​WARRENSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Johnson county, Missouri, U.S.A., on a hilly site near the Blackwater Fork of the La Mine river, in the west central part of the state, about 65 m. S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 4706; (1900) 4724, including 556 negroes and 127 foreign-born; (1910) 4689. It is served by the Missouri Pacific railway. The city is the seat of a state normal school (opened in 1872), and among the prominent buildings are the court house and the railway station, both built of local sandstone. Pertle Springs, about 11/2m. S., ​is a summer resort. Warrensburg is a shipping and supply point for a rich farming region. In the immediate vicinity there are extensive quarries of a blue sandstone, one of the best building stones of the state. Warrensburg was made the county-seat in 1836. Its settlement dates from a little earlier. The present city is not on the site of the original settlement, but is near it; the old town was abandoned in 1857, when the railway passed by it. During the Civil War Warrensburg was a Union post.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wazirabad

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​WAZIRABAD, a town of British India, in Gujranwala district of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) 18,069. It is an important railway junction. The main line of the North-Western railway here crosses the Chenab by the Alexandra bridge, opened by the prince of Wales in 1876. The branch to Sialkot has been extended to Jammu (51 m.); another branch follows the line of the Chenab canal towards Multan. Boat-building and manufactures of steel and iron are carried on.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wazzān

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​WAZZĀN, a small hillside town, 60 m. N.W. by N. of Fez, Morocco. It has a considerable trade with the country round, and manufactures a coarse white woollen cloth with rough surface from which the hooded cloaks (called jellábs) are made. Its proudest name is Dár D'manah—House of Safety—as it is sanctuary for any who gain its limits, on account of the tomb of a sainted Idrisi Sharif, who lived there in 1727. It is the headquarters of his descendants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wayzgoose

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​WAYZGOOSE, a term for the annual dinner and outing of printers and their employés. The derivation of the term is doubtful. It may be a misspelling for “wasegoose,” from wase, Mid. Eng. for “sheaf,” thus meaning sheaf or harvest goose, the bird that was fit to eat at harvest-time, the “stubble-goose” mentioned by Chaucer in “The Cook's Prologue.” It is more probable that the merry-making which has become particularly associated with the printers' trade was once general, and an imitation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes, in Brabant, at Martinmas. The relations of England and Holland were formerly very close, and it is not difficult to believe that any outing or yearly banquet might have grown to be called colloquially a “Waes-Goose.” It is difficult to explain why the term should only have survived in the printing trade, though the English printers owed much to their Dutch fellow-workers. Certainly the goose has long ago parted company with the printers' wayzgoose, which is usually held in July, though it has no fixed season. An unlikely suggestion is that the original wayzgoose was a feast given by an apprentice to his comrades at which the bird formed the staple eatable.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wazir

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​WAZIR, or Vizier (Arabic wazir), a minister, usually the principal minister under a Mahommedan ruler. In India the nawab of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the title of minister to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary in the family.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weald, The

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​WEALD, THE, a district in the south-east of England. It includes the portions of Sussex, Kent and Surrey which are enclosed between the North and South Downs—a district of Lower Cretaceous rocks encircled by Upper Cretaceous hills. It extends from Frensham and Petersfield on the Hampshire borders to the English Channel between Folkestone and Eastbourne. With the exception of the easternmost part, it drains by rivers running northward and southward through gaps in the Downs, the origin of which is considered under that heading. The Weald was formerly covered by the forest of Andredesleah or Andredsweald (“the wood or forest without habitations”), which was 120 m. in length and about 30 in greatest breadth. About 1660 the total area under forest was estimated at over 200,000 acres. The chief remains of the ancient forests are Ashdown, St Leonards and Tilgate, and the nomenclature often indicates the former extent of woodland, as in the case of Hurstpierpoint (hurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst, Billingshurst, Ashurst and many others. The forests were interspersed with lagoons, and the rainfall being very great caused marshes, but it abated in consequence of the cutting down of the Wealden forests for fuel in the extensive ironworks that formerly existed in the district. The locality best preserving the ancient character of the Weald is the hilly district in the centre, forming a ​picturesque broken range running east and west under the name of the Forest Ridges. This forms the main water-parting of the Weald, dividing the Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent, and was also the seat of the iron industry which was prosecuted by the Romans and probably earher, reached its highest importance in the 16th and 17th centuries, and was maintained even till the early years of the 19th century. The Andredesleah had an early historical interest as forming a physical barrier which kept the South Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms. Descending from over sea upon the coastal district of Sussex, to which they gave name, towards the close of the 5th century, they populated it thickly, and maintained independence, in face of the accretions of the West Saxon kingdom, for upwards of a hundred years.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waynesboro

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​WAYNESBORO, a borough of Franklin county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 14 m. S .E. of Chambersburg, and about 65 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 3811; (1900) 5396; (1910) 7199. Waynesboro is served by the Cumberland Valley and the Western Maryland railways. It lies at the foot of the South Mountain, and under the borough are many caves and caverns. A settlement was made here about 1734; it was called Mount Vernon for twenty years, and then Wallacetown (in honour of an early settler) until the close of the War of Independence, when it was named Waynesborough in honour of General Anthony Wayne; a village was platted in 1797; its charter as a borough, granted in 1818, was repealed in 1824 but was revived in 1830, the spelling being changed to “Waynesboro.”
See Benjamin M. Nead, Waynesboro (Harrisburg, Pa., 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zutphen

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​ZUTPHEN, or Zutfen, a town in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Ysel at the influx of the Berkel, and a junction station 18 m. by rail N.N.E. of Arnhem. Pop. 19,000. It is a picturesque old town with several brick houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. The most important building is the Groote Kerk, of St Walpurgis, which dates from the 12th century and contains monuments of the former counts of Zutphen, a 13th-century candelabrum, an elaborate copper font (1527), and a fine modern monument to the van Heeckeren family. The chapter-house contains a pre-Reformation library which includes some valuable MSS. and incunabula. There are some remains of the old town walls. The place has an active trade, especially in grain and in the timber floated down from the Black Forest by the Rhine and the Ysel; the industries include tanning, weaving, and oil and paper manufactures. Not far from Zutphen on the west at Monnikhuizen once stood the Carthusian convent founded by Reinald III., duke of Gelderland, in 1342 and dissolved in 1572. About 3 m. to the north of Zutphen is the agricultural colony of Nederlandsch-Mettray, founded by a private benefactor for the education of poor friendless boys in 1851, and since that date largely extended.
In the middle ages Zutphen was the seat of a line of counts, which became extinct in the 12th century. Having been fortified the town stood several sieges, specially during the wars of freedom waged by the Dutch, the most celebrated fight under its walls being the one in September 1586 when Sir Philip Sidney was mortally wounded. Taken by the Spaniards in 1587 Zutphen was recovered by Maurice, prince of Orange, in 1591, and except for two short periods, one in 1672 and the other during the French Revolutionary Wars, it has since then remained a part of the United Netherlands. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1874.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zwickau

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​ZWICKAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a pleasant valley at the foot of the Erzgebirge, on the left bank of the Zwickauer Mulde, 41 m. S. of Leipzig and 20 m. S.W. of Chemnitz on the main line of railway Dresden-Hof and at the junction of several other lines. Pop. (1834) 6701; (1880) 35,005; (1890) 44,198; (1905) 68,502. Among the nine churches, the fine Gothic church of St Mary (1451-1536 and restored 1885-91), with a spire 285 ft. high and a bell weighing 5½ tons, is remarkable. The church contains an altar with wood-carving and eight pictures by Michael Wohlgemuth and a remarkable Pietà in carved and painted wood, probably by Veit Stoss. The late Gothic church of St Catharine (restored 1893-94) has an altarpiece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the Elder, and is memorable for the pastorate (1520-22) of Thomas Münzer. Of the secular buildings the most noteworthy are the town-hall of 1581, with the municipal archives, including documents dating back to the 13th century and an autograph MS. of the works of Hans Sachs, and the late Gothic Gewandhaus (cloth merchants' hall), built 1522-24 and now in part converted into a theatre. The manufactures of Zwickau include spinning and weaving, machinery, motor-cars, chemicals, porcelain, paper, glass, dyestuffs, wire goods, tinware, stockings, and curtains. There are also steam saw-mills, diamond and glass polishing works, iron-foundries, and breweries. Though no longer relatively so important as when it lay on the chief trade route from Saxony to Bohemia and the Danube, Zwickau carries on considerable commerce in grain, linen, and coal. The mainstay of the industrial prosperity of the town is the adjacent coalfield, which in 1908 employed 13,000 hands, and yields 2½ million tons of coal annually. The mines are mentioned as early as 1348; but they have only been actively worked since 1823, during which time the population has increased more than tenfold.
Zwickau is of Slavonic origin, and is mentioned in 1118 as a trading place. The name is fancifully derived from the Latin cygnea, from a tradition that placed a "swan lake" here which had the property of renewing the youth of those who bathed in it. Zwickau was an imperial possession, but was pledged to Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen (d. 1288). The German king Charles VI. conferred it as a fief in 1348 on the margraves of Meissen, and it thus passed to their successors the electors of Saxony. The discovery of silver in the Schneeberg in 1470 brought it much wealth. The Anabaptist movement of 1525 began at Zwickau under the inspiration of the "Zwickau prophets" Robert Schumann (1810-1856), the musical composer, was born here in a house which still stands in the market-place.
See Herzog, Chronik der Kreisstadt Zwickau (2 vols., Zwickau, 1839-45), Geschichte des Zwickauer Steinkohlenbaues (Dresden, 1852); Hansch, Das Zwickau-Chemnitzer Kohlengebiet (Meissen, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zunz, Leopold

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​ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794-1886), Jewish scholar, was born at Detmold in 1794, and died in Berlin in 1886. He was the founder of what has been termed the "science of Judaism," the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and ritual. Early in the 19th century he was associated with Gans Moser and Heine in an association which the last named called "Young Palestine." The ideals of this Verein were not destined to bear religious fruit, but the "science of Judaism" survived. Zunz took no large share in Jewish reform, but never lost faith in the regenerating power of "science" as applied to the traditions and literary legacies of the ages. He had thoughts of becoming a preacher, but found the career uncongenial. He influenced Judaism from the study rather than from the pulpit. In 1832 appeared what E. H. Hirsch rightly terms "the most important Jewish book published in the 19th century." This was Zunz's Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden, i.e. a history of the Sermon. It lays down principles for the investigation of the Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash, q.v.) and of the prayer-book of the synagogue. This book raised Zunz to the supreme position among Jewish scholars. In 1840 he was appointed director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which relieved him from pecuniary troubles. In 1845 appeared his Zur Geschichte und Literatur, in which he threw light on the literary and social history of the Jews. Zunz was always interested in politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings. In 1850 he resigned his headship of the Teachers' Seminary, and was awarded a pension. He had visited the British Museum in Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters (1855). It was from this book that George Eliot translated the following opening of a chapter of Daniel Deronda: "If there are ranks in suffering, Israel takes precedence of all the nations" . . . &c. After its publication Zunz again visited England, and in 1859 issued his Ritus. In this he gives a masterly survey of synagogal rites. His last great book was his Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie (1865). A supplement appeared in 1867. Besides these works, Zunz published a new edition of the Bible, and wrote many essays which were afterwards collected as Gesammelte Schriften. Throughout his early and married life he was the champion of Jewish rights, and he did not withdraw from public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelhei Beermann, whom he had married in 1822.
See Emil G. Hirsch, in Jewish Encyclopedia, xii. 699-704. (I. A.)