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# The New International Encyclopædia/Muhlenberg, Heinrich Melchior

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Muhlenberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
MUHLENBERG, Heinrich Melchior (1711-87). The founder of American Lutheranism. He
was born at Eimbeck, Prussia, September 6, 1711. His parents were Saxon, but having suffered greatly in the Thirty Years' War, removed to Eimbeck. The death of his father in his twelfth year threw the family into poverty and occasioned an interruption of his studies, and till his twenty-first year he toiled incessantly to assist in the support of the family. In 1735 he entered the University of Göttingen, where he remained three years. Graduating at Göttingen, he went to Halle in 1738, where, besides studying, he taught in the orphan house. He associated intimately with Francke, Cellarius, and Fabricius. Soon after his ordination application came to Germany from Pennsylvania for some one to be sent to labor among the destitute Lutherans of that colony. The faculty immediately selected Muhlenberg, who was then in his thirty-first year. He accepted the appointment, and the better to qualify himself went to London, where he acquired facility in the use of English. He reached America in 1742, to the great joy of the German Christians. His arrival marked a new era in the history of the Lutheran Church in the United States, its condition gradually improved, and frequent accessions were made to the ranks of the ministry of men educated at Halle and thoroughly devoted to their work. He took the pastoral care of the associated churches of Philadelphia, New Hanover, and New Providence (now Trappe, some 25 miles northwest of Philadelphia), which had united in calling a minister, and these three congregations were the principal scenes of his ministerial labors. The first three years of his ministry he resided in Philadelphia, the next sixteen in New Providence. In 1761 he removed to Philadeljihia, but in 1776 went back to New Providence. During the War of the Revolution his sympathy with the colonists excited great opposition, and his life was often in peril. Consult his autobiography to 1743 (in German) edited by Germann (Altoona, 1881), and his Life by Mann (Philadelphia, 1887), and Frick (Philadelphia, 1902); also Oschsenford, Muhlenberg College, a Quarter-Centennial Memorial Volume (Allentown, 1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel

Edition of 1905. See also Peter Muhlenberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
MUHLENBERG, John Peter Gabriel (1746-1807). A Lutheran preacher and leader in the Revolutionary War, son of Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg (q.v.). He was born at Trappe, Pa., October 1, 1740, and sent to the University of Halle to be educated, but ran away, and passed a year as a private in the dragoons. Returning to America, 1766, he studied for the Lutheran ministry; was called to Virginia, 1771; to have a legal standing as a clergyman there, went to England, 1772, and was onlained by the Bishop of London; in same year was settled at Woodstock, Va. Soon after the beginning of the Revolutionary War, he told his congregation that there was a time to preach and a time to fight, and at the close of the services he threw off his gown, showing himself in full uniform, and read from the pulpit his commission as colonel. He had the drummers strike up for volunteers, and many of his congregation volunteered and joined his regiment, the Eighth Virginia, popularly known as the German regiment, afterwards noted for its courage and good discipline. In 1774 he was a member of the House of Burgesses, and served on the committee of safety, and two years later he sat in the State convention. He
participated in the fighting at Charleston in 1776, and was made brigadier-general the following year, and placed in coniniand of the Virginia line. He took part in the battles of the Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth, and in the capture of Stony Point. He defended Virginia against the expeditions of Leslie and Arnold, and was commander-in-chief there till the arrival of Steuben. Upon the invasion of Virginia by Cornwallis, he was next in command to Lafayette, and at the siege of Yorktown he was in command of the first brigade of light infantry. He retired at the close of the war with the rank of major-general. Soon after, he settled in Pennsylvania. He served in Congress in 1789-91, 1793-95, and 1799-1801. In the latter year he was chosen United States Senator, but resigned when Congress met to become Supervisor of Revenue for the District of Pennsylvania, and in 1803 he was appointed Collector of the Port of Philadelphia, in which position he died near Philadelphia, October 1, 1807. Consult his Life by his great-nephew, Henry A. Muhlenberg (Philadelphia, 1849).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Muhlenberg, William Augustus

Edition of 1905. See also William Augustus Muhlenberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
MUHLENBERG, William Augustus (1796-1877). An American Episcopal clergyman and philanthropist, grandson of H. M. Muhlenberg. He was born in Philadelphia, and graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1814. Three years later he was ordained deacon, and served as assistant to Bishop White at Christ Church, Philadelphia. Ordained priest in 1820, he was rector from 1821 to 1828 of Saint James's Church, Lancaster, Pa., where he helped to establish the first public school in the State outside of Philadelphia. He founded in 1828 at Flushing, L. I., a school afterwards known as Saint Paul's, of which he was principal until 1846. Then he was rector of the Church of the Holy Communion in New York until 1858, in the latter year becoming superintendent and pastor of Saint Luke's Hospital, which he had founded. In the later years of his life he was instrumental in establishing an industrial Christian settlement at Saint Johnland, L. I. He died in Saint Luke's Hospital, April 8, 1877. To trace his effect upon his time would be to record the origin of several of the most important movements within the Episcopal Church. Thus he made his New York parish the first free-seat church of his communion in America; he organized the first sisterhood within the same limits in 1845, known as the Sisterhood of the Holy Communion; and the important later developments in the direction of Christian unity (see Episcopal Church) and of liturgical enrichment and flexibility both really grew out of his memorial to the House of Bishops in 1853. Church music and hymnody also owe much to him; he published three books in this department; but his most important literary work is contained in Evangelical Catholic Papers (1875-77). For his life, consult biographies by Ayres (New York, 1880) and Newton (ib., 1890); also Coleman, The Church in America (ib., 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Muhlenberg College

Edition of 1905. See also Muhlenberg College on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
MUHLENBERG COLLEGE. A collegiate institution at Allentown, Pa., under the control of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, incorporated in 1867. It consists of a preparatory and a collegiate department, the latter with classical and scientific courses leading to the degrees of B.A. and B.S. The total attendance in 1902 was 137. The faculty numbered 13. The college library contained 12,000 volumes. The campus of five
acres and the college buildings were valued at $100,000. In 1902 a new site of 52 acres was purchased, on which new buildings were begun, at an estimated cost of $200,000. The income for the year was $16,764, and the endowment was $163,977.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hashish

Edition of 1905. See also Hashish on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASHISH, hắsh'ēsh (Ar. ḥashīshat, from Ar. ḥashīsh, herbage, hay, from ḥashsha, to cut grass). The Oriental name of the tops and tender parts of Indian hemp (Cannabis Indica). Various preparations of the plant are employed for the producing of a peculiar intoxication. A favorite mode of extracting its active principle is by boiling the tops and flowers with water to which butter or oil has been added, evaporating, and thus forming an oleaginous solution or fatty extract. This fatty extract is frequently mixed with other substances which are reputed to possess aphrodisiac properties, and is taken in the form of electuary confection, or pastil. The majoon used at Calcutta, the mapouchari employed at Cairo, and the dawames or dawamesk of the Arabs, are preparations of this kind. In India it is employed as a narcotic stimulant under the names hashish, churrus bhang, and gunjah. American hemp (Cannabis Americana) possesses a similar but weaker action. The effect of hashish depends largely upon the individual. Among the Orientals the dreams are often of an erotic character, but this is not so among the Western nations. One of the first appreciable effects of the drug is the gradual weakening of the power of controlling and directing of the thoughts. Then comes the stage already described; and accompanying, and in part following it, there are observed errors of sense, false convictions, and the predominance of one or more extravagant ideas. These ideas and convictions are generally not altogether of an imaginary character, but are suggested by external impressions which are erroneously interpreted by the perceptive faculties. A minute may seem a year, and an hour only an instant. Sounds may be greatly exaggerated. The sense of duration of time and extent of space and the appreciation of personality are lost; there is a sensation of weight in the extremities, and anæsthesia of the skin, which may often become complete. Finally, if the dose is sufficiently powerful, there is marked drowsiness and sleep. The drug is used as a sedative as a substitute for opium. For the relief of pain in neuralgia and migraine it has been successfully used.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hatch, Edwin

Edition of 1905. See also Edwin Hatch on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HATCH, Edwin (1835-89). An English theologian, born at Derby. He was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford; was ordained deacon in 1858, and priest in 1859; from 1859 to 1862 was professor of classics in Trinity College, Toronto, Can., from 1862 to 1867 rector of the Quebec High School; and from 1867 to 1885 was vice-principal of Saint Mary Hall, Oxford. In 1883 he became rector of Purleigh, Essex, in 1884 university reader in ecclesiastical history and secretary to the boards of faculties. He was Bampton lecturer in 1880, Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint from 1882 to 1884, and Hibbert lecturer in 1888. The degree of D.D. was conferred upon him by the University of Edinburgh in 1883. He was a founder (1870) and the first editor of the Official Gazette. In theology he was an independent thinker, who sought to effect at Oxford a scientific basis for that study. He published The Student's Handbook to the University and Colleges of Oxford in 1873 {7th ed. 1883), but The Organization of the Early Christian Churches (Bampton Lectures, 1881) was his first important volume. This was rendered into German, by the eminent Dr. Harnack, as Die Gesellschaftsverfassung der christlichen Kirchen in Alterthum (Giessen, 1883). Other works by him were: The Growth of Church Institutions (1887), and Greek Influence on Christianity (the “Hibbert Lectures,” edited by Dr. Fairbairn, 1890). His writings were read and discussed with interest in Scotland, Germany, and the United States, as well as in England. Consult an article by Harnack in the Theologische Litteratur Zeitung (1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasan and Hosein

Edition of 1905. See also Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASAN, hä'san, and HOSEIN, hṓ-sān'. Two grandchildren of Mohammed, sons of his youngest daughter, Fatima, and Ali. After the assassination of Ali (q.v.), his adherents at Cufa recognized his eldest son Hasan as caliph, while Moawiya asserted his claim to the entire Moslem Empire, and gathered a powerful army to invade Irak. Hasan, a man of little courage, with more taste for the harem than the camp, agreed to abdicate at the first taste of war, and retired to Medina (661). He was poisoned by one of his wives eight years later. On the death of Moawiya (680) the people of Cufa made overtures to Hosein, who was then at Mecca visiting him, to claim the caliphate in opposition to Yezid, Moawiya's son. With a small force he proceeded to Irak. Yezid, well informed of the movement, had made ample preparations to receive him, and he was slain at Kerbela on the 10th of Muharram, 681. The fate of the house of Ali made a deep impression on the Moslem world. The Shiites (see Mohammedan Sects) still refuse to recognize the claims to the caliphate of any except Ali and his sons. They observe the 10th of Muharram as a day of mourning, and devote the nine preceding days of the month to the memory of the martyrs. The so-called ‘miracle play,’ a dramatic representation of the history of Hosein, is given, and the spectators become wrought up to the most extravagant expressions of sorrow, and the highest pitch of fanatical enthusiasm. In one of its forms the play lasts for the entire ten days, culminating on the last day in the representation of the death of Hosein. Consult: Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate (London, 1883); Pelly, The Miraele Play of Hasan and Hosein, Collected from Oral Tradition (London, 1879).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Harvard, John

Edition of 1905. See also John Harvard (clergyman) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HAR'VARD, John (1607-38). An English clergyman in New England, the principal founder of Harvard College, born in Southwark, London. His father, Robert Harvard, was a butcher. His mother, who married twice after her first husband's death, became possessed of considerable property, which enabled her to give John Harvard a good education, and he was accordingly sent to Emmanuel College, Cambridge University, where he graduated in 1631, studied theology, and took his master's degree in 1635. In 1637 he married Ann Sadler, the daughter of a clergyman of Sussex, and removed to New England. There he settled at Charlestown, on Massachusetts Bay, where he was admitted a freeman in August, and where he became an assistant pastor of the First Church, of which the Rev. Z. Symmes was in charge. His health soon gave way, however, and he died of consumption on September 18, 1638, after a residence in the Colony of little more than a year. By his will he left his library of 260 volumes and a sum of about £400 to the college at ‘New Towne,’ later Cambridge, for which the General Court of the Colony had made an appropriation of £400 in 1636. A year after the young clergyman's death, in commemoration of his benefaction, the name of Harvard was conferred upon the institution. Consult Rendle, John Harvard (London, 1885).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasenclever, Wilhelm

Edition of 1905. See also Wilhelm Hasenclever on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASENCLEVER, Wilhelm (1837-89). A German socialist agitator, born in Arnsberg, Westphalia. He received his education at the gymnasium of his native city, and then became a tanner. In 1862 he was chosen editor of the Westfälische Volkszeitung, in 1871 president of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein, and in 1875 presiding officer of the newly organized Socialist-Labor Party of Germany. He was elected to the Reichstag several times, and controlled or edited various socialist newspapers.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasenpflug, Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Carl Hasenpflug on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASENPFLUG, hä'zen-pflōōG, Karl (1802-58). A German architectural painter, born in Berlin, the son of a shoemaker. After a hard struggle in early life, he became the pupil of the decorative painter Karl Gropius, and a few years later was enabled by a royal stipend to study at the academy, but really owed his development mostly to his own efforts. Attracted by the mediæval architecture of Halberstadt, he made his home there in 1830, and, besides cathedrals, painted chiefly views of ruined castles and convents half buried in snow, which appealed to a large public by their great poetic charm. Especially noteworthy among his works are two views of Cologne Cathedral (1832-33); Erfurt Cathedral (1827); and three views of and in Halberstadt Cathedral (1828-36, the last four in National Gallery, Berlin); “Cloister in Winter” (1840, Kunsthalle, Hamburg); “Mediæval Castle Yard” (1842, Schwerin Gallery); and “Ruined Chapel” (Stettin Museum).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasidæans

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
HAS'IDÆ'ANS. A Jewish sect. See Chasidim.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasenauer, Karl, Baron von

Edition of 1905. See also Baron Karl von Hasenauer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASENAUER, hä'ze-nou'ẽr, Karl, Baron von (1833-94). An Austrian architect, born in Vienna, where he studied at the academy under Van der Nüll and Siccardsburg, and obtained the first prize in 1854. After having traveled extensively in Germany, Italy, France, England, and Scotland, he entered upon an active career in Vienna, was again awarded the first prize for architecture at the art exhibition of 1864, became a member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1866, and honorary member of the Institute of British Architects in 1868. Among a number of
private palaces built by him, the Palais Lützow is to be noticed as one of the finest houses in Vienna, but his most important work was the erection of the magnificent Imperial Museums of Art and Natural History (1872-91) in purest Renaissance style, after his own and Semper's designs. He also built the new Hofburg theatre (completed 18S8), and designed the addition to the Imperial palace. He was architect for the buildings of the Vienna Exposition in 1873, and was raised to a baronetcy in the same year.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hasenclever, Johann Peter

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Peter Hasenclever on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HASENCLEVER, hä'zen-klā'vẽr, Johann Peter (1810-53). A German painter, born at Remscheid. He studied under Schadow, at the Düsseldorf Academy, and then spent some years in Munich and Italy. After 1842 he settled in Düsseldorf. His works are usually humorous genre subjects, such as “A Family Quarrel” (1837, New Pinakothek, Munich); “Tasting Wine,” and “The Reading Room” (1843, both in National Gallery, Berlin); “Topers in the Wine-cellar” (1847, Ravené Gallery, Berlin). He also executed a series of scenes from Kortum's Jobsiade, including “The Examination” (1840, New Pinakothek, Munich); “The School” (1846, Ravené Gallery, Berlin); and “Jobs as Night Watchman” (1852, ib.). His “Gaming-Table” is his most important work of a serious nature. He was also successful in portraiture.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Minden (Nebraska)

Edition of 1905. See also Minden, Nebraska on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​MINDEN. A city and the county-seat of Kearney County, Neb., 128 miles west by south of Lincoln; on the Chicago, Burlington and ​Quincy Railroad (Map: Nebraska, F 3). It is the centre of a farming and stock-raising district, and has some manufactures. There is a public school library of 3000 volumes. Population, in 1890, 1380; in 1900, 1238.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Minden (Westphalia)

Edition of 1905. See also Minden on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​MIN′DEN. An ancient town in the Province of Westphalia, Prussia, situated on the left bank of the navigable Weser, 39 miles by rail west-southwest of Hanover (Map: Prussia, C 2). It is an old-fashioned town with modern suburbs laid out on the site of the fortifications demolished in 1873. Its public buildings include the thirteenth century cathedral, a fine early Gothic structure with valuable works of art in its treasury; the town hall; the government buildings; and the gymnasium, having an aula decorated with fine paintings. Minden manufactures cigars, glassware, chemicals, chicory, iron products, etc. The trade is quite active. Minden is supposed to be of Roman origin. Charlemagne made it the seat of a bishopric, which was converted into a secular principality in 1648, and united with Brandenburg. Population, in 1890, 20,223; in 1900, 24,327, chiefly Protestants.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mine, Submarine

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​MINE, Submarine. See Torpedo.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mine Gas

Edition of 1905. See also Firedamp on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​MINE GAS. An explosive gas encountered in coal mines, also known as fire-damp. It consists principally of marsh gas (CH₄), which is the combustible element, but it contains also small proportions of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Owing to its light specific gravity—about one-half that of air—it is always found in the upper portions of the workings. The explosive qualities are first shown when the gas is mixed with from four to five volumes of air; when free from air it will not take fire. The danger resulting from the presence of this gas in coal mines has largely been removed, in recent years, by the use of the safety lamp (q.v.) and by improved methods of ventilation. See Coal.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Miner, Alonzo Ames

Edition of 1905. See also Alonzo Ames Miner on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​MI′NER, Alonzo Ames (1814-95). A Universalist minister. He was born at Lempster, N. H. He received an academical education, and after teaching for several years was ordained to the Universalist ministry in 1839, and served as pastor to churches in Methuen, Lowell, and Boston, Mass. He was president of Tufts College, Medford, Mass., from 1862 to 1874, when he returned to his former pastorate of the Second Universalist Church, Boston. He was appointed a member of the Board of Overseers of Harvard University in 1863; was a member of the State Board of Education of Massachusetts from 1869, serving twenty-four years, and chairman of the Board of Visitors to the State Normal School from 1873; was for twenty-one years president of the Massachusetts State Temperance Alliance, and was the Prohibition candidate for Governor in 1878. He was the original projector of the Universalist Publishing House in Boston, and was prominent in the anti-slavery agitation. He edited the journal, The Star of Bethlehem, contributed to periodicals, and published Bible Exercises (1854); Old Forts Taken (1878); and Doctrines of Universalism. His Life has been published by Emerson (Boston, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mindeleff, Cosmos

Edition of 1905. See also Cosmos Mindeleff on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​MIN′DELEFF, Cosmos (1863—), An American archæologist, of Russian parentage. From 1882, when he was attached to the United States Bureau of Ethnology, he devoted himself to the study of the aboriginal habitations of New Mexico and Arizona. He became specially skilled in the modeling of these, and wrote articles upon “The Influence of Geographic Environment” (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, xxix., 1897), and a series upon “Pueblo Arts and Sciences” (Scientific American, 1898). He and his brother, Victor Mindeleff, prepared the first exhaustive report on Pueblo architecture, and Cosmos made plans (1891) for the restoration of the Casa Grande cliff dwellings in Arizona.