OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polypodium

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​ POLYPODIUM, in botany, a large genus of true ferns (q.v.), Widely distributed throughout the world, but specially developed in the tropics. The name is derived from Gr. πολύς, many, and πόδιον, a little foot, on account of the foot-like appearance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ greatly in size and general appearance and in the character of the frond; the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on the back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered with a membrane (indusium) (see fig. 1). The common polypody (fig. 2) (P. vulgare) is widely diffused in the British Isles, where it is found on walls, banks, trees, &c.; the creeping, densely-scaly rootstock bears deeply pinnately cut fronds, the fertile ones bearing on the back the bright yellow naked groups of sporangia (sori). It is also known as adder's foot, golden maidenhair and wood-fern, and is the oakfern of the old herbals.
| Fig. 1.—Portion of a pinna of leaf of Polypodium bearing sori, s, on its back. | Fig. 2.—Polypodium vulgare, common polypody (about ⅓ nat. size). 1. Group of spore-cases (sorus) on back of leaf. |
There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly in the form and division of the pinnae; var. cambricum (originally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut into narrow segments; var. cornubiense is a very elegant plant with finely-divided fronds; var. cristatum is a handsome variety with fronds forking at the apex and the tips of all the pinnae crested and curled. P. dryopteris, generally known as oakfern, is a very graceful plant with delicate fronds, 6 to 12 in. long, the three main branches of which are themselves pinnately divided; it is found in dry, shady places in mountain districts in Great Britain, but is very rare in Ireland. P. phegopteris (beechfern) is a graceful species with a black, slender root-stock, from which the pinnate fronds rise on long stalks, generally about 12 in. long, including the stalk; it is characterized by having the lower pinnae of the frond deflexed; it is generally distributed in Britain, though not common. Many other species from different parts of the world are known in greenhouse cultivation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polyperchon

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POLYPERCHON (incorrectly Polysperchon), one of Alexander's generals, and the successor of Antipater as regent in Macedonia in 319 B.C. He was driven out by Cassander in 317 B.C. (See Phocion.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polyphemus

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POLYPHEMUS, in Greek mythology, the most famous of the Cyclopes, son of Poseidon and the nymph Thoösa. He dwelt in a cave in the south-west corner of Sicily, and was the owner of large flocks and herds. He was of gigantic stature, with one eye in the middle of his forehead, a consumer of human flesh, without respect for the laws of God or man. Odysseus, having been cast ashore on the coast of Sicily, fell into the hands of Polyphemus, who shut him up with twelve of his companions in his cave, and blocked the entrance with an enormous rock. Odysseus at length succeeded in making the giant drunk, blinded him by plunging a burning stake into his eye while he lay asleep, and with six of his friends (the others having been devoured by Polyphemus) made his escape by clinging to the bellies of the sheep let out to pasture. Euripides in Cyclops essentially follows the Homeric account. A later story associates Polyphemus with Galatea (see Acis).
Homer, Odysseus, ix.; Ovid, Metam. xiii. 749; Theocritus xi. See W. Grimm, Die Sage von Polyphem. (1857); G. R. Holland, in Leipziger Studien (1884), vii. 139-312.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richerus

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​RICHERUS, monk of St Remi at Reims, and a chronicler of the 10th century, son of Rodulf, a trusty councillor and captain of Louis IV. He studied at Reims under Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II., who taught him mathematics, history, letters and eloquence. He was also well versed in the medical science of his time, and in 991 travelled to Chartres to consult the medical MSS. there. He was still living in 998, but there is no mention of him after that date. In spite of his violent partisanship,—for Richerus was an ardent upholder of the Carolings and French supremacy,—of great defects of style, and of an utter disregard of accuracy and truth, his Historiae has a unique value as giving us the only tolerably full account by a contemporary of the memorable revolution of 987, which placed the Capets on the throne of France. The History, in four books, begins with Charles the Fat and Eudes, and goes down to the year 995. From 969 onwards Richerus had no earlier history before him, and his work is the chief source for the period. It was first edited in Pertz’s Monumenta Germaniae, vol. iii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richmond, Sir William Blake

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​RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842–), English painter and decorator, was born in London on the 29th of November 1842. His father, George Richmond, R.A. (1809–1896), himself the son of a successful miniature painter, was a distinguished artist, who painted the portraits of the most eminent people of his day, and played an important part in society. At the age of fourteen William Richmond entered the Royal Academy schools, where he worked for about three years. A visit to Italy in 1859 gave him special opportunity for studying the works of the old masters, and had an important effect upon his development. His first Academy picture was a portrait group (1861); and to this succeeded, during the next three years, several other pictures of the same class. In 1865 he returned to Italy, and spent four years there, living chiefly at Rome. To this period belongs the large canvas. “A Procession in Honour of Bacchus,” which he exhibited at the Academy in 1869 when he came back to England. His picture, “An Audience at Athens,” was exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery in 1885. He became Slade professor at Oxford, succeeding Ruskin, in 1878, but resigned three years later. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1888 and Royal Academician in 1895; he received the degree of D.C.L. in 1896, and a knighthood of the Bath in 1897, and became professor of painting to the Royal Academy. Apart from his pictures, he is notable for his work in decorative art, his most conspicuous achievement being the internal decoration and the glass mosaics of St Paul’s Cathedral. Sir William Richmond also took a keen interest in social questions, particularly in smoke-prevention in London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richmond (Kentucky)

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​ RICHMOND, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., about 95 m. S.E. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 5073; (1900) 4653, of whom 2087 were negroes; (1910) 5340. It is served by the Louisville & Atlantic and the Louisville & Nashville railways. It is situated in the “Blue Grass Region,” near the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains. It is the seat of Madison Institute for girls (1856) and of the Eastern Kentucky State Normal School (1906). From 1874 to 1901 it was the seat of Central University, which in the latter year was consolidated with Centre College at Danville, Ky. (q.v.). The surrounding country is devoted largely to the cultivation of tobacco, Indian corn and wheat, and the breeding of fine horses and cattle; and Richmond is an important live-stock market. Among the manufactures are bricks, flour, tobacco and cigars, and carriages. On the 30th of August 1862 a Confederate force of about 7000 men under General Edmund Kirby Smith won a decisive victory here over a Union force of a nearly equal number under Generals Mahlon D. Manson (1820-1895) and William Nelson.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richmond (Victoria)

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​RICHMOND, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 2 m. S.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. It is one of the pleasantest of the metropolitan suburbs, having numerous parks and public gardens. There are a number of prosperous industries in the city. Pop. (1901) 37,722.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richmond, Legh

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​RICHMOND, LEGH (1772–1827), English divine, was born on the 29th of January 1772, at Liverpool. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1798 was appointed to the joint curacies of Brading and Yaverland in the Isle of Wight. He was powerfully influenced by William Wilberforce’s Practical View of Christianity, and took a prominent interest in the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Church Missionary Society and similar institutions. In 1805 he became assistant-chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London, and rector of Turvey, Bedfordshire, where he remained till his death on the 8th of May 1827. The best known of his writings is The Dairyman’s Daughter, of which as many as four millions in nineteen languages were circulated before 1849. A collected edition of his stories of village life was first published in 1814 under the title of Annals of the Poor. He also edited a series of Reformation biographies called Fathers of the English Church (1807–12).
See Memoirs by T. S. Grimshawe (1828); Domestic Portraiture by T. Fry (1833).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richmond (Indiana)

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​RICHMOND, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the E. branch of the Whitewater river, about 68 m. E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 16,608; (1900) 18,226, of whom 1467 were foreign-born and 1009 negroes; (1910 census) 22,324. It is served by the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern and the Ohio electric interurban railways. Richmond has broad well-shaded streets, several parks, including Glen Miller (139 acres), and handsome public buildings. Its public institutions include the Morrisson-Reeves (public) Library (1864), one of the largest (39,000 volumes in 1909) and oldest in the state, an art gallery, the Reid Memorial Hospital, a Home for Friendless Women, the Margaret Smith Home for Aged Women (1888), the Wernle Orphans’ Home (1879; Evangelical Lutheran), and the Eastern Indiana Hospital for the Insane (1890). Just west of the city limits is Earlham College (co-educational), opened in 1847, chartered in 1859 and controlled by the Society of Orthodox Friends; in 1908–9 it had 30 instructors, 620 students and a library of 18,000 bound volumes. Richmond was for many years the centre, west of Philadelphia, of the activities of the Society of Friends. It is an important railway and commercial centre, ​trade in hardware being especially large. Among its manufactures are agricultural machinery (especially seeding machines) and tools, automobiles, pianos, lawn-mowers, roller-skates, foundry and machine-shop products, furniture, burial caskets, and flour. In 1905 its factory product was valued at $6,731,740, an increase of 41.6% since 1900. Pipe lines supply the city with natural gas. The municipality owns and operates the electric lighting plant. In 1806 Friends from North Carolina and Pennsylvania settled near here, and Richmond was platted in 1816. Its growth was slow until the opening of the National Road, which entered Indiana near the city, and the construction of railways. Richmond was incorporated as a village in 1818 and chartered as a borough in 1834 and as a city in 1840.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richfield Springs

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​RICHFIELD SPRINGS, a village of Richfield township, Otsego county, New York, U.S.A., about 22 m. S.S.E. of Utica and 2 m. N. of Schuyler (or Candarago) lake. Pop. (1890) 1623; (1900) 1537; (1905) 1684; (1910) 1503. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway, and by the Oneonta' & Mohawk Valley electric line connecting with the New York Central railway at Herkimer. The village is situated in a farming country, about 1700 ft. above sea-level. Knit goods are manufactured, but the importance of the place is due to its sulphur springs, the waters of which are used for the treatment of skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, etc., and to the tonic air and fine scenery. In 1908 a Welsh eisteddfod was held here in Earlington Park. The first hotels were built between 1820 and 1830. A post office was established here in 1829, and the village was incorporated in 1861.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trévoux

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​TRÉVOUX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Ain, 16 m. N. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 1934. The town is situated on the slope of the left bank of the Saône, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge and is dominated by two towers, remains of a feudal castle of the 12th century. The fortifications date from the 14th century, and the church from the same period. The law-court is a building of the 17th century, and was once the seat of the parlement of Dombes. Trévoux has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. Gold and silver wire-drawing, introduced into the town by Jews in the 14th century, and the manufacture of apparatus for wire-drawing, are its chief industries.
Trévoux (Trevos) was hardly known before the 11th century, after which it was included in the domain of the lords of Thoire-Villars, from whom it acquired its freedom. It was bought by the Bourbons in 1402, became the capital of the Dombes, and had its own mint. In 1603 a well-known printing works was established there, from which in the 18th century the Journal de Trévouse and a universal dictionary known as the Dictionnaire de Trévoux were issued by the Jesuits.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tsaidam

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​TSAIDAM, or more correctly Tsädum, a depression, or self-contained shallow basin in the N.E. of Tibet, crossed by 37° N. and stretching from 92° to 97°. It is separated from the high plateau of Tibet by the Burkhan-Buddha range, and on the N.E. it is bounded by the eastward continuation of the Astintagh ranges, which there consist of four, namely, the lower and upper ranges, and a subsidiary chain flanking the lower range on the north and another subsidiary chain flanking the upper range on the south (see Kuen-Lun).
The valleys which divide the east ranges of the Kuen-Lun system terminate, or rather merge in, the sandy desert basin of Tsaidam; amongst them the Kakir valley between the upper Astin-tagh and the Akato-tagh and the Kum-kol valley between the Kalta-alagan and the range I. of the Arka-tagh (see Kuen-Lun). Tsaidam lies at an altitude of 11,400 ft. or about 3000 ft. lower than the Kumkol lakes, and receives from the valley in which they lie the river Chulak-akkan or Tsagan tokhoy, which rises probably on the north slope of the Shapka-monomakha Mountain, one of the culminating summits in the region north of the Arka-tagh range. “It is very possible that the north-west of Tsaidam, which is perfectly unknown, is broken up into several separate basins. The south-east part of the same great expanse also appears to consist of several smaller basins rather than of one single great basin, each possessing its own salt lake; but then these smaller basins are undoubtedly separated from one another by remarkably low and insignificant thresholds or swellings.” The north-east part of the basin consists of a network of basins, which admit of being grouped in four divisions—Särtäng or Serteng, Makhai, Tsädam or Tsaidam, and Kurlyk or Tosun. The characteristic feature of each of these is that which is found in so many of the valleys of the Tibetan borderland, namely, a pair of linked lakes, one containing salt water and the other fresh water. The only inhabitants of Tsaidam are Mongols—Särtang Mongols in the north and Tajinur Mongols in the south. The south-east part of the region is drained by the Holuzun-nor or Baïn-gol, an affluent of the upper Hwang-ho or Yellow River of China. The Särtäng basin is drained by the Khalting-gol and its tributary the Holuin-gol, which rise in the Humboldt and Ritter Mountains and empty into the lake of Sukhain-nor.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tsar

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​TSAR, or Czar, the title commonly given both abroad and in Russia itself to the sovereign of Russia, whose official style is, however, “Emperor and Autocrat” (Imperator i Samovlastityel). In its origin the word tsar seems to have connoted the same as imperator, being identical with the German Kaiser in its derivation from the Latin Caesar. In the old Slavonic Scriptures the Greek βασιλεύς is always translated tsar, and this title was also given to the Roman Emperor. The old Russian title for a sovereign was knyaz, prince, or veliky knyaz, grand prince. The title tsar was first adopted by the Slavonic peoples settled in the Balkan peninsula, who were in close touch with the Eastern emperor; thus it was used by the medieval Bulgarian kings. It penetrated into Russia as a result of the growing intercourse between old Muscovy and Constantinople, notably of the marriage alliances contracted by Russian princes with the dynasty of Basil the Macedonian; and it was assumed by the Muscovite princes who revolted from the yoke of the Mongols. The other tsars were gradually ousted by those of Moscow, and the modern Russian emperors inherit their title of tsar from Ivan III. (1462–1505), or perhaps rather from his grandson Ivan IV. (1533–1584) who was solemnly crowned tsar in 1547.
Throughout, however, the title tsar was used, as it still is in popular parlance, indifferently of both emperors and kings, being regarded as the equivalent of the Slavonic krol or kral (Russ. korol, Magyar, király), a king, which had been adopted from the name of Charlemagne (Germ. Karl, Lat. Carolus Magnus). This use being equivocal, Peter the Great, at the peace of Nystad (November 2, 1721), assumed the style of imperator, an exotic word intended to symbolize his imperial dignity as the equal of the western emperor. This new style was not, however, recognized by the powers until the time of Catherine II., and then only on the express understanding that this recognition did not imply any precedence or superiority of the Russian emperor over other sovereigns. Henceforth, whatever popular usage might be, the title tsar was treated officially as the equivalent of that of king. Thus the Russian emperor is tsar (king) of Poland and of several other parts of his dominions. Thus, too, the prince of Bulgaria, on assuming the royal style, took the title of tsar of Bulgaria.
The title “White Tsar,” applied to the Russian emperor and commonly quoted as though it had a poetic or mystic meaning, is a translation of a Mongol word meaning “independent” (cf. the feudal “blanch tenure,” i.e. a tenure free from all obligation of personal service).
The wife of the tsar is tsaritsa. In former times the title tsarevich (king’s son) was borne by every son of a tsar; but the word has now fallen out of use. The heir to the throne is known as the tsesarevich or cesarevich (q.v.), i.e. son of Caesar, the other Imperial princes bearing the old Russian title of veliky knyaz (grand duke; q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tsaritsyn

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​TSARITSYN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, situated on the right bank of the Volga, where it suddenly turns towards the south-east, 40 m. distant from the Don. Pop. (1900), 67,650. Tsaritsyn is the terminus of a railway which begins at Riga and, running south-eastwards, intersects all the main lines which radiate from Moscow to the south. It is also connected by rail with Kalach on the Don, where merchandise from the Sea of Azov is disembarked. Corn from middle Russia for Astrakhan is transferred from the railway to boats at Tsaritsyn; timber and wooden wares from the upper Volga are unloaded here and sent by rail to Kalach; and fish, salt and fruits sent from Astrakhan by boat up the Volga are here unloaded and despatched by rail to the interior of Russia. The town has grown rapidly since the completion of the railway system, and has a large trade in petroleum from Baku. Tsaritsyn is also the centre of the trade in the mustard of Sarepta, Dubovka and the neighbourhood. The fisheries are important. The buildings of the town include a public library, and the church of St John (end of 16th century), a fine specimen of the architecture of its period. Here are iron, machinery and brick works, tanneries, distilleries, and factories for jam, mustard and mead. Market gardening is an important industry.
A fort was erected here in the 16th century to prevent the incursions of the free Cossacks and runaway serfs who gathered on the lower Volga, as also the raids of the Kalmucks and Circassians. In 1606 Tsaritsyn took part in the rising in favour of the false Demetrius, and Stenka Razin took the town in 1670. The Kalmucks and Circassians of the Kubañ attacked it repeatedly in the 17th century, so that it had to be fortified by a strong earthen and palisaded wall, traces of which are still visible.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tsarskoye Selo

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​TSARSKOYE SELO, a town of north Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, and an imperial residence, 15 m. by rail south of the capital. Pop. (1885), 15,000; (1897), 22,353. The town stands on the Duderhof Hills and consists (1) of the town proper, surrounded by villages and a German colony, which are summer resorts for the inhabitants of St Petersburg; and (2) of the imperial parks and palaces. The former is built on a regular plan, and its houses nearly all stand in gardens. The cathedral of St Catherine is a miniature copy of that at Constantinople. The imperial parks and gardens cover 1680 acres; the chief of them is the “old” garden, containing the “old palace,” built (1724) by Rastrelli and gorgeously decorated with mother-of-pearl, marbles, amber, lapis lazuli, silver and gold; the gallery of Cameron adorned with fine statues and entrance gates; numerous pavilions and kiosks; and a bronze statue (1900) of the poet Pushkin. A second palace, the Alexander, was built by Catherine II. in 1792, and has in its park an historical museum and an arsenal.
When Peter the Great took possession of the mouth of the Neva, a Finnish village, Saari-mois, stood on the site now occupied by the town, and its Russified name Sarskaya was changed into Tsarskoye when Peter presented it to his wife Catherine. It was especially embellished by the tsaritsa Elizabeth. Under Catherine II., a town, Sophia, was built close by, but its inhabitants were transferred to Tsarskoye Selo under Alexander I. The railway connecting the town with St Petersburg was the first (1838) to be constructed in Russia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tshi

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​TSHI, Tchwi, Chi, or Oji, a group of Negro peoples of the Gold Coast (q.v.). The chief of these are the Ashanti, Fanti, Akim and Aquapem. Their common language is the Tshi, from which they gain their family name.