OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Isogonic Lines

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​ISOGONIC LINES (Gr. ἰσογώνιος, equiangular), lines connecting those parts of the earth’s surface where the magnetic declination is the same in amount (see Magnetism, Terrestrial).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scheveningen

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​SCHEVENINGEN, a fishing port and watering-place of Holland, on the North Sea, in the province of South Holland, about 2 m. N. of the Hague, with which it is connected by tramways. It is situated in the dunes at the extremity of the woods which separate it from the Hague. The development of Scheveningen as a fashionable seaside resort dates from modern times, but the fishing village is of ancient origin and once stood farther seaward. To prevent coast erosion a stone wall was built along the sea front in 1896–1900, and below this lies the fine sandy beach stretching for miles on either side. The first bathing establishment here dates from 1818, and was also the first in Holland. Overlooking the sea from the top of the dunes on either side are villas, hotels, and the pavilion (1826) belonging to the family of Prince von Wied. The costumes of the fishing community are picturesque, the men having silver buttons and wide trousers, the women wide skirts and brass helmets. There is a large harbour for the fishing fleet at the mouth of the Hague-Scheveningen canal. Among the historical memories associated with Scheveningen are the defeat of the combined French and English fleets by Admiral de Ruyter in 1673, and the flight and subsequent return of William I., king of the Netherlands, in 1813, at the beginning and end of the French occupation. This is commemorated by an obelisk (1865). The town has a rapidly growing population of about 23,000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scherer, Edmond Henri Adolphe

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SCHERER, EDMOND HENRI ADOLPHE (1815-1889), French theologian, critic and politician, was born in Paris on the 8th of April 1815. After a course of legal studies he spent several years in theological study at Strassburg, where he graduated doctor in theology in 1843, and was ordained. In 1843 he was appointed to a professorship in the École Évangélique at Geneva, but the development of his opinions in favour of the Liberal movement in Protestant theology led to his resigning the post six years later. He founded the Anti-Jésuite, afterwards the Réformation au XIX$^e$ siècle, in which he advocated the separation of the Church from the State; but he gradually abandoned Protestant doctrine. In thought he became a pronounced Hegelian. Eventually he settled in Paris, where he at once attracted attention by brilliant literary criticisms, at first chiefly on great foreign writers, contributed to the Revue des deux mondes. He was elected municipal councillor at Versailles in 1870, deputy to the National Assembly for the department of Seine-et-Oise in 1871 and senator in 1875. He supported the Republican party. Towards the end of his life he devoted himself mainly to literary and general criticism, and was for many years one of the ablest contributors to Le Temps. He was a frequent visitor to England, and took a lively interest in English politics and literature. He died at Versailles on the 16th of March 1889.
His chief works are: Dogmatique de l'Église réformée (1843), De l'état actuel de l'Église réformée en France (1844), Esquisse d'une théorie de l'Église chrétienne (1845), La Critique et la foi (1850), Alexandre Vinet (1853), Lettres à mon curé (1853), Études critiques sur la littérature contemporaine (1863-1889), Études critiques de littérature (1876), Diderot (1880), La Démocratie et la France (1883), Études sur la littérature au XVIII$^e$ siècle (1891).
A memoir of him, by V. C. O. Gréard, appeared in 1890. See also an article by Professor E. Dowden in the Fortnightly Review (April 1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schetky, John Christian

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​SCHETKY, JOHN CHRISTIAN (1778–1874), Scottish marine painter, descended from an old Transylvanian family, was born in Edinburgh on the 11th of August 1778. He studied art under Alexander Nasmyth, and after having travelled on the continent he settled in Oxford, and taught for six years as a drawing master. In 1808 he obtained a post in the military college, Great Marlow, and three years later he was appointed professor of drawing in the naval college, Portsmouth, where he had ample opportunities for the study of his favourite marine subjects. From 1836 to 1855 he held a similar professorship in the military college, Addiscombe. To the Royal Academy exhibitions he contributed at intervals from 1805 to 1872, and he was represented at the Westminster Hall competition of 1847 by a large oil painting of the Battle of La Hogue. He was marine painter to George IV., William IV. and Queen Victoria. Among his published works are the illustrations to Lord John Manners’s Cruise in Scotch Waters, and a volume of photographs from his pictures and drawings issued in 1867 under the title of Veterans of the Sea. One of his best works, the “Loss of the Royal George,” painted in 1840, is in the National Gallery, London, and the United Service Club possesses another important marine subject from his brush. He died in London on the 28th of January 1874. A memoir by his daughter was published in 1877.
His younger brother, John Alexander Schetky (1785–1824), studied medicine in Edinburgh university and drawing in the Trustees' Academy. As a military surgeon he served with distinction under Lord Beresford in Portugal. He contributed excellent works to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy and of the Water-Colour Society, and executed some of the illustrations in Sir W. Scott’s Provincial Antiquities. He died at Cape Coast Castle on the 5th of September 1824, when preparing to follow Mungo Park’s route of exploration.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scheme

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​SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. σχῆμα, figure, form, from the root σχε, seen in ἔχειν, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.), in the most general and common sense, a plan or design, especially of action with some definite purpose, often and more particularly in the derivatives “to scheme,” “schemer,” “scheming,” with a hostile or unfavourable notion of a plot or surreptitious plan, or of a selfish project or enterprise. The original meaning, derived from the Med. Lat. translation figura of σχῆμα, is that of a diagram or figure to illustrate a mathematical proposition and the like, a map or plan, &c., thus used of an analysis, a tabular statement; an epitome or synopsis, a table or system of classification. In Kantian philosophy, “ Schema ” is used of “ the product of the exercise of the transcendental imagination in giving generality to sense and particularity to thought,” and “ schematism of the theory, in the Kantian analysis of knowledge, of the use of the transcendental imagination as mediating between sense and understanding ” (Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1902, vol. ii.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scherer, Wilhelm

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SCHERER, WILHELM (1841-1886), German philologist and historian of literature, was born at Schönborn in Lower Austria on the 26th of April 1841. He was educated at the academic gymnasium at Vienna and afterwards at the university, where he was the favourite pupil of the distinguished Germanist, Karl Viktor Müllenhoff (1818-1884). Having taken the degree of doctor philosophiae, he became Privatdozent for German language and literature in 1864. In 1868 he was appointed ordinary professor, and in 1872 received a call in a like capacity to Strassburg, and in 1877 to Berlin, where in 1884 he was made member of the Academy of Sciences. He died at Berlin on the 6th of August 1886.
Scherer's literary activity falls into three categories: in Vienna he was the philologist, at Strassburg the professor of literature and in Berlin the author. His earliest work was a biography of the great philologist Jakob Grimm (1865, 2nd ed. 1885); he next, in conjunction with his former teacher Müllenhoff, published Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem 8. bis 12. Jahrhundert (1864, 3rd ed. 1892). His first great work was, however, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (Berlin, 1868; 3rd ed., 1890), being a history of the German language with especial reference to phonetic laws. He contributed the section on Alsatian literature to O. Lorenz's Geschichte des Elsasses (1871, 3rd ed. 1886). Other important works are Geistliche Poeten der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Strassburg, 1874-1875); Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im 11. und 12. Jahrhundert (1875); and Vorträge und Aufsätze zur Geschichte des geistigen Lebens in Deutschland und Österreich (1874). Scherer's best-known work is his history of German literature, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur (Berlin, 1883; 10th ed., 1905; English translation by Mrs F. C. Conybeare, 1883; new ed., 1906). This work is distinguished by the clearness with which details are co-ordinated with a general and comprehensive survey of German literature from the beginning to the death of Goethe. Besides many other philological treatises, Scherer wrote largely on Goethe (Aus Goethes Frühzeit, 1879; Aufsätze über Goethe, 1886), and took an active part in the foundation of the Goethe archives at Weimar. A small treatise on Poetik, a biography of Karl Müllenhoff, and two volumes of Kleine Schriften were published after his death.
See V. Basch, Wilhelm Scherer et la philologie allemande (Paris, 1889), and the article by Eduard Schröder in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scherr, Johannes

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​SCHERR, JOHANNES (1817–1886), German man of letters and novelist, was born at Hohenrechberg in the kingdom of Württemberg on the 3rd of October 1817. After studying philosophy and history at the university of Tübingen (1837–1840), he became master in a school conducted by his brother Thomas in Winterthur. In 1843 he removed to Stuttgart, and, entering the political arena with a pamphlet Württemberg im Jahr 1843, was elected in 1848 a member of the Württemberg House of Deputies; became leader of the democratic party in south Germany and, in consequence of his agitation for parliamentary reform in 1849, was obliged to take refuge in Switzerland to avoid arrest. Condemned in contumaciam to fifteen years' hard labour, he established himself in Zurich as Privatdozent in 1850, but removed in 1852 to Winterthur. In 1860 he was appointed professor of history and Helvetian literature at the Polytechnicum in Zurich, in which city he died on the 21st of November 1886.
Scherr was a voluminous writer in the field of historical investigation into the civilization, literature, and manners and customs of his country. His works have largely a political bias, but are characterized by clearness of exposition and careful research. Noteworthy among his books are the following: Geschichte der deutschen Kultur und Sitte (1852–1853, new ed. 1897); Schiller und seine Zeit (1859, new ed. 1876); Geschichte der deutschen Frauenwelt (1860, 4th ed. 1879); Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur (1851, 9th ed. 1895–1896); Geschichte der englischen Literatur (1854, 2nd ed. 1883); Blücher, seine Zeit und sein Leben (1862, 4th ed. 1887). Scherr also wrote the humorous Sommertagebuch des weiland Dr Gastrosophiae, Jeremia Sauerampfer (1873); as a novelist he published the historical novels, Schiller (1856), and Michel, Geschichte eines Deutschen unserer Zeit (1858) which have passed through several editions.
With the exception of some of his stories (Novellenbuch, 10 vols. 1873–1877) Scherr's works have not appeared in a collected edition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacerdotalism

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​SACERDOTALISM (from Lat. sacerdos, priest, literally one who presents sacred offerings, sacer, sacred, and dare, to give), a term applied, usually in a hostile sense, to the system, method and spirit of a priestly order or class, under which the functions, dignity and influence of the members of the priesthood are exalted in the ministry of religion, and in the church at the expense of the laity. This exalting of the priesthood in the Christian church is based on the claim that the priest exercises sacrificial and supernatural powers in the celebration of the Eucharist.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacchetti, Franco

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​SACCHETTI, FRANCO (c. 133 5-c. 1400), Italian poet and novelist, was the son of Benci di Uguccione, surnamed “ Buono, ” of the noble and ancient Florentine family of the Sacchetti (comp. Dante, Par. c. xvi.), and was born at Florence about the year 1335. While still a young man he achieved repute as a poet, and he appears to have travelled on affairs of more or less importance as far as to Genoa, Milan and “ Ischiavonia.” When a sentence of 'banishment was passed upon the rest of the house of Sacchetti by the Florentine authorities in 1380 it appears that Francowas expressly exempted, “ per esser tanto charin, ” a lactone of the formula, uomo buono, ”and in 1383 he was one of the“eight, ” discharging the office of ' prior ” for the months of March and April. I In 1 385 he was chosen ambassador to Genoa, but preferred to go as podesta to Bibbiena in Casentino. In 1392 he was podesta of San Miniato, and in 1396 he held a similar office at F aenza. In 1398 he received from his fellow-citizens the post of captain of their then province of Romagna, having his residence at Portico. The date of his death is unknown; most probably it occurred about 1400, though some writers place it as late as 1410.
Sacchetti left a considerable number of sonnstti, canzzmi, ballate, madfigali, &c., which have never been' printed, but which are still extant in at least one MS. in the Laurentian library of Florence. His Novelle were first printed in I']2?, from the MS. in the same collection, which, however, is far rom complete. They were originally 300 in number, but only 21558 in whole or in part now survive. They are written in pure an elegant Tuscan, and, based as they are for the most part on real incidents in the public and domestic life of Florence, they are valuable for the light they throw on the manners of that age, and occasionally also for the biographical facts preserved in them.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacchini, Antonio Maria Gaspare

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​SACCHINI, ANTONIO MARIA GASPARE (1734-1786), Italian musical composer, was born at Pozzuoli, on the 23rd of July 1734. He was the son of a poor fisherman and was heard singing on the sands by Durante, who undertook his education at the Conservatorio di- Sant' Onofrio at Naples. Durante and Piccinni taught him composition, and Nicola Fiorenza the violin. The intermezzo Fra Donato was written for the theatre of the Conservatorio in 1756, but his first serious opera was produced at Rome in 1762, and was followed by many others, nearly all of which were successful. In 1769 he went to Venice, and in consequence of the great success achieved there by the ​production of his opera Alessandro nell' Indie he was appointed director of the Conservatorio dell' Ospedaletto, where he trained some admirable female singers and wrote church music. In 1772 he visited London, where, notwithstanding a cruel cabal formed against him, he achieved a brilliant success, especially in his four new operas, T amerlana, Lucio Vero, N itetti e Perseo and Il Gran Cid. Later he met with an equally enthusiastic reception in Paris, where in 1783 his Rinaldo was produced under the immediate patronage of Queen Marie Antoinette, to whom he had been recommended by the emperor Joseph II. But neither in England nor in France did his reputation continue to the end of his visit. He seems everywhere to have been the victim of bitter jealousy. Even Marie Antoinette was not able to support his cause in the face of the general outcry against the favour shown to foreigners; and by her command, given with the utmost reluctance, his last opera and undoubted masterpiece, Qidipe d Colone, was set aside in 1786 to make room for Lemoine's Phédre-a circumstance which so preyed upon his mind that he died of chagrin on the 7th (or 8th) of October 1786.
Sacchini's style was rather graceful than elevated, and he was deficient both in creative power and originality. But the dramatic truth of his operas, more especially the* later ones, is above all praise, and he never fails to write with the care and finish of a thorough and accomplished musician. Qidipe was extremely successful after his death, and was performed at the Académie nearly six hundred times.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacchi, Andrea

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​SACCHI, ANDREA (c. 1600-1661), Italian painter of the later Roman school, was born at Nettuno near Rome in 1600, or perhaps as early as 1598. His father, Benedetto, a painter of undistinguished position, gave him his earliest instruction in the art; Andrea then passed into the studio of Albani, of whom he was the last and the most eminent pupil, and under Albani he made his reputation early. The painter of Sacchi's predilection was Raphael; he was the jealous opponent of Pietro da Cortona, and more especially of Bernini. In process of time he became one of the most learned designers and one of the soundest colourists of the Roman school. He went to Venice and to Parma to study Venetian colour and the style of Correggio; but he found the last-named master unadaptable for his own proper methods in art, and he returned to Rome. Sacchi was strong in artistic theory, and in practice slow and fastidious; it was his axiom that the merit of a painter consists in producing, not many middling pictures, but a few and perfect ones. His works have dignity, repose, elevated yet natural forms, severe but not the less pleasing colour, a learned treatment of architecture and perspective; he is thus a painter of the correct and laudable academic order, admired by connoisseurs rather than by ambitious students or the large public. His principal painting, often spoken of as the fourth best; easel-picture 'in Rome-in the Vatican Gallery-is “St Romuald relating his Vision to Five Monks of his Order.” The pictorial crux of dealing with these figures, who are all in the white garb of their order, has often been remarked upon; and as often the ingenuity and judgment of Sacchi have been praised in varying the tints of these habits according to the light and shade cast by a neighbouring tree. The Vatican Gallery contains also an early painting of the master -the “ Miracle of St Gregory, ” executed in 1624; a mosaic of it was made in 1771 and placed in St Peter's. Other leading examples are the “ Death of St Anna, ” in S Carlo ai Catinari; “ St Andrew, ” in the Quirinal; “ St Joseph, ” at Capo alle Case; also, in fresco, a ceiling in the Palazzo Barberini-“ Divine Wisdom ”-reckoned superior in expression and selection to the rival work of Pietro da Cortona. There are likewise altarpieces in Perugia, Foligno and Camerino. Sacchi, who worked almost always in Rome, left few pictures visible in private galleries: one, of “ St Bruno, ” is in Grosvenor House. He had a flourishing school: Nicholas Poussin and Carlo Maratta were his most eminent scholars; Luigi Garzi and Francesco Lauri were others, and Sacchi's own son Giuseppe, who died young, after giving very high hopes. This must have been an illegitimate son, for Andrea was unmarried when he died at Nettuno in 1661.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sachs, Michael

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​SACHS, MICHAEL (1808–1864), German Rabbi. He was one of the first of Jewish graduates of the modern universities, taking his Ph.D. degree in 1836. He was appointed Rabbi in Prague in 1836, and in Berlin in 1844. He took the conservative side against the Reform agitation, and so strongly opposed the introduction of the organ into the Synagogue that he retired from the Rabbinate rather than acquiesce. Sachs was one of the greatest preachers of his age, and published two volumes of Sermons (Predigten, 1866–1891). He co-operated with Zunz (q.v.) in a new translation of the Bible. Sachs is best remembered for his work on Hebrew poetry, Religiöse Poesie der Juden in Spanien (1845); his more ambitious critical work (Beiträge zur Sprach- und Alterthumsforschung, 2 vols., 1852–1854) is of less lasting value. His poetical gifts he turned to admirable account in his translation of the Festival Prayers (Mahzor, 9 vols., 1855), a new feature of which was the metrical rendering of the medieval Hebrew hymns. Another very popular work by Sachs contains poetical paraphrases of Rabbinic legends (Stimmen vom Jordan und Euphrat, 1853). (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacheverell, Henry

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​SACHEVERELL, HENRY (1674-1724), English ecclesiastic and politician, was the son of Joshua Sacheverell, rector of St Peter's, Marlborough. He was adopted by his godfather, Edward Hearst, and his wife, and was sent to Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1689, was demy of his college from 1689 to 1701 and fellow from 1701 to 1713. Addison, another Wiltshire lad, entered at the same college two years earlier, but was also elected a demy in 1689; he inscribed to Sacheverell in 1694 his account of the greatest English poets. Sacheverell took his degree of B.A. in 1693, and became M.A. in 1695 and D.D. in 1708. His first preferment was the small vicarage of Cannock in Staffordshire; but he leapt into notice when holding a preachership at St Saviour's, Southwark. His famous sermons on the church in danger from the neglect of the Whig ministry to keep guard over its interests were preached, the one at Derby on the 15th of August, the other at St Paul's Cathedral on the 5th of November 1709. They were immediately reprinted, the latter being dedicated to the lord mayor and the former to the author's kinsman, George Sacheverell, high sheriff of Derby for the year; and, as the passions of the whole British population were at this period keenly exercised between the rival factions of Whig and Tory, the vehement invectives of this furious divine on behalf of an ecclesiastical institution which supplied the bulk of the adherents of the Tories made him their idol. The Whig ministry, then slowly but surely losing the support of the country, were divided in opinion as to the propriety of prosecuting this zealous parson. Somers was against such a measure; but Godolphin, who was believed to be personally alluded to in one of these harangues under the nickname of "Volpone," urged the necessity of a prosecution, and gained the day. The trial lasted from 27th February to 23rd March 1710, and the verdict was that Sacheverell should be suspended for three years and that the two sermons should be burnt at the Royal Exchange. This was the decree of the state, and it had the effect of making him a martyr in the eyes of the populace and of bringing about the downfall of the ministry. Immediately on the expiration of his sentence (13th April 1713) he was instituted to the valuable rectory of St Andrew's, Holborn, by the new Tory ministry, who despised the author of the sermons, although they dreaded his influence over the mob. He died at the Grove, Highgate, on the 5th of June 1724.
See Hearne's Diaries, Bloxam's Register of Magdalen and Hill Burton's Queen Anne, vol. ii. There is an excellent bibliography by Falconer Madan (1887).