# Decisive Battles Since Waterloo/Chapter 7

CHAPTER VII.
CAPTURE OF THE CITY OF MEXICO—1847.
During three decades from the close of the war with Great Britain in 1812-15 the United States of America remained at peace with the rest of the world. In the early part of the third decade there was imminent danger of another conflict with Great Britain, growing out of a dispute about the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick; an appeal to arms was averted mainly through the efforts of General Winfield Scott, and the quarrel was effectually ended by the Ashburton treaty of 1842.
While this dispute with the mother country was in progress, another and more serious quarrel, so far as results were concerned, arose concerning our southwestern boundary. The present State of Texas was formerly a province of Mexico, having been ceded to Spain in 1819, before the separation of Mexico from the kingdom of Castile and Leon. Many American citizens settled in Texas while it was a Mexican possession, but owing to the difference in the laws of the two countries they earnestly desired to come under the protection of the United States flag. The United States endeavored to purchase the territory as far as the Rio del Norte, but the Mexican government rejected the proposal. In 1830 the Mexicans forbade further colonization of Texas by foreigners, but by this time the foreigners in Texas, chiefly Americans, far outnumbered the Mexican inhabitants. The bad state of feeling between Mexicans ​and Americans grew into insurrection, and insurrection into revolution.
By the beginning of 1835 Texas and Mexico were at war; the former fighting for independence, and the latter endeavoring to reduce its alleged subjects to a proper acknowledgment of the Mexican authority. Several battles were fought during the year, and by the victory of San Antonio de Bexar, December 10th, the whole armed force of the Mexicans was driven from Texas, which ten days later made a declaration of independence. The expulsion of the Mexicans was only temporary; early in 1836 General Santa Anna came with an army of seven thousand five hundred men well provided with provisions, artillery, and military stores, and late in February he invested the Alamo, a strong fort near San Antonio, garrisoned by Captain Travis and one hundred and seventy-two men. The Alamo was besieged for eleven days and then carried by storm; the whole garrison was slaughtered, only a woman, a child, and a servant being spared. The massacre at the Alamo, together with the massacre of Colonel Fannin's command at Goliad, March 27th, in violation of the terms of surrender, roused the Texans to a high state of excitement, and they would listen to nothing short of complete independence of Mexico.
Near the end of April was fought the battle of San Jacinto, in which the Mexicans were defeated with heavy loss and General Santa Anna was made a prisoner. This battle virtually ended the war for Texan independence, which was acknowledged by the United States in 1837, and by France, England, Holland, and Belgium in 1839-40. Between 1841 and 1843 Mexico sent several marauding expeditions into Texas; the Texans attempted
led to a war between the United States and Mexico. The war began in 1845 and ended in 1848, the result being highly favorable to the armies of the former country and proportionally disastrous to those of the latter.
Hostilities did not actually begin until March, 1846, when General Zachary Taylor's army crossed the Nueces and marched in the direction of the Rio Grande. Mexico denied that Texas extended to the Rio Grande, and persisted in regarding the Nueces as the boundary. When, therefore, General Taylor crossed the latter river the movement was considered by the Mexicans an act of war, and they made immediate preparations for resisting the advance of the enemy. Taylor's advance was a series of almost uninterrupted successes, and in the early part of 1847 Northern Mexico lay at his feet. The American flag floated over the fortress of Monterey, and the Mexican army, four times the strength of its opponents, had been defeated at Buena Vista. To complete the conquest it was necessary to move upon the capital, a work which was intrusted to General Winfield Scott, the commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States.
On the 6th of March, 1847, the army destined for the advance to the city of Mexico was concentrated near Vera Cruz. It comprised the then standing army of the United States—four regiments of artillery, eight of infantry, one of mounted riflemen, and detachments of dragoons, besides eight volunteer regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. General Scott commanded in person, with Generals Worth, Twiggs, and Patterson as his brigadiers. Under the last named were Generals Quitman, Pillow, and Shields, who were destined to make their names known before the end of the campaign. The first step in advancing upon the city of Mexico was to capture
and immediately prepared for the siege. By the evening of the 12th of March the place was completely invested by the troops, and the work of landing the siege artillery was pushed as rapidly as possible.
By the 22d every thing was ready, and then General Scott sent a summons to General Morales, the commander of the Mexican forces at Vera Cruz, to surrender the city and the fortress. Immediately on receiving a refusal, General Scott opened fire from his batteries, which had been erected at a distance of eleven hundred yards. A steady cannonade was maintained all through the night and the next day. It was found that the batteries were too light and too far away for breaching purposes, and on the night of the 23d a new battery considerably nearer the city was constructed and made ready to open fire in the morning. The value and importance of the new battery was evident in a few hours after fire was opened. The walls were crumbling, and the American guns had such perfect range of the city that the whole place was covered by a destructive fire. By the 26th there was a practicable breach, and the troops for the assault had already been told off when a white flag appeared on the walls, and soon afterwards the
Nearly two weeks were required to get the army in readiness for an advance into the interior, which was led on the 8th of April by General Twiggs. The Mexicans were severely defeated, and their army was cut up and routed at Cerro Gordo, where Scott lost a total of four hundred and thirty-one killed and wounded out of a force of eighty-five hundred of all arms. The Mexicans left upwards of a thousand men dead on the field of battle. La Hoya, Perote, and Puebla were occupied with little opposition, and at Puebla General Scott waited for reinforcements, which arrived during June and July. Early in August, with a force of not quite eleven thousand men, he advanced towards the valley of Mexico, leaving Colonel Childs with a garrison of eleven hundred men to hold Puebla. General Twiggs led the column with his division, which found the ascent of the Cordilleras very difficult; on the third day of the march the division reached the crest of the ridge and looked down into the valley of Mexico, where the soldiers camped that night on the borders of Lake Chalco.
The delay of General Scott on the road from Vera Cruz had been utilized by the Mexicans under the leadership of Santa Anna, who had collected an army of 25,000 men to oppose and expel the invaders. The defences of the city had been strengthened, and all the natural advantages of its position were utilized. Between the American army and the city lay the lakes Xochimilco and Chalco, bordered by marshes which extended around the city on the west and south. The only approaches were by causeways, which had been fortified at several points; on the ​north side of the lakes was the National Road dominated by El Peñon, a steep hill on which was a fort mounting fifty-one guns. On the southern side of the lakes there was a field of lava considered impassable by troops, in addition to fortified positions at San Antonio, San Angelo, and Churubusco, with an intrenched camp at Contreras, which commanded the southern causeways and must be passed before they could be reached. Beyond these positions were the castle of Chapultepec and the strong inclosure of Molino del Rey protecting the approach to the city gates. General Santa Anna had disposed his troops so that all the positions were strongly garrisoned, and his men outnumbered the Americans nearly three to one.
The engineers reported that the fortress on El Peñon would cost the loss of a third of the army to effect its capture. Reluctant to make this sacrifice, Scott decided to move to the south of the lakes, and, accordingly, sent General Worth in advance as far as San Augustin, about nine miles from the city, where lay the pedregal, a large field of lava which the Mexicans had considered impassable by the Americans. Two miles further on lay the fortified position of San Antonio, which commanded the route between the lake and the lava field, and about three miles distant was the entrenched camp of Contreras, held by General Valencia with a strong garrison and a heavy battery. Scott determined to attack on both sides, and sent Worth forward on the east while Pillow and Twiggs went to the west. The latter advanced over the fields of lava and thus astonished the Mexicans; the way was difficult for infantry and next to impossible for artillery, but Twiggs managed to get a couple of light batteries in position by two o'clock in the afternoon of the 9th, with which he opened fire on the camp. His movement was supported by General Persifer Smith, who endeavored to turn the Mexican left, and so well was the plan carried out that Santa Anna, who was advancing to the relief of General ​Valencia, was frightened into turning back. The ground was so broken that he could not ascertain the strength of the battle array that spread before him, and, believing it much larger than it really was, he made haste to retire in the direction of the city.
It rained during the night of the 19th of August, and the troops were encamped in the mud without fires. Early on the 20th operations were resumed, and before five o'clock in the morning the fortified camp of Contreras was in possession of the Americans. The only severe fighting was in the camp itself, where the Mexicans made a stout resistance before retiring. The American loss in killed, wounded, and missing was about one hundred men, while that of the Mexicans is thought to have been fifteen hundred killed and wounded. One thousand Mexican prisoners were taken, including four generals and eighty-eight officers of other grades. General Valencia escaped early in the battle, and was nowhere to be found.
After a brief halt to take breath, the army was again in motion in the direction of Churubusco, which Santa Anna considered the key to the city and was ready to defend with twenty-five thousand men. There was a massive stone convent in the village of Churubusco, which was surrounded by a field-work having embrasures and platforms for many cannon, and was the right point of the Mexican line. The walls of the convent were pierced for musketry, the parapets of the azoteas and windows afforded good positions for troops, and there was an abundance of ammunition stored in the building. Beyond the convent there extended a line of works, commanding the causeway of San Antonio and capable of a strong resistance. Happily for the Americans, the Mexicans were in great confusion at the time the former advanced, and only General Rincon's division, which held the convent and the position immediately around it, was ready for battle. The army which Santa Anna had led ​back from San Angelo was forming along the river Churubusco and in the cornfields to the north, but as there was no expectation of a battle on that day, the Mexicans were practically taken by surprise. But in spite of their surprise and confusion, they made a vigorous defence; they outnumbered the Americans in the field fully five to one, and should have been invincible from their numbers and position. The incompetence of the officers and the inferior character of the Mexican weapons were the chief causes of their loss of the battle at Churubusco. Where properly handled, they showed that they were not deficient in bravery, and on several occasions during the battle they came very near defeating and repulsing their assailants.
Space is lacking to give in detail the movements at Churubusco, which resulted in victory to the American arms. According to General Santa Anna, the Mexican loss was ten thousand men, or one third of his army; one fourth of this number were prisoners, the rest killed or wounded. The American loss was over one thousand in killed and wounded, of whom seventy-nine were officers. General Scott might have marched against the city and captured it on the following morning, or even on that night, and taken possession before the Mexicans had recovered from the shock of their defeat. But he was anxious to shorten the war, and was told that Santa Anna wished to negotiate; he was furthermore assured that the occupation of the city would destroy the last chance of a peaceable settlement by rousing the national spirit throughout Mexico and causing the rush of many thousands to arms. The assurances to this effect came from neutral foreigners residing in Mexico, and Scott does not seem to have understood their interested motives for saving the city from occupation. He offered an armistice, which was eagerly accepted; it lasted more than a fortnight, and the time was vigorously utilized by the ​Mexicans in making ready for the defence of the city. When it expired, Santa Anna was not quite ready and sought an extension, but the terms offered by General Scott were considered too onerous, and the campaign was renewed. Early in September the treachery of the Mexicans became apparent in a letter from Santa Anna to General Scott, and on the 7th of that month preparations for another conflict were under way.
The American forces were distributed as follows during the armistice: Worth occupied Tacubaya, Pillow was at Mixcoac, and Twiggs near San Angelo, while Quitman remained at Tlalpam. It had been suggested to General Scott that there was a cannon foundry in operation at Molino del Rey or the King's Mill. Worth was therefore instructed to take possession of it, which was thought to be an easy task. Afterwards, if successful there, he could try an assault on Chapultepec, the southern fort of Mexico. An examination of Molino del Rey showed that the proposed attack would not be successful without a reinforcement of artillery. The Molino consisted of a range of massive stone buildings with crenellated walls and parapeted roofs, commanded by the plunging fire of Chapultepec at a distance of three thousand feet. There was a smaller, but equally solid building, the Casa Mata, fifteen hundred feet to the west; it was surrounded by a bastioned field-work of a quadrangular shape. Between those two points was a battery of three small guns, and in front stretched a line of embankment with ditches. There were patches of maguey, which screened the Mexican force, numbering altogether more than four thousand fighting men, besides the cavalry corps of Álvarez, which was nearly four thousand strong.
the Americans begin to believe that the place is deserted. Wright's storming-party forms and rushes towards the point, where the central battery was supposed to be. Its position has been changed, however, and as they come within range it opens upon them with round shot and grape. The assailants pause, but only for an instant, and then rush upon it with the cry of "Forward!" Once more comes a shower of shot that mows a fearful swath, disabling, of officers alone, eleven out of seventeen. But there is no further halt. The remnant gains the batteries. There is a brief struggle, hand-to-hand, and the guns are seized, ready to be turned against the Mexicans.
It is now daylight. Colonel Echeagaraz of the third light infantry observes the danger; the garrison discharges a well-aimed volley on the storming-party, and then rallying hurls back the assailants in disorder and reoccupies the
​a raking volley of balls and bullets, especially from the roofs. Their numbers and impetus prevail. They reach the walls and begin almost unmolested to batter the gates. The southern gate gives way and some men spring in, while others climb the roof and assist in gaining the north-western entrance. The Mexicans stoutly dispute the passage, but in a little while they waver and fall back, closely pressed by the Americans, who force them into flight or surrender. But for some time the result of the battle was doubtful, as the operations on the left were not successful.
McIntosh's brigade and Duncan's battery had advanced to within six hundred yards of the Mexican lines when the fire first opened on the storming-party. Duncan opened fire with his guns and cannonaded the Mexican troops, who soon ceased their fire upon his immediate front and retired into Casa Mata and surrounding works. Duncan was then ordered to cease firing and McIntosh's brigade went forward for the assault. The Mexicans opened fire which was so well directed that the advance was checked when the Americans were within thirty yards of the walls of Casa Mata. McIntosh fell mortally wounded, Lieut.-Col. Martin Scott who succeeded him was shot dead, Major Waite was disabled, the men fell by platoons and companies, and there was great confusion. The remnants of the brigades held on till the order to fall back and rally on the battery was given. Although one third the advancing force had fallen, many of the officers refused to obey the order, as they did not know from whom it proceeded. The retreat consequently became greatly disordered and during it the enemy added greatly to the number of killed and wounded.
Instead of following up their advantages and turning the retreat of the Americans into a rout, the Mexicans directed their attention to the flank of the assailants of Molino del Rey. They were stopped by Cadwalader's reserve which came up just in time. It was now broad daylight, and ​Colonel Duncan had observed a threatening movement on the left. Santa Anna had ordered Álvarez to move down on the American flank with his whole force. With a cloud of cavalry in advance, Álvarez came on and was met by the fire of Duncan's battery, which opened upon the Mexicans within easy range. The cavalry halted, and after a few discharges of the American guns had ploughed their ranks they were thrown into confusion and retreated. Major Sumner came up with his dragoons to accelerate the Mexican retirement; before the dragoons had completed their formation for a charge the Mexicans were in full retreat towards the Haçienda Morales. A twenty-four-pounder which had been sent up by Worth continued a smart fire upon the Mexicans until they were out of range. The dragoons held their position on the left till the end of the action. As soon as the Mexicans were out of range Duncan's guns were turned upon Casa Mata and the enemy's troops around it. Under their fire the place was soon abandoned, General Perez commencing his retreat by the right as the fall of Molino del Rey had cut off his direct communication with Chapultepec. His line of retreat kept him under the fire of Duncan's guns, which inflicted a severe loss upon his troops. With the fall of the Casa Mata the battle of Molino del Rey was ended and the Americans were in full possession of the field.
But while they were exulting over their victory a Mexican column, under General Barragan, advanced with the evident intention of retaking the Molino; it was met by a heavy fire from the American guns, together with some that had been captured from the Mexicans, and very soon the Mexican column gave way and fled in disorder. A little later another Mexican force advanced in the direction of Casa Mata, but this, like the other column, was checked by the American artillery and a heavy volley from the infantry. As the Mexicans retreated, the Americans followed them several hundred yards along the road.
​Molino del Rey was untenable under the plunging fire of Chapultepec, and General Scott sent orders for the troops to fall back. Worth, Pillow, and other general officers favored an assault upon Chapultepec before the Mexicans had recovered from their disorder consequent upon the events of the day, but General Scott positively refused to permit it. Inside of the Molino were found a few old moulds for cannon, but nothing to indicate that the place had been recently used as a cannon foundry. In the Casa Mata a large quantity of ammunition was found; a few wagon loads were removed, and orders were given to destroy the rest. The force of the explosion was miscalculated and resulted in the destruction of Captain Armstrong and some ten or twelve soldiers who were in the vicinity of the building. The battle was the most hotly contested of any battle of the war, and the proportionate loss of officers and men engaged was very great. The force in the field was 3,447, of which number 787 were killed or wounded, including 59 officers. The casualties included nearly one third the officers and one fourth the rank and file, a conclusive proof that officers and men did their whole duty. The loss to the enemy was estimated to exceed two thousand; about one half this number were prisoners, and the remainder killed and wounded.
Though a brilliant feat of arms, the battle of Molino del Rey was barren of results, as the place was immediately abandoned in consequence of the plunging fire from Chapultepec. No visible advantage was gained, and notwithstanding the loss that had been sustained the capture of the capital city was apparently no nearer than before the battle. It was the first battle in the war without immediate advantages resulting from it, and the first where the field gained had been immediately abandoned to the enemy. The event caused much gloom in the American camp, and many were the fears that it would ​encourage the Mexicans to make a more sturdy defence of the city than had hitherto been expected.
From the 8th to the 12th of September the time was passed in preparing for the assault of Chapultepec and in reconnoitring the enemy's position. It was difficult to decide which side was most favorable for attack. The majority of the officers favored the southern side against the comparatively unknown lines of the west. The newly finished defences, however, decided Scott for the western approaches and especially for the hill fortress, as he believed that its capture would materially hasten the surrender of the capital. Gen. Twiggs was accordingly ordered to begin the demonstration against the east with two batteries, while Pillow and Quitman, supported by a portion of Worth's forces, took up a position to the west and south of Chapultepec, and erected four batteries with which to open fire upon the castle at daybreak on the 13th.
Chapultepec is a picturesque hill whose fame has descended in the dim traditions of the Aztecs, and in later days has been consecrated to royalty. The northern side is inaccessibly steep; the east and south are a little better, and there is a practicable slope only on the western side. At a height of one hundred and sixty feet the summit spreads into a nearly level table six hundred feet in length, and surmounted along the northern edge by a heavy but not ungraceful building. This building is the citadel, protected by ten pieces of artillery. The slopes of the hill were provided with walls, and on the west with ditches, mines, and a midway redan. The exterior fringe of the grove at the western fort was protected by an embankment with a ditch and redan facing the Molino del Rey.
Pillow took possession of the unoccupied mill at dawn, on the 12th, under an ineffective fusillade from the grove, and at the same time the eastern batteries opened fire. A ​severe cannonading was directed on the garrison, which silenced several of their guns. A fearful fight followed, which did not cease until darkness came again. Gen. Scott ordered an assault both by Pillow and Quitman, led by two picked storming-parties of two hundred and fifty men each, at daybreak on the 13th.
With the dawn, the cannonade recommenced, both from the batteries planted against Chapultepec, and from Steptoe's guns, which were served against the southern defences of the city in order to divert the attention of the enemy from the real attack. At 8 a.m. the firing from the former ceased, and the attack commenced. Quitman advanced along the Tacubaya road, and Pillow from the Molino del Rey, which he had occupied the previous evening. Between the castle and the Molino del Rey there was an open space, and then a grove, densely planted with trees. Mexican sharp-shooters had been posted among the trees, and they were further protected by an intrenchment on the edge of the grove. General Pillow sent Lieutenant-Colonel Johnstone with a party of riflemen to turn this position by a flank movement; it was handsomely accomplished, and just as the riflemen broke through the redan, Pillow, with the main body, charged it in front and forced the Mexicans away from it. Having gained possession of the grove. Pillow advanced to the base of the rock; as the Mexican fire from the batteries of the castle, crashing among the trees, seemed far more terrible than it really was, and greatly disturbed the troops of Pillow's column. The Mexicans had retired to a redoubt half-way up the side of the hill; the riflemen sprang up from rock to rock, discharging irregular volleys as they pressed on, and were followed by Hooker, Chase, and others, with detachments of infantry.
​came in range of the castle, the firing was very severe. Colonel Ransom, of the Ninth, was killed, and General Pillow was wounded. But the troops advanced steadily till they gained the crest of the hill. At this point there was some delay, as the scaling ladders had not arrived, but during the delay two of Quitman's regiments and Clarke's brigade reinforced the storming party. As soon as the ladders came, the men rushed forward with them, jumped into the ditch, and planted the ladders for the assault on the castle. Lieutenant Selden was the first man to mount. The Mexicans concentrated all their energies to repel this final attack. A furious and well-aimed fire dashed the foremost of the stormers into the ditch, killing Lieutenants Rogers and Smith, and clearing the ladders of the men that were ascending. A new storming-party advanced and mounted the ladders, and, after a short struggle, Captain Howard, of the voltigeurs, gained a footing on the parapet. McKenzie of the forlorn hope followed him, and close behind came a swarm of voltigeurs and infantry, who, with loud shouts and cheers, dashed in upon the garrison with the bayonet.
Almost simultaneously with the work just described, Johnstone, of the voltigeurs, who had led a small party round to the gate of the castle, broke it open, and forced an entrance in the face of a furious fire from the southern walls. The two parties united, and then followed a furious conflict inside the building. The stormers were frenzied by the remembrance of the murder of their wounded comrades at Molino del Rey, and at first they showed no quarter. The Mexicans were bayoneted or shot without any heed to their appeals for mercy. Many flung themselves over the parapet and down the hill-side, and were dashed to death against the rocks. Others fought with the fury of desperation, expending their last breath in maledictions, and dying in the act of aiming shots or blows upon their assailants. Streams of blood ​flowed through the doors of the college, and every room and passage was the scene of a deadly struggle. After a time the officers succeeded in putting an end to the conflict, and the remaining Mexicans having surrendered, the stars and stripes were hoisted over the castle of Chapultepec by Major Seymour.
While this was going on General Quitman had stormed the batteries on the causeway to the east of the castle, and after a desperate struggle, in which Major Twiggs, who commanded the storming party, was shot dead at the head of his men, the Mexicans retreated toward the city. General Scott joined Quitman in person and ordered a simultaneous advance on the city, along the two roads leading from Chapultepec to San Cosme and Belen gates. Worth was to command the attack on the San Cosme gate, and Quitman the attack on the Belen gate. Both were prepared for defence by barricades, and behind these barricades the Mexicans were posted in strong force. Fortunately for the assailants there was an aqueduct, supported on arches of solid masonry, along the middle of each causeway. Keeping under cover of these arches, and springing quickly from one to another, Smith's rifles and the South Carolina regiment managed to advance close to the first barricade on the Belen road with little loss, and pour in a destructive fire on the Mexicans defending it. A flanking fire from Duncan's guns added greatly to the discomfiture of the Mexicans, and the barricade was carried. Without halting more than to take breath, Quitman advanced in the same manner on the garita San Belen, which was held by General Torres with a strong garrison. Quitman's men stormed the garita, though met by a heavy fire of grape and canister, and then advanced toward the citadel.
Just as they did so General Santa Anna rode rapidly down to where the Mexicans were defending themselves. Furiously angry at the success of the Americans, he struck ​General Torres in the face, threw a strong force of infantry into the houses commanding the garita and the road, ordered the batteries in the citadel to open fire, brought up some additional guns to the Paseo, and so decidedly enthused his followers that Quitman's advance was completely stopped. A terrific storm of shot, shell, and grape was poured on the garita, where Captain Dunn had placed an eight-pounder. Twice the gunners were shot down, but their places were promptly taken by others. Then Dunn himself fell, and immediately afterward Lieutenant Benjamin and his first sergeant met the same fate. The riflemen in the arches repelled sallies of the Mexicans, but Quitman's position was one of much danger. He maintained it, however, until night caused a cessation of the fighting.
Worth in the meantime had advanced in the same way along the San Cosme causeway, forcing the Mexicans from one barricade to another, until he was within two hundred and fifty yards of the garita of San Cosme. There he encountered quite as severe a fire as that which stopped Quitman, but he was determined to carry out Scott's orders to take the garita. Sending Garland's brigade to the right, and Clarke's to the left, he ordered them to break into the houses, burst through the walls, and bore their way to the flanks of the garita. The plan had succeeded perfectly at Monterey and was equally successful in this instance. Slowly but steadily the sappers pushed along from house to house, until at sunset they had reached the point desired. Then Worth ordered the attack. Lieutenant Hunt brought up a light gun and fired it through the embrasure of the enemy's battery, with its muzzle almost against that of the Mexican gun. The infantry at the same moment opened a furious and quite unexpected fire from the roofs and houses, and McKenzie, at the head of the stormers, dashed at the battery, and carried it with very little loss. The Mexicans ​considered further defence useless, and fled precipitately into the city.
At eight o'clock that evening a council of war was held at the citadel to consider the situation. Santa Anna demonstrated that the army was wholly demoralized, and that the citadel would soon be battered down, and perhaps the entire city, burying in its ruins thousands of non-combating inhabitants. Accordingly the council decided to evacuate the city. The cavalry, four thousand strong, was at once sent away through the northern gate, and five thousand infantry followed after midnight. The militia and irregulars were disbanded. About one o'clock on the morning of the 14th a deputation from the city council arrived at General Worth's head-quarters whence they were sent to General Scott, at Tacubaya, of whom they demanded guaranties for life and property. Scott refused to bind himself to any terms, except such as were imposed by honor and the customs of civilized warfare. General Worth hastened to affirm this position by advancing at daylight to the Alameda. Quitman received a white flag from the citadel, which he immediately occupied, and then marched to the central square and hoisted the stars and stripes above the palace. Scott made his entry during the forenoon. The city received the Americans with chilling silence and many scowls and frowns. A shot was fired at General Worth, and was followed by others; immediately the artillery was ordered forward, and the troops charged upon the crowds and stormed the dwellings whence the shots came. The confusion grew into a panic and many families fled from the city. The firing continued throughout the day and Scott threatened to level the city. The Mexicans surrendered the next morning.
The loss of the Americans in the valley campaign was something more than two thousand seven hundred killed and wounded. This heavy reduction of a force of eleven thousand indicates a stout resistance on the part of ​the Mexicans, whose loss exceeded seven thousand altogether. Their failure to repel the invaders was largely due to bad generalship, which permitted the unopposed advance of the Americans across the mountains and around Chalco Lake, and depended too much on the expectation that the enemy would fall into traps and go exactly into the positions the Mexicans desired. Another thing to be considered is their defective organization, the rawness of the troops, and the inferior arms with which they fought. These circumstances add to the glory of the defence at Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec, which were certainly well defended.
After the capture of the capital city there were no military operations of any consequence. General Scott asked for reinforcements, which were sent forward slowly, and there was some difficulty in maintaining communication along the road to Vera Cruz in consequence of the activity of guerillas. Negotiations for peace were pushed, and on the 20th of February, 1848, the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed. By the terms of the treaty the territories of New Mexico and Upper California were ceded to the United States, and Mexico relinquished all claim to Texas, or the country east of the Rio Grande. In consideration of the vast area of land given up to the United States, the latter country was to pay fifteen millions of dollars to Mexico, and in addition was to pay the claims of American citizens upon Mexico, amounting to five millions more. There were some minor stipulations concerning grants of lands by Mexico within the ceded territories and Texas, and others relating to protection against Indians on the boundary, but they did not interfere with the general terms of the treaty. Soon after the ratification of the treaty the American troops were withdrawn from Mexico, and the stars and stripes were hoisted over the newly acquired regions, which have since become an important part of the United States.