# Appleton's Guide to Mexico/Chapters 1to4

PART FIRST.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
I.
Traveling in Mexico.
HINTS.
The reader will generally find railway fares, hotel charges, tariffs for hacks, etc., given in the body of the Guide-Book, but a few words may be of use at the outset.
The cost of traveling by rail in Mexico is considerably higher than in the Northern and Eastern States of the American Republic. (For table of fares, see chapter on railroads.)
There are first, second, and third class cars on the rail-roads. At present (1883), traveling in Mexico is as safe as in the western part of the United States. There are no brigands on the stage-roads any longer, except in the States of Jalisco and Sinaloa. It is well, however, to go armed, and to keep your fire-arms in sight. Escorts of mounted guards called the Guardia Rural accompany the diligences. Train-robberies are thus far unknown. The traveler is advised to take as little baggage as possible, as the railroads only allow 15 kilogrammes (33 pounds), and the diligences one arroba (25 pounds). The rates for extra baggage are ​very high. Wraps and hand-bags, carried into the passenger-cars, are, of course, free of charge. Passengers must purchase tickets before, their baggage can be checked. They will receive a paper check with a number corresponding to that of a label pasted on the trunk or valise. Wells, Fargo & Co. have established express agencies in the Republic, and there are baggage-express companies in Puebla and Mexico. In the large cities, coaches do not meet trains on arrival as in the United States, but horse-cars usually pass the doors of the hotels. Hacks are common, and can be hired to the hotel at an average price of four reales. Diligence-drivers and railroad-porters do not expect fees. Carry soap and matches with you. The natives make excellent wax-matches called cerillos, which are sold at one centavo a box. As regards clothing, the tourist does not require as thick garments on the coast as upon the table-land. Woolen under-clothing should be worn all the year round on the tierra fria, and for three quarters of the year in the temperate zone. A Mexican blanket, or zarape, will be found very useful for the tourist, in addition to a cloak or overcoat. It can be put on the bed at night and will serve as a wrap in the diligences. A linen duster is of great service in the dry season. On first reaching Mexico, care should be taken to avoid exposure to the direct rays of the sun. Although sunstrokes are very rare, yet headache or fever comes from a strong sun, until the tourist has become acclimated. Solar hats should be worn in the summer season. Keep out of the night air at first. There is a great difference between the temperature in the sun and in the shade on the table-land. Tourists should accordingly be careful to avoid taking cold. The facilities for washing clothes in Mexican cities are very poor, and it is advisable to have several changes of linen, so as not to be detained in a place on account of being obliged to wait for one's clean garments.
When to travel.
Owing to the configuration of the country, it is important that the tourist should select the proper seasons for traveling in the different zones.
The best time for visiting the tierra caliente, or hot land, south of latitude 22 degrees, is in the winter months. Northers blow from November to March, thus cooling the atmosphere; and the vomito, or yellow fever, rarely breaks out during this period. Tourists had better visit Vera Cruz in winter, if possible.
The tierra templada, or temperate zone, and the table-land, may be frequented at any season, although the winter climate of the former is somewhat preferable.
If the tourist wishes to avoid the clouds of dust that rise on the great plateau of Mexico, he should travel in the rainy season, i. e., June to September. However, as many parts of Mexico can only be reached by the diligence lines (excepting on horseback), it is proper to state that both the summer and winter months have their advantages and disadvantages. In the rainy season the air is delightful, but the roads are in such a condition, owing to the very heavy showers, that they are often almost impassable. Sometimes the stage-coach will sink into the soft mud of the highway, so as to render it impossible to proceed. In such a case, the coachman will walk to the nearest hacienda and borrow a yoke of oxen to aid the mules in dragging the vehicle upon firm ground. These occurrences may cause a delay of several hours. In some places the road will be flooded for perhaps a quarter of a mile, and in crossing such a spot the diligence is occasionally imbedded in the yielding soil to an extent that makes further progress utterly impracticable, and the passengers may be compelled to spend the night in the coach. This latter event occurs only in a mountainous region. In short, the traveler can not ​always make sure connections by diligence in the summer season.
Furthermore, the country is very sparsely settled. Villages where the tourist can obtain food and lodging are few and far between. As the stage-coach oftentimes fails to reach the “regular" stopping-place of the route during the day's journey, these facts should be borne in mind; and passengers are advised to carry provisions with them while traveling by diligence in the rainy season.
On the other hand, the dust rising in clouds, which often envelop the vehicle so that the surrounding country is invisible for a few moments, constitutes the only drawback to traveling by diligence in the dry season. The passengers are certain to arrive on time, unless delayed by some accident. Invalids intending to winter in Mexico, should spend several days near the coast or in the tierra templada, before exposing themselves to the rarefied atmosphere of the table-land.
How to travel.
Unless the tourist is familiar with Spanish, he is strongly advised not to travel alone in Mexico. Large parties are not recommended, owing to the small number of bedrooms in the hotels, and the limited capacity of the diligences. As a rule, the latter are run only three times a week, and the seats are frequently engaged for days in advance. Neither have the companies more vehicles to "put on" when the regular coach is filled with passengers. Occasionally the stranger will be obliged to spend two or three days in some uninteresting town while waiting for transportation.
As yet there are no professional couriers, but they will doubtless make their appearance before long.
In visiting the mining districts lying remote from cities, and in ascending the snow-clad mountains, a mozo, or ​servant, should accompany the tourist. He will make himself generally useful, and his wages should not exceed one dollar a day.
The following lists of short trips in Mexico are so arranged as to allow the traveler to see as much as possible in a given space of time:
Route I.
| Vera Cruz to Cordoba | | 12 | day. |
| In Cordoba | 1 | | do. |
| To Orizaba and remain there | 1 | | do. |
| To Puebla | | 12 | do. |
| In Puebla | 1 | 12 | do. |
| To Mexico City | | 12 | do. |
| In Mexico | 4 | | days. |
| Return to Vera Cruz | 1 | | day. |
| Total | 10 | | days. |
Route II.
| Vera Cruz to Puebla | 1 | | day. |
| In Puebla | 1 | | do. |
| To Mexico City | | 12 | do. |
| In Mexico City | 1 | 12 | do. |
| Return to Vera Cruz | 1 | | do. |
| Total | 5 | | days. |
Route III.
| First part same as Route II | 5 | days. |
| Mexico to Maravatio | 1 | day. |
| Maravatio to Celaya | 1 | do. |
| Celaya to Quéretaro | 1 | do. |
| Querétaro to Mexico | 1 | do. |
| Total | 9 | days. |
Route IV.
| Same as Route III, with the addition of 2 days, from Celaya to the mines of Guanajuato and return | 11 | days. |
An ''Agricultural" Trip.
Supposing the traveler to be in the national capital, a visit should be made to Querétaro and Lagos by rail; then to Guadalajara by diligence; thence to Uruapan by diligence and horseback; thence to Patzcuaro by horseback, and diligence to Morelia; return to Mexico by rail via Maravatio and Toluca.
A 'Mining" Trip.
Starting from the City of Mexico, let the tourist make an excursion to the town of Pachuca by rail and tramway, and then return to the capital. Then go by rail to Guanajuato and Zacatecas; thence by diligence to Fresnillo, Sombrerete, or Durango. One can then reach the Mexican Central Railway at the nearest point, and visit Chihuahua, or return to the southern part of the Republic. The mining towns just mentioned are the most accessible, although by no means the only places worthy of the attention of the scientific traveler.
The Cost of Travel.
If the tourist intends to move about a great deal, he will have to spend at least forty dollars a week. If, on the other hand, he wishes to linger in the cities and stay at the best hotels, twenty dollars a week will cover the cost of living outside of the capital.
One month's trip from New York to Mexico and return, by steamer, will cost about $225. The same tour via New Orleans by rail, thence to Vera Cruz and return by steamer, will cost about $300. The expense of a journey from New York to Laredo, Texas, by rail, thence by rail to Saltillo, by stage-coach to Queretaro, and rail to the City of Mexico, will be about $175, including sleeping-car fares, meals, and lodging at the diligence taverns.
RAILROADS.
The great desideratum in Mexico has always been cheap and rapid transportation. For many years communication between the various towns could only be had by means of carts and on horseback. At length a system of diligences was established, which of course was only adapted to carrying passengers. The first line of railroad—that of the Mexican Railway Company, connecting the city of Vera Cruz with the national capital—was begun in 1837. On September 16, 1869, the branch of this road from Mexico to Puebla, a distance of 115¾ miles, was opened with great pomp and ceremony. Trains commenced running on the division between Orizaba and Vera Cruz on September 5, 1872, and the entire route was completed on January 17, 1873.
The Mexican Government, in September, 1880, granted charters to the Mexican Central Railway Company and to the Mexican National Construction Company, and in June, 1881, to the International and Interoceanic Railway Company. These corporations are the three great American trunk-lines of Mexico. In May, 1881, a concession was obtained by General U. S. Grant for a road to be known as the Mexican Southern Railroad.
The charters generally run for a term of ninety-nine years, at the end of which the roads revert to the Government. If the latter decides to sell or lease the lines, the companies are to be entitled to the preference.
The Government, since 1877, has issued charters to the several States, and to various individuals, for the construction of other railroads in the interior of the country. But none of these roads is of sufficient importance to merit an extended notice here, and many of the grantees have forfeited their charters for failure to complete their lines within the specified time.
​The Liberal party in Mexico, who have recently come into power, believe that the development of the immense mineral and agricultural resources of the country can only be accomplished by the construction of railroads. Accordingly, having but little public land to grant for this purpose, the Government pays subsidies, with the object of encouraging both natives and foreigners to build railways. These subventions, as they are called, vary from $6,500 to $9,500 per kilometre, and are supposed to amount to about one third of the cost of the roads. They now reach a total of about $7,000,000 annually.
A subsidy of $560,000 a year is given to the Mexican Railway, which is the only completed line in the Republic. It must not be assumed, however, that these subventions are paid in money. Revenue bonds are issued without interest, and an amount, varying from 4 to 6 per cent of the customs duties, is set aside for their redemption.
The American trunk-lines extend from the Rio Grande to the City of Mexico. A branch of one of them, i. e., the Mexican Central Railroad, is being built across the country from the Gulf to the Pacific Ocean. Another branch, that of the Mexican National Railway, is already finished for nearly one half of the distance between the capital and Manzanillo, the terminus of this division. This company has lately consolidated all its concessions under the law of January 11, 1883.
The Morelos Railway is expected to be continued to Acapulco, and the Tehuantepec Railroad will soon reach the Pacific coast. (See Sections VIII and IX.)
Hence, it will be seen that in the course of a few years three lines of railway will connect the capital with the United States, and four roads will traverse the Republic ​from east to west, thus establishing communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Ocean. Another line is being built from Altata to Culiacan, and thence to Durango.
None of the trains on the various railroads, as a rule, carry escorts or guards, except the Mexican Railway. A special car is provided on the latter for a squad of Federal soldiers. Occasionally the Mexican National Railway Company will send several guards on the pay-car, or on a train that transports an enormous amount of coin and bullion.
The plan of building railways in Mexico has been to work from each end toward a middle point. This method proved very expensive to the Mexican road, but it is found expedient in the construction of the American trunk-lines. The latter rarely pass through the cities and towns along the route, as the inhabitants prefer to keep the railroad-track at a considerable distance. At Monterey the station is one and a half miles from the city.
With the exception of the Mexican National Railway and the Morelos Railway (the latter being owned by Mexicans), the standard gauge has been adopted on the principal lines of the country. These two roads are constructed of the narrow gauge (via angosta), which is thought to be well adapted to the wants of the region traversed by them.
Mexico derives two great benefits from the construction of railroads—viz., in giving employment to a great many people, it produces a peaceful effect on them; and, in case of a revolution, the Government can send troops to the seat of war within a few hours.
FREIGHT PER TON FOR EACH KILOMETRE.
| ROADS | First class. | Second class. | Third class. |
| | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. |
| Mexican Central Railroad | 6 | 4 | 2½ |
| Mexican National Railway | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| International and Interoceanic Railway | 10 | 7 | 5 |
| Mexican Southern Railroad | 10 | 7 | 5 |
| Mexican Railway | 13 | 8 | ? |
PASSENGER RATES PER KILOMETRE.
| ROADS | First class. | Second class. | Third class. |
| | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. |
| Mexican Central Railroad | 3 | 2 | 2½ |
| Mexican National Railway | 2½ | 2 | 1 |
| International and Interoceanic Railway | 7 | 5 | 3 |
| Mexican Southern Railroad | 7 | 5 | 3 |
| Mexican Railway | 377100 | 295100 | 171100 |
| Morelos Railway | 1½ | 1 | ½ |
Local fares are generally higher. As before stated, 15 kilogrammes (33 pounds) of baggage are allowed to each passenger. The rates for extra baggage are exorbitant.
Coal and fire-wood are very dear and scarce along the lines of the principal railroads. The deposits of the former that occur in Mexico are generally found at a great distance from the railways, while the timber growing in the adjoining regions is being rapidly cut down to be used for sleepers. The Mexican Railway Company imports compressed-coal cakes from England, as fuel for its engines.
The rolling stock and permanent way of the trunk-lines may be concisely described as follows:
The locomotives and cars of the Mexican Central ​Raiload are of American manufacture. There are very few bridges and tunnels along the line. The maximum grade is three feet per hundred. The higher officials, conductors, and engineers are mostly Americans, while natives are employed as ticket-agents, baggage-masters, and brake-men.
The company owns a telegraph line.
The Mexican National Railway belongs, as above stated, to the narrow-gauge system. The locomotives and cars are made in the United States. The southern division has several tunnels and many bridges, some of which are of considerable dimensions, while the main line, north of Celaya, will traverse a flat table-land, without any heavy grades or bridges, except in the vicinity of Saltillo. The company has erected a bridge across the Rio Grande, which is described in Section IV. The heaviest grade amounts to three and four fifths feet per hundred, and is found near the summit of the Toluca division. A telegraph line has been built by the company, but the Government reserves the right to put up a wire for its own use on the poles.
Both of the American companies just mentioned have time-tables printed in English and Spanish, and their ticket-agents can generally speak both languages.
The Mexican Railway Company has imported most of its rolling-stock from England. The first-class carriages are built in the English style, with compartments, while the second and third class cars are on the American plan. The engineers are sent out from England and have charge of the train, whereas the conductors are merely ticket-collectors. French or German, besides Spanish, is spoken by the latter. There are many bridges and tunnels along the line, the former being made of iron resting on stone piers. The grades are very heavy between the stations of La Soledad and Esperanza, the maximum being four feet in a hundred. Owing to the great engineering difficulties, and to ​the unsettled condition of the country during the period of construction, the main line cost $30,000,000.
The company's telegraph is described in Section II.
No rolling-stock has yet been purchased by the Mexican Southern Railroad, or by the International and Interoceanic Railway. So little work on these two lines has been done that a description of the permanent way would be premature.
STEAMSHIPS.
The majority of the steamships running to Mexico are owned and controlled by Americans. The Alexandre line of steamers plies between New York and Vera Cruz, via Havana, and also between New Orleans and Vera Cruz. The Morgan line runs between New Orleans, Galveston, and Vera Cruz. The Pacific Mail steamers touch at all the ports on the Pacific coast, beginning with Mazatlan. There are two lines of coasting steamers on the Pacific, which run as far north as Guaymas. One of them is owned by a Mexican, and the other belongs to an American. Small steamships sail from Matamoros (Bagdad) down the Gulf of Mexico, calling at Tampico, Tuxpan, Vera Cruz, Frontera, Campeche, Progreso, and intermediate ports. (For particulars as to time of sailing, fares, etc., see advertisements.)
Some capitalists in Mexico have recently organized a company, and have ordered six iron steamers, each of four thousand tons burden, which are to be run between England and Italy and Vera Cruz. Its title is the Mexican Transatlantic Steamship Company. One of the steamers is to be called the Estado de Tamaulipas, in compliment to President Gonzalez, and another the Estado de Oaxaca, in honor of General Diaz. The steamers will cost at least 700,000 each, and the engines will be of five hundred ​horse-power. It is expected that some of the ships will be completed and begin running within a year. They are to be constructed by the builders of the well-known ocean-steamers Servia and Britannic, which run between New York and Liverpool, and are expected to have a speed of sixteen knots per hour.
DILIGENCES.
The diligence system, or diligencias generales, was established in Mexico about fifty years ago. The central office is in the capital, and coaches are run from Cuernavaca on the south, to Durango and San Luis Potosi on the north. Other lines connect the latter town with Monterey, and also bring Durango in communication with Chihuahua. The smaller diligences that are driven between the towns lying beyond the routes of the "general" system are called diligencias particulares.
The coaches are built in Mexico, after the “Concord" pattern. They soon wear out, owing to the rough pavements of the streets, and the bad condition of the roads. Each stage-coach has one and often two whippers besides the driver. The whipper will often descend from the box while the diligence is in motion, and run ahead, in order to strike the forward mules. When on the box he throws stones at the leaders. The coachmen generally drive in a very skillful manner, and are polite in their deportment toward the passengers.
Eight mules are attached to each vehicle in the dry season, and nine in the rainy season. They are arranged as follows: two wheelers and two leaders, with four animals abreast in between. Most of the diligences have accommodation for nine persons inside and three outside. The inside is called el interior, and the outside el pescante. A few of these vehicles have broader seats, so as to make room for twelve passengers within.
​Travelers in the pescante should be on the lookout for the large lamps that are hung on wires across the streets, at a height barely sufficient to allow the diligence to clear them while passing under.
On the long trips the diligences generally start at 4 a. m., but occasionally not till 5 and 6 a. m. About 80 miles are traveled daily, which occupies from twelve to fifteen hours, according to the condition of the roads. It should be remarked, that not more than two or three diligence-roads in the whole country are kept in repair, and the shaking and jolting to which the tourist is subjected are exceedingly disagreeable. Experienced Mexican travelers are able to sleep in the diligence during the early morning, but this is seldom the case with the stranger.
On the arrival at the terminus of the day's journey, a crowd of porters and vagrants surround the vehicle, and importune the passengers to allow them to carry their baggage. A fee of 6¼ cents (un medio) is sufficient for the transportation of a valise for a distance of two or three squares.
Two dollars is the usual charge at the diligence taverns for supper, lodging, and breakfast. The price for lunch varies from 25 cents to 75 cents. Passenger fares range from 6 to 10 cents a mile. One arroba (25 pounds) of baggage is carried free, but the rates for additional weight are very high. Bundles of shawls and small boxes held in the hand are not charged for.
Hacks may be hired for moderate distances, but posting is rare in the country.
HORSE-CARS.
Tramways have been built in almost every city in Mexico. In many cases tracks have been laid to villages 10 and miles distant, and a few horse-car roads connect stations on the railways with towns 30, 40, and even 60 miles off.
​The longest tramway is from Vera Cruz to Jalapa, a distance of 76 miles. In general the horse-car tracks are well laid out, and a locomotive and train of cars may run on them at some future time. It is said that engines will soon be put on the tramways from Vera Cruz to Jalapa, and from Puebla to Matamoros. There are both passenger and freight horse-cars in the Republic, the former being divided into first and second class.
HORSES AND MULES.
Excepting the road built by Cortes from Vera Cruz to the capital, all communication between the cities and towns of Mexico was for many years made on horseback. This mode of traveling is still common in the rural districts. Tourists occasionally make trips, with a few pack-animals to carry baggage and provisions, in the remote parts of the Republic. Regular pack-trains of mules and burros, or donkeys, are run on the western coast. Horses are commonly fed on straw and corn. A good animal may be purchased for $50, and one able to make a short journey, for $20. Mules can be bought for about $30. If the tourist intends making a trip on horseback for ten days or longer, we would recommend him to purchase a horse instead of hiring one. These animals are always in demand, and can be sold at a slight loss on the completion of the journey. The average price for a saddle-horse is $1 per diem. In the larger cities the charge will be a little more.
Pedestrianism in Mexico is thus far unknown, excepting in the ascents of the lofty volcanoes.
EXPRESS.
Wells, Fargo & Co. have established express agencies at the following places in the Republic: Mexico (city); Tula; San Juan del Rio; Querétaro; Celaya; Salamanca; Irapuato; Silao; Guanajuato; Leon; Lagos; Vera Cruz; ​Chihuahua (city); and in the principal ports on the Pacific coast of Mexico.
Messrs. Wells, Fargo & Co. also carry a large amount of mail matter from these ports to San Francisco and to New York.
II.
History.
It would be foreign to the aim of this guide-book to give a complete history of Mexico from the earliest times to the present day. We will confine ourselves chiefly to the chronology of the country.
The early history of Mexico is involved in great obscurity. The traditions of the aborigines are so fabulous as barely to deserve mention.
Picture-writings, mostly on cloth made from the maguey fiber, afford the principal means of investigating the origin of the primitive races. Unfortunately, nearly all of these historical illustrations were burned by order of the Spanish bishop Zumarraga, at the time of the Conquest. A few of them remain in Mexico, principally in the museum at the capital, and several have found their way to the libraries of Europe.
According to an old painting, on maguey cloth, in possession of a resident of Uruapan, in the State of Michoacan, this country was settled by Indians, who came out of an immense cave and traveled over the realm on the backs of turtles, founding cities and towns wherever they went.
Very little is known of the ancient history of Mexico, but, according to the best authorities—
The Toltecs appeared in 648 a. d. The Chichimecs appeared in 1170 a. d..
The Nahualtecs appeared in 1178 a. d. The Acolhuans and Aztecs appeared in 1196 a. d.
Xolotl began to reign in the twelfth century. Nopaltzin began to reign in the thirteenth century. Tlotzin began to reign in the fourteenth century. Quinatzin began to reign in the fourteenth century. Tecotlalla began to reign in the fourteenth century. Ixtlilochitl began to reign in the year 1406. Nezahualcoyotl began to reign in the year 1426. Nezahualpilli began to reign in the year 1470. Cacamatzin began to reign in the year 1516. Cuicuitzcatzin began to reign in the year 1520. Coanacotzin began to reign in the year 1520.
We are not aware that any author has given a chronological account of the other primitive races. The Aztecs called the country Anahuac; and the capital Tenochtitlan, which occupied the present site of the City of Mexico. They lived in barbaric pomp and Oriental splendor. Their kings and princes wore the most gorgeous dresses and costly jewels. (Their palaces and temples are described in the chapter on ruins.)
The reign of the Montezumas began about the year 1460. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, Montezuma II was on the throne. Authentic Mexican history really dates from the year 1517, when the Spanish navigators began to explore the New World. The dates of the principal events during the domination of the Spaniards are as follows:
| Feb. 28, 1517. | Cordova discovered Yucatan, landing at Cape Catoche. |
| May 3, 1518. | Grijalva landed on the Isle of Cozumel, and called Yucatan "New Spain." |
| June 19, 1518. | Grijalva landed at the mouth of the Rio Tabasco, and, sailing up the Gulf coast, reached the Rio Panuco, afterward returning to Cuba. He was the first Spanish navigator who set foot on Mexican soil, and opened intercourse with the Aztecs. |
| April 21, 1519. | Cortes landed at Vera Cruz, and soon marched toward the City of Mexico, building a wagon-road thither. |
| Nov. 8, 1519. | The Spaniards enter the ancient capital. |
| June 30, 1520. | Death of Montezuma. |
| July 1, 1520. | The Spaniards evacuate the capital—noche triste. |
| July 8, 1520. | The battle of Otumba. |
| May 30, 1521. | The siege of the City of Mexico begins. |
| Aug. 13, 1521. | Surrender of the capital to Cortes. |
| 1528. | First audiencia inaugurated with Nuño de Guzman, President. |
| 1535. | Mint founded in Mexico. |
| 1535. | Rule of the viceroys began. |
There were sixty-four viceroys in two hundred and eighty-six years, i. e., up to 1821. All of them were Europeans except one, Juan de Acuña (1722-'34), who was born in Peru. They were endowed with royal prerogatives. During the vice-kingdom, Mexico was treated by Spain in the same manner as the English governed the United States before the American Revolution. In other words, there were great restrictions on commerce and agriculture. Foreign ships were not allowed to enter the ports. Learning was discouraged. The first and most prominent viceroy was Antonio de Mendoza (1535-'50).
Many reforms and discoveries were made during his administration. Next to him, Pacheco (1789-'94) became most famous.
Some of the other viceroys were—Velasco, Alamanza, Montesclaros, Salinas (who began the canal of Huehuetoca, in 1607), Villena, Guelves, Ceralvo, Monclova, De Croix, ​Monterey, Iturrigaray, Bucareli, and Juan O'Donoju, who was the last one.
| 1536. | Cortes discovered Lower California. |
| Dec. 2, 1554. | Cortes died in Spain. |
| 1810. | Hidalgo and Morelos, two curates, declare against the Spanish domination. A revolution follows, the army of the former is defeated, and— |
| July 31, 1811. | Hidalgo is executed in Chihuahua. The war of independence lasted about ten years. The principal patriots were Allende, Abasolo, and Aldama, besides Hidalgo and Morelos. States have been named after the last two heroes, and towns bear the names of the others. |
| Aug. 23, 1821. | Mexico became independent by the treaty of Aquala. |
| 1821. | Agustin Iturbide, President of a provisional Junta; Mexico formed into an empire; the crown declined by Spain. |
| May 19, 1822. | Iturbide proclaimed Emperor. |
| Dec. 2, 1822. | The Republic proclaimed at Vera Cruz. |
| Mar. 26, 1823. | Iturbide compelled to abdicate. |
| 1823. | Provisional government. |
| July 19, 1824. | Iturbide went to England; returns and endeavors to recover his dignity, but is shot near Tampico. |
| Oct. 4, 1824. | First Constitution established, which is similar to that of the United States of America. The President must be native-born, and holds office for a term of four years. The President, national delegates, governors of the several States, and their deputies, are elected by the people. The power of the Mexican Government consists of the executive, legislative, and judiciary. |
| April, 1825. | Commercial treaty with Great Britain. |
| 1825. | Guadalupe Victoria, first President. |
| 1828. | Gomez Pedraza becomes next President. |
| 1829. | The United States recognizes the Mexican Republic. |
| March, 1829. | Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed. |
| 1829. | Guerrero third President. |
| Sept. 26, 1829. | Spanish expedition against Mexico, surrendered. |
| Dec. 23, 1829. | Mexican revolution; President Guerrero deposed. |
| 1830. | Anastasio Bustamante, fourth President. |
| Feb. 14, 1831. | Guerrero executed. |
| 1833. | Pedraza President again for a few weeks. |
| April 1, 1833. | Santa Anna, fifth President. |
| Dec. 28, 1836. | Independence of Mexico recognized by Spain. |
| April 19, 1837. | Bustamante again President. |
| Nov. 30, 1838. | Declaration of war against France. |
| March 9, 1839. | This war terminated. |
| Mar. & July, " | Santa Anna, revolutionary provisional President. |
| 1839. | Nicolas Bravo, President for one week; sixth President. |
| 1841-‘44. | Santa Anna, Nicolas Bravo, and Canalizo, dictators. |
| 1844. | Santa Anna, President for third time; seventh President. |
| Sept. 20, 1844. | Canalizo, President for second time; eighth President. |
| June 4, 1845. | War with the United States, growing out of the annexation of Texas. The question was a disputed boundary-line. Mexico claimed that the Nueces River was the frontier line, while the United States maintained that the Rio Grande was the proper boundary—hence the war. General Zachary Taylor began the hostilities on the side of the latter. |
| Dec, 1845. | Herrera becomes ninth President. |
| 1846. | The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8th; and subsequently at Matamoros. |
| Aug. 22, 1846. | Santa Fé captured. |
| Sept. 24, 1846. | Battle of Monterey. |
| 1847. | Paredes, tenth President. |
| Feb. 22, 1847. | Battle of Buena Vista; the Mexicans defeated by General Taylor, with great loss, after two days' fighting. Santa Anna commanded the former. |
| March 9, 1847. | Scott landed at Vera Cruz, and marched westward. |
| April 18, 1847. | The Americans, under General Scott, defeat the Mexicans under Santa Anna, making 6,000 prisoners. |
| Sept. 14, 1847. | Scott captured the City of Mexico. |
| 1848. | Santa Anna, President fourth time; eleventh President. |
| May 19, 1848. | Treaty between Mexico and the United States ratified. |
| 1850. | Herrera, President second time; twelfth President. |
| 1852. | Arista, President; thirteenth President. |
| Sept., 1852. | Political convulsions. |
| Jan. 6, 1853. | President Arista resigns, and Santa Anna is invited to return. |
| 1853. | Santa Anna, President fifth time; fourteenth President. |
| Jan., 1855. | He abdicates; Carrera elected President; fifteenth President. |
| Dec, 1855. | Carrera also abdicates, and is succeeded by Alvarez. |
| 1855. | Alvarez, President; sixteenth President. |
| Mar. 31, 1856. | Property of the clergy sequestrated. |
| Feb. 5, 1857. | New Constitution. |
| July, 1857. | Comonfort chosen President; seventeenth President. |
| Jan. 11, 1858. | Coup d’ état; Comonfort compelled to retire. |
| Jan. 21-26, " | General Zuloaga takes the government. |
| Feb. 11, 1858. | Benito Juarez declared constitutional President at Vera Cruz; eighteenth President. |
| Aug. to Nov., " | Civil war; several engagements. |
| Jan. 6, 1859. | General Miguel Miramon nominated President at Mexico by the Junta; nineteenth President. |
| Feb. 2, 1859. | Zuloaga abdicates. |
| Feb., 1859. | In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships of war are sent to Mexico. |
| April 10, 1859. | Miramon forces the lines of the Liberal generals, enters the capital, assumes his functions as governor, and governs without respect to the laws of life and property. |
| July 13, 1859. | Juarez confiscates the Church property. |
| Dec. 21, 1859. | Miramon and the clerical party defeat the Liberals under Colima. |
| Mar. 5, 1860. | He besieges Vera Cruz; bombards it; March 21st, compelled to raise the siege. |
| May 1, 1860. | General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes the presidency; twentieth President. |
| May 9, 1860. | Miramon arrests Zuloaga; May 10th, the diplomatic bodies suspend official relations with the former. |
| Aug. 10, 1860. | Miramon defeated by Degollado. |
| Oct., 1860. | He governs Mexico with much tyranny; the foreign ministers quit the City. |
| Jan. 19, 1861. | He is compelled to retire; Juarez enters Mexico and is re-elected President; twenty-first President. |
| June 30, 1861. | Juarez made dictator by the Congress. |
| July 17, 1861. | The Mexican Congress decides to suspend payments to foreigners for two years— |
| July 27, 1861. | Which leads to the breaking off of diplomatic relations with England and France. |
| Oct. 31, 1861. | In consequence of many gross outrages on foreigners, the British, French, and Spanish Governments, after much vain negotiation, claiming efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment of arrears due to fund-holders, sign a convention engaging to combine in hostile operations against Mexico. |
| Dec. 8, 1861. | Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz; December 17th, it surrenders. |
| Dec. 15, 1861. | The Mexican Congress dissolves, after conferring full powers on the President. |
| Jan. 7, 8, 1862. | A British naval and French military expedition arrives. |
| Jan., 1862. | The Mexicans determine on resistance, and invest Vera Cruz; their taxes are raised 25 per cent. |
| Feb., 1862. | Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by the British admiral. |
| Feb., 1862. | Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy for the Archduke Maximilian of Austria disapproved of by the British and Spanish Governments. |
| Feb. 19, 1862. | Negotiation ensues between the Spaniards and Mexicans; convention between the commissaries of the allies and the Mexican General Doblado at Soledad. |
| March, 1862. | The Mexican General Marquez takes up arms against Juarez, and General Almonte joins the French General Lorencez. Juarez demands a compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege. |
| April 9, 1862. | Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allies at Orizaba; the English and Spaniards declare for peace, which is not agreed to by the French, who declare war against Juarez on April 16th. |
| May, 1862. | The Spanish and British forces retire; the French Government sends re-enforcements to Lorencez. |
| May 5, 1862. | The French, induced by Marquez, advance into the interior; severely repulsed by General Zaragoza, at Fort Guadalupe, near Puebla. |
| June 13, 14," | The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro del Borrego, near Orizaba. |
| August, 1862. | The Mexican Liberals said to be desirous of negotiation. |
| Aug. 28, 1862. | General Forey and 2,500 French soldiers land. |
| Sept., 1862. | Letter from the Emperor Napoleon to Lorencez, disclaiming any intention of imposing a government on Mexico, announced. |
| Sept. 8, 1862. | Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans. |
| Oct., 1862. | General Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and military power to himself. |
| Oct. 19, 1862. | Ortega takes command of the Mexican army. |
| Oct. 27, 1862. | The Mexican Congress assembles, and protests against the French invasion. |
| Jan. 13, 1863. | The French evacuate Tampico. |
| Feb. 24, 1863. | Forey marches toward Mexico. |
| Mar. 29, 1863. | Siege of Puebla, bravely defended; severe assault, March 31st to April 3d. |
| May 18, 1863. | It is surrendered at discretion by Ortega. |
| May 31, 1863. | The Republican Government remove to San Luis Potosi. |
| June 5, 1863. | Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine. |
| June 10, 1863. | His army enters the capital. |
| July 10, 1863. | Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the establishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, with a Roman Catholic prince as Emperor, and offer the crown to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria; a regency established. |
| Aug. 11, 1863. | The French reoccupy Tampico. |
| Oct. 1, 1863. | Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, and returns to France. |
| Oct. 3, 1863. | The Archduke Maximilian accepts the crown, under conditions. |
| Nov. 12, 1863. | The Mexican General Comonfort surprised and shot by partisans. |
| Dec. 18, 1863. | Successful advance of the imperialists; Juarez retires from San Luis Potosi. |
| Dec. 24, 1863. | It is entered by the imperialists. |
| Jan., Feb., '64. | The French occupy various places. |
| Feb. 27, 1864. | The ex-President, General Santa Anna, lands at Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire; March 12th, dismissed by Bazaine. |
| April 3, 1864. | Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of the Republican Government. |
| April 10, 1864. | The Archduke Maximilian definitively accepts the crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar. |
| May 29, 1864. | The Emperor and Empress land at Vera Cruz; June 12th, enter the City of Mexico. |
| August, 1864. | The Emperor visits the interior; grants a free press. |
| Dec. 27, 1864. | The Republicans defeat the Imperialists at San Pedro. |
| Jan. 1, 1865. | Juarez at Chihuahua exhorts the Mexicans to maintain their independence. |
| Jan. 18, 1865. | The Emperor institutes the order of the Mexican Eagle. |
| Feb. 9, 1865. | Surrender of Oaxaca to Marshal Bazaine. |
| April 10, 1865. | A temporary Constitution promulgated. |
| June, 1865. | Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the Republican army, which is discountenanced by the United States Government. |
| | Maximilian I (brother to the Emperor of Austria), born July 6, 1832; accepted the crown April 10, 1864; married, July 27, 1857, to Princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I, King of the Belgians; adopts Augustus Iturbide as his heir, September, 1865. |
| October, 1865. | The Emperor proclaims the end of the war, and martial law against all armed bands of men. |
| October, 1865. | Juarez re-elected President second time. |
| June 19, 1867. | Execution of Maximilian at Querétaro. |
| 1869. | Juarez re-elected President third time. |
| July 18, 1872. | Death of President Juarez. |
| 1872. | Lerdo de Tejada, twenty-second President. |
| Jan. 17, 1873. | English railway, from Vera Cruz to Mexico (263 miles), completed. |
| June 20, 1876. | Death of Santa Anna. |
| Oct., Nov.," | Serious revolution in Mexico. Lerdo de Tejada, though elected a second time, is prevented by the Diaz party from serving as President. |
| Dec. 1, 1876. | Juan N. Mendez, twenty-third (provisional) President. |
| May 5, 1877. | Porfirio Diaz, twenty-fourth President. |
| May 5, 1877. | Amendment of the Constitution, prohibiting the election of the President and the Governors of the States to a second term of office. |
| Dec. 1, 1880. | Manuel Gonzalez, twenty-fifth President. |
| Dec. 1, 1884. | Manuel Gonzalez's term expires. |
| | It is generally conceded that Porfirio Diaz, the present Governor of the State of Oaxaca, will become the next President of the Republic. No revolution has taken place since 1876. |
Books of reference: Prescott, Conquest of Mexico; Robertson, History of America; Lucas Alaman, Historia de Méjico; Zamacois, Historia de Méjico.
III.
Geography.
Situation.— The Mexican Republic extends from the 15th to the 32d degrees of north latitude, and from the 87th to the 117th meridians of longitude west from Greenwich.
Boundaries.— Mexico is bounded on the north by the United States of America, whose frontier is marked as follows: from the mouth of the Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande del Norte, following the course of the river to the parallel of 31° 47'; thence it is continued for 100 miles to the west on the same parallel, then to the south to latitude 31° 11'. It now follows the latter parallel to the 111th meridian, and then runs to the northwest as far as the Rio Colorado, in latitude 32° 29' 45", and, crossing this river, is marked by the dividing line between Upper and Lower California at the Bay of San Diego. The length of the northern frontier is 1,900 miles. On the east, by the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean; on the west, by the Pacific Ocean; and, on the south, by the Republic of Guatemala and the territory of Balize, or British Honduras.
Area.—Mexico contains, according to Busto's Estadística de la República Mexicana, 1,958,912 square kilometres, or 756,336 square miles. The Statesman's Year-Book gives the area at 743,948 square miles.
Topography.—Mountains.—The Republic is traversed by the continuation of the Cordillera of South America, which in Mexico is called the Sierra Madre. It trends northwesterly from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
​This range has a moderate elevation in the southern States of Chiapas and Oaxaca; but in latitude 19°, the mean altitude is about 9,000 feet above the sea-level, and two peaks, Popocatepetl and Orizaba, rise to the great elevations of 17,720 feet and 17,200 feet respectively. The former mountain is the culminating point of North America.
On the parallel of 21° the Cordillera becomes very wide, and divides itself into three ranges. The eastern branch runs to Saltillo and Monterey; the western branch traverses the States of Jalisco and Sinaloa, and subsides in Northern Sonora; while the central ridge extends through the States of Durango and Chihuahua, forming the water shed of the northern table-land. The range decreases in elevation in going northward.
​Four peaks—viz., Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, Orizaba, the Nevada de Toluca—rise above 15,000 feet; and three others—the Cofre de Perote, Ajusco, and the volcano of Colima—are upward of 11,000 feet in altitude. (The exact heights of these mountains are given in Part II.) Referring to these lofty peaks, Humboldt remarks: “On the great table-land, the colossal mountains covered with perpetual snow seem, as it were, to rise out of a plain. The spectator confounds the ridge of the soft swelling land, the elevated plain, with the plain of the lowlands, and it is only from a change of climate, the lowering of the temperature under the same degree of latitude, that he is reminded of the height to which, he has ascended."
The country is divided into three zones—viz., the tierra caliente, or hot land; the tierra templada, or temperate land; and the tierra fria, or cold land. About one half of the surface of Mexico lies in the latter zone, the remainder of the Republic being almost equally divided between the tierra templada and tierra caliente. Geographers differ in defining the limits of the various zones, as is shown by the following table:
| ZONES | According to Humboldt. | According to Milner. |
| Tierra caliente | Up to 3,9.36 feet. | Up to 2,000 feet. |
| Tierra templada | Up to 7,217 feet. | From 2,000 to 5,000 feet. |
| Tierra fria | Above 7,217 feet. | From 5,000 to 8,000 feet. |
The coasts of the Republic are low, but the land rises gradually upon going toward the interior. The flat region of the eastern part of Mexico is wider than that of the western coast. In the former the tierra caliente has an average breadth of about 65 miles, while in the latter it varies from 40 to 70 miles.
​The annexed cut shows an exaggerated profile of the country between the two oceans:
Mexico consists for the greater part of an elevated plateau having a mean height of about 6,000 feet above the sea-level. This plateau extends from the frontier of the United States to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. It is widest in the latitude of the national capital, being about 350 miles at this point, and contracts gradually toward the south.
The principal table-lands of the northern Mexican plateau are that of Chihuahua, which lies north of latitude 24°, and east of the Conchos and Florida Rivers, and having an elevation of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, and that of Anahuac, which is from 6,000 to 8, 000 feet high. There are four distinct table-lands on the central plateau, as follows:
| That of Toluca, having a mean elevation of | 8,570 feet |
| That of Tenochtitlan,"" | 7,470 feet. |
| That of Actopan,"" | 6,450 feet. |
| That of Istla,"" | 3,320 feet. |
Two passes, about 500 miles apart, afford an outlet from the great table-land to the eastward—viz., that of Jalapa, through which Cortes built a road during the Conquest; and one at Saltillo, through which the United States troops reached the plateau during the Mexican War.
In referring to the uniform character of the surface of the great plateau of Mexico, Humboldt has remarked in the Cosmos, vol. v, p. 380, that the traveler may proceed in a four-wheeled carriage on the ridge of the table-land, from the City of Mexico to Santa Fé, a distance of at least ​1,200 miles, without the advantage of artificially prepared roads.
Rivers.—Mexico, on account of the narrow form of the continent, which prevents the collection of a great mass of water, contains very few navigable streams, the principal ones being the Coatzacoalcos and Panuco Rivers. There are sand-bars at the mouths of many of the rivers, on which not more than three or four feet of water is to be found at low tide. Several streams could be made navigable at comparatively small expense. This fact would apply especially to the Rio de Santiago, the longest river in the Republic, according to Humboldt, who states that it is as long as the Elbe or Rhône, and that the grain from the States of Guanajuato and Jalisco could be thus transported to the western coast.
The following list gives the names and lengths of the principal rivers in Mexico:
| | Miles. | | Miles. |
| Rio de Santiago | 542 | Rio Panuco | 286 |
| Rio de las Balzas | 418 | Rio de Sinaloa | 277 |
| Rio Yaqui | 338 | Rio de Ures | 208 |
| Rio Conchos | 338 | Rio de Culiacan | 156 |
| Rio de Grijalva | 344 | Rio de Goatzacoalcos | 112 |
| Rio Usumasinta | 341 | | |
Lakes.—There are many lakes on the Mexican plateau, most of which are extensive shallow lagoons, as in the valleys of Mexico and Parras. They are only the remains of large basins of water that formerly existed on the high plains of the Cordillera. The majority of these lakes have no outlet, and are accordingly filled with salt water. Owing to rapid evaporation, their surface has diminished appreciably since the time of the Spanish Conquest.
The Lagoon (laguna) of Terminos, on the coast of the Gulf of Campeche, is the largest in Mexico, but it is an arm of the sea, rather than a lake.
​Strictly speaking, the Lake of Chapala, in the State of Jalisco, is the largest in the country. Lake Patzcuaro and Lake Cuitzeo are next in importance among the inland bodies of fresh water.
Islands.—Mexico owns many islands on the west coast, the principal of which are San Ignacio, Angel de la Guarda, Salsipuedes, Tibaron, Carmen, and Cerralvo, in the Gulf of California; Cerros, Santa Margarita, and Las Tres Marias, in the Pacific Ocean. There are also several islands belonging to the Republic in the Gulf of Mexico, and off the coast of Yucatan, of which the most important are Carmen, in the former, and Mugeres, Cancun, and Cozumel, adjoining the latter.
Guano islands abound in the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico, some of them being claimed by citizens of the United States.
Climate.—No country on the globe has a greater variety of climate than Mexico. The mean temperature of the three zones is as follows: for the tierra caliente, 77°; for the tierra templada, from 68° to 70°; and in the tierra fria, 62° Fahr. Extremes of temperature are comparatively rare in the latter, and unknown in the tierra templada, but they are frequent in the former zone. In Vera Cruz, the mercury often stands at 90° in the warm season, but, if the wind suddenly changes to the northward, it will sink to 65° Fahr. in a few hours.
   "Febrero loco,
   Porque de todo,
   Tiene un poco,"
which, being interpreted, means, February is a fool because it has a little of everything, i. e., all kinds of weather.
According to Humboldt, the annual rainfall at the City of Mexico amounts to fifty-nine inches. In the northern part of Mexico, the rainy season is in the months of July, August, September, and half of October.
Snow falls in winter at an elevation of about 8,500 feet. According to Humboldt, the line of perpetual snow in Mexico is 15,091 feet above the level of the sea.
The atmosphere on the Mexican plateau is very dry. This aridity proceeds from two causes: 1. The evaporation that occurs on great plains, which is increased by the high table-land; and, 2. The country is not sufficiently elevated for a considerable number of the mountains to penetrate the region of perpetual snow. Tourists are liable to suffer from thirst and chapped lips on arriving in the valley of Mexico, owing to the dryness of the climate. The nights are cold throughout the year on the great table-land north of the eighteenth parallel of latitude. In general, the temperature will sink as low as 45° Fahr., and occasionally the thermometer will fall to the freezing-point on the higher plains. The coldest part of the night is just before daybreak. In the vicinity of the snow-clad mountains, the sky is usually free from clouds in the early morning, but toward nine o'clock they rise gradually, and often cover the higher peaks for the remainder of the day. In the tierra caliente, and in the greater part of the tierra templada, a clear sky prevails, as a rule, during the entire year, except for a few hours of the day during the rainy season (el tiempo de agua). Strong winds are ​common on the table-land, and the dust often rises in clouds on the sandy plains.
Political Divisions.—New Spain was formerly divided into ten districts, viz.: The kingdoms of Mexico, New Galicia, and Leon; the colony of New Santander, and the provinces of Texas, Coahuila, New Biscay, Sonora, New Mexico, and the two Californias.
The country was subsequently partitioned into twelve intendancies and three provinces, as follows:
| 1. | The province of New Mexico. |
| 2. | The intendancy of New Biscay, or Durango. |
| 3. | The province of New California. |
| 4. | The province of Old California. |
| 5. | The intendancy of Sonora. |
| 6. | The intendancy of San Luis Potosi. |
| 7. | The intendancy of Zacatecas. |
| 8. | The intendancy of Guadalajara. |
| 9. | The intendancy of Guanajuato. |
| 10. | The intendancy of Valladolid. |
| 11. | The intendancy of Mexico. |
| 12. | The intendancy of Puebla. |
| 13. | The intendancy of Vera Cruz. |
| 14. | The intendancy of Oaxaca. |
| 15. | The intendancy of Merida, or Yucatan. |
The Republic of Mexico is now divided into twenty-seven States, one Territory, and one Federal District. The several States are subdivided into 48 departments, 170 districts, 48 cantons, 110 counties, 1,411 municipalities, 146 cities, 378 towns, 4,886 villages, 872 hamlets, 6 missions, 5,869 haciendas, and 14,705 ranches.
The populations of the several States are given in the chapter on the census. It is worthy of remark, however, that Jalisco has the largest number of inhabitants. The ​following is a list of the Mexican States, classified according to superficial area:
| Square kilometres. | Square kilometres. | Square kilometres. | Square kilometres. |
| Chihuahua | 227,716 | Michoacan de Ocampo | 55,693 |
| Sonora | 209,694 | Chiapas | 43,930 |
| Lower California (Territory) | 152,847 | Nuevo Leon | 38,156 |
| Coahuila de Zaragoza | 152,517 | Tabasco | 32,935 |
| Jalisco | 114,896 | Puebla | 31,120 |
| Durango | 110,463 | Mexico | 25,972 |
| Yucatan | 84,585 | Hidalgo | 21,693 |
| Tamaulipas | 75,191 | Guanajuato | 20,276 |
| San Luis Potosi | 71,210 | Querétaro de Orteaga | 8,300 |
| Vera Cruz-Llave | 71,116 | Colima | 7,136 |
| Oaxaca | 70,838 | Aguascalientes | 5,776 |
| Sinaloa | 69,211 | Morelos | 4,536 |
| Zacatecas | 68,596 | Tlaxcala | 3,898 |
| Guerrero | 68,568 | Federal District | 231 |
| Campeche | 67,539 | | ————— |
| Total | | | 1,958,912 |
IV.
Literature.
Up to the present time Mexican literature has occupied a subordinate position compared to that of Europe and the United States. The people of Mexico are acquainted more extensively with French literature than with that of any other country. Prieto is the great national poet; while Cuello, Mateos, Contreras, Paz, Peza, Payno, Altimirano, Justo Sierra, Carpio, and Riva Palacio are the best-known novelists. The latter author is also a dramatic writer.
The prevailing style of books that are read in the Republic are Spanish translations of French and English volumes. Books are admitted free of duty, and many of the works used in the country are printed in the Spanish language at Paris.
* ↑ The total amount of railroad subsidies granted by the Mexican Government is given in round numbers at $90,000,000.
* ↑ The Mexican Southern Railroad Company is allowed to charge ½ cent more for coal per ton than the International Railroad.
* ↑ Railroad-iron costs $55 a ton for 263 miles.
* ↑ This line receives a subsidy of $2,000 per round trip from the Mexican Government.
* ↑ Many of these events are taken from Haydn's Dictionary of Dates.
* ↑ Approximately.
* ↑ The long-disputed boundary question between Mexico and Guatemala has recently been decided in favor of the former.
* ↑ Cosmos, vol, V, p. 379.
* ↑ Under the equator the snow-line is estimated at 15,750 feet.
* ↑ The largest as regards area.
* ↑ The largest in population.