OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Europe/Volume 4/Number 51/A Lasting Peace through the Federation of Europe

Reviews
Professor C. E. Vaughan, late of the University of Leeds—who in 1915 published what will probably remain the definitive edition of the political works of Rousseau—has just done good service to the cause of a European settlement by issuing a cheap reprint of Rousseau’s essay on “A Lasting Peace through the Federation of Europe” (Constable, 2s. net). Although Rousseau wrote this essay in 1756, it contains many wise remarks and sound principles which are singularly applicable to the present day. One warning of Rousseau might well be taken to heart by the pacifist groups of to-day: “My friends! you must allow me to tell you that you give too much weight to your calculations and too little to the heart of man and the play of passion. Your system is excellent for Utopia, for the children of Adam it is worth nothing.”
Professor Vaughan contributes to this edition a most valuable Introduction, in which he applies the ideas of Rousseau to the current crisis. He points out that the basis of a Federation of the Continent and the indispensable condition of the maintenance of a lasting peace must be the reorganisation of Europe, and particularly of Central Europe, on national lines. He rightly regards the break-up of Austria as “one of the chief conditions of the coming peace,” without which “the war will have been waged in vain.”F. J. C. H.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1946, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 77 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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# The New Europe/Volume 4/Number 51/Bohemia's Case for Independence

* related portals: Austria, World War I, Czech lands.
* related authors: Edvard Beneš.
​In Bohemia’s Case for Independence (Allen and Unwin, pp. xii + 132, 2s. 6d. net) Dr. Edouard Beneš, the well-known lecturer of Prague University, gives an admirable summary of the material—historical, economic, and political—upon which is based the Czecho-Slovak claim to independence. It is a short and telling volume, which ought to be read and made known widely. The importance of Czecho-Slovak and Jugoslav liberation from German and Magyar control cannot be insisted upon too much. It is fundamental. Unless that immoral domination is broken up many of the root causes of the present war will remain untouched. Even at this stage of the war there is far too much ignorance and indifference towards this vital problem. Dr. Beneš’ plea will do much to clear the air, as will also the lucid and eloquent introduction contributed by Mr. Wickham Steed. G. G.
This work was published before January 1, 1929 and is anonymous or pseudonymous due to unknown authorship. It is in the public domain in the United States as well as countries and areas where the copyright terms of anonymous or pseudonymous works are 95 years or less since publication.
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# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfizer, Gustav

Edition of 1905. See also Gustav Pfizer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFIZER, pfĭt'sẽr, Gustav (1807-90). A German lyrist and critic of the Swabian school. He was born in Stuttgart, studied at Tübingen, and in 1840 became professor at the gymnasium in his native city. He wrote Gedichte (1831), Dichtungen epischer und episch-lyrischer Gattung (1840),
and Der Welsche und der Deutsche (1844); translations of Bulwer and Byron; the critical work Uhland und Rückert (1837), and an attack on Heine which called out the Schwabenspiegel. His poetry is more original and reflective than most of the products of the Swabian school.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfleiderer, Otto

Edition of 1905. See also Otto Pfleiderer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFLEIDERER, pflī'dẽr-ẽr, Otto (1839—). A German Protestant theologian, born at Stetten, near Cannstatt. He studied theology at Tübingen and for some time was superintendent and professor at Jena. In 1875 he was called to the chair of systematic theology at the University of Berlin. Through his writings and his lectures, he became known as one of the most influential representatives of liberal theology. His lectures in London (1885) and in Edinburgh (1894) were afterwards published in English: Lectures on the Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development of Christianity and The Philosophy and Development of Religion (1894). His principal works are: Die Religion, ihr Wesen und ihre Geschichte (1869-78); Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlicher Grundlage (1878-93); Zur religiosen Verständigung (lectures, 1879); and Geschichte der Religionsphilosophie von Spinoza bis auf die Gegenwart (1893).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfuhl, Johannes

Edition of 1905. See also Johannes Pfuhl on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFUHL, pfōōl, Johannes (1846—). A German sculptor, born in Löwenberg, Silesia. He studied in the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts under Schievelbein, became his master's assistant and completed his plans for the bronze memorial now in the Dönhoffsplatz, Berlin. Soon after Schievelbein's death Pfuhl settled in Charlottenburg. He made a few portrait busts, but his more typical products are colossal groups or reliefs, including a frieze in rilievo, commemorating the Franco-Prussian War, for the military school of Lichterfelde (1876); a statue of Count Stolberg, in Landeshut, Silesia; “Perseus Liberating Andromeda,” a fountain decoration in Posen, and also in the Goethe Theatre in Charlottenburg (1884); “Theseus, Hippodameia, and Eurytion” (1886); an equestrian statue of William I. with Bismarck and Von Moltke, in Görlitz (1893); and the Laube monument at Sprottau (1895).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfeil, Joachim Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Joachim von Pfeil on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFEIL, pfīl, Joachim Friedrich, Count (1857—). A German explorer and colonist in Africa and New Guinea. He was born at Neurode, in Silesia, studied at the gymnasium of Göttingen, and in 1873 went to Natal. He learned the vernacular and stayed in the country four years; then (1879), after a visit to Europe, he settled in Orange Free State and with Wilson mapped the course of the Limpopo; but illness forced him to return to Germany. In 1884, having entered the employ of the Society for German Colonization. Pfeil went to East Africa with Peters and Jühlke, and in 1886 succeeded the latter as general manager of the company in Somaliland. This post he resigned in 1887, and entered the service of the New Guinea Company. His travels and explorations in the South Seas are described in his Studien und Beobachtungen in der Südsee (1899), and he also wrote Vorschläge zur praktischen Kolonisation in Ostafrika (1887), and Zur Frage der Deportation nach den deutschen Kolonien (1897).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfister, Albrecht

Edition of 1905. See also Albrecht Pfister on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFISTER, pfĭs'tẽr, Albrecht (c.1420-c.1470). A German printer, to whom the discovery of the art is sometimes wrongly attributed. It seems probable that he worked as wood engraver for Gutenberg. About 1455 he founded a press in Bamberg. There he printed Boner's Edelstein (1461); the Book of the Four Histories (Joseph, Daniel, Esther, and Ruth) (c.l462); the famous Biblia Pauperum (1462); and Belial of the same date. Consult: Heffels, Gutenberg: Was He the Inventor of Printing? (London, 1882), and Dziatzko, Gutenberg's früheste Druckerpraxis (Berlin, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pfeufer, Karl von

Edition of 1905. See also Karl von Pfeufer on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFEUFER, pfoi'fẽr, Karl von (1806-69). A German physician who introduced the rational method of physical and chemical explanations for physiological or pathological conditions. He was born at Bamberg, and studied medicine at Erlangen and Würzburg. After eight years of practice in Munich, Pfeufer held academic positions in Zurich (1840-44), in Heidelberg (1844-52), and in Munich (1852-69). Besides his great contributions to method, which appeared in the Zeitschrift für rationelle Medizin (1844 sqq.), he wrote on cholera, Zum Schutz wider die Cholera (1849; 3d ed. 1854), and introduced public sanitation as a requisite in medical study. Consult Kerschensteiner, Leben und Wirken des Dr. Karl von Pfeufer (Augsburg, 1871).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pforzheim

Edition of 1905. See also Pforzheim on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFORZHEIM, pfṓrts'hīm. A town of Baden, Germany, on the northern border of the Black Forest, 16 miles southeast of Karlsruhe (Map: Germany, C 4) . It has the remains of an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the margraves of Baden-Durlach, several churches, a convent, and industrial and other schools. The Schlosskirche is a notable old structure in the Gothic and Renaissance styles. Pforzheim is one of the largest manufacturing centres of cheap jewelry in the world, over 10,000 workmen being employed. There are also chemical and iron works, machine shops, tanneries, and paper, electrical apparatus, and other factories. Population, in 1895, 33,331; in 1900, 43,097.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pflugk-Harttung, Julius von

Edition of 1905. See also Julius von Pflugk-Harttung on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFLUGK-HARTTUNG, pflōōG' här'tụ ng, Julius von (1848—). A German historian, best known as an authority on Papal and mediæval history. He was born at Warnikow, studied at Bonn, Berlin, and Göttingen, and in 1886 became professor of history at Basel. Thence he went to Berlin, where in 1893 he became head of the Secret State Archives. He wrote Studien zur Geschichte Konrads II. (1876-77); Norwegen und die deutschen Seestädte (1887); Acta Pontificorum Romanorum Inedita, 748-1198 (1879-88); Iter Italicum (1883); in Grote's Allgemeine Weltgeschichte the part on the early Middle Ages (1889); Krieg und Sieg, 1870-71, the first of his studies of modern history (1895); Napoleon I., Republik und Kaisertum (1900); and Die Bullen der Päpste bis zum Ende des 12. Jahrhunderts (1901).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Pflüger, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm

Edition of 1905. See also Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm Pflüger on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
PFLÜGER, pflụ'gẽr, Eduard Friedrich Wilhelm (1829—). A German physiologist, born at Hanau. He studied at Marburg and Berlin, and in 1859 became director of the Physiological Institute and professor in the University of Bonn, Pflüger made special studies on the nervous systems of lower animals; founded in 1868 the Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie; and wrote Sensorische Funktionen des Rückenmarks der Wirbeltiere (1853), Physiologie des Elektrotonus (1859), Untersuchungen aus dem physiologischen Laboratorium zu Bonn (1865), and Ueber die Kunst der Verlängerung des Lebens (1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedda Gabler

Edition of 1905. See also Hedda Gabler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDDA GABLER, hĕd'dȧ gä'blẽr. A play by Hendrik Ibsen (1809), and the name of its heroine, an eccentric woman who, disappointed in her marriage with a young savant, attempts to regain her influence over a former lover, Eilert, now under the good influence of a former school friend of Hedda. He loses the manuscript of a new work which is to make him famous, and Hedda's husband finds it, but she destroys the work. When Eilert, in despair, thinks of suicide, she gives him a pistol with which he ends his life in a low resort, and Hedda kills herself.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedge

Edition of 1905. See also Hedge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDGE (AS. hecg, hege, OHG. hecga, hegga, Ger. Hecke, hedge; connected with AS. hege, Eng. hay, and AS. hēawan, Eng. hew). A fence formed generally of growing shrubs or trees and cultivated either for defense or ornament. Hedges are much used in England, Italy, and in other countries where wood for fences is scarce. For many situations, they are particularly adapted, owing to the protection which they
afford from high winds. The height to which they are permitted to grow should be accommodated to the requirements of the locality. Hedges in Great Britain are generally formed of hawthorn (q.v.). Beech hedges are very common around gardens and pleasure grounds, and a hedge of beech and hawthorn mixed is connnon in many places. Holly makes an excellent ornamental hedge, much in use for gardens and pleasure grounds. Ornamental hedges are sometimes formed of yew, hornbeam, lime, and other trees. In the United States, osage orange (Maclura aurantiaca) and honey-locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) are considered the best hedges for fence purposes. For ornamental hedges California privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium) , Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), American arbor-vitæ (Thuja occidentalis), common hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis), Japan quince (Cydonia japonica), Deutzia scabra, and some spireas and viburnums are used.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedge, Frederic Henry

Edition of 1905. See also Frederick Henry Hedge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDGE, Frederic Henry (1805-90). An American clergyman, critic, and philosopher, born at Cambridge, Mass. He was a son of Levi Hedge, professor of logic and metaphysics in Harvard College. He studied in Germany under the care of George Bancroft from 1818 to 1823, and graduated at Harvard (1825), and from the Divinity School at Cambridge in 1828. He was a Unitarian pastor successively at West Cambridge (1829), Bangor, Maine (1835), Providence, R. I. (1850), Brookline, Mass. (1856), and in 1857 was made professor of ecclesiastical history in the Harvard Divinity School, and editor of the Christian Examiner (1857-60). From 1872 to 1881 he was professor of German at Harvard. To literary criticism he contributed Prose Writers of Germany (1848), and Hours with German Classics (1886); to religious and philosophical criticism: Reason in Religion (1865); The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition (1870); Martin Luther and Other Essays (1888). He wrote also several hymns and translations from the German poets, and prepared a liturgy for the Unitarian Church (1856). His chief significance to American thought was his introduction of German scholarship and literature.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Heckscher, Johann Gustav Wilhelm Moritz

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Gustav Heckscher on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HECKSCHER, hĕk'shẽr, Johann Gustav Wilhelm Moritz (1797-1865). A German politician, born in Hamburg. He served during the War of 1815 as a volunteer in the Hanseatic Corps, and then studied at the universities of Göttingen and Heidelberg. Upon completing his studies he settled in Hamburg, where he practiced law, and, after 1840, directed the politics of the Hamburger Nachrichten. In 1848 he was elected to the Vorparlament, in which he opposed the propositions of the Democratic Party. In the National Assembly at Frankfort (1848-49) he was at first a member of the Left Centre, but inclined more and more to identify himself with the Right. He advocated the election of Archduke John of Austria as Vicar of the Provisional Government, in which he himself was appointed Minister of Justice, and opposed the proposition to exclude Austria and erect a German empire with a Prussian King as hereditary Emperor. Later he helped to organize the Pan-German Party.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedberg, Frans Teodor

Edition of 1905. See also Frans Hedberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDBERG, hĕd'bĕr-y', Frans Teodor (1828—). A Swedish dramatist, born at Stockholm. He had tried various professions, including that of actor and wig-maker, before he set seriously to
work as a dramatist (1854). Afterwards he was appointed reader, and then teacher, at the Royal Theatre in Stockholm (1861), and later director of the New Theatre, Gothenburg (1881). In 1883 he gave up this position to devote himself entirely to writing. His works include comedies, tragedies, adaptations, translations, vaudevilles, and poems. The best known of his plays is Brölloppet på Ulfåsa (1865). He also wrote: Karaktäristiker och Porträter af Svenska Skådespelare (1884), and Karaktäristiker och Porträter af Svenska Operasönngare (1885), besides other works dealing with theatrical subjects.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedding, Elijah

Edition of 1905. See also Elijah Hedding on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HED'DING, Elijah (1780-1852). An American clergyman, bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He was born in Pine Plains, Dutchess County, N. Y., and began to preach in Vermont when nineteen years old. During most of the time between 1807 and 1824 he was presiding elder in New Hampshire, in Portland, Maine, and in Boston. In 1824 he was elected bishop, and during the formative period of the Church's growth he exercised a powerful influence. He was one of the founders of Zion's Herald, the first Methodist paper in the country, and author of a Manual of Discipline.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hedenstierna, Karl Joseph Alfred

Edition of 1905. See also Alfred Hedenstierna on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDENSTIERNA, hā'den-styēr-nȧ, Karl Joseph Alfred (1852—). A Swedish author, born at Wedåsa (Småland province). In 1879 he became connected with the staff of the Smålands Posten at Wexiö, and in 1890 was made editor-in-chief of that journal. In addition to several volumes descriptive of Swedish peasant life, he wrote a series of humorous articles, published weekly in the Posten over the name ‘Segurd,’ and in part collected in a translation into German by Krusenstierna and Langfeldt, entitled Allerlei Leute (Leipzig, 1892-97).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hecker, Friedrich Karl Franz

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Hecker on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HECK'ER, Friedrich Karl Franz (1811-81). A German revolutionist and American soldier. He was born at Eichtersheim, in Baden, September 28, 1811, and after studying law in Heidelberg became, in 1838, advocate of the Supreme Court in Mannheim. Elected, in 1842, a member of the second Chamber in Baden, he abandoned his profession for political life, and soon grew popular among the more advanced elements of the opposition. He sat and voted with the Extreme Left, and his influence helped to oust the Blittersdorf Ministry from office. In 1845, in conjunction with Itzstein, he conducted a democratic campaign in Germany, during which he was arrested at Berlin and expelled from Prussia. In 1848 he employed his eloquence in revolutionary agitation, and he and Struve became leaders of the advanced Revolutionary party. When the preliminary convention of the German nation (Das Vorparlament) met at Frankfort, Hecker endeavored, with the influence of his whole party, to constitute it into a permanent republican assembly. The frustration of this effort led him to attempt to surprise the smaller governments
of Southern Germany with the bands of artisans which had come from France. Defeated at Kandern, in Baden, April 20, 1848, he fled into the Canton of Basel, where he conducted a radical newspaper, and wrote his work, Die Volkserhebung in Baden. On being refused admission to the National Assembly at Frankfort, though twice elected to represent Thiengen, he emigrated to America, where he bought a farm at Belleville, Ill. The Baden Revolution (1849) brought him back to Europe; but finding the revolution over on his arrival, he returned to America. He was a colonel and brigadier-general in the Union Army during the Civil War. During his later years Hecker watched with interest the founding of the new German Empire, and was a stanch supporter of German interests in America. He died at Saint Louis, March 24, 1881. His Reden und Vorlesungen were published in Germany in 1872, and were followed two years later by Betrachtungen über den Kirchenstreit in Deutschland und die Infallibilität.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Heddle

Edition of 1905. See also Heddle on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEDDLE, or HEALD (of Scandinavian origin: cf. Icel. hafald, thrum for holding the weft). In weaving, the threads of the warp are so arranged that at each passage of the shuttle backward and forward, a certain number of the warp threads are raised up, and the remainder drawn down; this is done with vertical threads, cords, or wires, with a small loop in the middle through which the warp thread is passed, there being one of the vertical threads for each horizontal or warp thread. These threads or wires are known as heddles or healds. See Loom.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgia, Strait of

See also Strait of Georgia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ GEORGIA, Strait of. The main section of the arm of the North Pacific Ocean which separates Vancouver Island from the mainland. It lies between Vancouver on the west and British Columbia on the east (Map: British Columbia, D 5). It averages perhaps 25 miles in width, and is comparatively deep, having soundings of over 1000 feet. It receives the water of the Fraser River (q.v.) and some smaller streams, and communicates with the open ocean by Queen Charlotte Sound in the north, and by the Strait of Juan de Fuca in the south.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgian

See also Georgian language on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ GEORGIAN, or Iberian, or Grusinian Language. The principal language of the Caucasian group of dialects. This family of languages is divided into North and South Caucasian, the former group comprising Abkhasish, Avarish, Kasikumük or Lak, Arkish, Hürkanish, Kürinish, Udish, Tchetchentsish, and Thushish, and the latter division consisting of Georgian itself, Mingrelish, Lazish, and Suanish. The Caucasian languages, which are, broadly speaking, agglutinative in type, although they show inflection in many instances, are comparatively poor in vowels, but they abound in difficult combinations of consonants, especially of gutturals and sibilants. The noun and the verb are highly complicated, and the North Caucasian distinguishes in gender between the six categories of animate and inanimate, rational and irrational, masculine and feminine. The number system in most of the dialects is vigesimal. The Georgian is the only Caucasian dialect that has developed a literature; it begins with a translation of the Bible in the eighth century. This literature is written in a modified Armenian script, and it is quite considerable in extent. It embraces poetry, romance, history, and theology, and it reached the period of its highest development during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Bibliography. The best general outline of the Caucasian languages, including Georgian, is that of Friedrich Müller in Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iii., sec. 2 (Vienna, 1887). Consult also: Erckert, Die Sprachen des kaukasischen Stammes (Vienna, 1895); Brosset, Eléments de la grammaire géorgienne (Paris, 1836); Dictionnaire géorgien-russe-français (Saint Petersburg, 1840); Leist, Georgische Dichter verdeutscht (Leipzig, 1887).