OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villemain, Abel François

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​VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANÇOIS (1790–1867), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1790. He was educated at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, and became assistant master at the lycée Charlemagne, and subsequently at the École Normale. In 1812 he gained a prize from the Academy with an éloge on Montaigne. Under the restoration he was appointed, first, assistant professor of modern history, and then professor of French eloquence at the Sorbonne. Here he delivered a series of literary lectures which had an extraordinary effect on his younger contemporaries. Villemain had the great advantage of coming just before the Romantic movement, of having a wide and catholic love of literature without being an extremist. All, or almost all, the clever young men of the brilliant generation of 1830 passed under his influence; and, while he pleased the Romanticists by his frank appreciation of the beauties of English, German, Italian and Spanish poetry, he had not the least inclination to decry the classics—either the classics proper of Greece and Rome or the so-called classics of France. In 1819 he published a book on Cromwell, and two years later he was elected to the Academy. Villemain was appointed by the restoration government “chef de l’imprimerie et de la librairie,” a post involving a kind of irregular censorship of the press, and afterwards to the office of master of requests. Before the revolution of July he had been deprived of his office for his liberal tendencies, and had been elected deputy for Évreux. Under Louis Philippe he received a peerage in 1832. He was a member of the council of public instruction, and was twice minister of that department, and he also became secretary of the Academy. During the whole of the July monarchy he was thus one of the chief dispensers of literary patronage in France, but in his later years his reputation declined. He died in Paris on the 8th of May 1867.
Villemain's chief work is his Cours de la littérature française (5 vols., 1828-29). Among his other works are: Tableau de la littérature du moyen âge (2 vols., 1846); Tableau de la littérature au XVIII$^e$ siècle (4 vols., 1864); Souvenirs contemporains (2 vols., 1856); Histoire de Grégoire VII. (2 vols., 1873; Eng. trans., 1874).
Among notices on Villemain may be cited that of Louis de Loménie (1841), E. Mirecourt (1858), J. L. Dubut (1875). See also Sainte-Beuve, Portraits (1841, vol. iii.), and Causeries du lundi (vol. xi. “Notes et pensées”).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villari, Pasquale

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​ VILLARI, PASQUALE (1827– ), Italian historian and statesman, was born at Naples on the 3rd of October 1827. He studied together with Luigi la Vista under Francesco de Sanctis. He was implicated in the riots of the 15th of May 1848 at Naples, against the Bourbon government, and had to take refuge in Florence. There he devoted himself to teaching and historical research in the public libraries, and in 1859 he published the first volume of his Storia di Girolamo Savonarola e de' suoi tempi, in consequence of which he was appointed professor of history at Pisa. A second volume appeared in 1861, and the work, which soon came to be recognized as an Italian classic, was translated into various foreign languages. It was followed by a work of even greater critical value, Niccolò Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (1877–82). In the meanwhile Villari had left Pisa and was transferred to the chair of philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in Florence, and he was also appointed a member of the council of education (1862). He served as a juror at the international exhibition of that year in London, and contributed an important monograph on education in England and Scotland. In 1869 he was appointed under-secretary of state for education, and shortly afterwards was elected member of parliament, a position which he held for several years. In 1884 he was nominated senator, and in 1891–92 he was minister of education in the Marchese di Rudini's first cabinet. In 1893–94 he collected a number of essays on Florentine history, originally published in the Nuova Antologia, under the title of I primi due secoli della storia di Firenze, and in 1901 he produced Le Invasioni barbariche in Italia, a popular account in one volume of the events following the dissolution of the Roman empire. All these works have been translated into English by the historian's wife, Linda White Villari. Another side of Villari's activity was his interest in the political and social problems of the day; and although never identified with any political party, his speeches and writings have always commanded considerable public attention.
Among his other literary works may be mentioned: Saggi Critici (1868); Arte, Storia, e Filosofia (Florence, 1884); Scritti varii (Bologna, 1894); another volume of Saggi Critici (Bologna, 1896); and a volume of Discussioni critiche e discorsi (Bologna, 1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri Society. His most important political and social essays are collected in his Lettere Meridionali ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Turin, 1885), and Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Florence, 1902). The Lettere Meridionali (originally published in the newspaper L'Opinione in 1875) produced a deep impression, as they were the first exposure of the real conditions of southern Italy. A selection of Villari's essays, translated by his wife, has been published in England (1907).
See also Francesco Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villarreal

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​ VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Castellón de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea, near the right bank of the river Mijares, and on the Barcelona-Valencia railway. Pop. (1900) 16,068. Villarreal has a station on the light railway between Onda and the seaports of Castellón de la Plana and Burriana. Under Moorish rule, and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609, it was the headquarters of a flourishing trade, and in modern times its industries have revived. Palm-groves, churches with blue-tiled cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and view-turrets (miradores) to some extent preserve the Moorish character of the town. There are extensive orange-groves, watered by the irrigation canal of Castellón, which is a good example of Moorish engineering skill. The local industries include manufactures of paper, woollen goods and spirits.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sentence

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SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment, vote, sentire, to feel, think), a word of which the principal meanings now are: (a) in grammar, a thought expressed in words in complete grammatical form and composed of subject and predicate, and (b) in law, a judicial decision. In law, the term signifies either (1) a judgment of a court of criminal jurisdiction imposing a punishment such as a fine or imprisonment, or (2) a decree of certain competent courts, as ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In sense (1) a sentence may be either definite or final, i.e. one giving finality to the case, or interlocutory, determining some point in the progress of the case (see, however, Judgment). The sentences inflicted by the courts of various countries vary according to the gravity of the offence (see Criminal Law; also Capital Punishment; and, for the "indeterminate" sentence, Recidivism). Concurrent sentences are those which run from the same date in respect of convictions on various indictments. A cumulative sentence is the sum total of consecutive sentences passed in respect of each distinct offence of which an accused person has been found guilty on several counts of an indictment. A sentence, in the case of trials before a court of assize, commences to run from the first day of the sitting of the court, but in that of courts of quarter sessions from the time the sentence is pronounced.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sepia

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​SEPIA (Gr. σηπία, cuttlefish), a deep brown pigment obtained from the ink-sacs of various species of cuttlefish (q.v.). To obtain sepia. the ink-sac, immediately on the capture of the animal, is extracted from the body and speedily dried to prevent putrefaction. The contents are subsequently powdered, dissolved in caustic alkali, and precipitated from the solution by neutralizing with acid. The precipitate after washing with water is ready to make up into any form required for use.
Sepia-bone or cuttle-bone consists of the internal “ shell " or skeleton of Sepia officinalis and other allied species. It is an oblong convex structure from 4 to 10 in. in length and 1 to 3 in. in greatest width, consisting internally of a highly porous cellular mass of calcium carbonate with some animal matters covered by a hard thin glassy layer. It is used principally as a polishing material and for tooth powder, and also as a moulding material for fine castings in precious metals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senones

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​SENONES, in ancient geography, a Celtic people of Gallia Celtica, who in Caesar’s time inhabited the district which now includes the departments of Seine-et-Marne, Loiret and Yonne. From 53–51 B.C. they were engaged in hostilities with Caesar, brought about by their expulsion of Cavarinus, whom he had appointed their king. In the last-named year a Senonian named Drappes threatened the Provincia, but was captured and starved ​himself to death. From this time the Gallic Senones disappear from history. In later times they were included in Gallia Lugdunensis. Their chief towns were Agedincum (later Senones, whence Sens), Metiosedum (Melun; according to A. Holder, Meudon), and Vellaunodunum (site uncertain).
See Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. 54, vii. 75, viii. 30, 44; T. R. Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1899), pp. 482-483, 755-766, 819; A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904).
More important historically was a branch of the above (called Σένωνες, Senõnes, by Polybius), who about 400 B.C. made their way over the Alps and, having driven out the Umbrians, settled on the east coast of Italy from Ariminum to Ancona, in the so-called ager Gallicus, and founded the town of Sena Gallica (Sīnīgaglia), which became their capital. In 391 they invaded Etruria and besieged Clusium. The Clusines appealed to Rome, whose intervention, accompanied by a violation of the law of nations, led to war, the defeat of the Romans at the Allia (18th of July 390) and the capture of Rome. For more than 100 years the Senones were engaged in hostilities with the Romans, until they were Bnally subdued (283) by P. Cornelius Dolabella and driven out of their territory. Nothing more is heard of them in Italy. It is probable that they formed part of the bands of Gauls who spread themselves over the countries by the Danube, Macedonia and Asia Minor. A Roman colony was established at Sena, called Sena Gallica to distinguish it from Sena Julia (Siena) in Etruria.
For ancient authorities see A. Holder as above; on the subjugation of the Senones by the Romans, Mommsen, Hist. of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. ii. ch. vii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sentinel

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​SENTINEL, or Sentry, a guard or watch, a soldier posted at a particular spot to challenge all corners, passing those who give a countersign, and refusing those who do not, and giving alarm in case of attack. The etymology has been the subject of much controversy. The original word seems to be Ital. sentinella, adapted as Fr. sentinelle (the modern French military term is factionnaire, and the Ger. Fachmann). For the Italian word the source has been suggested in sentire, to perceive, but there are philological objections to this, and more plausibility attaches to a connexion with sentina, the bilge-water in a ship, figuratively rabble, camp-followers. If an Italian origin, as agreed on by most authorities, be set aside, the French word suggests a more appropriate formation as the diminutive of sentier, path, Lat. semita, meaning properly the sentry’s beat. The O. Fr. senteret (a form of sentier) would account for the English form “ sentry.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seoni

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​SEONI, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division of the Central Provinces. The town is 2043 ft. above sea-level, half-way on the road between Nagpur and Jubbulpore. Pop. (1901) 11,864. It was founded in 1774, and contains large public gardens, a fine market place and a handsome tank.
The District of Seoni forms part of the Satpura tableland, containing the headwaters of the Wainganga. It is largely covered with forest, and 40% of the inhabitants belong to aboriginal tribes. Area 3206 sq. m. The district is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery and the fertility of its valleys. The northern and western portions include the plateaus of Lakhnadon and Seoni; the eastern section consists of the watershed and elevated basin of the Wainganga; and in the south-west is a narrow strip of rocky land known as Dongartāl. The plateaus of Seoni and Lakhnadon vary in height from 1800 to 2000 ft.; they are well cultivated and clear of jungle, and their temperature is always moderate and healthy. Geologically the north part of Seoni consists of trap hills and the south of crystalline rock. The soil of the plateaus is the rich black cotton soil formed by distintegrated trap, of which about two-thirds of the district are said to consist; but towards the south, where cliffs of gneiss and other primitive formations occur, the soil is siliceous and contains a large proportion of clay. The chief river is the Wainganga, with its affluents the Hirī, Sāgar, Theli, Bijnā and Thānwar; other streams are the Timar and the Sher, tributaries of the Nerbudda. The annual rainfall averages 53 in. The population in 1901 was 327,709, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade due to the effects of famine. The principal crops are wheat, millets, rice, pulse, oil-seeds and cotton. Three lines of the Bengal-Nagpur system traverse the district. There is also a town called Seoni, or Seoni-Malwa, in the Central Provinces, a railway station in Hoshangabad district. Pop. (1901) 7551.
See R. A. Sterndale, Seonee, or Camp Life on the Satpura Range (1877); Seoni District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sensationalism

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​SENSATIONALISM, in psychology, the theory that all knowledge comes from sensation (see Psychology). Thus Aristippus the Cyrenaic held that there could be no knowledge save that which the senses give, but the Stoics, while finding the origin of knowledge in the senses, do not restrict it to this. Sensationalism in modern times is chiefly associated with Hobbes, Locke, Hume and the French philosophers of the Enlightenment, Voltaire, Condillac and others. In its extreme sense it has rarely been held, and is practically abandoned by modern philosophers on the plain ground that a sensation as such lasts only as long as the stimulus is applied. Any connexion of sensation is something over and above sensation, and without this connexion there can be no knowledge (see Empiricism, Phenomenon, &c.).
The term has also come into colloquial use for the practice of appealing—e.g. in art, literature an especially in journalism—solely to the emotions, disregarding proportion and fact.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seoul

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​SEOUL (Han-yang), the capital of Korea (Chosen), situated in 37° 34′ N. and 127° 6′ E., at an altitude of 120 ft., 25 m. from Chemulpo, its seaport, and 4 from Mapu, its river-port. Pop. about 200,000. It lies in a basin among granite hills, nowhere exceeding 2627 ft., remarkable for their denudation and their abrupt black crags and pinnacles. A well-built, crenelated stone wall from 20 to 30 ft. high, about 11 m. in circuit, and pierced by 8 gateways with double-roofed gate towers, surrounds it. The native houses are built of stone or mud, deeply eaved, and either tiled or thatched. Above these rise the towers of the Roman Catholic cathedral, the high curved roofs of the royal audience halls, the palace gateways, and the showy buildings of the Russian and French legations. The antiquities are the Bell Tower, with a huge bronze bell dated 1468, a marble pagoda elaborately carved, but not of Korean workmanship, seven centuries old, and a “Turtle-Stone” of about the same date. ​Seoul has some wide streets of shops, hundreds of narrow alleys, and is very fairly clean. It has an electric tramway 4 m. long, and is the centre of the railway system of the country.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sentinum

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​SENTINUM, an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, lying to the S. of the modern town of Sassoferrato, in the low ground. The foundations of the city walls are preserved, and a road and remains of houses have been discovered, including several mosaic pavements (T. Buccolini in Notizie degli scavi, 1890, 346) and inscriptions of the latter half of the 3rd century A.D., including three important tabulae patronatus. In the neighbourhood the battle took place in which the Romans defeated the combined forces of the Samnites and Gauls in 295 B.C. It was taken and destroyed in 41 B.C. by the troops of Octavian, but continued to exist under the Empire. It was, however, only a municipium, never (as some wrongly suppose) a colonia. Sassoferrato gave its name to Giambattista Salvi, surnamed Sassoferrato (1605–1685), a painter celebrated for his Madonnas.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tithing

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​TITHING (for tithe, tenth; Lat. decuma), formerly a unit of local administration in England. In some districts the men who were bound to be in frankpledge (q.v.) were grouped in associations of ten, twelve or more individuals called tithings. When a person who was accused of any crime was not forthcoming, inquiry was made whether he was in frankpledge; if he were not, and had no right of exemption, the township was amerced, but if he were in a tithing, then it was upon the tithing that the amercement fell. South of the Thames the tithings were districts normally identical with the township which discharged the duties of the frank pledge. Some townships, however, contained more than one tithing. There are also indications that in the ancient kingdom of Mercia the tithing was originally a district and not a mere association of persons; but in Northumbria it is doubtful whether the system of frank pledge and tithing, either personal or territorial, was ever established. If, as seems likely, the territorial tithing is older than the personal, each territorial hundred (q.v.) was probably divided into ten tithings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Titans

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​TITANS (Gr. Τiτᾶνες), in Greek mythology, the children of Uranus and Gaea. According to Hesiod (Theog. 133), the male Titans were Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus and Cronus; the female, Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys, to whom Apollodorus adds Dione. At the instigation of Gaea they rebelled against their father, who had shut them up in the bowels of the earth, and set up as ruler their youngest brother, Cronus, who in turn was dethroned by his son Zeus. A struggle then ensued between Zeus and Cronus, in which the Titans took different sides. The opponents of Zeus were finally defeated, and imprisoned in Tartarus (Theog. 153–210, 617 sqq.). The rebellious Titans are the representatives of the wild, disorderly forces of nature, who are defeated by the Olympian deities, who stand for law and order. The name Titans is usually explained as “avengers,” referring to the vengeance taken by Cronus on his father Uranus, but A. Dieterich (Rheinisches Museum, 1893, xlviii., and J. E. Harrison (Prolegomena to Greek Religion) connect it with τίτανος (gypsum).
According to Harpocration (s.v. Ἀπομάττων), the Titans, when they mutilated Dionysus Zagreus (see Dionysus), besmeared themselves with gypsum to conceal their identity, as Artemis daubed her face with mud to escape the river-god Alpheus. The custom was practised at Bacchic and purificatory rites (Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313) as among savage tribes at the present day. The Titan story is probably an attempt to explain the fact that the Orphic worshippers, when about to tear the sacred animal, daubed themselves with gypsum. L. Weniger, in an article “Feralis exercitus” in Archiv für Religionsgeschichte (May 1906, February and March 1907), while regarding the “white colouring” as an original feature, does not accept the derivation of Τiτᾶνες from τίτανος. According to him, Zagreus is the divine hunter, in turn pursued and slain by others mightier than himself, the “snow-clad” (white) giants dwelling on Parnassus. These Titans, whose original is to be found in Pentheus and Lycurgus (for whom see Dionysus), had nothing to do with the Titans of Hesiod's Theogony. The whole has reference to the winter festival of Dionysus, when the god arrived with his Thyiades (the wind spirits) on the heights of Parnassus, there to be murdered by the Titans, to be buried and come to life again.
The standard work on the subject is M. Mayer, Die Giganten und Titanen in der antiken Sage und Kunst (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Title page

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THE
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
| FIRST | edition, | published in | three | volumes, | 1768—1771. |
| SECOND | ” | ” | ten | ” | 1777—1784. |
| THIRD | ” | ” | eighteen | ” | 1788—1797. |
| FOURTH | ” | ” | twenty | ” | 1801—1810. |
| FIFTH | ” | ” | twenty | ” | 1815—1817. |
| SIXTH | ” | ” | twenty | ” | 1823—1824. |
| SEVENTH | ” | ” | twenty-one | ” | 1830—1842. |
| EIGHTH | ” | ” | twenty-two | ” | 1853—1860. |
| NINTH | ” | ” | twenty-five | ” | 1875—1889. |
| TENTH | ” | ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, | ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, | ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, | 1902—1903. |
| ELEVENTH | ” | published in twenty-nine volumes, | published in twenty-nine volumes, | published in twenty-nine volumes, | 1910—1911. |