OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgetown University

See also Georgetown University on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY. An institution of higher education, situated at Georgetown, D. C. It was founded in 1799 by members of the Roman Catholic Church, and was in 1805 transferred to the Society of Jesus in Maryland, in whose control it remains. By a Congressional act of 1815 the university was empowered to grant academic degrees, and in 1833 the Holy See authorized it to confer degrees in the name of the Church, in philosophy and theology. The university consists of the college, the school of medicine, organized in 1851. and including a school of dentistry, and the school of law, organized in 1870. The college comprises the graduate school, organized in 1856; the undergraduate department; and the astronomical observatory, established in 1842. A preparatory school, with a student enrollment of about 150, is also connected with the university. The scheme of instruction is, in general, conducted in accordance with the famous Ratio Studiorum (q.v.) of the Jesuits; the supervision of students is closer than in most denominational colleges of equal standing, and the standard of scholarship is very high, especially in Latin, philosophy, logic, and English. The elective system has not been introduced. Degrees are conferred in arts, philosophy, medicine, dentistry, and law.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgia (Transcaucasia)

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​ GEOR′GIA (Pers. Gurjistān, Arm. Vrastan, Lat. Iberia, Russ. Grusia; influenced in popular etymology by the name of the patron saint George). A region in Transcaucasia, constituting, until the year 1799, an independent kingdom, and now forming the main part of the Russian governments of Tiflis and Kutais. It comprises the ancient Iberia, Colchis, and Albania. The native name of the country is Kathli, or Sakarthvélo.
Tradition traces the origin of the Georgians to Thargamos, a great-grandson of Japhet. Mtskhathos, the supposed builder of Mtsketha, the ancient capital, near Tiflis, is a prominent figure in their legendary history. They are known to have submitted to Alexander the Great, and to have been freed from foreign rule and united in one kingdom by Pharnabazus (B.C. 324). Georgia was Christianized during the fourth century. A Sassanide dynasty was established in A.D. 265, and continued with a half-century's interregnum until 787, when the long line of Bagratian sovereigns (see Bagratides) came to the throne. The latter drove out the Arab invaders who had subjected the Sassanide princes, reunited the disorganized country, and advanced its civilization and material welfare. In the eleventh century the country was temporarily brought under the yoke of the Seljuk Turks, but regained its independence under David III. (1090-1125). Until the thirteenth century, when it was conquered by the Mongols, Georgia prospered greatly, and increased in extent under a series of able sovereigns. Under Queen Tamara (1184-1212), who married a Russian prince, and thus initiated the intimate connection of Georgia with Russia, the country attained the height of its prosperity and power. Toward the end of the fourteenth century Timur subdued Georgia, but was expelled in the beginning of the next century by George VII. Alexander I., who succeeded George VII., divided the kingdom among his three sons. Each of these States was again divided, and at one time twenty-six different princes reigned in Georgia. The history of Georgia now falls into two parts: that of the Eastern States, Karthli and Kakheth; and that of the Western States, including Imeritia, Mingrelia, and Guria. This division was fatal to the independence and power of Georgia. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century the Eastern States were oppressed by Persia, and in 1799 George XIII. resigned in favor of Paul, Emperor of Russia. In 1802 the Emperor Alexander proclaimed the territory a Russian province. Of the three States forming Western Georgia, Guria fell into the hands of Russia in 1801, and formally surrendered itself to that empire by the treaty of 1810; Mingrelia was virtually added to Russia in 1803; Imeritia ​had been acquired by Russia toward the close of the eighteenth century. See Georgian Language; Georgians.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgia Bark

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​ GEORGIA BARK. See Pinckneya.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Gerhard, Eduard

Edition of 1906. See also Friedrich Wilhelm Eduard Gerhard on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
GERHARD, gĕr′härt, Eduard (1795-1867). A German archæologist. He was born in Posen, and after studying at Breslau and Berlin, he, in 1816, took up his residence at Breslau. The reputation he acquired by his Lectiones Apollonianæ, published in the same year, led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the Gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on account of weakness in the eyes, he traveled in Italy, and in 1822 he took up his residence in Rome, where, with a view of prosecuting his archæological studies, he remained until 1837. In that year he received an appointment as archæologist in the Berlin Museum. In 1844 he became professor in the university and member of the Royal Academy. He died May 12, 1867. During his long stay in Italy he coöperated in Platner's Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, and in 1829 was one of the leading spirits in the foundation of the Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, now the Imperial German Archæological Institute, of which he was vice-secretary. Gerhard's great service to archæological study was in the publication of important groups of
monuments, and in promoting an orderly classification. Such a worker was much needed at this time, when the excavations at Vulci and elsewhere in Etruria increased so suddenly the mass of early vases and other small objects. For artistic beauty and style Gerhard had little perception; his interest was largely antiquarian, and it is characteristic of him that he was attracted by the Etruscan art, generally of little interest to the artist. His writings are widely scattered in the volumes of the Archæological Institute, the Berlin Academy, and various periodicals. Many of these are collected in the Gesammelte academische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften (Berlin, 1866-68). Among his larger works are: Rapporto intorno i vasi Volcenti (1831); Antike Bildwerke (1827-44); Auserlesene griechische Vasenbilder (1839-58), still the best single collection of Greek vases; a publication of selected vases from the Berlin collection Griechische und etruskische Trinkschalen (1843); Etruskische und campanische Vasenbilder (1843); Apulische Vasen (1846); Trinkschalen und Gefässe (1848-50); Etruskische Spiegel, 4 vols. (1843-68), 5th vol. by Klugmann and Körte (1884-97). With Panofka he prepared a catalogue of the Naples Museum in 1828, and in 1836 one of the antiques in the Berlin Museum. Though Gerhard's Griechische Mythologie (1854-55) is still valuable, his mythological work, as well as his interpretation of works of art, suffers from his overestimate of the importance of the mysteries and their symbolism. Consult Jahn, Eduard Gerhard, ein Lebensabriss (Berlin, 1868).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgia, University of

See also University of Georgia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ GEORGIA, University of. An institution of higher education, chartered in 1785, and formally opened at Athens, Ga., in 1801. Its government is vested in a board of trustees appointed by the Governor. At the outbreak of the Civil War the faculty and most of the students joined the Confederate Army, and the institution remained closed until 1866. The proceeds of the sales of lands received by Georgia under the United States Land Grant Act of 1862 were transferred to the university in 1872, and the university, which in its inception was designed as a classical school, has, since the close of the Civil War, broadened its scope, and in 1902 comprised: Franklin College; the State College of Agriculture; the Graduate School; the Law School; the North Georgia Agricultural College, situated at Dahlonega; the Medical College, situated at Augusta; the School of Technology, situated at Atlanta; the Normal and Industrial School for Girls, situated at Milledgeville; the State Normal School; and the Industrial College for colored persons, which includes a well-equipped trade department. The total attendance, including 658 preparatory students, in 1902 was 2689. The library contains about 30,000 volumes, and the university owns twelve buildings. The running expenses of the university are partly defrayed by an annual State grant of $8000.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgian Architecture

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​ GEORGIAN (jôr′jan) ARCHITECTURE. The style of architecture in England prevailing during the reigns of the four Georges, and corresponding to the Colonial style in the United States. It was an adaptation of the Italian or Palladian style to English requirements, in which it lost the greater part of the sculpture and carved ornament of the Italian prototype, but gained, on the other hand, in freedom and picturesqueness of detail, and never fell into the extravagances and bad taste of contemporary Italian work. Hawksmoor, James Gibbs, the architect of Saint-Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, Colin Campbell, the Adam brothers, Sir William Chambers, architect of Somerset House, London, Robert Taylor, and George Dance, are among the most notable architects of this period, to which American architecture owes the models which, in the second half of the eighteenth century, were followed generally in the design of the so-called Colonial churches and mansions of New England and the South. This neo-classic style was merged during the later Georgian period into the modern style, and lasted, roughly, from c.1715 to 1800.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Georgian Bay

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​ GEORGIAN BAY. An eastern extension of Lake Huron in the Province of Ontario, Can., about 120 miles long and 50 miles wide, and with depths exceeding 300 feet in the southwestern section (Map: Ontario, C 2). It is partly cut off from Lake Huron by a peninsular extension of Ontario and Manitoulin Island, and is connected with the lake by a short channel 20 miles wide south of this island, and by the long North Channel north of it.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arnold, Thomas

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Arnold, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby, was born June 13, 1795, on the Isle of Wight. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and in 1815 was elected a fellow of Oriel College. As a boy he was shy and retiring, as a youth somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions, but in this studies he took a high rank. The next few years were spent in fitting pupils for the university, in beginning his History of Rome and in the quiet study and thought which gave him those positive ideas of Christian belief and life which were strongly expressed in his later years. From this life he was called to be headmaster at Rugby, a position which made him famous as a teacher of boys. He had the tact to make himself both loved and feared. He made it a practice to believe his scholars. "If you say so, that is enough; of course, I believe your word." And so there grew up a feeling among the boys that it was a shame to tell him a lie. Once when he had sent away several boys, he said: "It is not necessary that this should be a school of three hundred, or one hundred or fifty boys; but it is necessary that it should be a school of Christian gentlemen." In 1841 he was made professor of modern history at Oxford, and he was just entering his enthusiasm upon his new duties, when he died suddenly, June 12, 1842. He was buried in Rugby chapel. His great work, the History of Rome, was broken off at the end of the second Punic War by his death. The story of his life has been told by one of his old pupils, Dean Stanley, in his Life and Correspondence of Arnold; but he will be best known as the schoolmaster in Tom Brown's Schooldays, by Thomas Hughes, another of his pupils.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aroostook War

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Aroostook (ă-rōōs' tŏŏk) War, a somewhat jocular name given the boundary dispute arising between the province of New Brunswick, Canada, and the state of Maine, reaching its crisis in 1839 and settled amicably in 1842. By the treaty acknowledging American independence in 1783, the boundary between the two countries was loosely defined to be the St. Croix River, eked out by a line from its source to the watershed between the streams flowing to the St. Lawrence and those to the Atlantic Ocean. The United States set up for boundary a stream far to the east of the river, only to have their contention disproved by the discovery of Champlain's little colony on the island at the true river's mouth. A branch to the east was then seized upon, but commissioners agreed upon the most westerly branch and there, in 1798, set a stone monument. The watershed then fell into dispute; the United States asserted that it skirted the St. Lawrence valley, a hundred miles north. The district became known as the disputed territory. In 1829 the king of the Netherlands, to whom the dispute was referred for arbitrament, refused a decision. Ten years later, lumber-thieves began cutting timber there in defiance of all law. The Maine authorities arrested them, and were in turn arrested by New Brunswick lumbermen. Maine sent 1800 militia to the Aroostook River, and a call was issued for 10,000 more to take possession. Sir John Harvey, governor of New Brunswick, occupied .the ground with two regiments of regulars, artillery and several bands of volunteers. Nova Scotia voted all her militia and £100,000 in aid. At this crisis Gen. Winfield Scott was sent on by President Van Buren. Harvey had fought against him at Lundy's Lane and Stony Creek, and their respect was mutual. The war-fever abated, and the question was referred to a commission. In 1842 Alexander Baring, for Great Britain, and Daniel Webster, for the United States, met and framed the treaty known as the Ashburton, from the barony soon to be conferred upon Mr. Baring. Under it a line was continued due north from the monument of 1798 until it met the St. John River somewhat beyond the mouth of the Aroostook, giving New Brunswick only 5,000 and Maine 7,000 square miles of the land in dispute. When the treaty came up for confirmation in the United States senate, ratification was at first refused, the United States wanting all the territory. But when Webster produced a map which had been in his possession all the time, showing that Franklin himself in 1783 had agreed precisely upon the boundaries set up by New Brunswick, the treaty was confirmed. The survey in pursuance of the Ashburton treaty is not yet complete, but several supposedly American towns have been compelled to transfer their allegiance to New Brunswick as it has proceeded.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arpad

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Ar'pad, the national hero of Hungary, under whom the Magyars first gained a footing in the country about the year 884. Chosen duke on his father's death, he carried on an incessant warfare with the Bulgarians, Wallachians and Moravians, and made several successful sallies into Italy. He died in 907, leaving his power to his son. The Arpad dynasty ruled Hungary as dukes until 1000, and as kings from that year until 1301. Arpad still lives in the popular songs of his country, and not a little legend has gathered around his name.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Artemis

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Artemis. See Diana.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aroids

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A'roids, the common name of the great plant family Araceæ, which contains about 1,000 species. The great display of aroids is in the tropics, where they are remarkably diversified. In our own flora, Jack-in-the-pulpit, sweet flag and skunk cabbage may be taken as representatives. One of the best known forms is the cultivated calla-lily. The feature of the group is the huge enveloping bract or spathe, which incloses the fleshy spike of inconspicuous flowers.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arrowroot

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Ar'rowroot. A well-known starch obtained from the thick underground stems of various tropical plants related to Canna. Arrowroot is adulterated with the starches of potatoes and corn.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arsenal

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Ar'senal, a government establishment for the manufacture, storing and issue of arms, gunpowder and other munitions of war for land and marine forces. In the .United States those naval arsenals which provide for the construction and repair of war vessels, are called navy yards. In the Old World, where the term is more familiar and is equivalent to our navy yard, the most notable is the Royal English arsenal at Woolwich, a borough of the metropolis, with its great gun-factories, military carriage and transport departments, laboratories and establishments for the manufacture of ordinance and war stores, and the seat also of the Royal Military Academy for the education of cadets for the artillery and engineer service. Besides Woolwich, there are also in England notable naval dock-yards at Portsmouth, Chatham, Sheerness, Millwall and the West India docks at London, together with naval stations abroad at Gibraltar, Malta, Ascension, Bermuda, Cape of Good Hope, Sydney, Bombay and Weihaiwei. Other Old World arsenals embrace those of France at Cherbourg, Brest, Toulon, and Le Orient; those of Germany at Wilhelmshaven, Kiel and Dantzic; those of Russia at Kronstadt, Reval and Sevastopol; besides Antwerp in Belgium, Cartagena in Spain and Venice and Spezia in Italy. In the United States the home navy yards, are at Brooklyn, N. Y., Charlestown, Mass., Kittery, N. H., Washington, D. C., League Island, Pa., Portsmouth, Va., Mare Island, Cal. and Puget Sound, Wash. Besides these, there are naval stations at Charleston and Port Royal, S. C., Key West, Fla., Algiers, La., Pensacola, Fla. and at North Chicago, Ill., for the Great Lakes service; together with torpedo and training stations at Newport, R. I., and a training station at Yerba Buena Island, Cal. In foreign parts the United States have naval stations at Tutuila, Samoa; at the Island of Guam; San Juan, Porto Rico; Culebra, W. I.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Honolulu, Hawaii; and Cavite, Philippine Islands. At home, Springfield, Mass., has from the Revolutionary era been the seat of the small-arms manufacture; Harper's Ferry at an early era also became important as an arsenal, with others, later on selected, at Watertown, Mass., Watervliet, N. Y. and Rock Island, Ill., besides a powder depot at Dover, N. J. and a proving ground at Sandy Hook, N. J. During the Civil War, there were arsenals at Springfield, Boston, Washington and elsewhere, but then, as now, for powder, small-arms and war supplies, the United States chiefly depended and depends on private factories, and on the larger manufacturing firms; also for the heavy guns used by the army and navy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arsenic

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​ Ar'senic. See Poisons.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arrhenius, Svante

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Arrhenius (är-rē' nĭ-us), Svante, a distinguished Swedish chemist, born February 19, 1859. At the age of 19 he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Upsala. Since 1895 he has been professor of physics in Stockholm. His most important contributions to knowledge are in the domain of physical chemistry, more particularly in the theory of solutions. The explanation which he has recently offered for the repulsion which the tails of comets experience on approaching the sun is probably the simplest and most satisfactory ever given.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Railway Beetle

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​ RAILWAY BEETLE. A curious beetle of the family Malacodermidæ and probably of the tribe Phengodini, the female of which is worm-like or larviform, and which is said to give out a strong red light from the two extremities and a green light from numerous points along the sides of the body, giving it the appearance of a miniature railway train. These beetles occur not infrequently in parts of South America, and the name originated apparently in Paraguay. In the United States very rare representatives of the genera Phengodes and Zarhipis have similar larviform luminous females. Compare Luminosity of Animals.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ragnarök

Edition of 1905. See also Ragnarök on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RAGNARÖK, räg′nȧ-rẽk′. In Scandinavian mythology, the end of the world, and the fall of the gods before the combined demon hosts of the world. The word ragnarök really means “judgment of the gods,” but it has been conceived sophistically to mean “twilight of the gods,” and as the Götterdämmerung has formed the basis of the Wagnerian music-drama Der Ring des Nibelungen. The fundamental conception of the ragnarök is the end of the Golden Age, brought about by the conflict of the two types of Norse gods, known respectively as Æsir and Vanir, and by the Æsir's violation of their oaths. The chief source of these conceptions is the poem of the Elder Edda, called the Völuspa, a mixture of heathen and Christian conceptions. The battle between the gods and demons is ushered in with the appearance of the divine war maidens, the Walkyries. Balder, the beautiful god, is dead, through Loki's malignant treachery, and his fate seals the doom of the other gods. The giant watchman Eggther strikes his harp, and in each of the three worlds, that of the giants, the Æsir, and Hel, a cock crows calling the warriors to the battle. The hell-hound Garme bays aloud; the wolf Fenrir tears his chain. On the earth men are engaged in bloodshed and incest. Floods rise everywhere. The old world tree, the ash Yggdrasil, sways to its roots. Then the god Heimdaler sounds his horn, calling the gods to the fray. In mighty array the demon hosts come marching against the gods from the east, north, and south. Odin engages in combat with Fenrir; Freyr with Surtr; Thor with the serpent Midgard; all the three gods fall in the struggle. The demons are masters of the battle-field. The sun grows black, the earth sinks into the sea, the stars fall from heaven. Vapor and fire rage, the high flame licks the sky. The world and the gods are gone. But from out of the flood rises a new earth which unsown grows grain, and the Æsir come again. Consult Chantepie de la Saussaye, The Religion of the Teutons (Boston, 1902).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Railway Clerks' Association of North America, National

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​ RAILWAY CLERKS' ASSOCIATION OF NORTH AMERICA, National. See Railway Brotherhoods.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Railroads

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ RAILROADS. See Railways.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Railroad Telegraphers, Order of

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ RAILROAD TELEGRAPHERS, Order of. See Railway Brotherhoods.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ragozin, Zénaïde Alexeïevna

Edition of 1905. See also Zénaïde Alexeïevna Ragozin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RAGOZIN, rȧ-gō′zḗn, Zénaïde Alexeïevna (1835—). A Russian-American author, born in Russia, where she was educated. After several years spent in travel, she emigrated to the United States in 1874. Among her published works are: The Story of Chaldea (1886); The Story of Assyria (1887); The Story of Media,
Babylon, and Persia (1888); The Story of Vedic India (1895); all in the “Story of the Nations” series; and five volumes of biography in “Tales of the Heroic Age” series. She translated from the French Anatole Leroy Beaulieu's The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians.