OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abelard, Pierre

See also Peter Abélard on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ab′elard (ăb′e-lard) Pierre, a brilliant French scholar, was born in Brittany in 1079. Moved by a thirst for knowledge he gave his family inheritance up to his brothers and went to Paris, where he devoted himself to study. His fearless independence intellectually, and his success in public debates, led him to establish a school of his own, which became so famous that other teachers were almost deserted. He fell in love with Héloïse, a beautiful and accomplished girl, one of his pupils. As marriage would interfere with his rising in the church, Abelard and Héloïse were secretly united. Their union soon became known, and they separated, Abelard becoming a monk and Héloïse a nun. Devoting himself to theology he was tried and convicted of heresy, and driven to found a hermitage, which he called the Paraclete. He gave up this ​retreat to Héloïse, and when he died, in 1142, she had him buried there. At her death she was interred by his side. In 1800 their remains were removed to Paris, where they now rest in the cemetery of Pére-la-Chaise. A figure of Abelard reclines on the tomb, and by its side stands a statue of Héloïse.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abbott, Lyman

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​Ab′bott, Lyman, American preacher, editor and author, was born in 1835, the son ​of Jacob Abbott. After graduating from the University of the City of New York he studied law, but entered the ministry and became pastor of a Congregational church in Terre Haute, Ind. Later he became editor of The Christian Union, New York, now The Outlook, and succeeded Henry Ward Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Here he became widely known both as preacher and editor, and as the author of several commentaries and other books. Among his works are The Evolution of Christianity; Christianity and Social Problems; An Evolutionist’s Theory; The Rights of Man; The Life and Literature of the Hebrews.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abd-el-Kader

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​Abd-el-Kader (äbd′el-kä′dĭr) (born 1806, died 1883), was emir or prince of the Arab tribes in Algeria. He is famous for his stubborn resistance to the French, who, in 1830, had driven out the Turks, the former rulers of the country. For eighteen years he fought with bravery and high generalship against the larger forces of the French. Five successive generals were sent against him, some of the tribes were bribed to desert, and the Moors were made to attack him. Yet he utterly defeated the French twice, and kept up a successful resistance till 1848, when he was defeated, and soon after captured and imprisoned for four years at Paris. In 1860 Abd-el-Kader was in Damascus, and, at great risk to himself, aided the Christians during the Mohammedan riots. In the later years of his life he was a pensioner of the French government.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aberdeen, Earl of

See also John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Aberdeen, Earl of (Rt. Hon. J. C. Hamilton-Gordon, P.C., G.C.M.G.), a Scottish Liberal peer, was born Aug. 3, 1847, and educated at St. Andrews and at Oxford. He succeeded to the title in 1870. In 1886 he was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, with the mission of carrying out the Home Rule policy of the then Liberal government. This office he held but a few months, though he was very acceptable to the Irish people; but with the fall of the Gladstone administration he resigned the post, and subsequently made a tour of the world, visiting the chief British colonies. From 1893 to 1898 he acted as Governor-General of Canada, and later he was Viceroy of Ireland.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abel

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​A′bel, the second son of Adam, was a shepherd and offered a sacrifice of the “firstlings of his flock.” His offering was preferred to that of his brother Cain, who in anger killed him. This violent death gave him the title of the “first martyr.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abercrombie, James

See also James Abercrombie (general) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Abercrombie (ab′er-krŭm-bĭ), James, a British general who took part in the French and Indian war. In 1758 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in America. He attacked Ticonderoga at the head of 15,000 men, but was defeated by Montcalm (July 8, 1758). He returned to England, where he became a member of parliament and governor of Stirling Castle.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abitibi

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​Abitibi (ä′bē-ti′bē). Two important lakes and a river of the same name in northeastern Ontario (Canada). The upper Abitibi Lake (connected with the lower by a “Narrows” about two miles in length) covers an area of about 190 square miles, one-third of this area being in the Province of Quebec. One-half of the shore line is rocky. Innumerable islands of all shapes and sizes dot the lake, giving it a natural beauty equal to that of the St. Lawrence River. The lower lake has an area of 145 square miles. The Abitibi River discharges the waters of these two lakes, emptying with other streams into the Moose River, which a short distance further on empties into James’ Bay.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abdul-Hamid II

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​Abdul-Hamid II (äb′dŏŏl-hä′mīd), Sultan of Turkey and tributary states, from 1876 to 1909, was the second son of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, of the House of Othman. He was born Sept. 22, 1842, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Murad V, on Aug. 31, 1876. He was a Turk and Mussulman of the old school and consequently showed little inclination towards reform within the Ottoman Empire, which was stipulated by the Treaty of Berlin, in 1878, following on the war with Russia of the previous year, which proved disastrous to the Porte. In later years he lived under the dread of assassination and showed distrust even of his own ministers. He looked askant at England’s operations in Egypt, and was believed to have secretly stimulated the rebellion of Arabi Pasha in 1882.
The same malign influence was also known to be at work in Armenia, where the Christian world was horrified at the atrocities committed there by the Turkish soldiery. Resistance to the outrage and rapine there has been greatly handicapped by jealousies among the European Powers.
In 1908, following a revolt led by the Young Turks’ party and involving the army, Abdul was forced to grant a Constitution, and an assembly, but in April 1909, a revolt against the new order was instigated by the Sultan. This was quickly put down. Abdul Hamid was dethroned and his brother Reshed Effendi was placed on the throne as Mehmed V. The change was attended with massacres at Adana and other places.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ptolemy, Claudius Ptolemæus

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​Ptolemy (tŏl'ē-mĭ), Clau'dius Ptolemæ'us, an eminent mathematician and astronomer. He was born probably either in 70 or 77 A.D., and died at Alexandria in 147 A.D. As a mathematician he is especially to be remembered as having written the first treatise on trigonometry, a branch of mathematics invented by Hipparchus. In astronomy he wrote a complete treatment upon the entire subject as known in his time. This volume, The Almagest, remained a standard work until the time of Copernicus. Ptolemy assumed that the earth is spherical, is placed in the center of the spherical heavens and is a mere point compared with the distances of the fixed stars. As a geographer, Ptolemy was the first to point out the fact that the position of any point on the earth's surface can be accurately stated only after its longitude and latitude have been determined. In addition to these works he wrote a volume on optics, in which he stated the correct laws of reflection for plane surfaces and for concave mirrors as well as the law of refraction. Ptolemy must be ​considered as one of the earliest types of the modern scientific investigator.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Protogyny

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​Protogyny (prō̇-tŏj′ĭ′nĭ) (in plants), a condition in which the stigma is ready to receive before the pollen of the same flower is ready for shedding. See Pollination.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Protonema

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​Protonema (prō′tō̇-nē′ma) (in plants). When the asexual spores of mosses germinate, they at first produce green, branching filaments, which are prostrate and resemble ordinary green algæ. Upon this filamentous body the ordinary leafy branches arise. This algæ-like body is known as the protonema. See Musci.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Proverbs

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​ Prov′erbs are very hard to define; but nearly everybody knows one when he sees or hears it. Perhaps the best description is that of Cipriano de Valera: “Proverbs are short sayings, sententious and true, and long since accepted as such by common consent.” The distinctive characteristic of the proverb is that it is a popular current saying, adopted as a convenience by the community. It must indeed have shortness, sense, salt, pith and other qualities, but it also is necessary that these should be so combined that it will strike the popular fancy and thereby come into general use. It has been well-said that no one man ever made a proverb. It has equally well been said that “the proverb is the wisdom of many and the wit of one." He may have made an original saying, but the proverb is a creature of popular suffrage. Not only is this the case, but they pass from one nation to another and become the property of the race; and for this reason it is impossible to determine even the nationality of some of our best and most popular proverbs. The office of the proverb is to “hit the nail on the head,” to “put the matter in a nutshell,” to speak the last word, to settle the issue without further argument or discussion. Of all national groups of proverbs the Spanish contains the greatest number, 25,000 or 30,000; and they are as racy as numerous. Among oriental proverbs the Arabic ones hold the first place in quantity and perhaps also in quality, but the Persian and Hindustani proverbs also are excellent, and in the Turkish there sometimes is a vein of poetry that is very striking. It is a question whether the tender beauty of our proverb: “God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb” is not rivaled by its Turkish parallel: “God makes a nest for the blind bird.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Prunes

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​ Prunes are the dried fruit of a certain variety of plum-trees, largely prepared in France and exported from that country. Considerable quantities also come from Bosnia, Servia and California.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Protoplasm

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​Protoplasm (prō′tō̇-plaz’m), the living substance in animals and plants. Huxley called it the “physical basis of life.” It is the only substance endowed with life. It is very similar in animals and plants, and within it all living activities take place. It is a jelly-like, colorless substance, appearing finely granular under the microscope. It is composed of two parts: one more solid, which stains deeply with dyes (chromatin), and a fluid part (achromatin), which stains very faintly or not at all. The discovery of protoplasm and the gradual appreciation of the part it plays in the living world were among the greatest scientific advancements of the nineteenth century. In 1835 Dujardin, a French naturalist, was studying the simplest animals (Protozoa) under the microscope. He observed that their bodies were composed of a sort of transparent jelly, that moved and contracted and showed evidences of being alive. This soft, jelly-like substance he called Sarcode, and described it as living matter endowed with life. In 1846 Hugo von Mohl, a botanist, called attention to the viscid contents of plant-cells, for which he proposed the name protoplasm. This name had been used in 1840 by Purkinje for animal substance, but Von Mohl first brought it into general use. Presently naturalists began to suspect that the sarcode of the zoologists and the protoplasm of the botanists are essentially identical in nature. This was definitely maintained by Cohn in 1850. In 1860 Max Schultze placed the matter on a secure basis, and applied the term protoplasm to all living substance, either animal or vegetable. This led to what is known as the protoplasm-theory, which absorbed the cell-theory of Schleiden and Schwann. By Max Schultze the cell was defined as a mass of protoplasm surrounding a nucleus. Although protoplasm is so similar in appearance and reactions in all living beings, nevertheless, there must be unperceived differences — possibly not of kind but of degree of modification. See Cell-Doctrine.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Protozoa

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​Protozoa (prō′tō̇-zō′ȧ), the simplest animals. Collectively, they form the sub-kingdom of protozoa. They are microscopic and unicellular, and abound in stagnant water. They are of great interest to zoologists and physiologists, because in them the processes of life are reduced to their simplest expression. By studying them many facts are obtained that help in understanding the more complex animals. They have recently been studied in reference to their reactions to stimuli, and many important results obtained. The daily life of a protozoön was made the subject of study in one of our laboratories of physiology. The group includes simple forms like the amœba and its relatives, having root-like feet and constituting the class of Rhizopoda. Many of the rhizopods have no covering, but others either secrete a shell or gather hard particles and build one. Chalk is largely made of minute, limy shells of protozoa. The form most common in chalk is a cluster of globular chambers, varying in size. The walls of these shells are perforated by minute holes, through which the soft protoplasm of the animal protrudes. They constitute an order called foraminifera or hole-borers. These animals are abundant in warm and temperate seas. They live near the surface and, as they die, their shells sink and reach the bottom. Deep-sea explorations have brought from great depths a soft ooze, formed almost entirely of these shells of foraminifera. Somewhat similar forms make shells of great beauty, of quartz or silica, which cannot be dissolved by acid or melted by fire. They constitute the order of Radiolaria. The higher protozoa belong mainly to the class of Infusoria (which see). These minute animals have hair-like processes (cilia), which propel the body through the water like the action of many small oars. In some forms the hair-like threads are large, reduced in number to one or two and called flagella. Thus the class of infusoria is separated into the two divisions of the Flagellata and the Ciliata. The latter contains the highest developed of the protozoa. Among the more common forms may be noted the slipper-animalcule (Paramœcium), with a free-swimming, slipper-shaped body; the bell-animalcule (Vorticella), with a bell-shaped body anchored by a stalk; and the trumpet-animalcule or stentor. The rhizopoda and the infusoria are the chief classes; two others of less importance are recognized. See Leidy's Freshwater Rhizopods of North America, beautifully illustrated, published by the United States government; and Kent's Manual of the Infusoria.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Provençal Language, The

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​Provençal (prō′vŏn′sal′) Language, The, is one of the so-called Romanic languages, all of which are descended from the language of ancient Rome. Wherever Roman ​law, custom and trade established themselves, the language followed. In this way the inhabitants of northern Italy, Spain, France (Gaul) and parts of Switzerland received a new tongue. The language which came into common use in these places, however, was the low Latin of the provinces, a colloquial form of Latin, lacking much of its grammatical precision. This low Latin, mingling with the languages or dialects of various places, produced, in time, a number of new languages having the same background but little else in common. Writers distinguish six such Romanic languages: Italian, Moldavian, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Provençal, the latter a dialectic language of the south of France, whose use extended from Lake Geneva to the Bay of Biscay and to the Mediterranean. This section of France had not only a language of its own but a literature, which in the 12th and 13th centuries was especially rich in poetry. It was in this language the songs of the troubadours were mostly composed, so that Provençal and troubadour are often used as synonymous terms, The conquest of southern France by northern France in the 13th century, reduced the old Provençal tongue to the level of a mere dialect; nevertheless, its effect upon the language which has superseded it is marked, and the relation of the two affords a battleground for modern philologists. In the poems of Mistral, however, Provençal still is a living language.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Providence, R. I.

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​ Prov′idence, R. I., a seaport and capital of Rhode Island. It is the second city of New England in wealth and population, and is an important center for manufacturing and shipping and for its railroad and financial interests. It is celebrated for its manufacture of jewelry and silverware. It also produces tools, stoves, engines, locomotives, cottons, woolens, corset-laces, shoe-laces, lampwicks etc., and has many bleaching-works. It is situated at the head of navigation on an arm of Narragansett Bay (called Providence River), 35 miles from the Atlantic and 44 from Boston. Among the many notable public buildings and institutions are a city-hall of granite, costing $1,000,000, with the state soldiers' monument facing it; the state-house, customhouse and postoffice; the Athenæum; the buildings of the Rhode Island Historical Society; the Arcade and Butler Exchange; a great number of churches, schools, libraries, hospitals and asylums, including a noble charity known as Dexter Asylum for the poor; the Quaker College; and Brown University (q. v.). Providence was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams. Population 224,326.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pruning

See also Pruning on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Prun′ing, the removal of branches from trees and shrubs to add to their health, increase their production of fruit or render them more ornamental. Forest-trees are sometimes pruned to increase the size of the trunk for timber purposes. In pruning it is necessary to understand the particular nature of the tree or shrub to be pruned, but it may be laid down as a general rule that the branches cut off should be small in proportion to the size of the trunk. The proper season must be known, pruning for some trees can be done only in the resting season, of others in the time of full growth. The cut should be smooth, care being taken that the wound shall heal rapidly. Large cuts must be covered with a preservative.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rowson, Susanna (Haswell)

* related authors: Susanna Rowson.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, Wikidata item.
Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
ROWSON, rou'sŭn, Susanna (Haswell) (1762-1824). An Anglo-American dramatist, novelist, and actress. Her novel Victoria (1786) brought her father a pension. Her husband became bankrupt, and in 1792 she sought support from the stage, coming in the next year to America, where she acted at Annapolis, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, until 1795, appearing mainly in her own plays. The Volunteers, a farce (1793), Americans in England (1797), and others. Leaving the stage, she opened in Boston a school for girls which she conducted with honorable success until 1822. She also edited The Boston Weekly Magazine. Of her novels the most popular was Charlotte Temple, a Tale of Truth (1790) founded on an adventure of a kinsman with a girl whose grave may still be seen in Trinity Churchyard, New York, with Temple
substituted for the true name, Stanley. In three years twenty thousand copies of this book were sold. A sequel to this story, Lucy Temple, appeared posthumously (1828), and she was author of several other novels. Consult her Life by Elias Nason (Albany, 1870).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ruckstuhl, Frederick Wellington

Edition of 1905. See also Frederick Ruckstull on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RUCKSTUHL, rūk'stōōl, Frederick Wellington (1853—). An American sculptor, born at Breitenbach, in Alsace. His family went to Saint Louis when the boy was hardly a year old. He was educated in the city schools of Saint Louis and in Paris. His statue “Evening,” which had honorable mention at the Salon in 1888, received a grand medal at the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, and is now at the Metropolitan Museum in New York. Returning to Saint Louis, Ruckstuhl carved a statue of “Mercury Leading the Eagle of Jupiter,” which is owned by that city, and the statue of “Solon” in the Congressional Library (Washington). Among his most successful works are the equestrian statue of General Hartranft in Harrisburg, Pa.; a portrait bust of John Russell Young; the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument in Jamaica, Long Island. He directed the sculptural decoration of the Appellate Court House in New York.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ruge, Arnold

Edition of 1905. See also Arnold Ruge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RUGE, rōō'ge, Arnold (1802-80). A German political agitator and miscellaneous writer, born at Bergen, island of Rügen. He studied at Jena and Halle, shared in the student agitations of 1821-24, was imprisoned (1824-30), became privat-docent at Halle (1832), founded the Hallesche Jahrbücher (1837), as an organ of the Young German Hegelians, and, on its suppression by the
Prussian censorship, he went to Paris (1843-45), and later to Switzerland. He then became a bookseller in Leipzig, published a democratic journal, Die Reform, was elected to the Frankfort Parliament (1848), and in the next year he fled to England. He aided Mazzini and Ledru-Rollin in organizing the Central European Democratic Committee (1849), and, from 1852, lived in Brighton, teaching and writing. He wrote, among other things, a Manifest an die deutsche Nation (1866), and Geschichte unserer Zeit (1881). In 1877 he was pensioned by the German Government. His autobiography Aus früherer Zeit, appeared in Berlin, 1863-67; his Letters were edited by Nerrlich (ib., 1885-86).