# Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management/Chapter XIII

GENERAL REMARKS ON COOKING MEAT
Instructions for Roasting, Boiling, Baking, Stewing, Braising and Frying.
The Probability is that the Human Race for a long period in the early history of mankind lived upon roots, fruits, raw fish, shell-fish, birds' eggs, small reptiles, and insects. When man acquired the art of fashioning weapons from the flints which he wrought into arrow-heads, spear-points, and axes, he was enabled to chase and slay the animals around him, and thus obtain raw meat. A survival of this custom is seen in the name of the Eskimo, from the appellation Eskimantsic, or "raw-flesh-eaters," given to them by the native tribes of New England, and retained in the French form of the word Esquimaux. Bows and arrows have been found among the natives of all climates and latitudes, but their use indicates an advancement in civilization reached only during many centuries. The early period of man's existence is divided into four epochs or ages, not implying, however, that these epochs were simultaneously reached by all the inhabitants of the globe in their progress towards civilization, for there are still races in their stone age. The first epoch is the Paleolithic, or old stone age, when the implements fashioned by man were sharp chipped flints. To this succeeded the Neolithic, or new stone age, characterized by polished stone implements, and the domestication of animals. Next followed the Bronze age, with its weapons and articles of that metal, and lastly the Iron age, with its gradual development and progress in the arts and manufactures. The successive stages through which man has advanced to civilization may also be classified in three divisions: Savage, Barbarous, and Civilized. The first is represented by the savage of the South American forests, who lives on wild plants and animals; the second by the African, who tills the ground and domesticates animals for his use; the third by the civilized European, associated with all that the word civilization denotes, of moral, intellectual, social, and material development.
The duration of the Paleolithic Age cannot be determined. Unpolished stone implements, bone, and horn have been found associated with the bones and teeth of the mammoth, or woolly-haired elephant, ​the cave-bear. and other wild animals long extinct, in the old drift gravels of the glacial period, which was passing away in Europe thousands of years before the Neolithic Age began, and it is even possible that the existence of man may date from a still earlier pre-glacial period.
The Discovery of Fire is lost in the dim ages of antiquity. No savage tribe has been found so low in the scale of being as to be without its possession; even among the relics found of man's existence during the mammoth period, fragments of charcoal and burnt bones have been discovered. The methods pursued by savage races for producing fire are by the friction of one piece of wood against another, by the use of a fire-drill, consisting of a pointed stick, which is revolved rapidly in a hole made in a piece of wood, or by means of a species of bow-drill. The Brahmins at the present day produce fire for their daily sacrifice by this primitive method. Later, the old fire-drill was improved upon by the flint and steel; and now the safety match in common use provides a ready means of kindling a fire or producing a light. Of such value is the possession of fire to man for warmth, cooking his food and other purposes, that the ancient Greeks in their mythology ascribed its origin to the gods, from whom Prometheus, the brother of Atlas, stole it, concealed in a tube. By the Parsis, the adherents of the ancient religion of Persia or Zoroastrianism, fire is regarded as the emblem of the Divine power, and its worship forms a religious ritual.
Fire having been discovered, mankind endeavoured to make use of it for drying and afterwards for cooking their meat; but for ages the methods and appliances employed in the preparation of food were of the crudest description. Meat brought in actual contact with fire is apt to become smoked, and have an unpleasant flavour. This disadvantage was remedied by passing spits through it, and placing it above the burning fuel. Thus grilling was invented; and simple as is this mode of cookery, yet all meat cooked in this way is richly and pleasantly flavoured. In Homer's time the art of cookery had not advanced much beyond the method of roasting, for we read in the "Iliad" how the hero Achilles and his friend Patroclus regaled the three Grecian leaders on bread, wine and broiled meat. It is noticeable, too, that Homer does not speak of boiled meat anywhere in his poems. We read in the Scriptures, of Sarah cooking her cakes on the hearth; and in the ceremonial law given to the ancient Jews, they were distinctly directed to bring cakes "baked in the oven." The term "oven" may have been applied to a kind of pot, sometimes called "kail-pot," which was a vessel completely closed, and when in use was buried bodily in hot ashes. The tripod and cauldron is the earliest cooking apparatus on record. The former consisted of three rods of iron or hard wood fastened together at the top, at which point was inserted an iron hook to hold the handle of the cauldron.
​Methods of Cooking Meat.—Roasting, baking, boiling, stewing, braising, frying and grilling are the usual methods of cooking animal food. To explain the philosophy of these simple operations, we must notice the effects that are produced by heat on the principal constitutents of flesh. When finely chopped, mutton or beef is soaked for some time in a small quantity of water, and then subjected to slight pressure, the juice of the meat is extracted, and there is left a white, tasteless residue, consisting chiefly of muscular fibre. When this residue is heated to between 180° and 200° F., the fibres shrink together, and become hard and horny. The influence of a higher temperature on the soluble extracts is not less remarkable. When the watery infusion which contains the nutritive constituents of the meat is gradually heated, it soon becomes turbid, and, when the temperature reaches about 160°, flakes of whitish matter separate. These flakes are ALBUMIN, a substance precisely similar in all its properties to the white of egg. When the temperature of the watery extract is raised to 158°, the colouring matter of the blood coagulates, and the liquid, which was originally tinged red by this substance, is left perfectly clear, and almost colourless. When evaporated, even at a gentle heat, this residual liquid gradually becomes brown, and acquires the flavour of roast meat. The fibres of meat are surrounded by a liquid which contains albumin in its soluble state, just as it exists in the unboiled egg. During the operation of boiling or roasting this substance coagulates. The tenderness of well-cooked meat is consequently proportioned to the amount of heat employed, and the slight or complete coagulation of the albumin deposited in its substance. Meat is done when it has been heated throughout only to the temperature of coagulating albumin, provided the heat is continued long enough; it is thoroughly done when it has been heated through its whole mass to the temperature at which the colouring matter of the blood coagulates; it is overdone when the heat has been continued long enough to harden the fibres.
During the operations of Boiling, Roasting and Baking, fresh beef and mutton, when moderately fat, according to Johnston, lose, on an average about:—
| | In Boiling. | In Baking. | In Roasting. |
| 4 lb. of beef lose | 1 lb. | 1 lb. 3 ozs. | 1 lb. 5 ozs. |
| 4 lb. of mutton lose | 14 ozs. | 1 lb. 4 ozs. | 1 lb. 6 ozs. |
More recent experiments also show that animal matter loses more weight by roasting than by boiling. In roasting, the loss arises from the melting out of the fat and evaporation of water; but the nutritious matter remains condensed in the cooked meat, whereas, in boiling, the gelatin is partly abstracted. Roast meats are therefore more nutritious than boiled meats; but in consequence of the chemical decomposition of the fat of roast meats, due to a long continued exposure to an intense heat, they are less easily digested.
​Roasting.—In roasting, the joint must be suspended where the rays of heat from the fire may fall directly upon it. In localities where this excellent and wholesome method of cooking is largely practised, kitchens are provided with a primitive meat-screen, a three-leaved folding "hastener," lined on the inside with a bright metal which reflects the heat. Therefore, although roasting may be described as cooking by radient heat, it is a process in which reflected heat plays a secondary and by no means unimportant part. By many, roasting is condemned as an extravagant method of cooking. Undoubtedly meat loses considerably in weight when roasted, but there is no real loss; the melted fat remains as dripping; any meat juice which escapes coagulates and forms the basis of the gravy, and by the evaporation of water, to which the greater part of the loss is due, the nutritives of the meat have simply become more concentrated. The consumption of coal in roasting is not excessive when the fire is properly built up. Some 30 or 40 minutes before the fire must be ready, the front of the grate should be filled with small lumps of coal, and the back with a few lumps mixed with a considerable quantity of slightly-wetted small coal. As the front of the fire burns away, the embers from the back can be brought forward, and small coal or cinders put in their place, thus keeping the front of the fire clear and bright. Immediately the fire is made up the "hastener," or meat-screen, should be drawn around it, so that its surface may become thoroughly hot before the meat is put down to roast. When the fire is clear and bright the joint should be placed quite close to it for 10 or 15 minutes; and as soon as it is put down it should be well basted with hot dripping, and this greatly assists in forming an impervious surface through which the juices of the meat cannot escape. The joint must be frequently basted during the first half-hour, and afterwards every 10 or 15 minutes. When properly roasted and sufficiently basted, the joint ought to be nicely browned without the aid of flour. A little salt and pepper is sometimes sprinkled on the joint before serving, but it is not necessary. It was considered an improvement to the gravy when the old custom obtained of pouring a little over the joint.
It is impossible to fix the exact time required for roasting meat, because so much depends upon the form and thickness of the joint, and its age and condition. The general rule is to allow 15 minutes for each pound of beef and mutton, and 15 minutes over; and 20 minutes for each pound of veal and pork, and 20 minutes over. Meat of recently killed beasts requires longer cooking than meat which has hung for some time; in warm weather joints require rather less time for roasting than in cold. A square solid piece of beef will not cook as quickly as a shoulder of mutton of equal weight; and rolled and stuffed meat must be allowed a longer time than if the joints were not prepared in this manner.
White Meats, and the Meat of Young Animals, require to be very well ​roasted, both to be pleasant to the palate and easy of digestion. Thus veal, pork and lamb should be thoroughly done to the centre.
Mutton and Beef, on the other hand, do not, generally speaking, require to be so thoroughly done, and they should be cooked, so that, in carving them, the gravy will just run, but not too freely. Of course in this, as in most other cases, the tastes of individuals vary; and there are many who cannot partake, with satisfaction, of any joint unless it is what others would call overdressed.
Baking.—Meat baked in the oven has never the same delicious aromatic flavour as when roasted in front of the fire, but with care it is possible to have a baked joint with a good flavour and a well-browned and crisp surface. To preserve the flavour of the meat, it is absolutely necessary that every part of the oven should be kept scrupulously clean. Nothing can brown properly or become crisp in too moist an atmosphere; therefore there must be an outlet for the steam produced by the evaporation of some of the water in the meat; and if the construction of the oven does not provide sufficient ventilation, the door must be kept partly open to allow the steam to escape. To ensure perfectly satisfactory results, a proper baking-tin must be used. This consists of a double tin, the upper part being provided with a grid, on which the meat rests, thus preventing unnecessary contact with the dripping. The lower tin is filled with water, which prevents the fat in the upper tin burning, and giving off unpleasant odours to be absorbed by the meat, and which would spoil its flavour. The principles of roasting and baking are exactly the same, the object being in both processes to preserve the nutritive qualities of the meat by preventing the escape of the juices of the meat. Before putting the joint in the oven it should be well basted with hot fat, for the reason already explained in reference to roasting meat. The oven should be hot for the first 10 or 15 minutes, in order that the albumin on the surface of the meat may be quickly coagulated and the juices of the meat retained. The temperature must then be lowered, or the meat transferred to a cooler oven, if the stove is provided with two. The temperature of an oven may be quickly reduced by drawing away some of the fire, putting in the dampers, or leaving the oven door open. Frequent basting is as essential in baking as in roasting; it not only keeps the meat mellow and tender, it also prevents waste by shrinkage, and by washing off some of the hardened particles it prevents the meat becoming too brown, while at the same time it provides a deposit to be afterwards converted into good gravy.
The time required for baking meat is the same as for roasting, viz., 15 minutes to each lb. of beef and mutton, and 15 minutes over; and 20 minutes to each lb. of pork and veal, and 20 minutes over, with the usual allowances for form, condition, stuffing, etc., which common sense or experience must determine.
Boiling.—Boiling is generally considered one of the most easy and ​simple processes of cookery. Certainly meat cooked in a pot requires very little attention and too frequently receives none at all, as is evidence by the ragged mutton and hard-flavourless beef to which the term BOILED meat may be correctly applied. Although meat loses less weight when boiled than when roasted or baked, there is more loss of nutritive constituents, unless both the meat and the liquor in which it is cooked be consumed, for certain mineral salts, soluble substances, and a considerable quantity of gelatin, are abstracted during the process of cooking, and remain dissolved in the liquor. When the meat is intended to be eaten, it is desirable that its valuable nutritive juices should be retained, and this is effected, as in roasting and baking, by subjecting the joint for a short time to a temperature sufficiently high to rapidly coagulate the surface albumin, thus forming an impervious envelope which prevents the escape of internal juices, and most effectually excludes the water, which, by diluting these juices, would render the meat insipid. All fresh meat should be immersed in boiling water for 10 minutes, but at the end of that time the temperature must be reduced, and the surest and quickest way of effecting this to to draw the pot aside and add cold water by degrees until the water in the pot ceases to boil. One pint of cold water would sufficiently reduce the contents of a large boiling pot. When it is possible to choose, the one selected should be just large enough to hold the meat which must be kept covered with water; hot water being added to replace that which boils away, in order to maintain an even temperature. The addition of such vegetables as turnip, carrot, onion and celery, is a decided improvident to the flavour of the meat, but they should never be used in sufficiently large quantities to overpower its natural flavour. Turnip must be always sparingly used, for it possesses the peculiar property of absorbing the flavour of any material it comes into contact with, and is often usefully employed for that purpose. In one respect, boiling is more economic than either roasting or baking, for when once the right point is reached a very small fire will maintain the proper temperature. Any heat in excess of this is wasted, and the benefit of slow progressive cooking is lost. Meat cooks as quickly at simmering point as if the water surrounding it were kept in a state of violent ebullition, and with far better results, for continued application of excessive heat hardens the fibres of the meat, and renders it tough and indigestible.
The time allowed for boiling meat is from 20 to 25 minutes for each lb of meat, according to the solidity or thinness of the joint, and the kind of meat; pork requires longer boiling than beef or mutton, and salted meat longer than fresh meat.
Salt Meats.—Salt beef, salt pork, pickled pork, tongues and hams should always be put into warm water, unless very highly salted, when they may be put into cold water to extract some of the salt. Smoked hams and tounges must be soaked in cold water for at least 12 hours ​before cooking. Any kind of salt meat intended to be served cold will be more mellow and juicy if allowed to remain in the liquor until cold; but this practice cannot be recommended in warm weather unless the meat will be quickly consumed, for the large amount of moisture it contains soon renders it unfit for use.
Stewing.—This process of cooking may be defined as "simmering in a small quantity of liquid." Undoubtedly it is the most economical method of cooking meat, not only on account of the small amount of fuel required to keep up the gentle simmering, but also because tough, coarse, inexpensive kinds of meat may, by this long, slow continuous process, be rendered tender and palatable. There is practically no loss of nutritive constituents, for everything abstracted from the meat is contained in the gravy. The fibres of coarse meat should never be exposed to a higher temperature than 160° F.; simmering point is 180° F., boiling point, 212° F. To cook meat at this comparatively low temperature it is absolutely necessary that the vessel containing it should be provided with a lid fitting so closely that the steam cannot escape; or failing this, 2 or 3 thicknesses of greased paper must be placed under the lid. Lean meat alone is suitable for stewing, more particularly when the liquid is thickened with flour, which prevents the fat rising to the surface of the liquid. In consequence of not being able to remove the fat by skimming, stews are apt to disagree with those who are in the least inclined to dyspepsia; but when made of lean meat they are easily digested. A few rough trimmings of vegetables should be added to flavour the stew; but it is better to cook the vegetables to be served with it separately, for the low temperature at which the meat stews destroys the colour of both carrots and turnips. When the meat is very coarse its fibres may be softened either by adding a little vinegar to the stew, or by pouring a little over the meat and allowing it to soak in it for at least an hour before cooking. But when the meat is tender if it is quickly fried on both sides before it is stewed, it has both a better appearance and flavour.
No definite rule as to time can be given; stews may be allowed to cook gently from 4 to 5 hours, but longer cooking usually reduces the fibres of beef and mutton to a stringy, thread-like mass, so hardened that they cannot be digested, and consequently afford no nourishment. Stews cannot cook too slowly; it is not necessary that there should be the least ebullition, but there must be sufficient heat applied to evaporate the liquid and fill the vessel with steam, otherwise the meat is not cooking.
Braising.—This excellent method of cooking is a combination of roasting and stewing, for when a properly constructed pan is used heat is applied from above by means of a depressed lid on which charcoal is burnt. When meat is braised in an ordinary stewpan it is simply placed on a foundation of vegetables surrounded, but not ​covered, with stock. The meat does not come in contact with the liquid, but becomes thoroughly flavoured with the vegetables, and by long slow cooking in the steam is rendered tender and digestible, it is then placed in a quick oven and browned and crisped before serving.
Frying.—From the appended table it will be seen that all fats and oils do not boil at the same temperature. In ordinary houses thermometers for testing the heat for cooking are not available, but the table given is instructive without their aid—at least it should make clear the reason why it is so much more difficult to fry in a small quantity of butter than in a corresponding amount of fat or oil.
BOILING POINT OF FAT AND OILS
| Butter | boils at | 150° | F. |
| Lard | ,, | 210° | ,, |
| Clarified Fat | ,, | 250° | ,, |
| Oil | ,, | 390-400° | ,, |
Many liquids boil at a lower temperature than water (212°); thus you may, with impunity, dip your finger in boiling spirits of wine; you would take it very quickly from boiling brandy; still more rapidly from water; whilst the effect of the most rapid immersion in boiling oil need not be mentioned. As a consequence of this, heated fluids act differently on the savoury bodies presented to them. A small ball of butter, thickly coated with egg and breadcrumbs, may be fried in hot fat or oil and retain its form, but if dropped into a stewpan of boiling water it would quickly melt, and mingle with it, because the water would not be hot enough to immediately coagulate the albumin of the egg and thus imprison the butter, and effectually exclude the water. Fat may be heated to a much higher temperature than is necessary for ordinary frying purposes. Anyone experienced can tell exactly by the appearance of the fat, and by the amount of blue smoke arising from it, when the requisite degree of heat is reached. This, of course, varies considerably; such things as rissoles and fish cakes, made principally of cooked materials, need simply browning and heating through, and consequently may be cooked in very hot fat. But such a preparation as cheese fritters or raw substances like fillets of fish must be fried in fat at lower temperature to allow the material to be fully cooked before the surface becomes too brown. The heat of the fat may be tested by frying a piece of bread; if it turns brown immediately the temperature is suitable for such things as need browning and re-heating, and for potatoes which require a high degree of heat, owing to the large proportion of water contained in them; but for raw materials the fat is sufficiently hot when bread at once hardens, and acquires a pale golden-brown colour. It should, however, be remembered that the introduction of any cold substance immediately lowers the temperature of the fat; so much so, that after a few minutes the heat under the ​stewpan may safely be increased. Only a small quantity of anything should be fried at one time, and the fat must be heated to a proper temperature before frying a second lot. There are two distinct methods of frying, known respectively as deep or wet frying, and dry frying.
Deep Frying.—In this process the materials fried must be completely covered by hot fat. An iron or steel stewpan or saucepan may be used; and for such things as rissoles, croquettes, lobster cutlets, fish cakes, etc., a wire basket or wire drainer is necessary; fillets of fish are generally dropped into the hot fat from the fingers, and taken out on a fish slice. Everything fried should be transferred from the fat to a sheet of clean paper and thoroughly drained before serving.
Dry Frying.—Meat fried in a shallow pan with a comparatively small quantity of fat may be rendered hard and indigestible by this process if the mistake be made of putting the meat into a cold frying-pan, or into the fat before it is hot enough to coagulate the albumin on its surface. Fillets of beef and veal, and mutton and veal cutlets are generally cooked in this manner, and with a protective covering of egg and breadcrumbs they may be subjected to intense heat without hardening their fibres to an injurious extent. The side to be dished upwards should be fried first, because the side cooked first invariably presents a better appearance. The frying should be done rapidly, and the frying-pan frequently shaken to prevent the contents sticking and burning to the bottom of it.
Frying-Fat.—For all ordinary purposes clarified fat may be recommended. It is made from beef and mutton suet, cut into small pieces, and simmered in a little water until all the fat is extracted, and then strained. 2 lb. of fat are obtained from 3 lb. of suet; unless the suet can be bought cheaply, it may be a little more expensive than lard. Oil is excellent for frying purposes, but it requires more careful handling than the fats, for unless heated gently over a slow fire, it has a tendency to rise quickly and boil over. Lard sometimes imparts an unpleasant flavour, but the chief objection to its use is the fatty odour which lingers long after the lard has cooled. Frying-fat after being used should, WHEN COOL, be strained. The fat may be used over and over again until it becomes discoloured, and discoloration may in some measure be prevented by occasionally boiling the fat in plenty of water for ½ an hour. When slightly cool, both fat and water should be poured into a basin; and as soon as the cake of fat is firm all the impurities should be scraped off the bottom, and the fat melted again to evaporate every particle of water.
Grilling.—Grilling, or broiling, as it is sometimes termed, is the most perfect way of cooking chops and steaks. A sharp clear fire is necessary in order that the outside may be quickly hardened, and thus prevent the escape of the juices of the meat. Grilling may be done either over the fire or before it on a gridiron contrived for the purpose. Any ordinary gridiron may be used for cooking over the fire; before being ​used it should be heated, and its bars well rubbed with paper, and afterwards with a little fat or suet. Whatever is being grilled must be repeatedly turned, by means of steak-tongs, or, failing these, a fork put into the fat of the meat, for if the lean be pierced the juices will escape through the holes thus made. This cooking process is suited only to small portions of meat, or kidneys, bones, fish, mushrooms, tomatoes, etc.
SUMMARY OF GENERAL RULES
(1) One general rule is that meat should never be washed, but there are at least three exceptions to the rule. viz.:—
(a) When using diluted vinegar or charcoal to remove the taint of putrefaction.
(b) When meat has been over-salted, and it is necessary to extract the excess of salt.
(c) Hearts and liver before they are cut into slices: the surface of both being protected by membranes, immersion in cold water does not deprive them of their nutritive juice.
(2) In roasting and baking an intense heat must be applied to all for 10 or 15 minutes, and the temperature afterwards considerably reduced.
(3) In boiling, fresh meat should be put into boiling water, boiled rapidly for 10 minutes, and then cold liquid added to reduce the temperature. Immersion in boiling water hardens the fibres of salt meat, therefore it should be put into warm water, or when too salt, it may be placed in cold water, which will extract some of the salt, and also a considerable quantity of the juices of the meat.
(4) In stewing, the process must be long, slow and continuous, the escape of steam being prevented by a close-fitting lid, and, if necessary, by intervening layers of greased paper.
(5) In frying, a blue smoke must arise from the fat before it is hot enough to fry even things which require a comparatively low temperature. Cold things to be fired must be added to the fat gradually, to avoid reducing the temperature too suddenly. The fat must always be re-heated to a proper temperature before putting in a second set of things to be fried.