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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nauck, Johann August

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​NAUCK, JOHANN AUGUST (1822–1892), German classical scholar and critic, was born at Auerstädt in Prussian Saxony on the 18th of September 1822. After having studied at Halle and held educational posts in Berlin, he migrated in 1859 to St Petersburg, where he was professor of Greek at the imperial historico-philological institute (1869–1883). He died on the 3rd of August 1892. Nauck was one of the most distinguished textual critics of his day, although, like P. H. Peerlkamp, he was fond of altering a text in accordance with what he thought the author must, or ought to, have written.
The most important of his writings, all of which deal with Greek language and literature (especially the tragedians) are the following: Euripides, Tragedies and Fragments (1854, 3rd ed., 1871); Studia Euripidea (1859–1862); Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1856, last ed., 1889), his chief work; Index to the Fragments (1892); text of Sophocles (1867): revised edition of Schneidewin’s annotated Sophocles (1856, &c.); texts of Homer, Odyssey (1874) and Iliad (1877–1879); the fragments of Aristophanes of Byzantium (1848), still indispensable; Porphyrius of Tyre (1860, 2nd ed., 1886); Iamblichus, De Vita Pythagorica (1884); Lexikon Vindobonense (1867), a meagre compilation of the 14th or 15th century. See memoir by T. Zielinski, in Bursian’s Biographisches Jahrbuch (1894), and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 149–152.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Natural Bridge

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​NATURAL BRIDGE, a small village of Rockbridge county, Virginia, in the western part of the state, 179 m. by rail W. of Richmond, and about 16 m. S.E. of Lexington, the county-seat. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways. In the vicinity of the village, which is about 1500 ft. ​above sea-level, is the great natural curiosity from which it derives its name—a bridge of natural rock 90 ft. long and from 50 to 150 ft. wide, which spans Cedar Creek at a height of 215 ft. above that stream. It consists of horizontal limestone strata, and is the remains of the roof of a cave or underground tunnel through which the creek once flowed. It is crossed by a public road. In the village are magnesia and lithia springs and a saltpetre cave, which was worked during the War of 1812 and the Civil War. A royal grant dated the 5th of July 1774 conveyed to Thomas Jefferson a tract of 157 acres, “including the Natural Bridge on Cedar Creek,” and it did not pass from his estate until 1833.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Natural Gas

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​NATURAL GAS, the name given to the inflammable gas occurring in petroliferous formations. It consists mainly of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series, principally marsh gas, which constitutes from 50 to 90% of the Pennsylvanian gas. Members of the olefine series are also present, especially in the gas of Baku. Varying amounts of carbon dioxide, sometimes as much as 10% or more, and small quantities of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen are also found. For particulars of the geological occurrence, and the collection and distribution, of natural gas, see Petroleum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nauarchia

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​NAUARCHIA (Gr. ναῦς, ship, ἀρχή, command), the supreme command of the Spartan navy. The office was an annual one and could not be held more than once by the same man (Xen. Hell. ii. 1. 7). This law might be evaded in special cases; the new admiral might not be sent to take over the command until some time after his election, which took place at midsummer (Beloch in Philologus, xliii. p. 272 sqq.), and meanwhile his predecessor remained de facto admiral; or the retiring admiral might, after the expiry of his term, hold an appointment as secretary (ἐπιστολεύς) to one who, though titular admiral, was really placed under his orders or even kept at Sparta altogether. Being independent of the kings and hampered by no colleague, the nauarch wielded such power that Aristotle is hardly going too far when he says (Politics, ii. 9. 22), ἡ ναυαρχἰα σχεδὸν ἐτέρα βασιλεία καθέστηκεν. He was subject only to the ephors, who, if he proved incompetent, could depose him (Thuc. viii. 39), though they usually preferred to send out an advisory committee (σύμβουλοι). An admiral might appoint his ἐπιστολεύς to command a portion, or even the whole, of the fleet, and if the former died in office the secretary succeeded to his post.
For a detailed discussion see J. Beloch, “Die Nauarchie in Sparta,” in the Rheinisches Museum, xxxiv. (1879) 117-130, where a complete list of nauarchs known to us will be found; regarding the time of the election this is corrected by a later article of the same writer (Philologus, loc. cit.). See also A. Solari, Ricerche Spartane (Livorno, 1907), 1-58; G. Busolt, “Staats- und Rechtsaltertümer” (Iwan Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, iv.), § 96; G. E. Underhill’s edition of Xenophon, Hellenica, i., ii., note on i. 5. 1. (M. N. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Magnate

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​MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man), a noble, a man in high position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. The term is specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in Hungary, the Förendihaz or House of Magnates (see Hungary).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Magnetite

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​MAGNETITE, a mineral forming the natural magnet (see Magnetism), and important also as an iron-ore. It is an iron-black, opaque mineral, with metallic lustre; hardness about 6, sp. gr. 4.9 to 5.2. When scratched, it yields a black streak. It is an oxide of iron having the formula Fe$_3$O$_4$, corresponding with 72.4% of metal, whence its great value as an ore. It may be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide, FeO.Fe$_2$O$_3$, or as iron ferrate, Fe″Fe$_2$‴O$_4$. Titanium is often present, and occasionally the mineral contains magnesium, nickel, &c. It is always strongly magnetic. Magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in octahedra, less commonly in rhombic dodecahedra, and not infrequently in twins of the “spinel type” (fig. 1). The rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are often striated parallel to the longer diagonal. There is no distinct cleavage, but imperfect parting may be obtained along octahedral planes. Fig. 1. Magnetite is a mineral of wide distribution, occurring as grains in many massive and volcanic rocks, like granite, diorite and dolerite. It appears to have crystallized from the magma at a very early period of consolidation. Its presence contributes to the dark colour of many basalts and other basic rocks, and may cause them to disturb the compass. Large ore-bodies of granular and compact magnetite occur as beds and lenticular masses in Archean gneiss and crystalline schists, in various parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Urals; as also in the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Michigan, as well as in Canada. In some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic eruptive magma, and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic action. Certain deposits appear to have been formed, directly or indirectly, by wet processes. Iron rust sometimes contains magnetite. An interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs in the Dogger (Inferior Oolite) of Rosedale Abbey, in Yorkshire; and a somewhat similar pisolitic ore, of Jurassic age, is known on the continent as chamoisite, having been named from Chamoison (or Chamoson) in the Valais, Switzerland. Grains of magnetite occur in serpentine, as an alteration-product of the olivine. In emery, magnetite in a granular form is largely associated with the corundum; and in certain kinds of mica magnetite occurs as thin dendritic enclosures. Haematite is sometimes magnetic, and A. Liversidge has shown that magnetite is probably present. By deoxidation, haematite may be converted into magnetite, as proved by certain pseudomorphs; but on the other hand magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite. On weathering, magnetite commonly passes into limonite, the ferrous oxide having probably been removed by carbonated waters. Closely related to magnetite is the rare volcanic mineral from Vesuvius, called magnoferrite, or magnesioferrite, with the formula MgFe$_2$O$_4$; and with this may be mentioned a mineral from Jakobsberg, in Vermland, Sweden, called jakobsite, containing MnFe$_2$O$_4$. (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Magnes

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​MAGNES (c. 460 B.C.), Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, a native of the deme of Icaria in Attica. His death is alluded to by Aristophanes (Equites, 518–523, which was brought out in 424 B.C.), who states that in his old age Magnes had lost the popularity which he had formerly enjoyed. The few titles of his plays that remain, such as the Frogs, the Birds, the Gall-flies, indicate that he anticipated Aristophanes in introducing grotesque costumes for the chorus.
See T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880); G. H. Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, iii. pt. 2 (1840).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Magnesite

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​MAGNESITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium carbonate, MgCO$_3$, and belonging to the calcite group of rhombohedral carbonates. It is rarely found in crystals or crystalline masses, being usually compact or earthy and intermixed with more or less hydrous magnesium silicate (meerschaum). The compact material has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, and the earthy that of chalk. In colour it is usually dead white, sometimes yellowish. The hardness of the crystallized mineral is 4; sp. gr. 3.1. The name magnesite as originally applied by J. C. Delamétherie in 1797 included several minerals containing magnesium, and at the present day it is used by French writers for meerschaum. The mineral has also been called baudisserite from the locality Baudissero near Ivrea in Piedmont. Breunnerite is a ferriferous variety.
Magnesite is a product of alteration of magnesium silicates, and occurs as veins and patches in serpentine, talc-schist or dolomite-rock. It is extensively mined in the island of Euboea in the Grecian Archipelago, near Salem in Madras, and in California, U.S.A. It is principally used for the manufacture of highly refractory fire-bricks for lining steel furnaces and electric furnaces; also for making plaster, tiles and artificial stone; for the preparation of magnesium salts (Epsom salts, &c.); for whitening; paper-pulp and wool; and as a paint.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mishmi

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​MISHMI, a hill-tribe on the frontier of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The Mishmis occupy the hills from the Dihong to the Brahmakund, in the north-eastern corner of the Brahmaputra valley. In 1854 M. Krick and M. Bourry, two French missionaries, were murdered in the Mishmi country, but their death was avenged by a small expedition which took the murderer prisoner. In 1899 another British expedition was sent against the Mishmis, owing to the murder of some British subjects.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Misiones

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​MISIONES, a territory of northern Argentina, bounded N. by Paraguay and Brazil, E. and S. by Brazil and W. by Paraguay and the Argentine province of Corrientes. Its boundary lines are formed by the upper Parana and Iguassú rivers on the N., the San Antonio and Pequiry-guassu streams on the E. and the Uruguay River on the S. Area, 11,282 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimate), 38,755, chiefly Indians and mestizos. The territory is a region of roughly-broken surfaces, divided longitudinally by low mountains, called the Sierra Iman and Sierra Grande de Misiones, which form the water-parting for many small streams flowing northward to the Paraná and southward to the Uruguay. The greater part of the country is covered with forest and tropical jungle. The climate is sub-tropical, the temperature ranging from 40° to 95° F. The soil is described as highly fertile, but its products are chiefly confined to yerba mate or Paraguay tea (Ilex paraguayensis), tobacco and oranges and other fruits. Communication with the capital is maintained by two lines of steamboats running to Corrientes and Buenos Aires, but a railway across Paraguay from Asunción is planned to Encarnación, opposite Posadas. Some of the Jesuit missions of the 17th and 18th centuries were established in this territory, and are to-day represented by the lifeless villages of Candelaria, Santa Ana, San Ignacio and Corpus along the Paraná River, and Apóstoles, Concepción, and San Javier along the Uruguay. Posadas (estimated pop. in 1905, 8000), the capital, on the Paraná, officially dates from 1865. It was also a Jesuit settlement called Itapua, though the large mission of that name was on the Paraguayan side of the river. It is at the extreme west of the territory, and is the terminal port for the steamers from Corrientes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miskolcz

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​MISKOLCZ, capital of the county of Borsod, Hungary, 113 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 40,833. It is situated in a valley watered by the Szinva in the east of the Bükk mountains, and opens towards the south to the plain of the Sajó, an affluent of the Hernád. Miskolcz is a thriving town, and among its buildings are a Roman Catholic church of the 13th century in Late Gothic style, a Minorite convent, and Greek Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches. It manufactures snuff, porcelain, boots and shoes, and prepared leather, and has both steam and water mills. It trades in grain, flour, wine, fruit, cattle, hides, honey, wax and agricultural products, while four well attended fairs are held annually. About 5 m. west of the town in the Szinva valley is Diósgyör (pop. 11,520), which possesses important iron-works, and the ruined castle of Diósgyör, formerly a shooting residence of the kings of Hungary. About 4 m. to the south-west of Miskolcz are the baths of Tapolcza, containing warm springs. To the south-west of the town lies Onod (pop. 2087), to the south of which, on the banks of the Sajó, is the heath of Mohi or Muhi, famous as the scene of the great defeat of the Hungarians by the Mongols in 1241. About 85,000 Hungarians fell, and the whole country was devastated for the next two years by the Mongolian hordes. During the 16th and 17th centuries Miskolcz suffered much from the Ottomans, and from the troops of George Rákóczy and Emeric Tökölyi. In 1781, 1843, and 1847 it was devastated by fire, and on the 30th of August 1878 a great portion of the town was ruined by a terrific storm.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mispickel

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​ MISPICKEL, a mineral consisting of iron sulpharsenide, FeAsS; it contains 46% of arsenic, and is of importance as an ore of this element. It is known also as arsenopyrite or arsenical pyrites (Ger. Arsenikkies): mispickel is an old name of German origin, and in the form Mistpuckel was used by G. Agricola in 1546. The crystals are orthorhombic, with angles similar to those of marcasite; they are often prismatic in habit, and the prism M is usually terminated by the deeply striated faces of an obtuse dome r. Twinning is not uncommon, the twin-planes M (110) and g (101) being the same as in marcasite. The colour of the mineral is silver-white or steel-grey, with a metallic lustre, but it is often tarnished yellow; the streak is greyish-black. The hardness is 51/2–6, and the specific gravity 5·9–6·2.
Mispickel occurs in metalliferous veins with ores of tin, copper, silver, &c. It is occasionally found as embedded crystals, for example, in serpentine at Reichenstein, Silesia. In Cornwall and Devon it is associated with cassiterite in the tin-lodes, but is also found in the copper-lodes: well crystallized specimens have been obtained from the neighbourhood of Tavistock, Redruth and St Agnes. Mispickel is the principal source of arsenious oxide or the “white arsenic” of commerce (see Arsenic). The chief supplies are from Cornwall and Devon, and Freiberg in Saxony, and from Canada and the United States.
Danaite is a cobaltiferous variety of mispickel, containing up to 9% of cobalt replacing iron; it was first noticed by J. F. Dana in 1824 at Franconia in New Hampshire. This variety forms a passage to the species glaucodote, (Co, Fe)AsS, which is found as well-developed orthorhombic crystals in copper ore at Hakansboda in Ramberg parish, Vestmanland, Sweden. Other species belonging to this isomorphous group of orthorhombic minerals are marcasite (FeS$_2$), löllingite (FeAs$_2$), safflorite (CoAs$_2$) and rammelsbergite (NiAs$_2$). (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Misrule, Lord of

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​MISRULE, LORD OF, in medieval times the master of the Christmas revels. Probably J. G. Frazer (Golden Bough III.) is right in suggesting that the lord or abbot of misrule is the successor of the king of the ancient Roman Saturnalia, who personated Saturn and suffered martyrdom at the end of the revels. Compare, too, the burlesque figure at the carnival, which is finally destroyed. Stow (Survey) writes: “In the feast of Christmas there was in the King’s House, wheresoever he lodged, a Lord of Misrule or Master of merry disports, and the like had ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal.” The mayor and sheriffs of London also had Lords of Misrule. These mock-monarchs began their reign on Allhallows Eve, and misruled till Candlemas. In Scotland they were known as “Abbots of Unreason,” and in 1555 a special act suppressing them was passed. In Tudor times their reign was marked by much display and expense. In Henry VIII.’s reign an order for a fool’s coat is signed by six of the Privy Council. By an Act of Common Council (1555) the city expenses of the Lords of Misrule were severely curtailed. Machyn speaks of a Lord of Misrule who in 1561 rode through London followed by a hundred gentlemen on horseback hung with gold chains (see also Revels, Master of).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mosen, Julius

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​MOSEN, JULIUS (1803–1867), German poet and author, was born at Marieney in the Saxon Vogtland on the 8th of July, 1803. He studied law at Jena, and, after two years in Italy, at Leipzig. In 1834 he settled in Dresden as an advocate. He had meanwhile shown great literary promise by his Lied vom Ritter Wahn (1831). This was followed by the more philosophical Ahasver (1838), and by a volume of poems, Gedichte (1836, 2nd ed., 1843), among which Andreas Hofer and Die letzten Zehn vom vierten Regiment have become popular. He wrote the historical plays Heinrich der Finkler (Leipzig, 1836), Cola Rienzi, Die Bräute von Florenz, Wendelin und Helene and Kaiser Otto III. (the four last being published in his Theater 1842), and a politico-historical novel, Der Kongress von Verona (1842), which was followed by a charming collection of short stories (Bilder im Moose, 1846). In 1844 Mosen accepted the appointment of dramaturge at the Court Theatre in Oldenburg, but he was soon afterwards stricken with paralysis, and after remaining an invalid for many years, died at Oldenburg on the 10th of October 1867. Of his later works may be mentioned Die Dresdner Gemäldegallerie (1844), and the tragedies Herzog Bernhard (1855) and Der Sohn des Fürsten (1858).
A collection of his works, Sämtliche Werke, appeared in 8 vols. (1863; new ed., by his son, with a biography; 6 vols., 1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von

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​MOSHEIM, JOHANN LORENZ VON (c. 1694–1755), German Lutheran divine and Church historian, was born at Lübeck on the 9th of October, 1694 or 1695. After studying at the gymnasium of his native place, he entered the university of Kiel (1716), where he took his master’s degree in 1718. In 1719 he became assessor in the philosophical faculty at Kiel. His first appearance in the field of literature was in a polemical tract against John Toland, Vindiciae antiquae christianorum disciplinae (1720), which was soon followed by a volume of Observationes sacrae (1721). These works, along with the reputation he had acquired as a lecturer and preacher, secured for him a call to Helmstädt as professor ordinarius in 1723. The Institutionum historiae ecclesiasticae libri IV. appeared in 1726, and in the same year he was appointed by the duke of Brunswick abbot of Marienthal, to which dignity and emolument the abbacy of Michaelstein was added in the following year. Mosheim was much consulted by the authorities when the new university of Göttingen was being formed; especially in the framing of the statutes of the theological faculty, and the provisions for making the theologians independent of the ecclesiastical courts. In 1747 he was made chancellor of the university. He died at Göttingen on the 9th of September. Among his other works were De rebus christianorum ante Constantinum commentarii (1753), Ketzer-Geschichte (2nd ed. 1748), and Sittenlehre der heiligen Schrift (1735-53). His exegetical writings, characterized by learning and good sense, include Cogitationes in N. T. loc. select. (1726), and expositions of 1 Cor. (1741) and the two Epistles to Timothy (1755). In his sermons (Heilige Reden) considerable eloquence is shown, and a mastery of style which justifies the position he held as president of the German Society.
There are two English versions of the Institutes, that of Archibald Maclaine, published in 1764, and that of James Murdock (1832), which is the more correct. Murdock’s translation was revised and re-edited by James Seaton Reid in 1848, and by H. L. Hastings in 1892 (Boston). An English translation of the De rebus christianorum was published by Murdock in 1851.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mosler, Henry

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​MOSLER, HENRY (1841–), American artist, was born at New York, on the 6th of June 1841, the family removing to Cincinnati when he was about ten years old. Studying drawing by himself, he became a draughtsman for a comic paper, the Omnibus (Cincinnati), in 1855; in 1859–1861 he studied under James H. Beard, and in 1862–63, during the Civil War, was an art correspondent of Harper’s Weekly. In 1863 he went to Düsseldorf, where for almost three years he was at the Royal Academy schools; he subsequently went to Paris, where he studied for a short time under Ernest Hébert. His “Le Retour,” ​from the Paris Salon of 1879, was the first American picture ever bought for the Luxembourg. He received a silver medal in Paris 1889, and gold medals at Paris, 1888, and Vienna, 1893. Examples of his work are in the Sydney Art Museum, N.S.W., and the art museums of Springfield, Mass., Cincinnati, Ohio and New York. His son, Gustave Henry Mosler (1875–1906), a pupil of his father and of Léon Bonnat, exhibited at the Salon in Paris, receiving a medal for his “De Profundis” in 1891; his portrait of Governor J. W. Stewart is in the State House, Montpelier, Vermont, and his “Empty Cradle” is in the Toledo Art Club.