OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stove

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​STOVE, an apparatus for heating a room, building, greenhouse or hothouse, or for cooking. It is essentially closed or partially closed, as distinct from the open grate or fireplace, and consists of a receiver in which the fuel is burned, of cast or sheet-iron, tiles cemented together and backed or even of solid masonry. Stoves may be classified according to the fuel burned (see Heating). The word was originally of wider meaning and was used of a heated room, house or chamber, thus the O. Eng. stofa glosses balneum, and mod. Ger. Stube and Dan. stue mean merely a room, O. H. Ger. Stuba, Stupa being used of a heated bathroom; early Du. stove also was used in this wider sense, the later form stoof is used as in modern English, and this may be the immediate source of the present meaning, the early word having been lost. Romanic languages borrowed it, e.g. Ital. stufa, Ft. Stuve, O. Fr. étuve, whence was adapted Eng. "stew," properly a bath or hothouse, used chiefly in plural "stews," a brothel, and "to stew," originally to bathe, then to boil slowly, and as a noun, a mess of stewed meat. "Stew," a fish-pond, is a Low German word stouwe, dam, weir, fish-pond, from stouwen, to dam up, cf. Ger. stauen, Eng. stow.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stour

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​STOUR, the name of several English rivers. (1) The East-Anglian Stour rises in the slight chalk hills in the south-east of Cambridgeshire and follows a course ranging from east to south-east to the North Sea at Harwich, passing Clare, Sudbury, Nayland and Manningtree. It falls about 380 ft. in a course of 60 m., and drains an area of 407 sq. m. Over nearly its entire course it forms the boundary between Suffolk and Essex. From Manningtree downward its course is estuarine, and it is joined immediately above Harwich by the estuary of the Orwell. It is navigable up to Sudbury but does not bear much traffic. (2) The Kentish Stour or Great Stour rises on the southern face of the North Downs, the branch called the East Stour having its source not far inland from Hythe, but flowing at first away from the sea, while the main or western branch rises near Lenham. They unite at Ashford. Passing Canterbury, the Stour divides into two branches, the larger reaching the English Channel in Pegwell Bay, while the smaller runs north to the North Sea at Reculver. The larger branch is joined in the levels by the Little Stour from the south. The Stour is navigable to Fordwich near Canterbury, but is little used above Sand- wich. Its length is about 40 m., its fall from Ashford 150 ft., and its drainage area 370 sq. m. The name of Stour belongs also to (3) a considerable but unnavigable tributary of the Hampshire Avon, rising in Wiltshire, and touching Somersetshire and Dorsetshire before it joins the main river in Hampshire close to its mouth; (4) a left bank tributary of the Severn, which it joins at Stourport, its course being followed by the Worcestershire and Staffordshire canal; and (5) a small tributary of the upper Avon, rising in the north of Oxfordshire in the hills west of Banbury, and joining the main river a little below Stratford-on-Avon.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stourbridge

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​STOURBRIDGE, a market town in the Droitwich parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 144 m. N.W. by W. of London and 10 W. of Birmingham by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 16,302. A branch canal connects with the Worcestershire and Staffordshire system. The town stands on an eminence on the left bank of the Stour. Among public buildings are a town-hall (1887) and town offices, and a school of science and art. There is an endowed grammar school founded by Edward VI., and a bluecoat or hospital school. Dr Johnson received part of his education in this town (1726–1727). The principal manufactures are in iron, leather and skins; there are glue works and fire-brick works. Coal and fire-clay are raised. The manufacture of glass was established in 1556 by emigrants from Hungary, the place where they erected their factory being still known as Hungary Hill. Annual fairs are held. The town was originally called Bedcote, a name retained by the manor. The urban district includes the townships of Upper Swinford and Wollaston.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sennacherib

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​SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, “the Moon-god has increased the brethren”), the son and successor of Sargon, mounted the throne on the 12th of Ab 705 B.C. His first campaign was against Babylonia, where Merodach-baladan had reappeared. The Chaldaean usurper was compelled to fly, and Bel-ibni was appointed king of Babylon in his place. Then Sennacherib marched against the Kassi in the northern mountains of Elam and ravaged the kingdom of Ellip where Ecbatana afterwards stood. In 701 B.C. came a great campaign in the west, which had revolted from Assyrian rule. Sidon and other Phoenician cities were captured, but Tyre held out, while its king Lulia (Elulaeus) fied to Cyprus. Ashdod, Ammon, Moab and Edom now submitted, but Hezekiah of Judah with the dependent Philistine princes of Ashkelon and Ekron defied the Assyrian ​army, trusting to the fortifications of Jerusalem and Egyptian help. Hezekiah, however, was forced to restore the anti-Jewish Padi to the government of Ekron, from which he had been removed by the Jewish party, and, after the defeat of his Egyptian allies at Eltekeh, to see his country wasted with fire and sword, forty-six fortresses being taken and 200,150 persons carried into captivity. He then endeavoured to buy off the invaders by numerous presents—30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver, precious stones, couches and thrones inlaid with ivory, girls and eunuchs—but all in vain. Jerusalem was saved eventually by a plague, which decimated the Assyrian army and obliged Sennacherib to return to Nineveh. The following year he was again in Babylonia, where he made his son Assur-nadin-sum king in place of Bel-ibni and drove Merodach-baladan out of the marshes in which he had taken refuge. A few years later he had a fleet of ships built near Birejik on the Euphrates by his Phoenician captives; these were manned by Ionians and transported from Opis overland to the Euphrates and so to the Persian Gulf. Then they sailed to the coast of Elam, and there destroyed the colony of Merodach-baladan's followers at Nagitu. In return for this unprovoked invasion of Elamite territory the Elamites descended upon Babylonia, carried away Assur-nadin-sum (694 B.C.) and made Nergal-yusezib king. Three years later a great battle was fought at Khalulē on the Tigris between the Assyrians on the one side and the Elamites and Babylonians on the other. Both sides claimed the victory, but the advantage remained with Sennacherib, and in 689 B.C. he captured Babylon and razed it to the ground, a deed which excited the horror of all western Asia. Some time previously—the date is not known—he had overrun the mountain districts of Cilicia. On the 20th of Tebet 681 B.C. he was murdered by his two sons, who fled to Armenia after holding Nineveh for forty-two days. Sennacherib was vainglorious and a bad administrator; he built the palace of Kuyunjik at Nineveh, 1500 ft. long by 700 ft. broad, as well as the great wall of the city, 8 m. in circumference.
See George Smith, History of Sennacherib (1878).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senegambia

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​SENEGAMBIA, a term used to denote the region between the rivers Senegal and Gambia on the west coast of Africa. The country south of the Gambia as far as Sierra Leone was formerly also regarded as part of Senegambia. As a geographical expression Senegambia fell into disuse towards the end of the 19th century. Part of the hinterland is included in the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger (see Senegal, II.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senigallia

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​SENIGALLIA, or Sinigaglia (anc. Sena Gallica), a city and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona, on the coast of the Adriatic, 15 m. by rail N. of Ancona. Pop. (1901) 5556 (town), 23,195 (commune). It is situated at 14 ft. above sea-level, and, despite its ancient origin, presents a modern appearance, with wide streets. The Palazzo Comunale dates from the 17th century. The cathedral was erected after 1787. The castle, of Gothic origin, was restored by Baccio Pontelli, a famous military architect, in 1492. The church of S Maria delle Grazie outside the town is one of the only two churches which he is known to have executed (the other is at Orciano near Mondavio, about 15 m. to the west by road). The small port is formed by the lower reaches of the Misa, a stream which flows through the town between embankments constructed of Istrian marble. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in fishing, and in the summer the town is greatly frequented by visitors for the good sea-bathing. Senigallia used to hold one of the largest fairs in Italy, which dated originally from 1200, when Sergius, count of Senigallia, received from the count of Marseilles, to whose daughter he was affianced, certain relics of Mary Magdalene; this fair used to be visited by merchants from France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany and especially the Levant. Senigallia is the residence of the Mastai-Ferretti family; the house in which Pope Pius IX. was born is preserved, and contains a few memorials of him.
The ancient Sena Gallica was a city of Umbria. A colony was founded there by the Romans after their victory over the Senones, rather before 280 B.C. The place is also mentioned in connexion with Hasdrubal’s defeat at the Metaurus (q.v.) in 207 B.C. It was destroyed by Pompey in 82 B.C., and is not often mentioned afterwards. No ancient remains and very few inscriptions exist. The name Gallica distinguishes it from Saena (Siena) in Etruria. Ravaged by Alaric, fortified by the exarch Longinus, and again laid waste by the Lombards in the 8th century and by the Saracens in the 9th, Senigallia was at length brought so low by the Guelph and Ghibelline wars, and especially by the severities of Guido de Montefeltro, that it was chosen by Dante as the typical instance of a ruined city. In the 15th century it was captured and recaptured again and again by the Malatesta and their opponents. Sigismondo Malatesta of Rimini erected strong fortifications round the town in 1450–1455. The lordship of Senigallia was bestowed by Pius II. on his nephew Antonio Piccolomini, but the people of the town in 1464 placed themselves anew under Paul II., and Giacomo Piccolomini in 1472 failed in his attempt to seize the place. Sixtus IV. assigned the lordship to the Della Rovere family, from whom it was transferred to Lorenzo de Medici in 1516. After 1624 it formed part of the legation of Urbino.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ullathorne, William Bernard

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​ULLATHORNE, WILLIAM BERNARD (1806–1839) English Roman Catholic bishop, was born at Pocklington, Yorkshire, on the 7th of May 1806, of an old Roman Catholic family. At fifteen he went to sea, and made several voyages to the Baltic and Mediterranean. In 1823 he entered the Benedictine monastery of Downside, near Bath, taking the vows in 1825. He was ordained priest in 1831, and in 1833 went to New South Wales, as vicar-general to Bishop William Morris (1794–1872), whose jurisdiction extended over the Australian missions. It was mainly Ullathorne who caused Gregory XVI. to establish the hierarchy in Australia. He returned to England in 1836, and, after another visit to Australia, settled in England in 1841, taking charge of the Roman Catholic mission at Coventry. He was consecrated bishop in 1847 as vicar-apostolic of the western district, in succession to Bishop C. M. Baggs (1806–1845), but was transferred to the central district in the following year. On the re-establishment of the hierarchy in England Ullathorne became the first Roman Catholic bishop of Birmingham. During his thirty-eight years tenure of the see 67 new churches, 32 convents and nearly 200 mission schools were built. In 1888 he retired and received from Leo XIII. the honorary title of archbishop of Cabasa. He died at Oscott College on the 21st of March 1889.
Of his theological and philosophical works the best known are: The Endowments of Man (1882); The Groundwork of the Christian Virtues (1883); Christian Patience (1886). For an account of his life see his Autobiography, edited by A. T. Drane (London, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ullmann, Karl

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​ULLMANN, KARL (1796–1865), German Protestant theologian, was born at Epfenbach, near Heidelberg, on the 15th of ​March 1796. He studied at Heidelberg and Tübingen, and in 1820 delivered exegetical and historical lectures at Heidelberg. In 1829 he went to Halle as professor to teach church history, dogmatics and symbolics, but in 1836 he accepted a chair at Heidelberg. A lifelong exponent of the mediating theology (Vermittelungs-Theologie), in 1828, with the help of Umbreit (1795–1860), he founded and edited the Theologische Studien und Kritiken in its interests. When Wegscheider and Gesenius were denounced by Hengstenberg as rationalists, he pleaded for freedom in theological teaching (cf. his Theol. Bedenken, 1830). On the other hand, he vigorously attacked David Strauss. His Historisch oder mythisch (1838; 2nd ed. 1866) was a reply to Strauss’s Life of Jesus, and his criticism resulted in Strauss making numerous concessions in later works. Ullmann died on the 12th of January 1865.
In Das Wesen des Christenthums (1845; 5th ed., 1865; Eng. trans., 1860) Ullmann explains that Christianity is independent of the orthodox formulas, and contends that a distinction should be made between faith and dogmatics. His principal historical works are Gregor von Nazianz (1825; 2nd ed., 1867) and Die Reformatoren vor der Reformation (2 vols., 1841; 2nd ed., 1866; Eng. trans., 1854). Another well-known work is Die Sündlosigkeit Jesu (1854; Eng. trans., 1858 and 1870). See O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890); and cf. W. Beyschlag, Karl Ullmann (1867), and Adolf Hausrath in Kleine Schriften religionsgeschichtlichen Inhalts (1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ultimatum

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​ULTIMATUM (from Lat. ultimus, last), a word used in diplomacy to signify the final terms submitted by one of the parties in negotiation for settlement of any subject of disagreement. It is accompanied by an intimation as to how refusal will be regarded. English diplomacy has devised the adroit reservation that refusal will be regarded as an “unfriendly act,” a phrase which serves as a warning that the consequences of the rupture of negotiations will be considered from the point of view of forcing a settlement. This opens up a variety of possibilities, such as good offices, mediation, the appointment of a commission of inquiry, arbitration, reprisals, pacific blockade and war.
As regards the alternative of war, the Hague convention relative to the Opening of Hostilities of the 18th of October 1907, provides as follows:—
“Considering that it is important, in order to ensure the maintenances of pacific relations, that hostilities should not commence without previous warning,” it is agreed by the Contracting Powers to “recognize that hostilities between them must not commence without a previous and explicit warning in the form of either a declaration of war, giving reasons, or an ultimatum with a conditional declaration of war.”
As reasons for a declaration of war are necessarily in the nature of an ultimatum, the ultimatum may now be regarded as an indispensable formality precedent to the outbreak of hostilities.
Another Hague convention of the same date respecting the limitation of the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts provides as follows:—
“Being desirous of preventing between nations armed conflicts originating in a pecuniary dispute respecting contract debts claimed from the government of one country by the government of another country as due to its subjects or citizens,” the Contracting Powers agree “not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one country by the government of another country as being due to its subjects or citizens.”
This undertaking, however, is not applicable when the debtor ​state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitration or, “after accepting the offer, renders the settlement of the compromis impossible, or, after the arbitration, fails to comply with the award.”
Under this convention, in the cases to which it relates, the alternative of the ultimatum is ipso facto arbitration, and it is only when the conditions of the convention have been set at naught that other measures may be employed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulpian

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​ULPIAN (Domitius Ulpianus), Roman jurist, was of Tyrian ancestry. The time and place of his birth are unknown, but the period of his literary activity was between A.D. 211 and 222. He made his first appearance in public life as assessor in the auditorium of Papinian and member of the council of Septimius Severus; under Caracalla he was master of the requests (magister libellorum). Heliogabalus banished him from Rome, but on the accession of Alexander (222) he was reinstated, and finally became the emperor’s chief adviser and praefectus praetorio. His curtailment of the privileges granted to the praetorian guard by Heliogabalus provoked their enmity, and he narrowly escaped their vengeance; ultimately, in 228, he was murdered in the palace, in the course of a riot between the soldiers and the mob.
His works include Ad Sabinum, a commentary on the jus civile, in over 50 books; Ad edictum, a commentary on the Edict, in 83 books; collections of opinions, responses and disputations; books of rules and institutions; treatises on the functions of the different magistrates — one of them, the De officio proconsulis libri x., being a comprehensive exposition of the criminal law; monographs on various statutes, on testamentary trusts, and a variety of other works. His writings altogether have supplied to Justinian’s Digest about a third of its contents, and his commentary on the Edict alone about a fifth. As an author he is characterized by doctrinal exposition of a high order, judiciousness of criticism, and lucidity of arrangement, style and language.
Domitii Ulpiani fragmenta, consisting of 29 titles, were first edited by Tilius (Paris, 1549). Other editions are by Hugo (Berlin, 1834), Böcking (Bonn, 1836), containing fragments of the first book of the Institutiones discovered by Endlicher at Vienna in 1835, and in Girard’s Textes de droit romain (Paris, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulster

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​ULSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the northern part of the island. It includes the counties Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Cavan, Monaghan, Armagh and Down. Ulster (Uladh) was one of the early provincial kingdoms of Ireland, formed, according to the legendary chronicles, at the Milesian conquest of the island ten centuries before Christ, and given to the descendants of Ir, one of the sons of Mileadh. Interprovincial wars frequently altered its boundaries, notably in 332 when the three Collas, sons of Eochaidh Doimhleln, conquered the land between the river Boyne and Lough Neagh, which became a separate kingdom under the name of Uriel (Oriel or Orgial). Its princes maintained themselves until the close of the 16th century. In 1177 John de Courci, with the countenance of Henry II., set out to the conquest of Ulster. His operations were gradually successful, and he became lord deputy of Ireland in 1186 (see above). The nominal reign of the last king of Ulster closed in 1200. In 1585 Lord Deputy Sir John Perrot undertook the shiring of Ulster (excluding the counties Antrim and Down, which had already taken shape); and his work, though of little immediate effect owing to the rising of Hugh O’Neill, served as a basis for the division of the territory at the plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulrici, Hermann

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​ULRICI, HERMANN (1806–1884), German philosopher, was born at Pforten, Prussia, on the 23rd of March 1806. He was educated for the law, but gave up his profession on the death of his father, and devoted four years to the study of literature, philosophy and science. In 1834 he was called to a professorship at Halle, where he remained till his death, on the 11th of January 1884. His philosophical standpoint may be characterized as a reaction from the pantheistic tendency of Hegel’s idealistic rationalism towards a more pronouncedly theistic position. The Hegelian identity of being and thought is also abandoned and the truth of realism acknowledged, an attempt being made to exhibit idealism and realism as respectively incomplete but mutually complementary systems. Ulrici’s later works, while expressing the same views, are largely occupied in proving the existence of God and the soul from the basis of scientific conceptions, and in opposition to the materialistic current of thought then popular in Germany.
His first works were in the sphere of literary criticism; of his treatise On Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art (1839; editions, 1847, 1868, 1874), the 3rd ed. was translated into English by L. D. Schmitz in 1876. In 1841 he published Über Princip u. Methode der Hegelschen Philosophie, a severe criticism of the Hegelian system. This was continued in the Grundprincip der Philosophie (1845–1846), which also gives his speculative position. Complementary to this is his System der Logik (1852). His later works on the relation of philosophy to science and to the thought of his time were more popular in character. These are Glauben u. Wissen (1858), Gott u. die Natur (1862; 3rd ed., 1875), Gott und der Mensch (2 vols., 1866–1873; 2nd ed., 1874). From 1847 onward Ulrici edited, jointly with the younger Fichte, the Zeitschrift für Philosophie u. phil. Kritik. See Frankel’s art. in Allgemeine deutsche Biog. (1895) and works there quoted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shipley

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​SHIPLEY, an urban district in the Shipley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the south bank of the Aire, 3 m. N. by W. of Bradford, on branches of the Great Northern, Midland, and North Eastern railways. Pop. (1901) 25,573. The manufacture of worsted is the principal industry, and there are large stone quarries in the neighbourhood. The parish includes Saltaire, so named after Sir Titus Salt, who established large alpaca manufactories, opened in 1853.