OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armfelt, Gustav Mauritz

Edition of 1905. See also Gustav Mauritz Armfelt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARMFELT, Gustav Mauritz (1757-1814). A Swedish courtier whose public life was characterized by striking vicissitudes of fortune. He was born in the Government of Åbo. His loyalty to Gustavus III. gained him the favor and friendship of that monarch. Armfelt distinguished himself in the war between Sweden and Russia, and as military representative of Gustavus, had the honor of concluding a peace at Wärelä in August, 1790. By the will of Gustavus, who was assassinated in 1792, Armfelt was made Governor of Stockholm and a member of the council assigned to the regent, Charles, Duke of Sudermania. The Duke, however, could not brook the idea of a check being placed upon his liberty of action, and found means to destroy the will, the conditions of which he never intended to observe. Armfelt soon became conscious that his influence was rapidly disappearing. He was rarely permitted to see the young King; and at last, after a secret interview with the Crown Prince Gustavus, departed as ambassador to Naples in July, 1792. While in Italy he entered into correspondence with certain parties in Sweden for the purpose of overthrowing the regency, and inducing the States to proclaim Gustavus IV. of age. The correspondence was discovered. Armfelt fled to Poland and afterwards to Russia. He was condemned during his absence for high treason, and stripped of his goods and titles, while many of his friends were visited with torture and exile. In 1799 Gustavus IV. received the crown at the age of eighteen and Armfelt was restored to all his honors. In 1805 he was appointed Governor-General of Finland, in 1806 he commanded the Swedes in Pomerania, and in 1808 he commanded the Swedish army raised for the invasion of Norway; but his plans were so completely frustrated that he was compelled to witness the invasion of Sweden by the successful Norwegians, and was in consequence recalled and dismissed by the King. In the following year a revolution took place, Gustavus was deposed, the Duke of Sudermania elected in his place and Armfelt was appointed president of the Military Council. But shortly after he resigned and retired to Russia, where he lived during the remainder of his life in high honor. The title of count was conferred on him; he was made chancellor of the University of Åbo, president of the Board of Finnish Affairs, and member of the Russian Senate. He died at Tsarskoye-Selo. Consult Tegnér, Gustav Mauritz Armfelt (Stockholm, 1887).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armgart

Edition of 1905. See also George Eliot on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARM′GART. A dramatic poem by George Eliot, published in Macmillan's Magazine in July, 1871, and containing a female character of singular strength and fortitude, of the same name. Armgart refuses a splendid offer of marriage in order to pursue her ideal life as a great singer. Her voice fails, and she retires, broken-hearted, to teach music in a small village.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armillary Sphere

Edition of 1905. See also Armillary sphere on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR′MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. armilla, a ring). An instrument intended to give a just conception of the constitution of the heavens, and of the motions of the heavenly bodies, as seen by an observer on the earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed together so as to represent the principal imaginary circles of the celestial sphere, and these are movable round the polar axis within a meridian and horizon, as in the ordinary celestial globe. It was by means of such rings furnished with sights that Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and other ancient astronomers made many of their observations, and we find even Tycho Brahe making most of his planetary observations with the help of such an instrument. The armillary sphere can now be used only for instruction in astronomy, and even in this respect it is altogether supplanted by the celestial globe.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arkansas Stone

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ ARKANSAS STONE. See Novaculite.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arklow

Edition of 1905. See also Arklow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ ARK′LOW. A small seaport town of County Wicklow, Ireland, about 50 miles south of Dublin (Map: Ireland E 4). Near the town is Shelton Abey, the seat of the Earl of Wicklow. In the uprising of 1798 the Irish were defeated here by the British. The population, mainly engaged in fishing, is gradually decreasing. In 1871 it was 5178; in 1891, 4172.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armin, Robert

Edition of 1905. See also Robert Armin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR′MIN, Robert. An English actor and writer. He is spoken of in Pierce's Supererogation as one of the ‘common pamphleteers of London,’ but he is chiefly remarkable as having been one of the original actors in Jonson's Alchemist. He created the part of Dogberry. He is the author of A Nest of Ninnies, published in 1608, and of A Brief Resolution of the Right Religion (1590).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eddy, Mary Baker Glover

Edition of 1905. See also Mary Baker Eddy on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EDDY, Mary Baker Glover (c.1822—). The founder of the Christian Scientist denomination. She was born at Bow, near Concord, N. H. When a comparatively young woman, she removed to the South and married Col. George W. Glover, of Charleston, S. C, with whom she lived in that city. In 1877 she married Dr. Asa G. Eddy. Mrs. Eddy gives 1866 as the date of her discovery of Christian Science. She founded the first Christian Science Church at Boston in 1879, and opened the Massachusetts Metaphysical College there in 1881. She frequently appeared upon the lecture platform, and wrote much for the Christian Science publications, but is most widely known as the author of Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures. The first edition of this work was published in 1875. and since then it has been reprinted, with various modifications in its wording, to the number of more than a quarter of a million copies. It sets forth the Christian Scientists' interpretation of the Holy Scriptures and their understanding of the religion of Christ. Christian Scientists believe that living in strict accord with its teaching will improve the moral and spiritual condition of its adlierents, and consequently their physical condition. Some of Mrs. Eddy's other publications are: People's Idea of God (1886); Christian Healing (1886); Retrospection and Introspection (1891); Unity of Good (1891); Rudimental Divine Science (1891); No and Yes (1891); Manual (1895); Miscellaneous Writings (1896); Christ and Christmas (1897); Christian Science versus Pantheism (1898); Pulpit and Press (1898); and Message to the Mother Church (1900, 1901, 1902). See Christian Science.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eichberg, Julius

Edition of 1905. See also Julius Eichberg on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EICHBERG, īK'bẽrK, Julius (1824-93). A German-American musician. He was born in Düsseldorf, studied composition in Brussels under Fétis, and the violin under Meerts and Bériot, and obtained the first prizes in both subjects at the Conservatory. From 1858 until his death he lived in Boston, where he was director of the Boston Conservatory of Music, general supervisor of musical instruments in the Boston public schools, and head of Eichberg's School for Violin Playing. Among his compositions are: The Doctor of Alcántara (1862), which is one of the best operas written in America, and The Rose of Tyrol (1865).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eaton, John Henry

Edition of 1905. See also John Henry Eaton on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EATON, John Henry (1790-1856). An American legislator. He was born in Tennessee, and after studying law devoted himself to practice at the bar in Nashville. He was Secretary of War from 1829 to 1834, in which year he was appointed Governor of Florida. In 1836 he became Minister to Spain. His Life of Andrew Jackson (1824) is based upon a long and close personal friendship with that statesman.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Edlund, Erik

Edition of 1905. See also Erik Edlund on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EDLUND, ĕd′lōōnd, Erik (1819-88). A Swedish physicist. He was born in the Province of
Nerike, and was educated at Upsala. In 1850 he became professor of physics at the Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, and in 1858 was instrumental in securing the introduction of meteorological stations in Sweden. He conducted these observatories until 1873, when a central meteorological station was erected. His scientific researches were confined chiefly to the theory of electricity. His publications include Theorie des phénomènes électriques (1874), in which he discusses unipolar induction, tracing the origin of electricity to the rotation of the earth and of the higher strata of the atmosphere. The meteorological observations made by Edlund from 1858 to 1873 were published in fourteen volumes by the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eichendorff, Joseph, Baron von

Edition of 1905. See also Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EICHENDORFF, īKen-dṓrf, Joseph, Baron von (1788-1857). A distinguished German author, born at Lubowitz (Upper Silesia). He studied at Halle and at Heidelberg, and collaborated with Clemens Brentano (q.v.) and Achim von Arnim on the famous collection of folk-songs, Des Knaben Wunderhorn. His early original work included fugitive verse, and a prose tale, Ahnung und Gegewart (1811). From 1813 to 1815 he participated in the War of Liberation, and from 1831 until his resignation in 1845 served as Government councilor in the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship. His poems were the last and probably the most perfect lyric expression of German Romanticism. His later poetic work is generally cast in narrative form (Julian, 1853; Lucius, 1857), and is tinged with increasing clerical views. His admirable translations from the Spanish, Der Graf Lucanor (1845) and Die geistlichen Schauspiele Calderons (2 vols., 1846-53), were prompted by the same tendency. His most famous prose work is the familiar Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (1826), which retains its popularity throughout Germany, as do several of his songs. Mention
should also be made of a series of literary critiques, beginning with Ueber die ethische und religiose Bedeutung der neuen romantischen Poesie in Deutschland (1847). A collective edition of his poems appeared in 1841-43 (3d ed. 1883), and a selection of his miscellaneous works in 1867 (5 vols.). Consult the study by Keiter (Cologne, 1887), and Krüger, Der junge Eichendorff (Oppelu, 1898).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eichens, Philipp Hermann

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
EICHENS, Philipp Hermann (1812-86). A German-French lithographer, brother of the preceding, born in Berlin and educated at the Berlin Academy, under W. Hensel, and in Paris. From 1839 to 1841 he traveled in Italy and subsequently studied mezzotint engraving in Berlin. His works reveal delicate treatment, careful attention to details, and a thorough mastery of the technique of art. They include “Joconde” (after Leonardo da Vinci); “Shooting at the Target” (Meyerheim); “Return of the Pirate” (Eduard Magnus); and “Hussite Sermon.” (Lessing).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eichens, Friedrich Eduard

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich Eduard Eichens on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EICHENS, īK'ens, Friedrich Eduard (1804-77). A German engraver. He was born in Berlin and studied with Buchhom in that city, and later under Toschi, Forster, and others in France and Italy. His works, which are characterized by careful drawing and elaborate treatment, include examples from Raphael and Domenichino, and numerous portraits of contemporary celebrities (after photographs). His engravings of the mural paintings of Kaulbach in the Neues Museum, Berlin, and of the Shakespeare Gallery of that celebrated artist, are likewise ranked among his best productions.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Eaton, Margaret (O'Neill)

Edition of 1905. See also Margaret O'Neill Eaton on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EATON, Margaret (O'Neill), best known as Peggy O'Neill (c.1796-1879). The wife of J. H. Eaton (q.v. ), Secretary of War under President Jackson. She was the daughter of a Washington tavern-keeper. About 1823 she married a man named Timberlake, a purser in the United States Navy, who in 1828 committed suicide while on duty in the Mediterranean. In January, 1829, she was married to Major J. H. Eaton (q.v.), who soon afterwards entered President Jackson's Cabinet as Secretary of War. Various charges were brought against her in connection with her alleged conduct toward Major Eaton himself while she was still Mrs. Timberlake. On this account the wives of other Cabinet members and Washington society generally refused to recognize her. Jackson, an old friend of both Mr. and Mrs. Eaton, endeavored to break down the opposition against her, and even seems to have threatened to remove several of the Secretaries should their wives remain obdurate; but his efforts met with little success, and partly for this reason Jackson effected an almost complete reorganization of his Cabinet. Politically the incident was chiefly significant from the fact that it helped to strengthen the friendship between Jackson and Van Buren, who had ostentatiously befriended Mrs. Eaton, and to alienate Jackson and Calhoun, then Vice-President, whose wife had persistently refused to recognize Mrs. Eaton socially, and thus to assure the nomination of the former in preference to the latter for the Presidency by the Democratic Party in 1836. In later years Mrs. Eaton is said to have been exceedingly popular in the society of Madrid while her husband was Minister of the United States to Spain. Some time after the death of her husband (1856) she married a young Italian dancing master, Antonio Buchignani, then only about twenty years old, from whom she eventually secured a divorce. Consult: Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, vol. iii. (New York, 1860); and an article, “Margaret O'Neill Eaton,” in the International Review, vol. viii. (New York, 1880).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie, Baroness von

Edition of 1905. See also Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
EBNER-ESCHENBACH, āb'nẽr ĕsh'en-bäG, Marie, Baroness von (1830—). An Austrian novelist, dramatist, and poet. Born a Countess Dubsky at Castle Zdislawitz, Moravia, she married, in 1848, an Austrian officer, who died in 1898. She lived alternately at her birthplace and in Vienna. Her first publications are dramas now unimportant. Her fiction, which attracted immediate attention, begins with Erzählungen (1875). This was followed by Božena (1876); Neue Erzählungen (1878); Dorf- und Schlossgeschichten (1884); Zwei Comtessen (1885); Neue Dorf- und Schlossgeschichten (1886); Das Gemeindekind (1887); Lotti die Uhrmacherin (1889); Ein kleiner Roman (1889); Miterlebtes (1890); Unsühnbar (1890); Margarete (1891); Drei Novellen (1892); Glaubenslos? (1893); Das Schädliche and Die Totenwacht (1894); Rittmeister Brand and Bertram Vogelweid (1896); Alte Schule (1897); Aus Spätherbsttagen (1901). Baroness Ebner-Eschenbach wrote also a popular collection of Aphorismen (1880), and verses collected as Parabeln, Märchen und Gedichte (1892). Six volumes of her Gesammelte Schriften were published in 1893. Her work is distinguished for its power of description, its psychological insight, its humor, wit, and polished precision of style. Her sense of proportion in novelistic construction has also been highly praised. For her biography, consult: Necker (Berlin, 1900), and Bettelheim (ib., 1900).
# The Meaning of Relativity

* related portals: Physics.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, Commons category, quotes, Wikidata item.
A compilation of Stafford Little Lectures made by Albert Einstein in 1921 at Princeton University. The lectures were published in 1922 by the Princeton University Press and address the consequences of Einstein's special and general theories or relativity. (Index)
THE MEANING OF
RELATIVITY
FOUR LECTURES DELIVERED AT
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, MAY, 1921
BY
ALBERT EINSTEIN
WITH FOUR DIAGRAMS
PRINCETON
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
1923
This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content.
Copyright 1922
Princeton University Press
Published 1922
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
AT THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS
ABERDEEN
was made by Edwin Plimpton Adams, Professor
CONTENTS :
| LECTURE I |
| Space and Time in Pre-Relativity Physics | 1 |
| LECTURE II |
| The Theory of Special Relativity | 26 |
| LECTURE III |
| The General Theory of Relativity | 61 |
| LECTURE IV |
| The General Theory of Relativity (continued) | 87 |
| Index | 121 |
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fisher, Admiral Sir John Arbuthnot

See also John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Fisher, Admiral Sir John Arbuthnot, was born in 1841, entered the British navy in 1854, and took part in the capture of Canton and the Peiho forts in 1860. He served in the Crimean, Chinese and Egyptian Wars, commanding The Inflexible at the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882. He has successively occupied the following posts: Director of Naval-Ordnance (1886-91); Admiral-Superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard (1891); Lord of the Admiralty (1892-7); Commander-in-Chief on the North American and West Indies station (1897-9); delegate to the Hague peace-conference (1899); Commander-in-Chief on the Mediterranean station (1899-1902); second Sea-Lord of the Admiralty (1902-3); and Commander-in-Chief (1903-4) He now is first Lord of the Admiralty.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fishhawk

See also Osprey on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Fishhawk or Osprey, a common well-known bird of eagle-like appearance, found in all countries, except Iceland and New Zealand. It is abundant in the United States along the Atlantic, and is also found inland in the vicinity of water. The American osprey is about two feet long; brownish above and whitish below; the upper part of the beak is strongly curved over the lower, and the claws are long and sharp, being especially formed for grasping. These birds feed exclusively on fish, and are expert fishers. They fly to and fro above the water and make a sudden dash after fish near the surface, sometimes going into the water to a depth of about one and one half feet. Their feathers are compact and oily, and do not become wet. The bald-headed eagle often chases the osprey, and robs it of its fish while in the air. In America the osprey nests on large trees, in Europe on rocky cliffs. The great nest is built of sticks, sea-weed and other material, and is used year after year. The two to four eggs vary in color, sometimes being white, again buff or chocolate. Ospreys mate for life, show much family affection, often make of the nest an all-year-home.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fitch, John

See also John Fitch (inventor) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Fitch, John, inventor, was born in what is now South Windsor, Conn., in 1743, and is said to have committed suicide in the summer of 1798. In 1785 he completed his first model of a steamboat, which had wheels at the sides, replacing them in the following year with paddles. In the face of discouragement he built a vessel 45 feet long, which made a successful trial trip on the Delaware at Philadelphia, Aug. 22, 1787. A larger one was built in 1790, and attained a speed of eight miles an hour. Robert Fulton's steamboat was, in 1817, declared by a committee of the New York legislature to be “in substance the invention patented by John Fitch in 1791.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fiske, John

See also John Fiske (philosopher) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* JOHN FISKE
Fiske, John, an American author and historian, was born March 30, 1842, at Hartford, Conn. Graduating from Harvard in 1863, he became known as a deep thinker and forcible writer. In 1861 he made his mark with a notable critique on the fallacies in Buckle's history of English civilization. From 1869 to 1879 he was at Harvard, first as a brilliant lecturer on philosophy, then as ​ assistant-librarian. The earlier recognition of him was chiefly of the expounder of evolutionary philosophy, and his lucidity in popularizing Spencer was admired by Darwin. After 1879 he devoted himself chiefly to American history, though his Idea of God (1885), Origin of Evil and Through Nature to God gave his last answers to questions in philosophy and religion. His histories extend from the earliest discoveries to the beginnings of Federal government; cover almost every phase of American life; and have dramatic interest as well as great historical value. As a lecturer and writer on philosophy and history, he took high rank among American authors, while he did much to elucidate and popularize the doctrine of evolution. Among his works are The Destiny of Man; Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy; American Political Ideas; The Discovery of America; The Beginnings of New England; Civil Government in the United States; The American Revolution; Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; and The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. He died at Gloucester, Mass., July 4, 1901.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fitchburg, Mass.

See also Fitchburg, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Fitch'burg, Mass., a city in Worcester County, Massachusetts, on Nookagee River. The city has grown a good deal during the last ten years. It has a well-equipped fire-department with over 75 telegraphic fire-alarm stations. In 1900 it had about a score of churches and some 30 school-buildings, the latter valued at over $300,000. There also is a public-library and art-gallery building costing $90,000, given to the city by one of its public-spirited citizens, and $450,000 have been donated by another for a public hospital. The library contains close upon 30,000 volumes. There are many manufactories, the chief being paper-mills, machine-shops, iron-foundries, pianoforte, saw-factories, cotton, woolen and flour-mills, shoe and shirt-factories and bicycle, electrical apparatus and wood-turning establishments. Population 37,826.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fish, Hamilton

See also Hamilton Fish on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Fish, Hamilton, American diplomatist, was born at New York on Aug. 3, 1808, graduated at Columbia College, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. He was a Whig in politics, was elected a congressman in 1842, lieutenant-governor of New York in 1847 and governor in 1848. In 1851 he was returned to the United States senate, and acted with the Republican party. From 1869 to 1877 he was secretary of state under Grant, signing, as one of the commissioners, the Washington treaty of 1871, which settled the Alabama question. He died at Garrison's, N. Y. on Sept. 7, 1893.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fisher, George Park

See also George Park Fisher on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Fish′er, George Park, an American clergyman and church-historian, was born Aug. 10, 1827, at Wrentham, Mass. He graduated from Brown University in 1847 and, after a course of study in Germany, was made professor of divinity in Yale College in 1854 and of ecclesiastical history in 1861. Among his best-known writings are History of the Reformation, Beginnings of Christianity, Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief and Nature and Method of Revelation.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fiske, Minnie Maddern

See also Minnie Maddern Fiske on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Fiske, Minnie Maddern, born in New Orleans in 1865, is a well-known American actress of the realistic school. Like many other successful actresses, she spent even her childhood upon the stage. In 1890 she married Harrison Fiske. Some of her greatest successes have been made in Becky Sharp, in Ibsen's A Doll's House and in Hardy's Tess of the D'Urbervilles.