OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Representation (law)

Edition of 1905. See also Contract on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​REPRESENTATION. In law, a statement or assertion as to some matter of fact. Representations have significance in a legal sense when they are acted upon. Such representations may be made as the basis of numerous legal transactions. See Deceit; Fraud; Caveat Emptor; Condition; Sale; Warranty, etc.
In the law of inheritance the term representation is also used to denote the principle upon which the issue of a deceased person take or inherit the share of an estate which their immediate ancestor would have inherited had he been living. Thus if one dies leaving two children and the children of a deceased child surviving him, the children will each inherit one-third of the real estate of the deceased and the other third will go to the children of the deceased child who are said to take by representation. See Administration (in Law).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Reno, Jesse Lee

Edition of 1905. See also Jesse L. Reno on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ RENO, Jesse Lee (1823-62). An American soldier, born at Wheeling, Va. (now W. Va.). He graduated at West Point in 1846; was brevetted second lieutenant of ordnance; and soon afterwards was ordered to the front in Mexico, where he fought under General Scott from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. From that time until 1861 he was employed in various routine duties and advanced to be captain. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers and was assigned to a brigade in General Burnside's North Carolina expedition (December 20, 1861-April, 1862), with which he participated in the capture of Roanoke Island, and the actions of Newbern and Camden. For these services he was promoted to be major-general of volunteers, and in August was ordered north to Virginia, where he fought in the second battle of Bull Run and at Chantilly. During the succeeding Maryland campaign he commanded the Ninth Corps, and was killed leading his men at the battle of South Mountain.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, August

Edition of 1905. See also August Hirsch on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, hḗrsh, August (1817-94). A German physician, born at Danzig, where he practiced after studying at Berlin and Leipzig. In recognition of his studies on malarial fever and his work, Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologie (2d ed. 1881-83), he
was in 1863 made professor at Berlin. In 1873 he was a member of the German Cholera Commission, studied the conditions of Posen and West Prussia, and published a valuable report (1874). He studied the plague in Astrakhan in 1879 and 1880, and in the latter year wrote a report to his Government. His more important writings are: Die Meningitis Cerebro-spinalis Epidemica (1866); Geschichte der Augenheilkunde (1877); Geschichte der medizinischen Wissenschaften in Deutschland (1893); a revision of Hecker's collected writings, under the title Die grossen Volkskrankheiten des Mittelalters (1865). He edited Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aerzte aller Zeiten und Völker (1884-88); and with Virchow the Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte und Leistungen der Medizin (1866 et seq.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, Jenny

Edition of 1905. See also Jenny Hirsch on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, Jenny (1829-1902). A German author and reformer, born at Zerbst, where she was a tutor for several years. She went to Berlin in 1860; wrote for the Bazar, under the pseudonym J. N. Heynrichs, until 1864; and about that time became interested in woman's rights and female education. A member of the Women's Congress of 1865 at Leipzig, and for many years a leader in the Lette-Verein, she edited Der Frauenanwalt (1870-82); and, with Lina Morgenstern, Deutsche Hausfrauenzeitung (1887-92); with Mary Wall wrote Haus und Gesellschaft in England (1878); in 1881 published Fürstin Frau Mutter, and after it many other tales. Among them are the following titles: Die Erben (1889); Vermisst (1894); Löwenfelde (1890); Der Amtmann von Rapshagen (1890); Schuldig (1899); and Camilla Feinberg (1901). Under the title Hörigkeit der Frau
(3d ed. 1891), she translated into German Mill's Subjection of Woman, and wrote a Geschichte der 25 jährigen Wirksamkeit des Lette-Vereins (1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirosaki

Edition of 1905. See also Hirosaki, Aomori on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIROSAKI, hē'rṓ-sä'kḗ. A town of Japan, situated in the northern part of Nippon, 22 miles by rail from Asmori (Map: Japan, G 3). It contains ruins of an old castle and a museum. The chief product is lacquered ware. Population, in 1898, 31,771.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hiroshima

Edition of 1905. See also Hiroshima on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIROSHIMA, hē′rṓ-shē′mȧ. The capital of the Japanese Province of Aki and of the Prefecture of Hiroshima, situated at the southwestern end of Hondo, about three miles inland (Map: Japan, C 6). It lies in a beautiful region at the foot of a hill, and contains a number of fine temples, a park, and teahouses. Opposite the city is situated the sacred island of Miyajima or Itsukushima, with its celebrated Shinto temple. Commercially. Hiroshima is considered the most important place west of Kobe, and forms the centre of the trade in lacquered ware, bronze, and other objects of art. Population, in 1898, 122,306.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, Emil Gustav

Edition of 1905. See also Emil G. Hirsch on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, Emil Gustav (1852—). An American rabbi, born in Luxemburg, the son of a prominent Jewish theologian who in 1866 became minister of the Reformed Congregation in Philadelphia. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1872 went to Berlin for post-graduate work. He was rabbi in Baltimore (1877), and in Louisville, Ky. (1878-80), but did his greatest work in Chicago, whither he went in 1880 as minister of the Sinai Congregation. He took some part in politics as a member of the Republican Party; was president of the Chicago Public Library Board (1888-97); and in 1892 became professor of rabbinical literature in the University of Chicago. From 1880 to 1887 he edited the Milwaukee Zeitgeist, and then undertook the editorial charge of the Reform Advocate. As a lecturer and writer he is closely connected with advanced Judaism and with philanthropy.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, Maurice

Edition of 1905. See also Maurice de Hirsch on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, Maurice, Baron de (Maurice de Hirsch de Gereuth) (1831-96). An Austrian Jewish financier and philanthropist. He inherited his father's wealth in 1869, and greatly increased his fortunes by his marriage to the daughter of the senior partner of the banking firm of Bischoffsheim and Goldsmid, Brussels, with whom he had become associated. He also made large sums by building railways in Rumania and Turkey. His fortune was estimated at $200,000,000, and his income at from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 a year. He gave to charity about $100,000,000 during his life, and the Baroness de Hirsch, on her death in 1899, bequeathed about $15,000,000 to charities. These benefactions were chiefly for the alleviation of the condition of the Jews. He gave not less than $50,000,000 to the Jewish Colonization Association, by which colonies were established in the Argentine Republic. He endowed the Galician schools with $5,000,000, and in 1888 offered $10,000,000 to the Russian Government for schools, provided no distinctions of race or religion should be made in its distribution. His offer was declined. He gave $2,500,000 to establish a fund in New York for educating and Americanizing Russian and Rumanian Jews. The sum of $1,200,000 was added to this fund by the Baroness.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirn, Gustave Adolphe

Edition of 1905. See also Gustave-Adolphe Hirn on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRN, ḗrn, Gustave Adolphe (1815-90). A French physicist, born at Logelbach, near Colmar. When he was nineteen he entered his grandfather's cotton factory as chemist; afterwards he acted as engineer, and began his valuable researches on mechanics, and especially on calorics. He was made a member of the French Academy of Science in 1867; in 1880 founded a meteorological observatory near Colmar; and later devoted himself to astronomy. Hirn was educated in the shop, and his works are marked
by much practical criticism of mere academic theory. They include: Theorie mecanique de la chaleur (3d ed. 1875-76); Analyse de l'univers (1869); Mémoire sur les anneaux de Saturne (1872); Les paradynamometres (1870); Étude sur une classe particuliere de tourbillons (1878); Recherches experimentales sur les relations entre la resistance de l'air et sa temperature (1882); La vie future et la science moderne (1882); and Constitution de l'espace celeste (1889).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirpini

Edition of 1905. See also Hirpini on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HIRPINI, hẽr-pī'nḯ (from Sabine hirpus, wolf). A people of ancient Italy, who inhabited the southern portion of Samnium. They have been considered by some authorities as merely a Samnite tribe, while by others they are looked upon as an independent nation. The country they inhabited was the wild and mountainous district traversed by the Sabatus, Calor, and Tamarus, tributaries of the Vulturnus, and on the east side of the Apennine ridge by the upper course of the Aufidus. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found identifying themselves with their Samnite neighbors against their common foes. They seem to have been subdued in the early part of the third century B.C., as in B.C. 268. Beneventum, the key of all their military positions, was colonized by Roman settlers. In the Second Punic War, revolting from their conquerors, they joined the Carthaginian invaders, and though they were unable to recapture their stronghold of Beneventum, they remained faithful to Hannibal till the defeat of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus restored the empire of Italy to his opponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made peace with their old masters by betraying into their hands the garrisons of their allies. From this time till the outbreak of the Social War, the Hirpini seem to have continued steadfast in their allegiance. On that occasion, however, they set the example of revolt to the allies, and might have become formidable enemies had not the rapid successes of Sulla induced them to repair their error by a complete submission. At the close of this war the Hirpini obtained the franchise, and do not again appear in history as an independent people.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, Carl

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, Carl, (1858—). A German composer, born at Wemding, Bavaria. When only eighteen he became a teacher in the Violin-Makers' School at Mittenwald, and from that time on held many important positions, among them: church music-director at Munich (1885-87); music-director at Mannheim (1887-92); at Cologne (1892-93); at Elberfeld (1893—); and director of the Gesangschule, the Liedertafel, the Philharmonic concerts at Elberfeld. But it is as a composer that Hirsch is best known, his a-cappella choruses, which are very numerous, and his cantatas being widely known and used. Of the latter Die Krone im Rhein and Landsknechtsleben are representative. His songs and ballads are scarcely inferior to his male choruses.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hirsch, Joseph

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
HIRSCH, Joseph (1836-1901). A French engineer, of Jewish family, born at Lyons. Educated there, at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, he worked on the canal at Sarrebourg (1866), and there invented the Mittersheim siphon for the automatic control of reservoirs. From 1876 to 1898 he was professor of steam machinery at the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées. and from 1886 until his death at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He contributed to the Annales of the former school; as member of the juries of award at the Expositions of 1878 and 1889 and as president of the jury of 1900, he wrote valuable reports and lectured on the machinery exhibited at these expositions; and was the author of many treatises on machinery, including Théorie des machines aéro-thermiques (1874-75). His contributions to Lechalas's Encyclopédie should also be mentioned.
# The Natural History of Selborne, 1879/Letter 19

The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne was first published 1789. This edition was published in 1879 and edited by G. Christopher Davies
LETTER XIX.
Selborne, August 17th, 1768
Dear Sir, I have now, past dispute, made out three distinct species of the willow-wrens (motacillæ trochili) which constantly and invariably use distinct notes. But at the same time I am obliged to confess that I know nothing of your willow-lark. In my letter of April 18th, I had told you peremptorily that I knew your willow-lark, but had not seen it then; but when I came to procure it, it proved in all respects a very motacilla trochilus, only that it is a size larger than the two other, and the yellow-green of the whole upper part of the body is more vivid, and the belly of a clearer white. I have specimens of the three sorts now lying before me, and can discern that there are three gradations of sizes, and that the least has black legs, and the other two ​flesh-coloured ones. The yellowest bird is considerably the largest, and has its quill-feathers and secondary feathers tipped with white, which the others have not. This last haunts only the tops of trees in high beechen woods, and makes a sibilous grasshopper-like noise, now and then, at short intervals, shivering a little with its wings when it sings; and is, I make no doubt now, the regulus non cristatus of Ray, which he says "cantat voce stridulâ locustæ." Yet this great ornithologist never suspected that there were three species.
* ↑ "non crested goldcrest" (Wikisource-Ed.)
* ↑ "sings like a locust" (Wikisource-Ed.)
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ironbark Tree

Edition of 1905. See also Ironbark on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ IRONBARK TREE. A name given in Australia to certain species of Eucalyptus (q.v.), and particularly Eucalyptus siderophloia, on account of the extreme hardness of the bark. These trees attain a height of 80 or 100 feet, and a circumference near the base of 10 to 12 feet. The timber, which is very valuable for shipbuilding and other purposes in which hardness and durability are required, is rated as one of the strongest of Australian woods; its tensile strength exceeds that of hickory.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Irregulars

Edition of 1905. See also Irregular military on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ IRREGULARS (ML. irregularis, not according to rule, from Lat. in-, not + regularis, relating to rule, from regula, rule, from regere, to rule). A military term generally applied to partisan troops assisting the regular establishment. They are, as a rule, only partially trained and equipped, as, for instance, the Franc-tireurs (q.v.) in 1871; some of the Cossack (q.v.) regiments of Russia; the Bashi-Bazouks (q.v.) of Turkey; and the armies of the feudatory chiefs and rulers of India. See Armies.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Islam

Edition of 1905. See also Islam on Wikipedia; the Islam portal on Wikisource; and the disclaimer.
ISLAM, īz′lam, Ar. pron. ĭs-läm′ (Ar., submission, from salima, to be safe). The name used by Mohammedans as the designation for their religion. It may be traced back to Mohammed. Literally, it means a causing to be sound or safe, or that which makes safe, but is commonly interpreted to mean complete and entire submission of body and soul to God (Allah), His will and His service, as set forth in the articles of faith, the commands and ordinances believed to have been revealed by God to His Prophet Mohammed. The more usual designation of the religion among Western peoples is Mohammedanism (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ironclad

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ IRONCLAD. See Ship, Armored.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Irrefragable Doctor

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ IRREFRAGABLE DOCTOR. See Alexander of Hales.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Iron and Steel Institute, The

Edition of 1905. See also Iron and Steel Institute on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, The. An English association, organized by the iron trade of the north of England, the first meeting taking place in London, February 25, 1869. Its object is the discussion of practical and scientific questions connected with the manufacture of iron and steel. There are two general meetings each year, one in May, in London, and the autumn one in other cities, not always in Great Britain, for the institute has met in Paris, Vienna, Brussels, and New York. Since 1874 it has annually presented the Bessemer gold medal, for some invention or notable paper. The Institute publishes the semi-annual Journal of Iron and Steel Industry, containing original papers and abstracts from other publications.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Irreducible Case

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ IRREDUCIBLE CASE. See Cubic Equation.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Irredentism

Edition of 1905. See also Irredentism on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ IRREDENTISM (from irredentist, It. irredentista, from Italia irredenta (unredeemed Italy), irredenta being from Lat. in-, not + redemptus, p.p. of redimere, to redeem, from red-, back again + emere, to buy, take). A popular movement which originated in Italy after 1878, having for its object the recovery of what its adherents call ‘unredeemed Italy,’ Italia Irredenta, meaning all that territory at present belonging to Austria, Switzerland, France, and England having an Italian-speaking population, but no longer forming part of Italy. Under this description would come Southern Tyrol, Trieste, Görz, Istria, and Dalmatia, the Swiss Canton of Ticino, Corsica, Nice, and Malta. To all but the most exalted patriots the chimerical nature of the Irredentist programme is apparent, inasmuch as its execution would involve the surrender by Switzerland of territory it has held for more than three hundred years, by Austria of its only seaport, Trieste, and by England of its great base in the Central Mediterranean, Malta. Irredentism has ceased to be an influential factor save with the younger element in Italian politics. It received a severe setback in the formation of the Triple Alliance embracing Austria, the special foe against whom the Irredentist movement was aimed. See Political Parties, paragraph on Italy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rupert, Prince

See also Prince Rupert of the Rhine on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ru′pert, Prince, third son of Frederick V the Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth, daughter of James I of England, was born at Prague, Dec. 18, 1619. He studied at Ley den and served in 1637–8 in the Thirty Years’ War till he was held prisoner for three years. In 1642 he went to England in time to take part in the Civil War. For the next three years the Mad Cavalier was the life and soul of the Royalist cause, winning battles by his resistless charges, only to lose them by too headlong pursuit. In 1645 he surrendered Bristol after a three weeks’ siege. This so angered Charles that he sent him his passport to leave the kingdom. A court-martial, however, cleared him of all blame and he again became general of his uncle’s forces, only to surrender to Fairfax the following June. In 1648 he became admiral of the part of the English fleet that remained true to the king, and acquitted himself with old daring and new caution. In 1651 most of his vessels were burned or sunk in a battle with Admiral Blake. Rupert escaped to the West Indies, where he led a buccaneering life. In 1653 he went back to Europe, and, after the restoration, served with Monk against the Dutch. His last ten years he spent in study. He improved the art of mezzotint, discovered an improved gunpowder, invented the composition known as prince’s metal and, perhaps, the curious glass-bubbles called Prince Rupert’s drops. He was a founder of the Hudson Bay Company and of the Royal Society. He died, Nov. 29, 1682. See Lord Ronald Gower’s Rupert of the Rhine.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rurik

See also Rurik on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ru′rik, a Scandinavian adventurer, who in 862 A. D. became ruler or overlord of a part of Russia, with his court at Novgorod. He sometimes is styled the founder of the Russian monarchy: the Rurik dynasty gave 67 rulers to Russia and lasted 736 years (to 1598), becoming extinct then with Feodor. The seventh of the line (Vladimir I, the Great) introduced Christianity; Ivan the Great (or John III) unified the kingdom and first assumed the title of czar (tsar). See Romanoff, House of.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Runner

See also Stolon on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Run′ner, a general name given to leafless branches sent out from the main body of the plant, which take root at the tip and produce new plants. The runners of the strawberry and of the eel-grass are well known.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Rush, Benjamin

See also Benjamin Rush on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rush, Benjamin, was born near Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1745. He graduated at Princeton in 1760, studied medicine in America and Europe, and became professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia Medical College. Dr. Rush was a member of the continental congress and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was a founder of Philadelphia Dispensary, the first in America, and of the College of Physicians, and was given several medical professorships besides the one he already held at Philadelphia. During the yellow-fever epidemic of 1793, he was a devoted worker and successful in his treatment. In 1799 Rush was made treasurer of the United States Mint. Among his medical writings, which were honored at home and abroad, were Medical Inquiries and Observations, Essays and Diseases of the Mind. Dr. Rush died at Philadelphia, April 19, 1813.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ruskin, John

See also John Ruskin on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Rus′kin, John, the great art-writer, was born at London, Feb. 8, 1819, the only child of a wealthy wine-merchant. He took his degree at Oxford in 1842, and studied painting under Copley. The story of the earlier years of his life has been told by himself in Præterita, one of the most charming autobiographies in any language. In 1843 came the first volume of Modern Painters, which treated the principles of art in an independent and even revolutionary way. Though greatly opposed at first, Ruskin’s views have largely determined the character of later English art. In 1849 appeared The Seven Lamps of Architecture and two years later The Stones of Venice. The titles of Ruskin’s books often give no indication of the subject. Notes on the Construction of Sheepfolds deals with church-discipline; The Crown of Wild Olive consists of four essays on work, traffic, war and the future of England; Sesame and Lilies, lectures on good literature; The Queen of the Air, on the Greek myths of cloud and storm; Ethics of the Dust, lectures on crystallization. From 1869 to 1879 Ruskin was professor of art at Oxford. Ruskin is noted for his splendid style, which for eloquence, power and richness hardly has any equal. In art he tells us that he aimed to set forth the “supremacy of five great painters, despised till he spoke of them — Turner, Tintoret, Luini, Botticelli and Carpaccio.” His Munera Pulveris deals with political economy, on which he wrote from an independent point of view. See Cook’s Studies on Ruskin. He died at Brantwood, in the English lake-region, Jan. 20, 1900.