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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phelps, Austin

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​PHELPS, AUSTIN (1820–1890), American Congregational minister and educationalist, was born on the 7th of January 1820 at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, son of Eliakim Phelps, a clergyman, who, during the boyhood of his son was principal of a girls’ school in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and later pastor of a Presbyterian church in Geneva, New York. The son studied at Hobart College in 1835–1835, then at Amherst for a year, and in 1837 graduated at the university of Pennsylvania. He studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, at the Yale Divinity School, and at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1840 by the Third Presbytery of Philadelphia. He was pastor of the Pine Street (Congregational) Church in Boston in 1842–1848, and in 1848–1879 was professor of sacred rhetoric and homiletics at Andover Theological Seminary, of which he was president from 1869 to 1879, when his failing health forced him to resign. He died on the 13th of October 1890 at Bar Harbor, Maine. His Theory of Preaching (1881) and English ​Style in Public Discourse (1883) became standard textbooks, and personally he was a brilliant preacher. He married in 1842 Elizabeth Stuart (1815-1852), eldest daughter of Moses Stuart, then president of Andover, she was the author of the popular story Sunnyside (1851) and of other books. In 1854 he married her sister, who died only eighteen months later; and in 1858 he married Mary A. Johnson, of Boston.
With Professors E A Park and D. L. Furber he edited Hymns and Choirs (1860), and with Professor Park and Lowell Mason The Sabbath Hymn Book (1859). The Still Hour (1859), a summary of a series of sermons on prayer, is a devotional classic. His other works are The New Birth (1867), portraying conversion (in some instances) as a gradual change; Sabbath Hours (1874), Studies of the Old Testament (1878), Men and Books (1882), My Portfolio (1882), My Study (1885), and My Note Book (1890)
See Austin Phelps, A Memoir (New York, 1891), by his daughter, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phelps, Samuel

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​PHELPS, SAMUEL (1804-1878), English actor and manager, was born at Devonport on the 13th of February 1804. He was early thrown upon his own resources. and worked in various newspaper offices Shortly after his marriage in 1826 to Sarah Cooper (d 1867), he accepted a theatrical engagement in the York circuit at eighteen shillings a week, and afterwards appeared in south of England towns in prominent tragic roles, attracting sufficient attention to be spoken of as a rival to Kean He made his first London appearance on the 28th of August 1837 as Shylock at the Haymarket. After a short season there he was with Macready for about six years at Covent Garden, the Haymarket and Drury Lane successively In 1844 he became co lessee of Sadler's Wells Theatre with Thomas L Greenwood and Mrs Mary Amelia Warner (1804-1854) Greenwood supplied the business capacity, Phelps was the theatrical manager, and Mrs Warner leading lady In this position Phelps remained for twenty years, during which time he raised the Sadler's Wells house to an important position, and himself appeared in a very expensive and varied repertory. Thirty-four of Shakespeare's plays were presented there under his direction, with great educational effect, both on public and players In 1861 Greenwood retired from the partnership, and Phelps, unable to cope with the business of management, retired from it in the following year. For the next fifteen years he acted under various managements, achieving considerable success in some of Halliday's dramatic versions of Scott's novels, such as The Fortunes of Nigel and Ivanhoe. His last appearance was in 1878 as Wolsey in Henry VIII., and he died on the 6th of November 1878. He was a sound and capable actor, rather than one of any marked genius, and, in spite of his predilection for tragedy, was most successful in such characters of comedy as called for dry humour. Perhaps Sir Pertinax Macsycophant in Charles Macklin's The Man of the World was his finest impersonation. He published an annotated edition of Shakespeare's plays (2 vols, 1852–1854).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenacite

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PHENACITE, a mineral consisting of beryllium orthosilicate, Be$_2$SiO$_4$, occasionally used as a gem-stone. It occurs as isolated crystals, which are rhombohedral with parallel-faced hemihedrism, and are either lenticular or prismatic in habit: the lenticular habit is determined by the development of faces of several obtuse rhombohedra and the absence of prism faces (the accompanying figure is a plan of such a crystal viewed along the triad, or principal, axis). There is no cleavage, and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is high, being 71/2 – 8; the specific gravity is 2.98. The crystals are sometimes perfectly colourless and transparent, but more often they are greyish or yellowish and only translucent; occasionally they are pale rose-red. In general appearance the mineral is not unlike quartz, for which indeed it had been mistaken; on this account it was named, by N. Nordenskiöld in 1833, from Gr. φέναξ (a deceiver).
Phenacite has long been known from the emerald and chrysoberyl mine on the Takovaya stream, near Ekaterinburg in the Urals, where large crystals occur in mica-schist. It is also found with topaz and amazon-stone in the granite of the Ilmen mountains in the southern Urals and of the Pike’s Peak region in Colorado. Large crystals of prismatic habit have more recently been found in a felspar quarry at Kragerö in Norway. Framont near Schirmeck in Alsace is another well-known locality. Still larger crystals, measuring 12 in. in diameter and weighing 28 ℔, have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are pseudomorphs of quartz after phenacite.
For gem purposes the stone is cut in the brilliant form, of which there are two fine examples, weighing 43 and 34 carats, in the British Museum. The indices of refraction (ω=1.6540, ε=1.6527) are higher than those of quartz, beryl or topaz; a faceted phenacite is consequently rather brilliant and may sometimes be mistaken for diamond. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenanthrene

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​PHENANTHRENE, C$_{14}$H$_{10}$, a hydrocarbon isomeric with anthracene, with which it occurs in the fraction of the coal tar distillate boiling between 270°–400° C. It may be separated from the anthracene oil by repeated fractional distillation, followed by fractional crystallization from alcohol (anthracene being the less soluble), and finally purified by oxidizing any residual anthracene with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid (R. Anschutz and G. Schultz, Ann., 1879, 196, p. 35); or the two hydrocarbons may be separated by carbon bisulphide, in which anthracene is insoluble. It is formed when the vapours of toluene, stilbene, dibenzyl, ortho-ditolyl, or coumarone and benzene are passed through a red-hot tube; by distilling morphine with zinc dust; and, with anthracene, by the action of sodium on ortho-brombenzyl bromide (C. L. Jackson and J. F. White, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1880, 2, p. 391). It crystallizes in colourless plates or needles, which melt at 99° C. Its solutions in alcohol and ether have a faint blue fluorescence. When heated to 250° C. with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid it gives a hydride C$_{14}$ H$_{24}$. It is nitrated by nitric acid and sulphonated by sulphuric acid. With picric acid it forms a sparingly soluble picrate, which melts at 145° C. On the condition of phenanthrene in alcoholic solution see R. Behrend, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1892, 9, p. 405; 10, p. 265. Chromic acid oxidizes phenanthrene, first to phenanthiene-quinone, and then to diphenic acid, HO$_2$C·C$_6$H$_{4·}$C$_6$H$_{4·}$CO$_2$H.
Phenanthrene-quinone, [C$_6$H$_4$]$_2$[CO]$_2$, crystallizes in orange needles which melt at 198° C. It possesses the characteristic properties of a diketone, forming crystalline derivatives with sodium bisulphite and a dioxime with hydroxylamine. It is non-volatile in steam, and is odourless. Sulphurous acid reduces it to the corresponding dihydroxy compound. It combines with ortho-diamines, in the presence of acetic acid, to form phenazines.
On the constitution of phenanthrene see Chemistry. § Organic.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenacodus

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​PHENACODUS, one of the earliest and most primitive of the ungulate mammals, typifying the family Phenacodontidae and the sub-order Condylarthra. The typical Phenacodus primaevus, of the Lower or Wasatch Eocene of North America, was a relatively small ungulate, of slight build, with straight limbs each terminating in five complete toes, and walking in the digitigrade fashion of the modern tapir. The middle toe was the largest, and the weight of the body was mainly supported on this and the two adjoining digits, which appear to have been encased in hoofs, thus foreshadowing the tridactyle type common in perissodactyle and certain extinct groups of ungulates. The skull was small, with proportionately minute brain; and the arched back, strong lumbar vertebrae, long and powerful tail, and comparatively feeble fore-quarters all proclaim kinship with the primitive creodont Carnivora (see Creodonta), from which Phenacodus and its allies, and through them the more typical Ungulata, are probably derived. All the bones of the limbs are separate, and those of the carpus and tarsus do not alternate; that is to say, each one in the upper row is placed immediately above the corresponding one in the row below. The full series of forty-four teeth was developed; and the upper molars were short-crowned, or brachyodont, with six low cones, two internal, two intermediate and two external, so that they were of the typical primitive bunodont structure. In habits the animal was cursorial and herbivorous, or possibly carnivorous.
In the Puerco, or Lowest Eocene of North America the place of the above species was taken by Euprotogonia puercensis, an animal only half the size of Phenacodus primaevus, with the terminal joints of the limbs intermediate between hoofs and claws, and the first and fifth toes taking their full share in the support of the weight of the body. These two genera may be regarded as forming the earliest stages in the evolution of the horse, coming below Hyracotherium (see Equidae).
As ancestors of the Artiodactyle section of the Ungulata, we may look to forms more or less closely related to the North American Lower Eocene genera Mioclaenus and Pantolestes, respectively typifying the families Mioclaenidae and Pantolestidae. They were five-toed, bunodont Condylarthra, with a decided approximation to the perissodactyle type in the structure of the feet. A third type of Condylarthra from the North American Lower Eocene is represented by the family Meniscotheriidae, including the genera Meniscotherium and Hyracops. These, it is suggested, may have been related to the ancestral Hyracoidea. Teeth and jaws probably referable to the Condylarthra have been obtained in European early Tertiary formations. All Ungulata probably originated from Condylarthra.
See H. F. Osborn, Skeleton of Phenacodus primaevus; comparison with Euprotogonia, Bull. Amer. Mus. x. 159. (R. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowell Institute

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​LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., providing for free public lectures, and endowed by the bequest of $237,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who died in 1836. Under the terms of his will 10% of the net income was to be added to the principal, which in 1909 was over a million dollars. None of the fund was to be invested in a building for the lectures; the trustees of the Boston Athenaeum were made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the fund is authorized to select his own successor, although in doing so he must “always choose in preference to all others some male descendant of my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who is competent to hold the office of trustee, and of the name of Lowell,” the sole trustee so appointed having the entire selection of the lecturers and the subjects of lectures. The first trustee was John Lowell junior’s cousin, John Amory Lowell, who administered the trust for more than forty years, and was succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn was succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who in 1909 became president of Harvard University.
The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular, “and the other more abstruse, erudite and particular.” The popular lectures have taken the form of courses usually ranging from half a dozen to a dozen lectures, and covering almost every subject. The fees have always been large, and many of the most eminent men in America and Europe have lectured there. A large number of books have been published which consist of those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the advanced lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now called university extension, and in this he was far in advance of his time; but he did not realize that such work can only be done effectively in connexion with a great school. In pursuance of this provision public instruction of various kinds has been given from time to time by the Institute. The first freehand drawing in Boston was taught there, but was given up when the public schools undertook it. In the same way a school of practical design was carried on for many years, but finally, in 1903, was transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for working men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers’ School of Science is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History Society. For many years advanced courses of lectures were given by the professors of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded by an evening school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of “Collegiate Courses,” a number of the elementary courses in Harvard University were offered free to the public under the same conditions of study and examination as in the university.
For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, History of the Lowell Institute (Boston, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowndes, Thomas

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​LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692–1748), founder of the Lowndean professorship of astronomy at Cambridge university, England, was born in 1692, both his father and mother being Cheshire landowners. In 1725 he was appointed provost marshal of South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by deputy. In 1727 Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in inducing the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was completed. His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned it in 1733. He then brought various impractical schemes before the government to check the illicit trade in wool between Ireland and France; to regulate the paper currency of New England; and to supply the navy with salt from brine, &c. He died on the 12th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited Cheshire properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of a chair of astronomy and geometry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowell, Charles Russell

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​LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835–1864), American soldier, was born on the 2nd of January 1835 in Boston, Massachusetts. His mother, Anna Cabot Jackson Lowell (1819–1874), a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married Charles Russell Lowell, a brother of James Russell Lowell; she wrote verse and books on education. Her son graduated at Harvard in 1854, worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months in 1855, spent two years abroad, and in 1858–1860 was local treasurer of the Burlington & Missouri river railroad. In 1860 he took charge of the Mount Savage Iron Works, in Cumberland, Maryland. He entered the Union army in June 1861 (commission May 14) as captain of the 3rd (afterwards 6th) U.S. cavalry; on the 15th of April 1863 he became colonel of the 2nd Massachusetts cavalry; he was wounded fatally at Cedar Creek on the 19th of October 1864, when he was promoted brigadier-general of U.S. Volunteers, and died on the next day at Middletown, Va. Lowell married in October 1863, Josephine Shaw (1843–1905), a sister of Colonel R. G. Shaw. Her home when she was married was on Staten Island, and she became deeply interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1877 to 1889 was a member of the New York State Board of Charities, being the first woman appointed to that board. She founded the Charity Organization Society of New York City in 1882, and wrote Public Relief and Private Charity (1884) and Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation (1893).
See Edward E. Emerson (ed.), The Life and Letters of Charles Russell Lowell (Boston, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowestoft

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​LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place in the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 1171/2 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on either side of the formerly natural, now artificial outlet of the river Waveney to the North Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad and Lothing Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South Lowestoft arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in 1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was deepened. The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty declivity, which includes the most easterly point of land in England. The church of St Margaret is Decorated and Perpendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine esplanade, a park (Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place. Bathing facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour with a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about 16 ft. at high tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong to the port. Industries include ship and boat building and fitting, and motor engineering. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 2178 acres.
Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin to its fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the royal manor of Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants on ancient demesne of the crown possessed many privileges, but had no definite burghal rights until 1885. For several centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the cause of constant dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the last half of the 18th century the manufacture of china flourished in the town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to John, earl of Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days’ fair beginning on the vigil of St Margaret’s day, and in 1445 John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of the manor, received a further grant of the same market and also two yearly fairs, one on the feast of St Philip and St James and the other at Michaelmas. The market is still held on Wednesdays, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on May-day were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held on the 13th of May and the 11th of October. In 1643 Cromwell performed one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, capturing large supplies and making prisoners of several influential royalists. In the war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam were defeated off Lowestoft by the English fleet commanded by the duke of York.
See Victoria County History, Suffolk; E. Gillingwater, An Historical Account of the Town of Lowestoft (ed. 1790).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowland

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​LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land with a general low level. The term is thus applied to the landward portion of the upward slope from oceanic depths to continental highlands, to a region of depression in the interior of a mountainous region, to a plain of denudation or to any region in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and Highlands of Scotland are typical.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowin, John

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​LOWIN, JOHN (1576–1659), English actor, was born in London, the son of a carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe’s Diary in 1602, when he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the earl of Worcester’s company, and he was at the Blackfriars in 1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage and the others, and owning—by 1608—a share and a half of the twenty shares in that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him in 1620. “Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons) at Brentford, where he deyed very old.” Two of his favourite parts were Falstaff, and Melanteus in The Maid’s Tragedy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lowell, Abbott Lawrence

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​LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856–), American educationalist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts on the 13th of December 1856, the great-grandson of John Lowell, the “Columella of New England,” and on his mother’s side, a grandson of Abbott Lawrence. He graduated at Harvard College in 1877, with highest honours in mathematics; graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1880; and practised law in 1880–1897 in partnership with his cousin, Francis Cabot Lowell (b. 1855), with whom he wrote Transfer of Stock in Corporations (1884). In 1897 he became lecturer and in 1898 professor of government at Harvard, and in 1909 succeeded Charles William Eliot as president of the university. In the same year he was president of the American Political Science Association. In 1900 he had succeeded his father, Augustus Lowell (1830–1901), as financial head of the Lowell Institute of Boston. He wrote Essays on Government (1889), Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (2 vols., 1896), Colonial Civil Service (1900; with an account by H. Morse Stephens of the East India College at Haileybury), and The Government of England (2 vols., 1908).
His brother, Percival Lowell (1855–), the well-known astronomer, graduated at Harvard in 1876, lived much in Japan between 1883 and 1893, and in 1894 established at Flagstaff, Arizona, the Lowell Observatory, of whose Annals (from 1898) he was editor. In 1902 he became non-resident professor of astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He wrote several books on the Far East, including Chosön (1885), The Soul of the Far East (1886), Noto, an Unexplored Corner ​of Japan (1891), and Occult Japan (1895), but he is best known for his studies of the planet Mars—he wrote Mars (1895), Mars and Its Canals (1907), and Mars, the Abode of Life (1908)—and his contention that the “canals” of Mars are a sign of life and civilization on that planet (see Mars). He published The Evolution of Worlds in 1909.