OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Busenbaum, Hermann

Edition of 1905. See also Hermann Busenbaum on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BUSENBAUM, bōō'zen-boum, Hermann (1600-68). A German Jesuit, known as a casuist. He was born at Notteln, in Westphalia, and entered the Jesuit order in 1619, taught scholastic and moral theology in Cologne, and was rector successively of Jesuit colleges in Hildesheim and Münster. In 1645 he published his Medulla Theologicæ Moralis, Facili ac Perspicua Methodo Resolvens Casus Conscientiæ, in seven books. This work passed through forty-five editions between 1645 and 1670, and has since been frequently reprinted. It met no considerable opposition until it appeared in 1729 in Lyons and in 1716-33 in Cologne, edited by Lacroix, with a commentary and supplementary material from other casuists. The long controversy over its teachings on regicide was altogether unwarranted by the text, for when sifted down, it simply meant the right of self-defense. It was publicly condemned by the Parliament of Paris, and burned by that of Toulouse. Although less bold in its declarations than some other Jesuit books, such as, for example, the Defensio Fidei (1613) of Francisco Suarez, it was the most complete and systematized in its exposition, and served as a type for succeeding treatises of the sort.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bush, George

Edition of 1905. See also George Bush (biblical scholar) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BUSH, George (1796-1859). An American biblical scholar, born in Norwich, Vt. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1818 and studied at the Princeton Theological Seminary from 1820 to 1822. He was pastor of a church in
Indianapolis from 1824 to 1829, and was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at the University of the City of New York from 1831 to 1848. Among his works of that period were a Life of Mohammed (1832); a series of biblical commentaries under the title of Notes on Genesis, Exodus, etc. (1840-52); and Anastasius; or the Doctrine of the Resurrection (1844), in which he denied the existence of a material body in a future life. He embraced the doctrines of Swedenborg in 1847, and became editor of the New Church Repository. For his biography, consult Fernald (Boston, 1860).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bush-dog

Edition of 1905. See also Bush dog on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BUSH-DOG. (1) A small wild dog (Leticyon venaticus) of the Guiana highlands, “with close hair and short legs and tail, distinguished from all other dogs by its small size and by the reduction of the molar teeth to one in the upper jaw.” It resembles a fox in appearance and hunts in packs. Consult: Proceedings of the Zoölogical Society of London (1879, p. 664; 1880, p. 70); Field (London, Feb. 21, 1880). (2) The potto.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Divisch, Procopius

Edition of 1905. See also Prokop Diviš on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DIVISCH, dē′vīsb, Procopius (1696–1765). An Austrian scientist, born in Senftenberg. He entered the Præmonstrant Order, and became pastor at Brendiz. In 1754—and thus two years after Franklin’s kite experiment—he erected in an open field the first lightning-conductor on the Continent. The apparatus was destroyed by the peasants, who attributed to it the drought of the succeeding summer.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Divisibility in Mathematics

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​DIVISIBILITY (in Mathematics). See Division.
# The New International Encyclopædia/District Attorney

Edition of 1905. See also District attorney on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DISTRICT ATTORNEY. In the United States, the public prosecuting officer within a defined district. The Federal Government has one set of district attorneys, and each State has an entirely different set for the same territory. The former are appointed by the President, and are in reality deputies of the Attorney-General of the United States, to whom they are required to make report of their official acts, and to whose direction and control they are subject. They are appointed for the several districts into which the United States are divided for district courts (see article on Court, subdivision United States Courts), and are charged with prosecuting offenses against the Federal Government, as well as with conducting civil actions on behalf of the Government, and in some cases on behalf of Government officers. As a rule their compensation comes from fees, and is not in the form of a stated salary.
In most of the States a State district attorney is elected in each county, although his most important duties, as a rule, are discharged in prosecuting criminals before the State courts. He is also the prosecuting officer before the county court of the county in which he is elected. He is subject at times to the control of the Attorney-General of the State, and in New York is removable by the Governor. In certain contingencies he may call upon the State Attorney-General for assistance in important criminal prosecutions. His duties and powers are regulated under the provisions of the statutes in accordance with which he is appointed or elected. For these consult the Federal and State statutes.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Distringas

Edition of 1905. See also Distraint on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DISTRINGAS. The name of a writ or process in the nature of an attachment or execution, taken from the emphatic word of the writ directed to the sheriff—viz. “It is hereby commanded that you distrain” the defendant, etc. It was formerly issued in England for a variety of purposes, such as forcing a defendant who neglected to appear to present himself in court, or forcing a corporation to obey a subpoena, or compelling jurors to attend court, or a defendant in an action in detinue after judgment to deliver the goods to the plaintiff. The writ has been abolished in England, as well as in most of the United States, although in Virginia it is retained as a form of execution in cases of detinue. See Execution.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Divisibility

Edition of 1905. See also Infinite divisibility on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DIVISIBILITY; (from Lat. divisibilis, divisible, from dividere, to divide). That property of quantity, matter, or extension, through which it is either actually or potentially separable into parts. Whether matter is or is not indefinitely divisible, is a question which has occupied the minds of philosophers since very early times. The diffusion of odors through the air for long periods from odoriferous bodies without their suffering any sensible change of weight, and the tinging of great quantities of fluid by very minute portions of coloring matter, are cases commonly appealed to in proof of the great divisibility of substances. On the other hand, abstractly speaking, matter must be conceived as infinitely divisible for the reason that the division of matter is necessarily the division of the space it occupies: and the infinite divisibility of space may be demonstrated geometrically. All this does not prove, however, that matter is capable of undergoing indefinite subdivision by processes actually taking place in nature. In fact, the atomic hypothesis, which seems to be the only one capable of correlating and explaining a great variety of facts brought to light by the physical sciences, indicates that there is a definite limit to the divisibility of matter: that a substance could not be divided into smaller parts than its molecules without losing its essential properties, and that by no natural process at present known could a substance be divided into smaller parts than the atoms of its component elements. See Gases, Properties of; Matter, Genaral Properties of; and Molecules—Molecular Weights.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Divining-rod

Edition of 1905. See also Dowsing on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DIVINING-ROD (often called virgula divina, baculus divinatorius, caduccus or wand of Mercury, rod of Aaron, etc.). A forked branch, usually of hazel, and sometimes of iron, and even of brass and copper, by which it has been pretended that minerals and water have been discovered beneath the surface of the earth. The rod, when suspended by the two prongs, sometimes between the balls of the thumbs, is supposed to show by a decided inclination the spot under which the concealed mine or spring is situated. Other powers are ascribed to the divining-rod, but this is the chief. Many persons, even of some pretensions to scientific knowledge, have been believers in the occult power ascribed to this magic wand. Agricola, Sperlingius. and Kirchmayer all believe in its supernatural influence. Bayle, in his dictionary, under the word abaris, gives some ingenious arguments both for and against the divining-rod. In a work published in 1847 and 1851, entitled On the Truth Contained in Popular Superstitions, Dr. Herbert Mayo gives a curious collection of alleged discoveries made by this divining-rod.
# The New International Encyclopædia/District Court

Edition of 1905. See also District court and United States district court on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DISTRICT COURT. A court having a jurisdiction limited to a defined judicial district. Several of the United States have divided their territory into judicial districts, but the court of the district is usually a branch or ‘term’ of the highest court of original jurisdiction of the State and not a separate tribunal.
The District Courts of the United States, however, are district tribunals subordinate to the circuit courts. Each of the nine judicial circuits (corresponding to the number of justices of the Supreme Court) is divided into a larger or smaller number of districts. In some instances a district embraces the whole territory of a State; in others, States are divided into two or more districts. In one instance a single judge serves three districts, in others two. With these exceptions, there is one judge for each district. When a circuit court is held within the limits of a judicial district, the district judge sits with the judge of the Supreme Court appointed for that circuit. See Court, subdivision United States Courts.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Disturbance

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ DISTURBANCE. The common-law offense of violating an incorporeal property right, as an easement, a profit, or a public right in the land of another. As such rights do not carry with them the right of possession, but, as the technical expression is, ‘lie in grant,’ and not ‘in livery,’ they cannot usually be protected by the action of trespass, which contemplates an interference with the possession of a corporeal interest in land. But such rights, however impalpable, do really constitute property, and they will be protected by appropriate legal proceedings against a disturbance by the owner of the land or by any other person whatsoever. In a few cases, as where one has an exclusive right to the use of another's land as a sole and several pasturage—such right being nearly equivalent to the right of possession of the premises—the action of trespass is available for its protection. In other cases the disturbance constitutes a nuisance, which may be abated either by the act of the party injured thereby, or by the action known as ‘trespass on the case,’ or, more shortly, ‘case’; or, in a proper case, by an injunction in equity.
The forms of disturbance are various, depending upon the nature of the right involved. Thus a common of pasture may be disturbed by shutting or driving out the cattle of the claimant of the right, or by unlawfully permitting other cattle to crop the herbage. In the last case the claimant may take the cattle damage feasant and impound them. A franchise is disturbed by wrongfully taking the tolls accruing therefrom, or by setting up a competing use, as a bridge, ferry, or turnpike. For interference with an advowson or right of presentation to a benefice, known as disturbance of patronage, a special action was provided, known as writ of right of advowson. Disturbance of ways happens “where a person who hath a right of way over another's ground by grant or prescription is obstructed by inclosures or other obstacles, or by plowing across it, by which means he cannot enjoy his right of way, or at least in so commodious a manner as he might have done” (2 Bla. Com., 242). This is remediable by the act of the party injured, removing the obstacle, or by an action on the case.
All of these forms of disturbance of private rights, together with the remedies appropriate to them, exist to-day, as at common law, without material alteration. The ancient wrong of disturbance of tenure, which consisted in breaking the feudal tie of lord and tenant, has become obsolete with the disappearance of the feudal system of land tenure. The disturbance of public rights, as of a highway or a public right of common or of fishing, may be either a private nuisance, remediable by the individual whose right is interfered with, or a public nuisance, or purpresture, remediable by the State. See Easement; Nuisance; Profit; Trespass, etc.; and consult the authorities referred to under Easement.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Disturbance of Public Worship

Edition of 1905. See also Disturbing the peace on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DISTURBANCE OF PUBLIC WORSHIP. A modern statutory offense, which has, in the United States, generally superseded the common-law offense of brawling in church. As generally defined, it consists in any willful interference, by acts or words, with the good order of persons assembled for religious worship, whether within a consecrated place of worship or elsewhere. The offense may be committed by a person present in the place of worship, or by noisy conduct on the outside, and to constitute such acts or conduct a disturbance, it is not necessary that the congregation assembled shall at the time be engaged in worship. It is sufficient if they are assembled for that purpose. The offense constitutes a misdemeanor, punishable by fine or imprisonment. It is not such a violation of private rights as to furnish grounds for an action for damages, unless it be habitual or so persistent as to amount to a nuisance. In that case the remedy by action lies in the hands of the trustees or other officers in whom the possession of the place of worship is vested. See Nuisance.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cheshire, Joseph Blount

Edition of 1905. See also Joseph Blount Cheshire on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CHESHIRE, Joseph Blount (1850—). An American Protestant Episcopal clergyman. Bishop of North Carolina. He was born at Tarboro, N. C., graduated at Trinity College (Hartford, Conn.) in 1869, and practiced law from 1872 to 1878. He was ordained priest in 1880, was consecrated bishop coadjutor in 1893, and bishop in the same year. His publications include The Early Conventions of the Episcopal Church in North Carolina (1882), and various pamphlets and addresses. He has edited Sketches of Church History in North Carolina (1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cheshunt

Edition of 1905. See also Cheshunt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CHES′HUNT. A town of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea, about 7 miles south of Hertford and 14 miles north of London (Map: England, F 5). It is famous for its rose-gardens, and has a large theological college. Population, in 1901, 12,300. Cheshunt was probably a Roman station. Consult Cheshunt College (London, 1868).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chesney, Charles Cornwallis

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Cornwallis Chesney on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CHESNEY, chĕs′nĭ, Charles Cornwallis (1826-76). A British military engineer and critic. He was a brevet colonel in the British Royal Engineers, and for many years was professor of military history at the Staff College at Sandhurst. He first attracted general attention by A Military View of Recent Campaigns in Virginia and Maryland (1863), and in 1868 published his Waterloo Lectures, perhaps his ablest work. He also published The Military Resources of Prussia and France (1870), and Essays in Modern Military Biography (1874). The latter contains valuable critical estimates of the military careers of Generals U. S. Grant and R. E. Lee, and of ‘Chinese’ Gordon.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chess (Bromus secalinus)

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​CHESS, or CHEAT. A common name of the Bromus secalinus. See Brome Grass.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cheyenne (Wyoming)

Edition of 1905. See also Cheyenne, Wyoming on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHEYENNE, shī̇-ĕn′. The capital of Wyoming and county-seat of Laramie County, 106 miles north of Denver, Colo., on the Union Pacific, the Burlington and Missouri River, and the Cheyenne and Northern railroads (Map: Wyoming, G 5). It has a considerable trade in cattle and sheep, possesses large shops of the Union Pacific Railroad, and has lignite and iron mines in the vicinity. Among the prominent buildings are the State Capitol, the high school, Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, Carnegie Library, and the stone depot of the Union Pacific Railroad. The place was first settled in 1867, when the Union Pacific Railroad reached that point, and in 1869 was chosen as the Territorial capital of Wyoming. In the same year a large portion of the town was destroyed by fire. The government is administered under the charter of 1869, the year of incorporation, and provides for a mayor, chosen every two years, and a city council, elected by wards. The chief of police is appointed by the executive; the park and street commissioners are selected by the council; and all other administrative officials are named by the mayor, with the consent of the council. School officials are chosen by popular vote. Population, in 1890, 11,690; in 1900, 14,087.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cheshire Cheese

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​CHESHIRE CHEESE. See Cheese; Cheese-Making.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chewink

Edition of 1905. See also Eastern towhee on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHEWINK′ (imitation of its cry), or Towhee. A large terrestrial finch of the genus Pipilo, represented by several species in North America, of which the common Eastern species, the red-eyed towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), is best known. It is about 8 inches in length, of which the tail is nearly half. The male is black, with a white belly and chestnut sides, and with prominent white markings on the tail. The female is grayish-brown where the male is black. It is a migratory bird, wintering in the Southern States and breeding from Georgia northward. The nest is built on or near the ground, of bark and leaves, lined with grass, and usually most cleverly hidden by an apparently accidental roof of twigs, leaves, etc. Eggs, four or five, white, spotted with rufous. The chewink is an active bird, spending its time mostly on the ground in woods and thickets, scratching about in the leaves in search of its insect prey, and now and then flying to some low branch or convenient fence-rail to utter his melodious ‘chewink’; or, in the spring, to pour forth a short but most musical song. The various names chewink, towhee, joree, etc., are in imitation of its sharp call-note, while ‘ground-robin’ refers to its colors, suggesting those of the American robin. See Plate of Sparrows, and Plate of Eggs of Song Birds.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chesney, Francis Rawdon

Edition of 1905. See also Francis Rawdon Chesney on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CHESNEY, Francis Rawdon (1789-1872). A British soldier and explorer. In 1829 he inspected the route of the Suez Canal and proved the undertaking to be feasible, so that De Lesseps forty years afterwards styled him the ‘Father of the Suez Canal.’ He is especially known, however, as the explorer of the Euphrates, and the founder of the overland route to India by way of that river. He wrote: Expedition for the Survey of the Euphrates and Tigris (1850), and Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1868). Consult his Life, by his wife and daughter, edited by Stanley Lane-Poole (London, 1885).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Chewing-Gum

Edition of 1905. See also Chewing gum on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CHEWING-GUM. A preparation of some form of gum resin, to which a flavoring matter is often added. The gum resin of black spruce (Abies nigra), in its original state, was probably first used for this purpose; but the demand is now supplied by various manufactured preparations, and spruce gum occurs less frequently than formerly. The gum resins of sweet-gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) , tamarack (Larix Americana), and certain other forest trees are also used. The substance most extensively employed in the manufacture of chewing-gum is chicle gum, an elastic gum from the naseberry (Achras sapota), a tree found in Central and tropical South America, somewhat similar to the india-rubber tree. Balsam of tolu, which is prepared from a gum also found in South America, is a constituent of certain kinds of gum, while paraffin, or some preparation of it, has also been employed. To most of these gums it is customary to add sugar-water and some flavoring matter. The practice of chewing gum is probably harmless, and in mild cases of indigestion it may even be somewhat beneficial, by mechanically stimulating the flow of saliva. Pepsin and similar substances are often mixed in with the gum; but it is safe to say that the success of any particular brand depends more upon its sweetness and flavor than upon any beneficial properties.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armfelt, Charles Gustavus

Edition of 1905. See also Charles Gustavus Armfelt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARM'FELT, Charles Gustavus (1666-1736). A Swedish general, born in Ingermannland. After serving with distinction in the French armies he returned, in 1700, to his native country, and as commander of the Swedish troops in Finland fought valiantly against the Russians, whose superior strength, however, forced Armfelt to abandon the province in 1714. In 1718 he led a Swedish expedition into Norway, met with ill success, and on the retreat lost almost his entire army through starvation and disease. Subsequently he received his old post of Governor of Finland.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Armida

Edition of 1905. See also Armida on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARMIDA, är-mē′dȧ. A beautiful sorceress in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. She was employed by Satan to seduce Rinaldo and other Crusaders upon their arrival before the Holy City. Lured away by Armida to her pleasure-palace, Rinaldo for a time forgets his vows, but is released from the spell by a powerful talisman. He returns to the war, but is followed by the sorceress, who at last rushes into battle against him. She is defeated by Rinaldo, who then declares his love for her, converts her to Christianity, and vows to be her faithful knight. The story of Armida has been made the subject of operas by Lully (1686), Gluck (1777), Cherubini (1784), Zingarelli (1786), and Rossini (1817).