OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shipley, Jonathan

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​SHIPLEY, JONATHAN (1714–1788), bishop of St Asaph, was educated at Reading and Oxford. He was ordained about 1738, and acted as tutor in the household of the 3rd earl of Peterborough. In 1743 he became rector of Silchester and Sherborne St John, Hampshire, and prebendary of Winchester. He was appointed to a canonry of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1748, and in 1760 to the deanery of Winchester and the living of Chilbolton, Hampshire, which he held in addition to his earlier preferment's. In 1769 he was consecrated successively bishop of Llandaff and of St Asaph. He was much concerned with politics, and joined the Whig party in strong opposition to the policy of George III. towards the American colonies. In 1779 he was the only bishop to advocate the abolition of all laws against Protestant dissenters. He died on the 6th of December 1788. His brother, William Shipley (1714–1803), originated the Society of Arts; and his son, William Davies Shipley (1745–1826), became dean of St Asaph.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shinwari

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​SHINWARI, a Durani Afghan tribe occupying the northern slopes of the Safed Kob below Jalalabad. One clan, the Ali Sher Khel, fall within the British sphere in the North-West Frontier Province of India. They live on the Loargai border of Peshawar district, and number some 3000 FIghting men. The remaining three clans are Afghan subjects.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shio-ghi

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​SHIO-GHI, the Japanese game of chess. Like Go-bang, the game of the middle classes, and Sugorochu (double-six), that of the common people, it was introduced from China many centuries ago and is still popular with the educated classes. It is played on a board divided into 81 squares, nine on a side; with 20 pieces on each side, arranged on the three outer rows. The pieces, which are flat and punt-shaped with the smaller end towards the front, represent, by means of different inscriptions, the O, or Sho, King-General, with whose checkmate the game ends, his two chief aids, the Kin and Ghin, Gold and Silver Generals (two of each), Ka-Ma, horse or knight (two), Yari, spearman (two), one Hisha, or flying chariot (rook), one Kaku (bishop), and nine Hio or Fu, soldiers or pawns. All these pieces, like those in chess, possess different functions. The chief difference between chess and Shio-ghi is that in the Japanese game a piece does not cease to be a factor in the game when it is captured by the opponent, but may be returned by him to the board at any time as a reserve; and, secondly, all pieces, except the King and Gold General, are promoted to higher powers upon entering the last three rows of the enemy’s territory. This possibility of utilizing captured forces against their former masters and the altering values of the different men render shio-ghi a very difficult and complicated game.
See Games Ancient and Oriental, by E. Falkener (London, 1892); the Field (Sept. 1904).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian

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​BELL, GERTRUDE MARGARET LOWTHIAN (1868-), English traveller and geographer, was born at Washington, Durham, July 14 1868, the eldest daughter of Sir T. Hugh Bell, Bart. She was educated at Queen's College, London, and Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, where she graduated first class in the final school of modern history in 1888. She travelled extensively in the Near East, making a specially adventurous journey across northern Arabia in 1913-4 over a practically unknown route, whereby she obtained a knowledge of the country which ​proved of great value to the British Government when information concerning routes was required for the advance of the British army into Palestine during the World War. In 1914-5 she was in control of a special department of the British Red Cross, occupied in trying to trace soldiers reported as " missing." From 1916-7 she was attached to the Admiralty Intelligence Office in Cairo. In 1917 she went with the mili- tary authorities to Basra and followed the army up to Bagdad, where she subsequently acted as assistant political officer, the first woman to occupy so important an administrative post. In 1918 she received the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical Society.
Amongst her publications are: Poems from the Divan of Hafiz (translations, 1897); The Desert and the Sown (1907); The Thou- sand and One Churches (with Sir W. M. Ramsay, 1909); Palace and Mosque at Ukhaider (1914). She is also the author of the Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, issued as a White Book by the India Office, Dec. 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Below, Fritz von

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BELOW, FRITZ VON (1853-1918), German general, was born Nov. 23 1853 at Danzig. He took part in the war of 1870-1 as a young officer. In 1912 he was appointed to the command of the XXI. Army Corps. In this capacity he fought with the VI. Army on the western front at the beginning of the World War, but his corps was transferred in 1915 to the eastern front. In 1916 he was chief in command of the I. Army, which fought with success in Nov. 1916 on the Somme. He died in a field hospital on the western front in Nov. 1918.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Benson, William Shepherd

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BENSON, WILLIAM SHEPHERD (1855-), American naval officer, was born at Macon, Ga., Sept. 25 1855. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1877, and after various promotions became captain in 1909 and rear-admiral in 1915. He had been commandant of the Philadelphia Navy Yard two years when, in 1915, he was appointed chief of naval
operations. He was a member of the commission appointed to confer with the Allied Powers in 1917, naval representative in drawing up terms of the Armistice, and naval adviser to the American Peace Commission. He was retired automatically in 1919 and made admiral for life.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bell, Charles Frederic Moberly

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​BELL, CHARLES FREDERICK MOBERLY (1847-1911), British journalist, was born in Alexandria April 2 1847, the son of a merchant. He was educated in England, but in 1865 went back to Egypt and engaged in business. He soon began sending occasional correspondence to the London Times, and from 1875 onwards devoted himself mainly to journalism. By 1880, when he founded the Egyptian Gazette, he had become the regular correspondent for The Times in Egypt. He also published Khedives and Pashas (1884); Egyptian Finance (1887) and From Pharaoh to Fellah (1888). In 1890 he was summoned to London to take the post of manager (nominally assistant-manager) of The Times, at a time when it had suffered heavy financial losses over the proceedings connected with the Parnell Commission (see 20.858). From that date he devoted all his masterful energies to the journal he served. When The Times Publishing Co. was formed in 1908, and the financial control passed from the Walter family to Lord Northcliffe, he became managing director. He died suddenly whilst at work in The Times offices April 5 1911.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bergson, Henri Louis

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BERGSON, HENRI LOUIS (1859- ), French philosopher, was born in Paris Oct. 18 1859. Educated at the Lycée Corot, and the École Normale he was successively professor of philosophy at the Lycée d'Angers 1881-3, at the Lycée de Clermont 1883-8, at the Collège Rollin 1888-9, at the Lycée Henry IV. 1880-97, at the École Normale Supérieure 1897-1900 and at the Collège de France 1900-21. In 1912 he was Gifford lecturer at Edinburgh. Of the three works which constitute together the full exposition of his interpretation of experience, Les Données Immediates de la Conscience was published in 1889, Matière et Mémoire in 1896, and L'Évolution Créatrice in 1907. The English translations (Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory and Creative Evolution) all belong to 1910-1. He had published also Le Rire (1900). With the exception of a pamphlet, La Significance de la Guerre (1915), nothing more appeared until L'Energie Spirituelle (1919), with Eng. trans. Mind-Energy (1920).
For a discussion of his work, see Philosophy.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Below, Otto von

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BELOW, OTTO VON (1857-), German general, was born at Danzig June 18 1857. At the beginning of the World War he was in command of the 2nd Infantry Div. at Insterburg in East Prussia. He was first of all promoted to the command of the I. Reserve Corps, and in this capacity took part in the battles against the Russian army of the Narev which resulted in the almost complete destruction of that army. He was then appointed to the chief command of the VIII. Army
which bore an essential part in the victory over the Russian X. Army at the battles of the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 7-15 1915). In May 1915 he was placed in chief command of the German Niemen army and pressed forward with it in Courland (Kurland) and Lithuania as far as the southern reaches of the Dvina. In the autumn of 1916 he received the command of the German army group in Macedonia and in the autumn of 1917 was placed in chief command of the XIV. Army, which was fighting against Italy. In 1918 he led the XVII. Army, which particularly distinguished itself in the battles around Arras. After the war he was for a short period general in command of the XVII. Army Corps at Danzig. He resigned in June 1919.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wekerle, Santor

See also Sándor Wekerle on Wikipedia; the 1922 update; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WEKERLE, SANTOR [Alexander] (1848-), Hungarian statesman, was born on the 14th of November 1848 at Móór, in the comitat of Stuhlweissenburg. After studying law at the university of Budapest he graduated doctor juris. He then entered the government service, and after a period of probation was appointed to a post in the ministry of finance. He still, however, continued an academic career by lecturing on political economy at the university. In 1886 Wekerle was elected to the House of Deputies, became in the same year financial secretary of state, and in 1889 succeeded Tisza as minister of finance. He immediately addressed himself to the task of improving the financial position of the country, carried out the conversion of the State loans, and succeeded, for the first time in the history of the Hungarian budget, in avoiding a deficit. In November 1892 Wekerle succeeded Count Szapáry as premier, though still retaining the portfolio of finance. At the head of a strong government he was enabled, in spite of a powerful opposition of Catholics and Magnates, to carry in 1894 the Civil Marriage Bill. The continued opposition of the clerical party, however, brought about his resignation on the 22nd of December 1894, when he was succeeded by Banffy. On the 1st of January 1897 he was appointed president of the newly created judicial commission at Budapest, and for the next few years held aloof from politics, even under the ex-lex government of Fejérváry. On the reconciliation of the king-emperor with the coalition he was therefore selected as the most suitable man to lead the new government, and on the 8th of April 1906 was appointed prime minister, taking at the same time the portfolio of finance. He resigned the premiership on the 27th of April 1909, but was not finally relieved of his office until the formation of the Khuen-Hedérváry cabinet on the 17th of January 1910.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Welcker, Friedrich Gottlieb

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​WELCKER, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1784-1868), German philologist and archaeologist, was born at Grünberg in the grand duchy of Hesse. Having studied classical philology at the university of Giessen, he was appointed (1803) master in the high school, an office which he combined with that of lecturer at the university. In 1806 he journeyed to Italy, and was for more than a year private tutor at Rome in the family of Wilhelm von Humboldt, who became his friend and correspondent. Welcker returned to Giessen in 1808, and resuming his school-teaching and university lectures was in the following year appointed the first professor of Greek literature and archaeology at that or any German university. After serving as a volunteer in the campaign of 1814 he went to Copenhagen to edit the posthumous papers of the Danish archaeologist Georg Zoëga (1755-1809), and published his biography, Zoëgas Leben (Stutt. 1819). His liberalism in politics having brought him into conflict with the university authorities of Giessen, he exchanged that university for Göttingen in 1816, and three years later received a chair at the new university of Bonn, where he established the art museum and the library, of which he became the first librarian. In 1841-1843 he travelled in Greece and Italy (cf. his Tagebuch, Berlin, 1865), retired from the librarianship in 1854, and in 1861 from his professorship, but continued to reside at Bonn until his death. Welcker was a pioneer in the field of archaeology, and was one of the first to insist, in opposition to the narrow methods of the older Hellenists, on the necessity of co-ordinating the study of Greek art and religion with philology.
Besides early work on Aristophanes, Pindar, and Sappho, whose character he vindicated, he edited Aleman (1815), Hipponax (1817), Theognis (1826) and the Theogony of Hesiod (1865), and published a Sylloge epigrammatum Graecorum (Bonn, 1828). His Griechische Götterlehre (3 vols., Göttingen, 1857-1862) may be regarded as the first scientific treatise on Greek religion. Among his works on Greek literature the chief are Die Äschyleische Trilogie (1824, 6), Der epische Zyklus oder die Homerischen Gedichte (2 vols. 1835, 49), Die griechischen Tragödien mit Rücksicht auf den epischen Zyklus geordnet (3 vols., 1839-1841). His editions and biography of Zoëga, his Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Auslegung der alten Kunst (Göttingen, 1817, 8) and his Alte Denkmäler (5 vols., 1849-1864) contain his views on ancient art.
See Kekulé, Das Leben F. G. Welckers (Leipzig, 1880); W. von Humboldts Briefe an Welcker (ed. R. Haym, Berlin, 1859); J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (vol. iii., pp. 216, 7, Cambridge, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weissenburg

See also Wissembourg on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer. Now a town in France.
The name Weissenburg occurs in three other places; the town of Weissenburg-am-Sand in Bavaria (q.v.); a Swiss invalid resort in the Niedersimmental, above Lake Thun, with sulphate of lime springs, beneficial for bronchial affections; also a Hungarian comitat (Magyar Fejérvár), with Stuhlweissenburg as capital.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weismann, August

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​WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834–), German biologist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th of January 1834, and studied medicine in Göttingen. After spending three years in Rostock, he visited successively Vienna (1858), Italy (1859) and Paris (1860), and from 1861 to 1862 he acted as private physician to the archduke Stephen of Austria at Schaumburg Palace. In 1863 he went to Giessen to devote himself to biological study under Leuckart, and in 1866 he was appointed extraordinary professor of zoology at Freiburg, becoming ordinary professor a few years later. His earlier work was largely concerned with purely zoological investigations, one of his earliest works dealing with the development of the Diptera. Microscopical work, however, became impossible to him owing to impaired eyesight, and he turned his attention to wider problems of biological inquiry. Between 1868 and 1876 he published a series of papers in which he attacked the question of the variability of organisms; these were published in an English translation by R. Meldola in 1882, under the title Studies in the Theories of Descent, Darwin himself contributing a preface in which the importance of the nature and cause of variability in individuals was emphasized. Weismann's name, however, is best known as the author of the germ-plasm theory of heredity, with its accompanying denial of the transmission of acquired characters—a theory which on its publication met with considerable opposition, especially in England, from orthodox Darwinism. A series of essays in which this theory is expressed was collected and published in an English translation (Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems, vol. i. 1889, vol. ii. 1892). Weismann published many other works devoted to the exposition of his biological views, among them being Die Dauer des Lebens; Vererbung; Ewigkeit des Lebens; Die Kontinuität des Keimplasmas als Grundlage einer Theorie der Vererbung; Das Keimplasma; Die Allmacht der Naturzäüchtung; Äussere Einflüsse als Entwicklungsreize; Neue Gedanken zur Vererbungsfrage; and Germinal-Selektion.
For an account of his doctrines the reader is referred to the articles on Heredity, Regeneration and Reproduction.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weissenburg-am-Sand

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​WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian district of Middle Franconia, situated in a pleasant and fertile country at the western foot of the Franconian Jura, 1300 ft. above the sea, and 33 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg by the railway to Munich. Pop. (1905) 6709. It is still surrounded by old walls and towers, and has two Gothic churches and a Gothic town-hall. The town has a mineral spring, connected with which is a bathing establishment. A Roman castle has recently been discovered, and there is a collection of antiquities in the modern school. The old fortalice of Wülzburg (2060 ft.) overlooks the town. Gold and silver fringe, bricks, cement wares, beer and cloth are manufactured. Weissenburg dates from the 8th century, and in the 14th was made a free imperial town. It passed to Bavaria in 1806.
See C. Meyer, Chronik der Stadt Weissenburg in Bayern (Munich, 1904); and Fabricius, Das Kastell Weissenburg (Heidelberg, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weissenfels

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​WEISSENFELS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the Saale 20 m. S.W. of Leipzig and 19 m. S. of Halle by the main line to Bebra and Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1905) 30,894. It contains three churches, a spacious market-place and various educational and benevolent institutions. The former palace, called the Augustusburg, built in 1664-1690, lies on an eminence near the town; this spacious edifice is now used as a military school. Weissenfels manufactures machinery, ironware, paper and other goods, and has an electrical power-house. In the neighbourhood are large deposits of sandstone and lignite. Weissenfels is a place of considerable antiquity, and from 1656 till 1746 it was the capital of the small duchy of Saxe-Weissenfels, a branch of the electoral house of Saxony, founded by Augustus, second son of the elector John George I. The body of Gustavus Adolphus was embalmed at Weissenfels after the battle of Lützen.
See Sturm, Chronik der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1846); and Gerhardt, Geschichte der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weiss, Bernhard

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​WEISS, BERNHARD (1827–), German Protestant New Testament scholar, was born at Königsberg on the 20th of June 1827. After studying theology at Königsberg, Halle and Berlin, he became professor extraordinarius at Königsberg in 1852, and afterwards professor ordinarius at Berlin. In 1880 he was made superior consistorial councillor. An opponent of the Tübingen School, he published a number of important works, which are well known to students in Great Britain and America.
He edited and revised Matthew (the 9th ed., 1897), Mark and Luke (the 9th ed., 1901), John (the 9th ed., 1902), Romans (the 9th ed., 1899), the Epistles to Timothy and Titus (the 7th ed., 1902), Hebrews (the 6th ed., 1897), the Epistles of John (the 6th ed., 1900). His other works include: Lehrbuch der biblischen Theologie des Neuen Testaments (1868, 9th ed., 1903; Eng. trans., 1883), Das Leben Jesu (1882, 4th ed., 1902; Eng. trans., 1883), Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1886; 3rd ed., 1897; Eng. trans. 1888), Das Neue Testament: Berichtigter Text (3 vols., 1902), and Die Quellen des Lukasevangeliums (1907). He was also the reviser of commentaries on the New Testament in the series of H. A. W. Meyer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weizsäcker, Karl

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​WEIZSÄCKER, KARL (1822-1899), German Protestant theologian, was born at Oehringen near Heilbronn in Württemberg, on the 11th of December 1822. After studying at Tübingen and Berlin, he became Privatdozent at Tübingen in 1847 and eventually (1861) professor of ecclesiastical and dogmatic history. From 1856 to 1878 he helped to edit the Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie; and his elaborate studies Untersuchungen über die evangelische Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer Entwicklung (1864) and Das apostolische Zeitalter der christl. Kirche (1886, 2nd ed. 1893; Engl. trans. 1894-1895) made him widely known and respected. He died on the 13th of August 1899. His son, Karl von Weizsäcker (b. 1853), was appointed in 1900 Kultusminister for Württemberg.
Weizsäcker's other works include Zur Kritik des Barnabasbriefs (1863) and Ferdinand Christian Baur (1892). Cf. Hegler, Zur Erinnerung an Karl Weizsäcker (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Weisse, Christian Hermann

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​WEISSE, CHRISTIAN HERMANN (1801–1866), German Protestant religious philosopher, was born at Leipzig on the 10th of August 1801. He studied at Leipzig, and at first belonged to the Hegelian school of philosophy. In course of time, however, his ideas approximating to those of Schelling in his later years, he elaborated with I. H. v. Fichte a new speculative theism, and became an opponent of Hegel's pantheistic idealism. In his addresses on the future of the Protestant Church (Reden über die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche, 1849), he finds the essence of Christianity in Jesus's conceptions of the heavenly Father, the Son of Man and the kingdom of Heaven. In his work on philosophical dogmatics (Philosophische Dogmatik oder Philosophie des Christentums, 3 vols. 1855–1862) he seeks, by idealizing all the Christian dogmas, to reduce them to natural postulates of reason or conscience. He died on the 19th of September 1866.
His other works include: Die Idee der Gottheit (1833), Die philosophische Geheimlehre von der Unsterblichkeit des menschlichen Individuums (1834), Büchlein von der Auferstehung (1836), Die evangelische Geschichte, kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (2 vols., 1838), and Psychologie und Unsterblichkeitslehre (edited by R. Seydel, 1869). See O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890); and cf. R. Seydel, Christ. Herm. Weisse (1866), and Religion und Wissenschaft (1887).