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# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ilkeston, Balthazar Walter Foster, 1st Baron

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ILKESTON, BALTHAZAR WALTER FOSTER, 1st Baron (1840-1913), British physician and politician, was born at Cambridge July 17 1840. He was educated at Drogheda and Trinity College, Dublin, where he studied medicine. He afterwards (1860) became medical tutor and professor of practical anatomy at Queen's College, Birmingham, was professor of
anatomy there 1864-5, and professor of materia medica at Sydenham College, Birmingham, from 1865 to 1868. In the latter year the two colleges amalgamated, and he then became professor of medicine, and in 1892 was appointed emeritus professor of medicine. In 1886 he was knighted. In 1885 he had successfully contested Chester as a Liberal, but lost the seat in 1886; in 1887, however, he was elected for the Ilkeston division of Derby, which he retained until 1910. From 1892 to 1895 he was parliamentary secretary to the Local Government Board, and in 1906 was sworn of the Privy Council. The same year he received the gold medal of the British Medical Association. He was made a peer in 1910, and died in London Jan. 31 1913.
He published various medical works, including The Use of the Sphygmograph in Heart Diseases (1866); Method and Medicine (1870); Clinical Medicine (1874); Political Powerlessness of the Medical Profession (1883) and Public Aspects of Medicine (1890).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ibáñez, Vicente Blasco

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IBANEZ, VICENTE BLASCO (1867-), Spanish novelist, was born at Valencia in 1867. His earliest works, such as Flor de Mayo (1895), are pictures of provincial life in Valencia, but he later developed a realistic and minute style, reminiscent of Zola. His work is remarkable for its keen observation and power of description, and has become widely popular in England and France. His novels include Sonnica la Cortesana (1901; Eng. trans., Sonnica, 1915); La Catédral (1903; Eng. trans., The Shadow of the Cathedral, 1909); Sangre y Arena, a study of the career of a bull-fighter (1908; Eng. trans., Blood and Sand, 1913); Los Cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis (1916; Eng. trans., The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1918); and Mare Nostrum (1918; Eng. trans., Our Sea, 1920).
See E. Zamacois, Mis Contemporáneos: V. Blasco Ibáñez (1910).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ibn Sa'ud

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IBN SA‛UD (see 2.267 and 28.245), the name of the Wahabite dynasty of Dar‛iya and Riyadh (Nejd). ‛Abd el ‛Aziz ibn Sa‛ud, the ruling emir, about 54 years of age in 1921, succeeded to the throne in 1902. The Ibn Sa‛ud dynasty suffered eclipse at the hands of Ibn Rashid, emir of Hail (Jebel Shammar) from the middle of the eighties of the last century. The rightful emir, ‛Abdurrahman ibn Faisal, and his son ‛Abd el ‛Aziz ibn Sa‛ud were in exile at Kuwait, such power in Nejd as remained to the Sa‛ud dynasty being wielded by an uncle, as mediatized ruler, until his murder by Ibn Rashid's order in 1902. In March 1902, with the help of Mubarak, sheikh of Kuwait, ‛Abd el ‛Aziz—his father stepping aside—regained Riyadh by a coup d'état against Ibn Rashid, who called in the Turks to aid him. Nevertheless, owing to the anarchy prevailing in Hail at the time, and with the help of the people of Nejd (who were traditionally attached to the house of Ibn Sa‛ud), ‛Abd el ‛Aziz eventually succeeded in restoring and establishing the supremacy of the kingdom of Riyadh. Early in 1913 he extended his rule to El Hasa, driving out the Turks who had garrisoned the district since 1871. On the entry of Turkey into the World War, though the attitude of ‛Abd el ‛Aziz was at first uncertain, he eventually concluded a treaty with Great Britain on lines similar to those in force with the Persian Gulf states and, thereafter, proved an unswerving ally. He restored the chief towns in Nejd, rendered the roads more or less safe from raiders, encouraged cultivation, and increased the material prosperity of his dominions generally. His son, Turki, acted as his able lieutenant in the outlying districts (see Arabia).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sardarpur

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​SARDARPUR, a British station in Central India, within the state of Gwalior, on the Mahi river, 58 m. by road E. of Mhow, ​pop. (1901) 2783 It is the headquarters of the political agent for the Bhopawar agency, and of the Malwa Bhil corps, originally raised in 1837 and recently converted into a military police battalion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sardica, Council of

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​SARDICA, COUNCIL OF, an ecclesiastical council convened in 343 by the emperors Constantius and Constans, to attempt a settlement of the Arian controversies, which were then at their height. Of the hundred and seventy bishops assembled, about ninety were Homousians—principally from the West—while on the other side were eighty Eusebians from the East. The anticipated agreement, however, was not attained; and the result of the council was simply to embitter the relations between the two great religious parties, and those between the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire. For as Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra appeared on the scene, and the Western bishops declined to exclude them, the Eusebian bishops of the East absolutely refused to discuss, and contented themselves with formulating a written protest addressed to numerous foreign prelates. That they instituted a rival congress of their own in Philippopolis is improbable. The bishops, however, who remained in Sardica (mod. Sofia in Bulgaria) formed themselves into a synod, and naturally declared in favour of Athanasius and Marcellus, while at the same time they anathematized the leaders of the Eusebian party. The proposal to draw up a new creed was rejected.
Especial importance attaches to this council through the fact that Canons 3-5 invest the Roman bishop with a prerogative which became of great historical importance, as the first legal recognition of his jurisdiction over other sees and the basis for the further development of his primacy. “In order to honour the memory of St Peter,” it was enacted that any bishop, if deposed by his provincial synod, should be entitled to appeal to the bishop of Rome, who was then at liberty either to confirm the first decision or to order a new investigation. In the latter case, the tribunal was to consist of bishops from the neighbouring provinces, assisted—if he so chose—by legates of the Roman bishop. The clauses thus made the bishop of Rome president of a revisionary court; and afterwards Zosimus unsuccessfully attempted to employ these canons of Sardica, as decisions of the council of Nice, against the Africans. In the middle ages they were cited to justify the claim of the papacy to be the supreme court of appeal. Attacks on their authenticity have been conclusively repelled.
The canons are printed in C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums (Tübingen, 1901), p. 46 f.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ed. 2, i. 533 sqq. See also, J. Friedrich, Die Unechtheit der Canones von Sardika (Vienna, 1902); on the other side F. X. Funk, “Die Echtheit der Canones von Sardica,” Historisches Jahrbuch der Görresgesellschaft, xxiii. (1902), pp. 497-516; ibid. xxvi. (1905), pp. 1-18, 255-274; C. H. Turner, “The Genuineness of the Sardican Canons,” The Journal of Theological Studies, iii. (London, 1902), pp. 370-397. (C. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarcophagus

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​SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. σαρκοφάγος, literally “flesh-eating,” from σάρξ, flesh, φαγεῖν, to eat), the name given to a coffin in stone, which on account of its caustic qualities, according to Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 27), consumed the body in forty days; also by the Greeks to a sepulchral chest, in stone or other material, which was more or less enriched with ornament and sculpture. One of the finest examples known is the sarcophagus of Seti, the second king of the XIX. Egyptian dynasty (1326–1300 B.C.), which is carved out of a block of Aragonite or hard carbonate of lime, now in the Soane Museum; of later date are the green porphyry sarcophagus and the terra-cotta sarcophagus from Clazomenae; both of these date from the early 6th century B.C., and are in the British Museum. The finest Greek examples are those found at Sidon in 1887 by Hamdy Bey, which are now in the Imperial Museum at Constantinople (see Greek Art). Of Etruscan sarcophagi there are numerous examples in terracotta; occasionally they are miniature representations of temples. and sometimes in the form of a couch on which rest figures of the deceased; one of these in the British Museum dates from 500 B.C. The earliest Roman sarcophagus is that of Scipio in the Vatican (3rd century B.C.), carved in peperino stone. Of later Roman sarcophagi, there is an immense series enriched with figures in high relief, of which the chief are the Niobid example in the Lateran, the Lycomedes sarcophagus in the Capitol, the Penthesilea sarcophagus in the Vatican, and the immense sarcophagus representing a battle of the Romans and the barbarians in the Museo delle Terme. In later Roman work there was a great decadence in the sculpture, so that in the following centuries recourse was had to the red Egyptian porphyry, of which the sarcophagi of Constantia (A.D. 355) and of the empress Helena (A.D. 589), both in the Vatican, are fine examples. Of later date, during the Byzantine period, there is a large series either in museums or in the cloisters of the Italian churches. They are generally decorated with a series of niches with figures in them, divided by small attached shafts with semicircular or sloping covers carved with religious emblems, one of the best examples being the sarcophagus of Sta Barbara, dating from the beginning of the 6th century, at Ravenna, where there are many others. The term sarcophagus is sometimes applied also to an altar tomb.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sard

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​SARD, a reddish-brown chalcedony much used by the ancients as a gem-stone. Pliny states that it was named from Sardis, in Lydia, where it was first discovered; but probably the name came with the stone from Persia (Pers. sered, yellowish-red). Sard was used for Assyrian cylinder-seals, Egyptian and Phoenician scarabs, and early Greek and Etruscan gems. The Hebrew odem (translated sardius), the first stone in the High Priest's breastplate, was a red stone—probably sard, but perhaps Carnelian or red jasper (see J. Taylor, “Sardius,” in Hastings's Dict. Bibl.). Some kinds of sard closely resemble carnelian, but are usually rather harder and tougher, with a duller and more hackly fracture. Mineralogically the two stones pass into each other, and indeed they have often been regarded as identical, both being chalcedonic quartz coloured with oxide of iron. The range of colours in sard is very great, some stones being orange-red, or hyacinthine, and others even golden, whilst some present so dark a brown colour as to appear almost black by reflected light. The hyacinthine sard, resembling certain garnets, was the most valued variety among the ancients for cameos and intaglios. Dark-brown sard is sometimes called “sardoine,” or “sardine”; whilst certain sards of yellowish colour were at one time known to collectors of engraved gems as “beryl.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sardonyx

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​SARDONYX, an ornamental' stone much used for seals and cameos. It usually consists of a layer of sard or carnelian with one of milk-white chalcedony, but it may present several alternating layers of these minerals. The sardonyx is therefore simply an onyx in which some of the bands are of sard or carnelian: if, however, the latter is present the stone is more appropriately called a “carnelian onyx.” It was considered by ancient authorities that a fine Oriental sardonyx should have at least three strata—a black base, a white intermediate zone and a superficial layer of brown or red; these colours typifying the three cardinal virtues—humility (black), chastity (white) and modesty or martyrdom (red). The ancients obtained sardonyx from India, and the Indian locality, Mount Sardonyx, referred to by Ptolemy, is supposed to have been near Broach, where agates and carnelians are still worked. In the Revised Version of the Old Testament, Ex. xxviii. 18, “sardonyx” is given in the margin as an alternative reading for “diamond,” the word by which the Hebrew yahalom is usually translated. The stone known to the Romans as aegyptilla may have been a kind of sardonyx, or perhaps a nicolo, which is an onyx with a thin translucent milky layer on the surface. Imitations of sardonyx have been made by cementing together two or three stones of the required col ours, while baser counterfeits have been produced in paste. By coating a sard or carnelian with sodium carbonate and then placing the stone on a red-hot iron a white layer may be produced, so that a. kind of sardonyx is obtained (see Carnelian). Most of the modern sardonyx is cut from South American agate, modified in colour by artificial treatment. (See Agate; Gem.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sardanapalus

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​SARDANAPALUS, or Sardanapallus, according to Greek fable, the last king of Assyria, the thirtieth in succession from Ninyas. The name is derived from that of Assur-danin-pal, the rebel son of Shalmaneser II., whose reign ended with the fall of Nineveh in 823 B.C. (or perhaps from that of Assur-dan III., the last king but one of the older Assyrian dynasty); his character is that ascribed to Assur-bani-pal. He was the most effeminate and corrupt of a line of effeminate princes; hence Arbaces, satrap of Media, rebelled and, with the help of Belesys, the Babylonian priest, besieged Nineveh. Sardanapalus now threw off his sloth and for two years the issue was doubtful. Then, the Tigris having undermined part of the city wall, he collected his wives and treasures and burned them with himself in his palace (880 B.C.). His fate is an echo of that of Samas-sum-yukin, the brother of Asur-bani-pal (q.v.).
See J. Gilmore, Fragments of the Persika of Ktesias (1888).  (A. H. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sardhana

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​SARDHANA, a town of British India, in Meerut district of the United Provinces, 12 m. by rail N.W. of Meerut. Pop. (1901), 12,467. Though now a decayed place, Sardhana is historically famous as the residence of the Begum Samru (d. 1836). This extraordinary woman was a Mussulman married to Reinhardt or Sombre (Samru), the perpetrator of the massacre of British prisoners at Patna in 1763. On his death in 1778 she succeeded to the command of his mercenary troops. Ultimately she was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, and bequeathed an immense fortune to charitable and religious uses. She built in Sardhana a Roman Catholic cathedral, a college for training priests, and a handsome palace.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brussilov, Alexei

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​BRUSSILOV, ALEXEI (1856-), Russian general, was born in 1856. His military career began in the Caucasus. His courage and capacities brought him to notice in the war with Turkey in 1877-8. The greater part of his military life was passed at the cavalry school for officers in St. Petersburg, of which he became director in 1900. Well acquainted with cavalry technique, of great erudition, he was very useful in this capacity. In 1905 General Brussilov commanded the second guard cavalry division, in 1909 an army corps, and somewhat later he was assistant to the commander-in -chief of the Warsaw military district. At the beginning of the World War he was nominated commander of the Russian VIII. Army, which acted with brilliant success in Galicia in 1914 and 1915. General Brussilov's reputation grew steadily, and in the winter of 1915-6 he was called to the command of the armies of the south-western front. During the summer of this year he conducted the great offensive in Galicia, which resulted in the capture of over 450,000 prisoners with enormous booty and trophies, and the relief of the Italian army by the withdrawal of considerable enemy forces thence to meet the crisis of Lutsk. In May 1917 after the revolution he was appointed to the supreme command, but he did not hold the appointment long. Later, he accepted the Bolshevik regime, and was often, though erroneously, reported to be in supreme command of the Bolshevik armies during the wars of 1919-20.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullard, Robert Lee

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BULLARD, ROBERT LEE (1861-), American soldier, was born at Youngsboro, Ala., Jan. 15 1861. He graduated from West Point in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892. He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War, and in the Philippines from 1902 to 1904. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator for the U.S. provisional Government in Cuba, and the following year was superintendent of public instruction there. In 1911 he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. He commanded the Second Brigade of the 1st Division of the A.E.F. in France in 1917 and was made major-general N.A. From the middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July following he commanded the 1st Division and from Oct. 1918 to the following July the Second Army. In Nov. 1918 he was appointed major-general in the regular army.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullen, Arthur Henry

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BULLEN, ARTHUR HENRY (1857-1920), British man of letters, was born in London Feb. 9 1857 and educated at the City of London school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was the son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the Printed Books at the British Museum. In earlier life he was a schoolmaster, but subsequently devoted himself to literary work. He became known as an authority on Elizabethan literature, and particularly for his discoveries of long-lost lyrics in the Bodleian and Christ Church libraries at Oxford, and his rediscovery of Campion in 1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see 5.138). For several years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence & Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare Head press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which he conducted until his death, but which was afterwards sold to B. H. Blackwell of Oxford. He died at Stratford-on-Avon Feb. 29 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bullen, Frank Thomas

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BULLEN, FRANK THOMAS (1857-1915), British novelist, was born in London April 5 1857 and was educated for a few years only at a dame school and Westbourne school, Paddington. When he was nine years old his school life came to an end, and he was employed as an errand boy for a time. In 1869 he went to sea, serving before the mast, and travelled to all parts of the world in various capacities including that of chief mate. In 1883 he gave up this seafaring life and became a clerk in the Meteorological Office until 1889. His reputation was made over the publication of The Cruise of the “Cachelot” (1906); and he also wrote, amongst other books, Idylls of the Sea (1899); Sea Wrack (1903); The Call of the Deep (1907) and A Compleat Sea Cook (1912), besides many articles and essays. He died at Madeira March 1 1915.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Buckle, George Earle

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BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE (1854-), English editor and man of letters, was born at Tiverton-on-Avon, Som., June 10 1854, eldest son of Canon George Buckle of Wells. He was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, being a scholar of his college, and graduated first class both in literae humaniores (1876) and in modern history (1877). He won the Newdigate prize poem in 1875. In 1877 he was elected to a fellowship at All Souls College, which he held until 1885. In 1880 he joined the staff of The Times; four years later, at the age of thirty, he succeeded Thomas Chenery as its editor. This position he occupied for nearly thirty years, retiring in Aug. 1912. When Mr. Monypenny, the biographer originally entrusted with the official Life of Disraeli, died in 1912 leaving his task unfinished, Mr. Buckle took over the work of completing it; under his authorship vol. 3 was published in 1914, vol. 4 in 1916, and the concluding vols. 5 and 6 in 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Budapest

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BUDAPEST (see 4.734). In 1910 the civil pop. of Budapest was 863,735, showing an increase of 20.55% in the decade. To this must be added a garrison of 16,636 men, making a total pop. of 880,371. Of the total pop. 756,070 were Magyars, 78,882 Germans, 20,359 Slovaks and the small remainder was composed of Poles, Ruthenians, Serbs, Croatians, Rumanians and others. According to religion there were 526,175 Roman Catholics, 9,428 Greek Catholics, 6,962 Greek Orthodox, 86,990 were Protestants of the Helvetic and 43,562 of the Augsburg Confessions, 203,687 were Jews and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. During the World War the extraordinary increase in the population of Budapest diminished, the census Jan. 1 1921 showing a pop. of 1,184,616.
In the years immediately preceding the war there were over 6,000 students at the university, and from 4,000 to 5,000 at the Polytechnic Institute. A new faculty of political economy was founded at the university in 1919, and the Geological and Meteorological Institutes are also of recent foundation.
The new Tisher rampart in Romanesque-Gothic transition style, with a bronze statue of St. Stephen, rises round the Matthias church. At the N. extremity of the fortress is the Gothic building of the National Archives, unfinished in 1921.
The development of Budapest came to a standstill during the war, and the lack of housing accommodation caused great distress among the increased population. The city suffered
severely during the Bolshevist ascendancy, and many robberies were committed by the Rumanian troops who occupied it in disregard of the decisions of the other Allied Powers (see Hungary). Fortunately, the English, American and Italian missions prevented the sacking of the museums and art galleries.
See Eugen Cholnoky, “The Geographical Position of Budapest,” Bulletin of the Hungarian Geographical Society, 1914–20, abridged.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Buckner, Simon Bolivar

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​BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823–1914), American soldier and political leader (see 4.732), died in Munfordville, Ky., Jan. 8 1914. He was the last surviving major-general of the Confederacy and the then oldest living graduate of West Point.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bucknill, Sir Thomas Townsend

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​BUCKNILL, SIR THOMAS TOWNSEND (1845–1915), English judge, was born at Exminster April 18 1845, the son of Sir John Charles Bucknill (1817–1897), a famous mental specialist. He was educated at Westminster school, and afterwards at Geneva. He was called to the bar in 1868, became a Q.C. in 1885, and a bencher of the Inner Temple in 1891. From 1885 to 1899 he was recorder of Exeter. He sat as Conservative member for Mid-Surrey from 1892 to 1899, in which year he was raised to the bench and knighted. He died at Epsom Oct. 4 1915.