# An Etymological Dictionary of the Norn Language in Shetland/Introduction/V

V.
Phonology.
The phonology of the Norn words handed down is on the whole somewhat confused, largely owing to the strong Scottish influence, an influence which has made the vowel-system very diversified. In a large number of cases, different forms of a word exist side by side (differing in different districts, but sometimes differing in one and the same district), frequently representing different stages of development. This alternation is due partly to non-uniform purely local development (especially in respect of the consonantal system), and partly to foreign (Scottish) influence, stronger or weaker in the different cases.
A. Vowel-changes (stem vowels).
I. Changes before non-mouillé consonants or (partly on account of dropping of the following consonant) when final.
1. O.N. “a” is usually preserved as a or ā, but has, however, in certain words changed to: a) o, ɔ; b) ō. In several cases a, ā alternate with o, ɔ, ō.
ā is commonly found in words and forms where the ancient language has only one consonant following the vowel, e.g.: dâla-mist. fār = far$^1$. hāf. kāvi. lāg, ᶅâg = lag$^1$. (but: to lag·stø̄t·). to lāg [laga], lag$^2$, slâg, slâgin = slag$^1$, slagin.
On the other hand, short vowel occurs in, e.g.: bani. flag = flag$^3$, slag = slag$^5$, slagg. tari-crook. See below, granibane.
Alternation between long and short vowel is found in, e.g.: drâg and (doon-)drag. rāb and rab = rab$^1$. Side by side with dagəli, dagali (which have regularly short a because a, ə between g and l is a later-inserted connecting vowel) go the forms dāgali, dâ·gali̇̄·ən.
Long a is found also in some cases before “r” followed by a consonant (esp. l, m, n), e.g.: ārm; fārlək; kwārna fārna (see Fragments of Norn, conversation); bârdasȯga, bārdəsōga (for “-arð” see further below), as well as in some words before “nd” (occas. “nt”), e.g.: bānd; a brānd = brand$^1$; to hāndirɩst·, hāntrɩst· (on the other hand, *hä‘ᶇta(r)less, *haᶇaless, see Fragments of Norn, riddles); a tānd. — The ā-sound is the most common in English words ending in “-and” in Shetl. For O.N. -and > Shetl. -änd (-ä‘ᶇt) see below § 16.
Alternation between a, ā and o, ɔ, ō takes place, inter alia, in the following words: artree and ōrdətags. dāg, dagəli, etc. (see prec.). dag·dwäᶅs; but: opadō·ga = uppadoga. de mill is drāgən and grindin’, but: to drōg a keᶊi = drog$^1$. fārna (Fragments of Norn), but: mɩs·fō·rən. granibane and grɔnabane = graniben. hag- in ​compds., such as a) *hag·mɛt· (on the other hand: hɔgstane = hogsten, in Wh.); b) hagəri = hagri$^1$. On the other hand: hōga, hogən. bȯᶇ·hō·ga. hōgalɩf (-lif, -lɩv). hāg = hag$^2$, and hōgər [hagr]. to knāb and to knōb, māgər [magr], but: come to mōgərdɔm. slag and slog (slȯg) [*slagi], slag$^5$, slagg. slāg and slōg = slag$^2$ and slog$^1$. stāri (Fo.), but: lɔŋ·gastō·ri (Wh.). ū·māg· and (j)ū·mōg· [úmagi].
o, ɔ, ō are preserved in, e.g.: a) mogi [magi]. ogə-, ɔkrə- [akr] in words such as ogedu and okrebung. vɔkər [vakr]. b) de fōgri [hinn fagri]. to kōg [kaga], kog$^1$. to ōg [aka]. skōrd [skarð], skord$^1$. Now only appearing in place-names: a) Gōrd [garðr], name of a house in Conningsburgh. “Meᶅa Gōrda” (see *gord). b) Vōrd [varða, varði], generally with the def. art.: de V. (see *vord).
More rarely ē, æ replace an original a (esp. before r), e.g.: to erg or ɛrg [arga]. ērskäi [*arðskíð]. gērbək, gærbək alongside of garbək [*garðbalkr], and gæ‘rstɩ alongside of gɔ‘rstɩ [garðstaðr or -stœði]. Further: to *bē [baða]. nægistɩk [hnakkastykki].
2. To O.N. “á” correspond in Shetl.: a) ō (wō), ū, (more rarely) ɔu; b) o, wȯ, ȯ, ɔ (å) (rarely) u. Examples:
a) bōl (bɔul) [bál], bol$^1$, boul. dōma and dūma [dámr]. hō [háfr]. hōrin, wōrin (for *hwōrin). ūri̇̄ən [*háringr for *hæringr]. kūm [*kám]. to lōd [láta], skōri [skári], skori$^1$. to sō [sá]. sōd [sát]. to spō [spá]. tədbɔu(s) [*tíðbrá], *tidbous. vō [vágr], å̄ appears very rarely, as in gå̄fa [gáfa]. b) blostər, blɔustər [blástr], bɔrək, bårək [bára]. grɔtsi [*grátsi]. hɔvi [háfr]. (h)wȯ‘lsbane [hálsbein], hwolsben. smut (smot) [smátt], smutt, adj. spjå‘lk, spjɔ‘lk [spjálk from spjalk]. -tåt (häᶅ·tåt·) [þáttr], halltott. wȯ‘lki (wȯ‘lkək, wȯlək). To these may be added the place-name Hofəl, Hufəl (names of various hills) = *Háfjall.
Long and short vowels alternate in, e.g.: gōdək and gȯdək [gáta]. lōdigrōd (-grȯt, -grȯd) [*látugrátr]. ōrli and wȯrli [*árhlið]. ū·rām· and hor(ə)m (hurəm) [*hárhamr], uram.
Various examples of a change á > wo appear in the Foula ballad, e.g. in verse 4: “sadnast wo” [sannast á]; v. 6: “twor” [tár]; v. 33: “fwo” [fá]. See prec. (2 a) wōrin.
3. To O.N. “e” correspond in Shetl.: a) ɛ, æ, (occas.) e; b) ē. Examples:
a) (e), ɛ, æ (æ commonly before r): bɛk [bekkr], bekk$^1$. brɛna [brenna]. bærəl [berill], berel. bærg [berg], berg; (unstressed in bɛrdus·, bɛrfäᶅ· = ber(g)dus, bergfall). dɛs [des]. to ɛg [eggja], egg, ägg. to fret [freta]. færd, færdək [ferð], ferd$^1$. hækəl [*hekl], †hekl$^2$, hekkel, vb. klɛts (klæts) [klettr], klett$^1$. mel- [mel-] (e is unchanged in this case because the main stress prob. has been laid on the foll. part of compd.). mæ‘rki [merki], merki$^2$. nev and nɛv [hnefi], nev$^2$. rækstər [rekstr], rekster$^1$. skɛkəl (skækəl) [*skekill]. to slɛp, slæp [sleppa], slepp. stæ‘rti [stertr], sterti. to æ‘lt [elta], elt$^1$. b) ēvalous [efalauss]. hēgri [hegri], hegri$^1$. lēga [lega]. rēg [rek], reg$^2$, and to rēg [reka].
Alternation between short and long vowel is found in words, such as: færdimɛt and fērdimɛt [*ferðarmatr], flɛs and flēs [fles], ​fles$^1$. glærəl and glērla, glērlək. lɛm and lēm [hlemmr], lemm. With this prob. goes hækla (hēkla).
Sometimes an original “e” changes to o or ȯ owing to the preceding w, e.g.: hwȯli [O.N. hvelja, Fær. kvölja], hwelji. hwopət (kwopət) [hvepti from hveppa], past t. of hwepp, hwipp.
4. O.N. “é” — Shetl. jē (ē), jɛ, ɛ.
Of this there are only a few examples: ᶊēla from *hjēla [héla], sjela. *spjēlman [*spélmaðr]. sp(j)ēviti [*spévætti], speviti. jɛlins [*élingar]. rɛta-dyke [réttar-].
é > ə, ȯ (after w) in wələ‘nt, wȯlə‘nt [vélindi], willend, wollend.
5. O.N. “i” — Shetl. a) ɩ, e, ə, ʌ; b) i̇̄ (partly abbreviated to i). Examples:
a) ɩ, e, ə, ʌ (before r usually ə; ʌ before l, lf, lt and ŋk): bɩdi [biti]. bɩ‘rtək, be‘rtək, bə‘rtək [birta, -i]. də‘msk(a) [*dimska], dərəl [*dirl], dirl, dirrel. drɩv [drif], driv$^1$. el and ʌl (comm.) [íllr], ill. ə‘lta and ʌ‘lta, ilta. fɩskafel [*fiskafjǫl]. gɩl (gɩlək, ꬶɩl) [gil] gil$^1$. grɩnd [grind], həmna [*himna], himna. to hərd [hirða], hird. kɩbək [kippa]. kə‘r·kasuk·ni [*kirkjusókn]. to lɩn [lina], linn$^1$. to mʌ‘ŋk [minnka], mink. nebərt [*niðrburðr], nebord. ned [niðr]. to pepər and pəpər [pipra], pipr, pipper. pʌ‘ltək [piltr], piltek. rɩvək (revək) [rifa]. sələk and sʌlək [*silungr], sillek. to stərən [stirðna], stirn. tə‘lfər, tʌ‘lfər [*þil(ju)far]) tilfer. tərən = tirren. — b) “i” has more rarely been preserved as i̇̄ or (abbr.) i: -li (ōrli, wȯrli) [-hlið]. li̇̄vən [lifandi]. mi̇̄d [mið], mid$^1$. Alternation between “i̇̄” and “i” in bri̇̄m (bri̇̄v) and brimi [brimi], i̇̄ and jē in mȯn·vi̇̄g· and -vjēg [*munnvik].
6. O.N. “í” — Shetl.: a) i̇̄, occas. (= Eng. long “i” in Shetl.) äi; b) more rarely short: i, ɩ, e. Examples:
a) gri̇̄mi [gríma]. hwi̇̄ld [hvíld]. i̇̄bɩt [*íbit]. to ki̇̄v [kífa]. li̇̄ [hlíð]. litəl [lítill]. ri̇̄ [hríð]. to ri̇̄n [hrína], rin$^1$. “jē (ē)” for “i̇̄” in ɔŋnibjēdər (ɔmnivēdər) = ɔŋglabiter. — i̇̄ and äi alternate in, e.g.: hwi̇̄ (kwi̇̄) and hwäi (kwäi) [kví]. — äi has found its way in, e.g.: äim [ím], im. häim [No. him], him. to kläin [klína]. -skäi [skíð] in ērskäi [*arðskíð]. — b) nisək [hnísa]. risəl [hrísla]. sɩmən [sími], simmen. tedbɔu(s) [*tíðbrá]. visək [vísa].
äi, i and ɩ alternate in “de sȯmərə läitla (läƫla) and l$^e$itᶅa”, de lɩtla summer [sumarit lítla].
7. O.N. “o” — Shetl. a) o, ɔ, ȯ, ɔ̇, u; b) ō (ø̄). Examples:
a) -brɔd [brot], brod$^1$. dɔf mould. fog and fɔg (fjog, fjȯg, fjok) [fok]. gȯr [gor]. grɔp [*grop]. hɔst [hosti]. kɔli [kola]. to krog, krɔg, krȯg [kroka]. krȯv [krof]. nog, nogin [*hnokkr], nogg$^2$, nugg. rok [rok], ruk$^1$. -skȯd (af(a)skȯd, ø̄vərskȯd) [skot], afskod, overskod. slȯd [slot]. spȯrd [sporðr]. strȯba [stropi], strobba. In a couple of words ɔ̇ replaces an orig. o: bɔ̇d [boði], bod$^2$, dɔ̇d [þot], dod. *brɩm·tɔ̇d·. In a few cases u replaces O.N. “o”: krupin (kropin) [kroppinn]. urm- (orm-) [ormr], urmek. — b) ō in, e.g.: frōd [froða], fro$^2$, frod. to sōv [sofa], sov$^1$. to t(j)ōg [toga]. — ø̄ replaces an older “o (oð)” in, e.g.: ɩn·bø̄ = innbø. Further: mø̄ [moð], mø$^2$, like the more common mor = morr$^1$; in the N.I.: mȯdər = modder. Occas. ø̄ for long o or oa finds its way also into Eng. ​words in Shetl., e.g.: “bø̄r” (bore, the past t. of to bear), “bø̄rd” (board in a boat). On the other hand, to møv or mȯv (move).
Long and short vowel-sounds (ō, ȯ) alternate in, e.g.: to dōvən and to dȯfən [dofna]. gōsən and gōzən [gosinn]. klōv(i) and klȯva [klȯfi].
a has found its way in, e.g.: gagəl [gogli], gagl. katameᶅ·a (skäƫ·ɩmeliskrū·a) [skotta millum skrúfa]. — ā in bā [boði], ba$^1$.
8. O.N. “ó” — Shetl. a) ū, occas. ø̄, exceptionally ō; b) more rarely short vowel: u, o (ȯ), ɔ, ø. Examples:
a) gūən [*góðan or *góðing]. hūb [hóp]. to klūr [klóra]. mūd (mōd) [mót], mud$^2$. slū [slóð], slu$^1$. ᶊūr- [sjóvar], sjurmol. stūr [stórr]. krø̄ [Icel. kró] krø$^2$. to rø̄s [hrósa]. — u and ø̄ alternate in, e.g.: mū or mø̄ = mu$^1$ and mø$^1$, sbs. mūd and mø̄d [móðr], mud$^1$, mød, mø. ū·rū· or ū·rø̄(d)· [úró], uru. — b) groma, grȯma [gróma?]. hulsund [*hólmsund], hulmsund. rɔvək [rófa], rovek$^2$. skogin [skóinn]. *spoŋna [spónninn] (see Fragments of Norn, conversation), tovi [þófi], *tovi-rovin, *tuvi-rovin.
bøl [ból], in place-names, on the other hand: būl. — u and o alternate in lū·mōl· and lomōl· [*hljóðmál].
9. O.N. “u” — Shetl. u, o, ȯ (ȯ is also the Shetl. pronunciation of short Eng. u). Examples:
bo‘ŋki [No. bunka], bunki$^1$. borəl [*burl]. bȯmi [No. bumba], bommi, etc. -bȯrd (fərəbȯrd, fɔgbȯrd). bulin (bolin) [bulungr (and bolungr)], bolin(g), bolek. bu‘lk [No. bulk]. bus [*bus]. -dudlin and dodlək [*dulla], dollek$^2$. -flȯga (and -flog) [fluga], floga$^2$. golataŋ [*gulaþang]. go‘lsa [gulusótt], gulsa. krȯb, krȯbək [krubba], krobb, krobbek. krugi and krȯg [No. krugg], krugi$^1$, krogg. mo‘rt [murtr], murt. mosk [*musk], musk and musker$^1$. to mȯn [muna]. mȯst [No. must]. ȯrdəl- [hurðar-], ordel-tree, pjusk and pjosk [*pusk]. rus [*rus]. rosk [*rusk], rusk$^1$. skȯrm (skȯrəm, skȯrȯm). sȯg(a) [*sugga], sogga. sund [sund], sund$^1$; (u in sund is prob. due to Scottish infl.: Sc. soond; cf. -sȯᶇd as a place-name, § 19). toŋ·gəfäᶅ· [*tungufall], tungefall. to‘rkəsȯt [*þurkasótt], turkesott.
10. O.N. “ú” — Shetl. a) ū; b) u, occas.: o, ȯ, ø. Examples:
a) bū- [bú], bu$^2$. to kūr. pjū [*pú]. rūg [hrúga]. skrū [skrúf]. skūr [skúr], skur$^1$. tūg (tūəg) [þúfa]. tūn [tún]; on the other hand comm.: tunwəl(s), tunməl(s) [túnvǫllr]. — b) grøt [Icel. grútr], grøt$^2$. hukəti [húkótti] (see IV, § 27). kupa [kúpa]. kupi, kopi, kobi, kȯbi [kúpa], kupi. mul, mol, mäl [múli], mul$^1$. puki [púki], puki$^1$.
Long and short vowel-sounds alternate in, e.g.: hūn and hun [*húnn]. To this rule belong perhaps stjūgi and stuki, stogi [stúka?], stuki.
11. O.N. “y” — Shetl. a) ɩ (e), ə, ȯ, ø; b) ø̄. Examples:
a) bɛrꬶɩ‘l·tək [No. berggylta]. bər, bȯr [byrr], bir, birr. bɩg [bygð], bigg$^2$, bɩgin, occas. bøgin [*bygging], biggin$^2$. bɩrdək [byrðr]. bɩrək, berək, bjerək [*byrjan or *byrjing], birek, birrek. dȯn [dynr], don$^2$, dȯs [dys]. fərə [fyrir], *fire, prep. glɩg, gleg [glygg(r), gligg$^1$. kȯr(l) [kyrr], korr$^1$. to ᶄø‘rk (ᶄȯ‘rk) [kyrkja]. løna-break. mə‘rk [myrkr, Sc. mirk], nɩdərd, nedərd [*nytróttr], nidderd. pøti, ​pəti (päiti) [*pytti], pøtti. rɩgagitəl [hryggjar-]. slȯdər, slȯrd [*slytr], slodder$^1$ (sluder). sȯtᶊkins (sȯƫᶊkins) [systkin]. tød [þytr]. — b) long vowel-sound (ø̄) in a few words, as: to smø̄r [smyrja]. to spø̄r [spyrja]. ø̄l [ylr]. To this rule prob. also belong ni̇̄, nø̄ [*nyt?], ni, no$^2$.
12. O.N. “ý” — Shetl. a) ø̄, i̇̄, occas. (like long Eng. “y” in Shetl.) äi; b) ø, i. Examples:
a) drø̄lin [*drýll]. to flø̄d [flýta], flod$^2$. gø̄r [gýgr]. hø̄ [hý], hø$^1$. de *ᶄø̄r(ə)n [kýrnar], *kørn. lø̄ [lýðr], lø$^2$. *skø̄ [ský] (see Fragments of Norn, riddles), to *bri̇̄ [brýna]. ti̇̄li [þýðligr]. — i̇̄ and ø̄ alternate in, e.g.: skri̇̄vlin, skrø̄vlin [*skrýflingr]. ø̄ and äi alternate in, lø̄r and läiri [lýrr], lør$^1$, to skäil and skø̄l, sᶄø̄l [skýla]. b) -bøsni [býsn], bøsni. hømin [*hýming]. Cf. the place-name Mørna [mýrina], IV, § 20. — nivi [*hnýf-]. — i and ø alternate in, e.g.: grik and (more rarely) grøk.
Long and short vowels alternate in, e.g.: grø̄tək (grø̄ta) and grødək [grýta]. trø̄ni and trøni [trýni]. sti̇̄vin and stivən [*stýfingr].
13. O.N. “æ” — Shetl. a) ē; b) e, ɛ (æ), etc. Examples:
a) kēr, kērə [kærr]. lēr = †ler$^1$. skrēlin [skrælingr]. swēl [svæla], swel$^2$. vēn [vænn]. — b) ɛrək, ærək [*æringr], erik. to res [ræsa], res$^2$. e, ə, i in: dwetəl, dwətəl, twidəl [*þvætl, *þvætla], see § 36. ȯ in grȯla [No. græla].
14. O.N. “œ” — Shetl. a) ø̄; b) ø (occas.: e). Examples:
a) a bø̄li [bœli], bøli$^1$. *fø̄r [fœra] (see Fragments of Norn, conversation), kø̄d [*kœða]. -mø̄ [mœða, -i], mø$^4$. — b) beniman (for *bøniman) [*bœna(r)maðr]. bø̄di [*bœti], bødi$^2$, bøti. lølək [hlœgligr]. møni [mœna]. søt(a) [sœtr].
Long and short vowels alternate in, e.g.: bø̄di and bøti [*bœti], bødi$^2$, bøti.
15. O.N. “ǫ” — Shetl. a) ȯ, o (u), ɔ, ə, ø; b) ō, ø̄.
a) bə‘rk [bǫrkr], berk. fjȯra-, fjora, fjɔra [fjǫru from fjara]. to hjog [hǫggva], hjogg, hjugg. hogi [hǫgg], hogg$^1$, hugg, etc. homliband, hȯm(b)li- [hǫmluband]. jokəl [jǫkull]. jɔkəl [ǫxl], jokl, jokkel. kos, kus [kǫs] = kjȯs. ᶊȯn (ᶊȯdən) and ᶊøn [tjǫrn], sjonn. spɔŋgət [spongóttr]. stɔŋ [stǫng], stong. tȯ‘rfət, tȯ‘rfi and tɔ‘rfi [*tǫrfóttr]. todələk, tudələk, tøþələp (tɔudilep) [*tǫðulaupr], tudelep. — b) fōri (fø̄rd?) [fǫr], fori. mōgət [mǫgóttr]. ø̄g = jōg, jog$^1$.
ɛ (e), ē have found their way into a few words: dɛk [dǫkk], dekk. reŋ [rǫng], reng. stɛŋ = stɔŋ (see prec.). — fjēl [fjǫl].
II. Vowel changes before palatalized consonants.
16. “a” regularly changes to ä (occas. ȯ or ɔ̇; cf. the change a > o, ɔ) before palatalized consonants, esp. ᶅ and ᶇ, occas. ƫ (ᶁ). "äit" freq. replaces “äƫ". Examples:
bäᶅ = ball. -fäᶅ [fall], fall. skäᶅət [*skallóttr for skǫllóttr]. äᶇder (ȯᶇdər, ɔ̇ᶇdər) [anddyri]. äᶇdi [andi], andi$^1$. *äᶇəhwa‘rt [annathvart]. bläᶇda [blanda]. bȯᶇ- (bɔ̇ᶇ-) [barn], *bonn. fjäᶇdi [fjandi]. *häᶇ, käᶇ [hann, kann], *hann, *hanna, *hanne. väᶇd [vandi]. äƫifər (äitifər) and atwərs [atferð], atferd. ȯᶁbə‘rt, ɔ̇ᶁ- (more rarely: ​äᶁbə‘rt), [atburðr], odbord, etc. käƫiklūr and käitaklūr [*kattaklór], kattaklur. päƫəl- and päitəl-tree [from *patla], patl-tree, pattel-tree. väƫi- and väitabând (also: v$^e$iti-) [*vattaband], vattaband.
æ > ä in twäƫəld, twäitəld [from a verb: *þvætla], see § 36.
17. In the same position orig. “e” changes rather frequently to ä. It has been preserved as ɛ (e) in e.g.: at·avɛ‘ᶅ·ta [*aptrvelta], attavelta, etc. hɛᶅək [hella], hellek, hella$^2$. hɛᶅər [hellir], heller. veᶅən, vɛᶅən = vellin$^1$ (villin). — Alternation between e (ɛ) and ä takes place in words, such as: breᶇək (brɛᶇək) and bräᶇək [Fær. brenning], brennek$^1$. breᶇər (brɛᶇər) and bräᶇər [*brennir], brenner. smeᶅər (smɛᶅər) and smäᶅər [*smellari], smellek, smeller. sw$^e$itək, swäƫək and swäitək [*skvettingr], swettek, swäittek. ä is always found in words as: to dwäᶅ [dvelja], dwälj. skäᶅ [O.N. skellr], skell. to räᶇd [renna], räind. *väᶇd(i) [vent þik or pér], väind.
18. Original “i” (and “í”) is treated in the same way as “e”: ä‘ᶅᶊkət ["ilskóttr, O.N. *ílskóttr], ilsket, 2. bä‘ᶇtər = bjɩ‘ntər: binder. häᶇd [O.N. hinna], häind. to p$^e$ɩ‘ᶅk and pä‘ᶅk = pilk. ᶊopä‘ᶅti [sjópiltr], sjupilti. sȯmərə läƫla and läitla [lítla] (see under litel, adj.). stä‘ᶅk [stilkr], stilk. stɩᶅərs- (steᶅərs) and stäᶅərs-dyke [stillis-], stillers-dike. On the other hand, ɩ, e are always found in tɩᶅi, teᶅi [þilja], tilji, tilli.
19. Original “á” before a palatalized consonant (mostly ᶅ, ᶇ) changes to ɔ or ȯ (ɔ̇), while “o (ó), u, ú, y, ý, æ and ǫ”, in the same position, regularly become ȯ (ɔ̇). ɔit, ȯit (ɔ̇it) mostly replace final ɔƫ, ȯƫ (ɔ̇t); ȯin occas. replaces ȯᶇ. Examples:
gɔit, gȯit (gɔ̇it, gȯƫi) [gátt]. ū·mɔƫ· or ū·mɔit· [úmáttr], umott. umɔƫ·a, omɔƫ·a = umotta, is derived from the latter. *gȯit [gótt or gɔtt], *gott and *goit. hȯᶅi = holli. hȯ‘ᶅk (hɔ̇‘ᶅk) [No. holk], holk$^2$. hȯᶇ- (hɔ̇ᶇ-) [horn] in honngel. *kȯᶇ·mæ‘r·ki (kɔ̇ᶇ-) *konnmerki. For the change ðk > rk cf. No. mark, maggot, worm. to skȯit (skɔ̇it), skott. ȯᶅa (ɔ̇ᶅa)-pluck [ullar-], olla-pluck. rȯ‘ᶅk [No. rulk]. stȯ‘ᶅka [stulka]. mȯᶇd [mund]. ȯᶇdali [undarligr]. -sȯᶇd [sund] in place-names: Hul·sȯᶇd· [*hólmsund], hulmsund. stȯᶇdi = stond (stoind)$^2$, etc. gȯᶅdət = goldet. *blohȯᶇ·in (-ən, -hȯᶇ·din) = *blohonnin. hȯᶇin, hȯᶇən [*hyrningr], honnin. *dȯᶇa [dyrnar], *dønna, *dønni. mȯᶅgət [Icel. myglaðr]. sȯƫᶊkins [systkin]. *ūtȯƫləkt, *ūtȯitləkt (-ləχt) [úþýðlig-t], *utoitleg, -t. grȯ‘ᶇᶊka [grœnska]. dȯl·hɔit·, -hɔ̇it· [dylhǫttr (or -hattr), dolhoit. ȯᶇd (ɔ̇ᶇd) [ǫnd], ond$^1$. trȯᶅ [trǫll], troll.
ȯin for ȯᶇ in e.g.: tan·grȯi·nin [*tanngrunnungr], tanngroinin. to drȯin [drynja], dronj, droin.
$^e$ɩ and ä for orig. “y” have found their way in b$^e$ɩ‘ᶅk and bä‘ᶅki [*bylki], mutated form of bu‘lk. On the other hand, ø in rø‘ᶅki [*rylki] (= rȯ‘ᶅki) is a mutated form of rȯ‘ᶅk, and in *ø̄ᶇd, *ø$^i$nd [O.N. hyrni] (but: hȯᶇək = O.N. horn).
Note. After ᶅ and ᶇ (nj) regularly appear: a) o, u for ø or ȯ; b) ō, ū for ø̄; e.g.: to fᶅōg [fløygja], flog$^3$, fljog. ᶅōg [lǫgr], log, ljog$^1$. ᶅōg [lœkr], log, ljog$^3$. On the other hand: Løgəna, IV, § 20. ᶅū [hljóð], lju$^1$; cf. lø̄(d). ᶅū [Icel. hlýr], lø$^1$, adj. ᶅūd [ljótr], ​ljud. ᶅūm(i) [ljómi], ljumi, ljum. njogəl, ᶇogəl [nykr], njuggel (njugl). sᶇukər (sᶇokər), sᶇuger (sᶇoger) [snykr], snjuger, snjuker.
III. Diphthongs.
The old diphthongs (ei, au [ǫu], øy) in Shetlandic have become monophthongs.
20. O.N. ei — Shetl. a) ē (ɛ̄, ǣ), occas. prefixed by j (jē, etc.); b) e, ɛ, and prefixed by j: jɛ. Examples:
a) blēg (but Blegəna, IV, § 20). ēd [eið], *ed (esp. in place-names). ēs [eisa], es, sb. fjēdin [*feitingr]. grē(d) [greiði], gred and gre. jɛ̄, jǣ [eið]. kēb [keipr]. mēᶊi [meiss]. skrē [skreið], skre$^1$. vēdək, vjēdək [veit(a)], vedek$^2$. b) etər and jɛdər [eitr]. fɛdməl [feitr]. hɛᶅa- (hɛᶅahwa‘rf) [heillar-], *hellahwarf. to hɛ‘nt, hæ‘nt [heimta], hent$^1$. jɛma [eimr]. lɛra [O.N. leira]. rɛdᶊkab [reiðskapr].
ben in compds., such as: benibitər, is O.N. bein. Furthermore Shetl. en, ben, sten, assimilate to Scottish ane [one], bane [bone], stane [stone].
21. O.N. au (ǫu) — Shetl. a) ō, mostly with prefixed j: jō, and ø̄; b) o, ɔ, ȯ, u, ø. r is usually followed by ø̄ or ø. Examples:
a) bjōg [baugr], bjog$^1$. to gjōl [gaula]; on the other hand: to gȯᶅ·brø̄l·. *hjōg [haugr], hjog$^1$. hø̄g in a compd. (place-name), see IV, § 20, the end; short vowel-sound in hjok·fəᶇ·i (hjɔk-) [*haugfunnin], hjogfinni. *jōga [auga], *joga and *jog$^2$. *jōra and ōrna- [øyra], *jora and joraskap, -skep. a tōm [taumr]. brø̄d [braut]. skø̄vi [skauf], skøvi$^1$. stø̄ri [staurr]. — ø̄ and ō alternate in the place-name Sø̄bel and Sōbel: see bøl, sb. b) a gjɔpm (gɔpm)$^2$ [gaupn], gopn, etc. *grøtᶊta [*grautstaðr]. klȯstər, kløstər, klostər (klustər) [klaustr]. -lop (-lup) (vandilop, -lup) [hlaup], lop and lup, vandlup. Iopi, lupi [laupr], lopi$^1$, lupi.
Long and short vowel alternate in e.g.: nø̄d and not, nut [naut], nød, not$^1$, nut. *rø̄ and *rød [rauðr]. rø̄n(i) and røni [hraun].
In a few cases the sound ɔu is found preserved (owing to Scottish influence), e.g.: to ɔus [ausa], ous. ɔus·kær·i [aus(t)ker], oustkerri. op·lɔu·sin = upp-lousin’.
22. O.N. øy — Shetl. ø̄ (rarely ē). Examples:
klø̄vin [*kløyfingr]. a lø̄bin [*hløypingr]. rø̄dastab [*royðarstabbi]. to strø̄ [strøyja]. sø̄da [*søyða]. an *ø̄r, old measure of land, ⅛ of a ma‘rk, mæ‘rk [mǫrk], mark$^2$; O.N. øyrir. Change of ø̄ (orig. øy) to ē has taken place, e.g.: ēr (occas. ø̄r) [øyrr], er$^3$.
Short vowel (ȯ) in rȯdərastȯb [*røyðrarstabbi or -stubbi].
23. The combinations já, jó, and jú in O.N. commonly change to ø̄ (ø) in Shetl. Examples:
*drø̄g [drjúgr]. *førə [fjórir] (Fragments of Norn, riddles), to klø̄ [O.N. at kljá]. lø̄(d) (lød) [hljóð]. to rø̄d [hrjóta], rød$^1$.
In Foula an older “ljó” is partly preserved as ljū and (with ​secondary accent) ljo, e.g.: *ljūs [ljós], *ljus (see Fragments of Norn, verse of a song). *ataljos [*aptrljós], attaljos.
For ljó > ᶅū and (with dropped palatalization) lū, see §§ 19 (note) and 39.
Mutation.
24. In a number of feminine words ending in a, and with a as the root-vowel, the u-mutation has found its way into the nominative.
blɔka, blɔk, bloga [Icel. blaðka], blokk and blokka. *bɔŋga [bang]. fjora, fjɔra [fjara]. flȯdərək, flōd(ə)rək$^1$ [*flaðra], fladrek, flodrek. fȯdək [fata] = fedek (fiddek), etc. lōdi [hlaða]$^1$, lodi$^1$. lɔŋgafish [langa]. *skjɔldra [*skjaldra]. so‘lta [*salta], sulta. ø̄g, jōg [aða], jog$^1$.
a of the stem has been preserved in e.g.: bläᶇda [blanda]. a in blānd = bland$^2$, has been lengthened.
25. The dropping of i-mutation, in many cases, is characteristic of the Shetlandic dialect.
ā, a have replaced ē ɛ, æ e.g.: to hwarv [hverfa], hwarv$^2$. lāma = lēm [hlemmr], lemm. to râg [reka], rag$^2$. (droᶅ-)ᶊlâgət [-slegit], drollslaget = troll-. vâr [verði], var$^3$, vb. (see vâr, IV, § 29). to vāv [vefja]. — ō (ɔ) (orig. á) has replaced ē (ɛ) (orig. æ) in e.g.: hōrin [*hæringr]. lōrin [*læringr]. rō [hræ], ro$^3$. to rōn [ræna], ron$^1$. *ᶊəᶅō·ga [Icel. sjálægja], *sjologa, etc. to sōd [sæta]. sōdi (sɔdi) [sæti], sodi$^1$. to sprōn [O.N. spræna]. strōdi [O.N. stræti], strodi$^1$. ūgjōvous [úgæfr]. Cf. verse 4 in the Foula ballad: “osta” [hæsta], v. 25: “grothe” [grætr], v. 35: “bo” [bæði]. In Low’s list of words: “oron” [= ær-in], ewe. smōra. — o (ɔ), u, ū (orig. o, u, ó, ú) have replaced ø, ø̄, ȯ, ə, ɩ, i, i̇̄ (orig. y, œ, ý) in e.g.: to āndū [O.N. andœfa]. *boga [O.N. bygg], *bugga. borlibānd; cf. vattaband. *droka [O.N. drykrr and drykkja], *drukka. hūnək [hœna]. hjɔ‘nsa, jɔ‘nsi. orməl, urməl [*yrmill or yrmlingr]. ros(s)i and roᶊən, ruᶊən [hryssa-n], russen, etc. to rū [O.N. rýja], ru$^4$. to stū [O.N. stýfa], stu$^1$. trogəl [trygill], trugel, truggel$^1$. Cf. verse 30 in the Foula ballad: “otsta” [ytsta].
In a number of words, forms without mutation are found side by side with mutated forms. Alternation between ō and ø̄ appears in klōvin and klø̄vin; between ū and ø̄ in būnək and bø̄nək = bø̄nhus, krūgi and krø̄gi [*krœki], krugi$^2$, krøgi.
Alternation between ø and ɔ (ɔu) occurs in e.g.: østət milk (comm.) and ɔstət (ɔustət) milk [yst mjólk].
26. Breaking of “e, i” is found in a few words where it is absent in O.N.: bja‘rtin [birtingr]. to *fjâl [fela]. Cf. Kwatə jāda [hvat er þat], see Fragments of Norn, conversation, and verse 4 in the Foula ballad “Whar an yaar” [hvar hann er], v. 13: “yach” [ek]. — jā for orig. “é” is found in: spjâlər [*spélari]; on the other hand, *spjēlman.
​ᶅā, ᶇā mostly replace ljā, njā, e.g.: ᶅâgər (and with dropped palatalization: lâgər) = lēgər, ᶅēgər. ᶇâfatag = nevatjɔg [*hnefatak]. to ᶇām [O.N. nema], njam.
Consonantal Changes.
27. b and p, when initial, occas. alternate, e.g.: bɛrdus· and perdus· [*bergdus]. bjak and pjak [No. pjakke]. p for b in ȯnplost, o‘mplȯst (-pləst) [*andblástr].
Initial b and v (for orig. b) alternate in e.g.: bəl and vəl [No. bull], bill, will$^{1,2}$. bɩ‘rtək, etc., and vɩrda, vɩrdək [birta, -i]. bȯ‘ᶇᶊ·vam· and vȯ‘ᶇᶊ·vam· [*barnsvamm].
28. d in the comb. nd changes to t in several cases, e.g.: bjɩ‘ntər, etc. [*bindari], bjintaar, etc. = binder. blȯ‘ᶇt [O.N. blundr]. to hān·trist· [handhrista], handrist. *häᶇta(r)less (see Fragments of Norn, riddles), lä‘ᶇtfəl [landfall], landfell, -fel. To this rule prob. belongs: a‘nti = anti. Occas. also initially: trāvi = drāvən.
dj commonly changes to dᶎ (in a few places, such as Wh., to tᶎ): dᶎa‘rf (tᶊa‘rf) [O.N. djarfr]. dᶎūb (tᶊūb) [O.N. djúp], djub, djup. dᶎūr [djór], djur$^1$. — da‘lk > dja‘lk > *ᶁa‘lk > *dᶎa‘lk > tᶊja‘lk.
29. As a rule original “ð” is partly 1) dropped, partly 2) changed to d. In Du. ð is found preserved in several words — see further § 42. Examples:
ð is dropped in e.g.: *gūə [góða for góðri]. gūən [*góðan or *góðing]. li̇̄ [hlíð]. to lø̄ [hlýða], lø$^1$; more rarely: to lø̄d, lød = lød$^2$, lø̄ [lýðr], lø$^2$. mø: a) [moð], mø$^2$; b) [mœða, -i], mø$^4$. ri̇̄ [hríð]. *ri̇̄n(a) [ríðandi], *ria. *rō [ráð], *ro$^2$. slū [slóð], slu$^1$. slūi [slóði]. to sni̇̄, snē [sníða, sneiða]. -ti [tíð] in swartati. *trō [þráðr], see Fragments of Norn, verses. vā [O.N. vað].
ð is preserved as d in e.g.: to bōd [boða], bod$^2$, frōd [froða], fro$^2$, frod. gødin [*gœðing]. kø̄d [*kœða]. mi̇̄d [mið], mid$^1$. to rād. sēd [seiðr]. spadi [spaði]. stȯdək [staði or *stœða]. tədbɔu(s) [*tíðbrá], *tidbous. vadəl [vaðill]. (w)ōd [vaða].
Parallel forms (with and without d) appear, inter alia in the foll. words: a) to afrō· and afrod· [afráða]. grē and grēd [greiði]. lø̄ and lø̄d [hljóð], lø$^1$. *rø̄ and *rø̄d [rauðr]. With regard to the three words here first given, forms with and without d are used promiscuously. b) bā and bɔ̇d [boði]. *bø̄ and bødi [*byð-]. jadər [jaðarr]. jɛ̄ (jǣ) and ēd [eið] = *ed. The forms with and without d of these words have assumed different meanings.
ð is usually preserved as d in the combination “ðr”, e.g.: flādrək, flȯdərək [*flaðra]. lȯdər [lǫðr]. lūdərhorn [lúðr]. *mȯdəra, -ə [maðr(inn)] (see Fragments of Norn, riddles). Alternation takes place in rudər and rūr [hrúðr]. “rð” is commonly preserved as rd, e.g.: bɩrdək [byrðr]. bȯrd [burðr], bord$^2$. færd [ferð], ferd$^1$; but unstressed “-fər” in gālafər. *gōrd [garðr]. hardi [harði]. to hərd [hirða]. hȯrdək, hȯrdin [urð]. ōrdə(r)- [arðr] in *orderus. skōrd [skarð], skord$^1$. spȯrd [sporðr]. On the other hand, with consonant following, e.g.: to stərən [stirðna]. To this rule, vâr [verði], var$^3$, forms an exception (see IV, § 29).
​ð is mostly dropped in the conbination “gð”, but is occasionally changed to d or (ə)t. Examples: to af·breg(d)·, ōbreg (ut·brag· or ut·brāg·: Sa.). Further: (hɛ‘nti-, hæ‘nti-)lag and -lagət (lagəd) [lagðr], hentilaged. to hɛ‘nt (hæ‘nt) lag(ət)s (lagəds), hent$^1$.
A development ð > d > t (ƫ) has taken place in e.g.: *a$^i$·trahō·la [aðrahvára]. ū·tȯƫ·ləkt [úþýðligt]. väƫi- or väitikēb [*vaðkeipr]. When final, t is often found after r in an unstressed or secondary stressed syllable: -gə‘rt (mä‘rtigə‘rt, ɔkrəgə‘rt = merkigord, okregord) [garðr]. nebə‘rt [*niðrburðr], nebord. ȯᶁbə‘rt [atburðr], odbord, etc. Further: murət [mórauðr], mured.
“ðj” has become dᶎ, in e.g.: to rȯdᶎ [ryðja], rodj; on the other hand, e.g.: wɩdi [viðja], widdi.
Occasionally d from ð (when final) gives place to g fɔg·(ə)bȯr·gər [*fokburðr] and kāvabȯrg [*kafaburðr]. jōg, ø̄g [aða], jog$^1$, øg. lɛg-vi̇̄sər [*leiðvísari]. skri̇̄g, parallel form to skri̇̄d [skrið]. Cf. verse 12 in the Foula ballad: “Nu linge stug an Konign”: nú lengi stóð hann konungrinn; v. 4: “gloug” [glóð].
30. f, when final, and before a vowel at the end of a word, has sometimes been preserved, in other cases it has been changed to v. Forms with f and v alternate in several words. Examples:
dɔf mould [*dofmold], but dōvən [dofinn]. *gåfa [gáfa]. gof [*gof(a), *guf(a)]. hāf [haf]. f commonly follows r, e.g.: dᶎa‘rf [djarfr]. ska‘rf [skarfr]. tȯ‘rfət, etc. [*tǫrfóttr]. On the other hand, arvi [arfi], arvi$^1$. ēvalous [efalauss]. hɔvi, høvi [háfr]. to kāv [kafa]. klø̄vin [*kløyfingr]. krȯv [krof]. nev, nɛv [hnefi], nev$^2$. to rɩv [rifa], riv$^2$. rɔvək [rófa], rovek$^2$. a skâv [^skaf]. to skāv [skafa], skav$^1$. to sōv [sofa and sœfa], sov$^2$. to tø̄v [þœfa].
Alternation takes place in e.g.: to dōvən and to dȯfən [dofna]. kāvi, kāva and kāfə, kāfa = kavi, etc. klōv(i), klȯvən and klȯfən [klofi, klofann]. nevatjɔg and ᶇâfatag [*hnefatak], nevatag.
f (after ū) has been dropped in e.g.: skrū [skrúf]. to stū [stýfa], stu$^1$. Likewise f is dropped after ō in hō [háfr].
Initially, f and v (for orig. f) alternate in a few words, e.g.: fasgə‘rt, vasgə‘rt and vadᶎ·gōr·din [fastgarðr], vatək = fȯdək.
31. g is commonly preserved as g, when final and between two vowels, e.g.: bogi [bogi], bogi$^1$. drâg (-drag), to drōg [draga], drog$^1$. -flȯga (-flog) [fluga], floga$^2$. mogi [magi], mogi (see Fragments of Norn, adages and proverbs). rūg [hrúga]. slāg, slāgin [slag], slag$^1$, slagin. smoga, smɔga [smoga or smuga]. a stɩgi [stigi], stiggi$^1$. trogəl [trygill], trugel, truggel$^1$. g has been dropped in vō [vágr]. “gi (ggi)” > dᶎi in e.g. bɛldᶎiən = belgjin; knȯdᶎi = knoggi.
g alternates with ꬶ (the latter is esp. common in N.I.) before e and ɩ in a stressed syllable, e.g.: gebi and ꬶebi [Icel. gepill]. to gɛld and ꬶɛld [gelda]. a ꬶɛldin [geldingr]. ꬶera. (see Fragments of Norn, conversation), a gɛtlin, ꬶɛtlin [*geltingr]. ꬶɩl (gɩlək) and ꬶɩl [gil], gil$^1$. gɩld or ꬶɩld [gildr]. ꬶɩ‘mp [*gim], gimp$^1$. On the other hand, always with g-sound in the unstressed, final syllable “gi”. “gø̄” and “ꬶø̄” from orig. “gý” in gø̄r, ꬶø̄r [gýgr].
​gj is preserved in e.g.: gjō [gjá]. On the other hand, gj is commonly changed to dᶎ; in e.g.: dᶎȯlgər, dᶎölgər = gjolg (gjölg), etc.
g occas. changes to k, esp. in the comb. lg, ng. Examples: hȯ‘ᶅkin (hɔ̇‘ᶅkin). to hȯ‘lk = holk$^1$. tᶎö‘lk = dᶎȯlgər, dᶎölgər, see prec. ha‘ŋklin = hanklin; on the other hand haŋglin = hanglin. stɛ‘ŋkəls = stɛ‘ŋglins: stenglin. — rg > rk in e.g.: mæ‘rki [mergr], mergi$^1$. — gn > kn in e.g.: fᶅoknər [prob. *flognir]. op(a)brak = uppbrak, uppabrak. — g > k, when initial (rarely): to kȯrhərd· = to gȯrhərd·.
32. Initial h is occas. dropped before a vowel, as well as before j and w. Examples:
(h)a‘l·tagɔŋ·gi [halt gǫngu], *haltagonga, -gi. hjɩgəl (hjogəl) and jɩgəl, jɩgəlti [hégeitill]. hjɔ‘nsa and jɔ‘nsi [hœns]. horəm and ū·rām· [hárhamr]. hōrin and wōrin, jōrin, ūriən [*háringr]. hwȯ‘ls- and wȯ‘lsbane [*hálsbein]. to og(g) [hugga], ogg$^1$. ȯrdəltree [*hurðartré]. Cf. in the Foula ballad: “elde” [heldr], “e(i)dnar” [hennar], “yilsa” [heilsa], “yom” [heim].
On the other hand, h is prefixed to a few words, e.g.: to häᶇ·vâg· [*andvaka], hanvag. hɩldin = ɩldin [eldinn]. hȯrdək, hȯrdin [urð(in)]. Among these should prob. be reckoned hōl pʌ‘ltək = hol$^1$. Alternation occurs in ofsa- and hofsahɛᶅək [*upsarhella].
hj has been changed to ᶊ, e.g.: ᶊarəl [*hjarl], sjarl, sjarrel. ᶊålmət [hjálmóttr], sjolmet. ᶊēla from *hjēla [héla], sjela. On the other hand with dropped h: ja‘rta [hjarta].
h has been dropped in the comb, hl (hlíð > li̇̄, etc.), and mostly in hr (hraun > røni, etc.), and occas. in hn (hnísa > nisək). nogins = knɔkins: noggin, etc., †knokk$^2$, etc.; nogs [from *hnokkr], nogg$^2$, nugg. — r and kr alternate in rām and kramək [hrammr]. In some cases kn, in others sn, corresponds to orig. hn (kn), e.g.: to knɛp, knæp (occas.: snɛp, snæp) [hneppa, kneppa]. knɔkins, see prec. — snap [*hnappr], snapp$^1$. to snɩg [hneggja], snegg, snigg. snɩgin, snɩgom and negi [*hneggingr], sneggin, sniggin. sni̇̄vələk [knýfill], snivel and snivlek. snɩvəri, snɩvəripin = snivri. snjūg, snjūgi [knjúkr], snjug$^1$, snjugi. snȯt(i), snət(i) [hnǫttr, knǫttr], snott and snotti. snokəl = snukkel.
Shetl. hw, kw (rarely sw) correspond to an older “hv”; see further § 42, regarding dialectal differences of pronunciation.
33. k is preserved or alternates with ᶄ (the latter esp. comm. in N.I.) before e, ē, ɛ, ɩ, i, as well as before ø (ȯ) ø̄, the latter arising from “y, ý”: kēb (ᶄēb) [keipr]. kɛgər, ᶄɛgər [*keikr], keger$^1$. kɛpər, ᶄɛpər [keppr]. keᶊi, kɛᶊi [*kessa], (in the latter word k is always applied, owing to the following softened s). kin·pus·əs, but kɩl·posks· [kinnpústr]. kɩpək (kepək) and ᶄɩpək (ᶄepək) [kippi]. to ᶄø‘rk (ᶄȯ‘rk) [kyrkja]. ᶄø̄r(ə)n [kýrnar], *kørn. sᶄɛga [skeki]. skæ‘rpin, sᶄɛ‘rpin [*skerpingr]. to skɩ‘mp (sᶄɩ‘mp). to skø̄l, sᶄø̄l [skýla]. k-sound is preserved before ə (from “i, y”), e.g.: kə‘r·kasuk·ni [*kirkjusókn].
Initial kj is preserved, e.g.: kjɔ‘lk [kjálki]. kjōlək, kjø̄rək [No. kjore, kjø̄ra]. skjō [No. skjaa]. *skjɔldra [*skjaldra]. — kj > ᶄ in kjōb, ᶄōb [kaup]. sᶄ in sᶄūl (sᶄōl) [skjól], skjul.
​Shetl. hw and kw correspond to an older initial “kv”; see further § 42.
k usually changes to g, when final, or between two vowels, e.g.: bâgi [bak]. to blāg [blaka]. brogi [No. brokutt]. fog, fɔg, fjȯg [fok (fjúk)], fjog$^2$ or fjug. to klāg [klaka]. kragək [kraki]. krūg [krókr], krug$^1$. ᶅōg [lœkr], log, ljog$^3$. njogəl [nykr], njuggel. to ōg [aka], to râg and rēg [reka], rag$^2$, and reg. stjāgi [stjaki]. sø̄ga and sø̄gi [Icel. sýki]. -tag and -tjɔg (ᶇâfatag, nevatjɔg) [tak]. — k has been dropped in tāhɛᶅək [*þakhella]. Alternation between g and k takes place in words, such as: blɔka, bloga [*blaðka], blokk, blokka. fjȯk, cf. prec. fog, fjȯg. ogə(r)- and ɔkrə- [akr]. sᶇukər and sᶇugər [snykr], snjuger, -ker. stuki and stjūgi (stȯgi) [stúka]. On the other hand, k is always applied in: kikən [*kykandi]. lik [lík]. puki, -a [púki, *púka], puki$^1$. to rēk [reika], rek$^1$ (and ræk). rok [rok], ruk$^1$. (ga’-) ᶊøk [sjúkr] = ga’ [gall]-sick. vɔkər [Fær. vakur].
g occas. replaces original k when initial: gjōla [prob. No. kjore]. gōgi(s) = kōgi(s) = kogi$^2$. grȯg = krȯg, krugi = grogg$^2$. To this rule prob. belongs ꬶega pʌ‘ltək = ᶄega p.
34. p usually becomes b, when final, or between two vowels, e.g.: dᶎūb [djúp], djub. flab [flapr]. glâb [No. glap]. glȯb [*glop]. glø̄b [*gløypr], gløb$^1$, gløbi. hūb [hóp]. kjōb [kaup]. to kjōb [kaupa]. lø̄bin [*hløypingr]. rab, rāb [*hrap], rab$^1$. sȯba [saup], strȯba [stropi]. ūb and ø̄b [óp]. to ūb (ø̄b) [œpa].
p and b alternate in a few words: etərskab and etərskop [*eitrskapr]. With b: rɛdᶊkab [reiðskapr]. a spjēskāb [*spéskapr]; on the other hand: lândsᶄɛp [*landskapr]. Further: kupi and kȯbi [kúpa]. læpək and læbək, lopək and lobək = lupi$^2$, lupek. skupək and skȯbək.
p is always found in: gāpȯs [gapuxi]. grɔp [*grop]. lopi, lupi [laupr], lopi$^1$, lupi$^1$ (-ləp in tøþələp = tudelep). van(di)lop, -lup [*vatnhlaup].
35. t usually changes to d, when final, or between two vowels, e.g.: bɩdi [biti]. -brɔd [brot], brod$^1$. de flāda [hin flata]. gad [gat], gad$^2$. ᶅūd [ljótr], ljud. mādər [matr], *mader, (see Fragments of Norn, conversation). mūd (mōd) [mót], mud$^2$, to rø̄d [hrjóta], rød$^1$. slȯd [slot]. -sōd [sát], sōdi, sōdək [sáta], sodi$^2$, sodek. sōdi, sɔdi [sæti], sodi$^1$. v(j)ēdək [veita], vedek$^2$. — Alternation between t and d is found, e.g.: *ɛndə and *a‘ntə [ennþá], *ante, see Fragments of Norn, song, verse. etər and jɛdər [eitr]. fȯdək and vatək [fata] = fedek (fiddek), etc. fudin and futən. -grøt and -grūd [grjót], grøt$^1$. grø̄tək and grødək [grýta] = grøta, etc. nø̄d and not, nut [naut]. *sødə (see Fragments of Norn, song, verse), but søt(a) [sœtr].
t is always found in e.g.: to frɛt [freta]. to hatər [hatra], hater$^2$. klut [klútr]. to mjat = mat. ski̇̄tək [*skítingr].
d for t, when initial, is found in drȯᶅ·ᶊlâ·gət = trȯᶅ·ᶊlâ·gət. da‘mp [Da. (L.Germ.) tamp].
final t is sometimes dropped, e.g.: (spɩrvi-)grū [grjót] = *grud. to lag·stø̄· = lag·stø̄t· [*lagstøyta]. To these may prob. be added ni̇̄ and nø̄ = ni, and nø$^2$. *ȯrdətū = *ōrdədȯit. In hwi̇̄ (see Fragments ​of Norn, and *hwid, adj.) “tt” [hvítt] has been dropped. Cf. dropped n in: to *bri̇̄ [brýna], and dropped k in tāhɛᶅək [*þakhella], and krā- for krāga- [kraka from kraki] in “krā-taes”.
Initial tj changes to ᶊ, e.g.: ᶊaldər [tjaldr], sjalder. ᶊȯn, etc. [tjǫrn], sjonn. To these may prob. be added: uᶊū·na [No. utjona], usjuna. Cf. verse 25 in the Foula ballad: “chaldona” [tjaldinu]. tᶊ from tj, when final, in e.g.: to vitᶊ [vitja], vitj.
36. þ changes partly to t, partly to d. Examples:
a) tari- [þari], *tari$^1$. tə‘lfər, tʌ‘lfər [*þil(ju)far]. tɩᶅi, teᶅi [þilja], *tilji, *tilli. (un-)ti̇̄li [(ú-)þýðligr] utili. togəmø̄ [þoku-], togemø, tuggemø$^1$. to‘rkəsȯt [*þurkasótt]. *trō [þráðr], *tro$^1$ (see Fragments of Norn, song, verse), trūən [þró]. — b) dōm [Icel. þám]. dɔ̇d [þot], but brɩm·tɔ̇d·. up·-drȯit· (-droƫ·) [upp þrøyttr]. dū, du [þú]. dwa‘rs [þvers]. to dwetəl, dwətəl [*þvætla from O.N. þvætta]; on the other hand: twäƫəld, twäitəld [*þvætlaðr]. Cf. verse 4 in the Foula ballad: “dar” [þar], v. 31: “do” [þá]).
þj like tj changes to ᶊ, e.g.: ᶊok(k)a [þjukkr], see IV, § 20, and sjukk, adj. (under sjukkolo, sb.).
37. Initial v, in most cases, has been preserved: vagəl [vagl], vagl$^1$, vaggel. van-, vats- [from vatn] in e.g.: vandlup [*vatnhlaup]; vats·gar = vatsgar$^2$, but Watli [*vatnhlíð] in the place-name: de loch o’ W. (U.). vāra [No. and Da. vare]. vɛgwȯl, vɛgəl [*veggvǫlr]. to vɩƫᶊ [vitja], vitj. vōr [vár]. — In a few words w has replaced initial v: wadməl [vaðmál]. wələ‘nt, wȯlə‘nt [vélindi], wällend, etc. wɩdi [viðja]. wæ‘lᶊi [vǫlsi], welsi.
38. The following changes may also be mentioned:
a) A few examples are found of a change kk > g (γ), pp > b, tt > d: baga- (baγa-), bagi- [bakka-]. 1) bagrəf, baγagrȯf, more rarely: bakagrȯf. 2) bagiskjo‘mp. 3) bakalɩst. nægistɩk (næγi-) [*hnakkastykki], neggistikk. Cf. bloga (bloγa) = blɔka [*blaðka]. nogs and nogins [from *hnokkr], nogg$^2$, and noggin, etc. skɛbək, skæbək [skeppa], skepp. snæbək, snabək = snɛp(i), snæp(i) [*hneppi]. kɩbək [kippa]. mɩnōd· (-nū·əd) [miðnátt]. tȯd, tȯdək [tuttr).
b) Shetlandic mn, as in Norwegian, corresponds to O.N. fn, e.g.: stȯmna, stəmna [stofn], stomna$^1$, stimna$^1$. In place-names: Hamnavō (Y.) = *Hafnarvágr. de Ramnastaks (Fedeland in N.Roe) = *Hrafnastakkarnir. When not followed by a vowel, n is dropped in this combination, e.g.: Ham (Br.) for: *Hamn. stamərən (for: stamrən) [*stafn-rǫng], stamron.
c) ŋ(k)s for ms is found, e.g.: fjɔ‘ŋs, fjo‘ŋsət, and occas. in: ho‘ŋ(k)s = ho‘ms: homs$^2$ = hums$^2$, etc. ro‘ŋ(k)s = ro‘ms: rums$^1$.
​d) pt (bd) for ft is found, eg.: *apta, furthermore abbreviated to *ap, *åp or *ɔp (Fo.) = aptann, e.g.: jøl ap(ta), etc. skɛptin and skɛbdək [*skeptingr]. Cf. ps in *vɛps [O.N. vepts, vepz, gen. of veptr], *vept. In place-names Tȯpti- (Təpti-), Tȯptəns (Təptəns) alternate with Taft [O.N. þopt].
e) Transposition of consonants. vl [O.N. fl] and lv: a kɛvəl [O.N. kefli]; on the other hand, kɛlvək, kɛlva ɔlək. skalvə [skafl], skalv$^2$, etc. gl > ᶅg: mȯᶅgət [Icel. myglaðr]. — lm and ml alternate, e.g.: to skul(ə)m, skol(ə)m, and (with inserted b) to skumbəl, skuml (skumbel)$^1$. — dr and rd: to slȯdər and to slȯrd [Icel. slytra], slodder$^1$.
f) Inserted b between m and l appears, e.g.: *gambli, *gam(b)la = *gammel, (see Fragments of Norn, song, verse). hȯm(b)libands. — *hɩmblɩns, see Fragments of Norn (Our Lord’s Prayer). Cf. prec. to skumbəl.
g) s is dropped in the comb. ksl (xl), e.g.: bjɔkəl [bœxl], bjokl, bjokkel$^1$. jakəl [jaxl], jakkel$^1$, jakl. jɔkəl [ǫxl].
h) In a few words r has changed to l and conversely (esp. where another r or l comes before or after in the word): a$^i$·trahō·la [aðravára]. buliŋ = būrək. dolibrod = dorifəl. To these may prob. be added: dȯlatree. gjōla, kjōlək, kjø̄lək and kjø̄rək [No. kjore, kjøra]. kȯrl [kyrr], under korr$^1$. mɩs·fø̄rd· and mɩs·fø̄ld· [misfór(sk)]. njogəl, ᶇogəl [nykr]. ȯrdəl- [prob. hurðar-]. fjȯrd [fjöld(i)], fjord$^2$, nɔralɛg [*nálarleggr]. swāl or swār [No. sval], swal$^2$, swar$^1$.
i) Assimilation, 1) of nd to ᶇ in e.g.: *hȯᶇən (hund-inn); *häᶇaless = *hä‘ᶇta(r)less [*handa(r)lauss] (see Fragments of Norn, riddles); 2) of ld to ᶅ, e.g.: mɩlənasto‘mp (-stick) [*myldingarstumpr], mildinstump, etc.
j) suffixed d (after ᶇ) in e.g.: to räᶇd [renna], räind. to säᶇd [sanna], sand; furthermore in blohȯᶇ·din = blohȯᶇ·in; to drȯᶇd = to drȯin [drynja], dronj, droin.
39. Palatalization. Insertion of j.
ll (rl) commonly changes to ᶅ, nn and rn to ᶇ. Several examples of this change have been mentioned in preceding sections; see §§ 16—20, regarding vowel-changes before palatalized consonants. Softening of l, n and t, tt (d, dd) before another consonant has been exemplified in the same paragraphs. In a few cases ll, rl, nn, rn have remained unsoftened, e.g.: to ban(n) [banna]. hō·kɩl(l)·in [hákerling]. hȯni-, həni- [horn, hyrni], hinnispott. *mana [manna] (see Fragments of Norn, adages), span [spann], spann$^1$. In a few words palatalized and unpalatalized forms alternate, e.g.: brɛna and breᶇa [brenna]. mȯn- and mȯᶇ- [munn-], *monn. Melən Fjɛla and Meᶅən Fjɛᶅa (place-name in Y$^h$.) = millum fjalla.
In a number of words ᶅ, ᶇ alternate with l, n, corresponding to original l and n, e.g.: alma‘rk and äᶅma‘rk. andər and äᶇdər. baldin, bäᶅdin. blēg, bᶅēg. hāᶅin = hālin. hȯlgin, hȯᶅgin. lēga, ᶅēga. nād, ᶇād = nad$^2$, njad$^2$.
Initially, nja = ᶇa appears for orig. “na”; njād (see prec.). njafin (-fək). njatəri = njatr, njatter$^1$. njogəl = njuggel.
Inserted j frequently appears after initial consonants. Examples: ​bjɩ‘ntər. bjȯrg [borg], bjorg$^1$. bjødi = bødi: bødi$^1$. da‘lk and dja‘lk; on the other hand: ᶁeld [deild]. fjēdin. fjȯ‘rkən. gjɔŋgər. hjɩməlsfærd. hjosi, hjosən. hjɔ‘nsa. mjat (mäit and mjäit). tōg and tjōg = tog$^2$, tjog$^3$. ut·mā·gət, ut·mjā·gət. vēdək and vjēdək = vedek$^2$. vja‘lskət and vä‘ᶅᶊkət [*valskóttr].
Cf. verses 7 and 8 in the Foula ballad: “fiegan” [feigan]; v. 3: “stien” [steinn]; v. 2: “stiendi” [stendr].
ᶊ for s is found in e.g.: ēᶊins. mēᶊi. *ᶊagdə [sagði]. -ᶊlâgət (drȯᶅ-, trȯᶅ-). s and ᶊ alternate in e.g.: tɔskər and tȯᶊkər = torvsker. Shetl. ᶊ corresponds to O.N. initial “sj”.
For the palatalized change before t (as well as before n) see §§ 16—20. A weaker palatalization occurs in: a$^i$taslū. a$^i$·trahō·la. blæ$^i$ta; see Fragments of Norn, riddles (and cf. Bläƫəna, IV, § 20) — on the other hand: blɛt, blæt [*blettr]. — Palatalization before d: ɔ$^i$di = ɔᶁi [oddi].
Other words exemplify an opposite development. j is occasionally dropped in the comb. “(h)lj”, e.g.: lōd (lō). lū·mōl·, lomōl· [*hljóðmál]. to lūr [*ljóra], lur$^1$. lūsa = ljūs [ljós] (see Fragments of Norn, song, verse). With the last cf. lâgər for ᶅâgər from lēgər. Orig. “sj” has been changed to “s” in sū·sameᶅabak·a = *sjusamillabakka. The form at(ə)ri has doubtless arisen from äƫ(ə)ri, äitri owing to dropped palatalization.
40. Supporting vowel; connecting vowel.
Inserted connecting vowel (ə) between two consonants (most freq. when r is one of them), when initial and final, is found in several words: aᶊək. bærəg, bærək, in place-names = bærg [berg]. dwarək = dwarg. flȯdərək. flokəra. foləks. rɛgən(-wȯsta). rȯdəra(-stȯb) — *rodrastobb. rȯᶅək = rȯ‘ᶅk. *sēgəl. slȯdərək. slȯpəra. vagəl — vagl$^1$, vaggel. *vetərin [vetrungr]. Between a diphthong and a consonant, e.g.: tɔiəg.
Occasionally a connecting vowel (a, ə) is inserted in compds. in which the first word ends and the second begins with a consonant: afaskȯd = afskȯd. brɩma-stew [brim], dagali, dagəli. fɔg·əbȯr·gər = fɔg·bȯr·dər. hagəri = hagri$^2$, hageri. rɩŋ·galō·di = rɩŋ·lō·di. ū·tavɩd·, utavɩd·.
In some words an added, supporting final vowel is found, e.g.: skalvə [skafl], skalv$^2$. stȯmna [stofn], stomna$^1$. To these should prob. be added forms such as: dōma, dūma [dámr]. lāma (= lēm, lɛm) [hlemmr], (and jɛma? [O.N. eimr]). Cf. (h)a‘lta gɔŋgi [halt gǫngu], and kwatə jāda, kwata ita [hvat er þat] (see Fragments of Norn, conversation).
41. Stress.
In a number of compds. both parts are equally stressed; occasionally the latter part has received the main stress. Examples: a‘ŋ·klȯva$^i$n·; ag·lȯva$^i$n; at·avɛ‘ᶅ·ta; ba·fäᶅ· and bəfäᶅ·; bɛrgȯ‘ᶅ·ti, -ꬶɩ‘l·tək; blohȯᶇ·in; bȯᶇ·hō·ga and bȯᶇhō·ga; bȯ‘ᶇᶊ·vam·; brɩm·tɔ̇d·; dȯl·hɔit· and dȯlhɔit·; drȯᶅ·ᶊlâ·gət (trȯᶅ·-); fɔg·bȯr·dər; to gȯrhərd·, kȯrhərd· = gordhird; ​hɛl·ūr· and hɛlūr·; hjok·fəᶇ·i; kin·pus·əs and ᶄɩl·posks· = *kinnpuster; kȯᶇ·mæ‘r·ki; lū·mōl· and lomōl·; marɩ̄l·, marɛl·də; mɩnōd·; mȯn·vjēg· (-vi̇̄g·); ɔp·slāg· = uppslag; riŋ·(ga)lō·di; ᶊəᶅō·ga = *sjoljoga, *sjologa; ᶊopə‘l·ti = sjupilti; ta‘nt·fɛᶅ·ən = tantfellin$^{1,2}$. träᶅ·faŋ·gin; ū·li̇̄d·; ū·mɔƫ· and ū·mɔit·, umɔƫ·a; ū·rām· = hor(ə)m; ū·tavɩd· and utavɩd·.
In some uncompounded words, the stress lies equally on the stem and the ending. In a few cases, the ending receives the main stress: bjin·târ· [*bindari]. gȯᶅūr·, gaᶅūr· (= gȯᶅər). *hɩl·mɔŋ·gin and *helmɔŋ·gin [*himlungi-nn]. il·skȯd· [*ilskótt]. *klȯvan·di [klofa-nn], klovi, etc. lavēr·ni. stɔŋ·gari̇̄· (stɔŋ·gari) [*stangari].
42. Dialect differences of pronunciation.
The deep, somewhat diphthongal a-sound, indicated by â, and approaching to Fær. åa, is peculiar to U. and Y., and corresponds to ā in the other parts of the Isles, e.g.: a âli (comm.: āli) lamb; a brând (comm.: brānd) = brand$^1$; tând (comm.: tānd).
On Westside (e.g. the neighbourhood of Sandness) “ɛ, æ” are occas. pronounced more open than usual.
ø is pronounced with a closer sound on Westside than in the other parts of the Isles short “y” in Danish. Thus: bryni = brøni; ryni = røni; tryni = trøni.
On Eastside (including N.I., and the greatest part of S.Sh., esp. Du.) hw corresponds to an older “hv, kv”; on Westside (and in part of S.Sh., esp. Conn. and Quarf) kw. Examples: hwāl (Easts.), kwāl (Wests.), hwam (Easts.), kwam (Wests.); with change of hv to sw: swam = swamm. hwi̇̄ and hwäi (Easts.), kwi̇̄ and kwäi (Wests.): mostly in place-names. The same rule holds with ref. to English words in Shetl. prefixed by wh and qu; thus on Wests.: quite (quite and) white — on Easts.: wheen = queen.
As mentioned in § 39, ll has commonly changed to ᶅ, nn and rn to ᶇ. On Westside there are still, however, traces of a change to dl, dn (an old change which later was superseded by the more common ᶅ and ᶇ); thus ᶊȯdən = ᶊȯn, ᶊøn [tjǫrn], sjonn, sjønn. Fografɩdəl (Sandsting) *Fagrafell(i) In Foula dl and dn are still prevalent; thus: *dudlin and dodlək (in N.I.: dȯᶅək), dollek$^2$. toŋgəfadəl (in Y. and Fe.: toŋgəfäᶅ), tungefall. adnasɛt. adnaᶊūr. *bjadni [barnit] (see Fragments of Norn, conversation), bōdla- and bɔdlastane = bolsten. Likewise in place-names: Bɔdlifel [*Bollafjall]; Kɔdlifəl [*Kollafjall]; de Hɔdən [*Hornit].
In several cases, however, the softened forms have prevailed in Foula also; thus now commonly: kȯᶅət (for older *kɔdlət) = kollet.
In Du. the original ð has been preserved in several words, while in other parts of Shetland it has been changed to d. Thus: ēð = ēd. kø̄ð = kø̄d. mi̇̄ð = mi̇̄d = mid$^1$. sēð = sēd. Sporadically as þ (outside Du.): *køþ (Y$^h$.) kø̄d. tøþələp = tudelep.
In a few places (such as Y$^h$.) traces of an older -iŋ = -in have been found, corresponding to O.N. -ingr (-ungr). Thus, from Y$^h$.: buliŋ = būrək; buliŋ, boliŋ = bulin, bolin; drøliŋ = drø̄lin.
i-mutation.
As the i-mutation is so old and so usual a phenomenon in Norse as well as in German, it is almost as a matter of course that it appears in Shetland Norn. There is, however, the peculiarity that the i-mutation is wanting in a great many words in Shetland Norn, in words too, where no closely related words with an original vowel are to be found that could have a smoothing effect and abolish the mutation. As Shetland, for several reasons, must be assumed to have been colonized considerably earlier than the Færoe Islands and Iceland, and prior to the appearance of the i-mutation in Norse, and as such an insular dialect must in one respect and another end by going its own way, one can very easily suppose that, in spite of Shetland’s close connection with Norway, and the steadily maintained linguistic influence from that country, the i-mutation was never completely carried out in Shetland Norn. In all probability there were, in very many instances, double forms, a mutated form and a non-mutated form.
In one group of words the mutated form, with the support of the mother-tongue, has gradually displaced the non-mutated form; while in other cases the non-mutated form has remained, and the mutated form has been dropped. Even at the present day there are to be found in Shetland Norn many such words with double forms, a mutated form and a non-mutated form.
In most instances, in the later Norn, the i-mutation has been carried out; but in a large group of words it is not to be found at all.
Words with and without i-mutation:
blagda, blaget and blegd, bligd (bleg, blig), sb., a wedge.
bonhus, bunek = the more common bønhus (bønek), sb., a church.
bordin and birdin, sb.: *byrð or *byrðingr (from borð, n.).
borstet, bosten, bostet and birst, birstet, bistet: *byrstinn, No. bysten and busten, adj. On the other hand, birstalek, sb., from *bursta-leif.
bro and bred, vb., to melt.
bulk: *bulkr, and bilki, bilk (U$^n$.), bäilki (Y., Fe.): *bylki.
darl (dorl) and derl, sb., caudal vertebra.
dos and døs, sb., small corn-stack.
fardimet and ferdimet: *ferðarmatr.
flu- (fluid, fluin) and fli, sb.: *flý.
fronet and fernet (*frenet), cf. Icel. fránn and frænn, adj.
fro and frø; fro [frō]: O.N. fræ, (fro might also be derived from O.N. frjó, but this word ought rather to have given *fru or frø).
Words with i-mutation:
blēm and blēn$^1$, sbs., from *blámi (O.N.) and *bláni.
brigda, brigdi: No. brugda, brygda, brigde. ​brind$^1$, vb.: No. brunda (Da. brynde).
bødi$^2$, bøti (a strip of land) = No. bot, f., a small piece of a field.
Words without i-mutation:
andu, vb. [*andœfa].
afljud, vb. [af-*lýta].
bjokl, sb.: O.N. bœxl, n. (bjokl, sb.: *bygl?).
brodd, vb.: O.N. brydda, (brodd through influence of the substantive).
buks, vb.: O.N. byxa, No. byksa, vb.
djur$^1$, sb., animal: O.N. dýr (in O.Norw. also djúr).
djur$^2$, sb., excellent fellow: O.N. dýrr, adj., dear, valuable, costly.
dolek, sb.: O.N. dæla, No. dæla, f.
doli, sb.: O.N. dæl, f. (No. døl).
dollek$^2$, sb., may, acc. to the pronunc. “dȯᶅək”, be either *dull- or *dyll-.
dudla, sb. (Fo.): No. and Fær dylla (No. dull, dyll, m.).
flog$^3$ [fᶅōg, fᶅog], fljog, also flug, fljug, fljuk, fluch, vb., to clean thrashed, dried corn by flinging it out of one’s hand: O.N. fløygja, to let fly. The Shetl. forms spring from the root-form fljúga, vb., to fly.
fluder (flodrek$^2$), sb.: *flyðr(a).
flukra (flokra), sb.: *flykra.
fradin, sb.: O.N. fretr.
fudin, sb., “light-foot”, cat (tabu-name), *fótingr for *føtingr.
fuglekavi, sb., snow-storm: *fyklikafi (No. fykla, fyklesnjova, vb.).
hottena, hottin, hoittin, etc., adj., accomplished; concluding; last; finished, to be classed with O.N. hætta, vb., to cease; stop. O.Shetl.: *hátta.
lor, sb., the thigh, O.N. lær.
lorin, sb., the great cormorant: *læringr. The Shetl. form presupposes a *láringr.
lung, sb., heather, now comm.: ling, but u is preserved in the compds. lungkillin and lungklo, as well as in various place-names.
*moliskop from *málingskaup = *mælingskaup.
nomen, adj.: *náminn = *næminn, No. næmen (O.N. næmr, adj.).
ro$^3$, sb., carcass, O.N. hræ. The Shetl. form presupposes a *hrá.
rori (brori), ro, scarecrow, O.N. hræða, f. The Shetl. forms spring from a *hrað-.
*snolda [snålda], prop. a spindle, now the name of high, narrow rocks (sea-rocks), a form without i-mutation [*snálda], from O.N. snælda, a spindle.
sodi$^1$, sb., a seat: O.N. sæti, n. O.N. sát, f., has a different sense.
de Trimolins (place-name, piece of a field in Fe.): No. trimæling. The Shetl. form presupposes a *þrímálingr.
u-mutation.
This specially Northern mutation, which appears far later than the i-mutation, is also to be found in Shetland Norn, but is difficult to substantiate, as a has generally changed to o. Such an o, long or short, proceeding from an original a in the stem of feminine words ending in -a, can stand partly as a u-mutation of a, partly as a regular Shetlandic development of a.
In Færoese, the u-mutation from the accusative, genitive and dative in -u has generally entered into the nominative in -a, e.g. fjøra, gøla, søga, blonda (O.N. fjara, gala, saga, blanda), in No. in most cases also, e.g. fjøra, “soga (søga)” from “saga”, “blanda”, blended drink, whey and water, has, in single No. dialects, the mutated parallel-form blonda (cf. Fær. blönda), but in Shetl. the word is bland, without mutation. On account of its meaning, it cannot be the neuter word “bland”, but must be No., Fær. and Icel. blanda, f.).
Without mutation: mara, sb., mud (= Fær. marra, f.) and mara, sb., night-mare, O.N. mara, f. Also mera in Shetl.
Shetl. (Fo.) fjora [fjora, fjɔra] (prop. foreshore, ebb, now with somewhat altered meaning, see the Dictionary), may be a form with u-mutation such as No. and Fær. fjøra (O.N. fjara, acc. fjǫru), but not necessarily.
Shetl. Baga (a cow with a back of a certain colour), Starabaga, *baka, f., from bak, back, has no u-mutation.
On the other hand, the u-mutation is doubtless to be found in bjoget (long o), *boget, adj., applied to an animal with a back of a certain colour, *bǫkóttr from bak. In a similar manner moget [mōgət]: with a belly of a certain colour, *mǫgóttr from magi (belly), in which the relation is more obscure, because also the word “magi” in Shetl. has become an o: mogi.
blogaben: "blǫkubein (from O.N. blaka, f.).
blokka, blokk: O.N. *blaðka.
bonga, sb.: *banga, f.
longa-fish (O.N. langa, Fær. longa).
ronga, sb., wrong: *ranga, f.
*skjoldra: *skjaldra, f.
On the other hand, the ø-sound in føger [føgər] (U$^b$.), sun (tabu-name), indicates that this word is the mutated form fǫgr, f., from fagr, adj. Also [fȯgər, fɛgər, fɛg] (U$^n$., Y$^n$.). “fȯgər”, like “føgər”, originates doubtless from “fǫgr”.
As the accusative, genitive and dative forms ending in -u, from feminine words ending in -a, have generally been dropped in Shetlandic, and, with some few exceptions, only the nominative forms ending in -a are preserved, alternating with forms without endings (generally through the dropping of -a), or sometimes with the ending -i for an older -a, and as mutation in the nominative forms is irregular, it must remain doubtful, in most cases, how far the -o from an original -a, in such words, is due to u-mutation or not in Shetlandic.
​The pronunciation [ȯ] of o in *fjorahwarf and partly also in fjoraskit, compds. with fjora, indicates that it is the mutated form fjǫru. In the same manner skodda [skȯda] with [ȯ] is doubtless a mutated form from O.N. skadda, f., like No. skodda, Fær. sködda.
fladrek and flodrek, limpets, patella: *flaðra. [flōd(ə)rək] may be developed from [flād(ə)rək], without being due to u-mutation. [flȯd··rək·], on the other hand, is rather a mutated form *flǫðra from flǫðru, [ȯ] not being regularly developed from a.
homliband [hȯmlɩ- (hɔmli-)] and humliband [homlɩ-], humla [homla-] and hombli [hȯmblɩ-], oar-grummet, presupposes the mutated form hǫmlu- from hamla, f.
There is no mutation in *ovaga, sb., from an original *aurvaka, f., Fær. eyrvøka. On the other hand, o is found for a in the place-name Voga [vɔga], de hole o’ V. (Hubi, Fe.), a piece of moist, muddy soil: originally doubtless *vaka, f.
Without u-mutation: raga, sb., woman.
ring [riŋ, reŋ], knee-timber in the stem of a boat, goes back to the mutated form “rǫng” [from *rangu] in O.N., because short i and short u (o) often alternate in Shetlandic.
In a similar sense, sting [stɩŋ, steŋ], mast (tabu-word, sea-term) has arisen from O.N. stǫng [orig. *stangu], f., bar; pole. An older form, stong is, however, found in Shetl (N.I.). The form steng [stɛŋ], in which ɛ may have arisen either from i or a, is under doubt.
spong [spɔŋ]: O.N. spǫng. Place-name: Sping [spɩŋ].
sponget [spɔŋət, spåŋət, spȯŋət]: *spǫngóttr.
stonga, thick gruel or porridge: *stanga, f.
kwag, hwag [ā], sb., a cake, flour-dumpling, prob. stands for *kwog, *hwog [*ō] with diphthongization from an older *kog [*kōg]: O.N. kaka, No. kaka and koka, Fær. køka. kwag cannot be directly developed from a *kag. Whether any u-mutation appears in the Shetlandic word cannot be proved by the vowel-sound.
The u-mutation can be exactly proved in *gøda [gøda, ꬶøda], sb., way, path, as ø here can only be developed from ǫ in “gǫtu”, nom.: gata. Besides *gøda, the form *goda [gȯda, ꬶȯda], and (rarely) *gota [ꬶȯta], is found, and prob. on account of the [ȯ]-sound, must be accepted as a mutated form. “goda, gøda”, now only a place-name, is remembered as a common noun, esp. in Fe. gødins [gødɩns], in “de Midgødins” (Y.), is def. pl. form: O.N. gǫturnar, with a later added Eng. pl. s.
As a veritable place-name, name of a farm, Got [gɔt, gōt] is found: orig. *í gǫtu. See under *goda, sb., in the Dictionary. Corresponding to the Shetl. forms are No. gota and Fær. gøta (as a place-name in Færoe: í Gøtu).
Skøderump [sᶄød··əro‘mp·], name of a flat skerry (N.Roe), is an orig. *skǫtu-rumpa, tail of a ray, from O.N. skata, f., ray. Cf. “de Skate o’ Islesburgh” (Nm$^w$.) as the name of a flat skerry. Skøde-, as the ø-sound shows, is the mutated form.
Noss [nås], name of a small, elevated isle in the list of names ​of islands in Snorre’s Edda, written “nǫs” and in a Shetl. deed of 1490 “nws”, is doubtless an orig. “nǫs” (nas-), nose.
all > a’.
ga’$^1$, sb., mock-sun, from an original *gall. Formed in accordance with ga, the gall, L.Scottish form of the Eng. gall, sb.
ga’$^2$, sb., something hard, pressed together; alternates sometimes with older gall, thus in the word gall-knot, now more commonly “ga’-knot”.
ca', in the form now used for to call, but in a couple of fragments of older language, half Norn, and half L.Scottish, kall [käᶅ] is used. In sense of to cry, of gulls, kall is commonly used; likewise in sense of a call; claim.
fall is called “fa’”, but in compds. the older form fall [fäᶅ] is found as the second part: bafall, bergfall, tungefall, occas. alternating with fadl: tungefadl, and with fell, in sense of current, in landfell.
ba’, sb., ball, globe. Older forms are: bolli, bollek, ball [bal, bäᶅ, diff. from Eng. ball].
a', all, adj. Older al, ol, wol, as the first part of some compds.: almark, olmark, *wolmen (*olmenn), wolmø, sbs.; alt in *altasenn.
The change all > a’ probably took place in the 18th and 19th centuries, beginning with the breaking up of Norn, first in words common to Norn and English (L.Scottish), and later in words without English and Scottish parallels after it had become apparent that O.N. -all, like Eng. -all, become in L.Scottish a long ā.
i̇̄, ɩ̄ > äi.
The long i is in Shetl. Norn often changed to the diphthong äi through influence of English, and for a great part in words not having an English analogy to influence the sound: ím > äim (rarely i̇̄m), soot, hím > häim (rarely hi̇̄m), klína > kläin, to spread on. skíð > skäi (mould-board on a plough). The fact that the diphthong äi for i̇̄ is carried through in words not having English parallels, shows that in Shetl. the long i in Norn has been understood to correspond with the English diphthong äi.
i̇̄ > äi.
Parallels are, however, commonly found with i [i̇̄ (i)], thus: imet, adj., dirty-grey, (sooty), not “äimet” from *ímóttr. himet, not “häimet” from *hímóttr. i [i̇̄ (i)] is prevalent in a number of words: is, vb., iset, adj. grima, sb„ grimek, sb. (now occas. with a shortening of original long i), grimet, adj. to geng to de i̇̄la (of fishing from an anchored boat), in Du.: “to geng to de äils”.
Alternation between i and äi: gris, “gis”, and now commonly: gräis, grise (grize), as in Eng. dial. (L.Sc.). skri̇̄d and skräid, vb., from O.N. skríða.
​“bite” [bäit] as in English, but bit- [bi̇̄t, bit] from O.N. bíta. i [i̇̄, i] is found in derivatives, such as: bitel, -biter in hobiter, benibiter, onglabiter, in the two latter words alternating with “biter [bäiter]”, and in onglabiter also with bjeder [bjēdər], in which jē has arisen from i̇̄.
Alternation between i and äi must have begun with such words which were common to the Shetl. Norn and English, e.g.: *hwid (hwit) and “white”; *bit and “bite”; *ri(d) and “ride”; riv and “rive”. Thereby it was observed that an older Shetl. i (long) corresponded to English (äi) ai, and thereafter äi began to make its way, replacing i in Norn words which had no parallels in English. This development doubtless began in the 18th century, at the time that Norn was passing out of use, and later continued during the 19th century, at which time Norn is only found mixed with Lowland Scottish. This development hardly dates further back than to the 18th century, as there are only comparatively few words with the äi form only; while i and äi alternate as a rule, “ai” gradually becomes more and more predominant. In not a few words, however, the i-form alone accurs.
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* ↑ 2 for jó > ø̄, ø see § 23.
* ↑ with vocalized m.
* ↑ Cf., however, the change “a” > o, ɔ, ō, mentioned in § 1.
* ↑ unvoiced “th” in Eng. words, when initial, has become “t” in Shetl., in e.g.: to tank, tief, ting (“i” is here pronounced: ə, ʌ), to tink (“i” pronounced: ʌ), tred (thread), and freq., when final, after a consonant, e.g.: lent (lenght), strent (strenght); healt; eart, fourt, nort. th has however been preserved as a þ-sound, when final, after a vowel, e.g.: oath, mooth (mouth), sooth (south), tooth, truth. Voiced “th” in Eng. word has comm. become “d” in Shetl., e.g.: dat, de, dem, deir, dere, dis, bridder (brither = brother), faider (father), to gader, idder (ither = other), midder (mither = mother), neder (neither), rader; blide.
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