OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leonidas

See also Leonidas I on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​LEONIDAS, king of Sparta, the seventeenth of the Agiad line. He succeeded, probably in 489 or 488 B.C., his half-brother Cleomenes, whose daughter Gorgo he married. In 480 he was sent with about 7000 men to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the army of Xerxes. The smallness of the force was, according to a current story, due to the fact that he was deliberately going to his doom, an oracle having foretold that Sparta could be saved only by the death of one of its kings: in reality it seems rather that the ephors supported the scheme half-heartedly, their policy being to concentrate the Greek forces at the Isthmus. Leonidas repulsed the frontal attacks of the Persians, but when the Malian Ephialtes led the Persian general Hydarnes by a mountain track to the rear of the Greeks he divided his army, himself remaining in the pass with 300 Spartiates, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Perhaps he hoped to surround Hydarnes’ force: if so, the movement failed, and the little Greek army, attacked from both sides, was cut down to a man save the Thebans, who are said to have surrendered. Leonidas fell in the thickest of the fight; his head was afterwards cut off by Xerxes’ order and his body crucified. Our knowledge of the circumstances is too slight to enable us to judge of Leonidas’s strategy, but his heroism and devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not only of his own but also of succeeding times.
See Herodotus v. 39-41, vii. 202–225, 238, ix. 10; Diodorus xi. 4-11; Plutarch, Apophthegm. Lacon.; de malignitate Herodoti, 28–33; Pausanias i. 13, iii. 3, 4; Isocrates, Paneg. 92; Lycurgus, c. Leocr. 110, 111; Strabo i. 10, ix. 429; Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 25; Cicero, Tusc. disput. i. 42, 49; de Finibus, ii. 30; Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles, 3; Valerius Maximus iii. 2; Justin ii. 11. For modern criticism on the battle of Thermopylae see G. B. Grundy, The Great Persian War (1901); G. Grote, History of Greece, part ii., c. 40; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, iii., §§ 219, 220; G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, 2nd ed., ii. 666-688; J. B. Bury, “The Campaign of Artemisium and Thermopylae,” in British School Annual, ii. 83 seq.; J. A. R. Munro, “Some Observations on the Persian Wars, II.,” in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. 294-332. (M. N. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kielce (government)

See also Kielce Governorate on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIELCE, a government in the south-west of Russian Poland, surrounded by the governments of Piotrkow and Radom and by Austrian Galicia. Area, 3896 sq. m. Its surface is an elevated plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude, intersected in the north-east by a range of hills reaching 1350 ft. and deeply trenched in the south. It is drained by the Vistula on its south-east border, and by its tributaries, the Nida and the Pilica, which have a very rapid fall and give rise to inundations. Silurian and Devonian quartzites, dolomite, limestones and sandstones prevail in the north, and contain rich iron ores, lead and copper ores. Carboniferous deposits containing rich coal seams occur chiefly in the south, and extend into the government of Piotrkow. Permian limestones and sandstones exist in the south. The Triassic deposits contain very rich zinc ores of considerable thickness and lead. The Jurassic deposits consist of iron-clays and limestones, containing large caves. The Cretaceous deposits yield gypsum, chalk and sulphur. White and black marble are also extracted. The soil is of great variety and fertile in parts, but owing to the proximity of the Carpathians, the climate is more severe than might be expected. Rye, wheat, oats, barley and buckwheat are grown; modern intensive culture is spreading, and land fetches high prices, the more so as the peasants’ allotments were small at the outset and are steadily decreasing. Out of a total of 2,193,300 acres suitable for cultivation 53.4% are actually cultivated. Grain is exported. Gardening is a thriving industry in the south; beet is grown for sugar in the south-east. Industries are considerably developed: zinc ores are extracted, as well as some iron and a little sulphur. Tiles, metallic goods, leather, timber goods and flour are the chief products of the manufactures. Pop. (1897), 765,212, for the most part Poles, with 11% Jews; (1906, estimated), 910,900. By religion 88% of the people are Roman Catholics. Kielce is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with ​populations in 1897, are Kielce (q.v.), Jedrzejow (Russ. Andreyev, 5010), Miechow (4156), Olkusz (3491), Pinczów (8095), Stopnica (4659) and Wloszczowa (23,065).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kiepert, Heinrich

See also Heinrich Kiepert on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIEPERT, HEINRICH (1818–1899), German geographer, was born at Berlin on the 31st of July 1818. He was educated at the university there, studying especially history, philology and geography. In 1840–1846, in collaboration with Karl Ritter, he issued his first work, Atlas von Hellas und den hellenischen Kolonien, which brought him at once into eminence in the sphere of ancient historical cartography. In 1848 his Historisch-geographischer Atlas der alten Welt appeared, and in 1854 the first edition of the Atlas antiquus, which has obtained very wide recognition, being issued in English, French, Russian, Dutch and Italian. In 1894 Kiepert produced the first part of a larger atlas of the ancient world under the title Formae orbis antiqui; his valuable maps in Corpus inscriptionum latinarum must also be mentioned. In 1877–1878 his Lehrbuch der alten Geographie was published, and in 1879 Leitfaden der alten Geographie, which was translated into English (A Manual of Ancient Geography, 1881) and into French. Among Kiepert’s general works one of the most important was the excellent Neuer Handatlas über alle Teile der Erde (1855 et seq.), and he also compiled a large number of special and educational maps. Asia Minor was an area in which he took particular interest. He visited it four times in 1841–1888; and his first map (1843–1846), together with his Karte des osmanischen Reiches in Asien (1844 and 1869), formed the highest authority for the geography of the region. Kiepert was professor of geography in the university of Berlin from 1854. He died at Berlin on the 21st of April 1899. He left unpublished considerable material in various departments of his work, and with the assistance of this his son Richard (b. 1846), who followed his father’s career, was enabled to issue a map of Asia Minor in 24 sheets, on a scale of 1: 400,000 (1902 et seq.), and to carry on the issue of Formae orbis antiqui.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kidwelly

See also Kidwelly on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIDWELLY (Cydweli), a decayed market-town and municipal borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated (as its name implies) near the junction of two streams, the Gwendraeth Fawr and the Gwendraeth Fach, a short distance from the shores of Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901), 2285. It has a station on the Great Western railway. The chief attraction of Kidwelly is its magnificent and well-preserved castle, one of the finest in South Wales, dating chiefly from the 13th century and admirably situated on a knoll above the Gwendraeth Fach. The parish church of St Mary, of the 14th century, possesses a lofty tower with a spire. The quiet little town has had a stirring history. It was a place of some importance when William de Londres, a companion of Fitz Hamon and his conquering knights, first erected a castle here. In 1135 Kidwelly was furiously attacked by Gwenllian, wife of Griffith ap Rhys, prince of South Wales, and a battle, fought close to the town at a place still known as Maes Gwenllian, ended in the total defeat and subsequent execution of the Welsh princess. Later, the extensive lordship of Kidwelly became the property through marriage of Henry, earl of Lancaster, and to this circumstance is due the exclusive jurisdiction of the town. Kidwelly received its first charter of incorporation from Henry VI.; its present charter dating from 1618. The decline of Kidwelly is due to the accumulation of sand at the mouth of the river, and to the consequent prosperity of the neighbouring Llanelly.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kierkegaard, Sören Aaby

See also Søren Kierkegaard on Wikipedia; works by Søren Kierkegaard on Wikisource; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIERKEGAARD, SÖREN AABY (1813–1855), Danish philosopher, the seventh child of a Jutland hosier, was born in Copenhagen on the 5th of May 1813. As a boy he was delicate, precocious and morbid in temperament. He studied theology at the university of Copenhagen, where he graduated in 1840 with a treatise On Irony. For two years he travelled in Germany, and in 1842 settled finally in Copenhagen, where he died on the 11th of November 1855. He had lived in studious retirement, subject to physical suffering and mental depression. His first volume, Papers of a Still Living Man (1838), a characterization of Hans Andersen, was a failure, and he was for some time unnoticed. In 1843 he published Euten—Eller (Either—or) (4th ed., 1878), the work on which his reputation mainly rests; it is a discussion of the ethical and aesthetic ideas of life. In his last years he carried on a feverish agitation against the theology and practice of the state church, on the ground that religion is for the individual soul, and is to be separated absolutely from the state and the world. In general his philosophy was a reaction against the speculative thinkers—Steffens (q.v.), Niels Treschow (1751–1833) and Frederik Christian Sibbern (1785–1872); it was based on the absolute dualism of Faith and Knowledge. His chief follower was Rasmus Nielsen (1809–1884) and he was opposed by Georg Brandes, who wrote a brilliant account of his life and works. As a dialectician he has been described as little inferior to Plato, and his influence on the literature of Denmark is considerable both in style and in matter. To him Ibsen owed his character Brand in the drama of that name.
See his posthumous autobiographical sketch, Syns punktetfor min Forfattervirksomhed (“Standpoint of my Literary Work”); Georg Brandes, Sören Kierkegaard (Copenhagen, 1877); A. Bärthold, Noten zu K.’s Lebensgeschichte (Halle, 1876), Die Bedeutung der ästhetischen Schriften S. Kierkegaarde (Halle, 1879) and S. K.’s Persönlichkeit in ihrer Verwirklichung der Ideale (Gütersloh, 1886); F. Petersen, S. K.’s Christendomsforkyndelae (Christiania, 1877). For Kierkegaard’s relation to recent Danish thought, see Höffding’s Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie (1888), vol. ii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kilbarchan

See also Kilbarchan on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KILBARCHAN, a burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, 1 m. from Milliken Park station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway, 13 m. W. by S. of Glasgow. Pop. (1901), 2886. The public buildings include a hall, library and masonic lodge (dating from 1784). There is also a park. In a niche in the town steeple (erected in 1755) is the statue of the famous piper, who died about the beginning of the 17th century and is commemorated in the elegy on “The Life and Death of Habbie Simson, Piper of Kilbarchan” by Robert Sempill of Beltrees (1595–1665). The chief industries are manufactures of linen (introduced in 1739 and dating the rise of the prosperity of the town), cotton, silks and “Paisley” shawls, and calico-printing, besides quarries, coal and iron mines in the neighbourhood. Two miles south-west is a great rock of greenstone called Clochoderick, 12 ft. in height, 22 ft. in length, and 17 ft. in breadth. About 2 m. north-west on Gryfe Water, lies Bridge of Weir (pop. 2242), the industries of which comprise tanning, currying, calico-printing, thread-making and wood-turning. It has a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Immediately to the south-west of Bridge of Weir are the ruins of Ranfurly Castle, the ancient seat of the Knoxes. Sir John de Knocks (fl. 1422) is supposed to have been the great-grandfather of John Knox; and Andrew Knox (1559–1633), one of the most distinguished members of the family, was successively bishop of the Isles, abbot of Icolmkill (Iona), and bishop of Raphoe. About 4 m. N.W. of Bridge of Weir lies the holiday resort of Kilmalcolm (pronounced Kilmacome; pop. 2220), with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has a golf-course, public park and hydropathic establishment. Several charitable institutions have been built in and near the town, amongst them the well-known Quarrier’s Orphan Homes of Scotland.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kief

See also Kief on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIEF, Kef or Keif (a colloquial form of the Arabic kaif, pleasure or enjoyment), the state of drowsy contentment produced by the use of narcotics. To “do kef,” or to “make kef,” is to pass the time in such a state. The word is used in northern Africa, especially in Morocco, for the drug used for the purpose.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kielce (town)

See also Kielce on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​KIELCE, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the above government, 152 m. by rail S. of Warsaw, situated in a picturesque hilly country. Pop. (1890), 12,775; (1897), 23,189. It has a castle, built in 1638 and for some time inhabited by Charles XII.; it was renowned for its portrait gallery and the library of Zaluski, which was taken to St Petersburg. The squares and boulevards are lined with handsome modern buildings. The principal factories are hemp-spinning, cotton-printing and cement works. The town was founded in 1173 by a bishop of Cracow. In the 16th century it was famous for its copper mines, but they are no longer worked.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minnow

See also Minnow on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MINNOW (Leuciscus phoxinus), the smallest British fish of the Cyprinoid family, readily distinguished by its very minute scales. The ordinary name is derived from the common Indo-European word for “little” (cf. Lat., minor), and “minnow” is popularly identified with any tiny fish; in America it is given to small forms of the Gambusia and Notropis genera, &c. The British minnow abounds in lakes, rivers and brooks, swimming in schools, and shifting its ground in search of food, in the shape of every kind of animal and vegetable substance. It ranges from Scandinavia to south Europe, and from Ireland to north-east Asia, attaining an elevation of nearly 8000 ft. in the Alps. Its size varies from between 2 and 3 in. to as much as 4 or 5 in. The minnow is commonly used by anglers for bait, and is useful in ponds as food for trout, perch or pike.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minor, Robert Crannell

See also Robert Crannell Minor on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839–1904), American artist, was born in New York city on the 30th of April 1839, and received his art training in Paris under Diaz, and in Antwerp under Joseph Van Luppen. His paintings are characteristic of the Barbizon school, and he was particularly happy in his sunset and twilight effects; but it was only within a few years of his death that he began to have a vogue among collectors. In 1897 he was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, New York. After 1900 he lived at Waterford, Connecticut, where he died on the 4th of August 1904.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minister

See also Minister on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant), an official title both civil and ecclesiastical. The word minister as originally used in the Latin Church was a translation of the Greek διάκονος, deacon; thus Lactantius speaks of presbyteri et ministri, priests and deacons (De mort. persecutorum, No. 15), and in this sense it is still technically used; thus canon vi., Sess. xxiii. of the council of Trent speaks of the hierarchy as consisting “ex episcopis, presbyteris et ministris.” But the equivocal character of the Word soon led to the blurring of any strictly technical sense it once possessed. Bishops signed themselves minister in the spirit of humility, priests were “servants of the altar” (ministri altaris), while sometimes the phrase ministri ecclesiae was used to denote the clergy in minor orders (see Lex Bajwar. tit. 8, quoted in Du Cange). A similar equivocal character attaches to the word minister as used in the Anglican formularies: “Oftentimes it is made to express the person officiating in general, whether priest or deacon; at other times it denoteth the priest alone, as contradistinguished from the deacon” (Burn’s Eccl. Law, ed. Phillimore, iii. 44). Thus the 33rd canon of 1603 orders that “no bishop shall make any person a deacon and minister both together upon one day.” Generally, however, it may be said that in the use of the Church of England “minister” means no more than executor officii, a sense in which it was used long before the Reformation. As the most colourless of all official ecclesiastical titles, it is easy to see how the word minister has come to be applied to the clergy of Protestant denominations. The phrase “minister of religion” is wide enough to embrace any evangelical office, and has about it more of the savour of humility than “pastor.”
The civil title of minister originates in the same exact sense of servant, i.e. servants of the royal household (ministri aulae regis). This origin is still clearly traceable in the titles of some ministers in Great Britain, e.g. chancellor of the exchequer, first lord of the treasury, and in the official style of “his majesty’s servants” applied to all. Practically, however, the word minister has in modern states come to be applied to the heads of the great administrative departments who as such are members of the government. On the continent there are, besides, “ministers without portfolio,” i.e. ministers who, without being in charge of any special department, are members of the government. In general it is distinctive of constitutional states that any public act of the sovereign must bear the countersignature of the minister responsible for the department concerned. (See the articles Ministry and Cabinet. For the history and meanings of the word “minister” in diplomacy, see Diplomacy.)  (W. A. P.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mino di Giovanni

See also Mino da Fiesole on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MINO DI GIOVANNI (1431–1484), called Da Fiesole, Italian sculptor, was born at Poppi in the Casentino. He had property at Fiesole. Vasari’s account of him is very inaccurate. Mino was a friend and fellow-worker with Desiderio da Settignano and Matteo Civitale, all three being about the same age. Mino’s sculpture is remarkable for its finish and delicacy of details, as well as for its spirituality and strong devotional feeling. Of Mino’s earlier works, the finest are in the duomo of Fiesole, the altarpiece and tomb of Bishop Salutati, executed before 1466. In the Badia of Florence are an altarpiece and the tombs of Bernardo Giugni (1466) and the Margrave Hugo (1481), all sculptured in white marble, with life-sized recumbent effigies and attendant angels. The pulpit in Prato Cathedral, in which he collaborated with Antonio Rossellino, finished in 1473, is very delicately sculptured with bas-reliefs of great minuteness, but somewhat weakly designed. Soon after the completion of this work Mino went to Rome, where he executed the tomb of Pope Paul II. (now in the crypt of St Peter’s), the tomb of Francesco Tornabuoni in S. Maria sopra Minerva, and a beautiful little marble tabernacle for the holy oils in S. Maria in Trastevere. There can be little doubt that he was also the sculptor of several monuments in S. Maria del Popolo, especially those of Bishop Gomiel and Archbishop Rocca (1482), and the marble reredos given by Pope Alexander VI. Some of Mino’s portrait busts and profile bas-reliefs are preserved in the Bargello at Florence; they are full of life and expression, though without the extreme realism of Verrocchio and other sculptors of his time.
See Vasari, Milanesi’s ed. (1878–1882); Perkins’s Italian Sculptors, Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, Storia della scultura (1813); Hans Semper, Architekten der Renaissance (Dresden, 1880); Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minor

See also Minor on Wikipedia; minor on Wiktionary; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser), a word used both as an adjective and as a substantive for that which is less than or inferior to another, and often correlatively opposed to that to which “major” is applied in the same connotation. Among the numerous special uses of the word the following may be mentioned: “Minor Friars,” sometimes known as “Minorites,” i.e. the name (fratres minores, lesser brothers) given by St Francis to the order he founded (see Franciscans); “minor canons” are clergymen attached to a cathedral or collegiate church who read and sing the daily service. In some cathedrals they are known as “vicars choral”; they are not members of the chapter. (For the distinction between holy and minor orders in Christian hierarchy see Orders.) The name “Minor Prophets” is used collectively of the twelve prophetical books of the Old Testament from Hosea to Malachi inclusive. (For the distinction in music between major and minor intervals, and for other applications of the correlative term, see Music and Harmony.) In the categorical syllogism (q.v.) in logic, the minor term is that term which forms the subject of the conclusion, the minor premiss is that which contains the minor term. In law, a “minor” is a person under legal age (see Infant).
In mathematics, the “minor of a determinant” is the determinant formed by erasing an equal number of the rows and columns of the original determinant. If one column and row be erased there is formed the first minor; if two rows and columns the second minor, and so on. The minor axis of a central conic section is the shorter of the two principal axes; it may also be regarded as the line joining the two imaginary foci. In astronomy, the term minor planets is given to the members of the solar system which have their orbits between those of Mars and Jupiter (see Planets, Minor).