OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radevormwald

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​RADEVORMWALD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 10 m. E. from Remscheid, on the branch line of railway from Krebsöge. Pop. (1905) 10,978. It consists of the town proper and of several suburbs, and has five Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Its chief manufactures are skates, files, locks and similar articles, and it has also cloth and cotton factories.
See J. H. Becker, Geschichte der Stadt Radevormwald (Cologne, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radcliffe, John

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​RADCLIFFE, JOHN (1650–1714), English physician, was born at Wakefield in 1650. He matriculated at University College, Oxford, and after taking his degree in 1669 was elected to a fellowship at Lincoln College, which he gave up in 1677 when, under the statutes of the college, he was called on to take orders. Graduating in medicine in 167 5, he practised first in Oxford, but in 1684 removed to London, where he soon became one of the leading physicians. He frequently attended William III. until 1699, when he caused offence by remarking, as he looked at the King's swollen ankles, that he would not have his legs for his three kingdoms. On the 1st of November 1714 he died of apoplexy at his house in Carshalton. By his will he left property to University College for founding two medical travelling fellowships and for other purposes. Other property was put at the disposal of his executors to use as they thought best, and was employed, among other things, in building the Radcliffe Observatory, Hospital and Library at Oxford, and in enlarging St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Radcliffe was elected M.P. for Bramber in 1690 and for Buckingham in 1713.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radegunda, St

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​ RADEGUNDA, ST (d. 587), Frankish queen, was the daughter of Berthaire, king of the Thuringians. Berthaire was killed by his brother Hermannfried, who took Radegunda and educated her, but was himself slain by the Frankish kings Theuderich and Clotaire (529), and Radegunda fell to Clotaire, who later married her. Her piety was already so noteworthy that it was said that Clotaire had married a nun, not a queen. She left him when he unjustly killed her brother, and fled to Medardus, bishop of Poitiers, who, notwithstanding the danger of the act, consecrated her as a nun. Radegunda stayed in Poitiers, founded a monastery there, and lived for a while in peace. Here Venantius Fortunatus, the Italian poet, found a friendly reception, and two of the poems printed under his name are usually attributed to Radegunda. From him we gain a most pleasing picture of life at the monastery. The queen died on the 13th of August 587.
See the references in A. Molinier, Sources de l'histoire de France.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parahyba do Sul

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​PARAHYBA DO SUL, a river of Brazil, having its source on the campos of Bocaina, on the northern slope of the Serra do Mar in the western part of the state of Sao Paulo, and flowing at first south-westerly and then after a horse-shoe curve in the vicinity of Jacarehy in a general E.N.E. direction to the Atlantic in lat. 21° 38′ S. Its upper course for a distance of 80 m., or to the confluence of the Parahybuna, is known as the Parahytinga. The navigable channel from São Fidelis to the ​Atlantic is 54 m. long, and the total length of the river, including the Parahytinga, is 540 m. Its source is about 4920 ft. above sea-level. The Parahyba passes through a fertile, long-settled country, a part of which was for many years the principal coffee-producing region of Brazil. Its lower course passes through the rich alluvial sugar-producing district of Campos. Among the towns on the Parahyba are Campos, São Fidelis, Parahyba do Sul, Juiz de Fora, Barra do Pirahy (railway junction), Rezende, Queluz and Lorena.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paraldehyde

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​PARALDEHYDE, in medicine, a clear colourless liquid (for the chemistry see Aldehydes), soluble in 1 in 10 of water and freely in alcohol. Paraldehyde is a powerful hypnotic, giving a refreshing quiet sleep which is not followed by unpleasant after effects. As it does not depress the heart when used in medicinal doses, it may be given to patients suffering from cardiac disease. It is much used to produce sleep in the insane. As it is largely excreted by the lungs it may be found useful in bronchial asthma. When taken continuously the drug soon loses its power as a hypnotic. Its unpleasant taste usually prevents the formation of a paraldehyde habit, but it occasionally occurs with symptoms resembling delirium tremens. When taken in an overdose paraldehyde kills by producing respiratory failure.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parallel Motion

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​PARALLEL MOTION, a form of link-work invented by James Watt, and used in steam-engines (see Steam-Engine, § 88), to connect the head of the piston rod, moving up and down in a vertical path, with the end of the beam, moving in the arc of a circle. An ordinary form is shown diagrammatically in Watt’s Parallel Motion. figure. MN is the path in which the piston-rod head, or crosshead, as it is often called, is to be guided. ABC is the middle line of half the beam, C being the fixed centre about which the beam oscillates. A link BD connects a point in the beam with a radius link ED, which oscillates about a fixed centre at E. A point P in BD, taken so that BP: DP:: EN: CM, move in a path which coincides very closely with the straight line MPN. Any other point F in the line CP or CP produced is made to copy this motion by means of the links AF and FG, parallel to BD and AC. In the ordinary application of the parallel motion a point such as F is the point of attachment of the piston-rod, and P is used to drive a pump-rod. Other points in the line CP produced are occasionally made use of by adding other links parallel to AC and BD.
Watt’s linkage gives no more than an approximation to straight-line motion, but in a well-designed example the amount of deviation need not exceed one four-thousandth of the length of stroke. It was for long believed that the production of an exact straight-line motion by pure linkage was impossible, until the problem was solved by the invention of the Peaucellier cell. (See also Mechanics: Applied Mechanics, §§ 77, 78.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paragon

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​PARAGON, a term for that which is a model of excellence or pattern of perfection, hence some person or thing which has no equal. The word was adopted from the O. Fr. paragon, Mod. parangon, Ital. paragone and Span. paragon. The Spanish has usually been taken as the source, and the word explained as from the prepositional phrase para con, in comparison with. But the word first appears in Italian, meaning a “touchstone.” The Italian word may be connected with the Gr. παρακονᾶν, to sharpen by the use of a whetstone (ἀκονή). The term has been used in several technical applications, e.g. in printing, of a large style of type between “great primer” and “double pica,” now usually called “two-line long primer”; of a diamond weighing more than 100 carats; and formerly of a fabric used for hangings in the 17th and 18th centuries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paragraph

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​PARAGRAPH, a term for a section or division of written or printed matter, which, as beginning a new subject, marking a break in the subject, &c., is signified by beginning the section on a new line set back or indented; also by the symbol, now ¶, a reversed P, formerly ( or ), to mark such a division. The Gr. παραγραφός (παρὰ and γράφειν, to write alongside or beside) was used of the short horizontal line or stroke which marked a line in a MS. where such a division occurs; and παραγραφή of a marginal note, also the division so marked. The word “paragraph,” besides these technical typographical meanings, is also applied to the separate numbered sections in an affidavit or other legal document, or in a statute, &c., and in journalism to a short item of news or brief notice of events.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parahyba (state)

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​PARAHYBA (Parahiba or Parahyba do Norte), a state of north-eastern Brazil, bounded N. by Rio Grande do Norte, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Pernambuco, and W. by Ceara. Pop. (1890), 457,232; (1900), 490,784. Area, 28,854 sq. m. It consists of a narrow coastal zone, 30 to 40 m. wide, along the seaboard, behind which the country rises sharply to a highland region forming part of the great central plateau of Brazil. The long, dry season (April to October), together with occasional devastating droughts (séccas) lasting two or more years, prevents the development of forests and damages the agricultural and pastoral industries of the state. There is only one river of importance, the Parahyba do Norte, which crosses the southern part of the state from west to east with a course of about 240 m. The state is poorly watered and covered with a scanty vegetation suitable for pasturage only. Stock-raising is favoured by the existence of a bromeliaceous plant, called mecambira, which is sufficiently juicy to satisfy the thirst of the animals. On the low lands and along some of the river valleys agriculture is the chief occupation of the people; cotton and sugar are largely produced and some tobacco is grown. The exports include hides, skins, cotton, sugar and tobacco. Rubber of the Ceará type is also found and forms an item among the smaller exports. The eastern extremity of the state is served by a railway originally called the Conde d’Eu railway but now forming part of the Great Western of Brazil system, which runs westward and northward from Parahyba to Independencia (72 m.), where it connects with the extension of the Natal and Nova Cruz line, and a branch runs southward to Pilar, 15 m. from its junction and 46 m. from Parahyba. Another small branch runs westward from the station of Mulungú to Alagôa Grande (14 m.). The capital is Parahyba (q.v.), and other important towns, with the populations (in 1890) of their municipalities, which include large rural districts and sometimes several other towns, are: Arcia (26,590); Bananeiras (20,058); Campina Grande (21,475); Guarabira (26,625); Mananguape (20,754); Pilar (10,133, town); Pombal (12,804); and Souza (11,135).
Parahyba formed part of the original grant, known as the capitania of Itamaraca, from the Portuguese crown to Pero Lopes de Souza. It was not settled until 1584, when a fort was erected near the present port of Cabedello under the name of São Filippe.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parahyba (city)

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​PARAHYBA (Parahyba do Norte), a city and port of Brazil, capital of Parahyba state, on the right bank of the Parahyba do Norte river, 11 m. above its mouth and 65 m. N. of Recife. Pop. (1890), 18,645, including several suburbs and Cabedello; (1908, estimate), 30,000. Parahyba is the starting-point of the Conde d’Eu railway, now a part of the Great Western of Brazil system, which includes a main line to Independencia, where it connects with the Natal & Nova Cruz line of Rio Grande do Norte, and a branch to Cabedello. The entrance to the Parahyba do Norte River being obstructed by a stone reef and sand bars, only vessels drawing less than 14 ft. can effect an entrance. The “Varadouro,” as the lower part of the city is called, is built on the margin of the river and is devoted principally to commerce. Behind this is a low hill on whose northern slope and broad summit the upper city is built, and a tramway line runs to the suburb of Trincheira. There are some good public buildings, including the parish church (matriz) of N.S. das Neves, the old Franciscan convent and church, the government palace, and the treasury. There are a normal school, a lyceum, a national gymnasium, and a school for marine apprentices. Parahyba was founded in 1585. It was called Frederickstadt by the Dutch, who occupied the Franciscan convent as a government house, and Felippéa in honour of the king of Spain when the Dutch were expelled. Its original name was resumed on the separation (1640) of Portugal and her colonies from Spanish rule.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phelypeaux

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​PHELYPEAUX, a French family of Blésois. Its two principal branches were those of the siegneurs of Herbault, La Vrillière and Saint Florentin, and of the counts of Pontchartrain and Maurepas Raimond Phelypeaux, seigneur of Herbault and La Vrillière (d. 1629), was treasurer of the Épargne in 1599, and became secretary of state in 1621. His son Louis succeeded him in this latter office, and died in 1681. Balthazar Phelypeaux, marquis de Châteauneuf (d 1700), and Louis, marquis de La Vrilliére (d 1725), respectively son and grandson of Louis, were also secretaries of state. Louis Phelypeaux (1705-1777), count of Saint Florentin and afterwards duke of La Vrilliére (1770), succeeded his father as secretary of state, became minister of the king's household in 1749, a minister of state in 1751, and discharged the functions of minister of foreign affairs on the disgrace of Choiseul (1770). He incurred great unpopularity by his abuse of lettres de cachet, and had to resign in 1775. Raimond Balthazar Phelypeaux, seigneur du Verger, a member of the La Vrillière branch, was sent as ambassador to Savoy in 1700, where he discovered the intrigues of the duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II, against France; and when war was declared he was kept a close prisoner by the duke (1703–1704). At the time of his death (1713) he was governor general in the West Indies. The branch of Pontchartrain-Maurepas was founded by Paul Phelypeaux (1569-1621), brother of the first-mentioned Raimond, he became secretary of state in 1610
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phelps, Edward John

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​PHELPS, EDWARD JOHN (1822-1900), American lawyer and diplomat, was born on the 11th of July 1822 at Middlebury, Vermont. He graduated from Middlebury College in 1840, was a schoolmaster for a year in Virginia, and was admitted to the bar in 1843. He began practice at Middlebury, but in 1845 removed to Burlington, Vermont. From 1851 to 1853 he was second comptroller of the United States Treasury, and then practised law in New York City until 1857, when he returned to Burlington. Becoming a Democrat after the Whig party had ceased to exist, he was debarred from a political career in his own state, where his party was in the minority, but he served in the state constitutional convention in 1870, and in 1880 was the Democratic candidate for governor of his state. He was one of the founders of the American Bar Association, and was its president in 1880-1881. From 1881 until his death he was Kent Professor of Law in Yale University. He was minister to Great Britain from 1885 to 1889, and in 1893 served as senior counsel for the United States before the international tribunal at Paris to adjust the Bering Sea controversy. His closing argument, requiring eleven days for its delivery, was an exhaustive review of the case. Phelps lectured on medical jurisprudence at the university of Vermont in 1881-1883, and on constitutional law at Boston University in 1882-1883, and delivered numerous addresses, among them that on “The United States Supreme Court and the Sovereignty of the People” at the centennial celebration of the Federal Judiciary in 1890 and an oration at the dedication of the Bennington Battle Monument, unveiled in 1891 at the centennial of Vermont's admission to the Union. In politics Phelps was always Conservative, opposing the anti-slavery movement before 1860, the free-silver movement in 1896, when he supported the Republican presidential ticket, and after 1898 becoming an ardent “anti-expansionist.” He died at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 9th of March 1900.
See the Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, edited by J. G. McCullough, with a Memoir by John W. Stewart (New York, 1901) ; and “Life and Public Services of the Hon. Edward J. Phelps,” by Matthew H. Buckham, in Proceedings of the Vermont Historical Society (Burlington, Vt., 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenacetin

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​PHENACETIN, C$_2$H$_5$O·C$_6$H$_4$·NHCOCH$_3$ (para-acetamino-phenetol), a drug prepared by acetylating para-phenetidin, or by heating para-acetylaminophenol and potassium ethyl sulphate with alcoholic soda to 150º C. Para-phenetidin is prepared by treating the sodium salt of para-nitrophenol with ethyl iodide, and reducing the nitrophenetol to para-phenetidin or aminophenetol The yield may be doubled by diazotizing para-phenetidin, coupling with phenol, ethylating and reducing:
EtO·C$_6$H$_4$·NH$_2$→EtO·C$_6$H$_4$·N$_2$OH→EtO·C$_6$H$_4$·N$_2$·C$_6$H·OH→EtO·C$_5$H$_4$·N$_2$·C$_6$H$_4$·OEt→2EtO·C$_6$H$_4$·NH$_2$.
It crystallizes from water in colourless plates, melting at 135° C. It is soluble in about 70 parts of hot and in about 1400 parts of cold water.
Several compounds related to phenacetin have been introduced into medicine. Triphenin is propylphenetidin, lactophenin is lactylphenetidin, pyrantin is para-ethoxyphenyl succinimide, EtO·C$_6$H$_4$·N[CO·CH$_2$]$_2$, salophen or saliphenin is salicylphenetidin, amygdophenin is mandelylphenetidin. In addition, several other derivatives have been suggested which have a greater solubility than phenacetin, e.g. phesin, which is the sodium salt of phenacetin sulphonic acid, apolysin and citrophen (citrophenin), which are citric acid derivatives of para-phenetidin, &c.
Phenacetin is contained in both the British and United States pharmacopoeia, in the latter under the name of acetphenetidin. The dose is 5 to 10 grs. given in cachets or in suspension. When the drug is carelessly made It may contain impurities, producing considerable irritation of the kidneys. The physiological action of phenacetin consists in a sedative action on the sensory tracts of the spinal cord, and a depressant action on the heart, where it ​tends to paralyse the action of the cardiac muscle. Upon the bodily heat it exercises a marked effect, decreasing the action of the heat-producing centre as well as increasing the dissipation of heat, and thus causing a marked fall in temperature. In toxic doses the blood becomes dark and blackish from the formation of methaemoglobin, and the urine is changed in colour from the passage of altered blood. The chief therapeutic use of phenacetin is as an antineuralgic, and it is of service in migraine, rheumatism of the sub-acute type, intercostal neuralgia and locomotor ataxia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phenolphthalein

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​PHENOLPHTHALEIN, in organic chemistry, a compound derived from phthalophenone, or diphenyl phthalide (formula l), the anhydride of triphenyl-carbinol-ortho-carboxylic acid, which is obtained by condensing phthalyl chloride with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. The phthaleins are formed from this anhydride by the entrance of hydroxyl or amino groups into the two phenyl residues, and are prepared by condensing phenols with phthalic anhydride, phenol itself giving rise to phenolphthalein (formula II.) together with a small quantity of fluorane (formula III.), whilst resorcin under similar conditions yields fluorescein (q.v.). The phthaleins on reduction yield phthalines, which are derivatives of triphenylmethane carboxylic acid, these reduction products are colourless and may be regarded as the leuco-compounds of the phthaleins, thus phenolphthalein itself gives phenolphthalein (formula IV.). Dehydrating agents usually convert the phenolphthalein’s into anthraquinone derivatives.
| C$_6$H$_4$ | CPh$_2$ | O,   C$_6$H$_4$ | C(C$_6$H$_4$·OH)$_2$ | O,   C$_6$H$_4$ | C[C$_6$H$_4$]$_2$O | O |
| C$_6$H$_4$ | CO | O,   C$_6$H$_4$ | CO————— | O,   C$_6$H$_4$ | CO———— | O |
| I. Diphenylphthalide, II. Phenolphthalein, III. Fluorane. |||||||
| C$_6$H$_4$ | CH(C$_6$H$_4$·OH)$_2$ |
| C$_6$H$_4$ | CO$_2$H |
| IV. Phenolphthaline. ||
Phenolphthalein is obtained when phenol and phthalic anhydride are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in colourless crusts and is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves in dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis with a fine red colour, being re precipitated from these solutions by the addition of mineral acid It dissolves in concentrated caustic alkalis to a colourless solution which probably contains salts of a non-quinonoid character. This difference in behaviour has led to considerable discussion (see H. Meyer, Monats., 1899, 20, p 337; R. Meyer, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 2949, A. G. Perkin and Green, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1904, p. 398). On fusion with caustic alkali, phenolphthalein yields benzoic acid and para-dihydroxybenzophenone, which shows that in the original condensation the phthalic acid residue has taken the para position to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol.
Fluorane is a product of the condensation of the phthalic acid residue in the ortho position to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol, anhydride formation also taking place between these hydroxyl groups. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a yellowish green fluorescence. The rhodamines, which are closely related to the phthaleins, are formed by the condensation of the alkyl meta-aminophenols with phthalic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid. Their salts are fine red dyes.