OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Joly de Lotbinière, Sir Henri Gustave

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​JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE, SIR HENRI GUSTAVE (1829–1908), Canadian politician, was born at Epernay in France on the 5th of December 1829. His father, Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly, the owner of famous vineyards at Epernay, was of Huguenot descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of Eustache Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, marquis de Lotbinière (one of Montcalm’s engineers at Quebec); he thus became seigneur de Lotbinière. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de Lotbinière in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec. He was educated in Paris, and called to the bar of lower Canada in 1858. On the 6th of May 1856 he married Margaretta Josepha (d. 1904), daughter of Hammond Gowen, of Quebec. At the general election of 1861 he was elected to the house of assembly of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of Lotbinière, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same county in the House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative assembly, Quebec. Joly was opposed to confederation and supported Dorion in the stand which he took on this question. In 1878 he was called by Luc Letellier de St Just, lieutenant-governor of Quebec, to form an administration, which was defeated in 1879, and until 1883 he was leader of the opposition. During his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrenchment, and endeavoured to abolish the legislative council. In 1885, as a protest against the attitude of his party towards Louis Riel, who was tried and executed for high treason, he retired from public life. Early in the year 1895 he was induced again to take an active part in the campaign of his party, and at the general election of 1896 he was returned as member for the county of Portneuf. He had already in 1895 been created K.C.M.G. On the formation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier’s administration he accepted the office of controller of inland revenue, and a year later he became a privy councillor, as minister of inland revenue. From 1900 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of the province of British Columbia. He twice declined a seat in the senate, but rendered eminent service to Canada by promoting the interest of agriculture, horticulture and of forestry. He died on the 17th of November 1908.  (A. G. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Joinville

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​JOINVILLE, the name of a French noble family of Champagne, which traced its descent from Étienne de Vaux, who lived at the beginning of the 11th century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1184), sire de Joinville, who accompanied Henry the Liberal, count of Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147, received from him the office of seneschal, and this office became hereditary in the house of Joinville. In 1203 Geoffroi V., sire de Joinville, died while on a crusade, leaving no children. He was succeeded by his brother Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter of the count of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (q.v.), the historian and friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville, the grandson of Jean, became count of Vaudémont, through his mother, Marguerite de Vaudémont. His daughter, Marguerite de Joinville, married in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 1415), to whom she brought the lands of Joinville. In 1552, Joinville was made into a principality for the house of Lorraine. Mlle de Montpensier, the heiress of Mlle de Guise, bequeathed the principality of Joinville to Philip, duke of Orleans (1693). The castle, which overhung the Marne, was sold in 1791 to be demolished. The title of prince de Joinville (q.v.) was given later to the third son of King Louis Philippe. Two branches of the house of Joinville have settled in other countries: one in England, descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Vaucouleurs, and brother of the historian, who served under Henry III. and Edward I.; the other, descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and son of Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples.
See J. Simonnet, Essai sur l’histoire et la généalogie des seigneurs de Joinville (1875); H. F. Delaborde, Jean de Joinville et les seigneurs de Joinville (1894). (M. P.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jokjakarta

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​JOKJAKARTA, or Jokjokarta (more correctly Jokyakarta; Du. Djokjakarta), a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East Indies, bounded N. by Kedu and Surakarta, E. by Surakarta, S. by the Indian Ocean, W. by Bagelen. Pop. (1897), 858,392. The country is mountainous with the exception of a wedge-like strip in the middle between the rivers Progo and Upak. In the north-west are the southern slopes of the volcano Merapi, and in the east the Kidul hills and the plateau of Sewu. The last-named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range, with numerous small summits, whence it is also known as the Thousand Hills. The remainder of the residency is well-watered and fertile, important irrigation works having been carried out. Sugar, rice and indigo are cultivated; salt-making is practised on the coast. The minerals include coal-beds in the Kidul hills and near Nangulan, marble and gold in the neighbourhood of Kalasan. The natives are poor, owing chiefly to maladministration, the use of opium and the usury practised by foreigners (Chinese, Arabs, &c.). The principality is divided between the sultan (vassal of the Dutch government) and the so-called independent prince Paku Alam; Ngawen and Imogiri are enclaves of Surakarta. There are good roads, and railways connect the chief town with Batavia, Samarang, Surakarta, &c. The town of Jokjakarta (see Java) the seat of the resident, the sultan and the Paku Alam princes; its most remarkable section is the kraton or citadel of the sultan. Imogiri, S.W. of the capital, the burial-place of the princes of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, is guarded by priests and officials. Sentolo, Nangulan, Brosot, Kalasan, Tempel, Wonosari are considerable villages. There are numerous remains of Hindu temples, particularly in the neighbourhood of Kalasan near the border of Surakarta and Prambanan, which is just across it. Remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the coast, namely, the so-called Nyabi Kidul and Rongkob, and at Selarong, south-east of Jokjakarta.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Joliet

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​JOLIET, a city and the county-seat of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the township of Joliet, in the N.E. part of the state, on the Des Plaines river, 40 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890), 23,264; (1900), 29,353, of whom 8536 were foreign-born, 1889 being German, 1579 Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish; (1910 census) 34,670. In addition there is a large population in the immediate suburbs: that of the township including the city was 27,438 in 1890, and 50,640 in 1910. Joliet is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern railways, by interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois & Michigan canal and the Chicago Sanitary (ship) canal. The city is situated in a narrow valley, on both sides of the river. It is the seat of the northern Illinois penitentiary, and has a public library (in front of which is a statue, by S. Asbjornsen, of Louis Joliet), the township high school, two hospitals, two Catholic academies and a club-house, erected by the Illinois Steel Company for the use of its employees. There are two municipal parks, West Park and Highland Park; Dellwood Park is an amusement resort, owned by the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway Company. In the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building stone, cement and fireclay, and there are coal mines 20 m. distant. Mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the development of manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was valued at $33,788,700 (20.3% more than in 1900), a large part of which ​was represented by iron and steel goods. There are large industrial establishments just outside the city limits. The first settlement on the site of Joliet (1833) was called Juliet, in honour of the daughter of James B. Campbell, one of the settlers. The present name was adopted in 1845, in memory of Louis Joliet (1645–1700), the French Canadian explorer of the Mississippi, and in 1852 a city charter was secured.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Joist

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​JOIST, in building, one of a row or tier of beams set edgewise from one wall or partition to another and carrying the flooring boards on the upper edge and the laths of the ceiling on the lower. In double flooring there are three series of joists, binding, bridging, and ceiling joists. The binding joists are the real support of the floor, running from wall to wall, and carrying the bridging joists above and the ceiling joists below (see Carpentry), ​The Mid. Eng. form of the word was giste or gyste, and was adapted from O. Fr. giste, modern gîte, a beam supporting the platform of a gun. By origin the word meant that on which anything lies or rests (gésir, to lie; Lat. jacere).
The English word “gist,” in such phrases as “the gist of the matter,” the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet of joist. According to Skeat, the origin of this meaning is an O. Fr. proverbial expression, Je sçay bien où gist le lièvre, I know well where the hare lies, i.e. I know the real point of the matter.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaeotherium

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​PALAEOTHERIUM (i.e. ancient animal), a name applied by Cuvier to the remains of ungulate mammals recalling tapirs in general appearance, from the Lower Oligocene gypsum quarries of Paris. These were the first indications of the occurrence in the fossil state of perissodactyle ungulates allied to the horse, although it was long before the relationship was recognized. The palaeotheres, which range in size from that of a pig to that of a small rhinoceros, are now regarded as representing a family, Palaeotheriidae, nearly related to the horse-tribe, and having, in fact, probably originated from the same ancestral stock, namely, Hyracotherium of the Lower Eocene (see Equidae). The connecting link with Hyracotherium was formed by Pachynolophus (Propalaeotherium), and the line apparently terminated in Paloplotherium, which is also Oligocene. Representatives of the family occur in many parts of Europe, but the typical genus is unknown in North America, where, however, other forms occur.
* (From the Paris gypsum.)
* Restoration of Palaeotherium magnum. (About 1/3 nat. size.)
Although palaeotheres resemble tapirs in general appearance, they differ in having only three toes on the fore as well as on the hind foot. The dentition normally comprises the typical series of 44 teeth, although in some instances the first premolar is wanting. The cheek-teeth are short-crowned, generally with no cement, the upper molars having a W-shaped outer wall, from which proceed two oblique transverse crests, while the lower ones carry two crescents. Unlike the early horses, the later premolars are as complex as the molars; and although there is a well-marked gap between the canine and the premolars, there is only a very short one between the former and the incisors. The orbit is completely open behind. In other respects the palaeotheres resemble the ancestral horses. They were, however, essentially marsh-dwelling animals, and exhibit no tendency to the cursorial type of limb so characteristic of the horse-line. They were, in fact, essentially inadaptive creatures, and hence rapidly died out.  (R. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paladin

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​PALADIN (Lat. palatinus), strictly a courtier, a member of a royal household, one connected with a palace. From being applied to the famous twelve peers of Charlemagne, the word became a general term in romance for knights of great prowess.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaemon, Quintus Remmius

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​PALAEMON, QUINTUS REMMIUS, Roman grammarian, a native of Vicentia, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius. From Suetonius (De grammaticis, 23) we learn that he was originally a slave who obtained his freedom and taught grammar at Rome. Though a man of profligate and arrogant character, he enjoyed a great reputation as a teacher; Quintilian and Persius are said to have been his pupils. His lost Ars (Juvenal, vii. 215), a system of grammar much used in his own time and largely drawn upon by later grammarians, contained rules for correct diction, illustrative quotations and treated of barbarisms and solecisms (Juvenal vi. 452). An extant Ars grammatica (discovered by Jovianus Pontanus in the 15th century) and ​other unimportant treatises on similar subjects have been wrongly ascribed to him.
See C. Marschall, De Remmii Palaemonis libris grammaticis (1887); “Latin Grammar in the First Century” by H. Nettleship in Journal of Philology, vol. xv. (1886); J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaeologus

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​PALAEOLOGUS, a Byzantine family name which first appears in history about the middle of the 11th century, when George Palaeologus is mentioned among the prominent supporters of Nicephorus Botaniates, and afterwards as having helped to raise Alexius I. Comnenus to the throne in 1081; he is also noted for his brave defence of Durazzo against the Normans in that year. Michael Palaeologus, probably his son, was sent by Manuel II. Comnenus into Italy as ambassador to the court of Frederick I. in 1154; in the following year he took part in the campaign against William of Sicily, and died at Bari in 1155. A son or brother of Michael, named George, received from the emperor Manuel the title of Sebastos, and was entrusted with several important missions; it is uncertain whether he ought to be identified with the George Palaeologus who took part in the conspiracy which dethroned Isaac Angelus in favour of Alexius Angelus in 1195. Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus was Great Domestic under Theodore Lascaris and John Vatatzes; his eldest son by Irene Palaeologina, Michael (q.v.), became the eighth emperor of that name in 1260, and was in turn followed by his son Andronicus II. (1282–1328). Michael, the son of Andronicus, and associated with him in the empire, died in 1320, but left a son, Andronicus III., who reigned from 1328 to 1341; John VI. (1355–1391), Manuel II. (1391–1425) and John VII. (1425–1448) then followed in lineal succession; Constantine XI. or XII., the last emperor of the East (1448–1453), was the younger brother of John VII. Other brothers were Demetrius, prince of the Morea until 1460, and Thomas, prince of Achaia, who died at Rome in 1465. A daughter of Thomas, Zoe by name, married Ivan III. of Russia. A younger branch of the Palaeologi held the principality of Monferrat from 1305 to 1533, when it became extinct.
See Roman Empire, Later, and articles on the separate rulers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaeospondylus

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​ PALAEOSPONDYLUS, a small fish-like organism, of which the skeleton is found fossil in the Middle Old Red Sandstone of Achanarras, near Thurso, Caithness. It was thus named (Gr. ancient vertebra) by Dr R. H. Traquair in 1890, in allusion to its well-developed vertebral rings; and its structure was ​studied in detail in 1903 by Professor and Miss Sollas, who succeeded in making enlarged models of the fossil in wax.
* From British Museum Guide to Fossil Reptiles and Fishes, by permission of the Trustees.
* Palaeospondylus gunni, restored by Dr R. H. Traquair. (Nearly twice nat. size.)
The skeleton as preserved is carbonized, and indicates an eel shaped animal from 3 to 5 cm., in length. The skull, which must have consisted of hardened cartilage, exhibits pairs of nasal and auditory capsules, with a gill-apparatus below its hinder part, but no indications of ordinary jaws. The anterior opening of the brain-case is surrounded by a ring of hard cirri. A pair of “post-branchial plates” projects backwards from the head. The vertebral axis shows a series of broad rings, with distinct neural arches, but no ribs. Towards the end of the body both neural and haemal arches are continued into forked radial cartilages, which support a median fin. There are no traces either of paired fins or of dermal armour. The affinities of Palaeospondylus are doubtful, but it is probably related to the contemporaneous armoured Ostracoderms.
References.—R. H. Traquair, paper in Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., xii. 312, (1894); W. J. Sollas and I. B. J. Sollas, paper in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (1903 B.).  (A. S. Wo.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaeolithic

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​PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. παλαιός, old, and λίθος, stone), in anthropology, the characteristic epithet of the Drift or early Stone Age when Man shared the possession of Europe with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros and other extinct animals. The epoch is characterized by flint implements of the rudest type and never polished. The fully authenticated remains of palaeolithic man are few, and discoveries are confined to certain areas, e.g. France and north Italy. The reason is that interment appears not to have been practised by the river-drift hunters, and the only bones likely to be found would be those accidentally preserved in caves or rock-shelters. The first actual find of a palaeolithic implement was that of a rudely fashioned flint in a sandbank at Menchecourt in 1841 by Boucher de Perthes. Further discoveries have resulted in the division of the Palaeolithic Age into various epochs or sequences according to the faunas associated with the implements or the localities where found. One classification makes three divisions for the epoch, characterized respectively by the existence of the cave-bear, the mammoth and reindeer; another, two, marked by the prevalence of the mammoth and reindeer respectively. These divisions are, however, unsatisfactory, as the fauna relied on as characteristic must have existed synchronously. The four epochs or culture-sequences of G. de Mortillet have met with the most general acceptance. They are called from the places in France where the most typical finds of palaeolithic remains have been made—Chellian from Chelles, a few miles east of Paris; Mousterian from the cave of Moustier on the river Vézère, Dordogne; Solutrian from the cave at Solutré near Macon; and Madelenian from the rocky shelter of La Madeleine, Dordogne.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Passport

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PASSPORT, or safe-conduct in time of war, a document granted by a belligerent power to protect persons and property from the operation of hostilities. In the case of the ship of a neutral power, the passport is a requisition by the government of the neutral state to suffer the vessel to pass freely with the crew, cargo, passengers, &c., without molestation by the belligerents. The requisition, when issued by the civil authorities of the port from which the vessel is fitted out, is called a sea-letter. But the terms passport and sea-letter are often used indiscriminately. A form of sea-letter (literae salvi conductus) is appended to the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659. The passport is frequently mentioned in treaties, e.g. the Treaty of Copenhagen, 1670, between Great Britain and Denmark. The violation of a passport, or safe conduct, is a grave breach of international law. The offence in the United States is punishable by fine and imprisonment where the passport or safe conduct is granted under the authority of the United States (Act of Congress, April 30, 1790). In its more familiar sense a passport is a document authorizing a person to pass out of or into a country, or a licence or safe-conduct to the person specified therein and authenticating his right to aid and protection. Although most foreign countries may now be entered without passports, the English foreign office recommends travellers to furnish themselves with them, as affording a ready means of identification in case of need. They are usually granted by the foreign office of a state, or by its diplomatic agents abroad. The English Foreign Office charges two shillings for a passport, whatever number of persons may be named in it. Passports granted in England are subject to a stamp duty of sixpence. They may be granted to naturalized as well as natural-born British subjects.
See “The Passport System,” by N. W. Sibley, in Jour. Comp. Leg. new series, vol. vii. The regulations respecting passports issued by the English Foreign Office as well as the passport requirements of foreign countries will be found in the annual Foreign Office List.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paste

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​PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pâte. Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port, and Ital., from Gr. πάστη or παστά, barley porridge, or salted pottage, πάσσειν, to sprinkle with salt), a mixture or composition of a soft plastic consistency. The term is applied to substances used for various purposes, as e.g. in cookery, a mixture of flour and water with lard, butter or suet, for making pies and pastry, or of flour and water boiled, to which starch or other ingredients to prevent souring are added, forming an adhesive for the affixing of wall-paper, bill-posting and other purposes. In technical language, the term is also applied to the prepared clay which forms the body in the manufacture of pottery and porcelain (see Ceramics) and to the specially prepared glass, known also as “strass,” from which imitation gems are manufactured. This latter must be the purest, most transparent and most highly refractive glass that can be prepared. These qualities are comprised in the highest degree in a flint glass of unusual density from the large percentage of lead it contains. Among various mixtures regarded as suitable for strass the following is an example: powdered quartz 300 parts, red lead 470, potash (purified by alcohol) 163, borax 22, and white arsenic 1 part by weight. Special precautions are taken in the melting. The finished colourless glass is used for imitation diamonds; and when employed to imitate coloured precious stones the strass is melted up with various metallic oxides. Imitation gems are easily distinguished from real stones by their inferior hardness and by chemical tests; they may generally be detected by the comparatively warm sensation they communicate to the tongue.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Passion Week

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​PASSION WEEK, the fifth week in Lent, beginning with Passion Sunday (dominica passionis or de passione domini), so called from very early times because with it begins the more special commemoration of Christ’s passion. Passion week is often incorrectly identified with Holy week (q.v.). In the north of England Passion Sunday was formerly known as Carle or Carling Sunday, a name corrupted from “care,” in allusion to the sorrowful season which the day heralds. It was the universal custom in medieval England to eat on this Sunday a grey pea steeped and fried in butter, which came to be called from its association “Carling Nut.”