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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Biner

From volume 2 of the work.
Canonist, historian, and theologian, b. at Gluringen Switzerland, 1697; d. at Torrenburg, Germany, 24 March, 1766. His fame rests principally on a truly amazing erudition. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1715, received the usual training of its members and was later professor of canon law in the universities of Ingolstadt, Dilingen, and Innsbruck. He entered zealously into all the controversies with the sectaries of his time, especially with the Swiss heretics. As a consequence, all his works have a polemical tinge.
In 1739 appeared his "Catholische Anmerkung über die neueste uncatholische Controvers-Schreiber", directed against certain opponents in Zurich. This was followed in 1744 by "Indifferentismus", a treatise on religious indifference and liberalism in dogmatic teaching. Biner published 'Heiligkeit der Kirche" in 1750, discussing the marks of the true Church and giving sketches of eminent Catholics. The best of his polemical works, one of enduring merit, is "De Summâ Trinitate, Fide Catholicâ et Hierarchiâ Ecclesiasticâ". It appeared in 1765 and shows him at his best as a theologian and canonist. His last controversial treatise, which appeared the same year and was published like all the others at Vienna, is entitled: "Kurzer Begriff der heutigen Glaubenstreitigkeiten". It is an examination and refutation of various Protestant confessions of faith.
Biner's chief work of a purely canonical character is "Dissertationes juridicæ de beneficiis ecclesiasticis" (Innsbruck, 1746). His masterpiece is the "Apparatus erudictionis ad jurisprudentiam ecclesiasticam". The work, despite its title, is not restricted to canon law, but is also historical, polemical, and theological. It was published at Vienna, 1754-66 in eight quarto volumes. It is a work of vast erudition and a veritable storehouse of history and canon law. Dividing his material by centuries, Biner treats of the various species of law, of the history of the church councils, of the political and religious vicissitudes of the various nations, of treaties and concordats, etc. Interspersed in the work are many valuable excursuses on Jansenism, Probabilism, Public Penance, Origin of Imperial Electors, etc. It is to be regretted, however, that a work displaying such stupendous industry and erudition should be rendered less valuable for students by an unscientific arrangement of material and the want of an index. The vastness of the knowledge which Biner displays, however, has received its meed of praise even from his opponents. He wrote many other work besides those mentioned in the text, which may be found in De Backer and Sommervogel.
HURTER, Nomenclator (Innsbruck, 1895), III; DE BACKER, Bibl. Des Ecrivans, S.J. (LIEGE, 1853); SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. De la c. de J. (Brussels, 1890).
WILLIAM H.W. FANNING
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Aubery

From volume 2 of the work.
Jesuit missionary in Canada, born at Gisors in Normandy, 10 May, 1673; died at St. Francois, Canada, 2 July, 1755. At the age of seventeen ho entered the Society of Jesus, and for four years studied in Paris. He arrived in Canada in 1694 and completed his studies at Quebec where he was also instructor for five years, and where he was ordained in 1700. Assigned to the Abenaki mission, he re-established in 1701 the mission at Medoctec on the St. John River, which appears to have been abandoned by the Franciscans about a year earlier. In 1708 he was given charge of the Abenaki reduction at St. Francois, and exercised the apostolate in that single mission for nearly half a century Aubery is said to have been an able linguist, but unfortunately his numerous manuscripts, with the mission registers, were destroyed by fire in 1759. He also wrote several memorials in opposition to the claims of the English in Acadia, and sent them to the French Government, urging that the boundary between the French and English possessions should be determined by mutual agreement. To these memorials he added a map, giving the boundaries as defined by the treaty of Utrecht. He plan, however, was not accepted. These valuable documents are still preserved in the Paris archives. Chateaubriand reproduces the life-story of Father Aubery in the character of the missionary in his "Atala".
EDWARD P. SPILLANE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Creswell

From volume 4 of the work.
(vere Arthur)
Controversialist, b. 1577 of Yorkshire stock in London; d. about 1623. His widowed mother married William Lacey, who, after her death, was ordained priest and martyred (22 August, 1582) at York. Creswell joined the Society of Jesus at Rome, 11 Oct., 1583, having previously studied at Reims and at the Roman College. Having been rector (1589-1592) after Father Persons at the English College, Rome, he also succeeded Persons as vice-prefect for the English Jesuit interests in Spain. Creswell's character and conduct in connection with his difficulties over the seminaries in Seville and Valladolid, and his controversies about the Benedictine vocations have been severely criticized (Cf. Camm, Life of Ven. John Roberts, and Polen, The Month, London, Sept.-Oct., 1899). Father Creswell had considerable intercourse with Sir Charles Cornwallis, the English resident at Madrid, till the Powder Plot, when Creswell was summoned to Rome. Sent to Belgium in 1614, he was at St-Omer in 1630, and in 1621 was made rector of Ghent. His chief works are:- A Latin treatise, "De Vitâ Beatâ";- "Exemplar Literarun ad Cecilium (sive Burleigh)", 1592, under the pseudonym "John Perne", against Elizabeth's proclamation of 29 Nov., 1591; - "Vida y Martyrio del P. Henrique Valpolo" (Madrid, 1596); - treatise against James First's (1610) proclamation (4to, St-Omer, 1611);- "Meditations upon the Rosary" (St-Omer, 1620);- translation into Spanish, under the name "Peter Manrique" of Father William Bathe's "Preparation for Administering Penance and the Eucharist" (Milan, 1614); - translation into English and Spanish, under initials N. T. of Salvian's "Quis dives salvus?" (St-Omer, 1618); "Relacion de Inglaterra", Ms X, 14, National Library, Madrid;- memoir for Philip III of Spain on affairs of the Society; - "Responsio at Calumnias." Stonyhurst Library, Letters, Vatican archives (Lettere di particolari, I, 1).
Foley, Records, VI and VII; Oliver, Collectanea S. J.; Douay diaries, p. xclx; Butler, memoirs, II, 224; Sommervogel, Bibliothèque, II, 1656; Cooper in Dict. Nat. Biog., XIII, 73.
PATRICK RYAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Autran

* related authors: Joseph Autran.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, Wikidata item.
From volume 2 of the work.
French poet, born at Marseilles 20 June, 1813; died in the same city, 6 March, 1877. He pursued his classical studies in the Jesuit college of Aix. His father, however, having met with reverses, Autran, obliged to earn his own living, accepted a position as teacher in a religious school. Thus engaged, he published the first work which drew attention to his merits as a poet; this was an ode written on the occasion of Lamartine's departure for the Holy Land. "Le Départ pour l'Orient" was followed (1835) by a collection of poems entitled "La mer", remarkable for descriptive power and the charms of its versification. The favour with which it was received led him to publish a second series of the same subject, "Les Poèmes de la mer", which appeared in 1852. Meantime, he had written another volume of lyrics "Ludibria ventis", which served to increase his popularity as a singer; also a prose work, "Italie et la Semaine sainte à Rome" (1841), the fruit of a voyage to the Eternal City. the French conquest of Algiers suggested the subject of an epic poem, "Milianah", published in 1842. In 1848 "La Fille d'Achille", a tragedy in five acts, shared with Emile Augier's "Gabrielle" the Prix Monthyon awarded by the French Academy. This was followed by: "Laboureurs et Soldats" (1845), "Vie rurale" (1856), crowned by the French Academy; "Epîtres rustiques"; "Le poème des beaux jours" (1862); "Le Cyclope", a drama after Euripides (1869); "Les Paroles de Salomon"; "Sonnets Capricieux" (1873); "La Légende des Paladins" (1875). In 1868 Autran was elected a member of the French Academy to succeed Ponsard. In his later days he was stricken with blindness. Autran, though not a poet of the first rank, is a writer whose noble sentiments, chaste imagination, and religious feeling will always endear him to lovers of pure and refreshing poetry. All his works are remarkable for their purity of expression, the music of their rhythm, and a profound feeling for the beauties of nature.
Anthologie des poètes français (Paris, 1892), 302; DE JULLEVILLE, Hist. de la langue et de la littérature françaises (Paris, 1899), VII, 355; DE LAPRADE, Préface des œuvres complètes d'Autran (1874-81).
JEAN LE BARS.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Carrière

From volume 3 of the work.
Moral theologian, thirteenth superior of the seminary and Society of Saint-Sulpice, b. 19 February, 1795, at La Panouze-de-Cernon, near Rodez, France; d. at Lyons, 23 April, 1864. He entered the seminary of Saint-Sulpice in 1812, and five years later, at the age of twenty-two, became a member of the society and was ordained priest. The following year he was called to Saint-Sulpice to teach the postgraduate course of moral theology, and, despite his extreme youth, distinguished himself as a brilliant and sound teacher. In 1829 he came to America in the capacity of official visitor to the Sulpician houses; invited to take part in the First Provincial Council of Baltimore, held in that year, he gained admiration there by his learning as well as by his charming and simple character. The works which have given him a place in the history of theology were chiefly published between 1829 and 1850, when he was chosen superior of the society, a position he retained till his death.
Carrière's published writings are: "Dissertation sur la réhabilitation des marriages nuls" (1828-34); "Juris cultor theologus circa obligationes restitutionis", by I. Vogler, S.J., enlarged and adapted to the French Law (1833), and incorporated in Migne's "Theologiae Cursus Completus"; "Praelectiones theologicae: De Matrimonio" (2 vols., Paris, 1837; Louvain, 1838); a compendium of this work (1837), which has had eight editions; "Praelectiones theologicae: De justitia et jure" (3 vols., Paris, 1839; Louvain, 1845), and a compendium (1840) which also reached its eighth edition; "Praelectiones theologicae: De Contractibus (3 vols., Paris, 1844-47; Louvain, 1846-48), of which the compendium (1848) has had four editions. Carrière was the first writer of note to treat theology in its relations to the Napoleonic Code; his expositions of the French Law were so lucid, full, and accurate that they were used as authorities by jurists, and, it is said, are even to-day so regarded. These qualities characterize his whole work; the opinions he rejects are treated as fairly and almost as fully as those he adopts; his works abound in erudition, but are clear, orderly, precise - admodum eruditae, solidae, accuratae, says Father Hurter, S.J. He was inclined to the opinion, generally held in France in his day, that the State had the power to create diriment impediments to marriage among Catholics; but he abandoned it as soon as it was disapproved at Rome. Conservative in temperament and by education, he was one of the first to combat the ideas of de Lamenais. His position at Saint-Sulpice afforded a wide scope to the influence of his learning and solid judgment, and of his simple and upright nature as well, and made him one of the foremost figures of the French Church in his day.
O'MAHONY, Joseph Carrière (Dublin, 1865); BERTRAND, Histoire littéraire de la c. de Saint-Sulpice (Paris, 1900), II, 272 sq.; LEVESQUE in Dict. de théol. cath. (Paris, 1905).
JOHN F. FENLON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Cassani

From volume 3 of the work.
(Also Casani).
Born at Madrid, 26 Nov., 1673, entered the Society of Jesus, 16 Nov., 1686, was still in active service of priestly functions in 1745, and died in 1750. He was one of the founders in of the Academia de la Lengua española at Madrid, and published there a "Diccionario de la Lengua Catellana" in 1726-1730, in six volumes. He was a very prolific writer. Among his works may be noted Admirable vida, singulares virtudes etc. del extçtico Varon P. Dionisio Rickel (Madrid, 1738); Varones ilustres de la Compañia de Jesus Escual militar de forificacion Tratado de la naturaleza y orígen de los cometas (Madrid, 1737). He was a member of the Academia from 6 July, 1713. Although he never visited America, he appeals particularly to Americans through his "Historia de la Provincia de la Compañia de Jesus del Nueva Reyno de Granada en la América" (Madrid, 1741), the only regular chronicle of the Jesuit Order in Columbia thusfar extant. [Note: Fr. Cassani wrote the "Historia" in Venezuela.] The fact that Cassani was never in the New World detracts somewhat from the usefulness of this otherwise valuable history, as far as ethnologic and ethnographic data are concerned; otherwise it is a conscientious and earnest work, giving interesting data, chiefly of the missions in the upper Orinoco basin. The work is exceedingly rare.
Sommervogel-de Backer, Bibl. des éscriv. de la c. de J.; Diccionario hispano-americano; Salvç; Catçlogo de la Biblioteca de Salvç (Valencia, 1874); Acosta, Compendia hist. del Descub. y Coloniz., de la Nueva Granada (Paris, 1848); Brinton, The American Race (New York, 1891).
AD. F. BANDELIER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Merneptah I

From volume 10 of the work.
(1234?-1214 B.C.), the fourth king of the nineteenth Egyptian dynasty and the supposed Pharaoh of the Exodus, was the thirteenth son of Rameses II whom he succeeded in or about 1234 B.C., being then long past middle age. His rule lasted some twenty years, during which he carried on considerable building operations in the Delta, and notably at Tanis (Zoan), where, indeed as elsewhere, he usurped a number of some of his predecessors' monuments. His original works are comparatively few and insignificant. His name is constantly found on the monuments of his father; it appears also in Nubia, and in the old quarries in the Sinaitic peninsula. In his third year, he quelled a revolt to the northeast, possibly excited by the Hittites' and in his fifth year, he repelled an invasion of Egypt by the Lybians and their allies, which victory is boastfully described on a black granite stela found in 1896 in his funeral temple at Thebes, and bearing the earliest known reference to Israel. He is commonly regarded as the Pharaoh of the Exodus on the following grounds.
The chief objection to this view is that it seems to contradict the final strophe of Merneptah's "Hymn of Victory" over the Lybians inscribed on the granite stela already referred to. After relating the subjection of Chanaan and of Ascalon by the Egyptians, this inscription adds: "Israel is spoiled, his seed is not; Palestine has become a widow for Egypt." How can Merneptah I be the Pharaoh of the Exodus since according to the obvious meaning of this passage, the Israelites when defeated by him were already settled in Palestine, a settlement which as we know from the Bible was effected only after a forty years' wandering and therefore after Merneptah's death? This difficulty has led many scholars to consider an earlier king as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, while others have answered it in various ways.
The following is its most probably solution. Scholars not expecting the exact truth to be told in an Egyptian inscription concerning the Exodus disaster, and noticing that in the final strophe of Merneptah's "Hymn of Victory" an actual boastful misrepresentation of his relation to the Hittittes, precedes almost immediately the distinct reference to Israel as "spoiled", will readily think that the glory therein claimed by Merneptah over the Israelites is to be taken as a boastful misrepresentation of what really happened to him as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Merneptah's mummy was discovered in 1896 and identified in 1900. The find does not disproved the identity of that monarch with the Pharaoh of the Exodus, for nothing in the Sacred Text requires the admission that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites in person, or was drowned as a result.
FRANCIS E. GIGOT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Orientation of Churches

From volume 11 of the work.
According to Tertullian the Christians of his time were, by some who concerned themselves with their form of worship, believed to votaries of the sun. This supposition, he adds, doubtless arose from the Christian practice of turning to the east when praying (Apol., c. xvi). Speaking of churches the same writer tells us that the homes "of our dove", as he terms them, are always in "high and open places, facing the light" (Adv. Val., c. iii), and the Apostolic Constitutions (third to fifth century) prescribe that church edifices should be erected with their "heads" towards the East (Const. Apost., II, 7).
The practice of praying while turned towards the rising sun is older than Christianity, but the Christians in adopting it were influenced by reasons peculiar to themselves. The principal of these reasons, according to St. Gregory of Nyssa, was that the Orient contained man's original home, the earthly paradise. St. Thomas Aquinas, speaking for the Middle Ages, adds to this reason several others, as for example, that Our Lord lived His earthly life in the East, and that from the East He shall come to judge mankind (II-II, Q. lxxxiv, a. 3). Thus from the earliest period the custom of locating the apse and altar in the eastern extremity of the church was the rule. Yet the great Roman Basilicas of the Lateran, St. Peter's, St. Paul's (originally), St. Lorenzo's, as well as the Basilica of the Resurrection in Jerusalem and the basilicas of Tyre and Antioch, reversed this rule by placing the apse in the western extremity. The reasons for this mode of orientation can only be conjectured. Some writers explain it by the fact that in the fourth century the celebrant at Mass faced the people, and, therefore in a church with a western apse, looked towards the East when officiating at the altar. Others conjecture that the peculiar orientation of the basilicas mentioned, erected by Constantine the Great or under his influence, may have been a reminiscence of the former predilection of this emperor for sun-worship. In the Orient the eastern apse was the rule, and thence it made its way to the West through the reconstructed Basilica of St. Paul's, the Basilica of S. Pietro in Vincoli, and the celebrated basilica of Ravenna. From the eighth century the propriety of the eastern apse was universally admitted, though, of course strict adherence to this architectural canon, owing to the direction of city streets, was not always possible.
Kraus, Gesch. d. christ. Kunst, I (Freiburg, 1895); Realencyklopadie d. christ. Altertumer, s. v. Orientirung (Freiburg, 1886); Lowrie, Monuments of the Early Church (New York, 1901); Enlart, Manuel d'archeologie francaise, I (Paris, 1902).
MAURICE M. HASSETT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Organic Articles

From volume 1 of the work.
A name given to a law regulating public worship, comprising 77 articles relative to Catholicism, and 44 relative to Protestantism, presented by order of Napoleon to the Tribunate and the legislative body at the same time that he made these two bodies vote on the Concordat itself. Together with the Concordat, the Organic Articles were published as a law, under the same title and the same preamble, 8 April, 1802, and the various governments in France which have since followed one another, down to 1905, have always professed to regard the Organic Articles as inseparable from the Concordat. Pope Pius VII however, as early as 24 May, 1802, declared formally, in a consistorial allocution, that these articles had been promulgated without his knowledge, and that he could not accept them without modification.
The Organic Articles which refer to Catholicism fall under four titles.
It was not long, however, before many of these articles became a dead letter. M. Emile Ollivier, in his speech from the tribune. 11 July, 1868, said: "It would be difficult to cite even one or two that are still kept, even these are not enforced every day but are only dragged from their nothingness and obscurity on great occasions, when there is need of seeming to do something while doing nothing." Even the Third Republic never claimed the right to prevent the bringing of papal documents into France, to fix the dress of the priests, to insist on the teaching of the Declaration of 1682; and the judgments Tanquam ab abusu pronounced by the Council of State against the bishops, have always been mildly platonic.
The Organic Articles as such were the outcome, philosophically speaking, of a certain Gallican and Josephist spirit, whereby the State sought to rule the Church. Historically speaking, the French Legislature in drawing up these articles, which limited the scope of the Concordat, had set an unfortunate example, followed twenty years later by the various German governments, which having in their turn treated with the Holy See, hastened to counteract their own agreements by means of certain territorial enactments.
The law of 1905, which separated Church and State in France, abrogated the Organic Articles at the same time that it abrogated the Concordat. (See Concordat.)
GEORGES GOYAU
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Orientius

From volume 11 of the work.
Christian Latin poet of the fifth century. He wrote an elegiac poem (Commonitorium) of 1036 verses (divided into two books) describing the way to heaven, with warnings against its hindrances. He was a Gaul (II, 184), who had been converted after a life of sin (I, 405 sq.), was evidently an experienced pastor, and wrote at a time when his country was being devastated by the invasion of savages. All this points to his identification with Orientius, Bishop of Augusta Ausciorum (Auch), who as a very old man was sent by Theodoric I, King of the Goths, as ambassador to the Roman generals Ætius and Litorius in 439 ("Vita S. Orientii" in "Acta SS.", I May, 61). The Commonitorium quotes classical poets-Virgil, Ovid, Catullus-and is perhaps influenced by Prudentius. It exists in only one MS. (Cod. Ashburnham. sæc. X), and is followed by some shorter anonymous poems not by Orientius, and by two prayers in verse attributed to him. The first complete edition was published by Martène, "Veterum Scriptorum Monumenta", I (Rouen, 1700); then by Gallandi, "Bibliotheca veterum Patrum", X (Venice, 1774), 185-96, reprinted in "P.L.", LXI, 977-1006. The best modern edition is by Ellis in the "Corpus Scriptorum Eccl. Latinorum", XVI (Vienna, 1888): "Poetæ Christiani minores", I, 191-261.
Manitius, Gesch. d. Litt. d. Mittelalters im Abendlande, I (Leipzig, 1889), 410-4; Fessler-Jungmann, Institutiones Patrologi , II, ii (Innsbruck, 1896), 374-6.
ADRIAN FORTESCUE