OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haute-Savoie

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​HAUTE-SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860 of the old provinces of the Genevois, the Chablais and the Faucigny, which constituted the northern portion of the duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the canton and Lake of Geneva, E. by the Swiss canton of the Valais, S. by Italy and the department of Savoie, and W. by the department of the Ain. It is mainly made up of the river-basins of the Arve (flowing along the northern foot of the Mont Blanc range, and receiving the Giffre, on the right, and the Borne and Foron, on the left—the Arve joins the Rhone, close to Geneva), of the Dranse (with several branches, all flowing into the Lake of Geneva), of the Usses and of the Fier (both flowing direct into the Rhone, the latter after forming the Lake of Annecy). The upper course of the Arly is also in the department, but the river then leaves it to fall into the Isère. The whole of the department is mountainous. But the hills attain no very great height, save at its south-east end, where rises the snowclad chain of Mont Blanc, with many high peaks (culminating in Mont Blanc, 15,782 ft.) and many glaciers. That portion of the department is alone frequented by travellers, whose centre is Chamonix in the upper Arve valley. The lowest point (945 ft.) in the department is at the junction of the Fier with the Rhone. The whole of the department is included in that portion of the duchy of Savoy which was neutralized in 1815. In 1906 the population of the department was 260,617. Its area is 1775 sq. m., and it is divided into four arrondissements (Annecy, the chief town, Bonneville, St Julien and Thonon), 28 cantons and 314 communes. It forms the diocese of Annecy. There are in the department 176 m. of broad-gauge railways, and 70 m. of narrow-gauge lines. There are also a number of mineral springs, only three of which are known to foreigners—the chalybeate waters of Évian and Amphion, close to each other on the south shore of the Lake of Geneva, and the chalybeate and sulphurous waters of St Gervais, at the north-west end of the chain of Mont Blanc. Anthracite and asphalte mines are numerous, as well as stone quarries. Cotton is manufactured at Annecy, while Cluses is the centre of the clock-making industry. There is a well-known bell foundry at Annecy le Vieux. Thonon (the old capital of the Chablais) is the most important town on the southern shore of the Lake of Geneva and, after Annecy, the most populous place in the department.  (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crusenstolpe, Magnus Jakob

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​CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB (1795–1865), Swedish historian, early became famous both as a political and a historical writer. His first important work was a History of the Early Years of the Life of King Gustavus IV. Adolphus, which was followed by a series of monographs and by some politico-historical novels, of which The House of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden is considered the best. He obtained a great influence over King Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), who during the years 1830–1833 gave him his fullest confidence, and sanctioned the official character of Crusenstolpe’s newspaper Fäderneslandet. In the last-mentioned year, however, the historian suddenly became the king’s bitterest enemy, and used his acrid pen on all occasions in attacking him. In 1838 he was condemned, for one of these angry utterances, to be imprisoned three years in the castle of Waxholm. He continued his literary labours until his death in 1865. Few Swedish writers have wielded so pure and so incisive a style as Crusenstolpe, but his historical work is vitiated by political and personal bias.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crusius, Christian August

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​CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1715–1775), German philosopher and theologian, was born on the 10th of January 1715 at Lenau near Merseburg in Saxony. He was educated at Leipzig, and became professor of theology there in 1750, and principal of the university in 1773. He died on the 18th of October 1775. Crusius first came into notice as an opponent of the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff from the standpoint of religious orthodoxy. He attacked it mainly on the score of the moral evils that must flow from any system of determinism, and exerted himself in particular to vindicate the freedom of the will. The most important works of this period of his life are Entwurf der nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten (1745), and Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlässigkeit der menschlichen Erkenntniss (1747). Though diffusely written, and neither brilliant nor profound, Crusius’ philosophical books had a great but short-lived popularity. His criticism of Wolff, which is generally based on sound sense, had much influence upon Kant at the time when his system was forming; and his ethical doctrines are mentioned with respect in the Kritik of Practical Reason. Crusius’s later life was devoted to theology. In this capacity his sincere piety and amiable character gained him great influence, and he led the party in the university which became known as the “Crusianer” as opposed to the “Ernestianer,” the followers of J. A. Ernesti. The two professors adopted opposite methods of exegesis. Ernesti wished to subject the Scripture to the same laws of exposition as are applied to other ancient books; Crusius held firmly to orthodox ecclesiastical tradition. Crusius’s chief theological works are Hypomnemata ad theologiam propheticam (1764–1778), and Kurzer Entwurf der Moraltheologie (1772–1773). He sets his face against innovation in such matters as the accepted authorship of canonical writings, verbal inspiration, and the treatment of persons and events in the Old Testament as types of the New. His views, unscholarly and uncritical as they seem to us now, have had influence on later evangelical students of the Old Testament, such as E. W. Hengstenberg and F. Delitzsch.
There is a full notice of Crusius in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie. Consult also J. E. Erdmann’s History of Philosophy; A. Marquardt, Kant und Crusius; and art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (1898). (H. St.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cruveilhier, Jean

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​CRUVEILHIER, JEAN (1791–1874), French anatomist, was born at Limoges in 1791, and was educated at the university of Paris, where in 1825 he became professor of anatomy. In 1836 he became the first occupant of the recently founded chair of pathological anatomy. He died at Jussac in 1874. His chief works are Anatomie descriptive (1834–1836); Anatomie pathologique du corps humain (1829–1842), with many coloured plates; Traité d’anatomie pathologique générale (1849–1864); Anatomie du système nerveux de l’homme (1845); Traité d’anatomie descriptive (1851).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crustumerium

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​CRUSTUMERIUM, an ancient town of Latium, on the edge of the Sabine territory, near the headwaters of the Allia, not far from the Tiber. It appears several times in the early history of Rome, but was conquered in 500 B.C. according to Livy ii. 19, the tribus Crustumina [or Clustumina] being formed in 471 B.C. Pliny mentions it among the lost cities of Latium, but the name clung to the district, the fertility of which remained famous. No remains of it exist, and its exact site is uncertain.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 50.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crunden, John

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​CRUNDEN, JOHN (d. 1828), English architectural and mobiliary designer. Most of his early inspiration was drawn from Chippendale and his school, but he fell later under the influence of a bastard classicism. He produced a very large number of designs which were published in numerous volumes; among the most ambitious were ornamental centres for ceilings in which he introduced cupids with bows and arrows, Fame sounding her trumpet, and such like motives. Sport and natural history supplied him with many other themes, and one of his ceilings is a hunting scene representing a “kill.” His principal works were Designs for Ceilings; Convenient and Ornamental Architecture; The Carpenter’s Companion for Chinese Railings, Gates, &c. (1770); The Joiner and Cabinet-maker’s Darling, or Sixty Designs for Gothic, Chinese, Mosaic and Ornamental Frets (1765); and The Chimney Piece Maker’s Daily Assistant (1776). Much of his work was either absurd or valueless.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cryolite

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​CRYOLITE, a mineral discovered in Greenland by the Danes in 1794, and found to be a compound of fluorine, sodium and aluminium. From its general appearance, and from the fact that it melts readily, even in a candle-flame, it was regarded by the Eskimos as a peculiar kind of ice; from this fact it acquired the name of cryolite (from Gr. κρύος, frost, and λίθος, stone). Cryolite occurs in colourless or snow-white cleavable masses, often tinted brown or red with iron oxide, and occasionally passing into a black variety. It is usually translucent, becoming nearly transparent on immersion in water. The mineral cleaves in three rectangular directions, and the crystals occasionally found in the crevices have a cubic habit, but it has been proved, after much discussion, that they belong to the anorthic system. The hardness is 2.5, and the specific gravity 3. Cryolite has the formula Na$_3$AlF$_6$, or 3NaF·AlF$_3$, corresponding to fluorine 54.4, sodium 32.8, and aluminium 12.8%. It colours a flame yellow, through the presence of sodium, and when heated with sulphuric acid it evolves hydrofluoric acid.
Cryolite occurs almost exclusively at Ivigtut (sometimes written Evigtok) on the Arksut Fjord in S.W. Greenland. There it forms a large deposit, in a granitic vein running through gneiss, and is accompanied by quartz, siderite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite, &c. It is also associated with a group of kindred minerals, some of which are evidently products of alteration of the cryolite, known as pachnolite, thomsenolite, ralstonite, gearksutite, arksutite, &c. Cryolite likewise occurs, though only to a limited extent, at Miyask, in the Ilmen Mountains; at Pike’s Peak, Colorado, and in the Yellowstone Park.
Cryolite is a mineral of much economic importance. It has been extensively used as a source of metallic aluminium, and as a flux in smelting the metal. It is largely employed in the manufacture of certain sodium salts, as suggested by Julius Thomsen, of Copenhagen, in 1849; and it has been used for the production of certain kinds of porcelain and glass, remarkable for its toughness, and for enamelled ware.
Although cryolite is known as “ice-stone” (Eisstein), it is not to be confused with “ice-spar” (Eisspath), which is a vitreous kind of felspar termed “glassy felspar” or rhyacolite.  (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hector

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​HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character, is drawn in most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the Iliad, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to revenge his friend’s death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved ​it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who offered sacrifices at his grave.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hedgehog

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​HEDGEHOG, or Urchin, a member of the mammalian order Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long, its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines. The most important muscle is the orbicularis panniculi, which extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body as the ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other muscles aid in the contraction.
* The Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).
Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of game-preservers; and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains undisturbed till warmer weather returns. In July or August the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring.
The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as Erinaceus europaeus, and is the type of the family Erinaceidae, is found in woods and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa. (R. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hecatomb

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​HECATOMB (Gr. ἑκατόμβη from ἑκατόν, a hundred, and βοῦς, an ox), originally the sacrifice of a hundred oxen in the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans; later a large number of any kind of animals devoted for sacrifice. Figuratively, “hecatomb” is used to describe the sacrifice or destruction by fire, tempest, disease or the sword of any large number of persons or animals; and also of the wholesale destruction of inanimate objects, and even of mental and moral attributes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hecuba

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​HECUBA (Gr. Ἑκάβη), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam’s fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides (in the Hecuba), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor’s note). According to another story, she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba’s transformation and death that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is striking.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heda, Willem Claasz

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​HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. 1504–c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed considerable skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his “luncheon,” with rare comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters—seldom without the cut lemon—bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner “refection” is also not without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda’s early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a “Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery,” dated 1644. Most of Heda’s pictures are on the European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had considerable influence in forming the younger Frans Hals.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heddle, Matthew Forster

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​HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828–1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828. After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy of Scotland, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He died on the 19th of November 1897.
See Dr Heddle and his Geological Work (with portrait), by J. G. Goodchild, Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc. (1898) vii. 317.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heckmondwike

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​HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dirschau

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​DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway Berlin-Königsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185. It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has railway workshops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Directory

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​DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions for public worship. The directorium or ordo of the Roman Church contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each day throughout the year, and the word is found in the Directory for the Publick Worship of God drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book containing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of the inhabitants of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade. The name Directoire or Directory was given to the body which held the executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799 (see French Revolution).