OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rape (plant)

See also Rapeseed and Brassica rapa on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip), in botany.—Several forms of plants included in the genus Brassica are cultivated for the oil which is present in their ripe seeds. The one most extensively grown for this purpose is known as colza, rape or coleseed, in Germany as Raps (Brassica napus, var. oleifera): its seeds contain from 30 to 45% of oil. The leaves are glaucous and smooth like those of a swede turnip. For a seed-crop rape is sown in July or early August in order that the plants may be strong enough to pass the winter uninjured. The young plants are thinned out to a width of 6 or 8 in. apart, and afterwards kept clean by hoeing. The foliage may be eaten down by sheep early in autumn, without injuring it for the production of a crop of seed. In spring the horse and hand hoe must be used, and the previous application of 1 cwt. or 2 cwt. of guano will add to the productiveness of the crop. On good soil and in favourable seasons the yield sometimes reaches to 40 bushels per acre. The haulm and husks are either used for litter or burned, and the ashes spread upon the land. It makes good fuel for clay-burning. There is a “summer” variety of colza which is sown in April and ripens its seed in the same year. It does not yield so much oil as the “winter” kind, but it will grow on soil in poorer condition. Neither of these is much grown in Great Britain for the production of oil, but the “winter” variety is very extensively grown as green food for sheep. For this purpose it is generally sown at short intervals throughout the summer to provide a succession of fodder. It is peculiarly adapted for peaty soils, and is accordingly a favourite crop in the fen lands of England, and on recently reclaimed mosses and moors elsewhere. Its growth is greatly stimulated by the ashes resulting from the practice of paring and burning. Its highly nutritious leaves and stems are usually consumed by folding the sheep upon it where it grows, there is no green food upon which they fatten faster. Occasionally it is carried to the homestead, and used with other forage in carrying out the system of soiling cattle.
The wild form Brassica campestris, the wild coleseed, colza or kohlsaat, of the fields of England and many parts of Europe, is sometimes cultivated on the European continent for its seed, which, however, is inferior in value to rape as an oil-yielding product.
In addition to the previously mentioned rape, a variety of another species (or subspecies) of Brassica, namely, Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (Rübsen in Germany), is grown for its oil yielding seeds. The leaves in a young state are not glaucous, but sap-green in colour and rough, being very similar to those of the turnip, to which the plant is closely related. Both winter and summer varieties are grown; they are rarely cultivated in Britain. The oil is similar to that in the true colza seeds but the plants do not yield so much per acre as the latter: they are, however, hardier and more adapted for cultivation on poor sandy soils.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raoul Rochette, Désiré

See also Desiré-Raoul Rochette on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAOUL ROCHETTE, DESIRE (1790–1854), French archaeologist, was born on the 9th of March 1790 at St Amand in the department of Cher, and received his education at Bourges. He was made professor of history in the Collége de Louis-le-Grand at Paris (1813) and in the Sorbonne (1817). His Histoire critique de l'établissement des colonies grecques (4 vols., 1815) is now out of date. He was superintendent of antiquities in the Bibliothèque at Paris (1819–48), and professor of archaeology at the Bibliothèque (from 1826), a result of which may be seen in his Cours d'archéologie (1828). In 1829 appeared his Monuments inédits, a work of great value at the time. Still valuable are his Peintures inédites (1836) and his Peintures de Pompéi(1844). He contributed to the Annali of the Roman Institute, the Journal des savants and the Académie des inscriptions. At his death on the 3rd of ]u1y 1854 Raoul Rochette was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts and a corresponding member of most of the learned societies in Europe.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raoult, François Marie

See also François-Marie Raoult on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAOULT, FRANÇOIS MARIE (1830–1901), French chemist, was born at Fournes, in the Département du Nord, on the 10th of May 1830. He became aspirant répétiteur at the lycée of Rheims in 1853, and after holding several intermediate positions was appointed in 1862 to the professorship of chemistry in Sens lycée, where he prepared the thesis on electromotive force which gained him his doctor's degree at Paris in the following year. In 1867 he was put in charge of the chemistry classes at Grenoble, and three years later he succeeded to the chair of chemistry, which he held until his death on the 1st of April 1901. Raoult's earliest researches were physical in character, being largely concerned with the phenomena of the voltaic cell, and later there was a. period when more purely chemical questions engaged his attention. But his name is best known in connexion with the work on solutions, to which he devoted the last two decades of his life. His first paper on the depression of the freezing-points of liquids by the presence of substances dissolved in them was published in 1878; and continued investigation and experiment with various solvents, such as benzene and acetic acid, in addition to water, led him to believe in a simple relation between the molecular weights of the substances and the freezing-point of the solvent, which he expressed as the “ loi générale de la congélation,” that if one molecule of a substance be dissolved in 100 molecules of any given solvent, the temperature of solidification of the latter will be lowered by 0.63° C. (See, however, the article Solution.) Another relation at which he worked was that the diminution in the vapour-pressure of a solvent, caused by dissolving a substance in it, is proportional to the molecular weight of the substance dissolved—at least when the solution is dilute. These two generalizations not only afforded a new method of determining the molecular weights of substances, but have also been utilized by J. H. van't Hoff and W. Ostwald, among other chemists, in support of the hypothesis of electrolytic dissociation in solutions. An account of Raoult's life and work was given by Professor van't Hoff in a memorial lecture delivered before the London Chemical Society on the 26th of March 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rao, Sir T. Madhava

See also T. Madhava Rao on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAO, SIR T. MADHAVA (1828–1891), Indian statesman, was born at Combaconum in Madras in 1828. Madhava Rao created a new type of minister adapted to the modern requirements of a progressive native state, and he grafted it upon the old stock. He linked the past with the present, using the advantages of heredity, tradition and conservatism to effect reforms in the public administration and in Indian society. Sprung from a Mahratta Brahmin stock long settled at Tanjore, the son of a dewan of Travancore, he was educated in the strictest tenets of his sacred caste. But he readily imbibed the new spirit of the age. To mathematics, science and astronomy he added a study of English philosophy and international law, and a taste for art ​and pictures. Although a devout student of the Shastras, he advocated female education and social reform. Refusing to cross the sea and so break caste by appearing before a parliamentary commission, he yet preached religious toleration. A patron of the Indian Congress, he borrowed from the armoury of British administration every reform which he introduced into the native states. He was respected alike by Europeans and natives, and received titles and honours from the British government. As tutor of the maharaja of Travancore, and then as revenue officer in that state, he showed firmness and ability, and became diwan or prime minister in 1857. He found the finances disorganized, and trade cramped by monopolies and oppressive duties. He co-operated with the Madras government in carrying out reforms, and when his measures led to misunderstandings with the maharaja, he preferred honourable resignation to retention of a lucrative office in which he was powerless for good. In 1872 he was engaged at Indore in laying down a plan of reform and of public works which he bequeathed to his successor, when a grave crisis at Baroda demanded his talents there. The Gaekwar had been deposed for scandalous misrule, and an entire reorganization was needed. Aided by Sir Philip Melvill, Madhava Rao swept away the corrupt officials, privileged sirdars and grasping contractors who had long ruined Baroda. He wrote able minutes defending the rights and privileges of the Gaekwar from fancied encroachment, and justifying the internal reforms which he introduced. He resigned office in 1882, and in his retirement devoted his leisure to reading and writing upon political and social questions. He died on the 4th of April 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raoul de Cambrai

See also Raoul de Cambrai on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RAOUL DE CAMBRAI, the name of a French chanson de geste. The existing romance is a 13th-century recension of a poem by a trouvére of Laon called Bertholais, who professed to have witnessed the events he described. It presents, like the other provincial gesle of Garin le Loherain, a picture of the devastation caused by the private wars of the feudal chiefs. A parallel narrative, obviously inspired ~by popular poetry, is preserved in the chronicle of Waulsort (ed. Achery, S picilegium, ii. p. 100 seq.), and probably corresponds with the earlier recension. Raoul de Cambrai, the posthumous son of Raoul Taillefer, count of Cambrai, by his wife Alais, sister of King Louis (d'Outre-Mer), whose father's lands had been given to another, demanded the fref of Vermandois, which was the natural inheritance of the four sons of Herbert, lord of Vermandois. On King Louis's refusal, he proceeded to war. The chief hero on the Vermandois side was Bernier, a grandson of Count Herbert, who had been the squire and firm adherent of Raoul, until he was driven into opposition by the fate of his mother, burned with the nuns in the church of Origny. Bernier eventually slew the terrible Raoul in single fight, but in his turn was slain, after an apparent reconciliation, and the blood-feud descended to his sons. The date of these events is exactly ascertainable. Flodoard (Annales, Anno 943) states that Count Herbert died in that year, and was buried by his sons at St Quentin, that when they learnt that Raoul, son of Raoul de Gouy, was about to invade their father's territory, they attacked him and put him to death. The identity of other of the personages of the story has also been fixed from historical sources. The second part of the poem, of which Bernier is the hero, is of later date, and bears the character of a roman d'a°ventures.
See Li Romans de Raoul de Cambrai et de Bernier, ed. E. le Glay (Paris, 1840); Raoul de Cambrai, ed. P. Meyer and A. Longnon (sat. as am. arm ff., Paris, 1882); J. M. Ludlow, Popular E ics) 2? the Middle Ages (London and Cambridge, 1865); H. Groger, rundriss d. roman. Phil. (ii. pp. 567 seq.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marquardt, Joachim

See also Joachim Marquardt on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882), German historian and writer on Roman antiquities, was born at Danzig on the 19th of April 1812. He studied at Berlin and Leipzig, held various educational appointments from 1833 onwards at Berlin, Danzig and Posen, and became in 1859 head of the gymnasium in Gotha, where he died on the 30th of November 1882. The dedication of his treatise Historiae equitum romanorum libri quatuor (1841) to Lachmann led to his being recommended to the publisher of W. A. Becker’s Handbuch der römischen Alterthümer to continue the work on the death of the author in 1846. It took twenty years to complete, and met with such success that a new edition was soon called for. Finding himself unequal to the task single-handed, Marquardt left the preparation of the first three volumes (Römisches Staatsrecht) to Theodor Mommsen, while he himself contributed vols. iv.-vi. (Römische Staatsverwaltung, 1873–1878; 2nd ed., 1881–1885, vol. v. by H. Dessau and A. von Domaszewski, vol. vi. by G. Wissowa) and vol. vii. (Das Privatleben der Römer, 1879–1882; 2nd ed., by A. Mau, 1886). Its clearness of style, systematic arrangement and abundant references to authorities ancient and modern, will always render it valuable to the student.
See E. Förstemann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, Bd. XX; R. Ehwald, Gedächtnisrede (progr. Gotha, 1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marradi, Giovanni

See also Giovanni Marradi on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARRADI, GIOVANNI (1852– ), Italian poet, was born at Leghorn, and educated at Pisa and Florence. At the latter place he started with others a short-lived review, the Nuovi Goliardi, which made some literary sensation. He became a teacher at various colleges, and eventually an educational inspector in Massa Carrara. He was much influenced by Carducci, and became known not only as a critic but as a charming descriptive poet, his principal volumes of verse being Canzone moderne (1870), Fantasie marnie (1881), Canzoni e fantasie (1853), Ricordi lirici (1884), Poesie (1887), Nuovi canti (1891) and Ballate moderne (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marri

See also Marri on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARRI, a Baluch tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of Baluchistan. In the census of 1901 they numbered 19,161 and their fighting strength is about 3000. Their relations with the British commenced in 1840 with attacks made on the communications of Sir John Keane’s army, after it had passed through the Bolan. An attempt was made to punish the tribe, which ended in disastrous failure. Major Clibborn was repulsed in an attempt to storm the Naffusak Pass, losing 179 killed and 92 wounded out of 650. Many of his force died of heat and thirst. The fort of Kahan, which he was trying to relieve at the time, was forced to capitulate with the honours of war. The Marris, however, joined the British against the Bugtis in 1845. After the annexation of Sind in 1843 the Marris gave much trouble, but were pacified by the policy of General John Jacob and Sir Robert Sandeman. In 1880 during the second Afghan War they made frequent raids on the British line of communications, ending with the plunder of a treasure convoy. A force of 3070 British troops under Brigadier-General Macgregor marched through the country, and the tribe submitted and paid 11/4 lakh (£12,500) out of a fine of 2 lakhs (£20,000); they also gave hostages for their future good behaviour. Since then they have given little trouble.
The Marri-Bugti country is classed as a tribal area in Baluchistan, politically controlled from Sibi, but enjoying a large measure of autonomy under its own chieftains. Total area, 7129 sq. m.; total pop. (1901), 38,919, almost equally divided between the two tribes of Marris and Bugtis.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marquand, Henry Gurdon

See also Henry Gurdon Marquand on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARQUAND, HENRY GURDON (1819–1902), American philanthropist and collector, was born in New York City on the 11th of April 1819. In 1839, upon the retirement from the jewelry business of his brother Frederick (1799–1882), who was a liberal benefactor of Yale College and of the Union Theological Seminary, he became his brother’s agent. He was one of the purchasers in 1868 of the Iron Mountain railroad, afterwards its president, and a director of the Missouri-Pacific system. He was the first honorary member of the American Institute of Architects, and president (1889–1902) of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, to which he made valuable presents and loans from his collection of paintings. He died in New York City, on the 26th of February 1902. His varied and valuable art collection and rare books were sold in 1903. He was a benefactor of Princeton University and other institutions. His son, Allan Marquand (b. 1853), graduated at Princeton in 1874, and in 1883 became professor of archaeology and art.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marr, Carl

See also Carl von Marr on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARR, CARL (1858– ), American artist, was born at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on the 14th of February 1858, the son of an engraver. He was a pupil of Henry Vianden in Milwaukee, of Schauss in Weimar, of Gussow in Berlin, and subsequently of Otto Seitz, Gabriel and Max Lindenschmitt in Munich. His first work, “Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew,” received a medal in Munich. One of his pictures, “Episode of 1813,” is in the Royal Hanover Gallery, and his “Germany in 1806” received a gold medal in Munich and is in the Royal Academy of Koenigsberg. A large canvas “The Flagellants,” now in the Milwaukee public library, received a gold medal at the Munich Exposition in 1889. Another canvas, “Summer Afternoon,” in the Phoebe Hearst collection, received a gold medal in Berlin, in 1892. Marr became a professor in the Munich Academy in 1893, and in 1895 a member of the Berlin Academy of Arts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marquette

See also Marquette on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MARQUETTE, a city, a port of entry and the county seat of Marquette county, Michigan U.S.A., on the south shore of Lake Superior. Pop. (1900), 10,058 (3460 foreign-born); (1910), 11,503. It is served by the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Marquette & South-Eastern, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming railways. The city, which is situated on a bluff 100 ft. above the lake, in a region characterized by rounded hills and picturesque irregularities, has a delightful climate, and is a popular summer resort. Presque Isle park (400 acres), a headland north of the city, is one of its principal attractions. Marquette is the seat of the Northern State Normal School (established 1899) and of the state house of correction and branch prison (established 1885). A county-court-house, the Peter White library, and the Federal building are the most prominent public buildings. Marquette is the seat of Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishoprics. The city is best known as a shipping centre of one of the richest iron-ore districts in the world, and its large and well-equipped ore docks are among its most prominent features. Marquette is the port of entry of the customs district of Superior. In 1896 its imports were valued at $358,505 and its exports at $4,708,302; in 1908, imports $1,845,724 and exports $7,040,473. Foundries, railway machine-shops, lumber and planing-mills, brewery and bottling works, and quarries of brownish-red sandstone contribute largely to the city’s economic importance. The charcoal iron blast-furnaces of the city manufacture pig-iron, and, as by-products, wood alcohol and acetic acid, recovered from the smoke of the charcoal pits. The value of the city’s factory products increased from $1,585,083 in 1900 to $2,364,081 in 1905, or 49.1%. The first settlement was made about 1845, and in 1849 it was named Worcester; but “Marquette” was soon substituted in honour of Jacques Marquette. It was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1871.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polk, Leonidas

See also Leonidas Polk on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
POLK, LEONIDAS (1806-1864), American soldier, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the 10th of April 1806, and was a cousin of James Knox Polk, president of the United States. He was educated at West Point, but afterwards studied theology and took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1831. In 1838 he became missionary bishop of the South-West, Arkansas, Indian Territory, Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi, and in 1841 he was consecrated bishop of Louisiana. His work in the Church was largely of an educational kind, and he played a prominent part in movements for the establishment of higher educational institutions in the South. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he resigned his bishopric and, like many other clergymen and men of religion, entered the army which was raised to defend the Confederacy. His rank in the hierarchy and the universal respect in which he was held in the South, rather than his early military education, caused him to be appointed to the important rank of major-general. He fortified the post of Columbus, Kentucky, the foremost line of defence on the Mississippi, against which Brigadier-General U. S. Grant directed the offensive reconnaissance of Belmont in the autumn. In the following spring, the first line of defence having fallen, Polk commanded a corp at Shiloh in the field army commanded by Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. In October 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thenceforward he commanded one of the three corps of the army of Tennessee under Bragg and afterwards was in charge of the Department of Alabama, Mississippi and East Louisiana. He was killed in the fighting in front of Marietta, while reconnoitring near Pine Mountain, Georgia, on the 14th of June 1864.
See Life, by his son W. M. Polk, (1893).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollan

See also Pollan (fish) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a species of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (Whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full account of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollentia

See also Pollentia on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb.
See G. Franchi-Pont in Atti dell' academia di Tornio (1805–1808), p. 321 sqq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollack

See also Pollack on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well-flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 ℔ are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 ℔ in weight, (See also Coalfish.)