OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soumet, Alexandre

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​SOUMET, ALEXANDRE (1788–1845), French poet, was born on the 8th of February 1788 at Castelnaudary, department of Aude. His father wished him to enter the army, but an early-developed love of poetry turned the boy’s ambition in other directions. He was an admirer of Klopstock and Schiller, then little known in France, and reproached Mme de Stael with lack of enthusiasm for her subject in De l’Allemagne. Soumet came to Paris in 1810, and some poems in honour of Napoleon secured his nomination as auditor of the Conseil d’État. His well-known elegy La Pauvre fille appeared in 1814, and two successful tragedies produced in 1822, Clytemnestre and Saill, secured his admission to the Academy in 1824. Jeanne d’Arc (1825) aroused great enthusiasm, and was the best of his plays. Among his other pieces Elisabeth de France (1828), a weak imitation of Schiller’s Don Carlos, may be noted, but Soumet’s real bent was towards epic poetry. His most considerable work is a poem inspired by Klopstock, La Divine épopée, which describes the descent of Christ into Hades. Under Louis XVIII. he became librarian of Saint-Cloud, and subsequently was transferred to Rambouillet and to Compiegne. He died on the 30th of March 1845, leaving an unfinished epic on Jeanne d’Arc. His daughter Gabrielle (Mme Beauvain d’Altenheim) had collaborated with him in some of his later works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Souham, Joseph, Count

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​SOUHAM, JOSEPH, Count (1760-1837), French soldier, was born at Lubersac on the 30th of April 1760, and served in the French army as a private from 1782 to 1790. In 1792, having shown himself active in the cause of the Revolution, he was elected commandant of a volunteer battalion, and by 1793 he had risen to the rank of general of division. He served with credit under Pichegru in Holland (1795), but in 1799 fell into disgrace on suspicion of being concerned in Royalist intrigues. He was reinstated in 1800 and served under Moreau in the Danube campaign of that year. During the Consulate he appears to have been involved in conspiracies, and along with his old commanders Moreau and Pichegru was disgraced for alleged participation in that of Georges Cadoudal. He regained his rank, however, in 1809, took a notable part in Gouvion St Cyr's operations in Catalonia, and won the title of count by his conduct at the action of Vich, in which he was wounded. In 1812 Marshal Masséna, in declining the command of Marmont's army which had just been defeated at Salamanca, recommended Souham for the post. The latter was thus pitted against Wellington, and by his skilful manœuvres drove the English general back from Burgos and regained the ground lost at Salamanca. In 1813 he distinguished himself again at Lützen and at Leipzig (when he was wounded). At the fall of the First Empire he deserted the emperor, and having suffered for the Royalist cause was well received by Louis XVIII., who gave him high commands. These Souham lost at the return of Napoleon and regained after the Second Restoration. He retired in 1832, and died on the 28th of April 1837.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sound, The

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​SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund), the easternmost of the straits giving entrance to the Baltic Sea from the Cattegat, between the Danish island of Zealand and Sweden. Its extreme length reckoned from the promontory of Kullen to that of Falsterbo, both on the Swedish shore, is 70 m. Its narrowest point is between Helsingör in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden, which are 3 m. apart. Its extreme width, 30 m., is towards the south, where Kjöge Bay indents the coast of Zealand. Three islands lie in it—Hven, belonging to Sweden, and Saltholm and Amager (which is separated from Zealand by a narrow channel at Copenhagen), belonging to Denmark. The strait between Amager and Saltholm is called Drogden, and is followed by the larger vessels passing through the Sound. The extreme depth of the Sound is about 14 fathoms. Navigation is open in winter, though three instances are recorded of the Sound being frozen completely over: in 1306, 1830 and 1836. From the 15th century Denmark levied “Sound dues” on foreign vessels passing through the strait, the Hanse traders and certain others being exempt. In the 17th century quarrels arose on this matter between Denmark and the Netherlands and Sweden, while in modern times the powers found the dues irksome, and in 1843 and 1853 protests were made by the representatives of the United States of America, but Denmark based her right on immemorial custom, and adhered to it. In 1856 the matter came up in connexion with the renewal of the treaty of 1826 between the two countries; considerable tension resulted, and the possibility of reprisals by the United States against the Danish possessions in the West Indies was discussed. But the treaty was provisionally extended to the following year, and a conference in Copenhagen, at which most of the affected powers were represented, resulted in the remission of the dues from the 1st of April 1857, Denmark receiving a united compensation of 30,476,325 rix-dollars (equalling about £4,000,000), out of which the amount paid by the British government was £1,125,000. The annual income accruing to Denmark from the dues during the ten previous years had been about 2,500,000 rix-dollars.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soubise, Benjamin de Rohan, Duc de

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​SOUBISE, BENJAMIN DE ROHAN, Duc de (? 1589-1642), Huguenot leader, younger brother of Henri de Rohan, inherited his title through his mother Catherine de Parthenay. He served his apprenticeship as a soldier under Prince Maurice of Orange-Nassau in the Low Countries. In the religious wars from 1621 onwards his elder brother chiefly commanded on land and in the south, Soubise in the west and along the sea-coast. His exploits in the conliict have been sympathetically related by his brother, who, if he was not quite an impartial witness, was one of the best military critics of the time. Soubise's chief exploit was a singularly bold and well-conducted attack (in 1625) on the Royalist fleet in the river Blavet (which included the cutting of a boom in the face of superior numbers) and the occupation of Oléron. He commanded at Rochelle during the famous siege, and (if we may believe his brother) the failure of the defence and of the English attack on Rhé was mainly due to the alternate obstinacy of the townsfolk and the English commanders in refusing tolisten to Soubise's advice. When surrender became inevitable he fled to England, which he had previously visited in quest of succour. He died in 1642 in London. The Soubise title afterwards served as the chief second designation (not for heirs apparent, but for the chief collateral branch for the time being) of the house of Rohan-Chabot.
The name Soubise appears again in the military history of France in the person of Charles de Rohan, Prince de Soubise (1715-1787), peer and marshal of France, the grandson of the princess de Soubise, who is known to history as one of the mistresses of Louis XIV. He accompanied Louis XV. in the campaign of 1744-48 and attained high military rank, which he owed more to his courtiership than to his generalship. Soon after the beginning of the Seven Years' War, through the influence of Mme de Pompadour, he was put in command of a corps of 24,000 men, and in November 1757 he sustained the crushing defeat of Rossbach. He was more fortunate, however, in his later military career, and continued in the service until the general peace of 1763, after which he lived the life of an ordinary courtier and man of fashion in Paris, dying on the 4th of July 1787.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vesica Piscis

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​VESICA PISCIS (Fr. amande mystique), in architecture, the term given to a pointed oval panel formed by two equal circles cutting each other in their centre; this is a common form given to a panel in which the figure of Christ is represented. It is commonly employed in medieval seals, and especially those of bishops and monastic establishments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vespers

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​VESPERS (officium vespertinum), in the Roman Catholic liturgy, that part of the daily office which follows none (nona) and precedes compline (completorium). In it the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, Deus in Adjutorium, &c., are followed by five psalms and five antiphons, after which come the "little chapter," the hymn and the verse, which vary according to the season, the Magnificat and its antiphon, and the appropriate collect. In the general features the use of this office can be traced back to a very early date both in the Eastern Church and in Western. Vespers may be said or sung at any time after midday, and in some circumstances even before it. (See Breviary.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vervet

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​VERVET, a Central and South African monkey, known as Cercopithecus pygerythrus. It is nearly allied to the grivet (q.v.), but distinguished (as indicated by its name) by the presence of a rusty patch at the root of the tail, and by the black (instead of grey) chin, hands and feet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Verviers

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​VERVIERS, a town of Belgium, in the province of Liége, not far from the Prussian frontier, and on the main line from Liége to Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne. Pop. (1904) 49,168. It is a modern town owing its prosperity to the cloth trade which began here in the 18th century. It is situated on the Vesdre, which flows into the Ourthe a few miles before its junction with the Meuse; and the water of that river is supposed to be especially good for dyeing purposes. As the river water was insufficient to maintain the local industry an artificial reservoir was constructed at La Gileppe on the Hautes Fagnes, and an imposing aqueduct conveys the water stored on these highlands into Verviers. There are also extensive glass factories, but these have suffered from German competition, and many have been closed. A monument to a local celebrity named Chapuis is interesting for the reason that his execution by order of the prince-bishop of Liége was the last act of sovereignty taken by that prelate.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vesoul

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​VESOUL, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of Haute-Saone, 236 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 8702. Vesoul is situated between the isolated conical hill of La Motte (1263 ft.) and the river Durgeon. The vine-clad hill, from which there is a fine view of the Jura and Vosges mountains, is crowned by a votive chapel which in 1855 replaced the old fortification. The medieval walls of the town, dating from the 13th and 15th centuries, still exist on its northern side, and in the narrow and winding streets are many old buildings. The church of St George dates from the 18th century. In the pleasant south-eastern quarter are the promenade and the Place de la République, with a monument to the Gardes Mobiles who fell in the war of 1870–71. Vesoul is the seat of a prefect, tribunal of first instance and a court of assize, and has a lycée-for boys, training colleges for both sexes, and a branch of the Bank of France. Distilling and the manufacture of files and tapioca are among the industries. The town is a market for farm-produce and cattle.
Vesoul (Vesulium Castrum, Visolium, Vesulum) is of ancient origin, but in existing records is first mentioned in the 9th century. It was originally a fief of the church of Besançon, and passed afterwards to the house of Burgundy, becoming, in the 13th century, capital of the bailiwick of Amont. The castle was destroyed in the 17th century. The town suffered much during the wars of religion and the Thirty Years' War. Vesoul belonged temporarily to France after the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; was returned to the-empire when Charles VIII., king of France, broke off his marriage with the daughter of Maximilian, king of the Romans; and' again became part of France under Louis XIV. after the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vessel

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​VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn), a word of somewhat wide application for many objects, the meaning common to them being capacity to hold or contain something. Thus it is a general term for any utensil capable of containing liquids, and for those tubular structures in anatomy, such as the arteries, veins or lymphatics, which contain, secrete or circulate the blood or lymph. Organs or structures which are largely supplied .with vessels are said to be “vascular” (Lat. vasculum, another diminutive of vas). Vessel (as in French) is also a general term for all craft capable of floating on water larger than a rowing boat. The word is also familiar in Biblical phraseology in the figurative sense of a person regarded as the recipient of some Divine dispensation, a “chosen vessel, ” or as one into which something is infused or poured, “ vessel of wrath.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philon

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​PHILON, Athenian architect of the 4th century B.C., is known as the planner of two important works—the portico of the great Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A. Gardner (Ancient Athens, p. 557) observes that it “ is perhaps known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of antiquity.” It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy. (See Athens.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philoxenus of Cythera

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​PHILOXENUS, of Cythera (435–380 B.C.), Greek dithyrambic poet. On the conquest of the island by the Athenians he was taken as a prisoner of war to Athens, where he came into the possession of the dithyrambic poet Melanippides, who educated him and set him free. Philoxenus afterwards resided in Sicily, at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, whose bad verses he declined to praise, and was in consequence sent to work in the quarries. After leaving Sicily he travelled in Greece, Italy and Asia, reciting his poems, and died at Ephesus. According to Suïdas, Philoxenus composed twenty-four dithyrambs and a lyric poem on the genealogy of the Aeacidae. In his hands the dithyramb seems to have been a sort of comic opera, and the music, composed by himself, of a debased character. His masterpiece was the Cyclops, a pastoral burlesque on the love of the Cyclops for the fair Galatea, written to avenge himself upon Dionysius, who was wholly or partially blind of one eye. It was parodied by Aristophanes in the Plutus (290). Another work of Philoxenus (sometimes attributed to Philoxenus of Leucas, a notorious parasite and glutton) is the Δεῖπνον (Dinner), of which considerable fragments have been preserved by Athenaeus. This is an elaborate bill of fare in verse, probably intended as a satire on the luxury of the Sicilian court. The great popularity of Philoxenus is attested by a complimentary resolution passed by the Athenian senate in 393. The comic poet Antiphanes spoke of him as a god among men; Alexander the Great had his poems sent to him in Asia; the Alexandrian grammarians received him into the canon; and down to the time of Polybius his works were regularly learned and annually acted by the Arcadian youth.
Fragments, with life, by G. Bippart (1843); T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philomel

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​PHILOMEL (Fr. Philomèle; Ger. Philomele or Stahlgeige), a musical instrument similar to the violin, but having four steel, wire strings. The philomel has a body with incurvations similar to those of the guitar; therefore, without corner blocks, the outline of the upper lobe forms a wavy shoulder reminiscent of the viols but more ornate and fanciful. The peg-box sometimes terminates in a fancy head instead of a scroll. The philomel, never used in the orchestra, is the instrument of the dilettanti, frequently played in Germany with the bowed zither. The accordance of the philomel is the same as for the violin; the timbre is shrill and crystal-like. There is also an alto philomel corresponding to the viola. The bowed melodion is similar to the philomel, and has four steel strings of the same accordance as the violin, but arranged in inverse order; instead of being held like the violin and philomel, under the chin, it is placed on the knees of the performer, so that a hook under the fingerboard rests against the table. (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philopoemen

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​PHILOPOEMEN (253–184 B.C.), Greek general, was born at Megalopolis, and educated by the academic philosophers Ecdemus and Demophanes or Megalophanes, who had distinguished themselves as champions of freedom. Avoiding the fashionable and luxurious gymnasia, he devoted himself to military studies, hunting and border forays. In 233–2 Philopoemen skilfully evacuated Megalopolis before the attack of Cleomenes III., and distinguished himself at Sellasia (222). The next eleven years he spent as a condottiere in Crete. Elected commander of the League's cavalry on his return, he reorganized that force and defeated the Aetolians on the Elean frontier (210). Appointed to the chief command two years later, he introduced heavy armour and close formation for the infantry, and with a well-trained army beat Machanidas of Sparta, near Mantinea. The new “ liberator ” was now so famous that Philip V. of Macedon attempted to poison him. In 202–1 Philopoemen drove Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, from Messene and routed him off Tegea. After another long sojourn in Crete he again received the command against Nabis. Though unsuccessful at sea, he almost annihilated Nabis's land force near Gythium, but was prevented by the Roman Flamininus from taking Sparta. In 190 Philopoemen protected Sparta, which meanwhile had joined the League and thereupon seceded, but punished a renewed defection so cruelly as to draw the censure of Rome upon his country. At Messene he likewise checked a revolt (189), but when that city again rebelled, in 184, he was captured in a skirmish and promptly executed. His body was recovered by the Achaeans and buried with great solemnity.
Philopoemen's great merit lies in his having restored to his compatriots that military efficiency without which the Achaean League for all its skilful diplomacy could never stand. Towards Rome he advocated a courteous but independent attitude. In politics he was a democrat, and introduced reforms of a popular character (see Achaean League).
Polybius’ Histories (x.–xxiii.) are our chief authority. These and a special treatise on Philopoemen (now lost) were used by Plutarch (Philopoemen), Pausanias (viii. 49–51), Livy (xxxi.–xxxviii.), and indirectly by Justin (xxx.–xxxiv.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren, William

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​WARREN, WILLIAM (1812–1888), American actor, was born in Philadelphia on the 17th of November 1812, the son of an English actor (1767–1832) of the same name. His first stage appearance was made there as Young Norval in Home’s Douglas in 1832. A dozen years of wandering theatrical life followed, giving him a wide experience in every kind of part, the last few in comedy in a company headed by his brother-in-law, J. B. Rice. In 1846 he made his first appearance in Boston as Sir Lucius O’Trigger in The Rivals at the Howard Athenaeum, and in the next season he became a member of the Boston Museum, in which stock company he remained for thirty-five years. Here he held his “Golden Jubilee” on the 28th of October 1882, He died on the 21st of September 1888.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warren (Pennsylvania)

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​WARREN, a borough and the county-seat of Warren county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. side of the Allegheny river at the mouth of the Conewango river, about 35 m. N.E. of Titusville. Pop. (1880) 2810; (1890) 4332; (1900) 8043, of whom 1529 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,080. The foreign element is largely Swedish, Danish and Slavish. Warren is served by the Pennsylvania and the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railways, and by electric railway to Jamestown, New York. Among the public buildings and institutions are the county court house, a state hospital for the insane (established 1873), a Y.M.C.A. building and a state armoury. Warren is situated at the southern foot of a high sheer ridge, in a region rich in oil and natural gas; the borough ships and refines oil, and has various manufactures. The total value of its factory product in 1905 was $5,976,905 (62.4% more than in 1900), of which $3,038,894 was the value of refined oil and $1,220,165 the value of foundry and machine-shop products. The borough owns and operates the water-works and the electric lighting plant. The town site of Warren was laid out by commissioners appointed by Governor Thomas Mifflin in 1795, and Warren was incorporated as a borough in 1832; it was named in honour of Joseph Warren, the American patriot. In 1895 part of Glade township was annexed.
See J. S. Schenck and W. S. Rann, History of Warren County, Pennsylvania (Syracuse, N.Y., 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Warrenpoint

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​WARRENPOINT, a seaport and watering-place of county Down, Ireland, the terminus of a branch of the Great Northern railway, by which it is 503/4 m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 1817. It lies on the northern shore of the beautiful Carlingford Lough; behind it rise the Mourne Mountains, while across the lough are the Carlingford Hills, with Slieve Gullion. These hills afford shelter from inclement winds, and give Warrenpoint and other neighbouring watering-places on the lough a climate which renders them as popular in winter as in summer. There is a quay here where large vessels can discharge, and agricultural produce is exported. The shores of the lough are studded with country seats lying picturesquely on the well-wooded hill slopes; and nearly 3 m. E. of Warrenpoint (connected by tramway) is Rosstrevor, one of the most noted watering-places in Ireland, charmingly situated in a position open to the sea, but enclosed on the north and east.