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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Atticus, Titus Pomponius

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ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, the friend of Cicero, was one of the most distinguished men during the period of the decline and fall of the Roman republic. His life gives an admirable picture of the classical man of culture, who, withdrawing from the stir of political affairs, devoted himself to literary and artistic pursuits. He was born at Rome 109 B.C., and was thus three years older than Cicero, along with whom he and the younger Marius were educated. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient descent ; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was very wealthy. "When Pomponius (who afterwards received the surname Atticus, on account of his long resi dence at Athens, and his intimate acquaintance with Greek literature) was still a young man, his father died, and he at once took the prudent resolution of transferring himself and his fortune to Athens, in order to escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he might have been involved through his connection with the murdered tribune Sulpicius Rufus. Here, in retirement, he contrived to keep himself free from the entanglements of faction, while preserving friendly relations with all parties. Sulla, who urged him to come to Rome and join his party, took no offence at his refusal, but treated him with marked kindness. He assisted the younger Marius and Brutus with money when they were fleeing from their enemies, and remained on the most cordial terms with Cæsar and Pompey, Antony and Octavianus. His most intimate friend, however, was Cicero, whose correspondence with him extended over many years, and who seems to have found his prudent counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many troubles. His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry till he was 53 years of age, and his only child became the wife of Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister of Augustus. His large fortune was increased on the death of his uncle, L. Cæcilius, who bequeathed to him the greater part of his property. He formed a large library at Athens, and kept a staff of slaves engaged in making copies of valuable works. He probably derived considerable profits from the sale of these books. In 32 B.C. he was seized with an illness believed to be incurable. He resolved not to protract a painful and hopeless struggle, and died after five days of voluntary starvation. As might have been expected from his easy temper and equable disposition, Atticus professed a mild Epicureanism, but. philosophical problems, as such, do not seem to have had much interest for him ; he was emphatically a man of literature. Of his writings none are extant, but we have notices of two, one a Greek history of Cicero's consulship, the other, in Latin, on Roman annals, a subject to which he had given much attention. This work was highly commended for its minute exactness, chronological accuracy, and simple style.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Atticus Herodes, Tiberius Claudius

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ATTICUS HERODES, Tiberius Claudius, a very wealthy citizen of Athens, was born about 104 A.D. His grandfather s estates had been confiscated for treachery, but the fortunes of the family had been restored by the discovery in his father s house of an enormous sum of money, which the Emperor Nerva permitted them to retain. This great wealth Herodes afterwards increased by his marriage. He received a careful education under the most distinguished masters of the time, and specially devoted himself to the study of oratory, to excel in which seems to have been the ruling motive of his life. While very young he delivered a speech before one of the emperors; but it was so ill received that he was with difficulty restrained from throwing himself into the Danube. He ultimately attained to great celebrity as a speaker and as a feacher of rhetoric. Among his pupils were Marcus Aurellas and Lucius Verus. He was highly esteemed by the Antonines, particularly by Aurelius, and received many marks of favour, among others the archonship at Athens and the consulate at Rome. Atticus is principally celebrated, however, for the vast sums he expended on public purposes. He built at Athens a great race-course of marble from Pentelicus, and a splendid musical theatre, called the Odeum. At Corinth he built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, at Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, but it is said did not dare to carry out his plan because the same thing had been unsuccessfully attempted before by the Emperor Nero. Many of the partially ruined cities of Greece were restored by Atticus, and numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude to their bene factor. His wealth, and, it is reported, some disagreement with regard to one of the provisions of his father s will, roused up the enmity of the Athenians against him. He withdrew from Athens, and resided at his villa near Marathon, where he died about 180 A.D. None of his writings are extant.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Attock

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​ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Panjab, situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, in 33 54 N. lat, and 72 20 E. long. The place is both of political and commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khaibar Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane, and Nadir Shah, are believed to have suc cessively crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yards broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. A bridge of boats is maintained for a considerable part of the year, but withdrawn in the summer as soon as the melting of the snows in the northern mountains endangers it. The fort of Attock was built by the Emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are j)f polished stone, and the whole structure is handsome ; but from a military point of view it is of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is divided only by a ravine. The town was formerly a place of importance, but has now fallen into decay. On the opposite side of the river is the village of Khairabdd, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to some, or by Nadir Shah according to others.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Attalia

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ATTALIA, an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its name from Attalus II., king of Pergamus. It seems to have been a place of considerable importance, and is most probably to be identified with the modern Adalia, Antalia, or Sataliah, as it is variously called. See Sataliah.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Atterbom, Per Daniel Amadeus

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​ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS, a Swedish poet, was born in Ostergothland in 1790, studied in the University of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, became Professor of Philosophy there in 1828, and died in 1 855. He was the leader in the great romantic movement which revolutionised Swedish literature. In 1807, when in his 17th year, he founded at Upsala an artistic society, called the Aurora League, the members of which included Palmblad, Elgstrom, Hedborn, and other youths, whose names were destined to ​take a foremost rank in the belles-lettres of their generation. Their first newspaper, Polyxem, was a crude effort, soon abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, Fosforus, edited by Atterbom, which lasted for a consider able time, and finds a place in classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of poetry and æsthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study of the newly-arisen Romantic school of Germany, and formed a vehicle for the early works, not of Atterbom only, but of Hammarsköld, Dahlgren, Palmblad, and other eminent poets. Among Atterbom's independent works the most celebrated is Lycksalighetens ö (The Fortunate Island), a romantic drama of extraordinary beauty, published in 1823. Before this ha had published a cycle of lyrics, The Flowers, of a mystical character, somewhat in the manner of Novalis. Of a great drama, Fogel blå (The Blue Bird), only a fragment is preserved, but what exists is among the most exquisite of his writings. As a purely lyrical poet he has not been excelled in Sweden, but his popularity has been endangered, partly by his weakness for allegory and symbolism, partly by his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck and Novalis. His renown during his lifetime was unbounded.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Attention

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​ATTENTION, in Psychology, may be defined as the concentration of consciousness, or the direction of mental energy upon a definite object or objects. By means of it we either bring within the circle of our conscious life per ceptions and ideas which would not otherwise have risen from their obscurity, or render clearer and more distinct some of those already under notice. Its mode of operation and the effects produced by it may be compared with the concentration of visual activity on some definite part of the field of vision, and the clearer perception of the limited portion which is thereby attained. In both cases the result is brought about, not by effecting any change in the perceptions themselves, but simply by isolat ing them, and considering them to the exclusion of all other objects. Since all consciousness involves discrimina tion, i.e., isolation of one object from others, it involves attention, which might therefore be defined as the neces sary condition of consciousness. Such a definition is, however, too general, and throws no light upon the nature of the process whereby our mental energy is strengthened in particular cases. This increase of force, when conscious ness is directed to any one object to the exclusion of others, is partly to be explained by reference to the general law that, as the amount of intellectual energy at our disposal is limited, the greater the number of objects over which it is spread, the less will each receive, pluribus intentus, minor est ad singida sensus; and conversely, the greater the con centration, the fewer must be the objects attended to. In addition to this general law of limitation, there are special circumstances which determine the amount of consciousness we shall bestow on any object. In the first place, there are certain mechanical influences only partly subject to the will, such are the force or vividness of the impression, the interest attaching to an object, the trains of associated ideas excited, or the emotions roused by its contemplation. There is, secondly, an exercise of voli tion employed in fixing the mind upon some definite object ; this is a purely voluntary act, which can be strengthened by habit, is variable in different individuals, and to which, as being its highest stage, the name Atten tion is sometimes restricted. The general law of the limitation of conscious activity, pointed out above, throws considerable light on the nature of abstraction and its relation to Attention. It is clear that concentration of consciousness upon any one attribute or attrioutes of an object involves withdrawal of consciousness from all other attributes. This withdrawal is, logically and etymologically, Abstraction, which is thus the negative side of Attention, or, as Hamilton expresses it, the two processes form the negative and positive poles of the same mental act.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Attar of Roses

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​ATTAR, or Otto, of Roses, a well-known perfume of great strength, is an essential oil of roses, prepared chiefly in Hindustan and Persia. See Oils and Perfumery.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Cantabria

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CANTABRIA, a district of Hispania Tarraconensis, lying on the south coast of the Bay of Biscay. By the more ancient geographers the name was applied to the entire country now occupied by the provinces of Asturias, Santander, Biscay, and Guipuzcoa. After the conquest of Spain by the Romans, the name of Cantabria was restricted to what is now the province of Santander and the eastern portion of Asturias.
The Cantabri were not improbably the remains of an ancient Iberian population, and were, according to some, the ancestors of the modern Basques. They were the most warlike of all the native Spanish tribes that the Romans had to encounter, and were never completely subdued. Together with the Astures, they offered for many ages a successful resistance to the Roman arms, and were only at last compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome by Augustus. They revolted a few years after, but were defeated with great slaughter by Agrippa, 19 B.C. When, however, their losses had been somewhat repaired, they again declared war ; and they were only kept in check by the most vigorous exertions of the Emperor Tiberias. Their indomitable spirit is frequently alluded to in the ancient classics; among others Horace alludes to the " Cantabrum indoctum juga ferre nostra." Cantabria under the Roman empire comprehended five principal tribes, the Pleutauri, the Varduli, the Autrigones, the Conisci or Concaui (who fed on the blood of their horses, " Icetum equino sangiiine Concanntn "), and the Tuisi. There were numerous towns and villages distributed throughout the country, of which the most important was Juliobriga.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Canstatt

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Wiirtemberg, in the circle of the Neckar, about 2| miles N.E. of Stuttgart, in 48 48 22" N. lat. and 9 12 49" E. long. It is situated in the most fertile and populous part of the country, at a point where the high roads of the circle converge, and now forms one of the most flourish ing towns in Germany. Its public buildings comprise a cathedral of the 15th century, dedicated to Uffo, a beautiful town-hall, the royal theatre, the market-house, and various educational institutions. The Wilhelma palace, built in 1842-51 as a summer residence for the late king William, is an elaborate example of the Saracenic style, and is surrounded by extensive and beauti ful gardens. A very considerable industry is carried on in the town, the most important branches being wool- spinning, dyeing, cotton-weaving, and the manufacture of steel and machines. The transit trade is still more im portant and various. A large temporary population is attracted to the town by the fame of its mineral springs. These are about forty in number, for the most part of tepid water, which is used both for drinking and bathing, and is said to be highly beneficial in dyspepsia and weakness of the nervous system. Besides the usual bathing establish ments, there are several medical institutions for the treatment of special diseases. Siclberg, a hill in the neighbourhood, upwards of 600 feet in height, is interest ing for its caverns and the numerous fossils which it has preserved. Not far distant is the princely seat of Rosenstein (previously known as Kahlenstein), which was built in 1824-30 ; and on the neighbouring height of the Rothenberg was formerly the ancestral castle of the house of Wiirtemberg. Canstatt is mentioned as early as ths 8th century, under the name of Condistat, as the seat of a great court held by Charlemagne for the trial of the rebellious dukes of Alemaimia and Bavaria. From Louis the Bavarian it received the same imperial rights and privileges as were enjoyed by the town of Esslingen. Down to the middle of the 15th century it remained the capital of Wiirtemberg ; and as an important place of transport it has been frequently the object of military operations. In ​1 755, at the time of the great earthquake at Lisbon, part of the town-house subsided 3 feet. Population in 1871,
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Canosa

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of Terra di Bari, and district of Barletta, situated on the slope of an eminence on the right bank of the Aufidus or Ofanto, about 15 miles from the sea, and 6 miles from the battlefield of Cannse. Its most interesting buildings of modern date are a feudal castle on the top of the hill, aud the church of St Sabinus the patron saint of the city, with its mosque-like cupolas and ancient pulpit. In the neighbourhood of the latter stands the tomb of Bohemond of Antioch, who died in 1102. The ruins of the old Roman city extend for a considerable distance beyond the modern town; large portions of its walls can still be traced; and there are extensive remains of an amphitheatre which was larger than that of Pompeii, and a gateway, frequently described as a triumphal arch, dedicated to Trajan. Various explorations have brought to light great numbers of vases, inscriptions, and miscellaneous antiquities, among which is a complete list of the members of the municipal senate. The vases, which have been principally derived, from the sepulchres excavated in the tufa rock which were, discovered about 1803, are large in size and somewhat coarse in workmanship. (See Millin, Description des tombeaux de Canosa, Paris, 1813.) Like several of the more important cities in this part of Italy, Canusium is said to have been founded by the Grecian hero Diomede ; the origin of the city, however, can be traced with tolerable certainty to the Pelasgi. Canusium is first mentioned in history as assisting the Samnites in their wars against the Romans, by whom it was subdued for the first time 318 B.C. In the second Punic war the inhabitants gave shelter within their Avails to the remnant of the Roman army, which retreated thither after the rout at Canuje. In the second year of the social war, in which Canusium joined the revolted allies, it was besieged unsuccessfully by the Romans. In the civil wars it suffered severely, but always contrived to preserve its municipal privileges, and was never ​colonized from Home till the days of Marcus Aurelius. In the Itcr ad Brundusium of Horace, its bread is described as gritty, and its water as extremely scanty. This last defect was remedied by Herodes Atticus, who constructed an aqueduct, of which the remains are still visible. In the tenth satire of the first book of Horace, the inhabitants are called bilingites, probably from their speaking Latin or Greek indifferently. Till a late period in the Middle Ages Canusium continued an important and flourishing city; but it suffered severely at the hands of Lombards and Saracens. In 1694 it was laid in ruins by an earth quake, and in 1851 it was considerably injured by a similar disturbance. The title of prince of Canosa was bestowed
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Canopus

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CANOPUS, or Canobus, in ancient geography, a town of Lower Egypt, on the Mediterranean, a hundred and twenty stadia, or fifteen miles, to the east of Alexandria. It contained a very popular shrine of the god Serapis; and was the seat of the manufacture of henna, the scarlet dye with which women in the East colour their nails. The town was notorious for its dissoluteness ; and as Alexandria rose into eminence, it gradually declined. All that remains is a heap of ruins. Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, is said to have died in Egypt, and to have given his name to the town.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Canonical

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CANONICAL, as an adjective, is found associated with many substantives, and always implies dependence, real or supposed, upon the canons of the church. Thus we read of " canonical obedience," as signifying the obedience recog nized as due to a superior officer of the church from an inferior, as that due to a bishop from a presbyter. Per haps the best known and most widely spread use of the term occurs in the case of Canonical Hours, otherwise called Hours of Prayer, which are certain stated times of the day, consigned in the East, and in the West before the Reformation, more especially by the Church of Rome, to offices of prayer and devotion. These were at first three only, and were supposed to be inherited from the Jewish Church (see Psalm Iv. 17, Dan. vi. 10, and Acts iii. 1), namely, the third, sixth, and ninth hours, corresponding to 9 A.M., noon, and 3 P.M. with us. They were increased to five, and subsequently to seven (see Psalm cxix. 164), and in time made obligatory on monastic and clerical bodies. The full list, recognized almost universally through out Europe before 700 A.D., stands thus : Matins (called also Matin Lauds, or simply Lauds), Prime, Terce, Sext, Nones, Evensong, Compline ; in the Saxon canons of ^Elfric, Uhtsang, Primsang, Undersong, Midday sang, Non- sung, JEfensang, Nihtsang. (See Du Gauge, Glossarium, s. v. " Hone Canonicae;" Durandus, De Off. Divin., lib. v. , Smith and Cheetham s Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. " Hours of Prayer.") Bishop Cosin, in the reign of Charles I., put forth an edition of the Hours (as books of devotion for the canonical hours are often called) for the use of such individuals or bodies of the English Church as might like to use them.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Cantagallo

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CANTAGALLO, a town of Brazil, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, about 80 miles N.E. of the city of that name, on a small tributary of the Parahyba, with a station on the railway from Rio de Janeiro to Campos. It was formerly the seat of important gold mines; but, since these were worked out, it has depended almost wholly on agriculture. Population about 4200.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Cantal

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44 37 and 45 26 N. lat., and between 2 3 and 3 18 E. long., bounded N. by the department of Puy-de-Dôme, and E. by Haute-Loire and Lozere, S. by Aveyron and Lozere, and W. by Correze and Lot. Its area is 2208 square miles; and its population in 1872 was 231,867. It is formed of the ancient province of Upper Auvergne, and received its name from the Plomb-du-Cantal, the central peak of a bare and rugged chain which traverses the whole department, Near the Plomb, which attains a height of above 6090 feet, are the Col-de-Cabre and