# The New International Encyclopædia/Rumanian language

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​RUMANIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Rumanian Language. A Romance tongue spoken in three dialects, the Daco-Rumanian, in Rumania, Transylvania, Bessarabia, the Hungarian Banat, and Bukowina—that is, in old Dacia, by about 9,000,000 people; the Macedo-Rumanian, in Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, and Epirus, by several hundred thousand people; and the Istro-Rumanian, in Istria, by about 3000 people. The Daco-Rumanian dialect comprises the Wallachian, Moldavian, Transylvanian, and Banatian sub-dialects. The Rumanian developed from the vulgar Latin spoken in Dacia and Mœsia under the intluence suecessively of the Turano-Bulgarian, Albanian, Slavic, Hungarian, Turkish, and Modern Greek. These influences affected little the grammatical structure of the language, but greatly changed its vocabulary. About 3800 words are Slavic, about 2600 come from the vulgar Latin, about 700 are Turkish, 650 Greek, 500 Hungarian, and 50 Albanian.
The spelling of the language is pretty nearly phonetic. Rumanian has two guttural vowel-sounds, the one written ă, ĕ, and the other î, â, ê. As in Italian, c and g, when followed by e or i, have a soft (palatal) sound. There is a post-positive article:om, ‘man:’ omul, ‘the man;’ oameni, ‘men;’ oa-menii, ‘the men,’ frate, ‘brother,’ fratele, ‘the brother,’ frați, ‘brothers;’ frații, ‘the brothers;’ floare, ‘flower,’ floarea, ‘the flower;’ flori, ‘flowers;’ florile, ‘the flowers.’ The cardinal numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by means of the word spre-on: un-spre-zece, etc.: those from 20 to 90 by means of the plural of zece ‘ten:’ două-zecĭ (20), treĭ-zecĭ (30), etc. The declensions and conjugations are very much like those of Italian. There are three declensions and a neuter eender. Very frequently in nouns the plural differs materially from the singular: Om ‘man;’ oameni, ‘men;’ cap, ‘head;’ capete, ‘heads;’ soră, ‘sister:’ surori, ‘sisters.’ There are four conjugations. Verbs have two forms in the infinitive, a short and a long one: lăuda, laudare, ‘to praise:’ tăce, tăcere, ‘to be silent;’ duce, ducere, ‘to lead;’ dormi, dormire, ‘to sleep.’ The future and conditional present are formed with auxiliaries; voĭū fugi, aș fugi, ‘I shall run,’ ‘I should run.’ The passive is rendered by the third person singular: Mă bate, te bate, îl bate, ‘I am, thou art, he is beaten.’ The language is rich in suffixes, especially for the formation of diminutives: Ioan (John), Ionică, Ioniță, Ionașcu, Ienache, Ienăchel, etc.
Rumanian Literature. Unlike other Romance literatures, Rumanian did not grow up under the influence of Occidental civilization, but down to the nineteenth century at least it was influenced by the Orient. It divides itself into three periods:
The Slavic Period (from the middle of the sixteenth century to 1710). The literature of this period is medieval and religious in character. The old religious literature was written in Slavic. The desire to reach the commen people led to ​translations of the Scriptures into Rumanian. The oldest extant documents are the Gospel (Kronstadt, 1560-66), the History of the Apostles (1568-707), and the Psalms (1577), literal translations by Dean Coresi. Of special importance is the translation of the Psalms by Archbishop Dosithen, the author of the remarkable Vitæ Sanctorum, and one of the most prominent literary figures in the second half of the seventeenth century. The first complete translation of the Bible was carried out by Radu Greceanu upon the command of Prince Joan Serban Kantacazino Basarab (Bucharest, 1688); it is written in the Wallachian dialect, and is the most important literary monument of the entire literature. In 1643 the Rumanian was admitted into State and Church upon an equal footing with the Slavic. but the Slavic language and alphabet persisted, and the important books of devotion continued for a long time in Slavic, the substitution of Rumanian lasting fully two centuries.
Besides the Church literature, the only other branch of literature cultivated was history. Of great importance for the early history is the anonymous Lêtopisețul țăriĭ Romîneștĭ și a țărĭ Moldoveĭ (the chronicle of the Rumanian and Moldavian countries). The Prince D. Cautemier, a famous polyglot (1673-1723), besides a history of the Ottoman Empire, left Kronikul Moldo-Vlahilos (the chronicle of the Moldavo-Wallachians), which he wrote in Latin and translated himself into Rumanian. These two chronicles treat of all Rumania. The oldest chronicle of Moldavia is the one of Ureche, from 1359 to 1594. The history of Moldavia before 1359 and after 1594 (down to 1662) was treated in two excellent chronicles by Miron Costin, who also wrote a history of Hungary from 1388 to 1681, and a poem in Polish on the culonization of Dacia and the foundation of the two principalities. His son, Neculai Costin (1660-1712), left a chronicle. in which, beginning with the creation of the world, he brings down Miron Costin’s chronicle to 1711. The oldest and most important historical document of Wallachia is a chronicle which covers the period from 1290 to the beginning of the eighteenth century.
The Greek Period. From 1710 to 1830 the principalities were governed by Greeks from Constantinople, who bought their thrones from the Porte. The Greek language became a successful rival of Slavic, ultimately prevailing in the State, court. schools, and among the upper classes. Works were now translated or imitated from the Greek. The intellectual labor hegun during the Slavie period, far from being checked or even destroyed by the Greek influence, as some critics, biased by patriotie zeal, opine, was con- tinued during this period.
Church literature continued to develop. In Transylvania, owing to the close proximity to the Catholic world. Catholicism exerted a strong influence, and Western ideas and forms gained ascendency. Instead of Greek and Slavie models, Latin models were followed. Samuel Klain (1745-1808), who revised the Bible, and Peter Maier (1753-1821), two of the most active men of the period. published sermens and funeral orations patterned after Latin models. In Wal- lachia the rhymed chronicle was flourishing. The history of Moldavia, however, is represented by one remarkable work, the chronicle written by Neculcea, from 1662 to 1743; it continues that of Creche, and is exeellent both in point of form and contents, In Transylvania, owing to the oppres- sion at the hands of the Hungarians, and to the endeavors of the Catholic Propaganda te link the Rumanians to Nome, the histerians, stirred by racial and patriotic zeal, desired to arouse the national consciousness of the people, and wrote with a view to demonstrating the kinship of the nation with the Latins. In this spirit were writ- ten, at the beginning of the nineteenth century: Nlain’s Istoria Rominilar din Dakiea (the Mis- tory of the Rumanians of Dacia), Maiur’s [xtoria pentru inceputui Rominilor (A) History of the Origin of the Rumanians) (1812), and Gheorghe Sincals (1754-1826) Cronica Rominilur, printed in 1853, a monumental work based upon most thorough researches of all the sources then ac- cessible in the libraries of Europe
Toward 1800 Western influence set in, and gradually Jed to a total transformation of Ru- manian literature, which at lust cast off its medieval and religious features, and adopted Western ideas and Western forms of art. West- ern, especialy French, ideas ousted the Slavic and Greek intluences from their old strongholds.
Among the notable poetic productions of the end of the Greck period are the Tiganiada (the Epic of the Gypsies), by Joan Delaeanu, a mock- heroic poem replete with wit and irony, and the Ivries of Joan Vaiedrescu (1800-63), of Constan- tin Conachi (1777-1849), and especially those of Vasile Carlova (1809-1831), a genuine poet. The most prominent pectic figure, however, though partly belonging te the modern period, was An- ton Pann (1717-1854), a Bulgarian by birth, who drew his theme and inspiration from the vast popular literature, both Inie and religions, that had accumulated during the two periods. His writings, mostly in verse, exerted great influence upon the middle and lower classes, and are even now widely read by the common people.
THE Moperx Periop extends from 1830 to onr own day. It is marked by a complete though gradual emancipation from foreign influences, The interval between 1830 and 1848 was, how- ever, yet one of preparation, Greek and French in- fluences still continued. The Latinist movement, which originated in Transylvania, and was there so ably championed by Klain, Sincni, and Muior, erossed the Carpathian Mountains with Gheorghe Lazar (1779-1823), who, together with a host of his disciples, chief of whom were G. Asachi (1788-1871) in Moldavia. and the brilliant Joan Eliade-Raduleseu (1802-72) in Wallachia, aimed at. the complete Latinization of the language, the last-named even attempting to Italianize it. Eliade was. nevertheless, the main faetor in the literary revolution. He freed the lan- guage from the Slavic alphabet: by insisting upon the close kinship of the nation with the other menibers of the Latin race he saved it from intel- lectual isolation and strengthened its national consciousness: and more than any one else he contributed toward the diffusion of the literary master works of Western Kurope.
But a national literature in the full sense of the word has existed only sinee about I8ts. In Transvivanian we have Andref Muregianu (1816- 63). a patriotic poet, who composed the national song, “Awake. Rumanian, from thy lethargic sleep!” the — philologists | Timotein — Ciparn ​(1805-87) and A. T. Lauiianu (1810-80), and the historian A. Papiu Ihuianu (1828-77). In Wallachia Nicolai Biilcesou (1819-52), a revolu- tionary of 1848, wrote tlie History of the I'u- iitmiia'ns Under Micluiil the Brace. Dimitrie Bo- linliueanu (1827-72) was most successful in his national ballads, the subjects of which he bor- rowed from the old chronicles. Grigorie Alecs- andrescu (1812-85), distinguished himself by his ])atriotic odes and his satires, and won great pop- ularity through his fables. In Moldavia Con- stantin Xegruzzi (1807-08) translated into verse Pushkin and Victor Hugo, and excelled in i)rosc. Mihail Cogalniceanu (1817-91), the greatest ora- tor of tlie period, published the Moldavian chron- icles. The great names of the modern literature are those of -Meesandri and Hasdeu. Vasile Alecs- andrl (1821-1890). noted as a lyric and dramatic poet especially, succeeded in combining in him- self Western culture with national insniration. He published, in Rumanian and Trench, poini- lar songs collected bv himself from the mouths of the peasants. In 1866. with yegriizzi, he founded the Conrorbir'i literare (Literary Talks), the most important litevnrv review. In 1878, at the floral games in Montpellier, his Cinteeul ftin- iel Lniine (Song of the Latin Race) carried off the prize set for the best poem on the Latin raco. B. P. Hasdeu HSSO — 1 is n man of enoyclopsedic erudition. His best literarv work is Rnsvan Voda (Prince R.'isvan) (1867) , an historic drama. But his great importance lies in the domain of history and philology'. He wrote various works on Rumanian history, and published the vast collection of documents entitled Historical Ar- cliive of Rumania. Among his philological pub- lications may be mentioned his Ciivenie din hatranl (1878) (Words from Our Ancestors), and his Etymologicum Magnum Bomanice, a dic- tionary of vast compass and still in its initial stage. V. A. Ureche (1834) published a History of the Rumanians (8 vols., 1895), and founded, in 1866, the Academy, which issued the monumental Hurmazache collection of historical documents (15 vols., 1880-95). G. Tocilescu (1846—) wrote a history, of Dacia before Trajan, and A. D. Xenopol (1843 — ) published a very good His- tory of the Kumanians which has been translated into French. Of the great number of writers of fiction and poetry may be mentioned: N. Ganea (1835—), SlavicI ("l848— ), Jacob Ivegruzzi (1842—), the peasant J. Creangil (1837—), an excellent narrator, P. Ispirescu (1830-87), a col- lector of folk-tales, A. Odobescu (1834-), an historical novelist, and the women A. Veronica Miclea (1850—) and Matilda Poni (185.3—). Next to Alecsandri stands Mihail Eminescu (1849-1889), a lyric poet of genuine inspira- tion, though strongly pessimistic. Among his poetic followers are Alecsandru Vlahuta (1859—), De la Vrancea (Barbu ^tefanescu) ( 1858—) . Ghorghe din Moldova ( Chembach ) . Ar- tur Stavri (1809—), O. Carp (Gh. Proca). Har- alamb G. Lecca. A place apart is occupied by George Co?buc (born 1866 in a small town in Transylvania) ; his lyrics are hopeful and strong. The drama is ably represented bv J. L. Caragiale (1852 — ), who depicts with much skill and wit and humor the political and social man- ners of the middle classes of his time. Cara- KUMANIAN LANGUAGE. giale. Vlaliuta, and Cosbuc are the most reputed poets of the day. The last two decades of the nineteenth century were marked by the small group of writers that gathered about the Content [loranul, a review founded (1881) by the Socialist loan Nadejde 1850 — ). who has the culture of the Occident, literary and philologic, historic and scientific. His wife, .Sofia Nadejde, who was one of the alilest contributors to the Contemporanul. Const. Mille, V. G. Mortzun. and Th. Speranza (1850—) are the better known poets of this group. Its literaiy theoretician is C. Dobrogeanu- Gherea (1854 — ), a critic of great ability, who fought with great success against the established aesthetic theories represented b.y Titu Maiorescu (1840 — ), the leader of the Junimca (Youth), a conservative literarv society, which held the field l)etween 1860 and 1880. "From a literarj' standpoint the Revista Xoui'i (The New Review) founded (1887) by B. P. Hasdeu, was a successful rival of the Contemporanul. The in- fluence upon the youth exerted b.v Nadejde and his friends was great. The radical thought of Europe, the most modern ideas, the most recent discoveries, the latest intellectual movements, were all brilliantlv popularized in the Contem- poranul. With the activity of Nadejde and his friends was consummated the intellectual revolu- tion liegun toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury — to wit, the utter transformation of the old Rumanian society and literature, essentially Oriental, through the diftusion of the best thought of 'estern Europe. BicLiOGR.PHY. DiCTioxAEiES: C'ihac, Dietion- naire d'etymologie daco-roumane (i. 1870, ii. 1879). For the etymologies of the foreign ele- ments in the language, consult Miklosich, Ros- ier. Edelspracher, ^aineami, Costinescu, Vo- cabular roinino-franee~ (Bucharest, 1870), Fred- eric Dame, Rumanian and French, and fsain- eanu's Rumanian and German. Gbamm.rs: C'ipariu (Bucharest. 1870-77) and Nadejde (Jas- s.v, 1884). Also in Cipariu, Principii de limhS, si de script ura (Principles of language and ortho,g- raphy) (Blaj. 1804), and Hasdeu's Cuvcnte din hutrini (Bucharest, 1878-79). Philology: The works of Mussafia, Gaster, Miklosich, and the various reviews of Romance philology. Hlstort of LlTER.Tl'RE : Pumuul, Lepturariu ro- nianesc (Rumanian Anthology) (Vienna, 1805) ; Densusianu. Istoria Limbei ?i litcraturei Romune (2d ed., Jassy, 1894) : Filippide, Introducere in Istoria limbei si literaturci ro- mlne (las'sy, 1888) ; ^aineanu. Istoria filologiel romune (Bucharest, 1892) ; Rudow, Geschichte des rumSnischen Schrifttums bis stir Gegcnwart ( Wernigerode, 1892). Old Text.s: Capariu, Crcstomatie scan Analecte Litcrarie (Blasiu, 1858) . on the 10th and 17th centuries; Cogalnice- anu, Lctopiseteile tSri Moldovii (lassy, 1841-52) ; Laurianu (the chronicles) and BIceseu, Magazin Istoric pentru (for) Dacia (1845-47); Gaster, Chrestomatie romana (Leipzig. 1891), with French glossary. Folk-lore: Harden, Cartile poporane ale Romanilor in secolul al XVI.-lea (the popular books of the Rumanians in the 10th century) (Bucharest, 1879) : Gaster, Literatura popularu romdnJi (ib.. 1883): ^aineanu, lias- mele romune in comparafiune cu legendele antice clasice si in legatnru cu basmele poporrlor ro- manice (The Rumanian folk-tales compared with the ancient classic legends and in relation ​to the folk-tales of the Romance peoples) (ib., 1895). In Saineanw's {storia filologici romine will be found a very good bibliography of folk- lore collections.