OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Forest

See also Forest on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​For′est. Forests may be considered as the climax of the world's vegetation, but conditions favoring their development do not exist everywhere. There are many types characteristic of different regions. The prevailing type of temperate regions is the deciduous forest. Sometimes it is nearly pure, as in beech-forests, oak-forests, etc.; but the more common type in the United States is the mixed forest, consisting of a mingling of numerous trees, as maple, elm, hickory, oak, beech, walnut, poplar, gum, etc. The deciduous forests of the United States are much finer than those of Europe, where the varieties are not so numerous and the trees are not so well-developed. Coniferous or evergreen forests are common in mountain regions and on sterile soils, extensive forests of this kind occurring in the lake-states, gulf-states and in the western mountains. The greatest of all forests are in the rainy tropics, as in the Amazon region, where the forests form jungles dripping with moisture, the trees being interlaced with vines and covered with air-plants. The scientific handling of forests is called forestry, (see Forest-Service) which involves not so much the preservation of forests, as proper care and cutting, by means of which they may be preserved and still yield the timber necessary for the world's use. A division of forestry has been organized by the Department of Agriculture in Washington, which has charge of this subject in the United States. Foreign countries, as France and Germany, are far in advance of the United States in the proper management of forests.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fort Dodge, Ia.

See also Fort Dodge, Iowa on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Fort Dodge, Ia., the capital of Webster County, on Des Moines River, 90 miles northwest of Des Moines. Its railroad connections are furnished by the Mason City and Fort Dodge, Illinois Central and Minneapolis and St. Louis railroads. It has good schools, churches, a college and a Roman Catholic seminary. Its industries include one of the largest oatmeal-mills in the state, besides coal-mines and gypsum-quarries in the vicinity. A former fort here was called Fort Clarke. Population 15,543.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Fort Madison

See also Fort Madison, Iowa on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Fort Madison, county-seat of Lee County, Iowa, is 18 miles from Burlington. In 1832 the town was established and took the name of the fort built there in 1808. Chief among its manufactures are agricultural implements, automobiles and shoes; besides, the city has flour and lumber-mills, railroad-shops and pork-packing establishments. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Population 8,900.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Foote, Andrew Hull

See also Andrew Hull Foote on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Foote, Andrew Hull, an American naval officer, was born at New Haven, Conn., in 1806. He entered the navy in 1822, and was appointed captain in 1849. In 1856 he carried by storm four forts at Canton, China. On the outbreak of the Civil War he organized and equipped the western flotilla, and in February, 1862, stormed Fort Henry. His services obtained for him the rank of rear-admiral and a vote of thanks from Congress. He died at New York on June 26, 1863. See his Life by Prof. James Hoppin.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Force-Pump

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​Force-Pump. See Pump.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Forest-Reserves

See also Nature reserve and United States National Forest on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Forest-Reserves are areas reserved for the preservation of forests and the protection of other natural resources. They are withdrawn from occupation, except conditionally. The national reserves are called national forests, and number 160 in the United States, including four in Alaska and one in Porto Rico. There are four state-forests.
The law as to national forests encourages every industry that will not jeopardize their safety and maintenance. Each is subject only to restrictions that prevent waste and injury to the forests. Any settler can obtain $20 worth of timber a year for home-purposes free. The forester marks the trees, and the pioneer cuts them. Should the settler need more than $20 worth, he files an application, and in 1911 over
40,000 such free-use permits were issued. Only mature trees may be cut. They must be so cut as not to hurt young growth. Tops and brush must, if necessary, be burned. Cutting must begin within six months from the date of the permit, and be completed within a specified time. For municipal and mining purposes the government grants rights of way. It also issues grazing permits; lets cattle be driven through the forests between pastures outside; and builds driveways for stock in reserves where grazing is not allowed.
Location and Acreage of National Forests. :
| Arizona | 13,883,452 |
| Arkansas | 1,184,012 |
| California | 21,104,069 |
| Colorado | 13,408,138 |
| Florida | 318,960 |
| Idaho | 18,139,435 |
| Kansas | 156,376 |
| Michigan | 84,011 |
| Minnesota | 844,473 |
| Montana | 16,192,504 |
| Nebraska | 521,065 |
| Nevada | 5,424,254 |
| New Mexico | 9,810,522 |
| North Dakota | 6,224 |
| Oklahoma | 61,028 |
| Oregon | 13,740,139 |
| South Dakota | 1,073,760 |
| Utah | 7,201,695 |
| Washington | 9,914,314 |
| Wyoming | 8,420,497 |
| Total | 141,488,928 |
| Alaska | 26,643,260 |
| Porto Rico | 32,975 |
| Grand Total | 168,165,163 |
California has the largest, North Dakota the smallest, national forests. The New York reserves are mainly in the Adirondacks, but partly in the Catskills; the Pennsylvania ones at the heads of its three principal rivers.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sirens

See also Siren (mythology) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Si′rens, sea-nymphs in Greek mythology, who sat on the shores of an island off the southwest of Italy and by their songs lured passing sailors to death. The Odyssey tells the story of Ulysses stopping the ears of his companions with wax and lashing himself to a mast, till they had sailed out of hearing of the fatal songs. The Argonauts also were carried past in safety, because the music of Orpheus had a stronger spell, seeing which the sirens threw themselves into the sea and were turned into rocks. By the Latin poets they are represented with wings, and in art as birds, with the faces of young women. Consult Harrison's Myths of the Odyssey in Art and Literature.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sirocco

See also Sirocco on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Siroc′co, a hot wind which blows on the southern coasts of Italy, lasting sometimes a week. It is hottest in Malta and Sicily, but does not last as long as on the Ionian Islands. It is like the simoom, and produces the same feeling of suffocation and exhaustion. See Simoom.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sirius

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​Sir′ius. See Dog-Star.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sioux City, Ia.

See also Sioux City, Iowa on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Sioux City, Ia., a city on the Missouri, which is crossed by a bridge 2,000 feet long, and by a combination structure for the use of wagons, street-cars and railways. It is a railroad-center and a manufacturing city, and has a large trade, being situated in a fine farming-region. There are large meat-packing establishments and flaxseed-oil mills and vast quantities of stoneware; 25,000,000 bricks a year are made. Among the notable buildings are the city-hall and public library, the Federal building and the Young Men's Christian Association building. The city has a good system of public schools, the high school erected at a cost of $100,000, and here is Morningside College, a Methodist Episcopal institution. It is the county-seat of Woodbury County. Population 47,828.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sioux Falls, So. Dak.

See also Sioux Falls, South Dakota on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Sioux Falls, So. Dak., the largest town in the state, is on Big Sioux River and takes its name from the falls which descend 90 feet and afford an excellent water power. The city was laid out in 1857, and destroyed by the Sioux in 1862. It was rebuilt in 1865 after Fort Dakota was abandoned. The buildings are nearly all of red quartzite. The great industry is the quarrying and polishing of the quartzite underlying the city. There also are numerous manufactories, 66 wholesale houses, a state penitentiary, a public library, six banks, ten public schools, six colleges and denominational schools, twelve churches and six railroad-systems. It is the county-seat of Minnehaha County. Population 14,094.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Siphon

See also Siphon on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Siphon (sī′fŏn), an instrument for transferring liquid from a vessel at one level to another at a lower level.
FIG. 1
The simplest possible form is shown in the accompanying figure, where the liquid A is being emptied into the vessel D. In order to start a siphon the pressure of the air must be diminished in the branch C D. The pressure of the atmosphere on the surface B then forces the liquid up the arm A C, and, in flowing down the arm C D, this liquid acts as a pump and keeps the pressure in C D below that of the atmosphere. Evidently, however, this pumping must cease as soon as the liquid in the vessel D rises to the same level as the surface B. It is also clear that, since the water is driven up into the arm A C by means of the earth's atmosphere, no siphon will work in a vacuum.
FIG. 2
The safest and most convenient form of siphon, especially ​for transferring acids is that shown in figure 2, which is provided with a mouthpiece for starting, but without danger of getting acid or poison into the mouth. The action will be evident from the figure.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Siphonogamy

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​Siphonogamy (sī-fō-nŏg′ȧ-mĭ), a condition in plants in which pollen-tubes are developed for the transfer of the male cells to the eggs. The seed-plants are siphonogamous; while in the lower plants the male cells usually swim to the eggs. As a consequence, the Spermatophytes are called Siphonogams by some botanists.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Singapore

See also Singapore on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Singapore (sĭn′gȧ-pōr′), (“Lion City”), a town of India on the island of Singapore. It was founded in 1819 for the British trade in the East Indies, and is the most important trading-place in southeastern Asia. It is a well-built town, with fine public buildings and all kinds of conveniences in the way of public works. There are a governor's residence, a Protestant cathedral, a Roman Catholic cathedral, Mohammedan mosques, Hindu temples, Chinese joss-houses, a museum, hospitals and fine botanical and zoölogical gardens. The harbor is large, and is used as a naval coaling-station and depot. The island is 27 miles in length and 14 miles in breadth and has an area of 206 square miles. The population, numbering 311,985, includes 135,000 Chinese, 25,000 Malays and about 4,300 Europeans. Singapore, a crown-colony in the Straits Settlements, embraces Christmas and the Cocos Islands, the other settlements being Penang and Malakka. The climate is pleasant, though the death-rate is high.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Sioux

See also Sioux on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Sioux (so͞o), a group of tribes of American Indians belonging to the Dakota family. They are the principal tribe of the family, and sometimes their name is given to the whole family. They were living near the head-waters of the Mississippi when found by the whites. In their wars with the Chippewas and the Hurons some of them were driven farther south, but in 1822 they numbeied about 12,000 and their lands stretched from the Mississippi to the Black Hills. In 1837 and in 1851 they ceded parts of their land to the United States. The failure of the government to carry out their treaties irritated the tribes, and they troubled the white settlers for years and in 1862 made a general uprising, killing nearly 1,000 whites. New Ulm, in Minnesota, a town of 1,500 people, was nearly destroyed. This rebellion ended in the imprisonment of more than 1,000 Indians and the execution of 39 of the leaders, and cost the United States $40,000,000. The Santee Sioux were placed on reservations near Yankton, S. D., where they have become peaceful farmers. After a vain endeavor to settle matters peacefully, Sitting Bull (q. v.), a young chief, and others going to Washington for the purpose, the hostile tribes gathered in northern Dakota and began the war of 1876, in which General Custer perished. Large settlements of the Sioux have been made since in South Dakota. In 1890, under a “messiah,” there was another rising of the Sioux in the northwest. They now number about 25,000. Consult Riggs's Forty Years among the Sioux.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spartanburg, S. C.

See also Spartanburg, South Carolina on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spar′tanburg, S. C., capital of Spartanburg County, on the Glen Springs, Charleston and Western Carolina and Southern railroads. It lies 94 miles northwest of Columbia, the capital, and 72 miles southwest of Charlotte, N. C. It is the seat of Converse College and of Wofford Methodist Episcopal College, and has a number of churches, schools and other public institutions. It has extensive cotton manufactories and has been called the Lowell of the South. This industry has greatly advanced the growth and prosperity of the city. Population 17,517.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spathe

See also Bract#Spathe on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spathe (spāth), the very highly developed bract which invests the spadix. In Jack-in-the-Pulpit it is tubular below, and spreads above into an overarching hood. In the calla lily it is very large, and beautifully white. The spadix with its spathe is characteristic of the Aroids, and in the numerous tropical forms the spathe is extremely varied in form and often brilliantly colored.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Specie Payments in the U. S., Suspension and Resumption of

See also Specie Payment Resumption Act on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spe′cie Payments in the U. S., Suspension and Resumption of (1861-79). In consequence of the Civil War and the beginning of the drain on the United States government to meet its current obligations in metallic money, the nation, following the action of the banks, suspended specie payments at the close of 1861 and resorted to the issue, in large sums, of legal-tender paper-money (“greenbacks” the notes were called) in lieu of gold and silver in the payment of debts and taxes. The suspension, which lasted until Jan. 1, 1879, had the effect of depreciating the national paper-currency to half its face-value in gold; though, when the war closed, the government, in pursuance of an honest financial policy, began to redeem its obligations with coin and stopped the issue of the U. S. legal-tender notes. This had its effect on the national currency, which began steadily to rise in value. The government finally grappled with the financial problem and solved it by announcing that on Jan. 1, 1879, the resumption of specie payments would take place. The government kept faith with its creditors and the nation on ​the day specified, when, through the sale of bonds and the accumulation of surplus revenue etc., gold and silver were once more paid out. The result proved the wisdom of the government and banished all misgiving, for, when 1879 opened, only about 11 or 12 million dollars’ worth of notes were offered for redemption, while the treasury at Washington had in its possession about ten or twelve times the amount in gold in its vaults.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Specific Heat

See also Specific heat capacity on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Specific Heat, a term used in the physical sciences and in engineering to denote the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance through one degree centigrade at any given temperature. This quantity of heat is known as the specific heat of that substance at that temperature. If we use the calorie as the unit of heat, an exactly equivalent definition of specific heat is the following: The ratio between the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of any body one degree and that required to raise the temperature of an equal mass of water one degree.
The following is a table of specific heats of some of the more common substances:
| Aluminum . . . . . . . . . | 0.214 | Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.056 |
| Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . | 0.203 | Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.054 |
| Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.114 | Antimony . . . . . . . . . | 0.051 |
| Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.095 | Mercury . . . . . . . . . . | 0.033 |
| Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.095 | Platinum . . . . . . . . . | 0.032 |
| Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.057 | Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 0.031 |
See Heat.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spartacus

See also Spartacus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spartacus (spär′tä-kŭs), a leader in a revolt of Roman slaves, about 73 B. C., was born in Thrace. He was first a shepherd, then the head of a band of robbers, and when taken was sold to a trainer of gladiators at Capua. He escaped with 70 others and fled to the crater of Vesuvius. Here he was joined by many runaway slaves, conquered all forces sent against him, and sacked many of the cities of southern Italy. His army increased to 100,000 men, whom he sought to induce to march across the Alps and to seek their old homes, but the fever of revenge and conquest was upon them, and Spartacus continued his fight with the Roman authorities. At last he was defeated by Crassus in 71 B. C. while trying to seize the shipping at Brundusium, and was slain at Petelia.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Specific Gravity

See also Relative density on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Specif′ic Grav′ity. See Density.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spectacles

See also Glasses on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spec′tacles are instruments used for aiding the sight. They are said to have been invented in the 13th century. The first ones were very clumsy, and there was very little improvement until the beginning of the 19th century. Spectacles are worn for strengthening the vision, when it is weakened by old age, or to remedy any natural defect, such as nearsightedness, and also to protect the eye from too strong light. The glasses or lenses used should be made of the best of glass and carefully ground, though sometimes they are made from rock-crystal and called “pebbles.” The glasses should be very carefully selected to accomplish the purpose intended, it being often necessary to fit each eye separately. For short sight or nearsightedness the lens is concave, and the weakest glass that will permit distant objects to be seen should be used. For the weakness of old age, which is farsightedness and is first noticed by one’s holding a book farther off in reading etc., the lens is convex, and the strongest glass should be used.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spectrograph

See also Spectrometer on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spec′trograph. See Spectroscopy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Spectroscope

See also Spectroscope on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Spec′troscope. See Spectroscopy.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hemans, Felicia Dorothea (Browne)

Edition of 1905. See also Felicia Hemans on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEM′ANS, Felicia Dorothea (Browne) (1793-1835). An English poet, born in Liverpool. Her early taste for poetry was so far encouraged that she was permitted to publish a volume of juvenile verse in 1808. This was followed with another volume in 1812, in which year she married Captain Hemans, an Irish gentleman, who had served in Spain. In 1818, after the birth of five sons, she separated from him. She spent the rest of her life in North Wales, in Lancashire, and in Dublin, where she died. Among her works are: The Forest Sanctuary (1825), in the second edition of which, published in 1829, first appeared “Casabianca;” Records of Women (1828); Songs of the Affections (1830); Hymns for Childhood; National Lyrics and Songs for Music; and Scenes and Hymns of Life (1834). She also wrote three dull plays, and contributed to the magazines. A volume of Poetical Remains appeared after her death, and a complete edition of her works, with a memoir by her sister, in seven volumes, in 1839. Mrs. Hemans, without great daring or force, is sweet, natural, and pleasing; but too fluent, she wrote too much and too hastily. Her lyrics are her best productions, her more ambitious poems being very insipid. Still, she was a woman of talent, and some of her little pieces, such as “The Graves of a Household,” “The Treasures of the Deep,” and “The Homes of England,” are admirable in pathos and sentiment. Consult: Chorley, Memorials of Felicia D. Hemans (London, 1836); Poetical Works, with memoir, ed. by W. M. Rossetti (ib., 1873); and Espinasse, Lancashire Worthies (ib., 1874).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hellwald, Ferdinand von

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
HELLWALD, hĕl'vȧlt, Ferdinand von (1843-84). An Austrian historian of literature, born in Vienna. In 1862 he was employed in the Imperial Library there, studied the North Germanic dialects and literatures, and was sent to the Netherlands by the library. He published (1866) the Voyage au Maroc 1640-41 by the painter Adrian Mathan, and (1873) the second part of Spieghel historiael by Jakob von Maerlant, which he discovered in the library at Vienna, and other valuable works. His own writings are: Vlämisches Leben, Geschichten und Bilder (1867); Geschichte des holländischen Theaters (1874); and Geschichte der niederländischen Litteratur, completed and edited by Schneider (1887).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Hemp, Bowstring

See also Sansevieria on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
HEMP, Bowstring. The fibre produced by Sansevieria spp., a genus of Liliaceæ with representatives in tropical regions of both hemispheres. The employment of the fibre for making bowstrings led to this name. The plants are stemless perennials which grow wild in the jungles and increase by runners. The leaves, which yield readily to treatment in the fresh state, are thick and fleshy, sword or lance-shaped, and rich in fine lustrous fibre which ranges from two and one-half to seven feet in length, does not rot readily in water, and by experiment has been found to be the strongest and best-fitted fibre for deep-sea sounding. The plant, which is propagated readily from cuttings, requires a good rich soil in which, under favorable conditions, it will reach its full growth in one year. Ordinarily, however, it does not acquire its full size until the second season, and some species do not yield a crop until the third year. When once the land is stocked with it a full crop may be expected from the roots within twelve months after cutting. It does not appear to exhaust the soil materially, and will continue to make vigorous growth for a number of years in the same place. The yield is about 50 pounds of fibre per ton of green leaves. The total yield per acre has been reported by experiments to be nearly two and a-half tons of fibre annually.