OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Escheat

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​ESCHEAT (O. Fr. eschete, from escheoir, to fall to one’s share; Lat. excidere, to fall out), in English law, the reversion of lands to the next lord on the failure of heirs of the tenant. “When the tenant of an estate in fee simple dies without having alienated his estate in his lifetime or by his will, and without leaving any heirs either lineal or collateral, the lands in which he held his estate escheat, as it is called, to the lord of whom he held them” (Williams on the Law of Real Property). This rule is explained by the conception of a freehold estate as an interest in lands held by the freeholder from some lord, the king being lord paramount. (See Estate.) The granter retains an interest in the land similar to that of the donor of an estate for life, to whom the land reverts after the life estate is ended. As there are now few freehold estates traceable to any mesne or intermediate lord, escheats, when they do occur, fall to the king as lord paramount. Besides escheat for defect of heirs, there was formerly also escheat propter delictum tenentis, or by the corruption of the blood of the tenant through attainder consequent on conviction and sentence for treason or felony. The blood of the tenant becoming corrupt by attainder was decreed no longer inheritable, and the effect was the same as if the tenant had died without heirs. The land, therefore, escheated to the next heir, subject to the superior right of the crown to the forfeiture of the lands,—in the case of treason for ever, in the case of felony for a year and a day. All this was abolished by the Felony Act 1870, which provided for the appointment of an administrator to the property of the convict. Escheat is also an incident of copyhold tenure. Trust estates were not subject to escheat until the Intestates’ Estates Act 1884, but now by that act the law of escheat applies in the same manner as if the estate or interest were a legal estate in corporeal hereditaments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eschenmayer, Adam Karl August von

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​ESCHENMAYER, ADAM KARL AUGUST VON (1768–1852), German philosopher and physicist, was born at Neuenburg in Württemberg in July 1768. After receiving his early education at the Caroline academy of Stuttgart, he entered the university of Tübingen, where he received the degree of doctor of medicine. He practised for some time as a physician at Sulz, and then at Kirchheim, and in 1811 he was chosen extraordinary professor of philosophy and medicine at Tübingen. In 1818 he became ​ordinary professor of practical philosophy, but in 1836 he resigned and took up his residence at Kirchheim, where he devoted his whole attention to philosophical studies. Eschenmayer’s views are largely identical with those of Schelling, but he differed from him in regard to the knowledge of the absolute. He believed that in order to complete the arc of truth philosophy must be supplemented by what he called “non-philosophy,” a kind of mystical illumination by which was obtained a belief in God that could not be reached by mere intellectual effort (see Höffding, Hist. of Mod. Phil., Eng. trans. vol. 2, p. 170). He carried this tendency to mysticism into his physical researches, and was led by it to take a deep interest in the phenomena of animal magnetism. He ultimately became a devout believer in demoniacal and spiritual possession; and his later writings are all strongly impregnated with the lower supernaturalism.
His principal works are—Die Philosophie in ihrem Übergange zur Nichtphilosophie (1803); Versuch die scheinbare Magie des thierischen Magnetismus aus physiol. und psychischen Gesetzen zu erklären (1816); System der Moralphilosophie (1818); Psychologie in drei Theilen, als empirische, reine, angewandte (1817, 2nd ed. 1822); Religionsphilosophie (3 vols., 1818–1824); Die Hegel’sche Religionsphilosophie verglichen mit dem christl. Princip (1834); Der Ischariotismus unserer Tage (1835) (directed against Strauss’s Life of Jesus); Konflikt zwischen Himmel und Hölle, an dem Dämon eines besessenen Mädchens beobachtet (1837); Grundriss der Naturphilosophie (1832); Grundzüge der christl. Philosophie (1840); and Betrachtungen über den physischen Weltbau (1852).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neubreisach

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​NEUBREISACH, a town and fortress of Germany in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Rhine-Rhone canal, 12 m. E. from Colmar by the railway to Freiburg-im-Breisgau. Pop. (1905—including a garrison of 2300 men) 3520. It is built in the form of a hectagon, and together with Fort Mortier, which lies on an arm of the Rhine opposite, forms a place of great strategic strength. It contains an Evangelical (garrison) church, a Roman Catholic church and a non-commissioned officers' school. There are electrical works in the town.
Neubreisach was founded by Louis XIV. in 1699 and fortified by Vauban, the Neubreisacher canal being constructed to transport the necessary materials. In the Franco-German War, it was bombarded by the Germans from the 2nd to the 10th of November 1870, when it capitulated.
See Wolff, Geschichte des Bombardements von Schlettstadt und Neubreisach (Berlin. 1874); and von Neumann, Die Eroberung von Schlettstadt und Neubreisach im Jahre 1870 (Berlin, 1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuendorf

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​NEUENDORF, a village of Germany, in the province of Brandenburg, 2 m. E. from Potsdam, on the Nuthe, with a station on the railway from Berlin to Potsdam. Pop. (1905) 6877. The place has considerable industries, chief among which are carpet-weaving, jute-spinning and the manufacture of railway plant. Within its area lies the colony of Nowawes laid out by Frederick the Great in 1754.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuhaldensleben

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​NEUHALDENSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian Saxony on the Ohre, situated 18 m. N.W. from Magdeburg by the railway to Öbisfelde and at the junction of a line to Eisleben. Pop. (1905) 10,421. It has an Evangelical church, an old equestrian statue of Henry the Lion and a gymnasium. There are several active industries, notably the manufacture of majolica and terra-cotta wares, machinery, gloves, beer, malt, cheese and sugar, while large pig markets are held here.
See Behrends, Chronik der Stadt Neuhaldensleben (new ed., 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neu-Strelitz

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​NEU-STRELITZ, a town of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, situated between two small lakes, the Zierker See and the Glambecker See, 60 m. N. of Berlin, on the railway to Stralsund, at the junction of lines to Warnemünde and Buschhof. Pop. (1905) 11,656. It is built in the form of a star, the eight rays converging on a market-place adorned with a statue of the grand-duke George (d. 1860) . The ducal residence is a handsome edifice in a pseudo-classical style, with a library of 75,000 volumes, and collections of coins and antiquities. Other buildings are the churches (two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic), the Carolinum (a large hospital), the town hall, the barracks, the gymnasium and the theatre. Its manufactures are iron-ware, machinery, pottery, beer and mineral waters. Its trade, chiefly in corn, meal and timber, is facilitated by the Zierker See and by a canal connecting the town with the Havel and the Elde.
About 11/2 m. to the south lies Alt-Strelitz, the former capital of the duchy, a small town the inhabitants of which are employed in the manufacture of tobacco, leather and wax candles. Neu-Strelitz was not founded till 1726. In the vicinity is the château of Hohen-Zieritz, where Queen Louise of Prussia died in 1810.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuburg

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​NEUBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, is pleasantly situated on the Danube, 12 m. W. of Ingolstadt, on the railway to Neuoffingen. Pop. (1905) 8532. It is a place of ancient origin, but is chiefly noteworthy because formerly for two centuries it was the capital of the principality of Pfalz-Neuburg. Its most important building is the old residence of its princes, the handsomest part of which is in the Renaissance style of the 16th century. The town also contains an Evangelical and seven Roman Catholic churches, a town hall, several schools and convents, a theatre, and an historical museum with a valuable library. It has electrical works and breweries, while fruit and vegetables are cultivated in the neighbourhood, a considerable trade in these products being carried on by the Danube.
Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the 10th century it passed to the counts of Scheyern, and through them to Bavaria, being ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate at the close of a war in 1507. From 1557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality ruled by a cadet branch of the family of the elector palatine of the Rhine. This principality of Pfalz-Neuburg had an area of about 1000 sq. m. and about 100,000 inhabitants. In 1742 it was united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed in 1777 to Bavaria.
See Gremmel, Geschichte des Herzogtums Neuburg (Neuburg, 1872); and Führer durch die Stadt Neuburg und deren Umgebung (Neuburg, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuchâtel (town)

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​NEUCHÂTEL, capital of the above Swiss canton, situated near the north-east corner of the lake of Neuchâtel. It is the meeting-point of several important railway lines, from Bern past Kerzers (27 m.), from Bienne (19 m.), from La Chaux de Fonds (19 m.), from Pontarlier (in France), by the Val de Travers, (331/2 m.), and from Yverdon (23 m.). The railway station (1575 ft.) at the top of the town is connected by an electric tramway with the shore of the lake some 150 ft. lower. The older portion of the town is built on the steep slope of the Chaumont, and originally the waters of the lake bathed the foot of the hill on which it stood. But the gradual growth of alluvial deposits, and more recently the artificial embankment of the shore of the lake, have added much dry ground, and on this site the finest modern buildings have been erected. The 16th-century castle and the 13th-century collegiate church of Notre Dame (now Protestant) stand close together and were founded in the 12th century when the counts took up their permanent residence in the town, to which they granted a charter of liberties in 1214. Among the buildings on the quays are the Musée des Beaux Arts (modern Swiss paintings and also various historical collections, including that of Desor relating to the Lake Dwellings), the Gymnase or Collège Latin (in which is also the museum of natural history and the town library), the university (refounded in 1866 and raised from the rank of an academy to that of a university in 1909), the Ecole de Commerce and the post office. The town owes much to the gifts of citizens. Thus David de Purry (1709–1786) founded the town hospital and built the town hall, while James de Purry bequeathed to the town the villa in which the ethnographical museum has been installed (1904). In 1811 J. L. de Pourtalés (1722–1814) founded the hospital which bears his name, while in 1844 A. de Meuron (1789–1852) constructed the lunatic asylum at Préfargier, a few miles from the town. Among natives of the town are the theologians J. F. Ostervald (1663–1747) and Frédéric Godet (1812–1900), the geologist E. Desor (1811–1882), the local historian G. A. Matile (1807–1881) and the politicians A. M. Piaget (1802–1870) and Numa Droz (1844–1899). Neuchâtel (partly because very good French is spoken there) attracts many foreign students, while the town is a literary centre. In 1900 Neuchâtel numbered 20,843 inhabitants (in 1850 only 7727 and in 1870, 12,683), 15,277 being French-speaking and 4553 German-speaking; there were 17,237 Protestants, 3459 Romanists and 80 Jews. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuenahr

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​NEUENAHR, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated at the foot of a basalt peak, in the pleasant valley of the Ahr, 10 m. N.W. of Remagen on the Rhine by the railway to Adenau. Pop. (1905) 3388. It is well laid out, has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, and carries on a considerable trade in the red wines of the district. There are five alkaline springs with temperatures from 69° to 102° F., the waters of which are specific in chronic catarrh of the respiratory organs, gout, rheumatism and diabetes. In the immediate vicinity lies the Apollinaris spring.
See Schmitz, Erfahrungen über Bad Neuenahr (5th ed., Ahrweiler, 1887); and Schwenke, Die Kurmittel des Bades Neuenahr (Halle, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neufchâteau

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​NEUFCHÂTEAU, a town of eastern France, in the department of Vosges at the confluence of the Meuse and the Mouzon, 49 m. W.N.W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) 3924. The churches of St Christopher (13th and 15th centuries) and St Nicholas, the latter combining the Romanesque and Gothic styles and built above a Romanesque crypt, are of interest. A sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance and communal colleges are among the public institutions. Neufchâteau carries on wool-spinning and the manufacture of embroidery, nails and chains. The town, which is said to occupy the site of the Roman Neomagus, belonged in the middle ages to the dukes of Lorraine, ruins of whose château are still to be seen. In 1641 it passed to France.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neuchâtel, Lake of

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​NEUCHÂTEL, LAKE OF. This lake, in W. Switzerland, is with the neighbouring lakes of Bienne and Morat (both connected with it by canals), the modern representative of the large body of water which at one time seems to have filled the whole of the lower valley of the Aar. It is now the most considerable sheet ​of water which is wholly within Switzerland (since parts of those of Geneva and Constance belong to foreign countries), though it does not belong entirely to any one Canton—of its total area of 921/2 sq. m., 361/2 sq. m. are in the Canton of Neuchâtel and rather over 33 sq. m. in that of Vaud, while Fribourg claims 203/4 sq. m. and Berne 2 sq. m. It is about 231/2 m. in length, varies from 31/2 to 5 m. in width, and has a maximum depth of 502 ft., while its surface is 1427 ft. above sea-level. It is mainly formed by the Thièle or Zihl river, which enters it at its south-western end and issues from it at its north-eastern extremity, but it also receives, near its north-west end, the Areuse (flowing through the Val de Travers) and the Seyon (which traverses the Val de Ruz), as well as, near its north-east end, the Broye (that flows through a canal from the Lake of Morat). Successive drainages have brought to light the remains of many lake dwellings, of which there is a good collection in the natural history museum at Neuchâtel. The scenery of the lake, though pleasing, cannot compare with that of the other Swiss lakes, despite the fact that from it the giants of both the Mont Blanc and Bernese Oberland ranges are clearly seen. The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1827. On the south-eastern shore the picturesque and historical little town of Estavayer is the chief place. At the south-western extremity of the lake is Yverdon (the Eburodunum of the Romans and the residence of the educationalist Pestalozzi, 1806–1825). Far more populated is the north-western shore, where, from S.W. to N.E., we find Grandson (famous for the battle of 1476 wherein Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss), Cortaillod (producing excellent sparkling wine), Serrières (with the famous manufactories of Suchard chocolate) and Neuchâtel itself. On the north shore is La Tène, famous for the remarkable relics of the Iron Age that have been discovered there. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leontiasis Ossea

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​LEONTIASIS OSSEA, a rare disease characterized by an overgrowth of the facial and cranial bones. The common form is that in which one or other maxilla is affected, its size progressively increasing both regularly and irregularly, and thus encroaching on the cavities of the orbit, the mouth, the nose and its accessory sinuses. Exophthalmos gradually develops, going on later to a complete loss of sight due to compression of the optic nerve by the overgrowth of bone. There may also be interference with the nasal respiration and with the taking of food. In the somewhat less common form of this rare disease the overgrowth of bone affects all the cranial bones as well as those of the face, the senses being lost one by one and death finally resulting from cerebral pressure. There is no treatment other than exposing the overgrown bone, and chipping away pieces, or excising entirely where possible.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leontius

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​LEONTIUS, theological writer, born at Byzantium, flourished during the 6th century. He is variously styled Byzantinus, Hierosolymitanus (as an inmate of the monastery of St Saba near Jerusalem) and Scholasticus (the first “schoolman,” as the introducer of the Aristotelian definitions into theology; according to others, he had been an advocate, a special meaning of the word scholasticus). He himself states that in his early years he belonged to a Nestorian community. Nothing else is known of his life; he is frequently confused with others of the same name, and it is uncertain which of the works bearing the name Leontius are really by him. Most scholars regard as genuine the polemical treatises Contra Nestorianos et Eutychianos, Contra Nestorianos, Contra Monophysitas, Contra Severum (patriarch of Antioch); and the Σχόλια, generally called De Sectis. An essay Adversus fraudes Apollinaristarum and two homilies are referred to other hands, the homilies to a Leontius, presbyter of Constantinople.
Collected works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, lxxxvi.; for the various questions connected with Leontius see F. Loops, Das Leben und die polemischen Werke des Leontios von Byzanz (Leipzig, 1887); W. Rügamer, Leontius von Byzanz (1894); V. Ermoni, De Leontio Byzantino (Paris, 1895); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); J. P. Junglas, Leontius von Byzanz (1908). For other persons of the name see Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), viii. 323.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leon of Modena

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​LEON OF MODENA (1571–1648), Jewish scholar, was born in Venice, of a notable French family which had migrated to Italy after the expulsion of the Jews from France. He was a precocious child, but, as Graetz points out, his lack of stable character prevented his gifts from maturing. “He pursued all sorts of occupations to support himself, viz. those of preacher, teacher of Jews and Christians, reader of prayers, interpreter, writer, proof-reader, bookseller, broker, merchant, rabbi, musician, matchmaker and manufacturer of amulets.” Though he failed to rise to real distinction he earned a place by his criticism of the Talmud among those who prepared the way for the new learning in Judaism. One of Leon’s most effective works was his attack on the Kabbala (’Ari Nohem, first published in 1840), for in it he demonstrated that the “Bible of the Kabbalists” (the Zohar) was a modern composition. He became best known, however, as the interpreter of Judaism to the Christian world. At the instance of an English nobleman he prepared an account of the religious customs of the Synagogue, Riti Ebraici (1637). This book was widely read by Christians; it was rendered into various languages, and in 1650 was translated into English by Edward Chilmead. At the time the Jewish question was coming to the fore in London, and Leon of Modena’s book did much to stimulate popular interest. He died at Venice.
See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. v. ch. iii.; Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 6; Geiger, Leon de Modena. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leontini

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​LEONTINI (mod. Lentini), an ancient town in the south-east of Sicily, 22 m. N.N.W. of Syracuse direct, founded by Chalcidians from Naxos in 729 B.C. It is almost the only Greek settlement not on the coast, from which it is 6 m. distant. The site, originally held by the Sicels, was seized by the Greeks owing to its command of the fertile plain on the north. It was reduced to subjection in 498 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, and in 476 Hieron of Syracuse established here the inhabitants of Catana and Naxos. Later on Leontini regained its independence, but in its efforts to retain it, the intervention of Athens was more than once invoked. It was mainly the eloquence of Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini which led to the abortive Athenian expedition of 427. In 422 Syracuse supported the oligarchs against the people and received them as citizens, Leontini itself being forsaken. This led to renewed Athenian intervention, at first mainly diplomatic; but the exiles of Leontini joined the envoys of Segesta in persuading Athens to undertake the great expedition of 415. After its failure, Leontini became subject to Syracuse once more (see Strabo vi. 272). Its independence was guaranteed by the treaty of 405 between Dionysius and the Carthaginians, but it very soon lost it again. It was finally stormed by M. Claudius Marcellus in 214 B.C. In Roman times it seems to have been of small importance. It was destroyed by the Saracens A.D. 848, and almost totally ruined by the earthquake of 1698. The ancient city is described by Polybius (vii. 6) as lying in a bottom between two hills, and facing north. On the western side of this bottom ran a river with a row of houses on its western bank under the hill. At each end was a gate, the northern leading to the plain, the southern, at the upper end, to Syracuse. There was an acropolis on each side of the valley, which lies between precipitous hills with flat tops, over which buildings had extended. The eastern hill still has considerable remains of a strongly fortified medieval castle, in which some writers are inclined (though wrongly) to recognize portions of Greek masonry. See G. M. Columba, in Archeologia di Leontinoi (Palermo, 1891), reprinted from Archivio Storico Siciliano, xi.; P. Orsi in Römische Mitteilungen (1900), 61 seq. Excavations were made in 1899 in one of the ravines in a Sicel necropolis of the third period; explorations in the various Greek cemeteries resulted in the discovery of some fine bronzes, notably a fine bronze lebes, now in the Berlin museum. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Leoncavallo, Ruggiero

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​LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858– ), Italian operatic composer, was born at Naples and educated for music at the conservatoire. After some years spent in teaching and in ineffectual attempts to obtain the production of more than one opera, his Pagliacci was performed at Milan in 1892 with immediate success; and next year his Medici was also produced there. But neither the latter nor Chatterton (1896)—both early works—obtained any favour; and it was not till La Bohème was performed in 1897 at Venice that his talent obtained public confirmation. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were Zaza (1900), and Der Roland (1904). In all these operas he was his own librettist.