# Russell & Whitehead's Principia Mathematica/Part 1/Summary of Part 1

In this Part, we shall deal with such topics as belong traditionally to symbolic logic, or deserve to belong to it in virtue of their generality. We shall, that is to say, establish such properties of propositions, propositional functions, classes and relations as are likely to be required in any mathematical reasoning, and not merely in this or that branch of mathematics.
The subjects treated in Part I may be viewed in two aspects: (1) as a deductive chain depending on the primitive propositions, (2) as a formal calculus. Taking the first view first: We begin, in *1 (and in *3·03), with certain axioms as to deduction of one proposition or asserted propositional function from another. From these primitive propositions, in Section A, we deduce various propositions which are all concerned with four ways of obtaining new propositions from given propositions, namely negation, disjunction, joint assertion and implication, of which the last two can be defined in terms of the first two. Throughout this first section, although, as will be shown at the beginning of Section B, our propositions, symbolically unchanged, will apply to any propositions as values of our variables, yet it will be supposed that our variable propositions are all what we shall call elementary propositions, i.e. such as contain no reference, explicit or implicit, to any totality. This restriction is imposed on account of the distinction between different types of propositions, explained in Chapter II of the Introduction. Its importance and purpose, however, are purely philosophical, and so long as only mathematical purposes are considered, it is unnecessary to remember this preliminary restriction to elementary propositions, which is symbolically removed at the beginning of the next section.
Section B deals, to begin with, with the relations of propositions containing apparent variables (i.e. involving the notions of "all" or "some") to each other and to propositions not containing apparent variables. We show that, where propositions containing apparent variables are concerned, we can define negation, disjunction, joint assertion and implication in such a way that their properties shall be exactly analogous to the properties of the corresponding ideas as applied to elementary propositions. We show also that formal implication, i.e. "$\scriptstyle {(x).\phi x\supset \psi x}$" considered as a relation of $\scriptstyle {\phi {\hat {x}}}$ to $\scriptstyle {\psi {\hat {x}}}$, has many properties analogous to those of material implication, i.e. "$\scriptstyle {p\supset q}$" ​considered as a relation of $\scriptstyle {p}$ and $\scriptstyle {q}$. We then consider predicative functions and the axiom of reducibility, which are vital in the employment of functions as apparent variables. An example of such employment is afforded by identity, which is the next topic considered in Section B. Finally, this section deals with descriptions, i.e. phrases of the form "the so-and-so" (in the singular). It is shown that the appearance of a grammatical subject "the so-and-so" is deceptive, and that such propositions, fully stated, contain no such subject, but contain instead an apparent variable.
Section C deals with classes, and with relations in so far as they are analogous to classes. Classes and relations, like descriptions, are shown to be "incomplete symbols" (cf. Introduction, Chapter III), and it is shown that a proposition which is grammatically about a class is to be regarded as really concerned with a propositional function and an apparent variable whose values are predicative propositional functions (with a similar result for relations). The remainder of Section C deals with the calculus of classes, and with the calculus of relations in so far as it is analogous to that of classes.
Section D deals with those properties of relations which have no analogues for classes. In this section, a number of ideas and notations are introduced which are constantly needed throughout the rest of the work. Most of the properties of relations which have analogues in the theory of classes are comparatively unimportant, while those that have no such analogues are of the very greatest utility. It is partly for this reason that emphasis on the calculus-aspect of symbolic logic has proved a hindrance, hitherto, to the proper development of the theory of relations.
Section E, finally, extends the notions of the addition and multiplication of classes or relations to cases where the summands or factors are not individually given, but are given as the members of some class. The advantage obtained by this extension is that it enables us to deal with an infinite number of summands or factors.
Considered as a formal calculus, mathematical logic has three analogous branches, namely (1) the calculus of propositions, (2) the calculus of classes, (3) the calculus of relations. Of these, (1) is dealt with in Section A, while (2) and (3), in so far as they are analogous, are dealt with in Section C. We have, for each of the three, the four analogous ideas of negation, addition, multiplication, and implication or inclusion. Of these, negation is analogous to the negative in ordinary algebra, and implication or inclusion is analogous to the relation "less than or equal to" in ordinary algebra. But the analogy must not be pressed, as it has important limitations. The sum of two propositions is their disjunction, the sum of two classes is the class of terms belonging to one or other, the sum of two relations is the relation consisting in the fact that one or other of the two relations holds. The sum of a class ​of classes is the class of all terms belonging to some one or other of the classes, and the sum of a class of relations is the relation consisting in the fact that some one relation of the class holds. The product of two propositions is their joint assertion, the product of two classes is their common part, the product of two relations is the relation consisting in the fact that both the relations hold. The product of a class of classes is the part common to all of them, and the product of a class of relations is the relation consisting in the fact that all relations of the class in question hold. The inclusion of one class in another consists in the fact that all members of the one are members of the other, while the inclusion of one relation in another consists in the fact that every pair of terms which has the one relation also has the other relation. It is then shown that the properties of negation, addition, multiplication and inclusion are exactly analogous for classes and relations, and are, with certain exceptions, analogous to the properties of negation, addition, multiplication and implication for propositions. (The exceptions arise chiefly from the fact that "$\scriptstyle {p}$ implies $\scriptstyle {q}$" is itself a proposition, and can therefore imply and be implied, while "$\scriptstyle {\alpha }$ is contained in $\scriptstyle {\beta }$," where $\scriptstyle {\alpha }$ and $\scriptstyle {\beta }$ are classes, is not a class, and can therefore neither contain nor be contained in another class $\scriptstyle {\gamma }$.) But classes have certain properties not possessed by propositions: these arise from the fact that classes have not a twofold division corresponding to the division of propositions into true and false, but a threefold division, namely into (1) the universal class, which contains the whole of a certain type, (2) the null-class, which has no members, (3) all other classes, which neither contain nothing nor contain everything of the appropriate type. The resulting properties of classes, which are not analogous to properties of propositions, are dealt with in *24. And just as classes have properties not analogous to any properties of propositions, so relations have properties not analogous to any properties of classes, though all the properties of classes have analogues among relations. The special properties of relations are much more numerous and important than the properties belonging to classes but not to propositions. These special properties of relations therefore occupy a whole section, namely section D.