OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cambon, Pierre Paul

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​CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843–), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), Nord (1877–1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences.
His brother, Jules Martin Cambon (1845–), was called to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887–1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, L’œuvre de M. Jules Cambon, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cambria

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​CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aetion

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​AETION, or Eetion, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero, Pliny and Lucian. His most noted work, described in detail by Lucian (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. He is said to have exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in marriage. Through a misunderstanding of the words of Lucian, Aetion has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines; but there can be little doubt that he was a contemporary of Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen Künstler, ii. p. 243). Pliny gives his date as 350 B.C.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aesopus

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​AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was discovered by Mai in 1816.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aetius (general)

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​AETIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the closing period of the Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the 4th century. He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although possibly of barbarian family, rose in the service of the Western empire to be master of the horse, and later count of Africa. Aetius passed some years as hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and later in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, acquiring in this way the knowledge which enabled him afterwards to defeat them. In 424 he led into Italy an army of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns, which he employed first to support the primicerius Joannes, who had proclaimed himself emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter, to enforce his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III. His calumnies against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at first believed by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the Vandals to Africa. Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface, although defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valentinian; but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic wars, like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin. From 433 to 450 Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western empire. In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding for nearly twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the falling fortunes of the empire. His greatest victory was that of Châlons-sur-Marne (September 20, 451), in which he led the Gallic forces against Attila and the Huns. This was the last triumph of the empire. Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at court to claim the emperor’s daughter in marriage for his son Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs upon the crown, slew him with his own hand.
See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aetius (Greek physician)

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​AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, flourished at the beginning of the 6th century A.D. He studied at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial household. He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, founded on Oribasius and compiled from various sources, especially Galen [Galenos]. Superstition and mysticism play a great part in his remedies. Eight books of the Greek original were printed at Venice, 1534, and a complete Latin translation by Cornarius appeared at Basel, 1542.
See Weigel, Aetianarum exercitationum specimen (1791); Danelius, Beitrag zur Augenheilkunde des Aetius (1889); Zernos, Aetii sermo sextidecimus et ultimus, editio princeps (1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aethicus

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​AETHICUS (＝Ethicus) ISTER, “the philosopher of Istria,” the supposed but unknown author of a description of the world written in Greek. An abridgment, under the title of Cosmographia Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, and wrongly described as the work of St Jerome, probably belongs to the 7th century. After a discussion of the creation of the world and a description of the earth, an account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus is given, with digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander the Great and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous details.
The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical treatise probably dating from the 6th Century, a reproduction, ​with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography—little else than a dry list of names—of Julius Honorius.
Editions.—D’Avezac (1852); Pertz (1853); Wuttke (1854); Riese’s Geographi Latini Minores (1878); see also Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aetiology

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​AETIOLOGY, or ETIOLOGY (from Gr. αἰτία, cause, and λογία, discourse), strictly, the science or philosophy of causation, but generally used to denote the part of any special science (and especially of that of medicine and disease) which investigates the causes and origin of its phenomena. An aetiological myth is one which is regarded as having been invented ex post facto to explain some fact, name or coincidence, the true account or origin of which has been forgotten. Such myths were often based on grotesque philological analogies, according to which an existing connexion between two personalities (cities, &c.) was traced back to a common mythical origin. For a good example of the evolution of such myths, see the argument under or Aegina, History.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aesopus, Clodius

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​AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian, flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens. Cicero was on friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally distinguished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruction. Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus, that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last appearance in 55 B.C.—when Cicero tells us that he was advanced in years—on the occasion of the splendid games given by Pompey at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat extravagant living, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son, who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace (Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of Caecilia Metella and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds’ worth at a draught.
Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint., Instit. xi. 3, iii; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aestivation

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​AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or summer; the word is sometimes spelled “estivation”), literally “summer residence,” a term used in zoology for the condition of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar winter condition known as hibernation (q.v.) In botany the word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the petals in a flower before expansion in the summer, contrasted with “vernation” of leaves which unfold in the spring.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Charrua

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​CHARRUA, a tribe of South American Indians, wild and warlike, formerly ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil. They were dark and heavily built, fought on horses and used the bolas or weighted lasso. They were always at war with the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by them in 1516. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albuera, La

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​ALBUERA, or Albuhera, LA, a small village of Spain, in the province of Badajoz, 13 m. S.E. of the town of that name. Pop. (1900) 820. Albuera is celebrated on account of the victory gained there on the 16th of May 1811 by the British, Portuguese and Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the French army commanded by Marshal Soult. (See Peninsular War.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albright, Jacob

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​ALBRIGHT, JACOB (1759–1808), American clergyman, was born near Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of May 1759. He was of “Pennsylvania-German” parentage, his name being originally Albrecht, and was educated in the Lutheran faith. At an early age he became a tile-burner. In 1790 he was converted to Methodism, and in 1796 determined to devote himself to preaching that faith among the Pennsylvania Germans. His efforts met with great success, and in 1800 he founded what was virtually a new and independent church organization on the Methodist system, of which he became the presiding elder, and eventually (1807) bishop. This church is officially the Evangelical Association, but its adherents have been variously known as “New Methodists.” “Albrights,” and “Albright Brethren.” Albright died on the 18th of May 1808, at Mühlbach, Pennsylvania.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albuminuria

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​ALBUMINURIA (Physiological or Functional), a term indicating the presence of albumin in the urine. This may depend on a number of morbid conditions, of which kidney troubles, acute illnesses and venous congestion are some of the commoner. But after exclusion of all known pathological causes, there still remains a large class of cases among subjects who appear to be in perfect health. This form has been called functional or physiological albuminuria, intermittent albuminuria, &c. Its recognition is of extreme importance, as it must be distinguished from the albuminuria due to Bright’s disease and other troubles. The following are the main forms that have been described:—(1) Dietetic Albuminuria. This form affects some people after partaking of a meal consisting largely of albuminous foods, such as eggs. In others any extra indulgence in the pleasures of the table may give rise to it. (2) Cyclic Albuminuria. This name was first used by the physiologist Pavy, but other observers have called the same condition “postural albuminuria.” It occurs in people enjoying perfect health, and is characterized by ​the presence of albumin in the urine at certain times of the day. It has been shown to depend entirely on the assumption of the erect position, and it disappears as a result of the recumbent position at night. (3) Albuminuria from exercise. This form affects some people after any unusual muscular exertion. (4) Prolonged mental strain or worry may give rise to a transient form of albuminuria. (5) Adolescent albuminuria is met with in some subjects, especially boys. The question of the real significance of “physiological” albuminuria is one about which there is much difference of opinion. But its importance and recognition—especially in questions of life insurance—admits of no question.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Album

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​ALBUM (Lat. albus, white), in ancient Rome, a board chalked or painted white, on which decrees, edicts and other public notices were inscribed in black. The Annales Maximi of the Pontifex Maximus, the annual edicts of the praetor, the lists of Roman and municipal senators (decuriones) and jurors (album indicum) were exhibited in this manner. In medieval and modern times album denotes a book of blank pages in which verses, autographs, sketches, photographs and the like are collected. It is also applied to the official list of matriculated students in a university, and to the roll in which a bishop inscribes the names of his clergy. In law, the word is the equivalent of mailles blanches, for rent paid in silver (“white”) money.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albumazar

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​ALBUMAZAR, more properly Abu-maaschar (805–885), Arab astronomer, was born at Balkh, flourished at Bagdad, and died at Wasid in Central Asia. His principal works are: De Magnis Conjunctionibus (Augsburg, 1489); Introductorium in Astronomiam (Venice, 1506); and Flores Astrologici (Augsburg, 1488). He maintained in the first that the world, created when the seven planets were in conjunction in the first degree of Aries, will come to an end at a like conjunction in the last degree of Pisces.
See Biog. Universelle (Jourdain); Lalande, Bibliographie Astronomique; Poggendorff, Biog. literarisches Handwörterbuch; Houzeau, Bibl. Astronomique.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albufera de Valencia

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​ALBUFERA DE VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 m. S. of Valencia in Spain, about 12 m. in length and 4 in breadth, 12 ft. being its greatest depth. It communicates with the sea by a narrow outlet, which can be opened or closed at pleasure. The lake is crown property, and is of great value from the fish and wild-fowl with which it abounds. Rice is grown in large quantities by the inhabitants of the adjoining villages. In 1812 Marshal Suchet was created duke of Albufera by Napoleon for his conquest of Valencia, and invested with the domain; but the battle of Vittoria in 1813 deprived him of his possession, though he still retained the title. Subsequently the revenues of Albufera were conferred upon the duke of Wellington in token of the gratitude of the Spanish nation. (See Peninsular War.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albula Pass

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​ALBULA PASS, now the principal route from the N. to the Upper Engadine in the Swiss Canton of the Grisons. It was already frequented in the 13th century, while a carriage road (highest point, 7595 ft.) was constructed across it in 1865, but for a long time it was not as much used as the easier and more direct Julier Pass (7504 ft.), until the opening of the railway in 1903, which has vastly increased its practical importance. Starting from Coire the Rhine valley is followed to Reichenau (61/4 m.), and then that of the Hinter Rhine to Thusis (101/2 m.). The line then runs through the grand Schyn gorge (cut by the Albula torrent) to Tiefenkastell (71/2 m.), where it leaves the Julier road on the right (S.) and continues to follow the course of the Albula past Filisur and Bergun (121/2 m.) to the mouth (5879 ft.) of the great tunnel (33/4 m. in length; highest point, 5987 ft.) which has been pierced below the pass. The descent lies through the Bevers glen to Bevers (21/2 m.), where the Upper Engadine is reached, about 5 m. below St. Moritz, which is 56 m. from Coire by this route.  (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albulae Aquae

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​ALBULAE AQUAE, a group of springs, 4 m. W. of Tibur, the water of which is bluish, strongly impregnated with sulphur and carbonate of lime, and rises at a temperature of about 75° F. Remains of a Roman thermal establishment exist near the principal spring, the so-called Lago della Regina (which is continually diminishing in size owing to the deposit left by the water), and dedicatory inscriptions in honour of the waters have been found. The baths are still frequented by the Romans, though the modern establishment is about 1 m. S. on the high road.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 117.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Albret

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​ALBRET. The lordship (seigneurie) of Albret (Labrit, Lebret), situated in the Landes, gave its name to one of the most powerful feudal families of France in the middle ages. Its members distinguished themselves in the local wars of that epoch; and during the 14th century they espoused the English cause for some time, afterwards transferring their support to the side of France. Arnaud Amanieu, lord of Albret, helped to take Guienne from the English. His son Charles became constable of France, and was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415. Alain the Great, lord of Albret (d. 1522), wished to marry Anne of Brittany, and to that end fought against Charles VIII.; but his hopes being defeated by the betrothal of Anne to Maximilian of Austria, he surrendered Nantes to the French in 1486. At that time the house of Albret had attained considerable territorial importance, due in great part to the liberal grants ​which it had obtained from successive kings of France. John of Albret, son of Alain, became king of Navarre by his marriage with Catherine of Foix. Their son Henry, king of Navarre, was created duke of Albret and peer of France in 1550. By his wife Margaret, sister of the French king, Francis I., he had a daughter, Jeanne d’Albret, queen of Navarre, who married Anthony de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, and became the mother of Henry IV., king of France. The dukedom of Albret, united to the crown of France by the accession of this prince, was granted to the family of La Tour d’Auvergne in 1651, in exchange for Sedan and Raucourt.
To a younger branch of this house belonged Jean d’Albret, seigneur of Orval, count of Dreux and of Rethel, governor of Champagne (d. 1524), who was employed by Francis I. in many diplomatic negotiations, more particularly in his intrigues to get himself elected emperor in 1519.  (M. P.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Constituency

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​CONSTITUENCY (from “constituent,” that which forms a necessary part of a thing; Lat. constituere, to create), a political term for the body of electors who choose a representative for parliament or for any other public assembly, for the place or district possessing the right to elect a representative, and for the residents generally, apart from their voting powers, in such a locality. The term is also applied, in a transferred sense, to the readers of a particular newspaper, the customers of a business and the like.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Constantius, Flavius Valerius

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​CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, commonly called Chlorus (the Pale), an epithet due to the Byzantine historians, Roman emperor and father of Constantine the Great, was born about A.D. 250. He was of Illyrian origin; a fictitious connexion with the family of Claudius Gothicus was attributed to him by Constantine. Having distinguished himself by his military ability and his able and gentle rule of Dalmatia, he was, on the 1st of March 293, adopted and appointed Caesar by Maximian, whose step-daughter, Flavia Maximiana Theodora, he had married in 289 after renouncing his wife Helena (the mother of Constantine). In the distribution of the provinces Gaul and Britain were allotted to Constantius. In Britain Carausius and subsequently Allectus had declared themselves independent, and it was not till 296 that, by the defeat of Allectus, it was re-united with the empire. In 298 Constantius overthrew the Alamanni in the territory of the Lingones (Langres) and strengthened the Rhine frontier. During the persecution of the Christians in 303 he behaved with great humanity. He obtained the title of Augustus on the 1st of May 305, and died the following year shortly before the 25th of July at Eboracum (York) during an expedition against the Picts and Scots.
See Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, 39; Eutropius ix. 14-23; Zosimus ii. 7.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Constipation

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​CONSTIPATION (from Lat. constipare, to press closely together, whence also the adjective “costive”), the condition of body when the faeces are unduly retained, or there is difficulty in evacuation, tightness of the bowels (see Digestive Organs; and Therapeutics). It may be due to constitutional peculiarities, sedentary or irregular habits, improper diet, &c. The treatment varies with individual cases, according to the cause at work, laxatives, dieting, massage, &c., being prescribed.