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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory

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In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Gregory may refer to:
* St Gregory the Great, a 6th-century pope and doctor of the Latin Church apocryphally credited with the creation of Gregorian chant,
* St Gregory II., an 8th-century pope,
* St Gregory III., an 8th-century pope,
* Gregory IV., a 9th-century pope,
* Gregory V., a 10th-century pope,
* Gregory VI., born Johannes Gratianus, an 11th-century pope,
* St Gregory VII., born Hildebrand, an 11th-century pope,
* Gregory VIII., born Albert de Mora, a 12th-century pope,
* Gregory IX., a 13th-century pope,
* Gregory X., a 13th-century pope,
* Gregory XI., born Pierre Roger de Beaufort, a 14th-century pope in Avignon,
* Gregory XII., born Angelo Corario, a 15th-century pope and bishop of Porto,
* Gregory XIII., born Ugo Buoncompagno, the 16th-century pope responsible for the Gregorian calendrical reforms,
* Gregory XIV., born Niccolo Sfondrato, a 16th-century pope,
* Gregory XV., born Alessandro Ludovisio, a 17th-century pope,
* Gregory XVI., born Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari, a 19th-century pope,
* St Gregory the Illuminator, the 3rd- and 4th-century founder of the Armenian Church,
* St Gregory Theologus of Nazianzus, a 4th-century bishop, one of the four fathers of the Greek Church,
* St Gregory of Nyssa, a 4th-century bishop,
* St Gregory Thaumaturgus, a 3rd-century bishop,
* St Gregory of Tours, a 6th-century bishop and historian,
* John Gregory, a 17th-century Scottish churchman,
* David Gregory, a 17th-century Scottish physician,
* James Gregory, a 17th-century Scottish mathematician and physicist, inventor of the Gregorian telescope,
* David Gregory, a 17th-century Scottish mathematician and astronomer,
* John Gregory, an 18th-century Scottish physician,
* James Gregory, an 18th- and 19th-century Scottish physician,
* William Gregory, a 19th-century Scottish chemist,
* Duncan Farquharson Gregory, a 19th-century Scottish chemist and mathematician, or
* Olinthus Gregory, an 18th- and 19th-century English mathematician.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory IV.

See also Pope Gregory IV on Wikipedia; works by Gregory IV, Pope Gregory IV on Wikipedia, Gregory IV. in the 11th edition, Pope Gregory IV in the Catholic Encyclopedia; and the disclaimer.
GREGORY IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed Valentinus in December 827, on which occasion he recognized the supremacy of the Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal manner. His name is chiefly associated with the quarrels between Lothaire and Louis the Debonaire, in which he espoused the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus Mendacii, as it is usually called (833), he secured by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died January 25, 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory IX.

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GREGORY IX., pope from 1227 to 1241, the successor of Honorius III., fully inherited the traditions of Gregory VII. and of his uncle Innocent III., and zealously gave himself up to the perpetuation of their policy. One of the first acts of his pontificate was to suspend the emperor Frederick II., then lying sick at Otranto, for dilatoriness in carrying out his promised crusade; the suspension was followed by excommunication and threats of deposition after Frederick had written to the sovereigns of Europe complaining of his treatment. A consequent invasion of the patrimony of St Peter at the instance of Frederick in 1228 having proved unsuccessful, the emperor was constrained to give in his submission and beg for absolution. Although peace was thus secured (August 1230) for a season, the Roman people were far from satisfied; driven by a revolt from his own capital in July 1232, the pope was compelled to take refuge at Anagni and invoke the aid of Frederick. A new outbreak of hostility led to a fresh excommunication of the emperor in 1239, and to a prolonged war which was only terminated by the death of Gregory (August 22, 1241). This pope, who was a remarkably skilful and learned lawyer, caused to be prepared in 1234 the well known Nova Compilatio Decretalium, printed at Mainz in 1473. He it was who canonized Saints Elizabeth, Dominic, and Anthony of Padua, and also Francis of Assisi, of whom he had been a personal friend. His encroachments upon the rights of the English Church during the ignominious reign of Henry III. are well known; but similar attempts against the liberties of the national church of France only served to call forth the celebrated Pragmatic Sanction of St Louis. Gregory IX. was succeeded by Celestine IV.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregorian Chant

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GREGORIAN CHANT. See Plainsong.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory V.

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GREGORY V., pope from 996 to 999, a grandson of the emperor Otho the Great, succeeded John XV. when only twenty-four years of age, and until the council of Pavia (997) had a rival in the person of the antipope John XVI., whom the people of Rome in revolt against the will of the youthful emperor Otho III., Gregory's cousin, had chosen. The most memorable acts of his pontificate were those arising out of the contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was ultimately brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a sentence of excommunication. He died suddenly, and not without suspicion of foul play, 18th February 999. His successor was Silvester II.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory VI.

See also Pope Gregory VI on Wikipedia; works by Gregory VI, Pope Gregory VI on Wikipedia, Gregory VI. in the 11th edition, Pope Gregory VI in the Catholic Encyclopedia; and the disclaimer. Johannes Gratianus redirects here. Note that it is also sometimes given as the name of the writer discussed as Franciscus Gratianus.
GREGORY VI., pope from 1044 to 1046, who as Johannes Gratianus had earned a high reputation for learning and probity, succeeded Benedict IX., having bought off the antipopes Sylvester III. and John XX. In a council held by the emperor Henry III. at Sutri, in 1046, he was accused of simony, and his election was found to have been informal. This led to his degradation, and was followed by his withdrawal into Germany, where he died in the following year (1047). He was succeeded by Clement II.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory VIII.

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GREGORY VIII. (Albert de Mora), who as papal legate had in 1172 attended the council of Avranches, which absolved Henry II. of England from the guilt of the murder of Thomas à Beckett, was consecrated pope in room of Urban III. October 25th, 1187, and died of fever on December 17th of the same year. Clement III. was his successor.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory X.

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GREGORY X., pope from 1271 to 1276, succeeded Clement IV. after the papal chair had been three years vacant; his election occurred while he was engaged in a pilgrimage to Saint Jean-d'Acre. On his arrival at Rome his first act was to summon the council which met at Lyons in 1274 for the purpose of considering the Eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land, and the abuses of the Catholic Church. It was while returning from that council that he died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. To him is due the bull which, subsequently incorporated into the code of canon law, continues to regulate all conclaves for papal elections. He was succeeded by Innocent V.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Gregory XI.

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GREGORY XI. (Pierre Roger de Beaufort), pope from 1370 to 1378, born in Limousin in 1336, succeeded Urban V. in 1370 as one of the Avignon popes. During his pontificate vigorous measures were taken against the “heresies” which had broken out in Germany, England, and other parts of Europe; a sincere effort was also made to bring about a reformation in the various monastic orders. The nineteen propositions of Wickliffe and the thirteen articles of the “Sachsenspiegel” were formally condemned by him in 1373. His energy was largely stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena (see vol. v.p. 231), to whom in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy, January 27, 1377, was almost entirely due. He did not long survive this removal, dying on March 27, 1378. His successor was Urban VI., but the antipope Clement VII. also received much support, and the schism lasted forty years.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William James Müller

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MÜLLER, William James (1812–1845), English landscape and figure painter, was born at Bristol on 28th June 1812, and was the son of a Prussian gentleman, a writer on scientific subjects and curator of the Bristol Museum. He received a careful education, being especially trained in botany and natural history, and it was intended that he should become an engineer; but his leanings towards art were too definite to be resisted, and he was placed under J. B. Pyne to receive his first instructions as a painter. His early subjects deal mainly with the scenery of Gloucestershire and Wales, and he learned much from his study of Claude, Ruysdael, and the other earlier landscape-painters. In 1833 he figured for the first time in the Royal Academy with his Destruction of Old London Bridge — Morning, and next year he made a tour through France, Switzerland, and Italy. Four years later he visited Athens, extending his travels to Egypt, and in the sketches executed during this period and the paintings produced from them the power and individuality of the artist are first apparent. Shortly after his return he left Bristol and settled in London, where he exhibited regularly, and found purchasers, at moderate sums, for his pictures. In 1840 he again visited France, where he executed a series of sketches of Renaissance architecture, twenty-five of which were lithographed
and published in 1841, in a folio entitled The Age of Francis I. of France. He was anxious again to visit the East, and in 1843 he accompanied, at his own request and his own charges, the Government expedition to Lycia, where he produced an extensive collection of masterly sketches of scenes unfamiliar to the art of his time. They were exhibited in London; their merit was fully recognized by the British public, and the artist received numerous commissions for finished pictures. But his health was seriously impaired, he was suffering from heart-disease and from continued nasal haemorrhage; and, returning to his native city, he died there on 8th September 1845.
The works of Müller are distinguished by much power and originality, by great speed and directness of execution, by the vigour and emphasis which mark the born sketcher, and by brilliant power of splendid and sharply-contrasting colour. The qualities of tenderness, gradation, and mystery, in which they are commonly wanting, might have been within the reach of the artist had his life been longer. Since his death, and especially since the Gillott sale of 1872, his works have commanded very large prices. The Chess-Players at Cairo, for which Müller received £25, has since sold for upwards of £4000. The print room of the British Museum possesses, through the bequest of Mr John Henderson, a very rich collection of Müller's sketches. His biography by N. Neal Solly was published in 1875.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Henry Harrison

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HARRISON, William Henry (1773–1841), ninth president of the United States, third son of Governor Benjamin Harrison, was born at Berkeley, Charles City co., Virginia, February 9, 1773. In 1792 he joined the army with the commission of ensign, and in the following year he became lieutenant and acted as aide-de-camp to Wayne in his expedition against the Western Indians. He was promoted to a captaincy in 1795, but resigned in 1797 on being appointed secretary of the North-West Territory. In 1799 he was chosen to represent that territory in congress, and after its division in 1801 he became governor of the new territory of Indiana and superintendent of negotiations with the Indians, over whom, on the breaking out of hostilities in 1811, he gained the important victory of Tippecanoe. In 1813 as major-general and commander of the north-western army he defeated the British forces at the battle of the Thames. In 1814 he concluded a treaty with the North-Western Indians, and in the same year he resigned his commission. He was elected in 1816 member of congress for Cincinnati, in 1819 member of the State senate of Ohio, in 1824 United States senator, and in 1828 minister to Colombia, an office which he held for less than a year, when he retired for a time into private life. By the urgent request of the Whigs he was induced in 1836 to stand for the presidency of the United States, and though unsuccessful, he at the next election in 1840 defeated the same candidate Van Buren by an overwhelming majority, after a canvass memorable for the extraordinary enthusiasm it awakened, and historically important for its introduction of new political methods—many of the most characteristic features of Western elections having their origin in this “Harrison campaign.” He was scarcely spared, however, to enter upon the discharge of his duties as president, dying April 4, 1841, about a month after his inauguration. Harrison published at Cincinnati in 1838 a small treatise on the Indians entitled A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Ohio Valley.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Elphinstone

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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Tuke

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TUKE, William (1732–1822), English philanthropist, was born at York in 1732. He devoted himself to many philanthropic objects, but his name is more especially known in connexion with the humane treatment of the insane, for whose care he projected in 1792 the Retreat at York, which became famous both abroad and in Great Britain as an institution in which a bold attempt was made to manage lunatics without the excessive restraints then regarded as essential. Not less remarkable was the departure from the beaten track of treatment in regard to copious bleedings and the frequent administration of emetics and depressing remedies. The asylum was entirely under the management of the Society of Friends, and remains so at the present time, but there are a large number of inmates not connected in any way with this body. The original character of the methods pursued at the Retreat attracted much attention, and its marked success led to comparisons being made between it and other establishments, the abuses in some of which became so notorious as to be brought under the notice of parliament, and led to more stringent legislation in the interests of the insane. The condition of this unfortunate class became greatly improved in consequence. William Tuke did not live to see the most important of the Acts passed, but when he died, in 1822, the superiority of the treatment adopted at the Retreat was fully acknowledged.
See Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons, 1815-1816; Dr Conolly, Treatment of the Insane without Mechanical Restraints, 1856; Dr Hack Tuke, Chapters in the History of the Insane in the British Isles, 1882.
Henry Tuke (1756–1814), son of the preceding and father of Samuel Tuke, co-operated with his father in the reform at the York Retreat. He was the author of several moral and theological treatises, which have been translated into German and French.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Ellis

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Mrs Ellis survived her husband only a few days. For a considerable number of years she conducted a ladies' school in Hertfordshire on principles which she had carefully thought out, and which are explained in her Rawdon House (1848). She wrote upwards of thirty works, most of which were very popular.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Henry Fox Talbot

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TALBOT, William Henry Fox (1800-1877), a discoverer in photography, was the only child of William Davenport Talbot, of Laycock Abbey, Wilts, and of Lady Elizabeth Fox Strangways, daughter of the second earl of Ilchester. He was born in February 1800, and educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gained the Porson prize in 1820, and graduated as twelfth wrangler in 1821. From 1822 to 1872 he frequently communicated papers to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects. At an early period he had begun his optical researches, which were to have such important results in connexion with photography. To the Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1826 he contributed a paper on "Some Experiments on Coloured Flame"; to the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1827 a paper on "Monochromatic Light"; and to the Philosophical Magazine a number of papers on chemical subjects, including one on "Chemical Changes of Colour." Before Daguerre exhibited in 1839 pictures taken by the sun, Talbot had obtained similar success, and as soon as Daguerre’s discoveries were whispered communicated the results of his experiments to the Royal Society (see Photography, vol. xviii. p. 824). In 1841 he made known his discovery of the calotype process, but after the discovery of the collodion process by Scott Archer, with whom he had a lawsuit in reference to his patent rights, he relinquished this field of inquiry. For his discoveries, the narrative of which is detailed in his Pencil of Nature (1844), he received in 1842 the medal of the Royal Society. While engaged in his scientific researches he devoted a considerable portion of his time to archaeology, and this field of inquiry latterly occupied his chief attention. Besides reading papers on these subjects before the Royal Society of Literature and the Society of Biblical Archaeology, he published Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1838–39), and Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of Genesis (1839). With Sir Henry Rawlinson and Dr Hincks he shares the honour of having been one of the first decipherers of the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh. He was also the author of English Etymologies (1846). He died at Laycock Abbey, 17th September 1877.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Henry Giles Kingston

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KINGSTON, William Henry Giles (1814–1880), boys’ novelist, was born in London, February 28, 1814. Much of his youth was spent at Oporto, where his father was a merchant, but when he joined his father in business, and afterwards when he carried on business for himself, he lived chiefly in London. In 1844 his first book, The Circassian Chief, appeared, and its success led to the publication in 1845 of The Prime Minister, a Story of the Days of the Great Marquis of Pombal. The Lusitanian Sketches that appeared soon after describe Kingston’s travels in Portugal. In 1851 Peter the Whaler, his first book for boys, came out. That and its immediate successors were received with such unequivocal popularity that Kingston retired from business, and devoted himself to the production of tales of adventure for boys. Within thirty years he wrote upwards of one hundred and thirty such books. He travelled at various times in many of the countries of Europe, and lived for a while in Portugal during the civil war there. His Western Wanderings, published in 1856, describes a tour in Canada. In all philanthropic schemes Kingston took deep interest; he was the promoter of the mission to seamen; and he acted as secretary of a society for promoting an improved system of emigration. He was a supporter of the volunteer movement in England from the first. For his services in bringing about a commercial treaty between Portugal and Britain he was knighted by the queen of Portugal; and his literary merits were recognized at home by a grant from his own sovereign. He died at Willesden, August 5, 1880.
Kingston’s boyish ambition had been to enter the navy, and he always kept his affection for the sea. As he advanced in life he had opportunities of cruising in men-of-war, besides sailing in merchantmen and his own yacht; and it was thus that he gained the knowledge of practical seamanship that he used so graphically in his books. Most of his stories are stories of the sea; and he generally laid his plots in the old romantic days before England’s wooden walls had given place to iron-clads. He was a master of the simple romance in which boys delight, and knew well how to draw the peculiar compound of valour and magnanimity that forms the hero to healthy boyhood. He had great assimilative power in using the accounts of travellers in countries where he had never been; and his imagination supplied him abundantly with gallant adventures, thrilling dangers, and hairsbreadth escapes. His books are useful in insinuating knowledge whilst they are giving pleasure, and they are valuable inasmuch as their whole tone is pure, wholesome, and manly. Characteristic specimens of his works are The Three Midshipmen; The Three Lieutenants; The Three Commanders; and The Three Admirals. Occasionally his books were not in the form of a story; and some of them are designed for adult readers.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Tassie

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TASSIE, William (1777–1860), gem-engraver and modeller, nephew of the above, was born in London on the 4th of December 1777. He succeeded to the business of his uncle, to whose collection of casts and medallions he added largely. His portrait of Pitt, in particular, was very popular, and circulated widely. When the Shakespeare Gallery, formed by Alderman Boydell, was disposed of by lottery in 1805, William Tassie was the winner of the prize, and in the same year he sold the pictures by auction for a sum of over £6000. He died at Kensington on the 26th of October 1860, and bequeathed to the Board of Manufactures, Edinburgh, an extensive and valuable collection of casts and medallions by his uncle and himself, along with portraits of James Tassie and his wife by David Allan, and a series of water-colour studies by George Sanders from pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools. (j. m. g.)