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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spence, Thomas

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​SPENCE, THOMAS (1750–1814), inventor of a system of land nationalization, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 21st of June 1750, the son of a Scottish netmaker and shoemaker. A dispute in connexion with common land rights at Newcastle impelled him to the study of the land question. His scheme was not for land nationalization proper, but for the establishment of self-contained parochial communities, in which rent paid to the corporation, in which the absolute ownership of the land was vested, should be the only tax of any kind. His pamphlet, The Meridian Sun of Liberty, which was first hawked in Newcastle, appeared in London in 1793; it was reissued by Mr H. M. Hyndman under the title of The Nationalization of the Land in 1775 and 1882. Spence presently left Newcastle for London, where he kept a bookstall in High Holborn. In 1784 he spent six months in Newgate gaol for the publication of a pamphlet distasteful to the authorities, and in 1801 he was sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment for seditious libel in connexion with his pamphlet entitled The Restorer of Society to its Natural State. He died in London on the 8th of September 1814. His admirers formed a " Society of Spencean Philanthropists," of which some account is given in Harriet Martineau's England During the Thirty Years' Peace.
See also Davenport, Life, Writings and Principles of Thomas Spence (London, 1836).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Speed, John

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​SPEED, JOHN (1552-1629), English historian and cartographer, was born, according to Fuller, at Farringdon, Cheshire. He was the son of a London tailor, and followed his father's trade, being admitted member of the Merchant Taylors Company in 1580. He settled in Moorfields, where he built himself a house. He was enabled to give up his trade and to devote himself to antiquarian pursuits through the kindness of Sir Fulke Greville, whom Speed calls the " procurer of my present estate," and through his patron's interest he also received a " waiter's room in the custom-house." The results of the leisure thus secured to him appeared in 161 1 in his Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine, a series of fifty-four maps of different parts of England, which had already appeared separately, and in which he was helped by Christopher Saxton, John Norden and William White. To each map descriptive matter was attached. In 161 1 also he published his History of Great Britaine under the Conquests of the Romans . . . to . . . King James. Speed acknowledges his obligations to the chief antiquaries and historians of his day. Sir Robert Cotton lent him manuscripts and coins, and is said to have revised the proofs for him; in heraldry he acknowledges the help of William Smith (1550?- 1618); and he had valuable help from John Barkham (1572?- 1642) and Sir Henry Spelman. Speed brought some historical skill to bear on the arrangement of his work, and although he repeated many of the errors of older chroniclers he added valuable material for the history of his country. He died in London on the 28th of July 1629.
Other maps of his, beside those in the Theatre, are in the British Museum. Another edition of the Theatre is Theatrum Magnae Britanniae latine, redditum a P. Holland (London, folio, 1616). He wrote Genealogies Recorded in Sobered Scriptures (161 1), and a similar work, A Cloud of Witnesses (1616). These passed through numerous editions, and were frequently prefixed to copies of the Bible. An account of Speed's descendants is to be found in Rev. J. S. Davies's History of Southampton (1883), which was founded on MS. material left by John Speed (1703-1781).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Speeton Beds

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​SPEETON BEDS, in English geology, a series of clays well exposed at Speeton, near Filey on the Yorkshire coast. Peculiar interest attaches to these beds for they are the principal representatives in Britain of the marine phase of the Lower Cretaceous system. The Speeton Clays pass downwards without break into the underlying Kimeridgian; they are capped by the Red Chalk, which may be regarded as the equivalent of the Upper Gault of southern England. These beds thus form a passage series between marine Jurassic strata and those belonging undoubtedly to the Cretaceous system; in this way they correspond with the Purbeck-Wealden rocks, which form a connecting link between estuarine Jurassic and Cretaceous strata.
Above the dark, bituminous, nodular shales with Kimeridge fossils at the base of the Speeton Clay comes the zone of Belemnites lateralis (34 ft.), with Olcostephanus gravesiformis, O. rotula, and species of Hoplites and Oxynoticeras; this is followed by the zone of Belemnites baculum, with B. cristatus, Olcostephanus (Astieria) astieri, O. {Simbirskites) inversus and O. (S.) Speetonensis in ascending order; Echinospatagus cordiformis, a species found in the typical Neocomian area, also occurs in this zone. The next higher zone is that of Belemnites brunsvicensis ( = semi-canaliculatus) (100 ft.), with B. Speetonensis, Hoplites deshayesii, and Amaltheus bicurvatus. The topmost zone is characterized by Belemnites minimus with Inoceramus concentricus and I. sulcatus; it consists of a few feet of mottled clays. It appears, therefore, that while the lower portions of the Speeton Clay are the equivalents of the Wealden and perhaps of the Purbeck beds, the higher portions are the equivalents of the Lower Greensand and part of the Gault. In Lincolnshire the upper Speeton beds are represented by the Carstone and Tealby Limestone and Clay, and the lower Speeton by the Claxby Ironstone, Spilsby Sandstone and lower part of the Tealby clay. A similar faunal horizon is recognized in Heligoland and Russia.
See Cretaceous; Neocomian; Kimeridgian; also G. W. Lamplugh, Q.J.G.S. (1889), xlv. (1896), lii.; Rep. Brit. Assoc. (1890); A. Pavlow and G. W. Lamplugh, Bull. soc. imp. nat. Moscow (1891), and Q.J.G.S. (1897), liii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spelling Bee

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​SPELLING BEE, a match in which two sides contest in accuracy of spelling. The custom, an old one, was revived in the schools of the United States about the year 1873, and rapidly spread ​throughout the country and to Great Britain, enjoying for a few years an extraordinary vogue, not only in schools, but in all classes and ages of society. In the United States inter-city and inter-state matches were not unknown. According to the generally recognized rules a competitor who misspelled a word retired, and the match was won by the side having the greatest number of survivors at the close. The use of the word " bee " as an assemblage of persons for the purpose of joint work or play originated in America in colonial times, and was taken from the labour of the bees of a hive. Familiar examples of it are husking-bee and quilting-bee, assemblages of villagers for the purpose of helping a neighbour with the husking of the corn or his wife with her quilt-making.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spencer

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​SPENCER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 11 m. W. of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 8747; (1900), 7627, of whom 1614 were foreign-born; (1910, U.S. census), 6740. Area, about 34.1 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Albany railway and by inter-urban electric lines. The Richard Sugden Public Library, founded in 1889, had 12,000 volumes in 1908. Bemis Memorial Park and the Samuel Bemis Monument were dedicated in 1901 in honour of the first settler of Spencer. There are three other public parks. Among the township's manufactures are boots and shoes, woollens, muslin underwear, wire, and wooden and paper boxes. Spencer was a part of the Leicester grant; was first settled in 1721; was the “West Parish of Leicester” in 1744-1753; and in 1753 was incorporated as a township, under its present name. In one house in Spencer were born Elias Howe, jun., the inventor of the sewing-machine, and his uncles, William Howe, inventor of the “Howe truss” bridge (see Bridges), and Tyler Howe (1800-1880), inventor (in 1855) of the spring bed; in 1909 a memorial was dedicated to these three inventors.
See Henry M. Tower, Historical Sketches Relating to Spencer, Mass. (4 vols., Spencer, 1901-1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spedding, James

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​SPEDDING, JAMES (1808-1881), English author, editor of the works of Bacon, was born on the 26th of June 1808, in Cumberland, the younger son of a country squire. He was educated at Bury St Edmunds and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took a second class in the classical tripos, and was junior optime in mathematics in 1831. In 1835 he entered the colonial office, but he resigned this post in 1841. In 1842 he was secretary to Lord Ashburton on his American mission, and in 1855 he became secretary to the Civil Service Commission; but from 1841 onwards he was constantly occupied in his researches into Bacon's life and philosophy. On the 1st of March 1881 he was knocked down by a cab in London, and on the 9th he died of erysipelas. His great edition of Bacon was begun in 1847 in collaboration with R. E. Ellis and D. D. Heath. In 1833 Ellis had to leave the work to Spedding, with the occasional assistance of Heath, who edited most of the legal writings. The Works were published in 1857-1859 in seven volumes, followed by the Life and Letters (1861-1874). Taken together these works contain practically all the material which exists in connexion with the subject, collected and weighed with the utmost care and impartiality. Spedding humorously emphasized his devotion to Bacon in the title of one of his non-Baconian works, Reviews and Discussions, Literary, Political and Historical, not relating to Bacon (1879); and his literary remains outside that one field are no longer of interest. But as a Baconian scholar he is not likely soon to be superseded.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Spello

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​SPELLO (anc. Hispellum, q.v.), a town of Umbria, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 22 m. S.E. by rail, 1030 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 5571. It is picturesquely situated on the slope of a mountain. The Cappella Baglioni in the church of S. Maria Maggiore contains some of Pinturicchio's finest frescoes (1501), "The Annunciation," "The Adoration" and "Christ in the Temple." The rich background with gold decoration in relief is characteristic. There is also a late altar-piece by Perugino (1521) and a fine early Renaissance canopy by Rocco da Vicenza (1515). In the sacristy is a crucifix in silver by Paolo Vanni of Perugia (1398). The holy-water basin is formed of a sepulchral cippus of the Roman period. S. Andrea contains a large altarpiece by Pinturicchio (1508), upon which a letter from G. Baglioni to the artist is painted.
See G. Urbini, in L'Arte (1897), ii. 367 sqq., (1898), iii. 16 sqq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Telesia

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​TELESIA [mod. Telese], a town of the Samnites, 24 m. N.W. from Beneventum. It possesses remains of walls in opus reticulatum, of a total length of over a mile; two inscriptions of the Republican period record the erection of towers. The remains of baths (Thermae Sabinianae) and of an amphitheatre still exist: and the city was supplied with water by an aqueduct There are sulphur springs in the vicinity, which may have supplied the baths.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Telesilla

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​TELESILLA, Greek poetess, a native of Argos, one of the so-called nine lyric muses. According to the traditional story, when Cleomenes, king of Sparta, invaded the land of the Argives in 510 B.C., and slew all the males capable of bearing arms, Telesilla, dressed in men's clothes, put herself at the head of the women and repelled an attack upon the city of Argos. To commemorate this exploit, a statue of the poetess, in the act of putting on a helmet, with books lying at her feet, was set up in the temple of Aphrodite at Argos. The festival Hybristica or Endymatia, in which men and women exchanged clothes, also celebrated the heroism of her female compatriots. Herodotus (vi. 76) does not refer to the intervention of Telesilla, but mentions an oracle which predicted that the female should conquer the male, whence the tradition itself may have been derived. Further, the statue seen by Pausanias may not have been intended for Telesilla; it would equally represent Aphrodite, in her character as wife of Ares and a warlike goddess (the books, however, seem out of place). The Hybristica, again, was most probably a religious festival connected with the worship of some androgynous divinity. Of Telesilla's poems only two lines remain, quoted by the grammarian Hephaestion, apparently from a Parthenion, or song for a chorus of maidens.
See Pausanias ii. 20, 8; Plutarch, De Virtut. Mulierum, 8; Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, iv. 19, p. 522; Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci, iii.; and especially Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., i. 336 foll. and notes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Telesphorus

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​TELESPHORUS, bishop of Rome from about 126 till about 137. St Irenaeus says that he suffered martyrdom.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nemesius

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​NEMESIUS (fl. c. A.D. 390), a Christian philosopher, author of a treatise περὶ φύσεως ἀνθρώπου (On Human Nature), was, according to the title of his book, bishop of Emesa (in Syria); of his life nothing further is known, and even his date is uncertain, but internal evidence points to a date after the Apollinarian controversy and before the strife connected with the names of Eutyches and Nestorius, i.e. about the end of the 4th century. His book is an interesting attempt to compile a system of anthropology from the standpoint of the Christian philosophy. Moses and Paul are put side by side with Aristotle and Menander, and there is a clear inclination to Platonic doctrines of preexistence and metempsychosis. In physiological matters he is in advance of Aristotle and Galen, though we can hardly assert—as has sometimes been thought—that he anticipated Harvey’s discovery of the circulation of the blood. The treatise is conclusive evidence as to the mutual influence of Christianity and Hellenism in the 4th century. John of Damascus and the schoolmen, including Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, held Nemesius in high esteem, believing his book to be the work of Gregory of Nyssa, with whom he has much in common.
Editions: Antwerp, 1575; Oxford, 1671; Halle, 1802; Migne’s Patrol. Gr. vol. 40. Versions: Latin by Alsanus, ed. Holzinger (1887); by Burgundio, ed. Burkhardt (1891–1896). Literature: Bender, Untersuch. über Nemesius (1898). See further Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklop, s.v.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nemours

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​NEMOURS, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the Loing and its canal, 26 m. S. of Melun, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4814. The church, which dates mainly from the 16th century, has a handsome wooden spire, and there is a feudal castle. A statue of the mathematician Bézout (d. 1783), a native of the town, was erected in 1885. In the vicinity is a group of fine sandstone rocks, and sand is extensively quarried. Nemours is supposed to derive its name from the woods (nemora) in the midst of which it formerly stood, and discoveries of Gallo-Roman remains indicate its early origin. It was captured by the English in 1420, but derives its historical importance rather from the lordship (afterwards duchy) to which it gave its name. In 1585 a treaty revoking previous concessions to the Protestants was concluded at Nemours between Catherine de Medici and the Guises.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nemesianus, Marcus Aurelius Olympius

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​NEMESIANUS, MARCUS AURELIUS OLYMPIUS, Roman poet, a native of Carthage, flourished about A.D. 283. He was a popular poet at the court of the Roman emperor Carus (Vopiscus, Carus, 11). He wrote poems on the arts of fishing (Halieutica), aquatics (Nautica) and hunting (Cynegetica), but only a fragment of the last, 325 hexameter lines, has been preserved. It is neatly expressed in good Latin, and was used as a school text-book in the 9th century. Four eclogues, formerly attributed to Titus Calpurnius (q.v.) Siculus, are now generally considered to be by Nemesianus, and the Praise of Hercules, generally printed in Claudian’s works, may be by him.
Complete edition of the works attributed to him in E. Bährens, ​Poetae Latini Minores, iii. (1881); Cynegetica: ed. M. Haupt (with Ovid's Halieutica and Grattius Faliscus) 1838, and R. Stern, with Grattius (1832); Italian translation with notes by L. F. Valdrighi (1876). The four eclogues are printed with those of Calpurnius in the editions of H. Schenkl (1885) and E. H. Keene (1887); see L. Cisorio, Studio sulle Egloghe di N. (1895) and Dell’ imitazione nelle Egloghe di N. (1896); and M. Haupt, De Carminibus Bucolicis Calpurnii et N. (1853), the chief treatise on the subject.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nemesis

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​NEMESIS, the personification of divine justice. This is the only sense in which the word is used in Homer, while Hesiod (Theog. 223) makes Nemesis a goddess, the daughter of Night (some, however, regard the passage as an interpolation); she appears in a still more concrete form in a fragment of the Cypria. The word Nemesis originally meant the distributor (Gr. νέμειν) of fortune, whether good or bad, in due proportion to each man according to his deserts; then, the resentment caused by any disturbance of this proportion, the sense of justice that could not allow it to pass unpunished. Gruppe and others prefer to connect the name with νεμεσᾶν, νεμεσίζεσθαι (“to feel just resentment”). In the tragedians Nemesis appears chiefly as the avenger of crime and the punisher of arrogance, and as such is akin to Ate and the Erinyes. She was sometimes called Adrasteia, probably meaning “one from whom there is no escape”; the epithet is specially applied to the Phrygian Cybele, with whom, as with Aphrodite and Artemis, her cult shows certain affinities. She was specially honoured in the district of Rhamnus in Attica, where she was perhaps originally an ancient Artemis, partly confused with Aphrodite. A festival called Nemeseia (by some identified with the Genesia) was held at Athens. Its object was to avert the nemesis of the dead, who were supposed to have the power of punishing the living, if their cult had been in any way neglected (Sophocles, Electra, 792; E. Rohde, Psyche, 1907, i. 236, note 1). At Smyrna there were two divinities of the name, more akin to Aphrodite than to Artemis. The reason for this duality is hard to explain; it is suggested that they represent two aspects of the goddess, the kindly and the malignant, or the goddesses of the old and the new city. Nemesis was also worshipped at Rome by victorious generals, and in imperial times was the patroness of gladiators and venatores (fighters with wild beasts) in the arena and one of the tutelary deities of the drilling-ground (Nemesis campestris). In the 3rd century A.D. there is evidence of the belief in an all-powerful Nemesis-Fortuna. She was worshipped by a society called Nemesiaci. In early times the representations of Nemesis resembled Aphrodite, who herself sometimes bears the epithet Nemesis. Later, as the goddess of proportion and the avenger of crime, she has as attributes a measuring rod, a bridle, a sword and a scourge, and rides in a chariot drawn by griffins.
See C. Walz, De Nemesi Graecorum (Tübingen, 1852); E. Tournier, Némésis (1863), and H. Posnansky, “Nemesis und Adrasteia,” in Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen, v. heft 2 (1890), both exhaustive monographs; an essay, “Nemesis, or the Divine Envy,” by P. E. More, in The New World (N. Y., Dec. 1899); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii.; and A. Legrand in Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités. For the Roman Nemesis, see G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (Munich, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teiresias

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​TEIRESIAS, in Greek legend, a famous Theban seer, son of Eueres and Chariclo. He was a descendant of Udaeus, one of the men who had sprung up from the serpent’s teeth sown by Cadmus. He was blind from his seventh year, for which various causes were alleged. Some said that the gods had blinded him because he had revealed to men what they ought not to know. Others said that Athena (or Artemis) blinded him because he had seen her naked in the bath; when his mother prayed Athena to restore his sight, the goddess, being unable to do so, purged his ears so that he could understand the speech of birds, and gave him a staff wherewith to guide his steps (Apollodorus iii. 6). According to Sostratus, author of an elegiac poem called Teiresias, he was originally a girl, but had been changed into a boy by Apollo at the age of seven; after undergoing several more transformations from one sex to the other, she (for the final sex was feminine) was turned into a mouse and her lover Arachnus into a weasel (Eustathius on Odyssey, p. 1665). Teiresias' grave was at the Tilphusian spring; but there was a cenotaph of him at Thebes, and also in later times his “observatory,” or place for watching for omens from birds, was pointed out (Pausanias ix 16; Sophocles, Antigone, 999). He had an oracle at Orchomenus, but during a plague it became silent and remained so in Plutarch’s time {De Defectu Oraculorum, 44). According to Homer (Od. x. 492, xi. 90), Teiresias was the only person in the world of the dead whom Proserpine allowed to retain his memory and intellect unimpaired, and Circe sends Odysseus to consult him concerning his return home. He figured in the great paintings by Polygnotus in the Lesche at Delphi.