OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gothenburg

See also Gothenburg on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gothenburg (gŏ-′tĕn-bo͞org) the city of Sweden next in size and importance to Stockholm, stands near the mouth of the River Gota. The town is built upon a plain beside the river, while its suburbs extend along the slopes of the surrounding hills. Gothenburg is an important center of trade and manufacture. It exports iron, steel, machinery, zinc, lumber, oats, sailcloth, fish and leather. The city was founded in 1618-9 by Gustavus Adolphus. Among social reforms the town is noted for its regulation of the saloons. Its present population is 167,813.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gosnold, Bartholomew

See also Bartholomew Gosnold on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gos′nold, Bartholomew, an English navigator and an early explorer of New England. In 1602 he sailed to America in the Concord with the idea of founding a permanent colony. He touched the coast of Maine, discovered and named Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Elizabeth Island, now Cuttyhunk, and at the last-mentioned place attempted to found the colony. The difficulties of pioneer life and the hostility of the Indians soon made all hands discouraged, and they returned to England laden with a cargo of furs, cedar and sassafras.
In 1606 Gosnold was influential in securing a charter from James I, for the purpose of establishing a colony in Virginia. The following year three ships were sent out, carrying 105 adventurers as prospective colonists. Jamestown was founded, but the settlement was unsuccessful, Gosnold with many others being carried off by disease before many months had passed away in the new colony.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gosse, Edmund William

See also Edmund Gosse on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gosse, Edmund William, English poet and littérateur, was born at London, Sept. 21, 1849, and was at an early age assistant-librarian at the British Museum and lecturer in English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1904 be became librarian of the House of Lords. He has written, besides several volumes of dramas and verse, lives of the poets Gray, Donne and Congreve the dramatist; Northern Studies; Seventeenth-Century Studies; History of Eighteenth-Century Literature; History of Modern English Literature; Gossip in a Library; The Secret of Narcisse; The Jacobean Poets; From Shakespeare to Pope; and Life of Jeremy Taylor.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gotha

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​Go′tha. See Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gourd

See also Gourd on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gourd. This common name is applied to the small hard forms of Cucurbita pepo which are ordinarily used for ornamental purposes. In England, however, it is a name applied to species of Cucurbita in general. In America the various forms are designated as gourds, pumpkins and squashes. The common pumpkin (C. pepo) is probably native to tropical America, but is not known wild. It was found cultivated by the Indians along with maize when America was discovered. The various forms of crookneck squashes (C. moschata) are said to have been derived from eastern Asia. The ordinary squash (C. maxima} is probably American. The genus contains about ten species, but innumerable varieties have been cultivated.
# The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal/Volume 1/Number 28

James Keats, brother of the deceased, being sworn, stated that yesterday morning he went with his cattle in company with his brother and saw the natives coming towards Mr Bull's house for flour. On meeting them and observing the proscribed Native Yagan with the party, they then spoke and induced this said Native to turn back, which he did, and remained with the nearly all the morning. In the meantime, his brother the deceased attempted once to shoot him, but the gun stopped at half-cock. They then went on to the place where the other natives were making dampers, where they remained a short time; when the natives accompanied them over to the river, Yagan then refused to go any further with us and became vexed, threw his fire brand and digging stick down, and put himself in a threatening attitude. I then said to my brother, "If you wish to shoot him, now is the time," but he refused and allowed him to join the rest of his party. On reaching them my brother cocked his gun, and laid it over his arm, pointing the muzzle towards Yagan's head, and almost immediately pulled the trigger. The man directly fell, — the natives then began to fix their spears in their throwing-sticks, and on looking round I saw Heegan in the act of throwing. I fired at him and he fell; I again looked round and saw Weeip throwing — I fired my other barrel at him, but missed. I then said to my brother, "We must run for it." We started, he took round the side of a hill, and I ran straight for the river. I had dropped my gun and tumbled down twice in descending the hill. When I got to the bottom I turned round towards my brother; the natives were on the right hand. I called out, "Why don't you fire the other barrel?", he then came towards me and said something which I did not understand. He passed me and I observed three natives, running on this side of the hill, intending to cut me off. I then turned, and took the river; when I was some distance in the river, I looked back to see if they followed me. I saw none coming after me, but four, including Weeip, had surrounded my brother, and appeared to be driving their spears into his body.
William Cruse, sworn, states that when he heard of the affair he went up to the spot accompanied by six other. and found the body of William Keats lying close by the river. He saw no spears in the body but had no doubt the wounds were made by spears; there were many feet tracks of the natives about, and his head had been smashed, he supposed by a gun, which lay broken beside him smeared with hair, and blood. We then went on about 300 yards and saw the bodies of Yagan and Heegan; we were led to them by the moaning of the latter who was not quite dead. He was shot through the head and his brains were running out; one of the party put him out of his misery.
# The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal/Volume 13

Issue numbers need to be listed for this volume, and the following date needs to be allocated to an issue number:
# The Perth Gazette and Western Australian Journal/Volume 13/19 July 1845

w:Provenance: Haig, Ross (ed) (1984). The Years of News from the West Australian and Perth Daily News, St George Books, Perth, Western Australia.
We will not regard it on the source of outlay of capital from the Home Government, or the utility of the employment of such men in the colony, for we are convinced they merely conduce wealth to a few, without contributing to the public weal. The application for convicts is gross and absurd, and only emanates from interest individuals, and not from the community at large.
Our objections to convict labour are founded on the positive fact that a serious injustice would be inflicted upon our free settlers who immigrated here under the pledge that this was to be a free colony. Break this pledge, and then our institutions are subverted.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Eden

See also Garden of Eden on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
E'den, the name of the district situated in paradise. It lay in the east in the highlands of Central Asia. Many efforts have been made to discover just where Eden was, but scholars do not at all agree as to its precise location. The Aryan races, as well as the Hebrews, believed that the human race had its origin in the mountains of Central Asia.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edinburgh

See also Edinburgh on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ed′inburgh, the capital of Scotland. It stands about two miles from the sea on a series of ridges, and is overlooked by Arthur’s Seat and other hills. Arthur’s Seat is a picturesque hill in Queen’s Park, near the city, and its name is supposed to go back to King Arthur’s time. It rises 822 feet above sealevel, and gives a view of great extent and wonderful beauty. Of the hills within the city the most important is Castle Rock. In the beginning of the 7th century Edinburgh is mentioned as the capital of the kingdom of Northumbria, and named after its king, Edwin. The city was made a borough by Robert Bruce, who also gave it the right to establish a port at Leith, two miles away. During the 15th century it began to be recognized sas the capital of Scotland, and Parliament regularly met there. In 1544 the city was burned by the English. In 1561 Queen Mary came back from France, and the tragedy of her short reign was acted almost entirely in Edinburgh. It was at Holyrood Palace that Rizzio was killed; in Kirk-of-Field, near where the university now stands, Darnley was murdered; and in the chapel of Holyrood Mary was married to Bothwell. The union of England and Scotland, in 1707, drew away the Scottish nobility from Edinburgh, but the Pretender was welcomed there for a short time in 1745. Since then the city has spread far beyond its ancient walls, and has become famous as a center of scientific and literary activity. Its many fine buildings and picturesque situation extending tip the hills which lie outside the old town, make Edinburgh one of the most beautiful cities of Europe. It is still representative of the capital of Scotland. It is the seat of the law-courts and of some of the departments of government. It is the center of much of the intellectual life of the northern kingdom, and it has long been known for its educational institutions. It is not a manufacturing town to any great extent, its most important industries being brewing and publishing. It returns four members to Parliament. Population, 320,239. See Old Edinburgh, by Drummond and Old and New Edinburgh, by Grant.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edmonton

See also Edmonton on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Edmonton, the capital of Alberta, population 16,000, on the Saskatchewan River, is 180 miles north of Calgary. Valuable coal-fields surround it. The trade of the great Mackenzie basin is attracted to it. It is the center of an immense and rich agricultural tract, and was an important point in connection with the fur-trade. In early days it was a point of departure on the Edmonton route for the Klondike. A railway-center, served alike by the Canadian Northern, the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk Pacific, Edmonton is growing rapidly and promises to be a considerable city.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edmund

See also Edmund on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ed′mund, for his bravery surnamed Ironside, king of England for seven months in 1016, was son of Ethelred the Unready and half-brother of Edward the Confessor. He is said to have been born in 989. He was chosen king by the Londoners, while Canute was chosen by the witan or council. Edmund entered the struggle with great energy. He gathered an army and defeated Canute in two hard-fought battles. He then raised the siege of London, and again was defeated in Essex, and this forced him to agree with Canute to a division of the kingdom, Canute taking the north side, while Edmund took the south. It also was agreed that, in case one of the kings should die, the other should become king of the whole of England. A few weeks after this agreement Edmund was murdered in 1016.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Eddystone Lighthouse

See also Eddystone Lighthouse on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ed′dystone Lighthouse was first built in 1696–1700 on the group of rocks called the Eddy stone, lying between Start Point and the Lizard in the English Channel, nine miles from the Cornish coast. The rocks are covered every day by the tide; and were the cause of many shipwrecks before the lighthouse was built. The first lighthouse was completely washed away in a storm in 1703, and the second was burned in 1755. The third was built of limestone incased in granite. The granite is dovetailed into the solid rock, and each block into its neighbor. It was shaped like an oak-tree aud the light could be seen for 13 miles. The lighthouse was of great strength, but the sea began to wash away the foundation-rocks, and it thus became necessary to build another. The new one was put up in 1882, and is like the one before it, with the exception that it is higher and is equipped with newer apparatus. It casts a light for 17½ miles. See Lighthouse.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edgehill

See also Battle of Edgehill on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Edge′hill, a hill or ridge in Warwickshire upon which was fought the first important battle of the Civil War in England, Oct. 23, 1642. King Charles intended to march upon London, but was met by the Earl of Essex with 10,000 of the troops of the Roundheads. The king’s army was in number about 12,000, and was drawn up on Edgehill. Prince Rupert, who led the right wing of the royalists, charged with his cavalry the left wing of the Roundheads and pursued it for several miles; but meanwhile the right wing of the Roundheads drove back the royal infantry with great loss. The battle was indecisive, the royalist loss being the heavier.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edinburgh University

See also University of Edinburgh on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Edinburgh University took its origin from the zeal of the Reformers for education. In 1583 the college was opened. In the 18th century it began to grow. The beginning of a medical college was made in 1724, and in the latter part of the century the fame of the university was greatly increased by the reputation of several of its professors, and since then it has become one of the greatest universities in Great Britain. A students’ representative council was founded in 1884, as a means of expressing the opinion of the students on university matters. Goldsmith, Scott, Carlyle and Darwin are among the eminent students of the university, and many learned men have been professors there. There are four departments, that of arts, of divinity, of law and of medicine. The university-library contains 150,000 volumes, and there are several smaller libraries besides. It has 133 professors and 3,200 students. The university also has a natural-history museum, an anatomical museum and a botanical museum. There are a large number of scholarships and fellowships.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edgeworth, Maria

See also Maria Edgeworth on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Edgeworth, Maria, English novelist, was born in Oxfordshire, Jan. i, 1767, and died near Longford, Ireland, May 22, 1849. She began to write fiction early in the 19th century, though she had previously taken an interest, with her father, jn educational topics. Her chief stories, which treat mainly of the virtues and vices of humanity and have high moral aim, embrace Popular Tales, Moral Tales, Castle Rackrent, Belinda Ormond, Tales of Fashionable Life and an Essay on Irish Bulls.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Edict of Nantes

See also Edict of Nantes on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Edict of Nantes. See Huguenots.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ice Harvesting

See also Ice#Ice harvesting on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
ICE HARVESTING
* From Brown Bros.
ICE HARVESTING. The snow is first cleared by means of scrapers very much like the scrapers used in building roads or making excavations for the foundations of buildings. It takes two people to do this, one to lead the horse, the other to hold the scraper to its work.
* From Brown Bros.
After the snow has been cleared away deep parallel grooves are cut in the ice with what is called an “ice plow.” These ice plows are sometimes driven by steam but horses are usually used as you see in the picture. With this plow grooves are cut in the ice in both directions so that the ice is divided into blocks about three feet square. Unless the ice is very thick the plow cuts very nearly through.
* From Brown Bros.
After the ice has been cut nearly through with the plow the rest of the work is done with a saw, one end of which runs down into the water. After the ice cakes are sawed out by one set of men another set pry them apart with crowbars, while a third set floats them down channels, made for the purpose, toward the ice house.
* From Brown Bros.
This picture gives a rear view of the ice elevator which you see at the side of the ice house in the first picture. The cakes of ice are floated to the foot of this elevator and carried up into the ice house by an endless chain arrangement similar to the device that carries away the straw and chaff from a threshing machine. At intervals on this chain, which runs over sprocket wheels at the other end, are cleats. The distance between these cleats is a little over the width of a cake of ice. The men at the foot of the elevator push a cake into each section as it comes along. The ice is carried by the elevator up into the warehouse, where it is packed in sawdust.
* From Brown Bros.
This picture shows the various tools used by ice harvesters and the men who deliver ice at your door. Here you see various forms of ice tongs, ice shavers, files and stones for sharpening the tools, ice axes and ice scales. Besides these there are augers for drawing off surface waters, forked bars for prying the cakes loose, trimming bars for squaring them, and chisels, adzes and edging tongs used in packing the ice in the warehouse.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Icebergs

See also the disclaimer.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Ice′bergs. In the polar regions there are masses of ice covering vast fields and streams during all seasons. When the sun is hottest, huge pieces detach themselves from these icefields and glaciers and float into the open sea. These bergs or ​ ​ ​ ​ ​mountains of ice sometimes are more than 250 feet above the sealevel, while the volume of ice below sealevel is about nine times that above. At a distance they have the appearance of dazzling white chalk cliffs of the most fantastic shapes. See Glaciers. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ice-Machines and Ice-Cutting Tools

See also Ice on Wikipedia, Artificial Ice, Ice Harvesting, and the disclaimer.
​ Ice-Machin′es and Ice-Cut′ting Tools. There are several types and many varying manufactures of ice-making machines, all depending for success upon the principle that cold is produced by the expansion of compressed air, gas or a liquified vapor, as ammonia. The machines most used are those known as ammonia machines because of their use of anhydrous or waterless ammonia. In such machines there is an evaporator or congealer, in which the ammonia is vaporized. This vapor is then compressed by a pump into liquid, the process being aided by a stream of cold water. This part of the process is merely economical, making it possible to use the same ammonia over and over. The ice is manufactured by running the ammonia into coils where it vaporizes. These coils are led into tanks of strong brine. The evaporation in the coils causes intense cold, and the brine is deprived of its heat or made cold in much the same way that water or a room may be heated by pipes or coils carrying steam. That is, they would be made cold instead of warm, of the pipes which carry steam were made to carry this ammonia vapor. Cans of water, set in this chilled brine, are thus frozen. The cans are thus the molds of the ice-blocks that are turned out, and these are of various convenient sizes. The brine is used to surround the cans, because it will still remain liquid under a degree of cold that is sufficient to freeze the water in the cans that are immersed in it. The vaporized ammonia is again gathered and compressed, and again used in producing cold. The pumps, compressors and other machinery of the modern ice-machine are the accessories merely that make practical the industry of producing ice according to the old and well-known law that rapid evaporation produces cold, as does also the sudden release of compressed air or gas. The modern economy known as cold storage is the result of the processes above described, save that the coils to carry ammonia are placed about the sides of large storage rooms and reduce the temperature of the air, as in ice-making they reduce that of the brine in tanks. Ice-cutting tools are such as are used in gathering—“harvesting”—the natural ice in rivers, lakes and pools, so as to store it for summer use. The “planer” is used to clear the ice-surface of snow. It is a one-horse scraper. The “marker” then comes into use to lay out the intended field into cuttings. It is a kind of plow, drawn by a horse, with several shares which cut marks upon the ice. The ice-cutter is a similar machine whose shares cut deeper than those of the marker, and, if the ice is thick, it is run several times in the same cuttings, so that the ice is finally nearly cut through. The cross-cuttings, by which the ice is cut into blocks or slabs, are usually made by hand. Other tools are used to detach the blocks and seize or push them, while floating, toward the chute or elevator of the ice-house.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ibycus

See also Ibycus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Ib′ycus, a lyric poet of the 6th century, B. C., born in the Greek colony of Rhegium in southern Italy, is best known to moderns from a poem of Schiller, The Cranes of Ibycus. Ibycus is known to have been a wandering bard, but Cicero ranks him with so great a poet as Anacreon. The story of his death, according to Schiller's poem, is that, when mortally wounded by robbers, he called upon a flock of cranes to avenge him. This they did, for, when a flock of cranes passed over the theater at Corinth during a performance, one of the assassins who was present involuntarily cried out: “Yonder are the avengers of Ibycus!” Thus the murderers were detected, and the crime avenged.