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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panna

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​PANNA, or Punna, a native state of Central India, in the Bundelkhand agency. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 192,986, showing a decrease of 19% in the preceding decade due to famine; tribute £33,000. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a rajput of the Bundela clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the independence of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. The maharaja Lokpal Singh died in 1898, leaving an only son, Madho Singh, who, in 1902, was found guilty by a special commission on the charge of poisoning his uncle, and was deposed. The diamond mines, for which the state was formerly famous, are now scarcely profitable. There are no railways, but one or two good roads. The town of Panna is 62 m. S. of Banda. Pop. (1901), 11,346. It has a fine modern palace and several handsome temples and shrines.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panpsychism

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​PANPSYCHISM (Gr. πᾶν, all; ψυχή, soul), a philosophical term applied to any theory of nature which recognizes the existence of a psychical element throughout the objective world. In such theories not only animals and plants but even the smallest particles of matter are regarded as having some rudimentary kind of sensation or “soul,” which plays the same part in relation to their objective activities or modifications as the soul does in the case of human beings. Such theories are the modern scientific or semi-scientific counterparts of the primitive animism of savage races, and may be compared with the hylozoism of the Greek physicists. In modern times the chief exponents of panpsychist views are Thomas Carlyle, Fechner and Paulsen: a similar idea lay at the root of the physical theories of the Stoics.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pannage

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​PANNAGE (O. Fr. pasnage, from Med. Lat. pasnagium, pasnaticum for pastionaticum, pascio; pascere, to feed), an English legal term for the feeding of swine in a wood or forest, hence used of a right or privilege to do this. The word is also used generally of the food, such as acorns, beech-mast, &c., on which the swine feed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pannier

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​PANNIER (Fr. panier, Lat. panarium, a basket for carrying bread, panis), a basket for carrying bread or other provisions; more especially a broad, flat basket, generally slung in pairs across a mule, pony or ass for transport. The term has also been applied to an overskirt in a woman’s dress attached to the back of the bodice and draped so as to give a “bunchy” appearance. At various times in the history of costume this appearance has been produced by a framework of padded whalebone, steel, &c., used to support the dress, such frameworks being known as “panniers.” At the Inns of Court, London, there was formerly an official known as a “pannier man,” whose duties were concerned with procuring provisions at market, blowing the horn before meals, &c. The office has been in many of the inns long obsolete, and was formally abolished at the Inner Temple in 1900. At the Inner Temple the robed waiters in hall have been called “panniers,” and apparently were in some way connected with the officer above mentioned, but the proper duties of the two were in no way identical.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panoply

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​PANOPLY, a complete suit of armour. The word represents the Gr. πᾶνὅπλία. (πᾶν, all, and ὅπλα, arms), the full armour of a hoplite or heavy-armed soldier, i.e. the shield, breastplate, helmet and greaves, together with the sword and lance. As applied to armour of a later date, “panoply” did not come into use till the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, and was then used of the complete suits of plate-armour covering the whole body. The figurative use of the word is chiefly due to the phrase ἡ πανοπλία τοῦ Θεοῦ, “the whole armour of God” (Eph. vi. 11).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panjabi

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​PANJABI (properly Panjābī), the language of the Central Punjab (properly Panjāb). It is spoken by over 71,000,000 people between (approximately speaking) the 77th and 74th degrees of east longitude. The vernacular of this tract was originally an old form of the modern Lahnda, a member of the; outer group of Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), but it has been overlaid by the expansion of the midland Sauraseni Prakrit, (see Prakrit) to its east, and now belongs to the intermediate group, possessing most of the characteristics of the midland language, with occasional traces of the old outer basis which become more and more prominent as we go westwards. At the 74th degree of east longitude we find it merging into the modern Lahndā. The language is fully described in the article Hindostani.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panjdeh

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​PANJDEH, or Penjdeh, a village of Russian Turkestan, rendered famous by “the Panjdeh scare” of 1885. It is situated on the east side of the Kushk river near its junction with the ​Murghab at Pul-i-Khishti. In March 1885 when the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission should have been engaged in settling the boundary-line, this portion of it was in dispute between the Afghans and the Russians. A part of the Afghan force was encamped on the west bank of the Kushk, and on the 29th of March General Komarov sent an ultimatum demanding their withdrawal. On their refusal the Russians attacked them at 3 a.m. on the 30th of March and drove them across the Pul-i-Khishti Bridge with a loss of some 600 men. The incident nearly give rise to war between England and Russia; but the amir Abdur-Rahman, who was present at the Rawalpindi conference with Lord Dufferin at the time, affected to regard the matter as a mere frontier scuffle. The border-line subsequently laid down gives to Russia the corner between the Kushk and Murghab rivers as far as Maruchak on the Murghab, and the Kushk post has now become the frontier post of the Russian army of occupation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panorama

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​PANORAMA (Gr. πᾶν, all, and ὅραμα, view), the name given originally to a pictorial representation of the whole view visible from one point by an observer who in turning round looks successively to all points of the horizon. In an ordinary picture only a small part of the objects visible from one point is included, far less being generally given than the eye of the observer can take in whilst stationary. The drawing is in this case made by projecting the objects to be represented from the point occupied by the eye on a plane. If a greater part of a landscape has to be represented, it becomes more convenient for the artist to suppose himself surrounded by a cylindrical surface in whose centre he stands, and to project the landscape from this position on the cylinder. In a panorama such a cylinder, originally of about 60 ft., but now extending to upwards of 130 ft. diameter, is covered with an accurate representation in colours of a landscape, so that an observer standing in the centre of the cylinder sees the picture like an actual landscape in nature completely surround him in all directions. This gives an effect of great reality to the picture, which is skilfully aided in various ways. The observer stands on a platform representing, say, the flat roof of a house, and the space between this platform and the picture is covered with real objects, which gradually blend into the picture itself. The picture is lighted from above, but a roof is spread over the central platform so that no light but that reflected from the picture reaches the eye. To make this light appear the more brilliant, the passages and staircase which lead the spectator to the platform are kept nearly dark. These panoramas, suggested by a German architectural painter named Breisig, were first executed by Robert Barker, an Edinburgh artist, who exhibited one in Edinburgh in 1788, representing a view of that city. A view of London and views of sea fights and battles of the Napoleonic wars followed. Panoramas gained less favour on the continent of Europe, until, after the Franco-German War, a panorama of the siege of Paris was exhibited in Paris. Since then some notable panoramas have been on view in the cities of Europe and America.
The name panorama, or panoramic view, is also given to drawings of views from mountain peaks or other points of view, such as are found in many hotels in the Alps, or, on a smaller scale, in guide-books to Switzerland and other mountainous districts. In photography a panoramic camera is one which enables a wide picture to be taken.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manual

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​MANUAL, i.e. belonging to the hand (Lat. manus), a word chiefly used to describe an occupation which employs the hands, as opposed to that which chiefly or entirely employs the mind. Particular uses of the word are: “sign-manual,” a signature or autograph, especially one affixed to a state document; “manual-exercise,” in military usage, drill in the handling of the rifle; “manual alphabet,” the formation of the letters of the alphabet by the fingers of one or both hands for communication with the deaf and dumb; and “manual acts,” the breaking of the bread, and the taking of the cup in the hands by the officiating priest in consecrating the elements during the celebration of the Eucharist. The use of the word for tools and implements to be used by the hand, as distinct from machinery, only survives in the “manual fire-engine.” From the late Latin use of manuale as a substantive, meaning “handbook,” comes the use of the word for a book treating a subject in a concise way, but more particularly of a book of offices, containing the forms to be used in the administration of the sacraments other than the Mass, but including communion out of the Mass, also the forms for churching, burials, &c. In the Roman Church such a book is usually called a rituale, “manual” being the name given to it in the English Church before the Reformation. The keyboard of an organ, as played by the hands, is called the “manual,” in distinction from the “pedal” keys played by the feet.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manuel, Jacques Antoine

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​MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775–1827), French politician and orator, was born on the 10th of December 1775. When seventeen years old he entered the army, which he left in 1797 to become a lawyer. In 1814 he was chosen a member of the chamber of representatives, and in 1815 he urged the claim of Napoleon’s son to the French throne and protested against the restoration of the Bourbons. After this event be actively opposed the government, his eloquence making him the foremost orator among the members of the Left. In February 1823 his opposition to the proposed expedition into Spain to help Ferdinand VII. against his rebellious subjects produced a tumult in the Assembly. Manuel was expelled, but he refused to accept this sentence, and force was employed to remove him. He died on the 20th of August 1827.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manuel, Louis Pierre

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​MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751–1793), French writer and Revolutionist, was born at Montargis (Loiret). He entered the Congregation of the Christian Doctrine, and became tutor to the son of a Paris banker. In 1783 he published a pamphlet, called Essais historiques, critiques, littéraires, et philosophiques, for which he was imprisoned in the Bastille. He embraced the revolutionary ideas, and after the taking of the Bastille became a member of the provisional municipality of Paris. He was one of the leaders of the émeutes of the 20th of June and the 10th of August 1792, played an important part in the formation of the revolutionary commune which assured the success of the latter coup, and was made procureur of the commune. He was present at the September massacres and saved several prisoners, and on the 7th of September 1792 was elected one of the deputies from Paris to the convention, where he was one of the promoters of the proclamation of the republic. He suppressed the decoration of the Cross of St Louis, which he called a stain on a man’s coat, and demanded the sale of the palace of Versailles. His missions to the king, however, changed his sentiments; he became reconciled to Louis, courageously refused to vote for the death of the sovereign, and had to tender his resignation as deputy. He retired to Montargis, where he was arrested, and was guillotined in Paris on the 17th of November 1793. Besides the work cited above and his political pamphlets, he was the author of Coup d’œil philosophique sur le règne de St Louis (1786); L’Année française (1788); La Bastille dévoilée (1789); La Police de Paris dévoilée (1791); and Lettres sur la Révolution (1792). In 1792 he was prosecuted for publishing an edition of the Lettres de Mirabeau à Sophie, but was acquitted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manuel I., emperor of Trebizond

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​MANUEL I. (d. 1263), emperor of Trebizond, surnamed the Great Captain (ὁ στρατηγικώτατος), was the second son of Alexius I., first emperor of Trebizond, and ruled from 1228 to 1263. He was unable to deliver his empire from vassalage, first to the Seljuks and afterwards to the Mongols. He vainly negotiated for a dynastic alliance with the Franks, by which he hoped to secure the help of Crusaders.
Manuel II., the descendant of Manuel I., reigned only a few months in 1332–1333. Manuel III. reigned from 1390 to 1417, but the only interest attaching to his name arises from his connexion with Timur, whose vassal he became without resistance.
See G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. 1877, Oxford), iv. 338–340, 340–341, 386; Ph. Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaisertums Trapezunt (Munich, 1827), i. chs. 8, 14, ii. chs. 4, 5; T. E. Evangelides, Ἱστορία τῆς Τραπεζοῦντος (Odessa, 1898), 71–73, 87–88, 126–132.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manucode

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​MANUCODE, from the French, an abbreviation of Manucodiata, and the Latinized form of the Malay Manukdewata, meaning, says Crawfurd (Malay and Engl. Dictionary, p. 97), the “bird of the gods,” and a name applied for more than two hundred years apparently to birds-of-paradise in general. In the original sense of its inventor, Montbeillard (Hist. nat. oiseaux, iii. 163), Manucode was restricted to the king bird-of-paradise and three allied species; but in English it has curiously been transferred to a small group of species whose relationship to the Paradiseidae has been frequently doubted, and must be considered uncertain. These manucodes have a glossy steel-blue plumage of much beauty, but are distinguished from other birds of similar coloration by the outer and middle toes being united for some distance, and by the extraordinary convolution of the trachea, in the males at least, with which is correlated the loud and clear voice of the birds. The convoluted portion of the trachea lies on the breast, between the skin and the muscles, much as is found in the females of the painted snipes (Rostratula), in the males of the curassows (Cracidae), and in a few other birds, but wholly unknown elsewhere among the Passeres. The manucodes are peculiar to the Papuan sub-region (including therein the peninsula of Cape York), and comprehend, according to R. B. Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, iii. 164), two genera, for the first of which, distinguished by the elongated tufts on the head, he adopts R. P. Lesson’s name Phonygama, and for the second, having no tufts, but the feathers of the head crisped, that of Manucodia; and W. A. Forbes (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882, p. 349) observed that the validity of the separation was confirmed by their tracheal formation. Of Phonygama Sharpe recognizes three species, P. keraudreni (the type) and P. jamesi, both from New Guinea, and P. gouldi, the Australian representative species; but the first two are considered by D. G. Elliot (Ibis. 1878, p. 56) and Count Salvadori (Ornitol. della Papuasia, ii. 510) to be inseparable. There is a greater unanimity in regard to the species of the so-called genus Manucodia proper, of which four are admitted—M. chalybeata or chalybea from north-western New Guinea, M. comriei from the south-eastern part of the same country, M. atra of wide distribution within the Papuan area, and M. jobiensis peculiar to the island which gives it a name. Little is known of the habits of these birds, except that they are, as already mentioned, remarkable for their vocal powers, which, in P. keraudreni, Lesson describes (Voy. de la Coquille, “Zoologie,” i. 638) as enabling them to pass through every note of the gamut.  (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manuel, Eugene

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​MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901), French poet and man of letters, was born in Paris, the son of a Jewish doctor, on the 13th of July 1823. He was educated at the École Normale, and taught rhetoric for some years in provincial schools and then in Paris. In 1870 he entered the department of public instruction, and in 1878 became inspector-general. His works include: Pages intimes (1866), which received a prize from the Academy; Poèmes populaires (1874); Pendant la guerre (1871), patriotic poems, which were forbidden in Alsace-Lorraine by the German authorities; En voyage (1881), poems; La France (4 vols., 1854–1858); a school-book written in collaboration with his brother-in-law, Lévi Alavarès; Les Ouvriers (1870), a drama dealing with social questions, which was crowned by the Academy; L’Absent (1873), a comedy; Poésies du foyer et de l’école (1889), and editions of the works of J. B. Rousseau (1852) and André Chénier (1884). He died in Paris in 1901.
His Poésies complètes (2 vols., 1899) contained some fresh poems; to his Mélanges en prose (Paris, 1905) is prefixed an introductory note by A. Cahen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manton, Thomas

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​MANTON, THOMAS (1620–1677), English Nonconformist divine, was born at Laurence Lydiard, Somerset, in 1620, and was educated at Hart Hall, Oxford. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich, ordained him deacon: he never took priest’s orders, holding that “he was properly ordained to the ministerial office.” He was one of the clerks at the Westminster Assembly, one of Cromwell’s chaplains and a “trier,” and held livings at Stoke Newington (1645) and St Paul’s, Covent Garden (1656). He disapproved of the execution of Charles I. In 1658 he assisted Baxter to draw up the “Fundamentals of Religion.” He helped to restore Charles II. and became one of his chaplains, refusing the deanery of Rochester. In 1662 he lost his living under the Act of Uniformity and preached in his own rooms and in other parts of London. For this he was arrested in 1670.
His works are best known in the collected edition by J. C. Ryle (22 vols. 1870–1875).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manu

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​MANU (Sanskrit, “man”), in Hindu mythology, the first man, ancestor of the world. In the Satapatha-Brahmana he is represented as a holy man, the chief figure in a flood-myth. Warned by a fish of the impending disaster he built a ship, and when the waters rose was dragged by the fish, which he harnessed to his craft, beyond the northern mountains. When the deluge ceased, a daughter was miraculously born to him and this pair became the ancestors of the human race. In the later scriptures the fish is declared an incarnation of Brahma. See Sanskrit Literature; Indian Law (Hindu).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jointure

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​JOINTURE, in law, a provision for a wife after the death of her husband. As defined by Sir E. Coke, it is “a competent livelihood of freehold for the wife, of lands or tenements, to take effect presently in possession or profit after the death of her husband, for the life of the wife at least, if she herself be not the cause of determination or forfeiture of it” (Co. Litt. 36b). A jointure is of two kinds, legal and equitable. A legal jointure was first authorized by the Statute of Uses. Before this statute a husband had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in another to his “use,” but merely an equitable estate. Consequently it was usual to make settlements on marriage, the most general form being the settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the husband and wife for their lives in joint tenancy (or “jointure”), so that the whole would go to the survivor. Although, strictly speaking, a jointure is a joint estate limited to both husband and wife, in common acceptation the word extends also to a sole estate limited to the wife only. The requisites of a legal jointure are: (1) the jointure must take effect immediately after the husband’s death; (2) it must be for the wife’s life or for a greater estate, or be determinable by her own act; (3) it must be made before marriage—if after, it is voidable at the wife’s election, on the death of the husband; (4) it must be expressed to be in satisfaction of dower and not of part of it. In equity, any provision made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her (not being an infant) in lieu of dower was a bar to such. If the provision was made after marriage, the wife was not barred by such provision, though expressly stated to be in lieu of dower; she was put to her election between jointure and dower (see Dower).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jolly

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​JOLLY (from O. Fr. jolif; Fr. joli, the French word is obscure in origin; it may be from late Lat. gaudivus, from gaudere, to rejoice, the change of d to l being paralleled by cigada and cigale, or from O. Norse jol, Eng. “yule,” the northern festival of midwinter), and adjective meaning gay, cheerful, jovial, high-spirited. The colloquial use of the term as an intensive adverb, meaning extremely, very, was in early usage quite literary; thus John Trapp (1601–1669), Commentaries on the New Testament, Matthew (1647), writes, “All was jolly quiet at Ephesus before St Paul came hither.” In the royal navy “jolly” used as a substantive, is the slang name for a marine. To “jolly” is a slang synonym for “chaff.” The word “jolly-boat,” the name of a ship’s small broad boat, usually clinker-built, is of doubtful etymology. It occurs in English in the 18th century, and is usually connected with Dan. or Swed. jolle, Dutch jol, a small ship’s boat; these words are properly represented in English by “yawl” originally a ship’s small boat, now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels, with a cutter-rigged foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aft, with a spanker sail (see Rigging). A connexion has been suggested with a word of much earlier appearance in English, jolywat, or gellywatte. This occurs at the end of the 15th century and is used of a smaller type of ship’s boat. This is supposed to be a corruption of the French galiote or Dutch galjoot, galliot (see Galley). The galliot was, however, a large vessel.