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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evangelical Union

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​EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which originated in the suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816–1893), minister of a United Secession congregation in Kilmarnock, Scotland, for certain views regarding faith, the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and the extent of the atonement, which were regarded by the supreme court of his church as anti-Calvinistic and heretical. Morison was suspended by the presbytery in 1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two other ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar opinions, the four met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843 (two days before the “Disruption” of the Free Church), and, on the basis of certain doctrinal principles, formed themselves into an association under the name of the Evangelical Union, “for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and otherwise aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and ‘pleasure of the Lord.’” The doctrinal views of the new denomination gradually assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic form, and they began also to find many sympathizers among the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine students were expelled from the Congregational Academy for holding “Morisonian” doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from the Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with the Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction over the individual churches connected with it, and in this respect adhered to the Independent or Congregational form of church government; but those congregations which originally were Presbyterian vested their government in a body of elders. In 1889 the denomination numbered 93 churches; and in 1896, after prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was incorporated with the Congregational Union of Scotland.
See The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical Union, by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); The Worthies of the E. U. (1883); W. Adamson, Life of Dr James Morison (1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evangelical Church Conference

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​EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of delegates from the different Protestant churches of Germany. The conference originated in 1848, when the general desire for political unity made itself felt in the ecclesiastical sphere as well. A preliminary meeting was held at Sandhof near Frankfort in June of that year, and on the 21st of September some five hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the Reformed, the United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg. The gathering was known as Kirchentag (church diet), and, while leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution, ritual, doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act unitedly in bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches and in defending the rights and liberties of the churches in the federation. The organization thus closely resembles that of the Free Church Federation in England. The movement exercised considerable influence during the middle of the 19th century. Though no Kirchentag, as such, has been convened since 1871, its place has been taken by the Kongress für innere Mission, which holds annual meetings in different towns. There is also a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at Eisenach to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no legislative force.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evans, Christmas

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​EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766–1838), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born near the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire, on the 25th of December 1766. His father, a shoemaker, died early, and the boy grew up as an illiterate farm labourer. At the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a Presbyterian minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious revival and learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The itinerant Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined the latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales as a preacher and settled for two years in the desolate peninsula of Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in Anglesey. Here, on a stipend of £17 a year, supplemented by a little tract-selling, he built up a strong Baptist community, modelling his organization to some extent on that of the Calvinistic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the money being collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South Wales.
In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where he remained for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff. In 1832, in response to urgent calls from the north, he settled in Carnarvon and again undertook the old work of building and collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in South Wales, and died at Swansea on the 19th of July 1838. In spite of his early disadvantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye in a ​youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a nimble mind and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple, his piety humble and his faith fervently evangelical. For a time he came under Sandemanian influence, and when the Wesleyans entered Wales he took the Calvinist side in the bitter controversies that were frequent from 1800 to 1810. His chief characteristic was a vivid and affluent imagination, which absorbed and controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the name of “the Bunyan of Wales.”
His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon, 1895–1897). See the Lives by D. R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton Hood (1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evans, Evan Herber

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​EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836–1896), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born on the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near Newcastle Emlyn, Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something of the “Rebecca Riots,” and went to school at the neighbouring village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went into business, first at Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year made his way to Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied arts and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and the Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened by the religious revival of 1858–1859. In 1862 he succeeded Thomas Jones as minister of the Congregational church at Morriston near Swansea. In 1865 he became pastor of Salem church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied for nearly thirty years despite many invitations to English pastorates. In 1894 he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor. He died on the 30th of December 1896. He was chairman of the Welsh Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational Union of England and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest ministry, his eloquence and his literary work, especially in the denominational paper Y Dysgedydd, he achieved a position of great influence in his country.
See Life by H. Elvet Lewis.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evagrius

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​EVAGRIUS (c. 536–600), surnamed Scholasticus, Church historian, was born at Epiphania in Coele-Syria. His surname shows him to have been an advocate, and it is supposed that he practised at Antioch. He was the legal adviser of Gregory, patriarch of that city, whom he successfully defended at Constantinople against certain serious charges. Through this connexion he was brought under the notice of the emperor Tiberius Constantine, who honoured him with the rank of quaestorian; Maurice Tiberius made him master of the rolls. His influence and reputation were so considerable that on the occasion of his second marriage a public festival was celebrated in his honour, which was interrupted by a terrible earthquake. Evagrius’s name has been preserved by his Ecclesiastical History in six books, extending over the period from the third general council (that of Ephesus, 431) to the year 593. It thus continues the work of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret. Though not wholly trustworthy, and often very credulous, this work is on the whole impartial, and appears to have been compiled from original documents, from which many valuable excerpts are given. It is particularly helpful to the student of the history of dogma during the 5th and 6th centuries, while the political history of the time is by no means neglected. Evagrius made use of the writings of Eustathius, John of Epiphania, John Malalas, Procopius, and (possibly) Menander Protector.
The best edition of the History is that of L. Parmentier and J. Bidez (London, 1898), which contains the Scholia; it is also included in Migne’s Patrologia Graeca, lxxxvi. There is an English translation in Bohn’s Ecclesiastical Library. See Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); F. C. Baur, Die Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852); L. Jeep, Quellenuntersuchungen zu den griechischen Kirchenhistorikern (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prairie-marmot

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​PRAIRIE-MARMOT, a zoological emendation for the American name “prairie-dog,” applied to a small North American rodent allied to the squirrels and marmots, and technically known as Cynomys ludovicianus (see Marmot). In a great degree prairie-marmots, of which there are several species in North America, ranging as far south as Mexico, are intermediate between marmots and sousliks (see Souslik), having the cheek-pouches much smaller than in the latter, and the first front-toe, which is rudimentary in marmots and sousliks, well developed. The cheek-teeth are more complex than those of marmots, and the two series converge behind. In their slender build and small size, prairie-marmots are much more like sousliks than marmots. In habits these rodents are very like marmots, the typical species inhabiting the open prairies, while the others are found in mountains. The prairie species (C. ludovicianus) makes a raised, funnel-shaped entrance to its burrow. All feed on the roots of grass; and when disturbed, like marmots, utter a whistling cry. Rattlesnakes, owls and weasels are commonly found in the burrows; but their presence is no indication of the existence of a kind of “happy family” arrangement, the snakes, at any rate, preying on the young marmots. The hibernation of these rodents is only partial, and confined to seasons of intense cold. (See Rodentia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prati, Giovanni

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​PRATI, GIOVANNI (1815–1884), Italian poet, was born at Dasindo and educated in law at Padua. Adopting a literary career, he was inspired by anti-Austrian feeling and devotion to the royal house of Savoy, and in early life his combination of a sympathy for national independence with monarchical sentiments brought him into trouble in both quarters, Guerrazzi expelling him from Tuscany in 1849 for his praise of Carlo Alberto. In 1862 he was elected a deputy to the Italian parliament, and in 1876 a senator. He died at Rome on the 9th of May 1884. Prati was a prolific poet, his volumes of verse ranging from his romantic narrative Ermenegarda (1841) to the lyrics collected in Psiche (1875) and Iside (1878). His Opere varie were published in five volumes in 1875, and a selection in one volume in 1892.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pratinas

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​PRATINAS (the quantity of the second vowel is doubtful), one of the oldest tragic poets of Athens, was a native of Phlius in Peloponnesus. About 500 B.C. he competed with Choerilus and Aeschylus, when the latter made his first appearance as a writer for the stage. Pratinas was also the introducer of satyric dramas as a species of entertainment distinct from tragedy, in which the rustic merry-makings and the extravagant dances of the satyrs were retained. The associations of his home, not far from Corinth, where Arion was said to have established the cyclic choruses of satyrs, may account for his preference for this kind of drama. Pratinas was also a writer of dithyrambs and the choral odes called hyporchemata (a considerable fragment of one of these is preserved in Athenaeus xiv. 617). It is related that, during the performance of one of his plays, the scaffolding of the wooden stage gave way, in consequence of which the Athenians built a theatre of stone; but recent excavations make it doubtful whether a stone theatre existed in Athens at so early a date. A monument was erected by the inhabitants of Phlius in honour of Pratinas's son Aristias, who, with his father, enjoyed the reputation of excelling all, with the exception of Aeschylus, in the composition of satyric dramas, one of which was called Cyclops.
See Pausanias ii. 13; Suidas q.v.; fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, vol. iii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prahran

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​PRAHRAN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 31/2 m. by rail S.E. of Melbourne and suburban to it. Pop. (1901), 41,161. It is connected with Melbourne by cable tram over a fine iron girder bridge across the Yarra. Many of its streets are planted with trees and it has numerous handsome shops and villas. Prahran was proclaimed a city in 1879.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prairie

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​PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract, Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow), a level tract of grassy and treeless country, generally restricted to tracts so characterized in the central parts of North America. In the United States the prairies may be taken to extend from southern Michigan and western Ohio over Illinois (especially designated the Prairie State), Indiana, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and west of the Missouri to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains (see articles on the several states, and United States). In Canada they extend from the same mountains to a line somewhat to the east of Winnipeg. The word prairie is used in a large number of compounds referring to natural and other features, flora, fauna, &c., characteristic of the prairies. Examples are: prairie-chicken or prairie-hen, a name for the pinnated grouse (Cupidonia or Tympanucus cupido), also applied to Pedioecetes phasinellus, the sharp-tailed grouse; prairie-dog, a rodent of the squirrel family, genus Cynomys, a gregarious burrowing animal, and other animals noticed below; prairie-schooner, a name for the covered wagons in which emigrants used to cross the plains; prairie-grass, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pratincole

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​PRATINCOLE, a word apparently invented by J. Latham (Synopsis, v. 222), being the English rendering of Pratincola, applied in 1756 by P. Kramer (Elenchus, p. 381) to a bird which had hitherto received no definite name, though it had long before been described and even recognizably figured by Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, xvii. 9) under the vague designation of “hirundo marina.” It is the Glareola pratincola of modern ornithologists, forming the type of a genus Glareola, founded by M. J. Brisson in 1760, belonging to the group Limicolae, and constituting together with the coursers (Cursorius) a separate family, Glareolidae. The pratincoles, of which some eight or nine species have been described, are all small birds, slenderly built and mostly delicately coloured, with a short stout bill, a wide gape, long pointed wings, ​and a tail more or less forked. In some of their habits they are thoroughly plover-like, running very swiftly and breeding on the ground, but on the wing they have much the appearance of swallows, and, like them, feed, at least partly, while flying. The ordinary pratincole of Europe, G. pratincola, breeds abundantly in many parts of Spain, Barbary and Sicily, along the valley of the Danube, and in southern Russia, while owing to its great powers of flight it frequently wanders far from its home, and more than a score of examples have been recorded as occurring in the British Islands. In the south-east of Europe a second and closely-allied species, G. nordmanni or G. melanoptera, which has black instead of chestnut inner wing-coverts, accompanies or, farther to the eastward, replaces it; and in its turn it is replaced in India, China and Australia by G. orientalis. Australia also possesses another species, G. grallaria, remarkable for the great length of its wings and much longer legs, while its tail is scarcely forked—peculiarities that have led to its being considered the type of a distinct genus or sub-genus Stiltia. Two species, G. lactea and G. cinerea, from India and Africa respectively, seem by their pale coloration to be desert forms, and they are the smallest of this curious little group. The species whose mode of nidificatipn is known lay either two or three eggs, stone-coloured, blotched, spotted, and streaked with black or brownish-grey. The young when hatched are clothed in down and are able to run at once—just as are young plovers. (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prairie du Chien

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​PRAIRIE DU CHIEN, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the east bank of the Mississippi river about 3 m. above the mouth of the Wisconsin, about 98 m. W. of Madison. Pop. (1890) 3131; (1900) 3232; (1905) 3179; (1910) 3149. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. The city has a fine location, its natural attractiveness and mineral springs in the vicinity combining to make it a summer and health resort. It has an excellent artesian water-supply. Among its buildings are the Crawford county court-house, the city hospital and a sanatorium. It is the seat of St Mary's Academy (1872; R.C.) for young women, and the College of the Sacred Heart (1880; R.C.) for men. Among the manufactures are beer, wagons, wool, and pearl buttons, and the city is a centre of the fresh-water pearl fisheries along the Mississippi. Prairie du Chien is one of the most interesting places, historically, in Wisconsin. The first white man known to have visited the site was Father Hennepin in 1680; later in the same year the trader Du Lhut (or Duluth) was here. In 1685 Nicholas Perrot, the French commandant in the West, built Fort St Nicholas near the site of the present city. After the close of the French and Indian War, British authorities assumed possession, but no garrison was regularly maintained. In 1779–1780 Prairie du Chien was the scene of plots and counter plots of American and British sympathizers and of the activities of Godefrey Linctot, the agent of George Rogers Clark. About 1786–1781 a permanent settlement began to grow up around the post. Prairie du Chien was formally surrendered in 1796 to the United States authorities under the Jay treaty, and by them Fort Shelby was erected. On the 17th of July 1814 a force of British, Canadians and Indians under Major William McKay captured the fort, and renamed it Fort McKay, but abandoned it in May 1815. In 1816 Fort Crawford was erected—it was rebuilt on a different site in 1829—and in 1820 one of the principal depots of the American Fur Company was established here. Here in 1823 Judge James Duane Doty (1799–1865) opened the first United States court in what is now the state of Wisconsin. At the time of the Red Bird rising in 1827, Governor Lewis Cass of Michigan ​Territory made Prairie du Chien his temporary headquarters. During the Black Hawk War (1832) Zachary Taylor, then a lieutenant-colonel, was in command of Fort Crawford, and to him Black Hawk was entrusted after his capture. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railroad was completed to Prairie du Chien in 1857. The city was chartered in 1872.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pram

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​PRAM (Du. praam), the name of a flat-bottomed boat or barge used as a “lighter” for discharging and loading cargo in the ports of the Baltic and North Sea. The word, which is common in various forms to all the languages bordering on those seas, is originally Slavonic; its ultimate etymology connects it with the words found in all Indo-European languages which are to be traced to the root par-, to go through, travel; cf. “fare,” “ferry,” “far,” Gr. πόρος, way, Lat. portare, carry, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prantl, Karl von

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​PRANTL, KARL VON (1820–1888), German philosopher, was born at Landsberg on the Lech on the 28th of January 1820, and died on the 14th of September 1888 at Oberstdorf. In 1843 he became doctor of philosophy at Munich Observatory, where he was made professor in 1859. He was also a member of the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Strongly in agreement with the Hegelian tradition, he defended and amplified it in Die gegenwärtige Aufgabe der Philosophie (1852) and Verstehen und Beurteilen (1877). In these works he emphasized the identity of the subjective and the objective for consciousness, and the fact that the perception of this unity is peculiar to man. He is more important, however, as a commentator and scholar, and made valuable contributions to the study of Aristotle. He published Aristoteles über die Farben (1849), Aristoteles' acht Bücher der Physik (1857), and numerous minor articles on smaller points, such as the authenticity of the thirty-eight books of the Problems. The work by which he is best known is the Geschichte der Logik im Abendland (Leipzig, 1855–1870). Chr. Sigwart, in the preface to the first edition of his Logic, makes “special mention” of the assistance he obtained from this book.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/New Ross

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NEW ROSS, a market town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, on the acclivity of a hill on the E. bank of the Barrow, 2 m. below its junction with the Nore, 102 m. S.S.W. of Dublin by the Dublin & South-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 5847. The Barrow is crossed by an iron bridge with a swivel pillar in the centre on which a portion of the bridge is turned to admit the passage of vessels. Vessels of 600 tons can lie alongside the quays. The inland water communications reach to Dublin by means of the Barrow and the Grand Canal. The Nore is navigable to Inistioge. New Ross has breweries and tan-yards, a salmon fishery, and a brisk export trade in agricultural produce. The urban district of New Ross includes Rosbercon, on the opposite side of the Barrow.
It is stated that St Alban built the abbey of Rossmactreoin, which gave rise to an ancient city formerly called Rossglas. A Dominican foundation of the 13th century has left some remains in Rosbercon. According to Camden, New Ross was founded by Isabella, daughter of Strongbow and wife of William Marshal, afterwards earl of Pembroke. A charter was granted to it by Roger Bigod in the reign of Edward I., which was extended by James I. and James II. From 1374 it returned two members to parliament, but at the Union in 1800 the number was reduced to one, and the town ceased to be a parliamentary borough in 1885. In 1269 it was surrounded by walls. The fortresses were dismantled by Cromwell, but some remains are extant.