OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Picketing

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​PICKETING, a term used to describe a practice resorted to by workmen engaged in trade disputes, of placing one or more men near the works of the employer with whom the dispute is pending, with the object of drawing off his hands or acquiring information useful for the purposes of the dispute. In England, under the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, it is an offence wrongfully and without legal authority to watch or beset the house or place where another resides or works, or carries on business or happens to be, or the approach to such house or place, if the object of the watching, &c., is to compel the person watched, &c., to abstain from doing or to do an act which he is legally entitled to do or to abstain from doing (§ 7). The definition of the offence was qualified by a proviso excluding from punishment those who attend at or near a house or place merely to obtain or communicate information, in other words what is termed peaceful picketing, without intimidation, molestation or direct efforts to influence the course of a trade dispute. This enactment led to a great deal of litigation between trade unions and employers, and trade unions were in some instances restrained by injunction from picketing the works of employers, The decisions of the courts upon this subject met with severe criticism from the leaders of trade unions, and by the Trades Disputes Act 1906 the proviso above quoted was repealed, and it was declared lawful for one or more persons acting for themselves or for a trade union or for an individual employer to attend at or near a house &c., “if the attendance is merely for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information or of peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain from working.” The exact effect of this change in the law has not yet been determined by the courts, but during the Belfast carters strike of 1907 serious riots ensued upon the efforts of the authorities to counteract the interference with lawful business caused by free use of picketing. The change in the law is supplemented by provisions forbidding actions against trade unions in respect of any tortious acts alleged to have been committed by or on behalf of the union.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Picric Acid

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​PICRIC ACID, or Trinitrophenol, C$_6$H$_2$·OH·(NO$_2$)$_3$ [1·2·4·6], an explosive and dyestuff formed by the action of concentrated nitric acid on indigo, aniline, resins, silk, wool, leather, &c. It is the final product of the direct nitration of phenol, and is usually prepared by the nitration of the mixture of phenol sulphonic acids obtained by heating phenol with concentrated sulphuric acid (E. Eisenmann and A. Arche, Eng. pat., 4539 (1889). It may also be obtained by oxidizing the symmetrical trinitrobenzene with potassium ferricyanide in alkaline solution (P. Hepp, Ann. 1882, 215, p. 352). It Crystallizes from water in yellow plates melting at 122·5° C., which sublime on careful heating, but explode when rapidly heated. It is poisonous and possesses a bitter taste, hence its name from the Greek πικρός, bitter. It has a strongly acid reaction, being almost comparable with the carboxylic acids. By the action of bleaching powder it is converted into chlorpicrin, CCl$_3$·NO$_2$. Phosphorus pentachloride converts it into picryl chloride, C$_6$H$_2$Cl(NO$_2$)$_3$, which is a true acid chloride, being decomposed by water with the regeneration of picric acid and the formation of hydrochloric acid, with ammonia it yields picramide, C$_5$H$_2$NH$_2$(NO$_2$)$_3$. Silver picrate and methyl iodide yield the methyl ester, which gives with ammonia picramide. Picric acid forms many well-defined salts, of a yellow or red-brown colour. It also yields crystalline compounds with many aromatic hydrocarbons and bases. It imparts a yellow colour to wool and silk. The chief application of picric acid and its salts is in the manufacture of explosives. When ignited, picric acid burns quietly with a smoky flame, and it is very difficult to detonate by percussion, its salts, however, are more readily detonated. The more important picric powders are melinite, believed to be a mixture of fused picric acid and gun-cotton; lyddite, the British service explosive, and shimose, the Japanese powder, both supposed to be identical with the original melinite; Brugère's powder, a mixture of 54 parts of ammonium picrate and 45 parts of saltpetre, Designolle’s powder, composed of potassium picrate, saltpetre and charcoal, and emmensite, invented by Stephen Emmens, of the United States.
It may be detected by the addition of an aqueous solution of potassium cyanide, with which it gives a violet-red coloration, due to the formation of isopurpuric acid R. Anschutz (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 439) estimates picric acid by precipitation with acridine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, Nathaniel William

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​TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786–1858), American Congregational theologian, was born in New Milford, Connecticut, on the 23rd of June 1786, grandson of Nathaniel Taylor (1722–1800), pastor at New Milford. He graduated at Yale College in 1807, studied theology under Timothy Dwight, and in 1812 became pastor of the First Church of New Haven. From 1822 until his death in New Haven on the 10th of March 1858 he was Dwight professor of didactic theology at Yale. He was the last notable representative of the New England School, in which his predecessors were the younger Edwards, John Smalley (1734–1820) and Nathaniel Emmons. In the Yale Divinity School his influence was powerful, and in 1833 one of his foremost opponents, Bennet Tyler (1783–1858), founded in East Windsor a Theological Institute to offset Taylor’s teaching at Yale.
Taylorism, sometimes called the “New Haven” theology, was an attempt to defend Calvinism from Arminian attacks, and the defence itself was accused of Arminianism and Pelagianism by A. A. Hodge of Princeton and Leonard Woods of Andover. Taylor’s theology was distinctively infra-lapsarian; it disagreed with Samuel Hopkins and Emmons in rejecting the theory of “divine efficiency “ and in arguing that man can choose the right “even if he won't”;—distinguishing like Edwards between natural ability and moral inability; it distinguished sensibility or susceptibility as something different from will or understanding, without moral qualities, to which the appeal for right choice may be made; and it made self-love (a term borrowed from Dugald Stewart, connoting the innocent love of happiness and distinct from selfishness) the particular feeling appealed to by the influences of the law and gospel.
He wrote Practical Sermons (1858; edited by Noah Porter); Lectures.on the Moral Government of God (2 vols., 1859), and Essays and Lectures upon Select Topics in Revealed Theology (1859), all published posthumously.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, Rowland

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​TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555), English Protestant martyr, was born at Rothbury, Northumberland; he took minor orders at Norwich in 1528 and graduated LL.B. at Cambridge in 1530 and LL.D. in 1534. Adopting reformed views he was made chaplain by Cranmer in 1540 and presented to the living of Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1544. In Whitsun week, 1547, he preached a “notable sermon” at St Paul’s Cross, and was given the third stall in Rochester cathedral. In 1549 he was placed on a commission to examine Anabaptists, and in 1551 he was appointed chancellor to Bishop Ridley, select preacher at Canterbury, and a commissioner for the reform of the canon law; in 1552 Coverdale made him archdeacon of Exeter. Apparently he advocated the cause of Lady Jane Grey, for on the 25th of July I 553, only six days after Mary’s proclamation as queen, he was committed to the custody of the sheriff of Essex. He was released not long afterwards, and with the support of his parishioners offered strenuous resistance to the restoration of the Mass. He was consequently imprisoned in the King’s Bench prison on the 26th of March 1554. The sturdy protestantism of Taylor and his flock, who seem to have caused various commotions, marked him out for the special enmity of Mary’s government; and he was one of the first to suffer when in January 1555 parliament had once more given the clerical courts liberty of jurisdiction. He was sentenced on the 22nd, excommunicated on the 29th, degraded by Bonner on the 4th of February, and burnt on the 9th at Aldham Common near Hadleigh. His blameless character had made a great impression on his age, and he was commemorated in many popular ballads. He was regarded as the ideal of a Protestant parish priest; he was married and had nine children. The alleged descent of Jeremy Taylor from him has not been proved.
See Thomas Quinton Stow’s Memoirs of Rowland Taylor (1833); Dict. of Nat. Biogr. lv. 463–4, and authorities there cited.
(A. F. P.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tayport

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​TAYPORT, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3325. It is situated on the Firth of Tay, here about 1 m. wide, opposite to Broughty Ferry, with which there is communication by means of a ferry, 51/2 m. N. of Leuchars Junction by the North British railway. Its older alternative name of Ferry Port on Craig has reference both to its uses and its site. Its industries include manufactures of linen and jute, spinning mills, engineering works, timber-yard and salmon fishery. In other respects it is a residential quarter for Dundee. A mile S.W. is the estate of Scotscraig, which belonged to Archbishop Sharp (1613–1679), of whose mansion there are still some traces. Two miles and a half W. by S. is the police burgh of Newport (pop. 2869), with stations at Easter and Wester Newport, on the North British Railway Company’s loop line from Leuchars Junction to Wormit. It lies on the Firth of Tay opposite to Dundee, with which there is communication by means of a ferry, as well as by rail via the Tay Bridge. Even to a greater extent than has Tayport, it has practically become a suburb of Dundee. Its small harbour was designed by Telford. Two and a quarter miles S.W. of Wormit, the nearest railway station, close to the southern terminus of the Tay Bridge, is the village of Balmerino (Gaelic, “ Town on the seashore ”). Its once considerable shipping trade has declined, but some fishery is still carried on. In 1227 Ermengarde, widow of William the Lion, and her son Alexander II. founded a Cistercian Abbey here, but in 1604 the Abbey estates were converted into a temporal lordship in favour of James Elphinstone, created Lord Balmerino.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, William

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​TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836), English man of letters, son of a Norwich manufacturer, was born in that city on the 7th of November 1765. He belonged to the Unitarian community, and went to a school kept at Palgrave, Suffolk, by Rochemont Barbauld, husband of Anna Letitia Barbauld, where Frank Sayers (1763-1817) was among his schoolmates. He travelled on the Continent for some years to perfect himself in foreign languages. William Taylor and his father were both in sympathy with the French Revolution, and belonged to a "revolution society" at Norwich. In 1791 the disturbed condition of affairs induced the elder Taylor to wind up his business, and from this time William devoted himself to letters. He was an enthusiast for German poetry, and did great service to English literature by translations of Bürger's Lenore (1790, printed 1796), of Lessing's Nathan the Wise (1790, printed 1805), of Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris (1790, printed 1793), and of four of Wieland's Dialogues of the Gods (1795). He was a prolific writer of review articles, in which his knowledge of foreign literature served as a useful standard of criticism. Much of this material was made use of in his most important work, his Historic Survey of German Poetry (3 vols., 1828-30). He also edited the works of his friend Sayers with a memoir (1823). He died at Norwich on the 5th of March 1836.
See a Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late W. Taylor of Norwich, by John Warden Robberds (2 vols., 1843); Georg Herzfeld, William Taylor von Norwich (1897). Taylor is well known to readers of George Borrow by the portrait of him as the "elder individual" in the 23rd chapter of Lavengro.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, Thomas

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​TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835), English writer, generally called "the Platonist," was born in London on the 15th of May 1758, and lived there till his death on the 1st of November 1835. He was sent to St Paul's school, but was soon removed to Sheerness, where he spent several years with a relative who was engaged in the dockyard. He then began to study for the dissenting ministry, but an imprudent marriage and pecuniary difficulties compelled him to abandon the idea. He became a schoolmaster, a clerk in Lubbock's banking-house, and from 1798-1806 was assistant secretary to the society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and commerce, which post he resigned to devote himself to the study of philosophy. He had the good fortune to obtain the patronage of the duke of Norfolk and of a Mr Meredith, a retired tradesman of literary tastes, who assisted him to publish several of his works. These mainly consisted of translations of the whole or part of the writings of Aristotle, Plato, Plotinus, Proclus, Pausanias, Porphyry, Ocellus Lucanus, and the Orphic hymns. His efforts were unfavourably—almost contemptuously—received, but, in spite of defects of scholarship and lack of critical faculty, due recognition must be awarded to the indomitable industry with which he overcame early difficulties. He figures as the "modern Pletho" in Isaac Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature and in his novel Vaurien, and as "England's gentile priest" in Mathias's Pursuits of Literature.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, Michael Angelo

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​TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834), English politician, was a son of Sir Robert Taylor (1714–1788), the architect, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn in 1774. He entered the House of Commons as member for Poole in 1784, and, with the exception of the short period from 1802 to 1806, remained a member of parliament until 1834, although not as the representative of the same constituency. In parliament Taylor showed himself anxious to curtail the delays in the Court of Chancery, and to improve the lighting and paving of the London streets; and he was largely instrumental in bringing about the abolition of the pillory. At first a supporter of the younger Pitt, he soon veered round to the side of Fox and the Whigs, favoured parliamentary reform, and was a personal friend of the regent, afterwards George IV. He was on the committee which managed the impeachment of Warren Hastings; was made a privy councillor in 1831; and died in London on the 16th of July 1834. Taylor is chiefly known in connexion with the Metropolitan Paving Act of 1817, which is still referred to as “Michael Angelo Taylor’s Act.” Often called “Chicken Taylor” because of his reference to himself as a “mere chicken in the law,” he is described by Sir Spencer Walpole as “a pompous harrister, with a little body and a loud voice.” Taylor’s father, Sir Robert, was the founder of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taylor, Philip Meadows

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​TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876), Anglo-Indian administrator and novelist, was born at Liverpool on the 25th of September 1808. At the age of fifteen he was sent out to India to become a clerk to a Bombay merchant. On his arrival the house was in financial difficulties, and he was glad to accept in 1824 a commission in the service of his highness the nizam, to which service he remained devotedly attached throughout his long career. He was speedily transferred from military duty to a civil appointment, and in this capacity he acquired a knowledge of the languages and the people of Southern India which has seldom been equalled. He studied the laws, the geology, the antiquities of the country; he was alternately judge, engineer, artist and man of letters, for on his return to England in 1840 on furlough he published the first of his Indian novels, Confesssions of a Thug, in which he reproduced, with singular vivacity and truth, the scenes which he had heard described by the chief actors in them. This book was followed by a series of tales, Tippoo Sultaun (1840), Tara (1863), Ralph Darnell (1865), Seeta (1872), and A Noble Queen (1878), all illustrating periods of Indian history and society, and giving a prominent place to the native character, for which and the native institutions and traditions he had a great regard and respect. Returning to India he acted from 1840 to 1853 as correspondent for The Times. He also wrote a Student’s Manual of the History of India (1870). About 1850, Meadows Taylor was appointed by the nizam’s government to administer, during a long minority, the principality of the young raja of Shorapore. He succeeded without any European assistance in raising this small territory to a high degree of prosperity, and such was his influence with the natives that on the occurrence of the mutiny in Bengal he held his ground without military support. Colonel Taylor, whose merits were now recognized and acknowledged by the British government of India—although he had never been in the service of the Company—was subsequently appointed to the deputy commissionership of the Western ceded districts, where he succeeded in establishing a new assessment of revenues at once more equitable to the cultivators and more productive to the government. By indefatigable perseverance he had raised himself from the condition of a half-educated lad, without patronage, and without even the support of the Company, to the successful government of some of the most important provinces of India, 36,000 square miles in extent and with a population of more than five millions. On his retirement from service in 1860 he was made a C.S.I. and given a pension. Taylor died at Mentone on the 13th of May 1876.
See Meadows Taylor’s The Story of My Life (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polyhedral Numbers

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​POLYHEDRAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. These numbers are related to the polyhedral (see POLYHEDRON) in a manner similar to the relation between polygonal numbers (see above) and polygons. Take the case of tetrahedral numbers. Let AB, AC, AD be three co vertical edges of
a regular tetrahedron. Divide AB,
into parts each equal to AVI, so
that tetrahedral having the common
vertex A are obtained, whose linear
2 dimensions increase arithmetically.
3 Imagine that we have a number of
spheres (or shot) of a diameter equal
B D to the distance A1. It is seen that
4 shot having their centres at the
C vertices of the tetrahedron A1 will form a pyramid. In the case of the tetrahedron
of edge A2 we require 3 along each side of the base, i.e. 6, 3 along the base of AI, and I at A, making IO in all. To add a. third layer, we will require 4 along each base, i.e. 9, and 1 in the centre. Hence in the tetrahedron A3 we have 20 shot. The numbers 1, 4, 10, 20 are polyhedral numbers, and from their association with the tetrahedron are termed “ tetrahedral numbers.”
This illustration may serve for a definition of polyhedral numbers: a polyhedral number represents the number of equal spheres which can be placed within a polyhedron so that the spheres touch one another or the sides of the polyhedron. In the case of the tetrahedron we have seen the numbers to be I, 4, IO, 20; the general formula for the nth tetrahedral number is § n(n+1)(n-|-2). Cubic numbers are 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, &c; or generally na. Octahedral numbers are 1, 6, 19,44, &c., or generally § n(2n2+1). Dodecahedral numbers are 1, 20, 84, 220, &c.; or generally § n(9n2-9n-|-2). icosahedral numbers are 1, 12, 48, 124, &c., or generally § n(5n2-5n+2).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polygonal Numbers

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​POLYGONAL NUMBERS, in mathematics. Suppose we have a number of equal circular counters, then the number of counters which can be placed on a regular polygon so that the tangents to the outer rows form the regular polygon and all the internal counters are in contact with its neighbours, is a “polygonal number ” of the order of the polygon. If the polygon be a triangle then it is readily seen that the numbers are 3, 6, IO, 1 5 and generally en (n + 1); if a square, 4, 9, 16, . and generally n2; if a pentagon, 5, 12, 22 and generally n(3n—1); if a. hexagon, 6, 15, 28, . and generally n(2n- 1); and similarly for a polygon of r sides, the general expression for the corresponding polygonal number is § n[(n- 1) (V-2)+2]
Algebraically, polygonal numbers may be regarded as the sums of consecutive terms of the arithmetical progressions having 1 for the first term and I, 2, 3, . . for the common differences. Taking unit common difference we have the series 1; 1+2=3; 1+2+3 =6; 1+2-+-3-1-4=1o; or generally I-l-2-f-3 -}- n§ n(n+I); these are triangular numbers. With a common difference 2 we have I: l+3=4; I+3+5=9; I +3+5+7= 16? or generally I-l-3-l-5+ . -l- (2n-1)=n2; and generally for the polygonal number of the rth order we take the sums of consecutive terms of the series
1, 1+(r-2), 1+2 (r-2), . 1+n-1 r-2;
and hence the nth polygonal number of the rth order is the sum of n terms of this series, i, e.,
x+1+(r-2)+1+2(r-2)+ -1-(1-}-n-1.r-2)
=n+§ n.n-1.r-2.
The series I, 2, 3, 4, ... or generally n, are the so-called"' linear numbers " (cf. FIGURATE NUMBERS).