OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malling, East and West

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​MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallemuck

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​MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch Mallemugge (which originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light), a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in the Southern Ocean—corrupted into “molly mawk,” or “mollymauk.” A number of species have been identified. Diomedea irrorata of West Peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; D. migripes of the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill; D. immutabilis of Japan is darker but has a white head. D. melanophrys of the southern oceans has been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. D. bulleri of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump and ashy head. Diomedea (or Thalassogeron) culminata and chlororhyncha of the southern seas, D. (or T.) cauta of Tasmania, salvini of New Zealand and layardi of the Cape resemble D. bulleri, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (Notes of a Naturalist, 130) describes D. culminata as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim—the whole being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of D. bulleri are red, of D. chlororhyncha flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallet, David

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​MALLET (or Malloch), DAVID (?1705–1765), Scottish poet and dramatist, the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in 1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James Thomson, author of The Seasons. As early as 1720 he began to publish short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared during the next few years in collections such as the Edinburgh Miscellany and Allan Ramsay’s Tea Table Miscellany, in which his ballad “William and Margaret” was published in 1724. For some years from 1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose’s sons, with whom he travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in a poem on Verbal Criticism, in 1733; and through Pope he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope’s death, in 1744, Mallet, at the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and friendship, vilified the poet’s memory, thereby incurring the resentment of Pope’s friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April 1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably Almida, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771.
Mallet’s own works included several plays, some of which were produced by Garrick, who was Mallet’s personal friend. Eurydice, a tragedy, with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in 1731; Mustapha, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the masque Alfred, of which he published a new version in 1751, after Thomson’s death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, “Rule Britannia,” the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet, although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with Thomson’s name attached. His other writings include Poems on Several Occasions (1743); Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit (1747); another volume of Poems (1762).
In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet’s Works was published in three volumes; and in 1857 his Ballads and Songs were edited by F. Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallet, Robert

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​MALLET, ROBERT (1810–1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848–1849 the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and from 1852–1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the preparation of his great work, The Earthquake Catalogue of the British Association (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857 and The First Principles of Observational Seismology. He then brought forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth’s surface, whence came the impulse of the Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans. clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations. He sought to show that volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical, down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the 5th of November 1881.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallock, William Hurrell

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​MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849– ), English author, was born at Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable attention by his satirical story The New Republic (2 vols., 1877), in which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely scientific data. In Is Life Worth Living? (1879) and The New Paul and Virginia (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the intellectual position of the Church of England, Doctrine and Doctrinal Disruption (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined creed. Later volumes on similar topics were Religion as a Credible Doctrine (1903) and The Reconstruction of Belief (1905). He published several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and Socialist theories: Social Equality (1882), Property and Progress (1884), Labour and the Popular Welfare (1893), Classes and Masses (1896) and Aristocracy and Evolution (1898); and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, The Old Order Changes (1886). His other novels include A Romance of the Nineteenth Century (1881), A Human Document (1892), The Heart of Life (1895) and The Veil of the Temple (1904). He published a volume of Poems in 1880, and in 1900 Lucretius on Life and Death in verse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallow (Ireland)

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​MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the Blackwater, 1441/2 m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction for lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from 1818, but there are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There are manufactures of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended by a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban district council.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malleson, George Bruce

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​MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825–1898), Indian officer and author, was born at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. He retired ​with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I. in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous “Red Pamphlet,” published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the History of the Indian Mutiny (6 vols., 1878–1880), which was begun but left unfinished by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are History of the French in India (2nd ed., 1893) and The Decisive Battles of India (3rd ed., 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallet du Pan, Jacques

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​MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749–1800), French journalist, of an old Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production of his Annales politiques (1778–1780). During Linguet’s imprisonment in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the Annales by himself (1781–1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan changed the title of his own publication to Mémoires historiques (1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the Mercure de France in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists, and was sent on a mission (1791–1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try and secure the ​sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where he founded the Mercure britannique. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern political journalism. His son John Lewis Mallet (1775–1861) spent a useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet’s second son, Sir Louis Mallet (1823–1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of India.
Mallet du Pan’s Mémoires et correspondance was edited by A. Sayous (Paris, 1851). See Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution (1902), by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography of his father (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rapin, Paul de

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​RAPIN, PAUL DE (1661–1725), sieur of Thoyras, French historian, was the son of Jacques de Rapin, avocat at Castres (Tarn), where he was born on the 25th of March 1661. He was educated at the Protestant academy of Saumur, and in 1679 became an advocate, but soon afterwards entered the army. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and the death of his father led him to come to England; but, unable to find employment there, he crossed to Holland and enlisted in the company of French volunteers at Utrecht commanded by Daniel de Rapin, his cousin-german. He accompanied the prince of Orange to England in 1688, and during the Irish campaign he took part in the siege of Carrickfergus and the battle of the Boyne, and was wounded at the battle of Limerick. Soon afterwards he was promoted captain; but in 1693 he resigned in order to become tutor to the earl of Portland’s son. After travelling with his charge, he settled with his family in Holland, first at the Hague, then, for economy’s sake, at Wesel, in 1707, where he began his great work, L’Histoire d’Angleterre. Though he was of a strong constitution, the seventeen years’ application ruined his health. He died in 1725.
Rapin was also the author of a Dissertation sur les Whigs et les Torys (1717). L’Histoire d’Angleterre, embracing the period from the invasion of the Romans to the death of Charles I., was printed at the Hague in 1724 in 8 vols. It was translated into English and improved with notes by Tindal, in 2 vols. folio, 1725–31. Rapin’s history of England was almost the only one available in France in the first half of the 18th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rapoport, Samuel Judah Löb

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​RAPOPORT, SAMUEL JUDAH LÖB (1790–1867), Jewish scholar, was born at Lemberg in 1790. After various experiences in business, Rapoport became successively rabbi of Tarnopol (1837) and of Prague (1840). He was one of the founders of the new learning in Judaism. His chief work was the first part of an (unfinished) encyclopedia ('Erekh Millin, 1852). Equally notable were his biographies of the Gaon Saadiah, Nathan author of the Arnkh, the Gaon Hai, Eleazar Kalir and others. He died at Prague in 1867. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rapparee

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​ RAPPAREE, properly a short pike (Irish rapaire); the term being hence applied in the war in Ireland from 1688–92 to the Irish irregular soldiers armed with this weapon. It thus became synonymous with robber or freebooter, and in 1707 appears in the title of an act (6 Anne, cap. 11) “for the more effectual suppression of ... robbers and rapparees.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ras

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​RAS, the Arabic for a “ head,” hence a cape, promontory or headland; a common word in place names.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raphael

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​RAPHAEL (Hebrew Sem, “God heals”), an angel who in human disguise and under the name of Azarias (“Yahweh helps”) accompanies Tobias in his adventurous journey and conquers the demon Asmodaeus (Book of Tobit). He is said (Tob. xii. 15) to be “one of the seven holy angels [archangels] which present the prayers of the saints and go in before the glory of the Holy One.” In the Book of Enoch (c. xx.) Raphael is “the angel of the spirits of men,” and it is his business to “heal the earth which the angels have denied.” In later Midrash Raphael appears as the angel commissioned to put down the evil spirits that vexed the sons of Noah with plagues and sicknesses after the Flood, and he it 'was who taught men the use of simples and furnished materials for the “Book of Noah,” the earliest treatise on materia medica.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rapier

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​ RAPIER, the name given to two distinct types of sword. Originally the “rapier” (Fr. rapiére) was a long two-edged and pointed weapon with a wide cup hilt, used together with the dagger in fencing and duelling chiefly as a thrusting weapon, the cut taking a secondary position. This was the typical duelling sword of the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century the “small-sword” took its place; this was a pointed weapon only, the “cut” having entirely dropped out, and the dagger being discarded. The Word rapier is of doubtful origin. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. “Rapparia”) quotes an example of the word used as an adjective to qualify espée as early as 1474, and gives as a conjectural derivation Gr. ῥαπίξειν=Lat. caedere, to cut. Skeat (Etym. Dict., 1910) follows the suggestion of Diez that rapiére is from raspiére, a rasper or poker, and was a name given in contempt by the old cut-and-thrust fencers to the new weapon. Spanish has raspadera, a raker, and there are several 16th and 17th century quotations alluding to the contempt with which the rapier was greeted, and to its Spanish origin (see Fencing and Sword).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rappoltsweiler

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​RAPPOLTSWEILER (French Ribeauville), a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine. Pop. (1905) 5986. It lies at the entrance of the valley of the Strengbach, under the eastern slope of the Vosges mountains, 33 m. S.W. of Strassburg on the railway to Basel, being connected with its station on that line, 2% m. distant, by a tramway. It is in part surrounded by ancient walls, and has many picturesque medieval houses, and two old churches, of St Gregory and St Augustine, both fine Gothic buildings. The town hall contains a valuable collection of antiquities. The Carolabad, a saline spring with a temperature of 64° F., which had a great repute in the middle ages, was rediscovered in 1888, and made Rappoltsweiler a watering-place. The industries include the spinning and weaving of cotton and wool, printing, dyeing and tanning, while there is a brisk trade in wine.
Rappoltsweiler, known in the 8th century as Rathaldovilare, passed from the bishops of Basel to the lords of Rappoltstein, who were among the most famous nobles in Alsace. The lord of Rappoltstein was the king or protector of the wandering minstrels of the land, who purchased his protection by paying him a tax. When the family became extinct in 1673 this orifice of king of the pipers (Pfeiferkénig) passed to the counts palatine of Zweibriicken-Birkenield. The minstrels had a pilgrimage chapel near Rappoltsweiler, dedicated to their patron saint, Maria von Dusenbach, and here they held an annual feast on the 8th of September. Near the town are the ruins of three famous castles, Ulrichsburg, Girsberg and Hohrappoltstein, which formerly belonged to the lords of Rappoltstein.
See Bernhard, Recherches sur l’histoire de la ville de Rappoltsweiler (Colmar, 1888); and Kube, Rappoltsweiler, das Carolabad und Umgebung (Strassburg, 1905). For the lords of Rappoltstein, see Brieger, Die Herrschaft Rappollstein (Strassburg, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Selēnē

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​SELĒNĒ, in Greek mythology, the divine personification of the moon, daughter of Hyperion and Theia, sister of Helios and Eos. By Zeus she was said to have been the mother of Pandia (the all-bright), who was worshipped with her father at the festival named after her Pandia. She was also wooed by Pan in the form of a white ram, or she had selected a white ram from his flock as the price of her favours. The most famous of her amours was with Endymion (q.v.). Selene was represented as a beautiful young woman with wings and a golden diadem, sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by two white, sometimes winged, horses (or cows, symbolizing the moon's crescent, or bulls), or herself mounted on a horse, a bull, a mule or a ram. At Elis there was a statue of Selene, her head surmounted by a crescent. Later, she was identified with Artemis, and as such called Phoebe, the sister of Phoebus Apollo. She was worshipped on the days of the new and the full moon. Another name for Selene was Mēnē, in reference to the monthly changes of the moon. The existence of a male moon-god (Mēn), whose cult probably came to Attica from Asia Minor, is attested by inscriptions. The Roman goddess of the moon was Luna, who possessed sanctuaries on the Aventine and Palatine hills. In the former she was worshipped on the last day of March (the first month of the old Roman year); in the latter as Noctiluca (giving light by night), her sanctuary being illuminated on such occasions.
See W. H. Roscher, Über Selene und Verwandtes (1890), with Nachträge (1895); Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., I894), pp. 443–446; A. Legrand, s.v. “ Luna ” in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquités.