OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sin (moon-god)

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​SIN, the name of the moon-god in Babylonia and Assyria, also known as Nannar, the “illuminer.” The two chief seats of his worship were Ur in the S., and Harran considerably to the N., but the cult at an early period spread to other centres, and temples to the moon-god are found in all the large cities of Babylonia and Assyria. He is commonly designated as En-zu, i.e. “lord of wisdom,” and this attribute clings to him throughout all periods. During the period (c. 2600-2400 B.C.) that Ur exercised a large measure of supremacy over the Euphrates valley, Sin was naturally regarded as the head of the pantheon. It is to this period that we must trace such designations of the god as “father of the gods,” “chief of the gods,” “creator of all things,” and the like. We are justified in supposing that the cult of the moon-god was brought into Babylonia by the Semitic nomads from Arabia. The moon-god is par excellence the god of nomadic peoples, their guide and protector at night when, during a great part of the year, they undertake their wanderings, just as the sun-god is the chief god of an agricultural people. The cult once introduced would tend to persevere, and the development of astrological science culminating in a calendar and in a system of interpretation of the movements and occurrences in the starry heavens would be an important factor in maintaining the position of Sin in the pantheon. The name of Sin's chief sanctuary at Ur was E-gish-shir-gal, “house of the great light”; that at Harran was known as E-khul-khul, “house of joys.” On seal-cylinders he is represented as an old man with flowing beard, with the crescent as his symbol. In the astral-theological system he is represented by the number 30, and the planet Venus as his daughter by the number 15. The number 30 stands obviously in connexion with the thirty days as the average extent of his course until he stands again in conjunction with the sun. The “wisdom” personified by the moon-god is likewise an expression of the science of astrology in which the observation of the moon's phases is so important a factor. The tendency to centralize the powers of the universe leads to the establishment of the doctrine of a triad consisting of Sin, Shamash and Ishtar (q.v.), personifying the moon, sun and the earth as the life-force. (M. Ja.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schmidt, Heinrich Julian

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SCHMIDT, HEINRICH JULIAN (1818-1886), German journalist and historian of literature, was born at Marienwerder in East Prussia on the 7th of March 1818, and after studying history and philosophy at the university of Königsberg was appointed, in 1842, to a mastership in the Luisenstadt Realschule in Berlin. In 1847 he joined the editorial staff of the Grenzboten
in Leipzig, and in the following year became, with Gustav Freytag, joint owner of that periodical. In 1861 he removed to Berlin as editor-in-chief of the Berliner allgemeine Zeitung, and in 1878 was rewarded for the journalistic services rendered to the government, by a pension from the emperor William I. He died at Berlin on the 27th of March 1886.
Julian Schmidt's principal contributions to literary history are Geschichte der Romantik im Zeitalter der Revolution und Restauration (1848); Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur im 19. Jahrhundert (1853); Geschichte des geistigen Lebens in Deutschland von Leibniz bis auf Lessings Tod (1861-1863). These works subsequently appeared as Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit (4 vols., 1886-1896); Schmidt also wrote a Geschichte der französischen Literatur seit der Revolution (1857), and a biography of Schiller (1859).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlotheim, Ernst Friedrich, Baron von

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SCHLOTHEIM, ERNST FRIEDRICH, Baron von (1764-1832), German palaeontologist, was born in Grafschaft Schwarzburg on the 2nd of April 1764. He was Privy Councillor and President of the Chamber at the court of Gotha. Becoming interested in geology he gathered together a very extensive collection of fossils. In 1804 he published descriptions and illustrations of remarkable remains of (Carboniferous) plants, Ein Beitrag zur Flora der Vorwelt. His more important work was entitled Die Petrefactenkunde (1820). In this he incorporated the plates used in his previous memoir and supplemented it by a folio atlas (1822), in which he illustrated his collection “of petrified and fossil remains of the animal and vegetable kingdom of a former world.” For the first time in Germany the fossils were named according to the binomial system. The specimens are preserved in the Berlin Museum. He died at Gotha on the 28th of March 1832.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlüter, Andreas

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​SCHLÜTER, ANDREAS (1664-1714), German sculptor and architect, was born in Hamburg. Much of his activity as a sculptor was exercised in Warsaw, but in 1694 he was summoned to Berlin. Two years later he began his designs for the rebuilding of the royal palace. The execution of these occupied him from 1699 to 1706, and the palace became a conspicuous example of barocco style in Germany. In 1713 Schlüter went to St Petersburg, where he did architectural work for Peter the Great. His principal works in Berlin are the monument of the great elector Frederick William and the 21 masks of dying warriors in the courtyard of the arsenal, the tombs of King Frederick I. and his wife, and the marble pulpit in the Marienkirche.
See C. Gurlitt, Andreas Schlüter (1891); C. F. von Kloeden, Andreas Schlüter (1855).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlippe's Salt

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​SCHLIPPE'S SALT, or sodium thioantimoniate, Na$_3$SbS$_4$·9H$_2$O, named after K. F. Schlippe (1799–1867), is prepared by dissolving the calculated quantities of antimony trisulphide, sulphur ​and sodium hydroxide in water, or by fusing sodium sulphate (16 parts), antimony sulphide (13 parts) and charcoal (4.5 parts), dissolving the melt in water and boiling the solution with 2½ parts of sulphur. The liquid is then filtered and evaporated. The salt crystallizes in large tetrahedra, which are easily soluble in water, and have a specific gravity 1.806. The anhydrous salt melts easily on heating, and in the hydrated condition, on exposure to moist air becomes coated with a red film. It combines with sodium thiosulphate to form Na$_3$SbS$_4$·Na$_2$S$_2$O$_3$·2OH$_2$O.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schmalkalden

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​SCHMALKALDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a narrow valley at the south-western slope of the Thuringian forest, 30 m. S.W. of Erfurt, on the railway Wernshausen-St Blasii. Pop. (1905) 9529. It has a Gothic parish church, a palace — Schloss Wilhelmsburg — with an interesting chapel and a collection of antiquities, and possesses a Gothic town hall in which the important Protestant League of Schmalkalden, or Smalkald, was concluded in 1531, and also the house in which the articles of Schmalkalden were drawn up in 1537 by Luther, Melanchthon and other reformers. It has three other Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church and several schools. Its industries are chiefly connected with ironwares, but leather, beer, soap and toys are also manufactured. Karl Wilhelms (1815-1873), the composer of “Die Wacht am Rhein,” was born here, and there is a memorial of him in the market-place. Schmalkalden, which was first mentioned in 874, came wholly into the possession of Hesse in 1583, having been a town since 1335.
See Wagner, Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Schmalkalden (Marburg, 1849); and Wilisch, Schmalkalden und seine Umgebungen (Schmalkalden, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlüsselburg

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​SCHLÜSSELBURG, a town of Russia, in the government of St Petersburg, situated on low ground surrounded by marshes, at the issue of the river Neva from Lake Ladoga, 40 m. by steamer E. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop. (1897) 5285. It was founded in 1323 by the Novgorodians, and though afterwards lost by Russia, was reconquered by Peter the Great in 1702. It has a cathedral and a fortress, built on an island in the Neva, which is now used as a political prison.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sargon

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​SARGON, more correctly Sarru-Kinu (“the legitimate king,” Sargon being a hybrid formation from the Semitic sar and the Sumerian gina, “established”), an Assyrian general who, on the death of Shalmaneser IV., during the siege of Samaria, seized the crown on the 12th of Tebet 722 B.C. He claimed to be the descendant of the early kings, and accordingly assumed the name of a famous king of Babylonia who had reigned about 3000 years before him. His first achievement was the capture of Samaria, 27,200 of its inhabitants being carried into captivity. Meanwhile Babylon had revolted under a Chaldaean prince, Merodach-baladan, who maintained his power there for twelve years. In 720 B.C. Yahu-bihdi of Hamath led Arpad, Damascus and Palestine into revolt: this was suppressed, and the Philistines and Egyptians were defeated at Raphia (mod. er-Rafa). In 719 B.C. Sargon defeated the Minni to the east of Armenia, and in 717 overthrew the combined forces of the Hittites and Moschi (Old Testament Meshech). The Hittite city of Carchemish was placed under an Assyrian governor, and its trade passed into Assyrian hands. The following year Sargon was attacked by a great confederacy of the northern nations—Ararat, the Moschi, Tibareni, &c.—and in the course of the campaign marched into the land of the Medes in the direction of the Caspian. In 715 B.C. the Minni were defeated, and one of their chiefs, Dāyuku or Daiukku (Deioces), transported to Hamath. In 714 B.C. the army of Rusas of Ararat was annihilated, and a year later five Median chiefs, including Arbaku (Arbaces) became tributary. Cilicia and the Tibareni also submitted as well as the city of Malatia, eastern Cappadocia being annexed to the Assyrian Empire. A league was now formed between Merodach-baladan and the princes of the west, but before the confederates could move, an Assyrian army was sent against Ashdod, and Edom, Moab and Judah submitted to Sargon, who was thus free to turn his attention to Babylonia, and Merodach-baladan was accordingly driven from Babylon, where Sargon was crowned king. Shortly after this Sargon sent a statue of himself to Cyprus and annexed the kingdom of Commagene. He was murdered in 705 B.C., probably in the palace he had built at Dur-Sargina, now Khorsabad, which was excavated by P. E. Botta.  (A. H. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sark

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​SARK, a small island of the Channel Islands, 7 m. E. of Guernsey, much visited on account of its magnificent cliff scenery and caves. It is 3 m. long from N. to S. and 1½ m. in extreme breadth. Area, 1274 acres; pop. (1901) 504. It is divided into two unequal parts, known as Great Sark (the more northern) and Little Sark, connected by the Coupée, a lofty isthmus so narrow at the summit that it bears only a roadway, artificially built up, and flanked by a precipice on either side. Many islets and detached rocks lie oil the coast; Brechou Island to the west is large enough to have a few fields and a house upon it. Some of the rocks are very fine, such as the four lofty flat-topped pillars called the Autelets (altars).
The harbour of Sark lies on the east coast, a tiny cliff-bound bay protected by a breakwater, communicating with the interior only through two tunnels, one of which is modern, while the other dates from 1588. The harbour is called Creux. This is a term of common use in the Channel Islands, applying primarily to natural funnels or pits, but extended also to clefts such as that which forms the harbour. The Creux du Derrible (Old French, a downfall of rocks) is a wide shaft opening from the summit of the cliff and communicating with the sea through a double cave, through which the sea rushes at high water. Of the many majestic caverns in the cliffs the Boutiques and the Gouliots, both on the west coast of Great Sark, may be specially mentioned. The marine fauna is very rich. On Great Sark are the majority of the houses, the church, and the seigneurie or manor-house. An ancient mill stands at the summit of the island (375 ft.). Agriculture and fishing are carried on. In Little Sark a disused shaft marks a silver-mine, worked in 1835, but soon abandoned. The island is included in the bailiwick of Guernsey, but has a court of justice of feudal character, the officers being appointed by the seigneur.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarmatae

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​SARMATAE, or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans), a people whom Herodotus (iv. 21. 117) puts on the eastern boundary of Scythia (q.v.) beyond the Tanais (Don). He says expressly that they were not pure Scythians, but, being descended from young Scythian men and Amazons, spoke an impure dialect and allowed their women to take part in war and to enjoy much freedom. Later writers call some of them the “woman-ruled Sarmatae.” Hippocrates (De Aere, &c., 24) classes them as Scythian. From this we may infer that they spoke a language cognate with the Scythic. The greater part of the barbarian names occurring in the inscriptions of Olbia, Tanais and Panticapaeum are supposed to be Sarmatian, and as they have been well explained from the Iranian language now spoken by the Ossetes of the Caucasus, these are supposed to be the representatives of the Sarmatae and can be shown to have a direct connexion with the Alani (q.v.), one of their tribes. By the 3rd century B.C. the Sarmatae appear to have supplanted the Scyths proper in the plains of south Russia, where they remained dominant until the Gothic and Hunnish invasions. Their chief divisions were the Rhoxolani (q.v.), the Iazyges (q.v.), with whom the Romans had to deal on the Danube and Theiss, and the Alani. The term Sarmatia is applied by later writers to as much as was known of what is now Russia, including all that which the older authorities call Scythia, the latter name being transferred to regions farther east. Ptolemy gives maps of European and Asiatic Sarmatia. (E. H. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarmentose

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​SARMENTOSE (Lat. sarmentum, twigs), a botanical term for plants producing long runners.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saripul

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​SARIPUL, or Siripul, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town lies 100 m. S.W. of Balkh; estimated pop. 18,000. Two-thirds of the people are Uzbegs and the rest Hazaras. The khanate, which lies between Balkh and Maimana, is one of the “four domains” which were in dispute between Bokhara and Kabul, and were allotted to the Afghans by the Anglo-Russian boundary agreement of 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarnen

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​SARNEN, the capital of the western half (or Obwalden) of the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. It stands 1558 ft. above sea-level, at the north end of the lake of Sarnen (3 sq. m. in extent) and on the river Aa. Pop. (1900) 3949. It has a large parish church and two convents. In the archives is preserved the famous MS. known from the colour of its binding as the White Book of Sarnen, which contains one of the earliest known versions of the Tell legend (see Tell). Sarnen is a station on the Brünig Railway, being 4½ m. from Alpnachstad, its port on the lake of Lucerne. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sargasso Sea

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​SARGASSO SEA, a tract of the North Atlantic Ocean, covered with floating seaweed (Sargassum, originally named sargaço by the Portuguese). This tract is bounded approximately by 25° and 30° N. and by 38° and 60° W., but its extent varies according to winds and ocean currents. By these agencies the weed is carried and massed together, the original source of supply being probably the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico (see Algae). Similar circumstances lead to the existence of other similar tracts covered with floating weed, e.g. in the solitary part of the Pacific Ocean, north of the Hawaiian islands, between 30° and 40° N. and between 150° and 180° W. There is a smaller tract S.E. of New Zealand, and along a belt of the southern ocean extending from the Falkland Islands, south of Africa and south-west of Australia, similar floating banks of weed are encountered. The Sargasso Sea was discovered by Columbus, who on his first voyage was involved in it for about a fortnight. The widely credited possibility of ships becoming embedded in the weed, and being unable to escape, is disproved by the expedition of the “Michael Sars,” under the direction of Sir John Murray and the Norwegian government, in 1910, which found the surface covered with weed only in patches, not continuously.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarlat

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​SARLAT, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Dordogne, 44 m. E. by N. of Bergerac on the railway to Aurillac. Pop. (1906) town 4018, commune 6195. The town grew up round a monastery founded in the 8th century and early in the 14th century became the seat of a bishopric which was suppressed in 1790. The former cathedral and abbey-church preserves interesting architecture of the Romanesque and later periods and remarkable wood-carving of the 15th century. There is also a curious pyramidical structure of the 12th century, which was probably used as a burial-place. The house where Étienne de la Boétie (d. 1563), the moralist, was born, and other houses in the Gothic and Renaissance styles are to be seen. La Boétie has a statue in the town. There is a large trade in cattle. Distilling, the manufacture of tin-boxes, and the preparation of truffles, pâtés de foie gras and other delicacies and of nut-oil are carried on; there are coal and iron mines and stone-quarries in the vicinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sargent, John Singer

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​SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856–), American artist, son of a distinguished Boston physician, was born at Florence, Italy, on the 12th of January 1856. He was educated in Italy and Germany, and in 1874 entered the atelier of Carolus-Duran in Paris. He received an “honourable mention” in the Salon of 1878 for his “En route pour la pêche,” and in 1881 a second class medal for his “Portrait of a Young Lady” (made famous by Henry James’s appreciation). In 1886 his “Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose,” exhibited at the Royal Academy, was bought for the Chantrey Bequest. He rapidly became known in London as a brilliant portrait painter, and year by year his Academy portraits were the leading features of its exhibitions. Though of the French school, and American by birth, it is as a British artist that he won fame by his vogue as the most sought-after portrait painter of the day, his sitters including the men and women of greatest distinction in the literary, artistic and social life of Europe and America. While best known, and consequently busily employed, as a portrait painter, he had at the same time a disposition towards other, and especially decorative work; his paintings of Brittany, Venice and Eastern scenes are less known, but his labour of love, the ornate decorations for the Boston public library (completed in 1903), “The Pageant of Religion,” shows the other side of his genius. Among his pictures in public galleries not already mentioned are “El Jaleo” (exhibited 1882), in the Boston Art Museum; “La Carmencita,” in the Luxembourg; “Coventry Patmore,” in the National Portrait Gallery, London; and “Henry Marquand” (1887), in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1894, and R.A. in 1897; he was the recipient of various medals of honour, and was made a member of the chief artistic societies of Europe and America.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mallet, Paul Henri

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​MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730–1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of belles lettres to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his researches, under the title Introduction à l’histoire du Danemarck où l’on traite de la religion, des mœurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois. A second part, more particularly relating to the ancient literature of the country, Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulièrement des anciens Scandinaves, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of Northern Antiquities (republished with additions in 1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation into French of the Edda. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.
A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at Geneva in 1807. Besides the Introduction to the History of Denmark, his principal works are: Histoire du Danemarck (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1758–1777); Histoire de la maison de Hesse (4 vols., 1767–1785); Histoire de la maison de Brunswick (4 vols., 1767–1785); Histoire de la maison et des états du Mecklenbourg (1796); Histoire des Suisses ou Helvétiens (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment of J. von Müller’s great history); Histoire de la ligue hanséatique (1805).