OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dirk

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​DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard. Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk, in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in. long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were dork and durk, and the spelling dirk, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronunciation of the second form. The name seems to have been early applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is biodag, and the Irish duirc, often stated to be the origin, is only an adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the German Dolch, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application of the Christian name “Dirk,” the short form of “Dieterich,” is not borne out, according to the New English Dictionary, by any use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the earlier English spelling.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dirge

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​DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at funerals or at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is derived from the first word of the antiphon ”Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam” (Guide, O Lord, my God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from verse 8 of Psalm v.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dir

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​DIR, an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of 1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the population is estimated at about 100,000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dirce

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​DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recognized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the famous group called “The Farnese Bull,” by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see Greek Art, Plate I. fig. 51).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Disability

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​DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age, insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinuation of the disabling state, as attainment of full age.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Direct Motion

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​DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Epinaos

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​EPINAOS (Gr. ἐπί, after, and ναός, a temple), in architecture, the open vestibule behind the nave. The term is not found in any classic author, but is a modern coinage, originating in Germany, to differentiate the feature from “opisthodomus,” which in the Parthenon was an enclosed chamber.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Episode

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​EPISODE, an incident occurring in the history of a nation, an institution or an individual, especially with the significance of being an interruption of an ordered course of events, an irrelevance. The word is derived from a word (ἐπείσοδος) with a technical meaning in the ancient Greek tragedy. It is defined by Aristotle (Poetics, 12) as μέρος ὅλον τραγῳδίας τὸ μεταξὺ ὅλων χορικῶν μελῶν, all the scenes, that is, which fall between the choric songs. εἴσοδος, or entrance, is generally applied to the entrance of the chorus, but the reference may be to that of the actors at the close of the choric songs. In the early Greek tragedy the parts which were spoken by the actors were considered of subsidiary importance to those sung by the chorus, and it is from this aspect that the meaning of the word, as something which breaks off the course of events, is derived (see A. E. Haigh, The Tragic Drama of the Greeks, 1896, at p. 353).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Epistaxis

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​EPISTAXIS (Gr. ἐπί, upon, and στάζειν, to drop), the medical term for bleeding from the nose, whether resulting from local injury or some constitutional condition. In persistent cases of nose-bleeding, various measures are adopted, such as holding the arms over the head, the application of ice, or of such astringents as zinc or alum, or plugging the nostrils.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Epistemology

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​EPISTEMOLOGY (Gr. ἐπιστήμη, knowledge, and λόγος, theory, account; Germ. Erkenntnistheorie), in philosophy, a term applied, probably first by J. F. Ferrier, to that department of thought whose subject matter is the nature and origin of knowledge. It is thus contrasted with metaphysics, which considers the nature of reality, and with psychology, which deals with the objective part of cognition, and, as Prof. James Ward said, “is essentially genetic in its method” (Mind, April 1883, pp. 166-167). Epistemology is concerned rather with the possibility of knowledge in the abstract (sub specie aeternitatis, Ward, ibid.). In the evolution of thought epistemological inquiry succeeded the speculations of the early thinkers, who concerned themselves primarily with attempts to explain existence. The differences of opinion which arose on this problem naturally led to the inquiry as to whether any universally valid statement was possible. The Sophists and the Sceptics, Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics and the Epicureans took up the question, and from the time of Locke and Kant it has been prominent in modern philosophy. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to draw a hard and fast line between epistemology and other branches of philosophy. If, for example, philosophy is divided into the theory of knowing and the theory of being, it is impossible entirely to separate the latter (Ontology) from the analysis of knowledge (Epistemology), so close is the connexion between the two. Again, the relation between logic in its widest sense and the theory of knowledge is extremely close. Some thinkers have identified the two, while others regard Epistemology as a subdivision of logic; others demarcate their relative spheres by confining logic to the science of the laws of thought, i.e. to formal logic. An attempt has been made by some philosophers to substitute “Gnosiology” (Gr. γνῶσις) for “Epistemology” as a special term for that part of Epistemology which is confined to “systematic analysis of the conceptions employed by ordinary and scientific thought in interpreting the world, and including an investigation of the art of knowledge, or the nature of knowledge as such.” “Epistemology” would thus be reserved for the broad questions of “the origin, nature and limits of knowledge” (Baldwin’s Dict. of Philos. i. pp. 333 and 414). The term Gnosiology has not, however, come into general use. (See Philosophy.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Draper

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​DRAPER, one who deals in cloth or textiles generally. The Fr. drap, cloth, from which drapier and Eng. “draper” are derived, is of obscure origin. It is possible that the Low Lat. drappus or trappus (the last form giving the Eng. “trappings”) may be connected with words such as “drub,” Ger. treffen, beat; the original sense would be fulled cloth. “Drab,” dull, pale, brown, is also connected, its first meaning being a cloth of a natural undyed colour. The Drapers’ Company is one of the great livery companies of the city of London. The fraternity is of very early origin. Henry Fitz-Alwyn (d. 1212?), the first mayor of London, is said to have been a draper. The first charter was granted in 1364. The Drapers’ Gild was one of the ​numerous subdivisions of the clothing trade, and appeared to have been confined to the retailing of woollen cloths, the linen-drapers forming in the 15th century a separate fraternity, which disappeared or was merged in the greater company. It is usual for drapers to combine the sale of “drapery,” i.e. of textiles generally, with that of millinery, hosiery, &c. In Wills v. Adams (reported in The Times, London, Nov. 20, 1908), the term “drapery” in a restrictive covenant was held not to include all goods that a draper might sell, such as furs or fur-lined goods.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Draper, John William

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​DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811–1882), American scientist, was born at St Helen’s, near Liverpool, on the 5th of May 1811. He studied at Woodhouse Grove, at the University of London, and, after removing to America in 1832, at the medical school of the University of Pennsylvania in 1835–1836. In 1837 he was elected professor of chemistry in the University of the City of New York, and was a professor in its school of medicine in 1840–1850, president of that school in 1850–1873, and professor of chemistry until 1881. He died at Hastings, New York, on the 4th of January 1882. He made important researches in photo-chemistry, made portrait photography possible by his improvements (1839) on Daguerre’s process, and published a Text-book on Chemistry (1846), Text-book on Natural Philosophy (1847), Text-book on Physiology (1866), and Scientific Memoirs (1878) on radiant energy. He is well known also as the author of The History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (1862), applying the methods of physical science to history, a History of the American Civil War (3 vols., 1867–1870), and a History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874).
His son, Henry Draper (1837–1882), graduated at the University of New York in 1858, became professor of natural science there in 1860, and was professor of physiology (in the medical school) and dean of the faculty in 1866–1873. He succeeded his father as professor of chemistry, but only for a year, dying in New York on the 20th of November 1882. Henry Draper’s most important contributions to science were made in spectroscopy; he ruled metal gratings in 1869–1870, made valuable spectrum photographs after 1871, and proved the presence of oxygen in the sun in a monograph of 1877. Edward C. Pickering carried on his study of stellar spectra with the funds of the Henry Draper Memorial at Harvard, endowed by his widow (née Mary Anna Palmer).
See accounts by George F. Barker in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Science, vols. 2 and 3 (Washington, 1886, 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Draught

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​DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word “to draw”; cf. Ger. Tracht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form “draft,” now confined to certain specific meanings), the act or action of drawing, extending, pulling, &c. It is thus applied to animals used for drawing vehicles or loads, “draught oxen,” &c., to the quantity of fish taken by one “drag” of a net, to a quantity of liquid taken or “drawn in” to the mouth, and to a current of air in a chimney, a room or other confined space. In furnaces the “draught” is “natural” when not increased artificially, or “forced” when increased by mechanical methods (see Boiler). The water a ship “draws,” or her “draught,” is the depth to which she sinks in the water as measured from her keel. The word was formerly used of a “move” in chess or similar games, and is thus, in the plural, the general English name of the game known also as “checkers” (see Draughts). The spelling “draft” is generally employed in the following usages. It is a common term for a written order “drawn on” a banker or other holder of funds for the payment of money to a third person; thus a cheque (q.v.) is a draft. A special form of draft is a “banker’s draft,” an instruction by one bank to another bank, or to a branch of the bank making the instruction, to pay a sum of money to the order of a certain specified person. Other meanings of “draft” are an outline, plan or sketch, or a preliminary drawing up of an instrument, measure, document, &c., which, after alteration and amendment, will be embodied in a final or formal shape; an allowance made by merchants or importers to those who sell by retail, to make up a loss incurred in weighing or measuring; and a detachment or body of troops “drawn off” for a specific purpose, usually a reinforcement from the depot or reserve units to those abroad or in the field. For the use of the term “draft” or “draught” in masonry and architecture see Drafted Masonry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dramburg

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​DRAMBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Drage, a tributary of the Oder, 50 m. E. of Stettin, on the railway Ruhnow-Neustettin. Pop. 5800. It contains an Evangelical church, a gymnasium, a hospital and various administrative offices, and carries on cotton and woollen weaving, tanning, brewing and distilling.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Drane, Augusta Theodosia

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​DRANE, AUGUSTA THEODOSIA (1823–1894), English writer, was born at Bromley, near Bow, on the 29th of December 1823. Brought up in the Anglican creed, she fell under the influence of Tractarian teaching at Torquay, and joined the Roman Catholic Church in 1850. She wrote, and published anonymously, an essay questioning the Morality of Tractarianism, which was attributed to John Henry Newman. In 1852, after a prolonged stay in Rome, she joined the third order of St Dominic, to which she belonged for over forty years. She was prioress (1872–1881) of the Stone convent in Staffordshire, where she died on the 29th of April 1894. Her chief works in prose and verse are: The History of Saint Dominic (1857; enlarged edition, 1891); The Life of St Catherine of Siena (1880; 2nd ed., 1899); Christian Schools and Scholars (1867); The Knights of St John (1858); Songs in the Night (1876); and the Three Chancellors (1859), a sketch of the lives of William of Wykeham, William of Waynflete and Sir Thomas More.
A complete list of her writings is given in the Memoir of Mother Francis Raphael, O.S.D., Augusta Theodosia Drane, edited by B. Wilberforce, O.P. (London, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Draupadi

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​DRAUPADI, in Hindu legend, the daughter of Drupada, king of Panchala, and wife of the five Pandava princes. She is an important character in the Mahabharata.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Drammen

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​DRAMMEN, a seaport of Norway, in Buskerud and Jarlsberg-Laurvik amter (counties), at the head of Drammen Fjord, a western arm of Christiania Fjord, 33 m. by rail S. W. from Christiania. Pop. (1900) 23,093. Its situation, at the mouth of the broad Drammen river, between lofty hills, is very beautiful. It is the junction of railways from Christiania to Haugsund, Kongsberg and Hönefos, and to Laurvik and Skien. The town is modern, having suffered from fires in 1866, 1870 and 1880. It consists of three parts: Bragernaes on the north, divided by the river from Strömsö and the port, Tangen, on the south. The prosperity of Drammen depends mainly on the timber trade; and saw-milling is an active industry, the logs being floated down the river from the upland forests. Timber and wood-pulp are exported (over half of each to Great Britain), with paper, ice and some cobalt and nickel ore. The chief imports are British coal and German machinery. Salmon are taken in the upper reaches of the Drammen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchell, Donald Grant

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​MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822–1908) American author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 12th of April 1822. He graduated at Yale College in 1841; studied law, but soon took up literature. Throughout his life he showed a particular interest in agriculture and landscape-gardening, which he followed at first in pursuit of health. He produced books of travel, volumes of essays on rural themes, of which My Farm of Edgewood (1863) is the best; sketchy studies of English monarchs and of English and American literature; and a character-novel entitled Doctor Johns (1866), &c.; but is best known as the author (under the pseudonym of “Ik Marvel”), of the sentimental essays contained in the volumes Reveries of a Bachelor, or a Book of the Heart (1850), and Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons (1851).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchell, Silas Weir

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​MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830–), American physician and author, son of a Philadelphia doctor, John Kearsley Mitchell (1798–1858), was born in Philadelphia on the 15th of February 1830. He studied at the university of Pennsylvania in that city, and received the degree of M.D. at Jefferson Medical College in 1850. During the Civil War he had charge of nervous injuries and maladies at Turner’s Lane Hospital, Philadelphia, and at the close of the war became a specialist in nervous diseases. In this field Weir Mitchell’s name became prominently associated with his introduction of the “rest cure,” subsequently taken up by the medical world, for nervous diseases, particularly hysteria; the treatment consisting primarily in isolation, confinement to bed, dieting and massage. In 1863 he wrote a clever short story, combining physiological and psychological problems, entitled “The Case of George Dedlow,” in the Atlantic Monthly. Thenceforward Dr Weir Mitchell, as a writer, divided his attention between professional and literary pursuits. In the former field he produced monographs on rattlesnake poison, on intellectual hygiene, on injuries to the nerves, on neurasthenia, on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse, physician, and patient; while in the latter he wrote juvenile stories, several volumes of respectable verse, and prose fiction of varying merit, which, however, gave him a leading place among the American authors of the close of the 19th century. His historical novels, Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The Adventures of François (1898) and The Red City (1909), take high rank in this branch of fiction.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitcham

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​MITCHAM, a suburb of London, in the Wimbledon parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 10 m. S. of London Bridge by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 14,903. Mitcham Common covers an area of 480 acres, and affords one of the best golf courses near London. The neighbourhood abounds in market gardens and plantations of aromatic herbs for the manufacture of scents and essences.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchel, Ormsby MacKnight

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​MITCHEL, ORMSBY MACKNIGHT (1809–1862), American astronomer, was born at Morganfield, Kentucky, on the 28th of July, 1809. He began life as a clerk, but, obtaining an appointment to a cadetship at West Point in 1825, he graduated there in 1829, and acted as assistant professor of mathematics 1829–1832. He was then called to the bar, but in 1836 became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Cincinnati College. In 1845 he was made director of an observatory established there through his initiative, and also in 1859 superintendent of the Dudley observatory at Albany. In 1861 he took part in the war as brigadier-general of volunteers, and for his skill in seizing certain important strategic points was on the 11th of April 1862 made major-general. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South Carolina, on the 30th of October 1862. He founded the Sidereal Messenger in 1846, was one of the first to adopt (in 1848) the electrical method of recording observations, and published besides other works, The Orbs of Heaven (1848, &c.), and Popular Astronomy (1860), both reissued at London in 1892.
See Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel; a Biographical Narrative, by his son, F. A. Mitchel (1887); P. C. Headley, The Patriot Boy (1865); Amer. Journal of Science, xxiv. 451 (1862); Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xxiii. 133, xxxvii. 121 (C. Abbe); Astr. Nach., No. 1401 (G. W. Hough).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mitchell

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​MITCHELL, a city and the county-seat of Davison county, South Dakota, U.S.A., about 70 m. W.N.W. of Sioux Falls. Pop. (1905), 5719; (1910), 6515. Mitchell is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. Among its buildings and institutions are the city hall, the Federal building, a Carnegie library, a hospital, and a sanatorium. Mitchell is the seat of the Dakota Wesleyan University (1885; Methodist Episcopal). At Mitchell is a “corn palace,” which is decorated each autumn with split ears of Indian corn, and is the centre of an annual festival, held in September and October. The city is an important shipping point for grain and livestock, and has a large wholesale trade. There are railway repair shops of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railway, machine shops, and manufactories of bricks and dressed lumber. Mitchell was settled in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1883.