OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tineo

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​TINEO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on a small tributary of the river Narcea, among the northern outliers of the Cantabrian Mountains, and on the high road from Cangas de Tineo to the Biscayan port of Cudillero. Pop. (1900), 21,865. Mining, agriculture and stock-rearing are the principal industries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tip-cat

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​TIP-CAT (also called Cat and Cat and Dog), a pastime which consists in tapping with a stick a short billet of wood with sharpened ends upon one of these ends, so that it jumps in the air, and then hitting it to the greatest possible distance. There are many varieties of the game, but in the most common the batter, having placed the billet, or cat, in a small circle on the ground, tips it into the air and hits it to a distance. His opponent then offers him a certain number of points, based upon his estimate of the number of hops or jumps necessary to cover the distance. If the batter thinks the distance underestimated he is at liberty to decline the offer and measure the distance in jumps, and score the number made. The game is one or more hundreds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tipasa

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​TIPASA. (1) A town and commune on the coast of Algeria, in the department of Algiers, 30 m. W. of the capital. Pop. of the commune (1906), 2725. The modern town, founded in 1857, is remarkable chiefly for its pleasant situation and sandy beach. The road stead is exposed to the N.E. and N.W. There is a mole about 90 ft. long and anchorage in six fathoms. A considerable trade is done. The Roman city of Tipasa was built on three small hills which overlooked the sea. Of the houses, most of which stood on the central hill, no traces remain; but there are ruins of three churches-the Great Basilica and the Basilica Alexander on the western hill, and the Basilica of St Salsa on the eastern hill—two cemeteries, the baths, theatre, amphitheatre and nymphaeum. The line of the ramparts can be distinctly traced and at the foot of the eastern hill the remains of the ancient harbour. The basilicas are surrounded by cemeteries, which are full of coffins, all of stone and covered with mosaics. The basilica of St Salsa, which has been excavated by S. Gsell, consists of a nave and two aisles, and still contains a mosaic. The Great Basilica served for centuries as a quarry, but it is still possible to make out the plan of the building, which was divided into seven aisles. Under the foundations of the church are tombs hewn out of the solid rock. Of these one is circular, with a diameter of 60 ft. and space for 24 coffins.
Tipasa was founded by the Phoenicians, was made a Roman military colony by the emperor Claudius, and afterwards became a municipium. Commercially it was of considerable importance, but it was not distinguished in art or learning. Christianity was early introduced, and in the third century Tipasa was a bishop's see. Most of the inhabitants continued heathens until, according to the legend, Salsa, a Christian maiden, threw the head of their serpent idol into the sea, whereupon the enraged populace stoned her to death. The body, miraculously recovered from the sea, was buried, on the hill above the harbour, in a small chapel which gave place subsequently to the stately basilica. Salsa's martyrdom took place in the'4th century. In 484 the Vandal king Huneric (477-484) sent an Arian bishop to Tipasa; whereupon a large number of the inhabitants fled to Spain, while many of the remainder were cruelly persecuted. After this time the city disappears from history; and, whether or not its ruin was caused by the Arabs, they seem to have made no settlement there.
(2) Another town which in Roman times was called Tipasa is in the department of Constantine, Algeria, 55 m. due south of Bona, 3140 ft. above the sea; it is now called Tifesh. The chief ruin is that of an extensive fortress, the walls of which are 9 ft. thick.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tippera

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​TIPPERA (Tripura), a native state and also a British district of India, in Eastern Bengal and Assam. The state, which is known as HILL TIPPERA (q.v.), represents that portion of the raja's territory that was never conquered by the Mahommedans The dynasty, which is of great antiquity, was converted to Hinduism many centuries ago; but the people still profess an aboriginal religion, similar to that of the neighbouring hill tribes. The raja owns an estate of 570 sq. m., yielding an income of more than £40,000, in the British district, where he ranks as an ordinary zamiudar. His residence is at Agartalla, just within the boundary of Hill Tippera.
The British district of Tippera, with administrative headquarters at Comilla, has an area of 2499 sq. m. It has a fiat and open surface, with the exception of the isolated Lalmai range ​(ICO feet), and is for the most part laid out in well»cultivated fields, intersected by rivers and khals (creeks) partially affected by the tides. In the lowlands the soil is light and sandy; but in the higher parts a deep alluvial soil alternates with bands of clay and sand. The principal rivers are the Meghna, or estuary of the Brahmaputra; and the Gurnti, Dakatia, and Titas, which are also navigable for a considerable portion of their course. There are many marshes or bils. The wild animals include tigers, leopards, wild boars and buffaloes. The climate is mild and healthy. In 1901 the population was 2,117,991, showing an increase of 19% in the decade, being the highest rate in the province. Mahommedans form nearly three-fourths of the total. Rice is the staple crop, followed by jute; betel-nut and betel leaf and chillies are also grown. The chief exports are rice, jute and betel-nuts; and the principal imports cotton goods, salt and kerosene oil.
The eastern border of the district is traversed by the Assam-Bengal railway, with branches from Laksham to Chandpur and Noakhali; but waterways remain the chief means of communication. Tippera came under the East India Company in 1765; but more than a fifth of its present area was under the immediate rule of the raja of Hill Tippera, who paid a tribute of ivory and elephants. At that time Tippera with Noakhali formed part of ]alalpur, one of Shuja-ud-Din's divisions of the province oi Bengal; but in 1822 it was separated, and since then great changes have been made in its boundaries. With the exception of a serious raid in 1860 by the Kukis or Lushais, nothing has disturbed the peace of the district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waagen, Gustav Friedrich

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​WAAGEN, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH (1794–1868), German art historian, was born in Hamburg, the son of a painter and nephew of the poet Ludwig Tieck. Having passed through the college ​of Hirschberg, he volunteered for service in the Napoleonic campaign of 1813–1814, and on his return attended the lectures at Breslau University. He devoted himself to the study of art, which he pursued in the great European galleries, first in Germany, then in Holland and Italy. A pamphlet on the brothers Van Eyck led to his appointment to the directorship of the newly founded Berlin Museum in 1832. The result of a journey to London and Paris was an important publication in three volumes, Kunstwerke und Künstler in England und Paris (Berlin, 1837–1839), which became the basis for his more important The Treasures of Art in Great Britain (London, 1854 and 1857). In 1844 he was appointed professor of art history at the Berlin University, and in 1861 he was called to St Petersburg as adviser in the arranging and naming of the pictures in the imperial collection. On his return he published a book on the Hermitage collection (Munich, 1864). Among his other publications are some essays on Rubens, Mantegna and Signorelli; Kunstwerke und Künstler in Deutschland and Die vornehmsten Kunstdenkmäler in Wien. He died on a visit to Copenhagen in 1868. In the light of more recent research his writings are not of much value as regards trustworthy criticism, though they are useful as catalogues of art treasures in private collections at the time when they were composed. His opinions were greatly respected in England, where he was invited to give evidence before the royal commission inquiring into the condition and future of the National Gallery.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waagen, Wilhelm Heinrich

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​WAAGEN, WILHELM HEINRICH (1841–1900), German palaeontologist, was born at Munich on the 23rd of June 1841. He was educated at Munich and Zurich, and through the influence of A. Oppel he commenced to study the rocks and fossils of the Jurassic system, and published an essay in 1865, Versuch einer Allgemeinen Classification der Schichten des oberen Jura. In 1870 he joined the staff of the Geological Survey of India, and was appointed palaeontologist in 1874, but was obliged to retire through ill-health in 1875. He published important monographs in the Palaeontologia Indica on the palaeontology of Cutch (1873–1876) and the Salt Range (1879–1883), dealing in the last-named work with fossils from the Lower Cambrian to the Trias. In 1879 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology in the German technical high school at Prague, and he became a contributor to the continuation of Barrande's great work on the Système Silurien de Bohême. In 1890 he became professor of palaeontology at the university of Vienna, and in 1898 the Lyell medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. He died in Vienna on the 24th of March 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Véron, Louis Désire

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​VÉRON, LOUIS DÉSIRÉ (1798-1867), French publicist, was born at Paris on the 5th of April 1798. In 1829 he founded the Revue de Paris, and from 1838 to 1852 was owner and director of the Constitutionnel, in which he published in Eugene Sue's Wandering Jew. It was also during Veron's direction and at his suggestion that Sainte-Beuve contributed the Causeries du lundi. From 1831-1835 he was director of the Paris Opera. In 1852 he was elected to the Corps Legislatif as an official candidate. He was the author of various books, of which the best known is Memoires d'un bourgeois de Paris (1853-1855). He died in Paris on the 27th of September 1867.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Véron, Pierre

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​VÉRON, PIERRE (1831-1900), French publicist, was born in Paris on the 19th of April 1831, and in 1854 published his first book, a volume of verse. In 1858 he joined the staff of Charivari, and edited that paper from 1865-99. He was the author of a large number of novels dealing with Parisian life, and for many years his rooms in the Rue de Rivoli were the meeting-place of the most famous French literary, artistic and political celebrities. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wabash

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​WABASH, a city and the county-seat of Wabash county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 42 m. S.W. of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1890) 5105, (1900) 8618, of whom 498 were foreign-born and 134 negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 8687. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway (which has extensive shops here), by the Wabash railway, and by interurban electric lines. It has a public library, a Memorial Hall (1897), erected to the memory of Federal soldiers in the Civil War and occupied by the local “camp” of the Grand Army of the Republic, a Masonic temple, a county hospital and two parks. The city is in a fertile agricultural region, and has a considerable trade in grain and produce. Among its manufactures are furniture, agricultural implements and foundry and machine-shop products. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,202,932 (31.2% more than in 1900). Wabash was settled about 1834, incorporated as a village in 1854, and first chartered as a city in 1866. It was one of the first cities in the world to be lighted with electricity, a lighting plant being established in February 1880.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/W

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​W the twenty-third letter of the English alphabet, shows its origin in its name; it is but VV, and, as the name shows, V had the vowel value of u, while the “double u” was employed for the consonant value. In German the same symbol w is called Vey, because in that language it has the value of the English v, while the German v (Vau, fow in pronunciation) is used with the same value as f. In the English of the 9th century the uu of the old texts (and the u of the Northern) was found not to represent the English w satisfactorily, and a symbol þ was adopted from the Runic alphabet. This survived sporadically as late as the end of the 13th century, but long before that had been generally again replaced by uu (vv only in Early Middle English) and by w. For w the earliest English printers had a type, but French printers had not; hence a book like the Roman Catholic version of the New Testament printed at Rheims in 1582 prints w with two v's set side by side. Throughout the history of English the sound seems to have remained the same—the consonantal u. For this value as well as for u Latin always used only V; in Greek, except in a few dialects, the consonant value was early lost (see under F). W is produced by leaving a very small opening between the slightly protruded lips while the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and the nasal passage closed. The ordinary w is voiced, but according to some authorities the w in the combination wh (really hw) is not, in when, what, &c., even when the h is no longer audible. The combination WH (hw) represents the Indo-European q$^ṷ$ when changed according to Grimm's law from a stop to a spirant. Thus what corresponds philologically to the Latin quod and the first syllable of the Greek ποδ-απός. In Southern English the h sound has now been generally dropped. In Scotland, along the line of former contact with Gaelic, it changes into f: fite = white, forl = whorl; but before ī (ee) it remains in wheel. In Early English w appeared not only before r as in write, but also before l in wlisp (lisp). In write, wring, &c., the w is now silent, though dialectically, e.g. in Aberdeenshire, it has changed to v and is still pronounced, vreet, vring, &c. In English and in other languages there is considerable difficulty in pronouncing w before long u sounds: hence it has disappeared in pronunciation in two (tū), but survives in Scotch twa, though otherwise the difficulty is more noticeable in Scottish dialects than in literary English, as in “oo” = wool and in the Scottish pronunciation of English words like wood as ’ood. (P. Gi.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villaviciosa

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​VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the Ria de Villaviciosa, an estuary formed by the small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 20,995. The town is the headquarters of a large fishery, and has some coasting trade. Its exports are chiefly agricultural produce. Villaviciosa suffers from the competition of the neighbouring ports of Gijon and Aviles, and from the lack of railway communication. It is connected by good roads with Siero (13 m.) and Infiesto (9 m.) on the Oviedo-Infiesto railway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villena

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​VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante; on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla. Pop. (1900) 14,099. Villena is a labyrinth of winding alleys, which contain some interesting examples of Moorish domestic architecture. It is dominated by a large and picturesque Moorish castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to the east there is an extensive salt lagoon. Silk, linen, flour, wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villefranche-de-Rouergue

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​VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m. W. of Rodez by road. Pop. (1906) town, 6297, commune, 3352. Villefranche, which has a station on the Orleans railway, lies amongst the hills on the right bank of the Aveyron at its junction with the Alzou. One of the three bridges that cross the river belongs to the 13th century, and the straight, narrow streets are full of gabled houses of the 13th and 14th centuries. One of the principal thoroughfares passes beneath the porch of Notre-Dame, the principal church of Villefranche. Notre-Dame was built from 1260 to 1581, the massive tower which surmounts its porch being of late Gothic architecture. The remarkable woodwork in the choir dates from the 15th century. A Carthusian monastery overlooking the town from the left bank of the Aveyron derives much interest from the completeness and fine preservation of its buildings, which date from the 15th century. They include a fine refectory and two cloisters, the smaller of which is a masterpiece of the late Gothic style. The manufacture of leather, animal-traps, hosiery, bell-founding, hemp-spinning, &c., are carried on. Quarries of phosphates and mines of argentiferous lead are worked near Villefranche.
Villefranche, founded about 1252, owes its name to the numerous immunities granted by its founder Alphonse, count of Toulouse (d. 1271), and in 1348 it was so flourishing that sumptuary laws were passed. Soon afterwards the town fell into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the first place in Guienne to rise against the English. New privileges were granted to the town by King Charles V., but these were taken away by Louis XI. In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the forces of the League, and afterwards murdered a governor sent by Henry IV. The town was ravaged by plague in 1463, 1558 and 1628, and in 1643 a revolt, excited by the exactions of the intendants, was cruelly repressed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villegas, Esteban Manuel de

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​VILLEGAS, ESTEBAN MANUEL DE (1589–1669), Spanish poet, was born at Matute (Logroño) on the 5th of February 1589, matriculated at Salamanca on the 20th of November 1610, and challenged attention by the mingled arrogance and accomplishment of Las Eróticas (1617), a collection of clever translations from Horace and Anacreon, and of original poems, the charm of which is marred by the writer’s petulant vanity. Marrying in 1626 or earlier, Villegas practised law at Nájera till 1659, when he was charged with expressing unorthodox views on the subject of free will; he was exiled for four years to Santa Maria de Ribaredonda, but was allowed to return for three months to Nájera in March 1660. It seems probable that the rest of the sentence was remitted, for the report of the local inquisition lays stress on Villegas’s simple piety, on the extravagance of his attire, ​ridiculous in a man of his age, and on the eccentricity of his general conduct and conversation, so marked as to suggest “a kind of mania or lesion of the imagination.” In his version of Boetius (1665), Villegas showed that he had profited by his experience, for he made no attempt to translate the last book (in which the problem of free will is discussed), and reprinted the Latin text without comment. He died at Nájera on the 3rd of September 1669. His tragedy El Hipólito, imitated from Euripides, and a series of critical dissertations entitled Variae Philologiae, finished in 1650, are unpublished, and “a book of satires,” found among his papers by the inquisitors, was confiscated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Villefranche-sur-Saône

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​VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAÔNE, a manufacturing town of east-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Rhône, on the Morgon near its junction with the Saône, 21 m. N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop (1906) 14,794. Among its industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, the spinning of cotton thread, copper founding and the manufacture of machinery and agricultural implements. The wines of Beaujolais, hemp, cloth, linen, cottons, drapery goods and cattle are the principal articles of trade. An old Renaissance house is used as the town hall. The church of Notre-Dame des Marais, begun at the end of the 14th and finished in the 16th century, has a tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the right of the façade (15th century), in which are carved wooden doors. Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a communal college among its public institutions.
Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV count of Beaujeu, Villefranche became in the 14th century capital of the Beaujolais. As a punishment for an act of violence towards the mayor’s daughter, Edward II. was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to the duke of Bourbon.