# Ancient Proverbs and Maxims From Burmese Sources; or, The Nîti Literature/Chapter 3

iii.—The Râjanîti.
1.
Here is recited the Râjanîti, for the accomplishment of a king's present prosperity, and the acquirement of experience for subjugation of the kingdoms of others.
2.
I shall set forth the meritorious characteristics of kings and ministers. A noble ruler should always carefully scrutinise the actions of his subjects.
3.
A man is known to be wise by his speech—his conduct, good or bad, by the company he keeps; by his general behaviour he is known to be pure; in time of danger, whether he is a man or not.
4.
A ruler of men should avoid a servant who is indolent, harsh in his actions, severe in his mind, rough and harmful, dissatisfied and lacking strength.
5.
The king should not appoint him a minister who is ​rough and harmful, who takes bribes, is ignorant of books, looks after his own interests, and is ungrateful and given to falsehood.
6.
If foolish persons be appointed ministers, a king suffers three disadvantages: these three without doubt are—loss of fame, loss of prosperity, and falling into hell.
7.
If good and wise ministers be appointed, a king derives three benefits—fame, heaven, and the most exalted prosperity.
8.
Whatever good or bad deed a subject does, that good or bad deed is connected with the king.
9.
Therefore, should a king appoint a minister who is replete with good qualities, and will bring about his present welfare; he should avoid one lacking in excellence.
10.
He should be appointed a judge who is full of family piety and virtue, who maintains the true law, who is full of wisdom, amiable, and shrewd.
11.
12.
He should be appointed gatekeeper who knows old from new people, who is strong and of good appearance, honest, capable of bearing fatigue, and shrewd.
13.
He should be appointed ambassador who is wise, understands the conversation of people, is brave, familiar with the disposition of others, and of ready speech.
14.
He should be appointed writer who is clever in reading the thoughts of others, writes rapidly, whose penmanship is good, who is intelligent, of good address, and shrewd.
15–16.
He should be appointed commander-in-chief who is experienced in the subjugation of others, who knows to choose a victory-giving battlefield, who does not abandon his forces in misfortune, who remains the same in adversity or prosperity, who is strong, of irreproachable character, skilled in the use of weapons, who can bear the fatigues of riding, and is replete with diligence and bravery.
17.
18.
He is praised as a doctor who is skilled in the treatise on the principles of life and its dissolution, who is clever in his profession, who is acquainted with works on medicine, who is of pleasing countenance and of high morals.
19.
He should serve the king as an attendant who understands the king's wishes, is of good morals, clever, observant of the law, well read, free from covetousness, and not remiss in his duties.
20.
He should be a king's domestic chaplain who is acquainted with the Vedas and its subdivisions, who is practised in fire-offerings and the use of spells, and always prays for the long life of the king.
21.
He who is modest, righteous, versed in languages, who understands physiognomy, is conversant with different arts and sciences, brave, endowed with race virtues, and fearful of the king—such a one should be appointed to serve in the palace.
22.
23.
He who has employment, although he have much power and reputation, should not deceive the king; he should be able to disclose what is good or what is bad. It is a difficult matter to point out what is for the king's advantage or agreeable to his mind.
24.
25–26.
A king, a minister who attends upon him, a country inhabited by good people, a fortress difficult to be taken, punishment in keeping with crime, a granary always filled with corn, a friend devoted to the king in danger—these are seven elements spoken of in connection with royalty by wise men versed in the Nîti.
27.
These are spoken of as seven elements in connection with a country: a king, a minister, a kingdom, a fortress, a granary, an army, and an ally.
28.
Among these, even if one element is deficient, the king's good state declines; another, not wishing to remain on terms of inequality with him, strives hard to gain an ascendancy.
29.
A king first of all wishes for himself association with the virtuous; he next devotes himself to acquire various qualifications, and then looks after his remaining duty.
30.
He who is exalted among men, is wise, intelligent, avoids low conversation, is shrewd, patient, and upright, he is law-abiding and not envious of another's prosperity.
31.
32.
He is grateful, brave, depends on the intelligent, shun sharmful practices, is considerate, not fault-finding, and is prompt in the carrying out of a promise.
33.
He knows how to cause the ruin of an enemy, has a mastery over his temper and over his senses, is neither covetous nor lethargic, is liberal, and in the habit of giving admonition.
34.
He is free from bewilderment, does not take what does not belong to him, is respectful to the righteous, knows the proper time and place, and is devoted to the seven duties.
35.
He understands the signification of terms, is skilful in the use of stratagems and in the organising of campaigns; he delights in charity and the observance of the precepts, and speaks cautiously.
36.
A king who is replete with the qualities above mentioned, he, by conquering the whole earth, is honoured for his well-deserved greatness.
37.
The king who is retentive of knowledge, who is wise,intelligent, unenvious, and waits upon his preceptor—he attains a widespread reputation.
38.
39.
Indra, the sun, the god of wind, Yama, the ocean, the moon, the earth, and the god of rain—these eight should be borne in mind by the king.
40.
As Sakka, the king of devas, exalts or degrades creatures according as they deserve exaltation or degradation, like him should a king also act.
41.
As the sun (gradually) dries up the water during eight months, so should the king, who is like the sun, exact taxes in his kingdom.
42.
As the air (unobserved) reaches all creatures, so should the king know all about his people by means of spies: this secrecy is the character of the wind.
43.
As the king of death, at the right moment brings about the death of one whom he loves or one whom he hates, even so should a king inflict punishment upon one who deserves punishment: this infliction of punishment is the character of Yama.
44.
As small streams fill the ocean without the ocean mak​ing a demand upon them, so should the king not long for all wealth: this not making a demand is the character of the ocean.
45.
As men who see the moon when it is full are delighted, so should all people, seeing the face of the king, feel satisfied: a ruler who is like the moon should show himself in the same way.
46.
Just as the earth bears upon it all creatures equally, thus should a king take in his charge all townsfolk and country people.
47.
As the rain falls in showers during four months, a ruler should give happiness to the soldiery by paying them their wages.
48.
A king should act the one act of the lion, one act of the crane, four acts of the fowl, five of the crow, six of the dog, and three of the ass.
49.
Whatever act a king wishes to perform, whether great or small, it should be done with all his vigour: then that will be one act of the lion's.
50.
A wise king is like a crane, keeping a guard on his senses: he accomplishes all his work in the proper time and place.
51.
52.
A crow satisfies his passions in secret, is very cautions, eats his food in company with his relatives, is observant and industrious: these are the five acts of a crow.
53.
A dog is not idle, is easily content, sleeps easily and rises easily, is a staunch attendant and full of bravery: these six are the attributes of a dog.
54.
An ass, although fatigued, carries his burden, he minds not heat nor cold, and is ever content: these are the three acts of an ass.
55.
The wise king who acts in this world in keeping with these twenty virtues overcomes all his enemies and derives great glory.
56.
Diseases arise by too much drinking, by gratifying the passions inordinately, by constipation and by constriction, by sleeping in the day, and by keeping up at night: from these six diseases arise.
57.
Neither by drinking too much nor by drinking too little can digestion be carried on: therefore for the regulation of the bowels one should drink in moderation.
58.
Until food is settled, one, having eaten, should sit like a king; till then, after walking a hundred paces, he should lie on his left side.
59.
Wishing for long life, one should eat facing the east; ​wishing for wealth, he should face the south; if he desire prosperity, he should eat facing the west; one should not eat facing the north.
60.
He who sleeps after eating gets his body bloated; he who stands grows strong; he who walks up and down prolongs life; and as for a person who runs, death follows him.
61.
He who sleeps with his head to the east becomes wise; who sleeps with his head to the south prolongs his life; if one sleeps with his head towards the west, his mind grows perturbed; who sleeps with his head to the north dies soon.
62–64.
Cutting the grass always, writing on the ground with the nail, not washing the feet clean, not washing the teeth, the soiling of clothes, allowing the hair to become dry, sleeping at twilight, sleeping without clothes, eating to excess, striking the limbs and back: to those who do all this, neither the god of wealth nor Pissahanu is able to bring greatness.
65.
Placing flowers on the head, washing the feet clean, espousing an excellent wife, eating in moderation, having intercourse while robed, avoiding intercourse on the five special days: the king who, is resolute in these for a length of time obtains glory.
66.
67.
It is indeed true that many faults accompany those kings who attach themselves to these sources of ruin; they should therefore avoid them.
68.
The wise have said that the drinking of intoxicating liquors ranks highest amongst all those things that cause destruction: the drinking of spirituous liquor tends to the loss of property, wisdom, strength, prosperity, reputation, and dignity.
69.
By indulgence in spirits great wisdom is destroyed; one cannot understand the truth nor know the vitality of another; he cannot discriminate between harmful and unharmful food.
70.
A drunkard looks upon his mother as his wife, and his wife as his mother, his house as a pit or the like, and a small thing as a thing of great consequence.
71.
He looks upon a small piece of water like the ocean, and the ocean as if dry land; he considers the king as his friend.
72.
A drunkard diminishes his present property, engages in quarrel, contracts disease, destroys his good reputation, loses all sense of shame, and becomes weak in wisdom.
73.
74.
To him there are no friends and relatives, no tranquillity, no compassion; he is not fit to be seen; he knows not about the two worlds; he deceives others and causes dissensions in the family.
75.
The king who puts no faith in the words of his councillors acquainted with the Vedas, but acts up to the wisdom of his own inclinations, he, like a blind man without a guide, will, on account of enemies, ere longcome to destruction.
76–77.
"Who am I? what is the time and place? who are my enemies having advantages equal to or superior to my own? who my friend? what strength have I? what straagem should I use? what is the benefit of my industry? what the good results of my merit? who inimical to my prosperity? what the best reply to an opponent's speech?" Those kings who know these things in the accomplishment of a work have been termed by the wise "the most exalted of kings."
78.
Let them think about their duty in the morning—about the people in an enemy's country, the army, resources, and the land, those who are allies, the present and the future life, and what should and should not be done.
79.
80.
First of all, a king, having driven off sleep by song on the harp, should, at the conclusion of the singing, hear the recitation of the blessings, and go to sleep on the arrival of the third watch.
81.
A king, comporting himself suitably, holding up his right hand and appearing thoughtful, remaining gracefully seated and in a good position, and forgetful in his decision whether one is a friend or an enemy, should give a legal judgment.
82.
It is not the characteristic of a king not giving punishment while thinking to himself, "I am replete with forbearance;" by doing so a good king is looked upon as bad. This reflection on the part of others is the occasion for the infliction of punishment.
83.
The pride of low people increases by the display of too much forbearance; by the chastisement of a bad person others should be deterred from acting like him; by chastisement he is made to desist from evil; by chastisement the king bestows happiness.
84.
By a king inflicting punishment on any one others are afraid of acting in the same way; even if unwilling to punish, he should award punishment having regard to future actions.
85.
The tooth-cleaner about which he is ignorant, that which ​has knots, that with leaves, one from a fallen tree, one from the dry bark, that from a stump, and that produced in a village garden—such should not be used by a king.
86.
He should use a tooth-cleaner facing the east and the north; it should be straight, without defect, and half a cubit in length: having washed it well, he should dispose of it in a clean place: while using it, he should not talk.
87.
Should a king not inflict punishment, he comes to grief like an elephant without his mate, a snake without poison, a sword without a scabbard, and a cave without a lion.
88.
People with large stomachs, hands, and feet, being afraid of punishment, pay great honour to a king; being punished severely, they hate him. Awarding punishment compatible with a crime is a means of securing peace.
89.
Punishing the bad, honouring the good, increasing property lawfully, being impartial, and looking after the kingdom—these five things have been declared by the wise as characteristics of a king.
90.
91.
Excepting every fifth day, at the appearance of the Razor asterism, while that asterism is in the ascendant, and at the appearance of asterisms 7, 5, and 3, reckoned from the date of one's birth—excepting on these, one might cut off his beard: beard-cutting should not be done during war or while spells are being performed.
92.
Kings who do the things stated above, having conquered their enemies, will enjoy sovereignty for a longtime over the earth, even to the verge of the ocean. Happy in their prosperity, there will be the advancement of religion. Having great happiness by being established in the Scriptures, they will attain the eternal rest.
93.
Just as a gardener always waters a good fruit-bearing tree and cuts down one having branches old or overgrown, ​crooked, dry, and trailing, so should a king, who resembles a gardener, ever bear this in mind.
94–95.
A gardener should carefully plant a twig that has been thrown away; he should break off the flowers in bloom, allow the small plants to develop, cause very erect ones to bend, those too much inclined to he made more erect; he should remove the bark from trees that are too green: a tree being small, he should plant thorny shrubs on the outside; he should cherish lovingly one that is in a thriving condition: a king, the cherisher of a kingdom, should take delight in his realm, just as a good gardener takes delight in a garden.
96.
The king should have ministers who are nobly descended, pure, brave, learned, amicable, and well versed in the Nîti.
97.
He is spoken of as a good minister who is learned, virtuous, and brave, industrious, accustomed to be victorious, and powerful, who is not covetous, has an amiable appearance, and is perfect in his organs.
98.
A king governing a kingdom having deliberated separately with his ministers, should subsequently, after assembling them, follow a counsel which has been well considered.
99.
100.
The king who always decides well is a perfect ruler; he is more powerful than his enemies; he never suffers ruin.
101.
One who ministers to a king should prevent him from the commission of evil, should advance his prosperity, and should not reveal what ought to be concealed; he should show forth his good qualities; in an emergency he should not forsake him; he should, on suitable occasions, give him what should be given: the wise say that these are the good characteristics of an attendant.
102.
The forming of friendship is easy, but difficult it is to keep it up; a wise king should, therefore, contract friendship with both rich and poor.
103.
He should bestow on a friend suitable gifts; in time of adversity he should keep up his friendship; not being forgetful of him when occasions of friendship present themselves, the king derives extensive benefits.
104.
Until a favourable occasion has not arrived, one should carry his enemy on his shoulders; the time having come, he should dash him to pieces as a jar on a rock.
105.
The king who knows the horoscope of a brother king and strives to learn his own with reference to his strength and merits, he should engage in war; doing so, he will always conquer.
106.
He should organise a campaign, having discovered all ​favourable circumstances in connection with himself, the great loss that his enemy is capable of suffering, and the weakness of an enemy or of an ally.
107.
The constellation being propitious, by paying honour to the Three Ratanas and bestowing bounties upon the soldiery, the fighting becomes effective.
108.
A king is capable of conquering the whole earth if he have elephants, horses, and weapons, chariots, infantry, and treasures of every kind.
109.
The king being wealthy who exalts and degrades according to people's deserts, he escapes everything—anger, anxiety, fear, covetousness, misfortune, and the loss of his lands.
110.
Therefore with great zeal should a king amass wealth by this is his safety secured.
111.
He should overcome an enemy by concord, a coward by dissension, one avaricious by a gift, a weak person by punishment.
112.
He who, having elephants, horses, wealth, and forces, is satisfied, does not engage in war, another subjugates him.
113.
Those on the border having raised a rebellion, plunder ​the wealth of the country. One acquainted with the Nîti causes them to come into his territory.
114.
A crow coining at night to an owl's habitation, dies; an owl coming during the day to the crow's, also dies; a crocodile dies coming on land, a tiger coming into the water.
115.
Thus a king, not knowing the country and the proper time for battle, makes war. He, arriving in the enemy's kingdom and being deficient in forces, should bear in mind the words of the wise.
116.
He should not, being intoxicated with pride, despise the enemy, thinking he will be overcome; he should not relax his efforts—he should always be diligent.
117.
Verily small enemies are like fire-poison. The rampant elephant on the difficult mountain paths, although he has the strength of ten thousand soldiers, is subdued by men: being tied to a post, he rids himself of the temporal juice.
118.
The king should rule, first of all having constructed a fort, surrounded it with a rampart, and provided it fully with weapons, projectiles, and other munitions of war.
119.
He should then maintain guards as vigilant as himself, ​elephants, horses, physicians, carpenters, Brahmans, and learned men.
120.
A king desiring to fight with another king should not go to war with a soldier who is covetous and evil-minded, cowardly, devoid of strength, and having no virtue.
121–122.
Being properly cognisant of the enemy's strength and the strength of his own army, the Sâmya, Bheda, and Dâna stratagems, and the circumstances of the country, a king should employ the Sâmya stratagem against one on an equality with himself, the Bheda against a brave warrior, and the Dâna stratagem against one who is covetous; all others he should overcome by fighting.
123.
Of the six qualities, first of all generosity is termed sandhiguṇa; not realising its value is termed viggahaguṇa; the non-possession of both these is âsanaguṇa; marching with all the necessaries of war is yânaguṇa; going with half an army is called dvidhâguṇa; having to depend upon the enemy is saṅgaguṇa.
124.
The root of the kingly tree is the treasure, the earth is the branch. What can a king do without wealth? He is like a bird without wings.
125.
126.
A king keeps watch over his country against thieves, favourites, and people of low quality; he should then keep a guard over the revenues of the country: a king should keep a careful watch over these four.
127.
A king in his domain should not exact a tax in excess of what is customary; if he does, there is the dissatisfaction of the people and the diminution of the treasure.
128.
To a king there is a good result if his army is marched to battle in autumn or during the rains: certain wise men have said that there cannot always be victory nor always defeat.
129.
If there be the destruction of an enemy, it is productive of merit: this destruction of the enemy is a source of general happiness to the king.
130.
If the king's destiny be bad, he should send to the wars a minister with good fate for the destruction of the enemy; if good, he should not abandon his own prosperity: when an elephant is discovered, what need searching for its foot marks?
131.
132.
Many people, although they strive much, are not successful in obtaining unripe fruits placed in an inaccessible place; when the fruit falls of itself and is got without trouble, it is full of juice and is eaten with pleasure.
133.
Hearing the admonition of the wise, paying attention to good words, receiving education, retaining knowledge, looking on both sides, comprehending the meaning, understanding its purport—these are seven characteristics of the wise.
134.
A rampant elephant, powerful and possessed of noble qualities, although alone, destroys a whole army: a king, victorious among elephants, is like the driver's hook; therefore is he known to be stronger than an elephant.
135.
A wise king should acquire knowledge for the purpose of keeping control; he should practise restraint for virtue's sake: to attain Nibbân he should follow the precepts, and for almsgiving and personal sustenance he should accumulate wealth.
136.
A king who bears in mind this treatise, he, by knowing the devices for the conquest of enemies and by being free from anxiety, overcomes the whole earth and enjoys the bliss of heaven.
* ↑ This anthology, based on the Indian Dharmaśâstras, was compiled by the Brahmans Anantañâṇa and Gaṇâmissaka. It must not be confounded with the Râjanîti of Lallu Lâla in the Braj dialect, which is comparatively modern (A.D. 1859), and based chiefly on the Sanskrit Hitopadeśa. Chronologically, the Burmese compilation stands after the Lokanîti and Dhammanîti, and has for its prototype the Râjanîtiśâstra of Ćâṇkya, the famous minister of Ćandragupta, king of Pâṭaliputra.
* ↑ Such as the Lokanîti, Râjanîti, &c.
* ↑ Gautama, xi. 4, says: "For it is declared (in the Vedas) that he obtains a share of the spiritual merit of his subjects."
* ↑ See Hitopadeśa, iii. 18.
* ↑ That is, one who maintains the five precepts (Pañcaśîlâni)—refraining from taking life, from theft, impurity, falsehood, and spirituous liquors.
* ↑ With regard to the appointment of an ambassador, we find the following in the "Institutes of Manu," vii. 63, 64:— "He should appoint an ambassador learned in all the treatises, who understands gestures, expression, and acts, pure, clever, well-descended. The ambassador of a king is praised who is liked, pure, clever, with a good memory, who knows place and time, personable, fearless, eloquent." See also Hitopadeśa, iii. 20.
* ↑ Such, perhaps, as the Dravyaguṇa, an edition of which is found in Burma under the name of "Drapyaguṇ Kyan."
* ↑ Ćaraka and Su-áruta were two great medical writers of ancient times. The Âyur-Veda is a treatise on medicine belonging to the "Uppavedas." See Weber's "History of Inadian Language," pp. 265–271.
* ↑ With regard to the appointment of a Purohita, compare Vishṇu, iii. 70, 71: "Let him appoint as Purohita a man conversant with the Vedas, epics, the institutes of sacred law, and (the science of) what is useful in life, of a good family, not deficient in limb, and persistent in the practice of austerities,...pure, free from covetousness, attentive, and able." In Gautama, xi. 12, we find: "And he shall select as his domestic priest a Brâhmaṇa who is learned (in the Vedas), of noble family, eloquent, handsome, of (a suitable) age, and of virtuous disposition, who lives righteously, and who is austere.
* ↑ Is he a minister who, to please the king, counsels what ought not to be done as though it ought to be done? Better wound the feelings of the king, but not cause his destruction by what should not be done." —Hitopadeśa, iii. 107.
* ↑ The Pâli of the stanza runs thus— "Nonanunnunnununanunno, nânânunno nânâ nunu Nunnanunno nanunnonâ, na nane nunanunanu." Compare Kirâtârjunîya, xv. 14— "Nanonanunno nunnono nânâ nânânanâ nanu Nunno nunnonanunneno nânenâ nunnanunnanut." The following, quoted in "Indian Wisdom," is from Mâgha's Śiśupâlabadha, xix. 114— "Dâdadoduddaduddâdî dâdâdodûdadîdadoḥ Duddâdaṁ dadade dudde dadâdadado dadah." With regard to the artificial character of verses of this kind, Monier Williams remarks: "Some of these poems, especially the Raghuvaṃśa, Kumârasambhara, Meghadûta, and Ritusaṃbhâra of Kâlidàsa, abound in truly poetical and display great fertility of imagination and power of description; but it cannot be denied that even in these works of the greatest of Indian poets there are occasional fanciful conceits, combined with a too studied artificial elaboration of diction, and a constant tendency to what a European would consider an almost puerile love for alliteration and playing upon words. Some of the other poems, such as the Kirâtârjunîya, Śiśupâlabadha, &c, are not wanting in occasional passages containing poetical feeling, striking imagery, and noble sentiment, but they are artificial to a degree quite opposed to European canons of taste, the chief aim of the composers being to exhibit their artistic skill in bringing out the capabilities of the Sanskrit language, its ductility, its adaptation to every kind of style, from the most diffuse to the most concise, its power of compounding words, its intricate grammatical structure, its complex system of metres, and the fertility of its resources in the employment of rhyme, rhythm, and alliteration." Extreme cases of such artificial structures are those in the examples given above, and the discovery of the meaning of the verses is only possible with the help of a native commentary.
* ↑ The seven constituent elements of state as given by Vishṇu are: 'The monarch, his council, a fortress, treasure, the army, the realm, and an ally." —Institutes, iii, 33.
* ↑ The king (naâsabho).
* ↑ Sambandhâdisakayutto.
* ↑ Apariggaho.
* ↑ Nîtisatthaṁ. This may be a particular Nîti, or it may refer to any treatise which serves as a guide to conduct.
* ↑ "He is fire and wind; he is the sun, the moon, the king of justice (Yama); the is Kuvera; Varuṇa, he great Indra in grandeur." —Manu, vii. 70. It is said that the Creator organised a king by drawing forth eternal particles (mâtrâḥ ṡâṡvatîḥ) from the essence of these eight.
* ↑ Compare Manu, vii. 129: "As the leech (water animal), calf, and insect eat their food little by little, so yearly taxes are taken little by little from the kingdom by the king."
* ↑ Spies are spoken of as the "eyes" of a king; if he has not one, he is called "blind." See Hitopadeśa, iii. 37; Manu, ix. 256; Vishṇu, iii. 35.
* ↑ Punishment is personified as the son of Îc̣vara and spoken of as "the protector of all beings." For remarks on the infliction of punishment, see Manu, vii. 13–31.
* ↑ Literally, thîya akamma bhutiaṁ.
* ↑ Vaccapassâvanirodhâ.
* ↑ Kuvera, the Indian Pluto. Pissahanu, a benign deity, who looks after the interest of mankind.
* ↑ That is, on the eighth and fourteenth days, at full moon, at a birth anniversary, and at the commencement of every new year, when the fabulous head is transferred from one goddess to another.
* ↑ Present life and future life.
* ↑ From the Maṅgala and other parittas.
* ↑ Manu, vii. 13, and viii. 1, 2.
* ↑ "Forbearance towards both an enemy and a friend is truly the ornament of ascetics; towards offenders it is verily, for kings, a defect." —Hitopadeśa, ii. 180.
* ↑ Manu, vii. 142, has: "When wearied of regarding the affairs of men, let him put in that place the chief of the ministers, knowing law, discerning, subdued, born of a good family."
* ↑ This is known as Kattikâ (Sk. Kṛittikâ), the first of the lunar asterisms, according to Buddhist astronomy. It consists of six stars figured as a razor, and corresponds nearly with the Pleiades. For the Indian divisions of the zodiac, see Colebrooke's "Essays," vol. ii., chap. xiv. For remarks on the Indian system of astronomy, see also Weber's "History of Indian Literature," pp. 246–264. There are several astronomical and astrological works found in Burma, which are either translations of or adapted from Sanskrit books. The Laghugraha and Suriyasiddhanta are among the most popular. Learned Brahmans, entertained by the court of Ava, from time to time, been instrumental in giving the Burmese the bulk of their scientific literature. During the latter half of the eighteenth century about sixty works were translated from the Sanskrit by the great scholar Maungdaung-sayadaw and others, and are known as the Byakavains, the first of the series being the Sarasvatî Vyâkaraṇa, a well-known Sanskrit grammar.
* ↑ In order to deviate the course of karma by artificial mans (yatrâ kale). The Yatrâ practice is common in Burma. When a man, for instance, is very sick and his death is anticipated, his friends and relatives try to ward it off by finding a substitute in a dummy formed from a plantain tree or otherwise, shaped as much as possible like a human being. The improvised dummy is then put into a coffin and all customary funeral rites are performed over it. By so doing, it is believed that the sick man's life will be spared. Other practices, similar in character, are also resorted to for various purposes.
* ↑ Manu, vii. 54; Hitopadeśa, iii. 18.
* ↑ Manu, vii. 57.
* ↑ See stanza 212 of Dhammanîti.
* ↑ Buddha, his law, and the priesthood.
* ↑ Hitopadeśa', iii. 42, 43, has: "One should strive to conquer enemies, not by war, because the victory between two combatants is seen to be uncertain. By conciliation by bribes, by dissension—by these means, either combined or separately, one should strive to overcome enemies; never by war." See also "Institutes of Manus," vii. 198–200.
* ↑ "A little fire burns up an entire forest by gaining shelter in it." —Mahâbhârata, i. 5553.
* ↑ "He should construct a fort with a great moat, surrounded by a high rampart, having engines, water, and rock, with the protection of a river, a desert, and a forest." —Hitopadeśa, iii. 55. See Manu, vii. 70–76; Vishṇu, iii. 6.
* ↑ Conciliation.
* ↑ Creating dissension (by setting up some claimant to the throne).
* ↑ By giving money or by bribery.
* ↑ See Manu, vii. 107, 108, 198, 199, 200.
* ↑ "Let a king go on an expedition in the clear month Mârgac̣îrsha (November), or about the two months Phâlguna and Caitra (February and March), according to his forces." —Institutes of Manu, vii. 182.
* ↑ See note to stanza 3: "Victory between two combatants is seen to be uncertain."
* ↑ Behind and before
* ↑ Burmese kings, as a rule, commit the whole of this Nîti to memory, and several of the practices which have prevailed in their court seem to be influenced by many of the sentiments which are found in this treatise.