OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zürich, Lake of

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​ZÜRICH. LAKE OF, A Swiss lake, extending S.E. of the town of Zurich. It is formed by the river Linth, which, rising in the glaciers of the Todi range in Glarus, was diverted by the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the Walensee, whence, by means of the Linth canal (completed in 1816), its waters are carried to the east end of the lake of Zurich. This river issues from the lake at its north-west end, passing through the town of Zurich, but is then called the Limmat. No streams of importance flow into the lake. Its area is about 34 sq. m., its extreme length 25 m., its greatest breadth 21 m., and its greatest depth 469 ft., while its surface is 1342 ft. above sea-level. It is included, or the greater portion, in the Canton of Zurich, but at its east end 84 sq. m. towards the southern shore are in that of Schwyz, and 4 sq. m. towards the northern shore in that of St Gall. The great dam of masonry, carrying the railway line and carriage road from Rapperswil to Pfaffikon, which cuts off the extreme eastern part of the lake from the rest, is passed only by small boats; steamers (of which the first was placed on the lake in 1835) do not go beyond the dam, as the eastern portion of the lake is shallow and choked by weeds. West of this dam is the small island of Ufenau, where in 1523 Ulrich von Hutten took refuge and died. Both shores are well cultivated and fertile. There are many villas, particularly near Zurich, and elsewhere numerous factories in the various flourishing villages. Zurich, at the north end of the lake, is the principal place on it. On the west shore (which gradually becomes the south shore) are Thalwil, Horgen, Wadenswil, Richterswil, Pfaffikon, and Lachen. On the opposite shore are Meilen (near which the first lake dwellings were discovered in 1853-54), Stafa, and the quaint town of Rapperswil, the castle of which shelters a Polish museum, wherein is the heart of Kosciuszko. Schmerikon is close to the east end of the lake, and a little beyond is the more important town of Uznach. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zwolle

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​ZWOLLE, the capital of the province of Overysel, Holland, on the Zwarte Water, and a junction station 241/2 m. N. E. of Harderwyk. Pop. (1905) 23,773. It is the centre of the whole northern and eastern canal systems, and by means of the short canal the Willemsvaart, which joins the Zwarte Water and the Ysel, has regular steamboat communication with Kampen and Amsterdam. The Groote Kerk, of St Michael (first half of the 15th century) occupies the site of an earlier church of which an interesting 11th-century bas relief remains. The church contains a richly carved pulpit, the work of Adam Straes van Weilborch about 1620, and there is besides some good carving and a fine organ (1721). The Roman Catholic church, also dedicated to St Michael, dates from the end of the 14th century. The modernized town hall was originally built in 1448. Mention should also be made of the Sassen Poort, one of the old city gates; a gild-house (1571); the provincial government offices, containing the archives and a museum of antiquities and cultural history. Three miles from Zwolle, on a slight eminence called the Agnietenberg, or hill of St Agnes, once stood the Augustinian convent in which Thomas à Kempis spent the greatest part of his life and died in 1471. Zwolle has a considerable trade by river, a large fish market, and the most important cattle market in Holland after Rotterdam. The more important industries comprise cotton manufactures, iron works, boat-building, dyeing and bleaching, tanning, rope-making and salt-making.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/van't Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus

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​VAN’T HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRICUS (1852– ), Dutch chemist and physicist, was born in Rotterdam on the 30th of August 1852. He studied from 1869 to 1871 at the polytechnic at Delft, in 1871 at the university of Leiden, in 1872 with F. A. Kekulé at Bonn, in 1873 with C. A. Wurtz at Paris, and in 1874, when he took his doctor’s degree, with E. Mulder at Utrecht. In 1876 he became lecturer on physics at the veterinary school at Utrecht, and two years later he was chosen professor of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in Amsterdam University. In 1894 he declined an invitation to the chair of physics at Berlin University, but in 1896 he went to Berlin as professor to the Prussian Academy of Sciences, with a salary and a laboratory, but freedom to do whatever he liked; and at the same time he accepted an honorary professorship in the university so that he might lecture if he were so minded. On taking up these appointments he announced that, the application of mathematics to chemistry remaining his chief aim, he proposed to devote himself to the study of the formation of oceanic salt deposits, with special reference to the Stassfurt deposits. He may be regarded as the founder of the doctrine of stereoisomerism (q.v.), for he was the first, in 1874, to introduce a definite mechanical theory of valency, and to connect the optical activity exhibited by many carbon compounds with their chemical constitution. In respect of this doctrine of the “asymmetric carbon atom,” van’t Hoff’s name is generally linked with that of J. A. le Bel (born on the 21st of January 1847, at Pechelbronn, Lower Alsace), who, only two months later, independently enunciated the theory of asymmetric combinations with carbon; though it must be noted that J. Wislicenus, to whom van’t Hoff, in fact, acknowledged his indebtedness, had already suggested that in order to explain the constitution of certain organic bodies, the tridimensional arrangement of atoms in space must be taken into account. For this work van’t Hoff and Le Bel received the Davy medal ​jointly from the Royal Society in 1893. From 1874 to 1884 van't Hoff's attention was mainly given to the law of mass-action, and he established the theorem known by his name, which connects quantitative displacement of equilibrium with change of temperature. From 1885 to 1895 he was engaged on the theory of solutions, and developing the analogy between dilute solutions and gases he showed that the osmotic pressure of a solution has the same value as the pressure that solute would exert if it were contained as a gas in the same volume as is occupied by the solution. From 1885 he published the Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, in collaboration with Professor W. Ostwald of Leipzig.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zähringen (family)

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ZÄHRINGEN, the name of an old and influential German family, taken from the castle and village of that name near Freiburg-im-Breisgau. The earliest known member of the family was probably one Bezelin, a count in the Breisgau, who was living early in the 11th century. Bezelin's son Bertold I. (d. 1078) was count of Zähringen and was related to the Hohenstaufen family. He received a promise of the duchy of Swabia, which, however, was not fulfilled, but in 1061 he was made duke of Carinthia. Although this dignity was a titular one only Bertold lost it when he joined a rising against the emperor
Henry IV. in 1073. His son Bertold II. (d. 1111), who like his father fought against Henry IV., inherited the land of the counts of Rheinfelden in 1090 and took the title of duke of Zähringen; he was succeeded in turn by his sons, Bertold III. (d. 1122) and Conrad (d. 1152). In 1127 Conrad inherited some land in Burgundy and about this date he was appointed by the German king, Lothair the Saxon, rector of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles. This office was held by the Zähringens until 1218 and hence they are sometimes called dukes of Burgundy. Bertold IV. (d. 1186), who followed his father Conrad, spent much of his time in Italy in the train of the emperor Frederick I.; his son and successor, Bertold V., showed his prowess by reducing the Burgundian nobles to order. This latter duke was the founder of the town of Bern, and when he died in February 1218 the main line of the Zähringen family became extinct. By extensive acquisitions of land the Zähringens had become very powerful in the districts now known as Switzerland and Baden, and when their territories were divided in 1218 part of them passed to the counts of Kyburg and thence to the house of Habsburg. The family now ruling in Baden is descended from Hermann, margrave of Verona (d. 1074), a son of duke Bertold I., and the grand-duke is thus the present representative of the Zähringens.
See E. J. Leichtlen, Die Zähringer (Freiburg, 1831); and E. Heyck, Geschichte der Herzoge von Zähringen (Freiburg, 1891), and Urkunden, Siegel und Wappen der Herzoge von Zähringen (Freiburg, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Zähringen (village)

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ZÄHRINGEN, a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of Baden, situated under the western slope of the Black Forest, 2 m. from Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and on the railway from Heidelberg to Basel. Pop. (1900) 1200. Above the village on a spur of the mountains, 1500 ft. above the sea, lie the ruins of the castle of Zähringen, formerly the stronghold of the ducal line of that name (see above).
See Schöpflin, Historia Zaringo-Badensis (Karlsruhe, 1763-66, 7 vols.).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bissolati-Bergamaschi, Leonida

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BISSOLATI-BERGAMASCHI, LEONIDA (1857–1920), Italian statesman, was born at Cremona Feb. 20 1857. The son of Demetrio Bergamaschi, he was adopted by, and took the name of, his stepfather, Prof. Bissolati, the philosopher. At an early age he became a Socialist through his genuine sympathy with the lot of the poor, and an active member of the Italian Socialist party from its foundation in 1892. He exercised considerable influence as a journalist, editing the weeklies La Critica sociale and La Lotta di classe, and then the daily official organ of the party, L'Avanti. In 1897 he entered Parliament as member for Pescarolo; he afterwards was elected for Budrio and then for the second division of Rome (1908), which he represented until his death. Although a firm believer in the Socialist doctrine, Bissolati became more and more dissatisfied with certain aspects of the policy of the party, notably with its anti-patriotic attitude at the time of the Libyan War. In 1911 the split came, and Bissolati, together with Bonomi and some other leading Socialists, seceded from the party and formed what was known as the Reformist Socialist group, which supported the Giolitti Cabinet in its African policy on its promise of democratic reforms. At the outbreak of the World War Bissolati did not hesitate, and from the first declared himself in favour of Italian intervention on the side of the Entente against German militarism, whereas the “official” Socialist party was frankly neutralist and pro-German. When Italy entered the war he joined the army as a sergeant of the Alpini and was wounded and decorated for valour. In June 1916 the Boselli national Cabinet was constituted and Bissolati accepted office as minister without portfolio,
acting as a kind of intermediary between the Cabinet and the army. After the Armistice he resigned (Dec. 1918) owing to disagreements with Sig. Orlando's Government over the Pact of London. He was opposed to the annexation by Italy of the Alto Adige because of its German population, and of North Dalmatia with its Slav majority; but he advocated the annexation of Fiume as a purely Italian town. His attitude on the Alto Adige and Dalmatian questions lost him the popularity he had hitherto enjoyed with the majority of the nation, and his speech at Milan on the League of Nations, in which he set forth these views, was unfavourably received. He came in for severe criticism for having, at a moment when Italy's representatives found their country's aspirations challenged at every turn by the Allies, to some extent given away the Italian case and provided opponents with arguments from the mouth of an Italian ex-minister. At the same time everyone recognized his sterling qualities of honesty and genuine patriotism; however much people might disagree with his views, there was no doubt that he was inspired solely by what he believed were his country's best interests and noblest traditions, and his death at Rome on May 6, 1920 was deeply regretted by all, regardless of party divisions.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bloemfontein

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​Bloemfontein (see 4.74). Pop. (1918): whites 15,631, coloured (estimated) 16,000. The most centrally situated town in South Africa, Bloemfontein is the great market for the agricultural and pastoral produce of the Free State. The annual sale of pure-bred stud stock, held in Sept., is the principal fixture of the kind in South Africa; in 1920 the pedigree stock sold realized £283,000. The growth of the town during 1910–20 was largely due to the progressive policy of the municipality, which provided it with an ample supply of water, electric light, an electric trackless tramway system, modern sewerage system and other public services. In 1918 the rateable value of the municipality was £3,895,000, its revenue £182,000 and its indebtedness £803,000.
Among modern buildings are the new Law Courts (in the classical style), the National museum, the Normal and Polytechnic Colleges, Grey University College, the Government Buildings (which replace those burned down in 1908) and the Legislative Council Chambers (the seat of the Appellate Court). A monument to the women and children who died in concentration camps during the war of 1899–1902 was erected in 1913 near the Show ground. The principal workshops of the Union railways are situated in the town of Bloemfontein.
Grey College, incorporated as a university college in 1910, has been since 1918 the principal constituent college of the university of South Africa. Besides the university college the institution includes high schools for boys and girls, and the buildings stand in grounds covering 300 acres. At Glen, 14 m. N., is an agricultural college, opened in 1919, with an experimental farm of 4,000 acres. There is a military station at Tempe, 4 m. from the centre of the town, and here is the Defense College for Officers.
Its central position makes Bloemfontein a favourite meeting-place for conventions and congresses, educational, agricultural and political. Here was held, in the autumn of 1920, the conference which sought, and failed, to find a basis for vereeniging (union) between the two great Dutch parties in the Union, the South African and the Nationalist.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Beyers, Christian Frederick

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BEYERS, CHRISTIAN FREDERICK (1869–1914), S. African general, was born in Cape Colony in 1869 and went as a young man to the Transvaal, where he took a prominent part on the Boer side in the S. African War, winning high distinction in the field and bearing the rank of general when peace was made in 1902. Gen. Beyers had much influence, as soldier and statesman, among the Dutch-speaking people of S. Africa, and was, with Gen. Botha and Gen. Smuts, though in a less degree than they, one of the recognized leaders of the Transvaal Dutch. When responsible government was granted to the Transvaal, Beyers became speaker of the Lower House. He showed in the speaker's chair remarkable gifts. He was acute, tolerant and rigidly impartial, thus making a deep impression upon English-speaking S. Africans, who would have supported his claims to be the first speaker of the first S. African House of Assembly, had they been pressed by Gen. Botha, the first Prime Minister. Instead, Beyers was made commandant-general of the Citizen Forces of S. Africa, and in that capacity paid a visit to Great Britain, Germany, Switzerland and Holland in 1912. A man of fine physique, of passionate nature, and of profound religious convictions, Beyers, as commandant-general of S. Africa, was entertained with marked attentions during his visit to Germany by the Kaiser. When the World War broke out, he set himself in almost open opposition to the policy of the Botha Government. For some months this opposition smouldered. Then, at a moment when the S. African expeditionary force was being mobilized for the invasion of German S.W. Africa, and when rebellion was already smouldering among the irreconcilables of the S. African Dutch, Beyers resigned his post as commandant-general in a letter addressed to Gen. Smuts, then Minister of Defence, and published in Het Volk, an anti-Government journal. In this letter he declared that he had always disapproved the Government's intention to invade German S.W. Africa and that this disapproval was shared by the great majority of the Dutch-speaking people of the Union. Gen. Smuts replied in a stern letter declaring that the war was a test of the loyalty to their pledged word of the Dutch-speaking people, and accepting Beyers' resignation. A few weeks later Beyers took the field as a leader of the rebellion against the Government, only to be overwhelmed by the Government troops under the command of Gen. Botha, to be driven from pillar to post as a fugitive, and to be drowned on Dec. 7 1914 while trying to escape from his pursuers by crossing the Vaal river. His body was recovered two days later, and with his death the rebellion was brought to an ignominious end.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bikaner, Sir Ganga Singh, Maharaja of

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BIKANER, SIR GANGA SINGH, MAHARAJA OF (1880–), Indian soldier and statesman, was born Oct. 3 1880, and succeeded by adoption his elder brother, Dungar Singh, in 1887 as 21st ruler of the state. After education at the Mayo College, Ajmere, he was invested with full powers in 1898, and promptly showed energy and skill in their use in combating the great famine of 1899-1900. In the Chinese campaign of 1901 he accompanied the British contingent in command of his famous Camel Corps, the Ganga Risala, which also did good service in Somaliland in 1903. The first of his many visits to England was made in 1902, when he attended King Edward's coronation, and was made A.D.C. to the Prince of Wales, an appointment continued by King George when he came to the throne. In the World War the Maharaja offered the whole resources of the state and served first on the headquarters staff of the Meerut division in France, and later on the staff of the British commander-in-chief. In 1915, at the head of his Camel Corps, he took part in the fighting to withstand the Turkish invasion of Egypt. In 1917 he and Sir S. P. (afterwards Lord) Sinha were the first Indians to be called to London for Empire gatherings. They were members of the Imperial War
Conference and assisted the Secretary for India at the Imperial War Cabinet. The Maharaja's public speeches attracted marked attention, and were collected under the title of India's Imperial Partnership. His warm sympathy with Indian aspirations of self-government within the Empire made the greater impression on public opinion because of the notable moral and material progressiveness and efficiency of his administration in Bikaner, and his constitutional reforms. He was selected to represent the Indian states at the Peace Conference and the Imperial Cabinet meetings in connexion therewith, and at Versailles on June 28 1919 he affixed the first Indian signature to a great international treaty. Keenly concerned to uphold the rights and dignities of the ruling princes, he formulated their views with force and skill, and his was the dominant personal influence in securing the constitution, under royal proclamation, of the Chamber of Princes in 1921 as a deliberative, consultative and advisory body. His appointment as chancellor, carrying the presidency of the small standing committee, was indicative of the intellectual ascendancy he had acquired in the deliberations of the rulers. He had made himself well known as a sportsman, and in 1920 the “record” tigress (9 ft. 7 in.) fell to his gun. A major-general of the British army, his honours included the grand crosses of the Victorian and the two Indian Orders, the knighthood of the Bath, the honorary doctorate in laws of Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh and the freedom of London, Edinburgh, Manchester and Bristol. His permanent local salute was raised from 17 to 19 guns. (F. H. Br.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Blue Sky Laws

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​BLUE SKY LAWS.—This name is popularly applied in the United States to those statutes enacted in many states to protect from fraud purchasers of stocks and bonds. The first Blue Sky law was passed in Kansas in 1911, requiring investment companies among other things to file with the Secretary of State a full description of their business and forbidding them to sell securities until authorized by the bank commissioner. Following the Kansas model, within two years no fewer than 18 other states had enacted similar legislation, and by the close of 1919 some form of Blue Sky law was to be found in 44 states. Requirements vary in the different states, but in every case information must be filed with a designated official or commission and licence obtained. In 1914 there developed considerable opposition to such legislation. Its constitutionality was attacked on the ground that it violated the commerce clause of the Federal Constitution; that it delegated legislative and judicial power to an executive official; that it deprived citizens of liberty and property without due process of law. In three states, Michigan, Iowa and Ohio, these contentions were upheld by the lower courts; but in 1917 the U.S. Supreme Court decided that such laws were constitutional on the ground that "prevention of deception is within the competency of government."