# Cassell's Illustrated History of England/Volume 1/Chapter 37

CHAPTER XXXVII.
Any narrative purporting to be the history of a nation, and which at the same time should confine itself to an account of wars, cabals, and changes of dynasty, would be extremely imperfect. To form a just estimate of the character of a people, to appreciate fully the effect of the various causes which indirectly influence the progress of political events, it is necessary to study the condition of social life, and the state of the arts and industry of the period. It is intended, therefore, to interrupt, from time to time, the main current of the narrative, for the purpose of viewing the people at borne, and of investigating, as far as the materials at command will permit, the condition of society, and the advance of civilisation.
From the time when the Gothic nations spread themselves over Southern and Western Europe, till the fourteenth century, nearly all the literature then in existence was preserved to us by the labours of the monks. The monasteries were ​the schools of the Middle Ages, in which all secular knowledge, as well as religious doctrine, was cultivated. Previous to the invention of printing, books were transcribed with great pains and labour. Not only was the mere task of copying a book by hand a work of considerable time, bu the illuminations or embellishments with which the more valuable manuscripts were adorned, were executed with a degree of care and finish demanding great skill and industry. The annexed engravings are copied with scrupulous fidelity from various MSS. still extant, and serve to show some of the different kinds of writing which are found in those documents. Many of the MSS. also contain on each page paintings representing scenes either connected with the narrative in the text or otherwise. Sometimes they are ornamented with portraits of saints, kings, or other great men. These figures, as well as the other ornamental portions of the work, are brilliantly coloured, and are often represented on a gold ground.
The ancients wrote upon various substances, including stone, metals, leaves of different kinds of trees, wood, ivory, wax, skins of animals more or less prepared, and papyrus, which was the inner bark of a reed. The plant is found on the banks of the Nile, grows several feet high, and bears leaves. Papyrus was used by the Egyptians and Romans, and was commonly employed from a remote period until the eleventh century. The most ancient bulls of the Popes were written on papyrus.
The parchment used was of various kinds; that which was the finest and whitest being used for the most valuable manuscripts. For gilding upon parchment our ancestors employed both gold powder and leaf gold, which was fixed upon a white embossment, generally supposed to be a calcareous preparation. The subjects of the paintings were taken from sacred or profane history, but the artist invariably represented the costume and customs of his own time, and to these illuminations we owe most of the knowledge we possess of those customs. The Anglo-Saxons displayed proficiency in this branch of painting at an early period; and though it is not easy to trace the rise and progress of the art, there is evidence of its flourishing condition from the eighth to the eleventh centuries, in the numerous manuscripts of that date, which still remain both in our own country and in the collections on the Continent.
Fragment of an Ode to Mecænas. MS. of the Works of Horace; Tenth Century.—Imperial Library of Paris.
Anglo-Saxon Writing of the Sixth Century.
Previous to the introduction of Christianity, the Anglo-Saxons possessed no literature worthy of the name. It is not, however, to be supposed that the people were destitute of intellectual power; for when our forefathers began to apply themselves to the pursuit of knowledge, the progress of literature was remarkably rapid. Within one hundred years after the light of knowledge dawned upon the Anglo​Saxons, Bede, surnamed the Venerable, appeared, with other men whose abilities and teaching exerted a marked influence upon the spread of English learning.
The Anglo-Saxon scholars, though defective in actual knowledge, had just conceptions of the objects of philosophy. Alcuin defines it to be the study of natural things, and the knowledge of divine and human affairs. All the subjects comprised by Alcuin in physics are arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. That larger field of science to which we now give the name of physics had not yet been discovered, nor had chemistry, mineralogy, and the other analogous sciences.
Latin Papyrus of the Third Century.
Turner, in his "History of the Anglo-Saxons," gives specimens of scholastic trifling from a dialogue of Alcuin with Prince Pepin, the son of Charlemagne. As examples of the manner in which the brain was exercised in the absence of solid learning, some portions of this dialogue are worthy of preservation. Some of, the questions, with the answers, are subjoined:—
"What is life?—The gladness of the blessed; the sorrow of the wretched; the expectation of death.
"What is death?—The inevitable event; the uncertain pilgrimage; the tears of the living; the confirmation of our testament; the thief of man.
"What is sleep?—The image of death.
"What is man's liberty?—Innocence.
"What is the brain?—The preserver of the memory,
"What is the sun?—The splendour of the world; the beauty of heaven; the honour of day; the distributor of the hours.
"What is the moon?—The eye of night; the giver of dew; the prophetess of the weather.
"What is rain?—The earth's conception; the mother of corn.
"What is the earth?—The nurse of the living; the storehouse of life; the devourer of all things.
"What is the sea?—The path of audacity; the divider of regions; the fountain of showers.
"What is a ship?—A wandering house; a perpetual inn; a traveller without footsteps.
"What makes bitter things sweet?—Hunger.
"What makes men never weary?—Gain.
"What gives sleep to the watching?—Hope.
"Who is he that will rise higher if you take away his head?—Look in your bed and you will find him there."
The following account, taken from William of Malmesbury, of the social condition of the Saxon people at the time of the Conquest, indicates a decline of literature and the arts at that period. The picture may probably be overdrawn, but the main facts are correct. "In process of time, the desire after literature and religion had decayed, for several years before the arrival of the Normans. The clergy, contented with a very slight degree of learning, could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments, and a person who understood grammar was an object of wonder and astonishment. The nobility were given up to luxury and wantonness. The commonalty, left unprotected, became a prey to the most powerful, who amassed fortunes, either by seizing on their property or by selling their persons into foreign countries; although it be an innate quality of this people to be more inclined to reviling than to the accumulation of wealth. Drinking was a universal practice, in which they passed entire nights, as well as days. They consumed their substance in mean and despicable houses, unlike the Normans and French, who, in noble and splendid mansions lived with frugality."
Music was cultivated by our ancestors from a very remote period. Among the Anglo-Saxons the music to which the greatest attention was bestowed was that employed in the services of religion. Singing in churches is said to have been introduced into this country in the fourth century.
Among the northern nations the Sealds were at once the poets and musicians. Like the bards of the Britons, they celebrated the deeds of the great and brave in heroic poems, which were sung to the sounds of the lyre or the harp. After the conquest of Britain by the Saxons, these minstrels remained in high favour among the people, and were received with respect and veneration in the courts of kings and the halls of the nobles. In the Anglo-Saxon language they were known by two appellations, the one equivalent to the English word, glee-men, or merry-makers, and the other harpers, derived from the instrument on which they usually played.
Saxon Dinner Party.—From Cotton. MS., Cland., B. 4.
The glee-men were jugglers and pantomimists as well as minstrels, and they were accustomed to associate themselves in companies, and amuse the spectators with feats of strength and agility, dancing, and sleight-of-hand tricks.
Among the minstrels who came into England with William the Conqueror was one named Taillefer, of whom it is related that he was present at the battle of Hastings, and took his place at the head of the Norman army, inspiring the soldiers by his songs. Before the battle commenced he advanced on ​horseback towards the English lines, and casting his spear three time into the air, he caught it each time by the iron head and threw it among his enemies, one of whom he
Glee-men Juggling. Tenth Century. —From the Cotton. MS. Tib., C. 6.
wounded. He then drew his sword and threw it into the air, catching it, as he had done the spear, with such dexterity, that the English who saw him believed that he was gifted with the power of enchantment.
The term minstrel, or, in Norman French, ministraulx, came into use in England soon after the Conquest, at which time it is believed that the class of minstrels and jesters became much more numerous. The general language of France in the ninth century was the Roman language, or, as it has since been called, the langue d'Oil, which closely resembled the dialects of the Catalonian. The language of the North, or langue d'Oil, varied but little from it. At this period the flowing accents of the southern tongue were wedded to music by minstrels, who were called troubadours in the southern provinces, and trouveres in the North.
These poets became known throughout Europe for their songs of love and war, in which they celebrated the beauty of women and the achievements of the brave. The minstrels enjoyed many privileges, and travelled from place to place, in time of war as well as of peace, in perfect safety.
Balancing.—From MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.
Their persons were held sacred, and they were received wherever they went with the warmest welcome and hospitality.
In our own country the professors of the minstrel's art were of various classes, which were distinguished by the several names of singers, relaters of heroic actions, jesters, balancers, jugglers, and story-tellers. At this period every great baron kept a jester as a part of his household establishment.
The word jester, in its original sense, did not necessarily mean joker, or buffoon, but teller of tales, which might be of a kind to excite other laughter or pity. The jesters, however, were usually employed at feasts and in the hours of conviviality, and they found the tales of merriment so much more popular at such times, that it is probable the more serious part of their vocation fell into disuse. In later times the jesters and japers became mere merry-anrdrews, whose business it was to excite mirth by jukes and ludicrous gesticulations.
In olden times the number of musical instruments was considerable, but their names were still more numerous, because they were derived from the form and character of instruments which varied according to the caprice of the maker or the musician. Each nation had its peculiar instruments of music, and as these were described in each language by names appropriate to their qualities, the same instrument was frequently known by many names, while the same names sometimes applied to several instruments. The Romans, after their conquests, were in the
Musical Instruments.—From the Caedmon MS, Oxford.
habit of carrying back with them the music and the instruments which they found among the conquered nations, and thus it happened that, at a certain epoch, all the musical instruments of the known world were collected in the capital of the empire. At the fall of Rome, many of these fell into disuse and were forgotten; they were no longer needed to celebrate the festivals of pagan deities, or to add gaiety to the ovations to the emperors in the capitol. A letter of St. Jerome to Dardanus (de diversis getneribus musicorum instrumentis) gives an account of those instruments which remained in existence in the fifth century. St. Jerome enumerates the organ, various kinds of trumpet, the eithar, in the form of a Greek delta (Δ) with twenty-four strings; the psalterium, a small harp of a square form, with ten strings; the tympanum, or hand drum; and several others.
These appear to have been almost the only musical instruments in use in the fifth century. A nomenclature of a similar kind appears in the ninth century, in a manuscript life of Charlemagne, by Aymeric de Peyræ, from which ​we find the number of instruments to have been nearly doubled ill the course of four centuries, and their forms during this period had continually varied.
The flute is the most ancient of all instruments of music, and in the Middle Ages was found in many varieties. Among these was the double flute of the classic form having two stems.
Dance (Ninth Century), the Lyre, and Double Flute.—From the Cotton. MS., Cleopatra, C. 8.
The stem held in the left hand (sinistra) was for the high notes, and that held in the right hand (dextra) for the low notes. The two stems were sometimes held together, sometimes separate.
About the year 951, Bishop Elfega caused to be made for his church at Winchester an organ which, in size and construction, surpassed any that had hitherto been seen.
Grand Organ, with Bellows and Double Keyboard.—From the Psalter of Eadwine, Cambridge MS.
This organ was divided into two parts, each having its bellows, its key-board, and its player; twelve bellows above and fourteen below were set in motion by sixty-six strong men, and the wind was passed along forty valves into four hundred pipes, arranged in groups of ten, and to each of these groups corresponded one of the twenty-four keys of each keyboard. In spite of the great size of this organ, we can hardly believe that its sound was heard over the whole town (undique perurbem), as we are told by a contemporary poet.
The syrinx, which was, in fact, the Pandean pipes, was composed usually of seven tubes of unequal length, forming a straight line at the top, for the mouth of the player.
Trumpets were much in use among the Saxons, and were employed in the chase and in the tourney, as well as in sounding the charge in battle. They were also used at feasts, public assemblies, and as signals by which one man could communicate with another at a distance beyond the reach of the voice.
The lyre, which was the principal stringed instrument of the Greeks and the Romans, preserved its primitive form until the tenth century. The number of cords varied from three to eight. the lyre of the North—which was unquestionably the origin of the violin, and which already presented the shape of that instrument—had a bridge in the middle of the sound-board.
The psalterium, which must not be confounded with the psalterion of the thirteenth century, was a little portable harp, played either with one or both hands. After the fifth century its shape varied, and was sometimes square or triangular, and sometimes round. In the tenth century the psalterium gave place to the cithar, a name by which various stringed instruments had at first been vaguely described.
The Saxon harp was at first only a triangular cithar. Although some antiquaries have pretended to have discovered the harp among the records of Grecian, Roman, and Egyptian antiquity, there can be little doubt that its origin must be referred to the people of the North. The Gaelic etymology of the word harp may be taken as a proof of this.
NORMAN COSTUMES OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY CENTURY.-See page 144.
Harp of the Ninth Century.—MS. of St. Blaise.
The Saxons and other German nations, as well as the Normans, were strongly attached to the sports of the field. At an early period we find that hunting was considered a necessary part of the education of every man of gentle blood. Alfred the Great, before he was twelve years of age, is represented to have "excelled in all the branches of that most noble art, to which he applied with incessant Labour."
Ladies Hunting.—From Royal MS., 2 B. 7.
We are told also that Edward the Confessor, though unlike his great ancestor in every other respect, took delight to follow a pack of hounds.
The sport of hawking, or the art of training and flying of hawks for the purpose of catching other birds, is of very high antiquity. Cornelius Agrippa, in his treatise, "De Incertitudine Scientiarum," says that Ulysses learnt the art of falconry from the Trojans, and taught it to the Greeks, to console them for their losses in the siege of Troy.
Hawking—From Cotton. MS., Tib., C. 6.
Whatever may be thought of this evidence, there is reason to believe that the art was known to the Thracians, and, probably, also to other nations of antiquity.
Hawking was a recreation in high favour among the nobles of the Middle Ages, and was practised also by the clergy and by ladies. In the Bayeux tapestry Harold is represented with his hounds by his side, and a hawk in his hand, when brought before William of Normandy. Such a mode of travelling was common among the noblemen of this period.
Harold.—From the Bayeux Tapestry.
Persons of high rank rarely appeared without their hawks, and sometimes even carried them into battle. These birds were considered as the symbols of nobility, and a man who gave up his hawk was regarded as disgraced and dishonoured. The birds were trained and tended with the greatest care. To prevent them from seeing, their heads were covered with a little cap fastened behind with straps, and adorned with a plume. The falcons of princes and great nobles were known by these plumes being of the feathers of the bird of paradise. Thus armed, the birds were carried to the chase in a cage, and when it rained were covered with an umbrella, similar to that represented above.
When the falcon became accustomed to his master, it was necessary to familiarise him to the noise of dogs and men; and to prevent the risk of his flying away, he was trained by means of the lure, which was an imitation of a bird.
On the lure was placed a small piece of warm flesh of fowl, and the falcon was taught to come and eat at the voice of the falconer. A cord was attached to the bird's leg, and ​the person holding the cord retired to some paces distance, while another lifted the bird's cap and set him at liberty. The falconer then called the bird, showing the lure.
These details, with the accompanying engravings, are taken from the "Livre du Roy Modus," the most ancient of all the works on hawking.
The tournament, which was the principal amusement of the Norman nobility at the time of the Conquest, was not introduced into England until the reign of Stephen, and will, therefore, be treated of hereafter.
Sword Play.—From Royal MS. 14 E. iii.
Various military exercises were, however, in existence, among which was the quintain. A stuff, from which a shield was hung, was fixed in the ground, and the performer, on horseback, rode full tilt at the mark, endeavoring to strike the shield with his lance.
Ancient Quintian.
Sometimes the quintain was the figure of a Turk or Saracen, which was placed on a pivot in such a manner that, if the horseman failed to strike it in the face, he received a severe blow from the other end of the quintain, which turned round with great velocity.
Some military sports are described by Strutt as peculiar to the young men of London in the twelfth century. At this period, also, he tells us that it was common for the young men and maidens of the city to meet for dancing and merry-making after the labours of the day, and that the city damsels played on the citherns, and kept up the dance by the light of the moon (usque imminiente luá).
Many other sports were also common at this period, among which may be noticed sword and buckler play, and various games of ball.
The leisure hours of the Anglo-Saxon women were spent in spinning, or in similar employments; and the lady of the house did not disdain to be among her maids, encouraging and assisting them in their duties. Strutt relates the following account, given by Ingulphus, of Edgitha, queen to Edward the Confessor:—"I have often seen her," he says,
Bob-Apple.—From Royal MS.
"While I was yet a boy, when my father was at the king's palace; and as I came from school, when I have met her, she would examine me in my learning, and from grammar she would proceed to logic (which she also understood), concluding with me in the most subtle argument; then causing one of her attendant maids to present me with three or four pieces of money, I was dismissed, being sent to the larder, where I was sure to get some eatables." The simplicity of manners here described soon disappeared when the throne of England was occupied by Norman kings.
The Lure.
The articles of costume were of great variety. A taste for gorgeous finery appears in the dress of the male sex.
Saxon Crowns.
We read of a king's coronation garment being made of silk, woven with gold flowers; and of a cloak stud led with gold and gems. The dress of the soldiers and civilians usually consisted of a close coat or tunic, reaching only to the knee, ​and a short cloak over the left shoulder, which buckled on the right. This cloak was often trimmed with an edging of gold.
Anglo-Saxon Costume.—Cotton. MS.
The kings and nobles also commonly wore a dress very similar to this, only richer and more elegant. In the paintings of the manuscripts, the women are usually represented in a long loose robe, reaching to the ground, and with loose sleeves, the latter sometimes hanging a yard in length.
Ladies' Costume. Twelfth Century.—Cotton, MS.
Upon the head is a hood or veil, which falls down before, and is gathered into folds round the neck and breast. The robe is often ornamented with broad borders of different colours.
Anglo-Saxon Shoes.
Both men and women wore shoes, or rather slippers; the legs of the men being covered half-way up with a kind of bandage wound round, or else a straight stocking reaching above the knee. Up to the period of the Conquest, the taste for gold ornaments had increased; and massive bracelets for the arms and neck, rings for the fingers, and chains of gold were common. Among the nobility circlets of gold set with jewels were worn on the head; and belts and girdles were much admired, and were often richly ornamented.
From the paintings of some of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, a knowledge may be gathered of their customs at table. In the engraving of "The Anglo-Saxon Dinner Party" given below, the table is of an oval form, and covered with a cloth. Upon it, besides a knife and spoon, there are a bowl with a fish, two other dishes, and some loaves of bread.
Cloak-pin, Buckle, and Pouch of the Twelfth Century.
At each end of the table are two attendants upon their knees, with a dish in one hand, and in the other a spit holding a piece of meat, which they are presenting to the guests. In other drawings of the MSS. the table is of a different form; ladies are represented as present, and the two sexes are arranged apparently without any precise order.
Cups of gold and silver were used, and also of bone and wood. Horns were much used at table.
Anglo-Saxon Dinner Party.—From the Cotton. MS., Tib., C. 8.
A curiously carved horn of the Anglo-Saxon times is still preserved' in York Cathedral. Glass vessels were little known in this country previous to the Norman Conquest. A disciple of ​Bede applied to Lullus, in France, to know if there was any man in that neighbourhood who could make glass vessels well; "for," said he, "we are ignorant and helpless ill this art."
Chairs—From Cotton. Ms, Tib C. 6.
Of the furniture in use among the Anglo-Saxons little information has come down to us. Mention has already been made of hangings to be suspended on the walls of rooms, and adorned with figures of golden birds in needlework. The love of gaudy colours which prevailed at that day was apparent in the furniture as well as in the dresses of the people; and the hangings and curtains were stained with purple and various other colours. Among the benches and chairs in use, some are represented as having animals' heads at the extremities.
Candles have probably been in use from a period of high antiquity, and were certainly known in the tenth century. The Anglo-Saxon word for candlestick candtlsticea—seems to denote that the earlier candlesticks were made of wood. At this period the candle was not placed in a socket, as at present, but fixed on a long spike.
We find mention made of a curtain, sheets, and other clothes appertaining. A pillow of straw is also mentioned. Bear-skins were sometimes used as a part of bed furniture. The engraving of a saxon bed above given, is taken from Claud., B.4 MSS., Brit. Museum.
Saxon Bed.—From Cotton. MS, Claud, B.4.
The Anglo-Saxons seem to have practised great personal cleanliness. The use of the warm bath was common, for mention is made of a nun, who, as an act of voluntary penance, washed in them only on festivals. It was also enjoined by the canons as a charitable duty to give to the poor meal, fire, fodder, bathing, bed, and clothes.
Norman Vessel. Twelfth Century.
The practice of burning the dead was common at one period among the northern nations, but among the Anglo-Saxons the custom of interment has prevailed from the earliest times to which the records of the monkish historians extend. The common coffins were of wood; those of kings and nobles were usually of stone.
At the time of the Conquest, the condition of the people in France and Normandy differed little from what it was in our own country. The nobles and higher ecclesiastics, all who possessed wealth, or were in a position to seize it by force, inhabited their castles and country houses, where they collected about them whatever the age could afford of objects of luxury and elegance.
Comb in Ivory-Carving of the 12th Century.
Solitude and discouragement reigned around their dwellings. Industry and the arts languished obscurely in the towns, and commerce, restrained in its developments, was often conducted in secrecy ​and danger. The merchant was compelled to travel with his goods from the castle of one baron to that of another, and, living without a fixed residence or depôt for them, he might by this means escape from the exactions of the nobles, who, in fact, were to some extent dependent upon his services. Frequently the baron would cause some of his serfs to learn the mechanical arts, so that the several labours of the carpenter, the armourer, the tailor, &c., might be available at once when required.
From an early period, the Franks of noble race wore long hair and beards, and the custom of Christian priests was the same until the third and fourth centuries. In the time of Charlemagne the costume was still simple—part Roman and part barbarous. The Franks piqued themselves upon their elegance; of which an example may be found in the journey of Rigontha,
Military Costumes of the Twelfth Century.
daughter of Chilperic, to visit the king of the Spanish Goths, to whom she was betrothed. "Rigontha, daughter of Chilperic, arrived at Tours with her treasures. Seeing that she had reached the frontier of the Goths, she began to retard her march, and so much the more because those about her said it was necessary for her to stop in that neighbourhood, because they were fatigued with the journey; their clothes were dirty, their shoes worn out, and the harness of their horses and chariots in a bad condition. They insisted that it was necessary, first, to place these things in good order, so as to continue the journey, and appear with elegance before their lady's future husband, lest, if they arrived badly equipped among the Goths, they should be laughed at."
The Normans, who arrived with their short dresses and coats of mail, and became established in France about 972, adopted the costume of the French, which they followed in all its phases; and in the following century they began to introduce the fashions of the Continent into England.
Gisarme.
At the time of the Conquest, however, the custom generally prevailed among the Normans of shaving not only the beard, but the back of the head, as appears from the figures in the Bayeux tapestry.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries the costume of the higher classes usually consisted of a long tunic, confined by a girdle, over which was a large cloak.
Norman Soldiers.—From the Bayeux Tapestry.
The soldiers wore a short coat of mail over a tunic, which descended to the knees; their arms comprised the long-bow, the cross-bow, the sword, lance, buckler, and gisarme.
Norman Bowmen. Eleventh Century.
The gisarme ​is said to be the weapon called the brown bill by Chaucer. it was in general use in the twelfth century, and was retained as late as the battle of Flodden.
Woman Spinning. From a MS. of the Twelfth Century in the Royal Library of Brussels.
The costume of the women of Normandy consisted of a simple head-dress, with long robes girded about the waist. In paintings of this period the hair is seldom seen,
Noble Ladies of Normandy. Costume of the Twelfth Century.
but the manner in which it was worn appears to have varied. Sometimes it is represented as gathered tightly about the head, and sometimes it descends in long plaits upon the shoulders. Princesses and ladies of rank wore a robe of ermine, or a tunic either with or without sleeves; a veil was also added, which covered the head, and descended in folds over the bosom.
After the death of Charlemagne, literature and the arts in France experienced a gradual decline until the tenth century, when a new and remarkable impetus was given to learning by the Arabs in Spain, whose literature, derived from that of Greece, was disseminated over the Continent. English learning, which had flourished during the reigns of Alfred and his immediate successors, began rapidly to decay during the stormy period of the Danish invasions; and from the time of the accession of Canute to that of the Norman Conquest little or no revival of letters appears to have taken place. During the period which intervened between these two events, the country enjoyed a considerable degree of repose, and it can hardly be doubted that some of the schools and religious houses were re-established; but the long period of peace was marked by the growth of indolence and sensuality among the people, rather than by the spread of education.
William the Conqueror, says a modern writer, "patronised and loved letters. He filled the bishoprics and abbacies of England with the most learned of his countrymen, who had been educated at the University of Paris, at that time the most flourishing school in Europe. Many of the Norman prelates preferred in England by the Conqueror were polite scholars. Godfrey, Prior of St. Swithin's, at Winchester, a native of Cambray, was an elegant Latin epigrammist, and wrote with the smartness and ease of Martial; a circumstance which, by the way, shows that the literature of the monks at this period was of a more liberal cast than that which we commonly annex to their character and profession."
William founded the abbeys of Battle and Selby, with other religious houses, and endowed them with ample revenues. Many of his nobles were incited by his example to the erection of monasteries upon their estates.
Sacramental Wafer Box Twelfth Century.
These institutions, which afforded leisure and protection to men of letters, acted as powerful incentives to the pursuit of learning, and promoted in no small degree the interest of literature.
The art of the sculptor had made little progress in Europe previous to the tenth century. Two centuries later, the Burgundian school was in its zenith, and enriched the churches and monasteries of France with many admirable specimens of sculpture. Hughes, Abbé of Cluny, had a magnificent tomb; Bernard II., Abbé of Montier-Saint-Jean, in rebuilding the door of his church, caused it to be adorned with representations of the Saviour and the twelve apostles; and in other instances the arts were applied to decorate the religious houses, or the graves of the illustrious dead.
In Normandy we find at this period the names of several ​sculptors celebrated for their works. Among these was Otho, the sculptor of the tomb of William the Conqueror, in 1087, and other monuments of a similar kind; Azo, builder of the cathedral of Sens, and of several others. The masons and sculptors of Normandy formed at this epoch an important corporation.
At the beginning of the eleventh century, when the Normans became securely established in their conquests, they displayed the utmost activity in the erection of magnificent buildings, both in England and Normandy. According to William of Malmesbury, churches rose up in every village,and monasteries in the towns and cities, built in a style unknown before. "You might behold ancient buildings restored upon their sites throughout the country, so that each wealthy man considered that day as lost to him, on which he neglected to perform some magnificent action."
The Anglo-Norman barons who engaged in these works obtained from their own country and from France the assistance of the best architects and sculptors. Guillaume of Sens, one of these artists, reconstructed the cathedral of Canterbury in 1176; and other foreign artists were employed to restore the abbeys of Croyland, of York, of Wearmouth, and others. The character of the Norman architecture will be treated of hereafter.
While it is evident that results highly favourable to the progress of literature and the arts in this country were produced by the Norman conquest, there is also every reason to believe that the tendency to sensuality, which was so strong among the Saxon people, experienced a salutary check from the introduction of Norman manners. The foreign invasion entailed immediate sufferings upon the conquered race, but its results were favourable to the progress of civilisation, and tended in no small degree to the advance of the nation in power and greatness.
The Normans are understood to have introduced into England many elegancies and refinements in the habits of common life and the customs of the table. It has been already stated that the Saxons were a people of gross appetite, who were accustomed to spend many hours of the day at feasts. The Normans, on the other hand, appear, on their arrival in England, to have distinguished themselves by the moderation and refinement of their mode of living. Among the dainties held in the highest esteem by the Normans were the peacock and the crane. The boar's head was considered a regal dish, and it was brought in at great feasts in a kind of procession, preceded by musicians.
It would appear that the improvements thus introduced were rather moral than material, as we find no mention made of new articles of furniture or other conveniences as having appeared at the time of the Conquest. Our information on this subject is, however, scanty, and it is probable that the improvement of taste and increased wealth were soon manifested in the application of the useful and decorative arts to the conveniences of domestic life.
A most faithful and valuable record of costumes and manners at the time of the Conquest is to be found in the remarkable work known as the Bayeux Tapestry. It has been already stated that in the days of the Conqueror the Anglo-Saxon ladies were remarkable for their skill in ornamental needlework, and the embroidery of their manufacture was celebrated throughout Europe under the name of English work.
The Saxon nobles who accompanied William to the Continent after the battle of Hastings, are supposed to have taken with them their wives and daughters. It is probable that at this time Matilda, the wife of the Conqueror, assisted by English ladies as well as those of her own country, constructed the tapestry which has been preserved for ages in the town of Bayeux. Some degree of doubt must always rest upon the precise date and origin of the work, but the balance of opinion, among the best authorities, is in favour of the popular tradition which has always ascribed it to the wife of the Conqueror.
The Bayeux tapestry is a chronicle of the conquest of England by the Normans, opening with the mission of Harold to Duke William, and terminating with the battle of Hastings. The designs, which were probably the work of an Italian artist, are represented in worsted work, the colours of which, notwithstanding the great age of the tapestry, are still bright and distinct. The tapestry was placed at an early period in a side chapel of the cathedral of Bayeux, where it was regarded with veneration by the people. During the consulate of Napoleon, the ancient relic was removed from Bayeux to Paris, where it remained for several months, and was visited by the First Consul himself. At the present time the tapestry is preserved in the library of the town of Bayeux, and is exposed to view in glass cases.
This remarkable monument of skill and industry originally formed one piece; and, according to a recent writer,measures two hundred and twenty-seven feet in length, by about twenty inches in breadth. The groundwork of it is a strip of rather fine linen cloth, which, through age, has assumed the tinge of brown holland. The stitches consist of lines of coloured worsted laid side by side, and bound down at intervals by cross fastenings. The colours chiefly used by the fair artists are, dark and light blue, red, pink, yellow, buff, and dark and light green.
The central portion of the tapestry is occupied with the delineation of the narrative, and there is also an ornamental border at the top and bottom of the field, which contains figures of birds and beasts. Many of these are of fantastic shapes, and are, probably, meant to represent the dragons, griffins, and other fabulous creatures which are so often referred to in the romances of that period.
Worn down by anxiety, and by the anticipation of evils which he foresaw, but was unable to prevent, Edward the Confessor soon afterwards died, and was buried at Westminster, in the church which he had himself built in a new and costly style of architecture. The tapestry shows us the Church of St. Peter, at Westminster, and the funeral procession of the king. It will be observed that the church, which was built in the Early Norman style, Ls provided at one end with a weathercock, which a workman is represented in the act of putting up. "By this," says the authority already quoted, "the designer of the tapestry means to show that the work was but just completed, when the interment of the Confessor took place. A hand appears over the western end of the church to denote the finger of Providence, and to indicate that it was the will of God that the remains of the deceased king should be deposited in that building." The arrangements of the funeral procession are simple—a boy appears at each side of the bier ringing bells, and various attendants and priests are following. The words written above are—"Hic portatur corpus Edwardi regis ad ecchsiam sancti Petri pstoli" (Here the body of King Edward is carried to the church of St. Peter the Apostle).
Great Seal of Henry I.
The two lower divisions of the preceding page are taken from another portion of the tapestry, and represent the battle of Hastings. The thick of the combat is here delineated, according to the inscription, "Hic ceiderunt simul Aiigli ct Franci in prelio" (Here at the same time English and French fell in the battle). Horses and men are tumbling about in the agonies of death. The mailed coats and pointed helmets of the Normans are easily distinguished from the Saxon costume. Further on we find a party of Saxons posted on a hill, who are making a desperate stand against the enemy with their lances. At a time when the fortune of the day seemed turning against the Normans, Odo of Bayeux galloped among the soldiers, and restored their drooping courage. He is represented in the tapestry with a staff, probably a badge of authority, and the inscription above is, "Hic Odo episcopus, tenens baculum, confortat pueros" (Here Bishop Odo, holding a staff, encourages the soldiers).
The last figure in the engraving is that of the Duke of Normandy, who is represented at the head of his troops waving his sword. The inscription runs—"Hic est Dux Wilhelm" (This is Duke William).
The tapestry itself goes on to delineate other details of the battle, describes the place where Harold fell, and ends with the flight of the English before the conquering troops of Normandy.
* ↑ In the Imperial Library at Paris.
* ↑ Gregory of Tours.
* ↑ The historical works of William of Malmesbury consist of seven books containing a record of the acts of the English kings, from the arrival of the Saxons to the time of the author's death, in the year 1143.
* ↑ The Rev. J. C. Bruce—"The Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated.