OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Augite

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​AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming minerals. The name (from αὐγή, lustre) has at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are dark-greenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87°. A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a Fig. 1. Fig. 2.crystal twinned on the orthopinacoid (r ′). Such crystals, of short prismatic habit and black in colour, are common as phenocrysts in many basalts, and are hence known as “basaltic augite”; when the containing rock weathers to a clayey material the augite is left as black isolated crystals, and such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance.
Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSi$_2$O$_6$, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe″) (Al, Fe‴)$_2$ SiO$_6$; the acmite (NaFe‴Si$_2$O$_6$,) ​and jadeite (NaAlSi$_2$O$_6$) molecules are also sometimes present. Variations in the amount of iron in mixtures of these isomorphous molecules are accompanied by variations in the optical characters of the augite. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Augsburg, War of the League of

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​AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF, the name applied to the European war of 1688–1697. The league of Augsburg was concluded on the 9th of July 1686 by the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against the French. Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of Vienna (July 12, 1689). (See Grand Alliance, War of the.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Augment

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​AUGMENT (Lat. augere, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar it is called syllabic, when only the ε is prefixed; temporal, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a diphthong or long vowel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Considérant, Victor Prosper

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​CONSIDÉRANT, VICTOR PROSPER (1808–1893), French socialist, was born at Salins (Jura) on the 12th of October 1808. Educated at the École Polytechnique in Paris, he entered the French army as an engineer, rising to the rank of captain. Becoming imbued, however, with the phalansterian ideas of François Fourier, he resigned his commission in 1831, in order to devote himself to advancing the doctrines of his master. On the death of Fourier in 1837 he became the acknowledged head of the movement, and took charge of La Phalange, the organ of Fourierism. He also established phalanges at Condé-sur-Vesgres and elsewhere, but they had little success and soon died of inanition. During this period he published his Destinée sociale (1834–1838), undoubtedly the most able and most important work of the Fourierist school. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly for the department of Loiret, and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly for the department of the Seine. Considérant’s share in the “demonstration” under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin on the 13th of June 1849 caused his compulsory flight to Belgium. Thence he went (1852) to Texas, but soon returned to Brussels, where he suffered a short imprisonment for alleged conspiracy against the peace of a neighbouring state. On his release he again set out for Texas, and founded at San Antonio the communistic colony of La Réunion. This experiment met with little more success than his former attempts, and in 1869 he returned to Paris, where he lived in retirement, needy and forgotten, till his death in 1893. The most important of Considérant’s other writings were Exposition du système de Fourier (1845), Principes du socialisme (1847), Théorie du droit de propriété et du droit au travail (1848).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conshohocken

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​CONSHOHOCKEN, a borough of Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 12 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 5470; (1900) 5762 (932 being foreign-born); (1910) 7480. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The borough is built on land which rises gradually from the river-bank for about 1/4 m. and then becomes quite level, but the surrounding country is for the most part occupied by hills, several of which rise to considerable height. It has a variety of manufacturing establishments, among which are cotton and woollen mills, rolling mills, steel mills, foundries, boiler shops, tube works, and works for making surgical instruments and artificial stone. The place was first settled about 1820, and was for several years known as Matson’s Ford; in 1830 it was laid out as a town and received its present name, an ​Indian word meaning “pleasant valley.” It was incorporated in 1850. Immediately across the Schuylkill is West Conshohocken (pop. in 1900, 1958), where carpets and woollen goods are manufactured.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Consistory Courts

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​CONSISTORY COURTS, those ecclesiastical courts wherein the ordinary jurisdiction of the bishop is exercised (see Consistory). They exist in every diocese of England. Consistory courts were established by a charter of William I., which appointed the cognizance of ecclesiastical causes in a distinct place or court from the temporal. The officer who exercises jurisdiction in a consistory court is known as the chancellor (q.v.), and he is appointed by patent from the bishop or archbishop. All jurisdiction, both contentious and voluntary, is committed to him under two separate offices, those of official principal and vicar-general; the distinction between the two offices is that the official principal usually exercises contentious jurisdiction and the vicar-general voluntary jurisdiction. (In the province of York there is an official principal of the chancery court and a vicar-general of the diocese.) Since about the middle of the 19th century consistory courts have been shorn of much of their importance. Before the year 1858 consistory courts exercised concurrently with the courts of their respective provinces jurisdiction over matrimonial and testamentary matters. This jurisdiction was taken away by the Court of Probate Act 1857 and the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. They had also corrective jurisdiction over criminous clerks, but this was abrogated by the Church Discipline Act 1840. The principal business of consistory courts is now the dispensing of faculties. The procedure in such is strictly forensic, for all applications for faculties, though they may be unopposed, are commenced by citation, calling on all who may have an interest to oppose. From the consistory courts an appeal lies to the provincial courts, i.e. the arches court of Canterbury and the chancery court of York. Also, by the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, a clergyman may be prosecuted and tried in a consistory court for immoral acts or conduct. Under this act, either party may appeal either to the provincial court or to the king in council against any judgment of a consistory court.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Consett

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​CONSETT, an urban district in the north-western parliamentary division of Durham, England, 20 m. S.E. of Newcastleupon-Tyne by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 9694. It is the centre of a populous industrial district. At Shotley Bridge (where there is a small spa) a colony of German metal-workers, making swords and knives, was established in the 17th century; but this industry has now been replaced by paper mills. There are extensive collieries and ironworks in the district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Consignment

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​CONSIGNMENT (from consign, Fr. consigner, Lat. consignare, to affix a signum, seal; whence, in Late Lat., to hand over, transmit), generally, the delivery or transmission of any person or thing for safe custody, e.g. of a malefactor to prison, or of a horse to the care of a groom. In law, consignment is used of the sending or transmitting of goods to a merchant or factor for sale. The person who consigns the goods is called the consignor, and the person residing at the port of delivery or elsewhere to whom the goods are to be delivered when they arrive there is called the consignee. See further Affreightment.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conservator

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​CONSERVATOR (Lat. conservare, to preserve), one who preserves from injury, a guardian or custodian. In the middle ages the title of conservator was given to various officers, such as those appointed by the council of Würzburg in 1287 to protect the privileges of certain religious persons, the guardians of academic rights in the university of Paris, certain Roman magistrates as late as the 16th century, or the conservator Judaeorum who was enjoined to look after the Jews of the county of Provence in 1424. By the 2 Henry V. there was appointed a conservator of truce and safe conducts in each English seaport “to enquire of all offences done against the king’s truce and safe conducts, upon the main sea, out of the liberties of the cinque ports.” In Scotland the conservator of the realm (c. 1503) had jurisdiction to settle the disputes and protect the rights of Scottish merchants in foreign ports or places of trade. In England the conservators of the peace (custodes pacis) were the precursors of the modern justices of the peace. Stubbs traces their origin to the assignment of knights, in 1195, to enforce the oath to preserve the peace which Richard I. ordered to be taken by all persons above the age of 15. By the 1 Edward III. conservators of the peace were appointed for each county to guard the peace and to hear and determine felonies. The office was reconstituted by the parliament of 1327, and its powers were extended in 1360. From the sovereign and the lord chancellor down to the justice and the village constable, all who have to do with the repression of crime are included within the general term of conservators of the peace. As commonly used nowadays in England, the term conservator is applied only to the guardian of a museum or of a river (see Thames).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Consideration

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​CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term), observation, attention, regard or taking into account, hence the fact taken into account, and especially something given as an equivalent or reward or in payment; in the law of contract, an act or forbearance, or the promise thereof, offered by one party to an agreement, and accepted by the other as an inducement to that other’s act or promise (Pollock on Contract). Consideration in the legal sense is essential to the validity of every contract unless it is made in writing under seal. The meaning of the word is quite accurately expressed by a phrase used in one of the earliest cases on the subject—it is strictly a quid pro quo. Something, whether it be in the nature of an act or a forbearance, must move from one of the parties in order to support a promise made by the other. A mere promise by A to give something to B cannot be enforced unless there is some consideration “moving from B.” While every contract requires a consideration, it is held that the court will not inquire into the adequacy thereof, but it must be of some value in the eye of the law. It must also be legal, and it must be either present or future, not past. See further Contract.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Choricius

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​CHORICIUS, of Gaza, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the time of Anastasius I. (A.D. 491–518). He was the pupil ​of Procopius of Gaza, who must be distinguished from Procopius of Caesarea, the historian. A number of his declamations and descriptive treatises have been preserved. The declamations, which are in many cases accompanied by explanatory commentaries, chiefly consist of panegyrics, funeral orations and the stock themes of the rhetorical schools. The Έπιθαλάμιοι or wedding speeches, wishing prosperity to the bride and bridegroom, strike out a new line. Choricius was also the author of so-called Έκφράσεις, descriptions of works of art after the manner of Philostratus. The moral maxims, which were a constant feature of his writings, were largely drawn upon by Macarius Chrysocephalas, metropolitan of Philadelphia (middle of the 14th century), in his Rodonia (rose-garden), a voluminous collection of ethical sayings. The style of Choricius is praised by Photius as pure and elegant, but he is censured for lack of naturalness. A special feature of his style is the persistent avoidance of hiatus, peculiar to what is called the school of Gaza.
Editions by J. F. Boissonade (1846, supplemented by C. Graux in Revue de philologie, 1877) and R. Förster (1882–1894); see also C. Kirsten, “Quaestiones Choricianae” in Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen, vii. (1894), and article by W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyclopädie, iii. 2 (1899). On the Gaza school see K. Seitz, Die Schule von Gaza (Heidelberg, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chorley, Henry Fothergill

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​CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL (1808–1872), English musical critic, one of an old Lancashire family, began in a merchant’s office, but soon took to musical journalism. He began to write for the Athenaeum in 1830, and remained its musical critic for more than a generation; and he also became musical critic for The Times. In these positions he had much influence; he had strong views, and was a persistent opponent of innovation. In addition to musical criticism, he wrote voluminously on literature and art, besides novels, dramas and verse, and various librettos; and he published several books, including Modern German Music (1854), Handel Studies (1859), and Thirty Years’ Musical Recollections (1862). He died in London on the 16th of February 1872.
See his Autobiography, Memoir and Letters, edited by H. G. Hewlett (1873).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chopsticks

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​CHOPSTICKS, the “pidgin-English” name for the pair of small tapering sticks used by the Chinese and Japanese in eating. “Chop” is pidgin-English for “quick,” the Chinese word for the articles being kwai-tsze, meaning “the quick ones.” “Chopsticks” are commonly made of wood, bone or ivory, somewhat longer and slightly thinner than a lead-pencil. Held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they are used as tongs to take up portions of the food, which is brought to table cut up into small and convenient pieces, or as means for sweeping the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl. Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the chopsticks; laying them across the bowl is a sign that the guest wishes to leave the table; they are not used during a time of mourning, when food is eaten with the fingers; and various methods of handling them form a secret code of signalling.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Choriambic Verse

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​CHORIAMBIC VERSE, or Choriambics, the name given to Greek or Latin lyrical poetry in which the sound of the choriambus predominates. The choriambus is a verse-foot consisting of a trochee united with and preceding an iambus,  – ◡ ◡ –. The choriambi are never used alone, but are usually preceded by a spondee and followed by an iambus. The line so formed is called an asclepiad, traditionally because it was invented by the Aeolian poet Asclepiades of Samos. Choriambic verse was first used by the poets of the Greek islands, and Sappho, in particular, produced magnificent effects with it. The measure, as used by the early Greeks, is essentially lyrical and impassioned. Mingled with other metres, it was constantly serviceable in choral writing, to which it was believed to give a stormy and mysterious character. The Greater Asclepiad was a term used for a line in which the wild music was prolonged by the introduction of a supplementary choriambus. This was much employed by Sappho and by Alcaeus, as well as in Alexandrian times by Callimachus and Theocritus. Among the Latins, Horace, in imitation of Alcaeus, made constant use of choriambic verse. Metrical experts distinguish six varieties of it in his Odes. This is an example of his greater asclepiad (Od. i. 11):—
In later times of Rome, both Seneca and Prudentius wrote choriambic verse with a fair amount of success. Swinburne even introduced it into English poetry:—
Such lines as these make a brave attempt to resuscitate the measured sound of the greater asclepiad. (E. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chorizontes

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​CHORIZONTES (“separators”), the name given to the Alexandrian critics who denied the single authorship of the Iliad and Odyssey, and held that the latter poem was the work of a later poet. The most important of them were the grammarians Xeno and Hellanicus; Aristarchus was their chief opponent (see Homer).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chorley

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​CHORLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chorley parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the river Yarrow, 202 m. N.W. by W. from London and 22 m. N.W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North-Western railways and the Leeds & Liverpool Canal. Pop. (1891) 23,087; (1901) 26,852. The church of St Lawrence is of Perpendicular and earlier date, largely restored; it contains fine woodwork and some interesting monuments. Cotton spinning and the manufacture of cotton and muslin are extensively carried on, and there are also iron and brass foundries and boiler factories. Railway-wagon building is an important industry. The district contains a number of coal-mines and stone-quarries. Close to the town is the beautiful Elizabethan mansion of Astley Hall, which is said to have sheltered Oliver Cromwell after the battle of Preston (1648). The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3614 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Choragus

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​CHORAGUS (the Lat. form of Gr. χοραγός or χορηγός, leader of the chorus), the citizen chosen to undertake the expense of furnishing and instructing the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals at Athens (see Liturgy and Finance). The name is given to an assistant to the professor of music at the university of Oxford, whose office was founded, with that of the professor, in 1626 by Dr William Heather.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chorin, Aaron

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​CHORIN, AARON (1766–1844), Hungarian rabbi and pioneer of religious reform. He favoured the use of the organ and of prayers in the vernacular, and was instrumental in founding schools on modern lines. Chorin was thus regarded as a leader of the newer Judaism. He also interested himself in public affairs; and his son Francis was a Hungarian deputy.
See L. Löw, Gesammelte Schriften, ii. 251.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chorlu

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​CHORLU, Tchorlau or Schorlau, a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the left bank of the Chorlu, a small left-hand tributary of the Ergene, 20 m. N.E. of Rodosto. Pop. (1905) about 12,000, of whom one-half are Greeks, one-third Turks, and the remainder Armenians and Jews. Chorlu has a station on the Constantinople-Adrianople branch of the Oriental railways. It manufactures woollen cloth (shayak) and native carpets, and exports cereals, oil-cloth, carpets, cattle, poultry, fresh meat, game, fruits, wine, alcohol, hides and bones.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bala Series

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​BALA SERIES, in geology, a series of dark slates and sandstones with beds of limestone which occurs in the neighbourhood of Bala, Merionethshire, North Wales. It was first described by A. Sedgwick, who considered it to be the upper part of his Cambrian System. The series is now placed at the top of the Ordovician System, above the Llandeilo beds. The Bala limestone is from 20 to 40 ft. thick, and is recognizable over most of North Wales; it is regarded as the equivalent of the Coniston limestone of the Lake District. The series in the type area consists of the Hirnant limestone, a thin inconstant bed, which is separated by 1400 ft. of slates from the Bala limestone, below this are more slates and volcanic rocks. The latter are represented by large contemporaneous deposits of tuff and felsitic lava which in the Snowdon District are several thousand feet thick. In South Wales the Bala Series contains the following beds in descending order:—the Trinucleus seticornis beds (Slade beds, Redhill shales and Sholeshook limestone), the Robeston Wathen beds, and the Dicranograptus shales. The typical graptolites are, in the upper part, Dicellograptus anceps and D. complanatus; in the lower part, Pleurograptus linearis and Dicranograptus Clingani. In Shropshire this series is represented by the Caradoc and Chirbury Series; in southern Scotland by the Hartfell and Ardmillan Series, and by similar rocks in Ireland. See Caradoc Series and Ordovician System.