OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krushevats

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​KRUSHEVATS (or Kruševac), a town of Servia, lying in a fertile region of hills and dales near the right bank of the Servian Morava. Pop. (1900), about 10,000. Krushevats is the capital of a department bearing the same name, and has an active trade in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and livestock, for the sale of which it possesses about a dozen markets. It was in Krushevats that the last Servian tsar, Lazar, assembled his army to march against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo, in 1389. The site of his palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment of the tower of Queen Militsa, whither, according to legend, tidings of the defeat were brought her by crows from the battlefield. Within the enclosure stands a church, dating from the reign of Stephen Dushan (1336–1356), with beautiful rose windows and with imperial peacocks, dragons and eagles sculptured on the walls. Several old Turkish houses were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an ancient Turkish fountain and bath.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kuban (river)

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​KUBAN, a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. slope of the Elbruz, in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,930 ft., races down the N. face of the Caucasus as a mountain-torrent, but upon getting down to the lower-lying steppe country S. of Stavropol it turns, at 1075 ft. altitude, towards the N.W., and eventually, assuming a westerly course, enters the Gulf of Kyzyl-tash, on the Black Sea, in the vicinity of the Straits of Kerch. Its lower course lies for some distance through marshes, where in times of overflow its breadth increases from the normal 700 ft. to over half a mile. Its total length is 500 m., the area of its basin 21,480 sq. m. It is navigable for steamers for 73 m., as far as the confluence of its tributary, the Laba (200 m. long). This, like its other affluents, the Byelaya (155 m.), Urup, and Great and Little Zelenchuk, joins it from the left. The Kuban is the ancient Hypanis and Vardanes and the Pshishche of the Circassians.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liquidambar

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​LIQUIDAMBAR, Liquid Amber or Sweet Gum, a product of Liquidambar styraciflua (order Hamamelideae), a deciduous tree of from 80 to 140 ft. high, with a straight trunk 4 or 5 ft. in diameter, a native of the United States, Mexico and Central America. It bears palmately-lobed leaves, somewhat resembling those of the maple, but larger. The male and female inflorescences are on different branches of the same tree, the globular heads of fruit resembling those of the plane. This species is nearly allied to L. orientalis, a native of a very restricted portion of the south-west coast of Asia Minor, where it forms forests. The earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F. Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, whence the name (Nov. Plant., &c., p. 56). In Ray’s Historia Plantarum (1686) it is called Styrax liquida. It was introduced into Europe in 1681 by John Banister, the missionary collector sent out by Bishop Compton, who planted it in the palace gardens at Fulham. The wood is very compact and fine-grained—the heart-wood being reddish, and, when cut into planks, marked transversely with blackish belts. It is employed for veneering in America. Being readily dyed black, it is sometimes used instead of ebony for picture frames, balusters, &c.; but it is too liable to decay for outdoor work.
The gum resin yielded by this tree has no special medicinal virtues, being inferior in therapeutic properties to many others of its class. Mixed with tobacco, the gum was used for smoking at the court of the Mexican emperors (Humboldt iv. 10). It has long been used in France as a perfume for gloves, &c. It is mainly produced in Mexico, little being obtained from trees growing in higher latitudes of North America, or in England.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipsius, Richard Adelbert

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​LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (1830–1892), German Protestant theologian, son of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who was rector of the school of St Thomas at Leipzig, was born at Gera on the 14th of February 1830. He studied at Leipzig, and eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius. He helped to found the “Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union” and the “Evangelical Alliance,” and from 1874 took an active part in their management. He died at Jena on the 19th of August 1892. Lipsius wrote principally on dogmatics and the history of early Christianity from a liberal and critical standpoint. A Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an opponent of Albrecht Ritschl, demanding “a connected and consistent theory of the universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our experience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a truth, one division of which would be confined to ‘judgments of value,’ and be unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the external world. The possibility of combining the results of our scientific knowledge with the declarations of our ethico-religious experience, so as to form a consistent philosophy, is based, according to Lipsius, upon the unity of the personal ego, which on the one hand knows the world scientifically, and on the other regards it as the means of realizing the ethico-religious object of its life” (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, is his attitude in Philosophie und Religion (1885). In his Lehrbuch der evang.-prot. Dogmatik (1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with the doctrines of “God,” “Christ,” “Justification” and the “Church.” From 1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and E. Schrader in editing the Jahrbücher für prot. Theologie, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited the Theol. Jahresbericht.
His other works include Die Pilatusakten (1871, new ed., 1886), Dogmatische Beiträge (1878), Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte (1875), Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten (1883–1890), Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss dargestellt (1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the Galatians, Romans and Philippians in H. J. Holtzmann’s Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament (1891–1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lipton, Sir Thomas Johnstone

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​LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE, Bart. (1850– ), British merchant, was born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents. At a very early age he was employed as errand boy to a Glasgow stationer; at fifteen he emigrated to America, where at first he worked in a grocery store, and afterwards as a tram-car driver in New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm, and on a plantation in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some money, he returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop. Business gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision shops first all over Scotland and then all over the United Kingdom. To supply his retail shops on the most favourable terms, he ​purchased extensive tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon, and provided his own packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories, bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in 1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liquidation

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​LIQUIDATION (i.e. making “liquid” or clear), in law, the clearing off or settling of a debt. The word was more especially used in bankruptcy law to define the method by which, under the Bankruptcy Act 1869, the affairs of an insolvent debtor were arranged and a composition accepted by his creditors without actual bankruptcy. It was abolished by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 (see Bankruptcy). In a general sense, liquidation is used for the act of adjusting debts, as the Egyptian Law of Liquidation, July 1880, for a general settlement of the liabilities of Egypt. In company law, liquidation is the winding up and dissolving a company. The winding up may be either voluntary or compulsory, and an officer, termed a liquidator, is appointed, who takes into his custody all the property of the company and performs such duties as are necessary on its behalf (see Company).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liquorice

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​LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste, black in colour and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste, known as liquorice paste or black sugar, are the inspissated juice of the roots of a leguminous plant, Glycyrrhiza glabra, the radix glycyrrhizae of the pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of Europe, especially on the Mediterranean shores, and to some extent in Louisiana and California. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 or 4 ft., varying in diameter from 1/4 to 1 in.; they are soft, flexible and fibrous, and internally of a bright yellow colour, with a characteristic, sweet pleasant taste. To this sweet taste of its root the plant owes its generic name Glycyrrhiza (γλυκύῤῥιζα, the sweet-root), of which the word liquorice is a corruption. The roots contain grape-sugar, starch, resin, asparagine, malic acid and the glucoside glycyrrhizin, C$_{24}$ H$_{36}$ O$_9$, a yellow amorphous powder with an acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste. On hydrolysis, glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin.
Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp, which is boiled in water over an open fire, and the decoction separated from the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a sufficient degree of concentration is attained, after which, on cooling, it is rolled into the form of sticks or other shapes for the market. The preparation of the juice is a widely extended industry along the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality best appreciated in the United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under the names of Solazzi and Corigliano juice. Liquorice enters into the composition of many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and in the form of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in masking the taste of nauseous medicines.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lira

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​LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. libra, pound) for a silver coin, the Italian unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corresponding to the French, Swiss and Belgian franc (q.v.), and the drachma of Greece, &c. The name is sometimes used of the Turkish pound, medjidie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostrovskiy, Alexander Nikolaivich

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​OSTROVSKIY, ALEXANDER NIKOLAIVICH (1823–1886), Russian dramatic author, was born on the 12th of April 1823 in Moscow, where his father was an official of the senate. He studied ​law in the university of that city, which he quitted without having submitted to the final examination. He was then employed as a clerk in the office of the “Court of Conscience,” and subsequently in that of the Commercial Court at Moscow. Both tribunals were called upon to settle disputes chiefly among the Russian merchant class, from which Ostrovskiy was thus enabled to draw the chief characters for his earliest comedies. Among these are Byednaya Nivesta (“The Poor Bride”), Byednost ne Porok (“Poverty not a Vice”), and Ne v’svoi sani ne sadis (literally “Don’t put yourself in another’s sledge,” meaning “Don't put yourself in a position for which you are not suited”). Of this last Nicholas I. said, “it was not a play, but a lesson.” The uncultured, self-satisfied Moscow merchants are strikingly portrayed in Grozá (“The Tempest”) and Svoyi lyudi sochtyomsya (“Between near relatives no accounts are needed”), which was originally called “The Bankrupt.” The last-mentioned comedy was prohibited for ten years, until the accession of Alexander II., and Ostrovskiy was dismissed the government service and placed under the supervision of the police. The Liberal tendencies of the new reign, however, soon brought relief, Ostrovskiy was one of several well-known literary men who were sent into the provinces to report on the condition of the people. Ostrovskiy’s field of inquiry lay along the upper Volga, a part of the country memorable for some of the most important events in Russian history. This mission induced him to write several historical dramas of great merit, such as Kuzma Zakharich Minin Soukhorouk (the full name of the famous butcher who saved Moscow from the Poles); “The False Demetrius” and “Vassily Shuisky”; Vassilisa Melentieva (the name of a favourite court lady of Ivan the Terrible), and the comedy, Voivoda eeli Son na Volge (“The Military Commander,” or “A dream on the Volga”). Many of his later works treat of the Russian nobility, and include Byeshani Dengi (literally “Mad Money”), Vospeetinitsa (“A Girl brought up in a Stranger’s Family”), and Volki e Ovtsi (“Wolves and Sheep”); others relate to the world of actors, such as Liess (“Forest”), Bez vini vinovatiya (“Guiltlessly guilty”), and Talenti e Pokloniki (“Talents and their Admirers”). Ostrovskiy enjoyed the patronage of Alexander III., and received a pension of 3000 roubles a year. With the help of Moscow capitalists he established in that city a model theatre and school of dramatic art, of which he became the first director. He also founded the Society of Russian Dramatic Art and Opera Composers. His death took place on the 24th of June 1886, while travelling to his estate in Kostroma.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oswald (archbishop of York)

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​OSWALD (d. 992), archbishop of York, was a nephew of Oda, archbishop of Canterbury, and at an early age became, by purchase, head of the Old Minster at Winchester. Desiring to become a monk, he went with Oda’s approval to the monastery of Fleury on the Loire—at that time the great centre of reviving Benedictinism. Here he soon distinguished himself by the monastic austerity of his life. In 959 he returned to England at the request of Oda, who, however, died before his arrival. He now went to York to his kinsman the Archbishop Oskytel, who took him with him on a pilgrimage to Rome. Soon after his return he was appointed bishop of Worcester at the recommendation of Dunstan, his predecessor in the see (961). As bishop he took a prominent part in that revival of monastic discipline on Benedictine lines of which Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester, was the most ardent leader. His methods, however, were less violent than those of Aethelwold. Among other religious houses he founded that of Ramsey in conjunction with Aethelwine, Ealdorman of East Anglia. In 972 he was translated (again at Dunstan’s recommendation) to the archbishopric of York, with which he continued to hold the see of Worcester. He died on the 29th of February 992 and was buried at Worcester.
See Memorials of St Dunstan, edited by W. Stubbs, Rolls series (London, 1874).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oswald (king of Northumbria)

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​OSWALD (c. 605–642), king of Northumbria, was one of the sons of Æthelfrith and was expelled from Northumbria on the accession of Edwin, though he himself was a son of Edwin’s sister Acha. He appears to have spent some of his exile in Iona, where he was instructed in the principles of Christianity. In 634 he defeated and slew the British king Ceadwalla at a place called by Bede Denisesburn, near Hefenfelth, which has been identified with St Oswald’s Cocklaw, near Chollerford, Northumberland. By this he avenged his brother Eanfrith, who had succeeded Edwin in Bernicia, and became king of Northumbria. Oswald reunited Deira and Bernicia, and soon raised his kingdom to a position equal to that which it had occupied in the time of Edwin, with whom he is classed by Bede as one of the seven great Anglo-Saxon kings. His close alliance with the Celtic church is the characteristic feature of his reign. In 635 he sent to the elders of the Scots for a bishop. On the arrival of Aidan in answer to this request he assigned to him the island of Lindisfarne as his see, near the royal city of Bamborough. He also completed the minster of St Peter at York which had been begun by Paulinus under Edwin. Bede declares that Oswald ruled over “all the peoples and provinces of Britain, which includes four languages, those of the Britons, Picts, Scots and Angles.” His relationship to Edwin may have helped him to consolidate Deira and Bernicia. Early in his reign he was sponsor to the West Saxon king Cynegils, whose daughter he married. In 642 he was defeated and slain at a place called Maserfeld, probably Oswestry in Shropshire, by Penda of Mercia.
See Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896), ii. 5, 14, 20; iii. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9-14: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. J. Earle and C. Plummer (Oxford, 1899), s.a., 617, 634, 635, 642, 654.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oswaldtwistle

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​OSWALDTWISTLE, an urban district in the Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 31/2 m. E.S.E. of Blackburn. Pop. (1901) 14,192. It possesses cotton-mills, printworks, bleachworks and chemical works, and in the neighbourhood are collieries, stone quarries and potteries. At Peelfold, in the township, was born (1750) Sir Robert Peel, first baronet, who, as a factory-owner effected wide developments in the cotton industry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostrogoths

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​OSTROGOTHS, or East Goths, one of the two main branches into which the Goths were divided, the other being the Visigoths, or West Goths. See Goths.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostuni

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​OSTUNI, a picturesque walled city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 23 m. by rail N.W. of Brindisi. Pop. (1901) 7734 (town); 22,811 (commune). It has a cathedral of the 15th century with a fine Romanesque façade, and a municipal library with a collection of antiquities. The see has been amalgamated with that of Brindisi.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Osuna

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​OSUNA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; 57 m. by rail E.S.E. of Seville. Pop. (1900) 18,072. Osuna is built on a hill, overlooking the fertile plain watered by the Salado, a sub-tributary of the Guadalquivir. On the top of the hill stands the collegiate church, dating from 1534 and containing interesting Spanish and early German paintings. These, however, as well as the sculptures over the portal, suffered considerably during the occupation of the place by the French under Soult. The vaults, which are supported by Moorish arches, contain the tombs of the Giron family, by one of whom, Don Juan Tellez, the church was founded in 1534. The university of Osuna, founded also by him in 1549, was suppressed in 1820; but its large building is still used as a secondary school. ​The industries are agriculture and the making of esparto mats, pottery, bricks, oil, soap, cloth, linen and hats.
Osuna, the Urso of Hirtius, famous in the 1st century B.C. for its long resistance to the troops of Caesar, and its fidelity to the Pompeians, was subsequently called by the Romans Orsona and Gemina Urbanorum, the last name being due, it is said, to the presence of two urban legions here. Osuna was taken from the Moors in 1239, and given by Alphonso X. to the knights of Calatrava in 1264. Don Pedro Giron appropriated it to himself in 1445. One of his descendants, Don Pedro Tellez, was the first holder of the title duke of Osuna, conferred on him by Philip II. in 1562.
Estepa (pop. 8591), a town 6 m. E.N.E. is the Iberian and Carthaginian Astepa or Ostipo, famous for its siege in 207 B.C. by the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio. When further resistance became impossible, the people of Astepa set fire to their town, and all perished in the flames.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crown Debt

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​CROWN DEBT, in English law, a debt due to the crown. By various statutes—the first dating from the reign of Henry VIII. (1541)—the crown has priority for its debts before all other creditors. At common law the crown always had a lien on the lands and goods of debtors by record, which could be enforced even when they had passed into the hands of other persons. The difficulty of ascertaining whether lands were subject to a crown lien or not was often very great, and a remedy was provided by the Judgments Act 1839, and the Crown Suits Act ​1865. Now by the Land Charges Act 1900, no debt due to the crown operates as a charge on land until a writ of execution for the purpose of enforcing it has been registered under the Land Charges Registration and Searches Act 1888. By the Act of 1541 specialty debts were put practically on the same footing as debts by record. Simple contract debts due to the crown also become specialty debts, and the rights of the crown are enforced by a summary process called an extent (see Writ).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crown Land

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​CROWN LAND, in the United Kingdom, land belonging to the crown, the hereditary revenues of which were surrendered to parliament in the reign of George III.
In Anglo-Saxon times the property of the king consisted of (a) his private estate, (b) the demesne of the crown, comprising palaces, &c., and (c) rights over the folkland of the kingdom. By the time of the Norman Conquest the three became merged into the estate of the crown, that is, land annexed to the crown, held by the king as king. The king, also, ceased to hold as a private owner, but he had full power of disposal by grant of the crown lands, which were increased from time to time by confiscation, escheat, forfeiture, &c. The history of the crown lands to the reign of William III. was one of continuous alienation to favourites. Their wholesale distribution by William III. necessitated the intervention of parliament, and in the reign of Queen Anne an act was passed limiting the right of alienation of crown lands to a period of not more than thirty-one years or three lives. The revenue from the crown lands was also made to constitute part of the civil list. At the beginning of his reign George III. surrendered his interest in the crown lands in return for a fixed “civil list” (q.v.). The control and management of the crown lands is now regulated by the Crown Lands Act 1829 and various amending acts. Under these acts their management is entrusted to the commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues, who have certain statutory powers as to leasing, selling, exchanging, &c.
In theory, also, state lands in the British colonies are supposed to be vested in the crown, and they are called crown lands; actually, however, the various colonial legislatures have full control over them and power of disposal. The term “crown-lands,” in Austria, is applied to the various provinces into which that country is divided. (See Austria.)