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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tivoli

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​TIVOLI (anc. Tibur, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of the province of Rome, Italy, 18 m. E.N.E. of Rome by road and tramway, 241/2 m. by rail, 760 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 11,610 (town), 12,881 (commune). Tivoli lies on the west of the Sabine Mountains, where the river Anio issues from them, upon a limestone rock above the river. The town on one side overlooks the Campagna di Roma and Rome itself, on the other the deep gorge of the Anio, with its lofty falls, and the environs are very beautiful. The Roman remains are described under the heading of Tibur. The Villa d’Este, begun in 1549 by Pirro Ligorio for Cardinal Ippolito d’Este the younger (the cardinal of Ferrara), has the finest example of a Renaissance garden in Italy; it was erected on a steep slope, with many terraces, and embellished with numerous fountains, fantastically decorated in stucco, which once formed the background to the splendid collection of ancient statuary formed by the cardinal, but now dispersed (see F. S. Seni, La Villa d’Este in Tivoli, Rome, 1902; T. Ashby, in Archaeologia, vol. lxi.). The villa contains damaged frescoes by the brothers Zuccari. The register of the see of ​Tivoli has documents dating from the 10th century relating to the landed property of the see (L. Bruzza, Regesto della chiesa di Tivoli, Rome, 1883), and the municipal archives date from 1450. The castle was erected in 1460 by Pius II. on the site of the amphitheatre; it is now a prison. In November 1826 a flood of the Anio led to a change in its course, and threatened to carry away the town. A new channel, consisting of two parallel tunnels (the Traforo Gregoriano) 290 and 330 yds. long, was therefore made to the north-east in 1826–1835 by Folchi, and on emerging from these the river has a fall of 354 ft. Farther north-west are smaller falls (the cascatelle) of that portion of the river which is carried through the town and serves for industrial purposes. Five miles west are the sulphur baths of Acque Albule, which were known to the ancients, and are now frequented by over 40,000 persons annually. The temperature of the water is 75·2° F. The falls in the river afford electric power for lighting Rome and driving its trams, as well as for driving several factories in Tivoli itself. Tivoli is also the centre of an agricultural district, and its olive trees are especially fine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Titusville

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​TITUSVILLE, a city of Crawford county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Oil Creek, about 42 m. S. by E. of Erie. Pop. (1900), 8244, of whom 1573 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 8533. Titusville is served by the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg, and the Pennsylvania railways. It has the Benson Memorial library (1904), and in Woodlawn Cemetery there is a monument (erected by Henry H. Rogers in 1902) to Colonel Edwin L. Drake (1819–1880), who here sank the first oil well (691/2 ft. deep) in America in August 1859 and who is buried here. Titusville was the principal centre in Pennsylvania of the opposition to the Standard Oil Company; but after 1875, when John D. Archbold (b. 1848), a leader of the independents, became a director of the Standard, few of the Titusville operators remained independent. It was in the Titusville district that the natural gas industry of Pennsylvania was first established about 1872.
There are various manufactures, and in 1905 the value of the factory products was $3,249,890. The first settlement was made here in 1796 by Samuel Kerr and jonathan Titus (in whose honour the place was named). Titusville was incorporated as a borough in 1847 and was chartered as a city in 1866. On the 5th of June 1892 Oil Creek rose suddenly, overflowed its banks and wrecked many oil tanks along the bottom-lands. A large part of the water was covered with oil, which soon caught fire. About 60 persons were drowned or burned to death, and about a quarter of the city was destroyed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Titus

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​TITUS, one of the companions of St Paul, was of Greek origin (Gal. ii. 3), and was perhaps a native of Asia Minor. He appears to have been among the apostle’s earliest converts, being first mentioned (Gal. ii. 1) as having accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem (cf. Acts xv. 2) “to represent the success of the Pauline gospel outside Judaism.” Here the conservative section demanded that he should be circumcised; but Paul successfully opposed this (see Paul). Subsequently he came into close connexion with the Achaean churches and especially with Corinth, bearing letters from Paul and being charged with promoting the proposed collection for poor Christians in Judaea. In these matters he proved himself a trusty lieutenant, winning the esteem of the Corinthians by his zeal and disinterestedness. The liberality which a generation later was recognized by Clement of Rome as a traditional virtue of the Corinthian Church owed its inception to Titus. In the epistle with which his name is associated he is represented (Titus i. 5) as having been left by Paul in Crete to “ set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders in every city.” He is expected afterwards to join Paul at Nicopolis (iii. 12). In 2 Tim. iv. 10 he is spoken of as having gone (perhaps on a mission) to Dalmatia. Tradition, obviously resting on the Epistle to Titus, has it that he died in Crete as bishop at an advanced age; another line connects him with Venice. Attempts to make him the author of the “We” sections in Acts and to include him in the seventy disciples are futile. There is more to be said for the suggestion that he was the brother of St Luke.
See A. Souter and E. P. Boys-Smith in The Expository Times, xviii. 285, 335, 380.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tlaxcala (state)

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​TLAXCALA, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N.E. and S. by Puebla, and W. by the state of Mexico. Area 1505 sq. m. Pop. (1900), 172,315. Tlaxcala lies on the great central plateau of Mexico and has a mean altitude of about 7000 ft. Several mountains rise in the west and south, culminating in the volcanic peak of Malinche, or Malintzin (14,636 ft.). The state has three railway lines crossing its territory. The capital is Tlaxcala and the principal towns are Chiautempan (about 5000). Calpulalpan, San Antonio, Tlaxco, Huamantla and Barron-Escandon (Apizaco). The state nearly coincides with the ancient Indian republic founded in the 13th century by a branch of the Nahuatlan race, who migrated from the western shores of Lake Texcoco. Though surrounded on all sides by the great Aztec Empire, the tiny republic maintained its independence until the arrival of the Spaniards. The Tlaxcaltecs, or Tlascalans, after a fierce resistance to Cortés in 1519, became efficient allies of the Spaniards and contributed largely to their final success. The present inhabitants are chiefly of this original stock, and retain their language and many ancient customs.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quack

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​QUACK, one who pretends to knowledge of which he is ignorant, a charlatan, particularly a medical impostor. The word is a shortened form of “quacksalver” (Du. kwaksalver), in which form it is common in the 17th century, “salver” meaning “healer,” while “quack” (Du. kwakken) is merely an application of the onomatopoeic word applied to the sounds made by a duck, i.e. gabble or gibberish. In English law, to call a medical practitioner a “quack” is actionable per se without proof of special damage (Allen v. Eaton (1630), 1 Roll. Abs. 54). The often-quoted legal definition of a “quack” is “a boastful pretender to medical skill,” but a “quack” may have great skill, and it is the claim to cure by remedies which he knows have no efficacy which makes him a “quack” (see Dakhyl v. Labouchere, The Times, 29th of July 1904, and 5th and 9th of November 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quadrature

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​QUADRATURE (from Lat. quadratura, a making square), in astronomy, that aspect of a heavenly body in which it makes a right angle with the direction of the sun; applied especially to the apparent position of a planet, or of the moon at first and last quarters. In mathematics, quadrature is the determination of a square equal to the area of a curve or other figure.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quadrilateral

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​QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, a figure enclosed by four straight lines. It is also a military term applied to a combination of four fortresses mutually supporting one another. The fortresses of Namur, Liége, Maastricht, and Louvain, and also those of Silistria, Rustchuk, Shumla, and Varna, were so called. But the most famous quadrilateral was that of the four fortified towns of north Italy—Mantua, Peschiera, Verona, and Legnago, ​the two former of which are situated on the Mincio and the two latter on the Adige. The real value of the quadrilateral, which gave Austria such a firm hold on Lombardy, lay in the great natural strength of Mantua and in the readiness with which troops and supplies could be poured into Verona from the north.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Přemysl

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​PŘEMYSL, the reputed ancestor of the line of dukes and kings which ruled in Bohemia from 873 or earlier until the murder of Wenceslaus III. in 1306, and which was known as the Přemyslide dynasty. According to legend Přemysl was a peasant of Staditz who attracted the notice of Libussa, daughter of a certain Krok, who ruled over a large part of Bohemia, and is said to have been descended from Samo. Přemysl married Libussa, the traditional foundress of Prague, and during the 8th century became prince of the Bohemian Čechs. His family became extinct when Wenceslaus III. died, but through females the title to Bohemia passed from the Přemyslides to the house of Luxemburg and later to the house of Habsburg.
See F. Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, Bd. I. (Prague, 1844).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Q

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​Q the letter which immediately succeeds P in the alphabet of Latin and the modern languages of western Europe. It represents the Koppa of the earliest Greek alphabets surviving in that form of the Ionic alphabet, which ultimately superseded all others, merely as the numerical symbol for 90. In the Phoenician alphabet a sibilant Ẓade (Tzaddi) stands between q and p. Hence Q is the nineteenth letter in the Phoenician alphabet, the eighteenth in the Greek numerical alphabet, which alone contains it, the sixteenth (owing to the omission of θ and ξ) in the Latin, and (from the addition of J) the seventeenth in the English alphabet. Its earliest form is a rough ellipse transfixed by an upright line, . In various Semitic alphabets this has been altered out of recognition, apparently from the writing of the symbol in cursive handwriting without lifting the pen. As a result forms like ֆ, , ק, , are developed. In Greece the head of the symbol is generally circular, and only in a few early inscriptions is the upright carried through the circle, . The common form is ϙ with the upright stem short. This is also the earliest form in the Latin alphabet, but forms with the upright turned to the right as in a modern Q are found in the Republican period, while this tail becomes longer and curved in the early Empire. The pronunciation of the Semitic Koph (Qōf) was that of a velar guttural produced against the back part of the soft palate with great energy (hence called an “emphatic” sound). In Greek there is no evidence that ϙ was pronounced differently from K; hence no doubt its early disappearance in most dialects. It survived longest when followed by ο or υ, as at the beginning of the name of the town of Corinth. In Latin it is regularly used in combination with u. In classical Latin its use is confined to the cases where, as in English quill, &c., the u is pronounced as w before a following vowel, but in old Latin it is found also in other combinations. Many languages find the combination qu, when both sounds are consonantal (qw), difficult; q being the deepest guttural while u̯ (English w) is a lip sound, the points of production are nearly as far separate as they can be. There is thus a tendency to assimilation, and instead of a guttural followed by a labial semi-vowel, a new labial consonant p is produced. In Greek this is common when the combination is followed by the vowel ο, as in πῶ, ποῖ, &c., from the same stem as the Latin quō, quī, &c. This, however, is not found in all dialects alike (see Greek Language). In other languages, like Oscan and Umbrian which are closely akin to Latin, or the Welsh branch of the Celtic languages, p occurs regularly without regard to the nature of the vowel following. Thus, corresponding to the Latin quattuor, we find the Oscan petora, the Gaulish petor-ritum, “four-wheeler,” the Welsh pedwar, "four," &c., while the Irish cethir, "four," corresponds more closely to the Latin. (P. Gi.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Quadriga

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​QUADRIGA, the ancient four-horsed chariot (Lat. quadrigae, contracted from quadrijugae), which was regarded as one of the seven sacred features in Rome. It was chiefly used, as the triumphal car of generals or emperors. The earliest example mentioned is that which was modelled in terra-cotta and raised on the pediment of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. In later time it formed the chief decorative feature which crowned the triumphal arches, and there are numerous representations of it on coins.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Qaro, Joseph ben Ephraim

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​QARO (or Caro), JOSEPH BEN EPHRAIM (1488–1575), codifier of Jewish law, whose code is still authoritative with the mass of Jews, was born in 1488. As a child he shared in the expulsion from Spain (1492), and like most prominent Jews of the period was forced to migrate from place to place. In 1535 he settled in Safed, Palestine, where he spent the rest of his life. Safed was then the headquarters of Jewish mysticism. Qaro was himself a mystic, for the tribulations of the time turned many men’s minds towards Messianic hopes; nor was he by any means the only great Jewish legalist who was also a mystic. Mysticism in such minds did not take the form of a revolt against authority, but was rather the spiritual flower of pietism than an expression of antinomianism. It is, however, as a legalist that Qaro is best known. In learning and critical power he was second only to Maimonides in the realm of Jewish law. He was the author of two great works, the second of which, though inferior as an intellectual feat, has surpassed the first in popularity. This was inevitable, for the earlier and greater book was designed exclusively for specialists. It was in the form of a commentary (entitled Beth Yoseph) on the Turim (see ’Asher Ben Yeḥiel). In this commentary Qaro shows an astounding mastery over the Talmud and the legalistic literature of the middle ages. He felt called upon to systematize the laws and customs of Judaism in face of the disintegration caused by the Spanish expulsion. But the Beth Yoseph is by no means systematic.
Qaro’s real aim was effected by his second work, the Shulḥan ’Arukh (“Table Prepared”). Finished in 1555, this code was published in four parts in 1565. The work was not accepted without protest and criticism, but after the lapse of a century, and in consequence of certain revisions and amplifications, it became the almost unquestioned authority of the whole Jewish world. Its influence was to some extent evil. It “put Judaism into a strait-jacket.” Independence of judgment was inhibited, and the code stood in the way of progressive adaptation of Jewish life to the life of Europe. It included trivialities by the side of great principles, and retained elements from the past which deserved to fall into oblivion. But its good effects far outweighed the bad. It was a bond of union, a bar to latitudinarianism, an accessible guide to ritual, ethics and law. Above all, it gave a new lease of life to the great theory which identified life with religion. It sanctified the home, it dignified common pursuits. When, however, the era of reform dawned in the 19th century, the new Judaism found itself impelled to assume an attitude of hostility to Qaro’s code.
See Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, vol. ix. (English trans. vol. iv.); Ginzberg, in Jewish Encyclopedia, arts. “Caro” and “Codification"; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, second series, pp. 202 seq. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Přibram

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​PŘIBRAM, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 39 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,576, together with the adjoining township of Birkenberg, 19,119, almost exclusively Czech. It lies in a valley between the hills of Birkenberg and Heiliger Berg, and in its neighbourhood are the lead and silver mines which belong to the Austrian government and are worked in nine shafts, two of which, the Adalbert shaft (3657 ft.) and the Maria shaft, (3575 ft.) are the deepest in the world. The mines have been worked for several centuries, but their actual prosperity dates from 1770, when the sinking of the Adalbert shaft began. They yield yearly an average of 80,000 ℔ of silver and 1900 tons of lead. At the top of the Heiliger Berg (1889 ft.) is a church with a wonder-working image of the Virgin, which is the chief place of pilgrimage in Bohemia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawes, William

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​HAWES, WILLIAM (1785–1846), English musician, was born in London in 1785, and was for eight years (1793–1801) a chorister of the Chapel Royal, where he studied music chiefly under Dr Ayrton. He subsequently held various musical posts, being in 1817 appointed master of the children of the Chapel Royal. He also carried on the business of a music publisher, and was for many years musical director of the Lyceum theatre, then devoted to English opera. In the last-named capacity (July 23rd, 1824), he introduced Weber’s Der Freischütz for the first time in England, at first slightly curtailed, but soon afterwards in its entirety. Winter’s Interrupted Sacrifice, Mozart’s Cosi fan tutte, Marschner’s Vampyre and other important works were also brought out under his auspices. Hawes also wrote or compiled the music for numerous pieces. Better were his glees and madrigals, of which he published several collections. He also superintended a new edition of the celebrated Triumph of Oriana. He died on the 18th of February 1846.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawfinch

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​HAWFINCH, a bird so called from the belief that the fruit of the hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha) forms its chief food, the Loxia coccothraustes of Linnaeus, and the Coccothraustes vulgaris of modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the finch family (Fringillidae), and found over nearly the whole of Europe, in Africa north of the Atlas and in Asia from Palestine to Japan. It was formerly thought to be only an autumnal or winter-visitor to Britain, but later experience has proved that, though there may very likely be an immigration in the fall of the year, it breeds in nearly all the English counties to Yorkshire, and abundantly in those nearest to London. In coloration it bears some resemblance to a chaffinch, but its much larger size and enormous beak make it easily recognizable, while on closer inspection the singular bull-hook form of some of its wing-feathers will be found to be very remarkable. Though not uncommonly frequenting gardens and orchards, in which as well as in woods it builds its nest, it is exceedingly shy in its habits, so as seldom to afford opportunities for observation. (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawarden

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​HAWARDEN (pronounced Harden, Welsh Penarlâg), a market-town of Flintshire, North Wales, 6 m. W. of Chester, on a height commanding an extensive prospect, connected by a branch with the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 5372. It lies in a coal district, with clay beds near. Coarse earthenware, draining tiles and fire-clay bricks are the chief manufactures. The Maudes take the title of viscount from the town. Hawarden castle—built in 1752, added to and altered in the Gothic style in 1814—stands in a fine wooded park near the old castle of the same name, which William the Conqueror gave to his nephew, Hugh Lupus. It was taken in 1282 by Dafydd, brother of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, destroyed by the Parliamentarians in the Civil War, and came into the possession of Sergeant Glynne, lord chief justice of England under Cromwell. The last baronet, Sir Stephen R. Glynne, dying in 1874, Castell Penarlâg passed to his brother-in-law, William Ewart Gladstone. St Deiniol church, early English, was restored in 1857 and 1878. There are also a grammar school (1606), a Gladstone golden-wedding fountain (1889), and St Deiniol’s Hostel (with accommodation for students and an Anglican clerical warden); west of the church, on Truman’s hill, is an old British camp.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hawawir

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​HAWAWIR (Hauhauin), an African tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. They are found along the road from Debba to Khartum as far as Bir Ganir, and from Ambigol to Wadi Bishāra. They have adopted none of the negro customs, such as gashing the cheeks or elaborate hairdressing. They own large herds of oxen, sheep and camels.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haweis, Hugh Reginald

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​HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD (1838–1901), English preacher and writer, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 3rd of April 1838. On leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled in Italy and served under Garibaldi in 1860. On his return to England he was ordained and held various curacies in London, becoming in 1866 incumbent of St James’s, Marylebone. His unconventional methods of conducting the service, combined with his dwarfish figure and lively manner, soon attracted crowded congregations. He married Miss M. E. Joy in 1866, and both he and Mrs Haweis (d. 1898) contributed largely to periodical literature and travelled a good deal abroad. Haweis was Lowell lecturer at Boston, U.S.A., in 1885, and represented the Anglican Church at the Chicago Parliament of Religions in 1893. He was much interested in music, and wrote books on violins and church bells, besides contributing an article to the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on bell-ringing. His best-known book was Music and Morals (3rd ed., 1873); and for a time he was editor of Cassell’s Magazine. He also wrote five volumes on Christ and Christianity (a popular church history, 1886–1887). Other writings include Travel and Talk (1896), and similar chatty and entertaining books. He died on the 29th of January 1901.