OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Martyr

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​MARTYR (Gr. μάρτυρ or μάρτυς), a word meaning literally “witness” and often used in that sense in the New Testament e.g. Matt, xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63. During the conflict between Paganism and Christianity when many Christians “testified” to the truth of their convictions by sacrificing their lives, the word assumed its modern technical sense. The beginnings of this use are to be seen in such passages as Acts xxii. 20; Rev. ii. 13, xiii. 6. During the first three centuries the fortitude of these “witnesses” won the admiration of their brethren. Ardent spirits craved the martyr’s crown, and to confess Christ in persecution was to attain a glory inferior only to that won by those who actually died. Confessors were visited in prison, martyrs’ graves were scenes of pilgrimage, and the day on which ​they suffered was celebrated as the birthday of their glory. Martyrology was the most popular literature in the early Church. While the honour paid to martyrdom was a great support to early champions of the faith, it was attended by serious evils. It was thought that martyrdom would atone for sin, and imprisoned confessors not only issued to the Churches commands which were regarded almost as inspired utterances, but granted pardons in rash profusion to those who had been excommunicated by the regular clergy, a practice which caused Cyprian and his fellow bishops much difficulty. The zeal of Ignatius (c. 115), who begs the Roman Church to do nothing to avert from him the martyr’s death, was natural enough in a spiritual knight-errant, but with others in later days, especially in Phrygia and North Africa, the passion became artificial. Fanatics sought death by insulting the magistrates or by breaking idols, and in their enthusiasm for martyrdom became self-centred and forgetful of their normal duty. None the less it is true that these men and women endured torments, often unthinkable in their cruelty, and death rather than abandon their faith. The same phenomena have been witnessed, not only in the conflicts within the Church that marked the 13th to the 16th centuries, but in the different mission fields, and particularly in Madagascar and China.
See A. J. Mason, The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive Church (London, 1905); H. B. Workman, Persecution in the Early Church (London, 1906); Paul Allard, Ten Lectures on the Martyrs (London, 1907); John Foxe, The Book of Martyrs; Mary I. Bryson, Cross and Crown (London, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marullus, Michael Tarchaniota

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​MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA (d. 1500), Greek scholar, poet, and soldier, was born at Constantinople. In 1453, when the Turks captured Constantinople, he was taken to Ancona in Italy, where he became the friend and pupil of J. J. Pontanus, with whom his name is associated by Ariosto (Orl. Fur. xxxvii. 8). He received his education at Florence, where he obtained the patronage of Lorenzo de’ Medici. He was the author of epigrams and hymni naturales, in which he happily imitated Lucretius. He took no part in the work of translation, then the favourite exercise of scholars, but he was understood to be planning some great work when he was drowned, on the 10th of April 1500, in the river Cecina near Volterra. He was a bitter enemy of Politian, whose successful rival he had been in the affections of the beautiful and learned Alessandra Scala. He is remembered chiefly for the brilliant emendations on Lucretius which he left unpublished; these were used for the Juntine edition (Munro’s Lucretius, Introduction).
The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, De Principum institutione, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in Documents inédits relatifs à l’histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge, vol. vii. (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glucinum

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​GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the Annales de chimie an account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from γλυκύς, sweet, in reference to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glutaric Acid

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​GLUTARIC ACID, or Normal Pyrotaric Acid, HO$_2$C·CH$_2$·CH$_2$·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H, an organic acid prepared by the reduction of α-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing glutaconic acid, HO$_2$C·CH$_2$·CH:CH·CO$_2$H, with sodium amalgam, by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester, which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses with β-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester, CH$_3$·CO·CH(CO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$)·CH$_2$·CH$_2$·CO$_2$C$_2$H$_5$, from which glutaric acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic, stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97.5° C., and distils between 302° and 304° C., practically without decomposition. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl chloride. By distillation of the ammonium salt glutarimide, CH$_2$(CH$_2$·CO)$_2$NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting at 151° to 152° C. and sublimes unchanged.
On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 48, 60), C. A. Bischoff (Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1923) and W. H. Perkin, junr. (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, p. 268).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gloxinia

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​GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species of Sinningia (S. speciosa), a member of the natural order Gesneraceae and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these and other species of Sinningia. A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65° at night, they may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the winter in dry sand, in a temperature of 50°, and to yield a succession should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use weak manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gluten

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​GLUTEN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic, nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, obtained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn. It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is present. When treated with .1 to .2% solution of hydrochloric acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, which contains leucin and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On analysis gluten shows a composition of about 53% of carbon, 7% of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about 1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. According to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of glutencasein (Liebig’s vegetable fibrin), glutenfibrin, gliadin (Pflanzenleim), glutin or vegetable gelatin, and mucedin, which are all closely allied to one another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent (H. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granulating by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glow-worm

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​GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of the beetle Lampyris noctiluca, whose power of emitting light has been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species of Lampyris are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present in many genera of the family Lampyridae from various parts of the world. Frequently—as in the south European Luciola italica—both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as “fire-flies.” In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit.
Elongate centipedes of the family Geophilidae, certain species of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huntington (Indiana)

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​HUNTINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Huntington county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Little river, about 25 m. S.W. of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1900) 9491, of whom 621 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,272. Huntington is served by three railways—the Wabash, the Erie (which has car shops and division headquarters here) and the Cincinnati, Bluffton & Chicago (which has machine shops here), and by the Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley Traction Company, whose car and repair shops and power station are in Huntington. The city has a public library, a business college and Central College (1897), controlled by the United Brethren in Christ (Old Constitution). Woodenware is the principal manufacture. The value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,081,019, an increase of 20.6% since 1900. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant. Huntington, named in honour of Samuel Huntington (1736–1796), of Connecticut, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was first settled about 1829, was incorporated as a town in 1848 and was chartered as a city in 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huntington, Frederic Dan

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​HUNTINGTON, FREDERIC DAN (1819–1904), American clergyman, first Protestant Episcopal bishop of central New York, was born in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1819. He graduated at Amherst in 1839 and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1842. In 1842–1855 he was pastor of the South Congregational Church of Boston, and in 1855–1860 was preacher to the university and Plummer professor of Christian Morals at Harvard; he then left the Unitarian Church, with which his father had been connected as a clergyman at Hadley, resigned his professorship and became pastor of the newly established Emmanuel Church of Boston. He had refused the bishopric of Maine when in 1868 he was elected to the diocese of central New York. He was consecrated on the 9th of April 1869, and thereafter lived in Syracuse. He died in Hadley, Massachusetts, on the 11th of July 1904. His more important publications were Lectures on Human Society (1860); Memorials of a Quiet Life (1874); and The Golden Rule applied to Business and Social Conditions (1892).
See Memoir and Letters of Frederic Dan Huntington (Boston, 1906), by Arria S. Huntington, his wife.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huntingdon (Pennsylvania)

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​HUNTINGDON, a borough and the county-seat of Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Juniata river, about 150 m. E. of Pittsburg, in the S. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 5729, (1900) 6053, (225 foreign-born), (1910) 6861. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Huntingdon & Broad Top Mountain railways, the latter running to the Broad Top Mountain coalfields in the S.W. part of the county. The borough is built on ground sloping gently towards the river, which furnishes valuable water power. The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture, and abounds in coal, iron, fire clay, limestone and white sand. Huntingdon’s principal manufactures are stationery, flour, knitting-goods, furniture, boilers, radiators and sewer pipe. It is the seat of Juniata College (German Baptist Brethren), opened in 1876 as the Brethren’s Normal School and Collegiate Institute, and rechartered as Juniata College in 1896, and of the State Industrial Reformatory, opened in 1888. Indians (probably Oneidas) settled near the site of Huntingdon, erected here a tall pillar, known as “Standing Stone”; the original was removed by the Indians, but another has been erected by the borough on the same spot. The place was laid out as a town in 1767 under the direction of Dr William Smith (1727–1803), at the time provost of the college of Pennsylvania (afterwards the university of Pennsylvania); and it was named in honour of the countess of Huntingdon, who had contributed liberally toward the maintenance of that institution. It was incorporated as a borough in 1796.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huntington, Daniel

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​HUNTINGTON, DANIEL (1816–1906), American artist, was born in New York on the 14th of October 1816. In 1835 he studied with S. F. B. Morse, and produced “A Bar-Room Politician” and “A Toper Asleep.” Subsequently he painted some landscapes on the river Hudson, and in 1839 went to Rome. On his return to America he painted portraits and began the illustration of The Pilgrim’s Progress, but his eyesight failed, and in 1844 he went back to Rome. Returning to New York in 1846, he devoted his time chiefly to portrait-painting, although he has painted many genre, religious and historical subjects. He was president of the National Academy from 1862 to 1870, and again in 1877–1890. Among his principal works are: “The Florentine Girl,” “Early Christian Prisoners,” “The Shepherd Boy of the Campagna,” “The Roman Penitents,” “Christiana and Her Children,” “Queen Mary signing the Death-Warrant of Lady Jane Grey,” and “Feckenham in the Tower” (1850), “Chocorua” (1860), “Republican Court in the Time of Washington,” containing sixty-four careful portraits (1861), “Sowing the Word” (1869), “St Jerome,” “Juliet on the Balcony” (1870), “The Narrows, Lake George” (1871), “Titian,” “Clement VII. and Charles V. at Bologna,” “Philosophy and Christian Art” (1878), “Goldsmith’s Daughter” (1884). His principal portraits are: President Lincoln, in Union League Club, New York; Chancellor Ferris of New York University; Sir Charles Eastlake and the earl of Carlyle, the property of the New York Historical Society; President Van Buren, in the State Library at Albany; James Lenox, in the Lenox Library; Louis Agassiz (1856–1857), William Cullen Bryant (1866), John A. Dix (1880) and John Sherman (1881). He died on the 19th of April 1906 in New York City.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hunting Dog

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​HUNTING DOG (Lycaon pictus), an African wild dog, differing from the rest of the family in having only four toes on each foot, and its blotched coloration of ochery yellow, black and white. The species is nearly as large as a mastiff, with long limbs, broad flat head, short muzzle and large erect ears, and presents a superficial resemblance to the spotted hyena on which account it is sometimes called the hyena-dog. “Mimicry” has been suggested as an explanation of this likeness; but it is difficult to see what advantage a strong animal hunting in packs like the present species can gain by being mistaken for a hyena, as it is in every respect fully qualified to take care of itself. These wild dogs are found in nearly the whole of Africa south and east of the Sahara. The statement of Gordon Cumming that a pack “could run into the swiftest or overcome the largest and most powerful antelope,” is abundantly confirmed, and these dogs do great damage to sheep flocks. Several local races of the species have been named.
* Cape Hunting Dog (Lycaon pictus).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Modjeska, Helena

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​MODJESKA, HELENA (1844–1909), Polish actress, was born at Cracow on the 12th of October 1844. Her father, Michael Opido, was a musician, and her tastes soon declared themselves strongly in favour of a dramatic career; but it was not until after her marriage in 1861 that she first attempted to act, and then it was with a company of strolling players. Her husband (whose name, Modrzejewski, she simplified for stage purposes) died in 1865. In 1868 she married Count Bozenta Chlapowski, a Polish politician and critic, and almost immediately afterwards received an invitation to act at Warsaw. There she remained for seven or eight years, and won a high position in her art. Her chief tragic rôles were Ophelia, Juliet, Desdemona, Queen Anne in Richard III., Louisa Miller, Maria Stuart, Schiller’s Princess Eboli, Marion Delorme, Victor Hugo’s Tisbé and Slowacki’s Mazeppa. In comedy her favourite rôles were Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, and Donna Diana in the Polish translation of an old Spanish play of that name. Madame Modjeska was also the Polish interpretress of the most prominent plays of Legouvé, Dumas, father and son, Augier, Alfred de Musset, Octave Feuillet and Sardou. In 1876 she went with her husband to California, where they settled on a ranch. This new career, however, proved a failure, and Madame Modjeska returned to ​the stage. She appeared in San Francisco in 1877, in an English version of Adrienne Lecouvreur, and, in spite of her imperfect command of the language, achieved a remarkable success. She continued to act principally in America, but was also seen from time to time in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, her repertory including several Shakespearian rôles and a variety of emotional parts in modern drama. She died on the 9th of April 1909 at her home near Los Angeles, California.
See Mabel Collins, The Story of Helena Modjeska (London, 1883), and the (autobiographical) Memories and Impressions (New York, 1910).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mofetta

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​MOFETTA (Ital. from Lat. mephitis, a pestilential exhalation), a name applied to a volcanic discharge consisting chiefly of carbon dioxide, often associated with other vapours, representing the final phase of volcanic activity. The word is used frequently in the plural as mofette, or, following the French, mofettes. The volcanic vents yielding the emanations are themselves called mofette. They are not uncommon in Auvergne and in the Eifel, notably on the shore of the Laacher See; whilst other examples are furnished by the Grotta del Cane, near Puzzuoli, the Valley of Death in Java, and the Death Gulch in the Yellowstone Park.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moeris, Aelius

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​MOERIS, AELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed Atticista (“the Atticist”), probably flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of an extant (more or less alphabetical) list of Attic forms and expressions (Ἀττικαὶ λέξεις), accompanied by the Hellenistic parallels of his own time, the differences of gender, accent and meaning being clearly and succinctly pointed out.
Editions by J. Hudson (1711); J. Pierson (1759); A. Koch (1830); I. Bekker (1833); with Harpocration.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Modoc

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​MODOC (i.e. “southerners”), a tribe of North American Indians of the Lutuamian stock, who formerly lived around Lower Klamath Lake, south-western Oregon. They were always an aggressive people, and constantly at war with their neighbours. They are known mainly from their stubborn resistance to the United States government in 1872 and 1873. This is called the Modoc War, and was caused by an attempt to place them on a reservation. After some preliminary fighting the Modocs retreated to the “Lava Beds,” a basaltic region, seamed and crevassed, and rich in caves. Here they made a stand for several months. During the war two members of a peace commission were treacherously massacred by them while under a flag of truce. On their final submission the leaders were hanged and part of the tribe was removed to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), and the others were sent back to a reservation on the Klamath.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Module

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​MODULE (Lat. modulus, a measure), in architecture, the semi-diameter of the column at its base; the term was first set forth by Vitruvius (iv. 3), and was generally employed by the architects of the Italian revival to determine the relative proportions of the various parts of a columnar ordinance. The module was divided by the revivalists into thirty parts, called minutes, allowing of much greater accuracy than was thought necessary by Vitruvius, whose subdivision was usually six parts. The tendency now is to adopt the whole diameter instead of the semi-diameter when determining the height of the column or entablature or any of their subdivisions. The term module is also applied in hydraulics (q.v.) to a contrivance for regulating the supply of water from an irrigation channel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Modillion

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​MODILLION (a French word, probably from Lat. modulus, a measure of proportion), a term in architecture for the enriched block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances.