OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krug, Wilhelm Traugott

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​KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770–1842), German philosopher and author, was born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of June 1770, and died at Leipzig on the 12th of January 1842. He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and Jehnichen, at Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804 he was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after which he succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics at the university of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death he was professor of philosophy at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer on a great variety of subjects, in all of which he excelled as a popularizer rather than as an original thinker. In philosophy his method was psychological; he attempted to explain the Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts of consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation in consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to Being. Both Being and Consciousness, however, are immediately known to us, as also the relation existing between them. By this Transcendental Synthesis he proposed to reconcile Realism and Idealism, and to destroy the traditional difficulty between transcendental, or pure, thought and “things in themselves.” Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it is admitted that it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy and of stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His principal works are: Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus ​(1801); Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkenntniss (1801); Fundamentalphilosophie (1803); System der theoretischen Philosophie (1806–1810), System der praktischen Philosophie (1817–1819); Handbuch der Philosophie (1820; 3rd ed., 1828); Logik oder Denklehre (1827); Geschichte der Philos. alter Zeit (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); Allgemeines Handwörterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1827–1834; 2nd ed., 1832–1838); Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für Gebildete beiderlei Geschlechts. His work Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philos. des XIX. Jahrh. (1835–1837) contains interesting criticisms of Hegel and Schelling.
See also his autobiography, Meine Lebensreise (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1840).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krumbacher, Carl

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​KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856–1909), German Byzantine scholar, was born at Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of September 1856. He was educated at the universities of Munich and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from 1897 to his death. His greatest work is his Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395–1453). The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1892) and the Byzantinisches Archiv (1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece appeared in his Griechische Reise (1886). Other works by him are: Casia (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the fragments; Michael Glykas (1894); “Die griechische Litteratur des Mittelalters” in P. Hinneberg’s Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 (1905); Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache (1902), in which he strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical style into modern Greek literature, and Populäre Aufsätze (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krummacher, Friedrich Adolf

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​KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767–1845), German theologian, was born on the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the grammar school at Mörs (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, Consistorialrath and superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many religious works, but is best known by his Parabeln (1805; 9th ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1844).
A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849.
His brother Gottfried Daniel Krummacher (1774–1837), who studied theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Bärl (1798), Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the “pietists” of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one entitled Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan (1834).
Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher (1796–1868), son of Friedrich Adolf, studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal (1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His best-known works are Elias der Thisbiter (1828–1833; 6th ed. 1874; Eng. trans. 1838); Elisa (1837) and Das Passionsbuch, der leidende Christus (1854, in English The Suffering Saviour, 1870). His Autobiography was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).
Emil Wilhelm Krummacher (1798–1886), another son, was born at Mörs in 1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other works, Herzensmanna aus Luthers ​Werken (1852). His son Hermann (1828–1890), who was appointed Consistorialrath in Stettin in 1877, was the author of Deutsches Leben in Nordamerika (1874).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krotoschin

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​KROTOSCHIN (in Polish, Krotoszyn), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, 32 m. S.E. of Posen. Pop. (1900), 12,373. It has three churches, a synagogue, steam saw-mills, ​and a steam brewery, and carries on trade in grain and seeds. The castle of Krotoschin is the chief place of a mediatized principality which was formed in 1819 out of the domains of the Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn and Taxis in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kroonstad

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​KROONSTAD, a town of Orange River Colony, 127 m. by rail N.E. of Bloemfontein and 130 m. S.W. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904), 7191, of whom 3708 were whites. Kroonstad lies 4489 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Valsch River, a perennial tributary of the Vaal. It is a busy town, being the centre of a rich agricultural district and of the diamond and coal-mining industry of the north-western parts of the colony. It is also a favourite residential place and resort of visitors from Johannesburg. It enjoys a healthy climate, affords opportunities for boating rare in South Africa, and boasts a golf-links. The principal building is the Dutch Reformed church in the centre of the market square.
On the capture of Bloemfontein by the British during the Anglo-Boer War of 1899–1902 Kroonstad was chosen by the Orange Free State Boers as the capital of the state, a dignity it held from the 13th of March to the 11th of May 1900. On the following day the town was occupied by Lord Roberts. The linking of the town in 1906 with the Natal system made the route via Kroonstad the shortest railway connexion between Cape Town and Durban. Another line goes N.W. from Kroonstad to Klerksdorp, passing (17 miles) the Lace diamond mine and (45 miles) the coal mines at Vierfontein.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krugersdorp

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​KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger. Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andries Pretorius in 1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year, kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the monument to celebrate the event. Here in December 1880 a great meeting of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan’s Day, and after the defeat of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged during the war of 1899–1902, ​was restored by the British authorities. It was at Doornkop, near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his “raiders” surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January 1896 (see Transvaal: History). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W. of Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful stalactites.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Krumau

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​KRUMAU (in Czech, Krumlov), is a town in Bohemia situated on the banks of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000 inhabitants, partly of Czech, partly of German nationality. Krumau is principally celebrated because its ancient castle was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, known also as pani z ruze, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of Rosenberg (d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at Krumau. His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a city. The last two members of the family were two brothers, William, created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter Vok, who played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their librarian was Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on the annals of the Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a strong adherent of the Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly before his death (1611), because the Jesuits had established themselves in the neighbourhood.
The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622 the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves much of its ancient character.
See W. Brezan, Zivot Vilema z Rosenberka (Life of William of Rosenberg), 1847; also Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka (Life of Peter Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richard of Hexham

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​RICHARD OF HEXHAM (d. 1141), English chronicler, became prior of Hexham about 1141, and died between 1163 and 1178. He wrote Brevis Annotatio, a short history of the church of Hexham from 674 to 1138, for which he borrowed from Bede, Eddius and Simeon of Durham. This is published by J. Raine in The Priory of Hexham, its Chroniclers, Endowments and Annals (Durham, 1864–65). More important is his Historia de gestis regis Stephani et de bello Standardii, very valuable for the history of the north of England during the earlier part of the reign of Stephen, and especially for the battle of the Standard. This history, which is a contemporary one, covers the period from the death of Henry I. in 1135 to early in 1139. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by R. Howlett in the Chroniclers of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (1886); and has been translated by J. Stevenson in the Church Historians of England, vol. iv. (1856).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richard of Ilchester

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​RICHARD OF ILCHESTER (d. 1188), English statesman and prelate, was born in the diocese of Bath, where he obtained preferment. Early in the reign of Henry II., however, he is found acting as a clerk in the king's court, probably under Thomas Becket, and he was one of the officials who assisted Henry in carrying out his great judicial and financial reforms. In 1162, or 1163, he was appointed archdeacon of Poitiers, but he passed most of his time in England, although in the next two or three years he visited Pope Alexander III. and the Emperor Frederick I. in the interests of the English king, who was then engaged in his struggle with Becket. For promising to support Frederick against Alexander he was excommunicated by Becket in 1166. Before this event, however, Richard had been appointed a baron of the exchequer, his great industry and exceptional abilities as an accountant being recognized by giving him a special seat at the exchequer table, and from 1168 until his death he frequently acted as one of the itinerant justices. Although totally immersed in secular business he received several rich ecclesiastical offices, and in May 1173 he was elected bishop of Winchester, being consecrated at Canterbury in October 1174. Richard still continued to serve Henry II. In 1176 he was appointed justiciar and seneschal of Normandy, and was given full control of all the royal business in the duchy. He died on the 21st or 22nd of December 1188, and was buried in Winchester cathedral. Richard owes his surname to the fact that Henry II. granted him a mill at Ilchester; he is also called Richard of Toclyve.
See the article by Miss K. Norgate in the Dict. Nat. Biog., vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. R. W. Stephens and W. W. Capes, The Bishops of Winchester (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richardia

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​RICHARDIA, a small genus of the nat. ord. Araceae, native in South Africa, to which the “arum lily” belongs. They are all greenhouse herbaceous plants of handsome appearance, with thick underground stems and large, more or less fleshy, long-stalked, arrow-shaped leaves and white or yellow flower spathes. They are readily propagated by division of the shoot, also by seed. Water should be given abundantly at all times, and the soil for potting should be rich and retentive. Potting is best effected in spring, and from the end of June to the end of August they should be plunged in a sunny spot out of doors. They will not withstand frost, and should be wintered in a warm greenhouse. They flower throughout the year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richard of St Victor

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​RICHARD OF ST VICTOR (d. 1173), theologian and mystic of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life; he was born in Scotland or in England, and went to Paris, where he entered the abbey of St Victor and was a pupil of the great mystic, Hugh of St Victor. He succeeded as prior of this house in 1162, and was continually contesting the tyrannical authority of the abbot Ervisius. His-writings, some of which are still in manuscript, are very numerous, the best known being his mystical treatises: De statu horninis interior is, De praeparatione anirni ad contemplation em, De gratia conternplationis, De gradibus caritatis, De arca nuptica, and his two works on the Trinity: De trinitate libri sex, De tribus appropriates personis in Trinitate. As is the case. with all the Victorines, his mysticism was a reaction against the philosophy of the schools of his time, a perpetual justification of contemplation as opposed to logical reasoning. According to him, six steps lead the soul to contemplation: (1) contemplation of visible and tangible objects; (2) study of the productions of nature and of art; (3) study of character; (4) study of souls and of spirits; (5) entrance to the mystical region which ends in (6) ecstasy. His theory of the Trinity is chiefly based on the arguments of Anselm of Canterbury, although a certain deification of the social sense is evident. ​His style is most affected, and the influence of the neo-Platonist terminology as well as of the works of the pseudo-Dionysius can be clearly detected. In the Paradis Dante has placed Richard de St Victor, whose books were much read by his contemporaries, among the greatest teachers of the Church. His writings seem to have come into favour again in the 16th and 17th centuries, six editions of his works having been printed between 1506 and 1650.
Bibliography. Œuvres, edited in the Patrologia latina by Migne, vol. cxcvi.; W. Kaulich, “Die Lehren des Hugo und Richard von St. Victor” (Abhandlungen der K. böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. V. Folge, vol. xiii. (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 (Prague, 1864); P. C. F. Daunou, article in Histoire littéraire de la France, tome xiii. (Paris, 1869); G. Buonamici, Riccardo da S. Vittore (Alatri, 1899); DeWulf, Histoire de la philosophie medievale (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 .
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richards, Alfred Bate

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​RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE (1826–1876), English journalist, was born in Worcestershire on the 17th of February 1820, and was educated at Westminster School and Exeter College, Oxford. After taking his degree in 1841 he published, anonymously, Oxford Unmasked, a denunciation of abuses in the university. Between 1845 and 1848 he wrote several dramas and some poetry, and in the latter year became editor of a. weekly newspaper, the British Army Despatch. His temperament was strongly Imperialist; he opposed Cobden and the Manchester school of politicians, and in a volume entitled Britain Redeemed and Canada Preserved predicted, thirty years before the event, the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 1855 he was appointed the first editor of the London Daily Telegraph, and through the medium of that journal strongly urged the formation of volunteer rifle corps. The National and Constitutional Defence Association was established in 1858 to carry out the idea. Richards himself raised a regiment of a thousand working men in London, becoming major and subsequently colonel of the corps. In 187O he was appointed editor of the London Morning Advertiser, and retained this position till his death on the 12th of June 1876.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richard of Devizes

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​RICHARD OF DEVIZES (fl. 1191), English chronicler, was a monk of St Swithin's house at Winchester. His birthplace is probably indicated by his surname, but of his life we know nothing. He is credited by Bale: with the composition of the Annales de Wintonia, which are edited by Luard in the second volume of the Annales Monastici. If this statement be correct, then the chronicler survived King Richard I. But the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, by which Richard of Devizes is chiefly known, only covers the first three years of that king's reign; it is practically an account of events in England and the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. For the events of the crusade itself, Richard is a poor authority. But his account of the preparations for the crusade, and of English affairs in the king's absence, is valuable, in spite of some inaccuracies. The author is intensely conservative, steeped in the prejudices of his order, and particularly hostile to the Jews and to the chancellor, William Longchamp. He writes in a vivid and epigrammatic style; his Latin shows the effect of the 12th century renaissance in its polish and in its reminiscences of classical poets.
See the editions of the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi by J. Stevenson (Eng. Historical Soc., 1838) and by R. Howlett in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886; the Annales de Wintonia in H. R. Luard's Annales Monastici, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, London, 1864–69).  (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Molyneux

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​MOLYNEUX. This historic English name came into the country from France at the time of the Norman Conquest through William de Molines (Moleyns, Molyneux), who obtained a grant of Sefton, in Lancashire, whence come the earls of Sefton to-day. His descendant Adam de Molyneux (Moleyns or Molins), who died in 1450, was bishop of Chichester and keeper of the privy seal; he was a son of Sir Richard Molyneux of Sefton, and uncle of the Sir Richard Molyneux (d. 1459), the Lancastrian and favourite of Henry VI., whose descendant Richard Molyneux (1593–1636) was created in 1628 1st Viscount Molyneux of Maryborough, a title now merged in that of Sefton (created 1771). Another Molyneux family of some importance is the Irish one, descended from Sir Thomas Molyneux (1531–1597), Irish chancellor of the exchequer, who, born at Calais, settled in Ireland in 1576. He was the great-grandfather of Sir Thomas Molyneux, Bart. (1661–1733), a well-known physician and zoologist, and of William Molyneux (1656–1698), the philosopher, astronomer and politician, the friend of Locke, and author of Dioptrica nova (1692), whose famous work on the legislative independence of Ireland (The Case of Ireland, &c. 1698) created much stir at the time. The latter’s son Samuel Molyneux (1689–1728), was also a well-known astronomer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moly

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​MOLY (Gr. μῶλυ), a mysterious plant with magical powers described in Homer, Odyssey, x. 302–306. Hermes pulls it up and gives it to Odysseus as a protection against the arts of Circe. It is further described as “ having a black root and a flower like milk, and hard for mortals to pull up.” There has been much controversy as to the identification. Philippe Champault—Phéniciens et Grecs en Italie d’après l’Odyssée (1906), pp. 504 seq.—decides in favour of the Peganum harmala (of the order Rutaceae), the Syrian or African rue (Gr. πήγανον), from the husks of which the vegetable alkaloid harmaline (C$_{13}$H$_{14}$N$_2$O) is extracted. The flowers are white with green stripes. Victor Bérard—Les Phéniciens et l’Odyssee, ii. 288 seq.—relying partly on a Semitic root, prefers the Atriplex halimus (atriplex, a Lat. form of Gr. ἀτράφαξυς, and ἅλιμος, marine), order Chenopodiaceae, a herb or low shrub common on the south European coasts. These identifications are noticed by R. M. Henry in Class. Rev. (Dec. 1906), p. 434, who illustrates the Homeric account by passages in the Paris and Leiden magical papyri, and argues that moly is probably a magical name, derived perhaps from Phoenician or Egyptian sources, for a plant which cannot be certainly identified. He shows that the “difficulty of pulling up” the plant is not a merely physical one, but rather connected with the peculiar powers claimed by magicians. In Tennyson's Lotus Eaters the moly is coupled with the amaranth (“propt on beds of amaranth and moly”).