OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gynaeceum

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​GYNAECEUM (Gr. γυναικεῖον, from γυνή, woman), that part in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women, in contradistinction to the “andron,” the men’s quarters; in the larger houses there was an open court with peristyles round, and as a rule all the rooms were on the same level; in smaller houses the servants were placed in an upper storey, and this seems to have been the case to a certain extent in the Homeric house of the Odyssey. “Gynaeconitis” is the term given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained in the early Christian churches where there were separate entrances and accommodation for the men and women, the latter being placed in the triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either on one side of the church, the men being on the other, or occasionally in the aisles, the nave being occupied by the men.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huber, François

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​HUBER, FRANÇOIS (1750–1831), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family which had already made its mark in the literary and scientific world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber (1695–1753), was known as a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of the Spectator (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber (1721–1786), who had served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent member of the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his Observations sur le vol des oiseaux (Geneva, 1784). François Huber was only fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the aid of his wife, Marie Aimée Lullin, and of his servant, François Burnens, he was able to carry out investigations that laid the foundations of our scientific knowledge of the life history of the honey-bee. His Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles was published at Geneva in 1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean Senebier in his Mém. sur l’influence de l’air, &c., dans la germination (Geneva, 1800); and he also wrote “Mém. sur l’origine de la cire” (Bibliothèque britannique, tome xxv.), a “Lettre à M. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les abeilles” (Bib. brit. xxvii), and “Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx Atropos” (Bib. brit. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of December 1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian trees—Huberia laurina.
Pierre Huber (1777–1840) followed in his father’s footsteps. His best-known work is Recherches sur les mœurs des fourmis indigènes (Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and he also wrote various papers on entomological subjects.
See the account of François Huber, by De Candolle, in Bibl. universelle (1832); and the notice of Pierre in Bibl. univ. (1886); also Haag, La France protestante.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huber, Johann Nepomuk

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​HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830–1879), German philosophical and theological writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, was born at Munich on the 18th of August 1830. Originally destined for the priesthood, he early began the study of theology. By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was strongly drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that he “habilitated” (1854) in the university of his native place, where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864). With Döllinger and others he attracted a large amount of public attention in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the Vatican council in the treatise Der Papst und das Koncil, which appeared under the pseudonym of “Janus,” and also in 1870 by a series of letters (Römische Briefe, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym Quirinus in the Allgemeine Zeitung. He died suddenly of heart disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.
Works.—The treatise Über die Willensfreiheit (1858), followed in 1859 by Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter, which was promptly placed upon the Index, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from attending his lectures; Johannes Scotus Erigena (1861); Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit (1864); Studien (1867); Der Proletarier; zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage (1865); Der Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte (1873), also placed upon the Index; Der Pessimismus (1876); Die Forschung nach der Materie (1877); Zur Philosophie der Astronomie (1878); Das Gedächtnis (1878). He also published adverse criticisms of Darwin, Strauss, Hartmann and Häckel; pamphlets on Das Papsttum und der Staat (1870), and on Die Freiheiten der französischen Kirche (1871); and a volume of Kleine Schriften (1871).
See E. Zirngiebl, Johannes Huber (1881); and M. Carrière in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xiii. (1881), and in Nord und Süd (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hubertusburg

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​HUBERTUSBURG, a château in the kingdom of Saxony, near the village of Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was built in 1721–1724 by Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, subsequently King Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was often the scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace signed here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years’ War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the purpose of a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing sisters.
See Riemer, Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt (Oschatz, 1881).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huambisas

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​HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper Marañon and Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the civilized Indians from the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they killed all the inhabitants of the village of Santa Teresa, between the mouths of the Santiago and Morona. They are fair-skinned and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a descent from the Spanish women captured by their Indian ancestors at the sack of Sevilla del Oro in 1599.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huancavelica

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​HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a department, 160 m. S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep ravine of the Andes at an elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the sea, the ravine having an average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and regularly built, the houses being of stone and the stream that flows through the town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near Huancavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with its subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants. The ​department is traversed by the Cordillera Occidental, and is bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huaraz

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​HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital of the department of Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about 190 m. N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) 4851, (1906 estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow fertile valley of the Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation above sea-level, and has a mild climate. A railway projected to connect Huaraz with the port of Chimbote, on the Bay of Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the Santa river, was completed from Chimbote to Suchimán (33 m.) in 1872, when work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the Huaraz cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, copper and coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, and the cattle raised here are among the best in the Peruvian market. In the vicinity of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, showing that the aboriginal empire preceding the Incas extended into northern Peru.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hubert, St

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​HUBERT (Hucbertus, Hugbertus), ST (d. 727), bishop of Liége, whose festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. The Bollandists have published seven different lives of the saint. The first is the only one of any value, and is the work of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is very sparing of details. In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded Lambert in the see of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a basilica to his memory. In 825 Hubert’s remains were removed to a Benedictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his name (St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately became a considerable resort of pilgrims. The later legends (Bibliotheca hagiographica latina, nos. 3994-4002) are devoid of authority. One of them relates, probably following the legend of St Eustace, the miracle of the conversion of St Hubert. This conversion, represented as having been brought about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the subject of artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and is also invoked in cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of knighthood have been under his protection; among these may be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and that of the electorate of Cologne.
See Acta Sanctorum, Novembris, i. 759–930; G. Kurth, Chartes de l’abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier, Caractéristiques des saints, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867). (H. De.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huarte de San Juan, Juan

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​HUARTE DE SAN JUAN, or Huarte Y Navarro, Juan (c. 1530–1592), Spanish physician and psychologist, was born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower Navarre) about 1530, was educated at the university of Huesca, where he graduated in medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he practised as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his professional skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated Baeza in 1566. He died in 1592. His Examen de ingenios para las ciencias (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated by Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte’s treatise is historically interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion between psychology and physiology, and its acute ingenuity is as remarkable as the boldness of its views.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huastecs

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​HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan stock, living to the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the ethnologist as being so entirely detached from the other Mayan tribes of Central America. The theory is that the Mayas came from the north and that the Huastecs were left behind in the migration southward.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Huber, Ludwig Ferdinand

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​HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764–1804), German author, was born in Paris on the 14th of September 1764, the son of Michael Huber (1727–1804), who did much to promote the study of German literature in France. In his infancy young Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and showed a particular inclination for those of France and England. In Leipzig he became intimate with Christian Gottfried Körner, father of the poet; in Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora Stock, sister of Körner’s betrothed, and associated with Schiller, who was one of Körner’s stanchest friends. In 1787 he was appointed secretary to the Saxon legation in Mainz, where he remained until the French occupation of 1792. While here he interested himself for the welfare of the family of his friend Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764–1829) and family in destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented young wife, gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement to Dora Stock, removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, and on the death of her husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. In 1798 Huber took over the editorship of the Allgemeine Zeitung in Stuttgart. The newspaper having been prohibited in Württemberg, Huber continued its editorship in Ulm in 1803. He was created “counsellor of education” for the new Bavarian province of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly entered upon the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of December 1804.
​Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he published the drama Ethelwolf, with notes on Beaumont and Fletcher and the old English stage. He also wrote many dramas, comedies and tragedies, most of which are now forgotten, and among them only Das heimliche Gericht (1790, new ed. 1795) enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is seen to advantage in the Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des heimlichen Gerichts (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his name in the historical-political periodicals Friedenspräliminarien (1794–1796, 10 vols.) and Klio (1795–1798, 1819).
His collected works, Sämtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802 (4 vols., 1807–1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese Huber. See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cell

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​CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal—seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb), in its earliest application a small detached room in a building, particularly a small monastic house (see Abbey), generally in the country, belonging to large conventual buildings, and intended for change of air for the monks, as well as places to reside in to look after the lands, vassals, &c. Thus Tynemouth was a cell to St Albans; Ashwell, Herts, to Westminster Abbey. The term was also used of the small sleeping apartments of the monks, or a small apartment used by the anchorite or hermit. This use still survives in the application to the small separate chambers in a prison (q.v.) in which prisoners are confined. The word is applied to various small compartments which build up a compound structure such as a honeycomb, to the minute compartments in a tissue, &c. More particularly the word is used, in electrical science, of the single constituent compartments of a voltaic battery (q.v.), and in biology of the living units of protoplasm of which plants and animals are composed (see Cytology).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Celle

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​CELLE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the left bank of the navigable Aller, near its junction with the Fuse and the Lachte, 23 m. N.E. of Hanover, on the main Lehrte-Hamburg railway. Pop. (1905) 21,400. The town has a Roman Catholic and five Protestant churches, among the latter the town-church with the burial vault of the dukes of Lüneburg-Celle. Here rest the remains of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the elector George of Hanover, afterwards George I. of England, and those of Caroline Matilda, the divorced wife of Christian VII. of Denmark and sister of George III. of England, who resided here from 1772 until her death in 1775. The most interesting building in Celle is the former ducal palace, begun in 1485 in Late Gothic style, but with extensive Renaissance additions of the close of the 17th century. The building of the court of appeal (Oberlandesgericht), with a valuable library of 60,000 volumes and many MSS., including a priceless copy of the Sachsenspiegel, the museum and the hall of the estates (Landschaftshaus) are also worthy of notice. There are manufactures of woollen yarn, tobacco, biscuits, umbrellas and printers’ ink, and a lively trade is carried on in wax, honey, wool and timber. Celle is the seat of the court of appeal from the superior courts of Aurich, Detmold, Göttingen, Hanover, Hildesheim, Lüneburg, Osnabrück, Stade and Verden. Founded in 1292, the town was the residence of the dukes of Lüneburg-Celle, a cadet branch of the ducal house of Brunswick, from the 14th century until 1705.
See Dehning, Geschichte der Stadt Celle (Celle, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cella

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​CELLA, in architecture, the Latin name for the sanctuary of a Roman temple, corresponding with the naos of the Greek temple. In the Etruscan temples, according to Vitruvius, there were three cellas, side by side; and in the temple of Venus built by Hadrian at Rome there were two cellas, both enclosed, however, in a single peristyle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Celestines

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​CELESTINES, a religious order founded about 1260 by Peter of Morrone, afterwards Pope Celestine V. (1294). It was an attempt to unite the eremitical and cenobitical modes of life. Peter’s first disciples lived as hermits on Mount Majella in the Abruzzi. The Benedictine rule was taken as the basis of the life, but was supplemented by regulations notably increasing the austerities practised. The form of government was borrowed largely from those prevailing in the mendicant orders. Indeed, though the Celestines are reckoned as a branch of the Benedictines, there is little in common between them. For all that, St Celestine, during his brief tenure of the papacy, tried to spread his ideas among the Benedictines, and induced the monks of Monte Cassino to adopt his idea of the monastic life instead of St Benedict’s; for this purpose fifty Celestine monks were introduced into Monte Cassino, but on Celestine’s abdication of the papacy the project fortunately was at once abandoned. During the founder’s lifetime the order spread rapidly, and eventually ​there were about 150 monasteries in Italy, and others in France, Bohemia and the Netherlands. The French houses, twenty-one in number, formed a separate congregation, the head-house being in Paris. The French Revolution and those of the 19th century destroyed their houses, and the Celestine order seems no longer to exist.
Peter of Morrone was in close contact with the Franciscan Spirituals of the extreme type (see Franciscans), and he endeavoured to form an amalgamation between them and his hermits, under the title “Poor Hermits of Celestine.” On his abdication the amalgamation was dissolved, and the Franciscan element fled to the East and was finally suppressed by Boniface VIII. and compelled to re-enter the Franciscan order. The habit of the Celestines was black.
See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1792), vi. c. 23; Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. § 22, p. 134; the art. “Cölestiner” in Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2), and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (ed. 3). (E. C. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cellaret

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​CELLARET (i.e. little cellar), strictly that portion of a sideboard which is used for holding bottles and decanters, so called from a cellar (which in general may be any underground unlighted apartment) being commonly used for keeping wine. Sometimes it is a drawer, divided into compartments lined with zinc, and sometimes a cupboard, but still an integral part of the sideboard. In the latter part of the 18th century, when the sideboard was in process of evolution from a side-table with drawers into the large and important piece of furniture which it eventually became, the cellaret was a detached receptacle. It was most commonly of mahogany or rosewood, many-sided or even octagonal, and occasionally oval, bound with broad bands of brass and lined with zinc partitions to hold the ice for cooling wine. Sometimes a tap was fixed in the lower part for drawing off the water from the melted ice. Cellarets were usually placed under the sideboard, and were, as a rule, handsome and well-proportioned; but as the artistic impulse which created the great 18th-century English school of furniture died away, their form grew debased, and under the influence of the English Empire fashion, which drew its inspiration from a bastard classicism, they assumed the shape of sarcophagi incongruously mounted with lions’ heads and claw-feet. Hepplewhite called them “gardes du vin”; they are now nearly always known as “wine-coolers.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cellier, Alfred

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​CELLIER, ALFRED (1844–1891), English musical composer, was born at Hackney on the 1st of December 1844. From 1855 to 1860 he was a chorister at the Chapel Royal, St James’s, under the Rev. Thomas Helmore, where Arthur Sullivan was one of his youthful colleagues. His first appointment was that of organist at All Saints’ church, Blackheath (1862). In 1866 he succeeded Dr Chipp as director of the Ulster Hall concerts, Belfast, at the same time acting as conductor of the Belfast Philharmonic Society. In 1868 he returned to London as organist of St Alban’s, Holborn. From 1871 to 1875 he was conductor at the Prince’s theatre, Manchester; and from 1877 to 1879 at various London theatres. During this period he composed many comic operas and operettas, of which the most successful was The Sultan of Mocha, which was produced at Manchester in 1874, in London at the St James’s theatre in 1876, and revived at the Strand theatre in 1887. In 1880 Cellier visited America, producing a musical version of Longfellow’s Masque of Pandora at Boston (1881). In 1883 his setting of Gray’s Elegy in the form of a cantata was produced at the Leeds Festival. In 1886 he won the great success of his life in Dorothy, a comic opera written to a libretto by B. C. Stephenson, which was produced at the Gaiety theatre on the 25th of September 1886, and, transferred first to the Prince of Wales theatre and subsequently to the Lyric theatre, ran until April 1889. Doris (1889), and The Mountebanks, which was produced in January 1892, a few days after the composer’s death, were less successful. Cellier owed much to the influence of Sir Arthur Sullivan. He had little of the latter’s humour and vivacity, but he was a fertile melodist, and his writing is invariably distinguished by elegance and refinement. He died in London on the 28th of December 1891.