OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reagan, John Henninger

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​REAGAN, JOHN HENNINGER (1818-1905), American politician, was born in Sevier county, Tennessee, on the 8th of October 1818. He removed to Texas in 1839, was deputy surveyor of public lands in 1839-1843, was admitted to the bar in 1846, was a member of the state House of Representatives ​in 1847–1848, served as district judge in 1852–1857, and in 1857–1861 was a representative in Congress. His political views were determined by the ultra-democratic influence of Andrew Jackson and the state-sovereignty philosophy of John C. Calhoun. In 1861 he was a member of the Texas secession convention, served in the Confederate provisional Congress, and on the 6th of March was appointed postmaster-general in President Davis's cabinet. He served in this capacity throughout the war, and for a short time before its close was also acting secretary of the treasury. He was captured with the Davis party on the 10th of May 1865, and was imprisoned in Fort Warren, Boston Harbour, until the following October. While in prison he wrote the “ Fort Warren letter ” (August 11th), in which he urged the people of Texas to recognize their defeat, grant civil rights to the freedmen, and try to conciliate the North. From 1875 to 1887, when he entered the U.S. Senate, he was again a representative in Congress, and from 1877 almost continuously to the close of his service he was chairman of the Committee on Commerce, in which capacity he had a prominent part in securing the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. He was a member of the state constitutional convention of 1876. In state politics his sympathies were with the Radicals. In 1891, believing that his first duty was to his state, he resigned from the Senate to accept the chairmanship of the newly established state railway commission. In 1901 he retired from public service. From 1899 until his death he was president of the Texas State Historical Association. He died at his home, near Palestine, Texas, on the 6th of March 1905.
See his Memoirs; with Special Reference to Secession and the Civil War (New York, 1906), edited by W. F. McCaleb.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Realm

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​REALM, the dominions of a king, a kingdom. The O.Fr. reaume (mod. royaume) was the form first adopted in English, and the modern spelling does not appear fixed till the beginning of the 17th century. The word must be referred to a supposed Med. Lat. regalimen, from regalis, of or belonging to a rex, king.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rear Vault

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REAR VAULT (Fr. arrière voussure), the term in architecture employed for the vault of the internal hood of a doorway or window to which a splay has been given on the reveal; sometimes the vaulting surface is terminated by a small rib known as the scoinson rib (q.v.), and a further development is given by angle shafts carrying this rib, known as scoinsoin shafts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Realism

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​REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations), a philosophical term used in two opposite senses. The older of these is the scholastic doctrine, traceable back to Socrates, that universals have a more “ real ” existence than things. Universals are, in scholastic language, ante res, in rebus and post res. Behind all numerous types of chairs there is in the mind the ideal chair of which particular chairs are mere copies. In the most extreme form realism denies that anything exists in any sense except universals. It is opposed to nominalism (q.v.) and conceptualism (q.v.). For the history of the doctrine, see Scholasticism. Realism in this sense has been called “ an assertion of the rights of the subject ” (cf. the Protagonean maxim, “ Man is the measure of all things ”). The modern application of the term is to the opposing doctrine that there is a reality apart from its presentation to consciousness. In this sense it is opposed to idealism (q.v.), whether the purely subjective or that more comprehensive idealism which makes subject and object mutually interdependent. In its crude form it is known as “ Natural ” or “ Naive ” Realism. It appears, however, in more complex forms, e.g. as Ideal Realism (or Real Idealism), which combines epistemological idealism with realism in metaphysics. Again, Kant distinguishes “ empirical” realism, which maintains the existence of things in space independent of consciousness, from “ transcendental ” realism, which ascribes absolute reality to time and space.
In literature and art “ realism ” again is opposed to “ idealism ” in various senses. The realist is (1) he who deliberately declines to select his subjects from the beautiful or harmonious, and, more especially, describes ugly things and brings out details of an unsavoury sort; (2) he who deals with individuals, not types; (3) most properly, he who strives to represent the facts exactly as they are.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Realgar

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REALGAR, a mineral species consisting of arsenic mono sulphide (AsS) and occurring as mono clinic crystals of a bright red colour. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (r in fig.). The lustre is resinous, and the streak has the same colour as the crystals, namely, orange-red to aurora-red. The hardness is 1½–2 and the specific gravity 3·55. On exposure to light the crystals crumble to a yellow powder. The name realgar is of Arabic origin, and was used by the alchemists; the substance was known to Theophrastus under the name Σανδαράκη, and to Pliny as Sandaracha.
The mineral usually occurs in association with the yellow arsenic sulphide, orpiment. Good crystals are found with ores of silver and lead in the mineral veins of Felsobanya, near Nagy-Banya, Kapnik-Banya and Nagyag, near Déva, in Hungary; with blende in the white crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in Switzerland; and in a bed of sandy clay at Mercur in Utah. It is deposited by the solfataras near Naples and by the hot springs of the Yellowstone National Park. Realgar has been used as a pigment and in pyrotechny for producing a brilliant white fire; but it is now replaced by the artificially prepared compound.
The other native arsenic sulphide, As$_2$S$_3$, known as orpiment (Lat. auripigmentum, meaning “golden paint”), occurs as foliated masses of a lemon-yellow colour, the foliation being parallel to a direction of perfect cleavage. It is sectile and soft (H.=1½–2), and has a specific gravity 3·4. Distinctly developed crystals are rare; they have usually been considered to be orthorhombic and isomorphous with stibnite (Sb$_2$S$_3$), but it is probable that they are really mono clinic. Orpiment is extensively mined near Julamerk in Asiatic Turkey. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ream

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​REAM (either through Du. riem, or O.Fr. rayme, reyme, mod. rame, Med. Lat. risma, from Arabic rizmah, bale or bundle), a certain quantity of paper, viz. 20 quires containing 24 sheets each or 480 sheets; a “ printer's ream ” contains 21½ quires or 516 sheets. The word owes its introduction into Europe to the Moors, who were the originators of the paper manufactured in Spain. Its original meaning was simply bundle, applied either to paper or clothes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rear

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​REAR, the back or hind portion of anything, particularly a military or naval term for that part of a force which is placed last in order, in opposition to “ van.” As the last word, shortened from “ van-guard,” is an aphetic form of Fr. avant, in front, Lat. ab ante, so “ rear ” is an aphetic form of “ arrear,” O. Fr. arere, mod. arrière, Med. Lat. ad retro, to the back, backward. From this word must be distinguished the verb “ to rear,” used in two main senses: of a horse, to stand up on its hind legs, and to raise up or lift, of the construction of a building or of the breeding and bringing to maturity of domestic or other animals, often used also of young children. The O.E. næran, of which it is the modern representative, is a doublet of the Scandinavian reisa, which has given English “ raise,” both being causative verb forms of “ rise.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Safed Koh

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​SAFED KOH (“white mountain”), in many respects the most remarkable range of mountains on the north-west frontier of India, extending like a 14,000 ft. wall, straight and rigid, towering above all surrounding hills, from the mass of mountains which overlook Kabul on the south-east to the frontiers of India, and preserving a strike which—being more or less perpendicular to the border line—is in strange contrast to the usual conformation of frontier ridge and valley. The highest peak, Sikaram, is 15,620 ft. above sea-level, and yet it is not a conspicuous point on this unusually straight-backed range. Geographically the Safed Koh is not an isolated range, for there is no break in the continuity of water divide which connects it ​with the great Shandur offshoot of the Hindu Kush except the narrow trough of the Kabul river, which cuts a deep waterway across where it makes its way from Dakka into the Peshawar plains. Strategically it is an important topographical feature, for it divides the basin of the Kabul river and the Khyber route from the valley of Kurram, leaving no practicable pass across its rugged crest to connect the two. Its western slopes, where it abuts on the mountain masses which dominate the Kabul plain, are forest-covered and picturesque, with deep glens intersecting them, and bold craggy ridges; the same may be said of the northern spurs which reach downward through the Shinwari country towards Gandamak and Ialalabad. Here the snow lies late and moisture is abundant-but on the southern sun-scorched cliffs but little vegetation is to be seen. Approaching the Peshawar plains the Safed Koh throws off long spurs eastward, and amongst the foothills of these eastern spurs the Afridi Tirah long remained hidden from European eyes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Safflower

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​SAFFLOWER (ultimately from the Arabic safra, yellow) or Bastard Saffron (Carthamus tinctorius), a plant of the natural order compositae; its flowers form the basis of the safflower dye of commerce. The plant is a native of the East Indies, but is cultivated in Egypt and to some extent in southern Europe. To obtain the dyeing principle—carthamin, C$_{14}$H$_{14}$O$_7$—the flowers are first washed to free them from a soluble yellow colouring matter they contain; they are then dried and powdered, and digested in an alkaline solution in which pieces of clean white cotton are immersed. The alkaline solution having been neutralized with weak acetic acid, the cotton is removed and washed in another alkaline solution. When this second solution is neutralized with acid, carthamin in a pure condition is precipitated as a dark red powder. It forms a brilliant but fugitive scarlet dye for silk, but is principally used for preparing toilet rouge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saetersdal

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​SAETERSDAL, a district in the south of Norway, comprising the valleys of the Otter river and its tributaries. The river rises in the fjelds above the Bukken Fjord, and flows south to Christiansund. The natives preserve old customs and an individual costume. A railway follows the valley to Byglands Fjord (48 m.), on the lake of that name, fostering the local agricultural and timber trade, and a driving road continues to Viken i Valle from which bridle-paths lead to Dalen in Telemarken, and over the Enden and Malen fjelds to Lake Suldal on the Bratlandsdal route.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saffi

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​SAFFI, or Asfi, a seaport on the west coast of Morocco, in 32° 20′ N. 9° 12′ W., 106 m. W.N.W. of Marrākesh. (Pop. about 15,000.) Although the principal wool and grain port of central Morocco, the anchorage is an open roadstead and communication with the shore is at times difficult. The old palace with ​beautifully decorated courts in fair repair, built by Mohammed XVII., is a prominent object above the town, and there are many interesting buildings and ruins.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Safranine

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​SAFRANINE, in chemistry, the azonium compounds of symmetrical diamino-phenazine and containing the ring system annexed:-
They are obtained by the joint oxidation of one molecule of a paradiamine with two molecules of a primary amine; by the condensation of para-aminoazo compounds with primary amines (O. Witt, Ber., 1877, 10, p. 874), and by the action of para-nitrosodialkylanilines with secondary bases such as diphenylmetaphenylenediamine. They are crystalline solids showing a characteristic green metallic lustre; they are readily soluble in water and dye red or violet. They are strong bases and form stable monacid salts. Their alcoholic solution shows a yellow-red fluorescence.
Phenosafranine is not very stable in the free state; its chloride forms green plates. It can be readily diazotized, and the diazonium salt when boiled with alcohol yields aposafranine or benzene induline, C$_{18}$H$_{12}$N$_3$. F. Kehrmann showed that aposafranine could be diazotized in the presence of cold concentrated sulphuric acid, and the diazonium salt on boiling with alcohol yielded phenylphenazonium salts. Aposafranone, C$_{18}$H$_{12}$N$_2$O, is formed by heating aposafranine with concentrated hydrochloric acid. These three compounds are perhaps to be represented as ortho- or as paraquinones (see papers by F. Kehrmann, O. Fischer and E. Hepp; R. Nietzki and others, Ber., 1895 et seq.). The “safranine” of commerce is a tolusafranine. The first aniline dye-stuff to be prepared on a manufacturing scale was mauveine, C$_{27}$H$_{25}$N$_4$Cl, which was obtained by Sir W. H. Perkin by heating crude aniline with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid. It is a N-phenylsafranine (see Indulines).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saepinum

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​SAEPINUM (mod. Altilia, near Sepino), a Samnite town 9m. S. of the modern Campobasso, on the ancient road from Beneventum to Corfinium. It was captured by the Romans in 293 B.C. The position of the original town is on the mountain far above the Roman town, and remains of its walls in Cyclopean masonry still exist. The city walls (in opus reticulatum) of the Roman town were erected by Tiberius before he became emperor, the date (between 2 B.C. and A.D. 4) being given by an inscription. Within them are remains of a theatre and other buildings, including temples of Jupiter and Apollo, and there still exists, by the gate leading to Bovianum, an important inscription of about A.D. 168, relating to the tratture (see Apulia) in Roman days, forbidding the natives to harm the shepherds who passed along them (Corp. inscr. Lat. ix. 2438).
See L. Fulvio in Not. degli scav. (1878), 374.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saffron Walden

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​SAFFRON WALDEN, a market-town and municipal borough in the Saffron Walden parliamentary division of Essex, England, beautifully situated near the Cam in a valley surrounded by hills, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 43½ m. N.N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 5896. It has a somewhat ancient appearance and possesses a spacious market-place. Of the old castle, dating probably from the 12th century, but in part protected by much earlier earthworks, the keep and a few other portions still remain. Near it are a series of curious circular excavations in the chalk, called the Maze, of unknown date or purpose. The earthworks west and south of the town are of great extent; there was a large Saxon burial-ground here. The church of St Mary the Virgin, a beautiful specimen of the Perpendicular style, dating from the reign of Henry VII., but frequently repaired and restored, contains the tomb of Lord Audley, chancellor to Henry VIII. There is an Edward VI. grammar school, occupying modern buildings. The town possesses a museum with good archaeological and natural history collections, a literary institute and a horticultural society. The benevolent institutions include the hospital and the Edward VI. almshouses. There is a British and Foreign School Society's training college for mistresses. In the neighbourhood is the fine mansion of Audley End, built by Thomas, 1st earl of Suffolk, in 1603 on the ruins of the abbey, converted in 1190 from a Benedictine priory founded by Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1136. Brewing, malting and iron-founding are carried on. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 7502 acres.
Saffron Walden (Waledana) was almost certainly fortified by the Britons, and probably by some earlier race. The town corporation grew out of the Gild of the Holy Trinity, which was incorporated under Henry VIII., the lord of the town, in 1514. It was dissolved under Edward VI., and a charter was obtained for Walden, appointing a treasurer and chamberlain and twenty four assistants, all elective, who, with the commonalty, formed the corporation. In 1694 William and Mary made Walden a free borough, with a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 town councillors. The corporation became a local board of health under the act of 1858, and a municipal borough in 1875. The culture of saffron was the most characteristic industry at Walden from the reign of Edward III. until its gradual extinction about 1768.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meiningen

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​MEININGEN, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, romantically situated in forests on the right bank of the Werra, 40 m. S. of Eisenach by rail. Pop. (1905), 15,989. It consists of an old town and several handsome suburbs, but much of the former has been rebuilt since a fire in 1874. The chief building is the Elisabethenburg, or the old ducal palace, containing several collections; it was built mainly about 1680, although part of it is much older. Other buildings are the Henneberger Haus with a collection of antiquities, and the town church, with twin towers, built by the emperor Henry II. in the 11th century. The theatre enjoyed for many years (1875–1890) a European reputation for its actors and scenic effects. The English garden, a beautiful public park, contains the ducal mortuary chapel and several monuments, including busts of Brahms and Jean Paul Richter.
Meiningen, which was subject to the bishops of Würzburg (1000–1542), came into the possession of the duke of Saxony in 1583, having in the meantime belonged to the counts of Henneberg. At the partition of 1660 it fell to the share of Saxe-Altenburg, and in 1680 became the capital of Saxe-Meiningen.
See E. Döbner, Bausteine zu einer Geschichte der Stadt Meiningen (Meiningen, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meilhac, Henri

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​MEILHAC, HENRI (1831–1897), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 21st of February 1831, and while a young man began writing fanciful articles for the newspapers and vaudevilles for the theatres, in a vivacious boulevardier spirit which brought him to the front. About 1860 he met Ludovic Halévy, and the two began a collaboration in writing for the stage which lasted for twenty years. An account of their work is given under Halévy. Meilhac wrote a few pieces with lesser collaborators. In 1888 he was elected to the Academy. He died at Paris in 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meiringen

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​MEIRINGEN, the principal village on the Hasle (or the upper Aar) valley in the Swiss canton of Bern. It is built at a height of 1969 ft. on the right bank of the Aar and on the level floor of the valley, but is much exposed to the south wind (or Föhn), and has several times been in great part destroyed by fire (1632, 1879 and 1891). It has 3077 inhabitants, all German-speaking and Protestants. The parish church is ancient, and above it are the ruins of the medieval castle of Resti. Meiringen is frequented by travellers in summer, as it is the meeting-point of many routes: from Interlaken by the lake of Brienz and Brienz, from Lucerne by the Brünig railway (28 m.), from Engelberg by the Joch Pass (7267 ft.), from the upper Valais by the Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.), and from Grindelwald by the Great Scheidegg Pass (6434 ft.). Many waterfalls descend the hill-sides, the best known being the Reichenbach and the Alpbach, while the great gorge pierced by the Aar through the limestone barrier of the Kirchet is remarkable. The village and valley belonged of old to the emperor, who in 1234 gave the advowson to the Knights of St Lazarus, by whom it was sold in 1272 to the Austin Canons of Interlaken, on the suppression of whom in 1528 it passed to the state. In 1310 the emperor mortgaged the valley to the lords of Weissenburg, who sold it in 1334 to the town of Bern. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meineke, Johann Albrecht Friedrich August

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​MEINEKE, JOHANN ALBRECHT FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1790–1870), German classical scholar, was born at Soest in Westphalia on the 8th of December 1790. After holding educational posts at Jenkau and Danzig, he was director of the Joachimsthal gymnasium in Berlin from 1826 to 1856. He died at Berlin on the 12th of December 1870. He was distinguished in conjectural criticism, the comic writers and Alexandrine poets being his favourite authors.
His most important works are: Graecorum comicorum fragmenta (1839–1857, the first volume of which contains an essay on the development of Greek comedy and an account of its chief representatives); Aristophanes (1860); Analecta alexandrina (1843, containing the fragments of Rhianus, Euphorion, Alexander of Aetolia, and Parthenius); Callimachus (1861); Theocritus, Bion, Moschus (3rd ed., 1856); Alciphron (1853); Strabo (2nd ed.,1866) and Vindiciae strabonianae (1852); Stobaeus (1855–1863); Athenaeus (1858–1867). See monographs by F. Ranke (1871), H. Sauppe (1872), and E. Förstemann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, XXI. (1885); also Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 117.