OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrocele

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​HYDROCELE (Gr. ὕδωρ, water, and κήλη, tumour), the medical term for any collection of fluid other than pus or blood in the neighbourhood of the testis or cord. The fluid is usually serous. Hydrocele may be congenital or arise in the middle-aged without apparent cause, but it is usually associated with chronic orchitis or with tertiary syphilitic enlargements. The hydrocele appears as a rounded, fluctuating translucent swelling in the scrotum, and when greatly distended causes a dragging pain. Palliative treatment consists in tapping aseptically and removing the fluid, the patient afterwards wearing a suspender. The condition frequently recurs and necessitates radical treatment. Various substances may be injected; or the hydrocele is incised, the tunica partly removed and the cavity drained.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrochloric Acid

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​HYDROCHLORIC ACID, also known in commerce as “spirits of salts” and “muriatic acid,” a compound of hydrogen and chlorine. Its chemistry is discussed under Chlorine, and its manufacture under Alkali Manufacture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrazone

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​HYDRAZONE, in chemistry, a compound formed by the condensation of a hydrazine with a carbonyl group (see Aldehydes; Ketones).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hydrocarbon

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​HYDROCARBON, in chemistry, a compound of carbon and hydrogen. Many occur in nature in the free state: for example, natural gas, petroleum and paraffin are entirely composed of such bodies; other natural sources are india-rubber, turpentine and certain essential oils. They are also revealed by the spectroscope in stars, comets and the sun. Of artificial productions the most fruitful and important is provided by the destructive or dry distillation of many organic substances; familiar examples are the distillation of coal, which yields ordinary lighting gas, composed of gaseous hydrocarbons, and also coal tar, which, on subsequent fractional distillations, yields many liquid and solid hydrocarbons, all of high industrial value. For details reference should be made to the articles wherein the above subjects are treated. From the chemical point of view the hydrocarbons are of fundamental importance, and, on account of their great number, and still greater number of derivatives, they are studied as a separate branch of the science, namely, organic chemistry.
See Chemistry for an account of their classification, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millerand, Alexandre

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​MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (1859–), French socialist and politician, was born in Paris on the 10th of February 1859. He was educated for the bar, and made his reputation by his defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche and Duc-Quercy, the instigators of the strike at Decazeville in 1883; he then took Laguerre’s place on M. Clemenceau’s paper, La Justice. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the department of the Seine in 1885 as a radical socialist. He was associated with MM. Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike (1892). He had long had the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation, and after the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians his influence grew. He was chief of the Socialist left, which then mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in the press, La Petite République. His programme included the collective ownership of the means of production and the international association of labour, but when in June 1899 he entered Waldeck-Rousseau’s cabinet of “republican defence” as minister of commerce he limited himself to practical reforms, devoting his attention to the improvement of the mercantile marine, to the development of trade, of technical education, of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and insurance office was also raised to the status of a “direction.” The introduction of trades-union representatives on the Supreme Labour Council, the organization of local labour councils, and the instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in communication with the councils of the trades-unions, were valuable concessions to labour, and he further secured the rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection of the working-classes. His name was especially associated with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which became law in 1905. He became in 1898 editor of La Lanterne. His influence with the extreme Socialists had already declined, for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition had disintegrated the party.
For his administration in the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet see A. Lavy, L’Œuvre de Millerand (1902); his speeches between 1899 and 1907 were published in 1907 as Travail et travailleurs.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miller, William (Second Adventist)

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​MILLER, WILLIAM (1782–1849), leader of the Second Adventists in America, was born on the 5th of February 1782 at Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He was a recruiting officer at the beginning of the War of 1812, and after Plattsburg he was promoted captain, retiring from the army in 1815. About 1816 he settled in Low Hampton, Washington county, New York. ​He now joined the Baptist Church at Low Hampton, and, after two years of minute study of the Bible, about 1818 became a Second Adventist. In 1831 he began to lecture, arguing that the “two thousand three hundred days” of Daniel viii. 14 meant 2300 years, and that these years began with Ezra’s going up to Jerusalem in 457 B.C., and therefore came to an end in 1843, and urging his hearers to make ready for the final coming of Christ in that year. To his many followers, after the year 1843 had passed, he proclaimed that 1844 was the year, that his error was due to following Hebrew instead of Roman chronology, and that the 22nd of October was to be the day. There was renewed excitement among Miller’s followers; many of them left their business, and in white muslin robes, on house tops and hills, awaited the epiphany. In spite of disappointment, many still believed with him that the time was near. He returned to Low Hampton and died there on the 20th of December 1849. The Adventists or Millerites, who were formed into a single body in a convention called by him in April 1845, have since separated into several sects: the Evangelical Adventists (1147 in the United States in 1908), who believe in everlasting punishment; the Seventh Day Adventists (64,332), who observe the seventh day, and practise the sacrament of foot-washing; the Advent Christians (26,500), the Churches of God in Jesus Christ (2872), and the Life and Advent Union (3800). Their total number in the United States in 1908 was about 99,300. Miller published in 1833 a pamphlet which was the basis of his lectures; these were published in 1842 as Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the Year 1843.
See Sylvester Bliss, Memoirs of William Miller (Boston, 1853); James White, Sketches of the Christian Life and Public Labors of William Miller (Battle Creek, 1875); and Edward Eggleston’s novel, End of the World (1872).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miller, William Hallowes

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​MILLER, WILLIAM HALLOWES (1801–1880), British mineralogist and crystallographer, was born at Velindre near Llandovery, Carmarthenshire, on the 6th of April 1801. He was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1826 as fifth Wrangler, and became a fellow in 1829. For a few years he was occupied as a college tutor and during this time he published treatises on hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. He also gave special attention to crystallography, and on the resignation of W. Whewell he succeeded in 1832 to the professorship of mineralogy, a post which he occupied until 1870. His chief work, on Crystallography, was published in 1838. He was elected F.R.S. in 1838. In 1852 he edited a new edition of H. J. Brooke’s Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy. He assisted in 1843 the committee appointed to superintend the construction of the new Parliamentary standards of length and weight (see Phil. Trans., 1856). He died in Cambridge on the 20th of May 1880.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millet, Francis Davis

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​MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846–), American artist, was born at Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November 1846. He was a drummer boy with the Union forces in the Civil War; graduated from Harvard College in 1869; and in 1871 entered the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp, where he studied under Van Lerius and De Keyser. In 1873 he was made secretary of the Massachusetts commission to the Vienna Exposition. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 he was correspondent of the London Daily News and Graphic, and of the New York Herald. On his return he was made a member from the United States of the International Art Jury at the Paris Exposition of 1878. He was director of decorations at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and in 1898 he went to Manila as war correspondent for The Times and for Harper’s Weekly. In 1880 he became a member of the Society of American Artists, and in 1885 was elected to full membership in the National Academy of Design, New York, and was for one term its vice-president; he became a member also of the American Water Color Society and of the Institute of Painters in Oil Colours, London. As a decorative artist his work may be seen at Trinity Church, Boston; the Bank of Pittsburg; and the Capitol at St Paul, Minnesota. His pictures are in many public collections: among them are “A Cosy Corner,” in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; “At the Inn,” in the Union League Club, New York; and “Between two Fires,” in the Tate Gallery, London. He also wrote essays and short stories, and an English version of Tolstoi’s Sebastopol (1887); and among his publications are The Danube (1891), Capillary Crime and other Stories (1892), and Expedition to the Philippines (1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miller, William (engraver)

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​MILLER, WILLIAM (1796–1882), Scottish line-engraver, was born in Edinburgh on the 28th of May 1796. After studying in London under George Cook, a pupil of Basire’s, he returned to Edinburgh. He executed plates after Thomson of Duddingston, Macculloch, D. O. Hill, Sir George Harvey, and other Scottish landscapists, but his chief works were his transcripts from Turner. The first of these was the Clovelly (1824), of The Southern Coast, a publication undertaken by George Cook and his brother William B. Cook, to which Miller also contributed the Combe Martin and the Portsmouth. He was engaged on the illustrations of England and Wales, 1827–1838; of The Rivers of France, 1833–1835; of Roger’s Poems, 1834; and very largely on those of The Prose and Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, 1834. In The Provincial Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of Scotland, 1826, he executed a few excellent plates after Thomson and Turner. Among his larger engravings of Turner’s works may be mentioned “The Grand Canal, Venice”; “The Rhine, Osterprey and Feltzen”; “The Bell Rock”; “The Tower of London”; and “The Shepherd.” The art of William Miller was warmly appreciated by Turner himself, and Ruskin pronounced him to be on the whole the most successful translator into line of the paintings of the greatest English landscapist. His renderings of complex Turnerian sky-effects are especially delicate and masterly. Towards the end of his life Miller abandoned engraving and occupied his leisure in the production of water-colours, many of which were exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was an honorary member. He resumed his burin, however, to produce two final series of vignettes from drawings by Birket Foster illustrative of Hood’s Poems, published by Moxon in 1871. Miller, who was a Quaker, died on the 20th of January 1882.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millet

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* Setaria italica.
MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio＝Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility), a name applied with little definiteness to a considerable number of often very variable species of cereals, belonging to distinct genera and even subfamilies of Gramineae. Common millet is Panicum miliaceum (German Hirse). It is probably a native of Egypt and Arabia but has been cultivated in Egypt, Asia and southern Europe from prehistoric times. It is annual, requires rich but friable soil, grows to about 3 or 4 ft. high, and is characterized by its bristly, much branched nodding panicles. One variety has black grains. It is cultivated in India, southern Europe, and northern Africa, and ripens as far north as southern Germany, in fact, wherever the climate admits of the production of wine. The grain, which is very nutritious, is used in the form of groats, and makes excellent bread when mixed with wheaten flour. It is also largely used for feeding poultry, for which purpose mainly it is imported. Hungarian grass, Setaria italica (also called Panicum italicum), a native of eastern Asia is one of the most wholesome and palatable Indian cereals. It is annual, grows 4 to 5 ft. high, and requires dry light soil. German Millet (Ger. Kolbenhirse, Mohar) is probably merely a less valuable and dwarf variety of S. italica, having an erect, compact, and shorter spike. The grains of both are very small, only one half as long as those of common millet, but are exceedingly prolific. Many stalks arise from a single root, and a single spike often yields 2 oz. of grain, the total yield being five times that of wheat. They are imported for poultry feeding like the former species and for cage-birds, but are extensively used in soups, &c., on the Continent. Numerous other species belonging to the vast genus Panicum—the largest among grasses, of which the following are among the most important—are also cultivated in tropical or subtropical countries for their grain or as fodder ​grasses, or both, each variety of soil, from swamp to desert, having its characteristic forms.
Polish millet is P. sanguinale; P. frumentaceum, shamalo, a Deccan grass, is probably a native of tropical Africa; P. decompositum is the Australian millet, its grains being made into cakes by the aborigines. P. maximum is the Guinea grass, native of tropical Africa; it is perennial, grows 8 ft. high, and yields abundance of highly nutritious grain. P. spectabile is the coapim of Angola, but has been acclimatized in Brazil and other tropical countries. Other gigantic species 6 or 7 ft. high form the field-crops on the banks of the Amazon. Of species belonging to allied genera, Pennisetum typhoideum, bajree, sometimes also called Egyptian millet or pearl millet, is largely cultivated in tropical Asia, Nubia and Egypt. Species of Paspalum, Eleusine and Milium, are also cultivated as millets. For Indian millet, see Durra.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miller, William (soldier)

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​MILLER, WILLIAM (1795–1861), British soldier, who took a prominent part in the South American Wars of Liberation, entered the British artillery service in 1811, and till 1814 he was continuously on active service with Wellington’s army in the Peninsula. In the latter year he accompanied the ill-fated New Orleans expedition. After the general peace he travelled for two years about Europe, and then went to South America. The war which culminated in the expulsion of the Spaniards was just breaking out, and he took command in the Chilean artillery, with which he served during the Chilean part of the war. As a major he commanded the marines on Cochrane’s vessel, the “O’Higgins.” In 1821 he landed in Peru, to assist General San Martin against the Spanish General Canterac. He was made general of brigade, and became very intimate with Simon Bolivar. He rendered the most conspicuous services at Junin (Aug. 6, 1824), and his regiment, the “Hussars of Junin,” covered itself with glory in the decisive victory of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824). From 1830 to 1839 he filled various high military and political offices in Peru. In the latter year he was involved in the fall of Santa Cruz, and went into exile. For some years he filled the post of British Consul-General of the Pacific Coast. He died on board H.M.S. “Naiad” at Callao, on the 31st of October 1861.
See the Memoirs published by his brother John Miller (London,1827).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Millerite

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​MILLERITE, a mineral consisting of nickel sulphide, NiS. Crystals belong to the rhombohedral system and have the form ​of slender needles arranged in divergent groups or of delicate fibres loosely matted together. The colour is brass-yellow and the lustre metallic. Before the chemical composition of the mineral had been determined it had been known as “capillary pyrites” or “hair pyrites” (Ger. Haarkies), and was not distinguished from the capillary forms of pyrites and marcasite: the name millerite was given by W. Haidinger in 1845, in honour of W. H. Miller. The hardness is 3–31/2 and the specific gravity 5·65. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (100); and gliding planes parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (110), on which secondary twinning may be readily produced artificially by pressure.
Typical specimens of millerite are found in the coal measures in the neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil in South Wales, where the delicate needles and fibres occur with crystals of quartz and pearl-spar in the fissures of septarian nodules of clay-ironstone. Radiating groups of needles are found with ankerite in cavities in haematite in the Sterling mine at Antwerp in Jefferson county, New York. At the Gap mine in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, the mineral occurs as fibrous encrusting masses with a velvety lustre. The most perfect crystals are those formerly found with calcite, diopside and a bright green chrome-garnet in a nickel mine at Orford in Sherbrooke county, Quebec. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Oaxaca (town)

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​OAXACA, Oajaca (from Aztec Huaxyacac), or Oaxaca de Juarez (official title), capital of the Mexican state of Oaxaca, in the central part of the state 288 m. S.E. of the City of Mexico, and about 153 m. from Puerto Angel on the Pacific; in lat. 17° 3′ N., long. 96° 40′ W. Pop. (1900) 35,049, largely Indians, most of whom are Mixtecas and Zapotecas. Oaxaca is connected with Puebla (211 m.) by the Mexican Southern railway. The city lies in a broad, picturesque valley 5085 ft. above sea-level, and has a mild temperate climate; annual rainfall about 33 in.; mean annual temperature 68° F. It forms the see of a bishopric dating from 1535, and has a fine old cathedral (occupying the north side of the plaza mayor), built in the Spanish Renaissance style and dating from 1553; rebuilt in 1702.
According to tradition the Aztec military post and town of Huaxyacac was founded in 1486. The date of the first Spanish settlement is uncertain, but it was probably between 1522 and 1528. The Oaxaca Valley, including several native towns, had been given to Cortés, together with the title marquez del Valle de Oaxaca. To injure him, the audiencia then administering the government, founded the villa of Antequera in close proximity to Huaxyacac and on lands belonging to Cortés in 1529, though a settlement had been made at the Indian town at an earlier date. Antequera was made a city in 1532 and the see of a bishopric in 1535, though it had but few Spanish inhabitants and no opportunity to expand. This anomalous state of affairs was eventually settled, Antequera was absorbed by Huaxyacac, and the Spanish corrupted the pronunciation to Oaxaca. The city suffered severely in the earthquakes of 1727 and 1787, the cathedral being greatly damaged in the former. It had a chequered career in the War of Independence, being captured by Morelos in 1812, reoccupied by the royalists in 1814, and recaptured by Antonio Leon in 1821. In 1823 it was again captured by Nicolas Bravo in the revolution against Iturbide. In 1865 it was besieged by the French under Bazaine and surrendered by General Diaz (4th Feb.) but was recaptured by him on the 1st of November 1866, after his escape from Puebla. In the revolution promoted by Diaz in 1871–1872 the city was captured by the Juarist general Alatorre on the 4th of January 1872, and in a second revolution of 1876 it was captured by the friends of Diaz on the 27th of January of that year.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ob

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OB, or Obi, a river of West Siberia, known to the Ostiaks as the As, Yag, Kolta and Yema; to the Samoyedes as the Kolta or Kuay; and to the Tatars as the Omar or Umar. It is formed, 8 m. S.W. of Biysk in the government of Tomsk, by the confluence of the Biya and the Katun. Both these streams have their origin in the Altai (Sailughem) Mountains, the former issuing from Lake Teletskoye, the latter, 400 m. long, bursting out of a glacier on Mount Byelukha. The Ob zigzags W. and N. until it reaches 55º N.; thence it curves round to the N.W., and again N., wheeling finally eastwards into the Gulf of Ob, a deep (600 m.) bay of the Arctic Ocean. The river splits up into more than one arm, especially after receiving the large river Irtysh (from the left) in 69º E. Other noteworthy tributaries are: on the right, the Tom, the Chulym, the Ket, the Tym and the Vakh; and, on the left, the Vasyugan, the Irtysh (with the Ishim and the Tobol) and the Sosva. The navigable waters within its basin reach a total length of 9300 m. By means of the Tura, an affluent of the Tobol, it secures connexion with the Ekaterinburg-Perm railway at Tyumen, and thus is linked on to the rivers Kama and Volga in the heart of Russia. Its own length is 2260 m., and the area of its basin 1,125,200 sq. m. A system of canals, utilizing the Ket river, 560 m. long in all, connects the Ob with the Yenisei. The Ob is ice-bound at Barnaul from early in November to near the end of April, and at Obdursk, 100 m. above its mouth, from the end of October to the beginning of June. Its middle reaches have been navigated by steamboats since 1845.