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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jenner, Sir William

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​JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1815–1898), English physician, was born at Chatham on the 30th of January 1815, and educated at University College, London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837, and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 took the London M.D. In 1847 he began at the London fever hospital investigations into cases of “continued” fever which enabled him finally to make the distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his reputation as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed professor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he afterwards became physician (1854–1876) and consulting physician (1879), besides holding similar appointments at other hospitals. He was also successively Holme professor of clinical medicine and professor of the principles and practice of medicine at University College. He was president of the college of physicians (1881–1888); he was elected F.R.S. in 1864, and received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1861 he was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 physician in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in ordinary to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868 he was created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner had a great reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died, at Bishop’s Waltham, Hants, on the 11th of December 1898, having then retired from practice for eight years owing to failing health.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jenné

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​JENNÉ, a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the Songhoi empire, now included in the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. Jenné is situated on a marigot or natural canal connecting the Niger and its affluent the Bani or Mahel Balevel, and is within a few miles of the latter stream. It lies 250 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The city is surrounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the dry season it ceases to be an island. On the north is the Moorish quarter; on the north-west, the oldest part of the city, stood the citadel, converted by the French since 1893 into a modern fort. The market-place is midway between the fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, partially destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west portion of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of the Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the façades of the houses being adorned with great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little trace of the influence of Moorish or Arabian art. The buildings are mostly constructed of clay made into flat long bricks. Massive clay walls surround the city. The inhabitants are great traders and the principal merchants have representatives at Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The boats built at Jenné are famous throughout the western Sudan.
Jenné is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the 8th century, and though it has passed under the dominion of many races it has never been destroyed. Jenné seems to have been at the height of its power from the 12th to the 16th century, when its merchandise was found at every port along the west coast of Africa. From this circumstance it is conjectured that Jenné (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see Guinea). Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the advent of the French, commerce again began to flourish.
See F. Dubois, Tombouctou la mystérieuse (Paris, 1897), in which several chapters are devoted to Jenné; also Songhoi; Timbuktu; and Senegal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jenolan Caves

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​JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh county, New South Wales, Australia; 113 m. W. by N. of Sydney, and 36 m. from Tarana, which is served by railway. They are the most celebrated of several similar groups in the limestone of the country; they have not yielded fossils of great interest, but the stalactitic formations, sometimes pure white, are of extraordinary beauty. The caves have been rendered easily accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jeopardy

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​JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or other injury. The word, in Mid. Eng. juparti, jeupartie, &c., was adapted from O. Fr. ju, later jeu, and parti, even game, in medieval Latin jocus partitus. This term was originally used of a problem in chess or of a stage in any other game at which the chances of success or failure are evenly divided between the players. It was thus early transformed to any state of uncertainty.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple

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​JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856– ), American economist, was born in St Clair, Michigan, on the 2nd of September 1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in 1878; taught Greek, Latin and German in Mt. Morris College, Illinois; studied in Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D. from the university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and English literature at Knox College, Galesburg, Ill., in 1886–1889; was professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State University in 1889–1891; and was successively professor of political, municipal and social institutions (1891–1892), professor of political economy and civil and social institutions (1892–1901), and after 1901 professor of political economy and politics at Cornell University. In 1899–1901 he served as an expert agent of the United States industrial commission on investigation of trusts and industrial combinations in the United States and Europe, and contributed to vols. i., viii. and xiii. of this commission’s report (1900 and 1901), vol. viii. being a report, written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In 1901–1902 he was special commissioner of the United States war department on colonial administration, and wrote a Report on Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient, published (1902) by the bureau of insular affairs; and in 1903 he was adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on projected currency changes. In 1903–1904 he was a member of the United States commission on international exchange, in especial charge of the reform of currency in China; in 1905 he was special representative of the United States with the imperial Chinese special mission visiting the United States. In 1907 he became a member of the United States immigration commission. Best known as an expert on “trusts,” he has written besides on elections, ballot reform, proportional representation, on education (especially as a training for citizenship), on legislation regarding
His principal published works are Henry C. Carey als Nationalökonom (Halle a. S., 1885); The Trust Problem (1900; revised 1903); Great Fortunes (1906); Citizenship and the Schools (1906); and Principles of Politics (1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jennet

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​JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied in English to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion. Jennet comes, through Fr. genet, from Span. jinete, a light horseman who rides à la gineta, explained as “with his legs tucked up.” The name is taken to be a corruption of the Arabic Zenāta, a Berber tribe famed for its cavalry. English and French transferred the word from the rider to his horse, a meaning which the word has only acquired in Spain in modern times.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jenyns, Soame

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​JENYNS, SOAME (1704–1787), English author, was born in London on the 1st of January 1704, and was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge. In 1742 he was chosen M.P. for Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, and he afterwards sat for the borough of Dunwich and the town of Cambridge. From 1755 to 1780 he was one of the commissioners of the board of trade. He died on the 18th of December 1787.
For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his life Jenyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social standing as to his accomplishments and talents, though both were considerable. His poetical works, the Art of Dancing (1727) and Miscellanies (1770), contain many passages graceful and lively though occasionally verging on licence. The first of his prose works was his Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil (1756). This essay was severely criticized on its appearance, especially by Samuel Johnson in the Literary Magazine. Johnson, in a slashing review—the best paper of the kind he ever wrote—condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to solve one of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a gentle and amiable man in the main, was extremely irritated by his failure. He put forth a second edition of his work, prefaced by a vindication, and tried to take vengeance on Johnson after his death by a sarcastic epitaph. In 1776 Jenyns published his View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion. Though at one period of his life he had affected a kind of deistic scepticism, he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no reason to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the principles of human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its day for its literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an amateur in theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless.
A collected edition of the works of Jenyns appeared in 1790, with a biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several references to him in Boswell’s Johnson.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peloponnesus

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​PELOPONNESUS (“Island of Pelops”), the ancient and modern Greek official name for the part of Greece south of the Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea, from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and this name is still current in popular speech.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelvis

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​PELVIS (Lat. for “basin,” cf. Gr. πέλλις), in anatomy, the bony cavity at the lower part of the abdomen in which much of the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are contained (see Skeleton, § Appendicular).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelotas

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​PELOTAS, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the left bank of the São Gongalo river near its entrance into tne Lagoa dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio Grande Pop (1900), city, about 24,000; municipio (commune, 1037 sq. m.),43,091. The Rio Grande Bagé railway communicates with the city of Rio Grande, and with the railways extending to Bagé, Cacequy, Santa Maria, Passo Fundo and Porto Alegre. The São Gonçalo river is the outlet of Lagoa Mirim, and Pelotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes. The city is bu1lt on an open grassy plain (campo) little above the level of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings include the church of São Francisco, dating from the early part of the 19th century, the municipal hall, a fine theatre, the Misericordia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000 volumes and a great central market. Pelotas is the centre of the xarque or carne secca (jerked beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul. In its outskirts and the surrounding country are an immense number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards where the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and air. There are many factories or packing houses where the byproducts are prepared for market. Pelotas was only a small settlement at the beginning of the 10th century and had no parochial organization until 1812. It became a villa in 1830 and a city in 1835.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelota

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​PELOTA (Sp. “little ball,” from Lat. pila), a ball game which, originating centuries ago in the Basque provinces, has developed into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show that there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his time. Blaid, practically hand fives against the back wall of a court, is still played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular that the authorities had to forbid its being played against the walls of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of large size there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastime of the Basque, is played against a front wall (fronton), either bare-handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-like protector (cesta), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sickle-shaped wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wheel basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the ball is caught and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it can be hurled with tremendous force. There are several players to a side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. The score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal efforts make him not the least appreciated participant in the game. In the other form of the game, played nearly exclusively by professionals (pelotaris), there are usually three players on each side, two forwards and a back, distinguished by a coloured sash or cap. The server (butteur) slips off his chistera to serve, bouncing the ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the wall, and ​striking it low against the wall. The side that wins the toss has the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing side at the vall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when after the service the ball is not caught on the volley or first bounce, (b) when it does not on the return strike the wall within the prescribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a court 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound with yarn and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server bounces the ball on the concrete floor quite near the fronton, and hits it with his chistera against the wall with a force to make it rebound beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that distance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peltier, Jean Charles Athanase

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​PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (1785–1845), French physicist, was born at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February 1785. He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experimental and observational science. His papers, which are numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric electricity, waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the temperature of water in the spheroidal state, and the boiling point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious points of natural history. But his name will always be associated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic circuit His great experimental discovery, known as the “Peltier effect,” was that if a current pass from an external source through a circuit of two metals it cools the junction through which it passes in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which would be caused by directly heating that junction. while it heats the other junction (see Thermo-Electricity). Peltier died in Paris on the 27th of October 1845.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peltuinum

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​PELTUINUM [mod. Civita Ansidonia], a town of the Vestini, on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vestini who dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town walls, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelops

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​PELOPS, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of Tantalus and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father’s home was on Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantalus one day served up to the gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Wherefore the descendants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after (Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Georgics, iii. 7). This tale is perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks. Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the gods, till, for his father’s sins, he was cast out from heaven. Then, taking much wealth with him, he crossed over from Asia to Greece. He went to Pisa in Elis as suitor of Hippodameia, daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in the chariot-race and slain many suitors for his daughter’s hand. But by the help of Poseidon, who lent him winged steeds, or of Oenomaus’s charioteer Myrtilus, whom he or Hippodameia bribed, Pelops was victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia, and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84) The race of Pelops for his wife may be reminiscence of the early practice of marriage by capture. When Myrtilus claimed his promised reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea, and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the house of Pelops which supplied the Greek tragedians with such fruitful themes (Sophocles, Electra, 505, with Jebb’s note). Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes and Chrysippus From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the neighbouring Olympia, where he celebrated the Olympian games with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were so great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the ancients as Peloponnesus, “island of Pelops” (νῆσος, island). In after times Pelops was honoured at Olympia above all other heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacrificed to him a black ram.
From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat of these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greece that the people localized a part of the tale of Pelops in their new home. In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown on the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the first Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pelouze, Théophile Jules

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​PELOUZE, THÉOPHILE JULES (1807–1867), French chemist, was born at Valognes, in Normandy, on the 26th (or 13th) of February 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks. The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fère, acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne (1800–1859) at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was appointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning to Paris next year became repétiteur, and subsequently professor, at the École Polytechnique. He also held the chair of chemistry at the Collège de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies. After the coup d'état in 1851 he resigned his appointments, but continued to conduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846. He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1867. Though Pelouze made no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investigator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar, on various organic acids—gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic, &c—on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on gun-cotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass. He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of several elements, and with E. Frémy, published Traité de chimie générale (1847–1850), Abrégé de chimie (1848); and Notions générales de chimie (1853).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marignac, Jean Charles Galissard de

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​MARIGNAC, JEAN CHARLES GALISSARD DE (1817–1894), Swiss chemist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of April 1817. When sixteen years old he began to attend the École Polytechnique in Paris, and from 1837 to 1839 studied at the École des Mines. Then, after a short time in Liebig’s laboratory at Giessen, and in the Sèvres porcelain factory, he became in 1841 professor of chemistry in the academy of Geneva. In 1845 he was appointed professor of mineralogy also, and held both chairs till 1878, when ill-health obliged him to resign. He died at Geneva on the 15th of April 1894. Marignac’s name is well known for the careful and exact determinations of atomic weights which he carried out for twenty-eight of the elements. In undertaking this work he had, like J. S. Stas, the purpose of testing Prout’s hypothesis, but he remained more disposed than the Belgian chemist to consider the possibility that it may have some degree of validity. Throughout his life he paid great attention to the “rare earths” and the problem of separating and distinguishing them; in 1878 he extracted ytterbia from what was supposed to be pure erbia, and two years later found gadolinia and samaria in the samarskite earths. In 1858 he pointed out the isomorphism of the fluostannates and the fluosilicates, thus settling the then vexed question of the composition of silicic acid; and subsequently he studied the fluosalts of zirconium, boron, tungsten, &c., and prepared silicotungstic acid, one of the first examples of the complex inorganic acids. In physical chemistry he carried out many researches on the nature and process of solution, investigating in particular the thermal effects produced by the dilution of saline solutions, the variation of the specific heat of saline solutions with temperature and concentration, and the phenomena of liquid diffusion.
A memorial lecture by P. T. Cleve, printed in the Journal of the London Chemical Society for 1895, contains a list of Marignac’s papers.