OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Anaconda, Montana

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Anaconda, Montana, (ăn' a-kŏn' dȧ), a city, the county seat of Deer Lodge County, situated about 28 miles west by north of Butte, and reached by the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern and the Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway. Its chief industry is copper-smelting, the works of which employ usually about 1,500 men. The town is growing rapidly, and has some fine public buildings, including the Hearst Free Library, several banks, opera houses, schools, etc. It has also a system of public parks. Its industries include foundries, railway and machine shops, brick works and copper smelting. It has graphite deposits in the vicinity, while sapphires are among its earth-bedded treasures. Population, 10,134.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Amsterdam

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​ Am′sterdam or Amsteldam, the capital and largest city of the Netherlands. The city is built on an arm of the Zuyder Zee, in the shape of a half-moon, and as the site is a marsh it is founded on piles driven deep into the mud. Dikes guard it against the tides, which rise higher than the city’s level. A system of canals with the river Amstel divides the city into about ninety islands, with nearly 290 bridges; hence the name of the city, Amsterdam, meaning “the dam or dike of the Amstel.” There are many fine public buildings, the finest being the palace, built in 1648. There are several public societies, such as the Society of Public Welfare, whose object is to promote education and the improvement of all classes, and which has branches in nearly every town and village of Holland. From a small fishing village in the 13th century, Amsterdam became, by the close of the 17th century, the first commercial city of Europe. After years of decline, it has again risen into commercial prominence. The Amsterdam canal, uniting the city (17 miles distant) with the North Sea, has recently been greatly enlarged and deepened, tidal locks being affixed at either end—the Zuyder Zee end and the North Sea entrance. Population 568,130.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Amœba

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Amœ'ba, one of the lowest microscopic animal organisms, extensively used in laboratory work in biology. The amœba is a single cell (see Cell Doctrine); its body is a mass of protoplasm. Therefore, when we make observations upon it we are observing protoplasm at first hand and can determine its properties and behavior. Within its body all the physiological acts take place in a simplified form. It is, therefore, of unusual interest to biologists, for the physiological processes are so complex in higher animals that one must have them reduced to their simplest expression in order to comprehend them. The soft protoplasm of its body is always moving. It flows into finger-like processes (pseudopodia), and changes its position from place to place. It also flows about food particles and thereby engulfs them into its substance. The amoeba is found in stagnant water, moist moss, etc. The living substance of its body is contractile, like muscles; irritable, like nervous tissue; receptive, assimilative, respiratory, reproductive, etc.—the germs of activities that are more developed and perfected in higher animals. See Protozoa.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Anaconda

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Anaconda (ăn' a-kŏn' dȧ), a large serpent allied to the boa-constrictor, is found in South America, especially in Brazil and in Guiana. It sometimes grows to the length of forty feet, and is the largest serpent in America. It passes much of the time in the water, choosing the shallow parts of a lake or stream. It is not poisonous.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Anarchism

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Anarchism, a communistic and revolutionary theory adverse to social order, law and government, and manifesting in its votaries—generally men of grandiose ideas lacking in mental equilibrium—an unnatural aversion to their kind, especially if well-to-do and influential, and an implacable fanaticism. The leaders of the movement have been men of prominence in various countries, acting under the impulse given it by such eminent writers as Karl Marx of Germany (1818–83), Pierre J. Proudhon (1809-65), the French socialist, William Godwin, the English political writer (1756–1836) and author of the famous Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, Elisee Reclus, the French republicanist, and Prince Krapotkin, the Russian nihilist and revolutionist (1842) and propagandist of social reform. Some of these men are idealists rather than revolutionists, and are opposed to assassination and violent measures in ridding the world of tyrannical rulers and bureaucratic administration. Others of them, however, including many of their more hasty and hotheaded followers, are eager for the overthrow of the existing social order, and are fanatical in their desire to overturn society and give rein to extreme individualistic theories, including resistance by force to all repressive, orderly authority. Hence have come the bomb-throwing and the anarchical assassinations which have been the terror of the time, including revolutionary conspiracy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ampère, Andre-Marie

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​ Ampère (än-pêr′), Andre-Marie (born 1775, died 1836). A distinguished French physicist and mathematician. Most of his working life was spent at the Ecole Polytechnique, the great military school of Paris.
Ampère’s most important contributions to knowledge are, perhaps, the three following:
First: His clear analysis and mathematical description of the work of Oersted. It was in the autumn of 1820 that Oersted discovered the effect of an electric current upon a magnetic needle. In less than one week after learning of this discovery, Ampère had extended the results by experiment and had reduced the description to a mathematical formula.
Second: The discovery that electric currents produce a magnetic effect upon each other: so that when the currents in two wires are flowing in parallel directions, they attract each other; but, when flowing in opposite directions, repel each other.
Third: Ampère introduced the very fruitful hypothesis that magnetic substances are made up of molecules in which electric currents circulate but meet no resistance. These currents are therefore permanent.
According to this view, a body is magnetized when its molecules are made to face more or less one way.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Anam

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Anam'. See Cochin China.
# The Midnight Bell

* related portals: Northanger Abbey's "horrid" novels.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article.
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The Midge-Lake

Serial article in Once a Week.
* Part 1
* Part 2
# The New Student's Reference Work/Archæology

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Archæology (är' kḗ-ŏl' ṓ-jy̆) the science which deduces knowledge of past times in the history of the human race from the relics of bygone ages and the study of existing remains. Exploration in the seats of ancient civilization in the old world and the new has greatly enriched our knowledge of past modes of living and the artistic habits of nations and peoples. In this work the researches and published records of the various archæological societies have been very helpful and instructive, particularly in Mycenæ, Athens, Corinth and Rome, in Assyria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine, as well as in notable places in ancient Britain, and on this continent in New Mexico, Arizona, Yucatan and Peru. Nor is it only in these regions that antiquities have been recovered; almost every state in the American Union has contributed of its ancient treasure, and not alone from the sites where abode ancient cave dwellers and mound builders, but from the seats of early civilization in North, South and Central America, as well as from almost every region in the old world, where at periods there was a more or less prevalent high art, despite the current estimate of what is deemed a primitive age. The recovered treasure revealing to our modern gaze the cunning handicraft and artistic taste of these early peoples embraces a wide and curious variety, including not only remarkable specimens of the sculptor's and metal-worker's activities, beautiful marbles, mural paintings and costly decorations from Greek and East Indian mausoleums and temples, rare ceramics, mosaics, vases, gems, bas-reliefs, statuary, bronzes and coin mintings, but a vast array of personal ornaments, together with unique household utensils and the more homely, but often elaborate figured pottery and relief ware. Our art galleries, museums and archæological institutes today are full of the spoil of early days, drawn from the recovered art treasures of the Græco-Roman world, from ancient Babylonia, Assvria, Phœnicia, Persia, Egypt, Ceylon, India, China and Japan, together with specimens of Anglo-Saxon art and of the tools, implements, weapons and mural remains from our own continent. For details of this interesting subject of archæology, see the many works (chiefly English and German) treating of the science, and the archæological records of the various lands, nations and peoples, with an account of their early ethnological eras.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arctic Exploration

See also List of polar explorers on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Arctic Exploration. See Polar Exploration.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Archibald, Hon. A. G.

See also Adams George Archibald on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Arch'ibald, Hon. A. G., born in Truro, Nova Scotia, in 1814. A member of the executive council as attorney general of Nova Scotia in 1856 and again in 1860. A delegate to England to arrange terms of settlement with the British government as to Nova Scotia mines, and to learn the views of the British government on the question of union of the provinces. Also attended the final conference in London to complete terms of union (1866–7). In 1867 Secretary of State for the provinces. Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba in 1870–3. From 1873 to 1883 Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia. A Director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Styled one of the Fathers of Confederation.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Archimedes

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Archimedes (är-kĭ-mē' dēz), a Grecian engineer, physicist, and mathematician, born at Syracuse, on the island of Sicily, about the year 287 B. C. What little is known concerning the details of his life is contained in the histories of Polybius, Plutarch and Livy and in the treatise on architecture by Vitruvius.
Like many men of science belonging to this period, he was educated at Alexandria.
His principal contributions to learning are (1) a large number of geometrical theorems; (2) a short treatise on arithmetic called Psammites, because grains of sand were used in the computations; (3) a determination of the centers of gravity in bodies of various shapes, a work which may be fairly called the foundation of modern statics; (4) a treatise on floating bodies; (5) in addition to the above, it is probable that he invented the screw which goes by his name and that he devised a hydrometer by which he could compare the densities of liquids.
Many stories have come down to us concerning his engineering feats at Syracuse while that city was besieged by the Romans during the second Punic War. Most of these stories are not well authenticated.
The best known perhaps is that told by Vitruvius. Having been assigned the problem of determining whether a certain crown supposed to be made of pure gold had been alloyed with silver, he devised the following method: First he measured the volume of a mass of gold just equal to the mass of the crown. This he did by putting the gold in a vessel of water and measuring the overflow. The second step was to measure, in the same way, the volume of a mass of silver just equal to the mass of the crown. Lastly he measured the volume of the crown which proved to be intermediate between that of the gold and that of the silver. From these data it was a simple matter to compute the percentage of silver in the crown. This method, it is said, suggested itself to him as he was getting into his bath, where he observed that the rise of water on the sides of the tub was apparently proportional to the volume of his body immersed.
The story goes on to relate that Archimedes announced this discovery by running through the streets, clothed principally with enthusiasm, and shouting "Eureka! Eureka!" (I have found it.)
# The New Student's Reference Work/Areopagus

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Areop′agus (ā-rē-ŏp′ a-gŭs), the hill of Ares or Mars in ancient Athens, near the Acropolis. It was the seat of the court called by the same name, which was the most famous court in Greece. It dates back to the earliest days of Athens, and plays an important part in its history. At first it was a criminal court, but Solon gave it so much power that it reached everything in the state. Pericles took away most of its power; but its fame lived on, even as late as the era of the Emperor Theodosius. Its members were the men who had been archons, or highest officers, in Athens, and they served for life. Here Paul made his address to the Athenians, as given in Acts.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arcot

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Arcot (är-kŏt'), a city of Hindustan, once the capital of the Carnatic, is situated on the Palar, about 70 miles southwest of Madras. In it are many ruins, among them the palace of its princes, who were called nabobs. The people are, in the main, Mohammedans. Arcot was taken by Clive in 1751, in the wars with the French, and finally became a British city in 1801. Population, 12,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arctic Circle

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Arctic Circle, one of the smaller circles of the globe, is twenty-three and a half degrees from the North Pole.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ardmore, Oklahoma

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Ardmore, Oklahoma, a city on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe and Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf railroads. About 20 miles north of the Red River. It is the seat of Hargrove College. Its commercial activities embrace cotton, coal and asphalt. Population (1910), 8,618.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Arctic Ocean

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Arctic Ocean is that part of the ocean within the Arctic Circle. The main rivers flowing into it are the Mackenzie and Black in America, the Obi, Yenesei and Lena in Asia. Its largest islands are Spitzbergen, Wongatz and Nova Zembla in Europe, those of New Siberia in Asia and the Polar archipelago in America. An expanse of ice of nearly 4,000,000 square miles extends during an eight-months’ winter round the pole, and even in summer the temperature is still at the freezing point. From this region come the icebergs which in spring and summer drift into the Atlantic. In the last three hundred years many voyages have been made to make discoveries in this region or to find a passage through it, but we know almost nothing about it. Besides the great dangers of ice, the sailor, often blinded by fogs and snow, has to face without guide or sea-room, storms, tides and currents of unknown waters. The highest point ever reached was by Lieutenant Peary, who in 1906 reached a point 206 miles distant from the north pole. See Polar Exploration.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Augustus, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus

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Augustus, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus, the son of Octavius and Atia (the niece of Julius Cæsar), was born September 23, 63 B. C. In early youth he was adopted by Julius Cæsar as his son and heir. At the time of Cæsar's assassination, Augustus was a student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus in Illyricum. He returned to Italy, assuming the name Julius Cæsar Octavianus, and on his landing at Brundusium was welcomed by deputies from the veterans there assembled. Augustus was at first haughtily treated by the consul, Mark Antony, who refused to surrender the property of Cæsar. After some fighting, in which Antony was defeated and had to flee across the Alps, Augustus, who had made himself a favorite with the people and the army, succeeded in getting the will of Cæsar carried out. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, Augustus joined them in establishing a triumvirate. He obtained Africa, Sardinia and Sicily. Antony obtained Gaul, and Lepidus Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the massacre of those unfriendly to them in Italy and by victories over the republican armies in Macedonia under Brutus and Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, won by Augustus and Antony, the triumvirs made a new division of the provinces—Augustus obtaining Italy and Lepidus Africa. Shortly afterward, the claims of Lepidus and Sextus Pompeius having been settled by force and fraud, the Roman world was divided between Augustus and Antony. While Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the court of Cleopatra, Augustus was striving to damage his rival in public estimation. At length war was declared against the queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium, B. C. 31, Augustus was victorious and became sole ruler of the Roman world. Soon after, Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. The subsequent measures of Augustus were mild and prudent. He abolished the laws of the triumvirate, adorned the city of Rome and reformed many abuses. The title of Augustus, meaning consecrated, was conferred upon him as consul. In 12 B. C., on the death of Lepidus, he had the title of Pontifex Maximus or high priest conferred upon him. He died August 19, A. D. 14. He so beautified Rome that it was said: "Augustus found the city built of brick, and left it built of marble." He encouraged agriculture and patronized the arts and literature. Horace, Vergil and all the most celebrated contemporary Latin scholars and poets were his friends. His was the famous Augustan Age of Latin literature.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Auk

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Auk, the name applied to a family of webfooted sea-birds. They have a thickset, heavy body with short wings and tail. They are seldom more than a foot long, dark colored above and white beneath. They live almost exclusively in the water and visit the land only to lay eggs and breed. Their movements on land are very awkward, which is caused because their legs are set far back. They are fine swimmers and divers, using their wings as well as their legs when under water. The razor-bill and the so-called little auk are common in high northern latitudes, and are used by the Esquimaux for food, while the skins are used in making clothing.
The most noted as well as the largest member of the family, is the great auk, which has become extinct by the hand of man within the last fifty years. This bird, about the size of a goose, was formerly abundant on both shores of the Atlantic in north temperate parts, not, as is commonly supposed, in the Arctic Ocean. The wings were so short as to be useless for flight, and the birds stupidly allowed themselves to be knocked over by seamen armed with short clubs and to be driven in large flocks on board vessels. They were used as food from the time of the discovery of Newfoundland, and later they were killed for their feathers. While once wonderfully abundant, they have become extinct, because they were ruthlessly slaughtered. Now their skins, bones and eggs bring high prices from museums and collectors.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Augur

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Augur, a Roman soothsayer or diviner who professed to foretell events by the flight of birds or other omens. His office was held in high repute by the heads of the state, who rarely undertook any project of importance without first consulting the auguries. The augur among the Romans held his office for life; at one time there were but two (generally patricians); but later their number was increased to nine and even more.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Augusta (Georgia)

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Augusta, county seat of Richmond County, Georgia, a city of 41,040 inhabitants, situated at the headwaters of the Savannah River. It was laid out by Oglethorpe, the founder of the state, in 1735 as a trading post for the Indians. It became a point of historic interest and military importance during the Revolutionary War, was visited by Washington in 1792 and by Lafayette in 1825. It is beautifully laid out in wide streets and avenues, noted for their regularity and abundance of shade trees. Greene Street, the main residence street, is 170 feet wide, with a park in the center, the length of the street, shaded with a double row of stately trees. The Augusta canal, nine miles long, developing 14,000 horse power, is one of the widest and deepest in the entire county. It was built and is owned by the city, and furnishes water-power for a dozen large cotton mills. Milling and cotton selling are the main industries of the city. The factory population numbers 15,000. The capital employed is about $6,000,000, running 9,000 looms and 300,000 spindles. Besides these, there are large iron foundries and railroad shops. Augusta is well equipped with hospitals, orphan asylums, electric car lines, parks and public schools. It is a favorite winter resort for northern tourists, having a fine winter hotel, The Bon Air. Its soft climate, beautiful situation and enterprising and hospitable people make it an attractive place for industrial pursuits as well as for social pleasures.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Augusta (Maine)

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Augusta, the capital of Maine, on the Kennebec River, 43 miles from its mouth. The city lies on both sides of the river, which is spanned by a bridge 520 feet long. The white granite statehouse is one of the finest in New England. Other fine buildings are the courthouse and the Maine insane asylum, to which property has been added the U. S. arsenal grounds. The United States arsenal is on the east side of the river, and the national military asylum is just outside the city limits. A dam, 1,000 feet long, above the city supplies an immense water-power. The chief interest is lumber, but the city has cotton mills, pulp and paper mills and large publishing houses. Because of Augusta's position among the hills of the Kennebec and her lakes and ponds it has become quite a summer resort. Population, 13,211.