# An Elementary Grammar of the Japanese Language/Japanese Grammar

——I. The Alphabet ————1. The Iroha ————2. The Vowels ——II. The Parts of Speech ————1. Of Nouns ——————a. Of Number ——————b. Of Gender ——————c. Of Case ————2. Of Adjectives ————3. Of Pronouns ———4. Of Verbs —————a. Inflection of Verbs ———————1. Active Voice ———————2. Passive Voice ———————3. Of Moods ———————4. Of Tenses —————b. Conjugation of Verbs ———————1. Conjugation of Regular Verbs —————————a. First Conjugation (ending in -u) ———————————1. Indicative Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————2. Potential Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————3. Subjunctive Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense ———————————4. Imperative Mood ———————————5. Infinitive Mood —————————b. Second Conjugation (ending in -ru) ———————————1. Indicative Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————2. Potential Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————3. Subjunctive Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense ———————————4. Imperative Mood ———————————5. Infinitive Mood —————————c. Third Conjugation (ending in -uru) ———————————1. Indicative Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————2. Potential Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————3. Subjunctive Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense ———————————4. Imperative Mood ———————————5. Infinitive Mood —————————d. The Verb used Negatively ———————————1. Indicative Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————2. Potential Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense —————————————c. Future Tense ———————————3. Subjunctive Mood —————————————a. Present Tense —————————————b. Past Tense ———————————4. Imperative Mood ————5. Of Adverbs ————6. Of Postpositions ——————a. List of Postpositions ————7. Of Conjunctions ————8. Of Interjections
JAPANESE GRAMMAR.
I. THE ALPHABET, OR The Iroha.
The letters used in Japanese are forty-seven. They have two different forms, one of which is called Katakana, and the other Hiragana. We give the Katakana, as under:—
イ ロ ハ ニ ホ ヘ ト チ リ ヌ ル ヲ ワ カ ヨ タ レ ソ ツ 子 ナ ラ ム ウ ヰ ノ オ ク ヤ マ ケ フ コ エ テ ア サ キ ユ メ ミ シ ヱ ヒ モ セ ス
These letters are called in Japanese:—
i ro ha ni ho he to ti ri nu ru o wa ka yo ta re so tu ne na ra mu u i no o ku ya ma ya fu ko ye te a sa ki yu me mi si ye hi mo se zu.
2. The Vowels.
Of the above forty-seven, five (ア イ ウ ヱ ヲ) are vowels; the sounds of these five letters are as follows:—
| a | ア | has the sound of | a in master, or mama. |
| i | イ | has the„sound of„ | i in inland. |
| u | ウ | has the„sound of„ | u in queen. |
| e | ヱ | has the„sound of„ | e in echo. |
| o | ヲ | has the„sound of„ | o in month. |
The rest of the letters are arranged according to these five vowels, as follows:—
| a ア | i イ | u ウ | e ヱ | o ヲ |
| ka カ | ki キ | ku ク | ke ケ | ko コ |
| sa サ | si シ | su ス | se セ | so ソ |
| ta タ | ti チ | tu ツ | te テ | to ト |
| na ナ | ni ニ | nu ヌ | ne 子 | no ノ |
| ha ハ | hi ヒ | fu フ | he ヘ | ho ホ |
| ma マ | mi ミ | mu ム | me メ | mo モ |
| ya ヤ | yi イ | yu ユ | ye エ | yo ヨ |
| ra ラ | ri リ | ru ル | re レ | ro ロ |
| wa ワ | wi 井 | wi ウ | we ヱ | wo ヲ |
| ga ガ | gi ギ | gu グ | ge ゲ | go ゴ |
| za ザ | zi ジ | zu ズ | ze ゼ | zo ゾ |
| da ダ | di ヂ | du ヅ | de デ | do ド |
| ba バ | bi ビ | bu ブ | be ベ | bo ボ |
| pa パ | pi ピ | pu プ | pe ペ | po ポ |
ヱ and エ, イ and 井, オ and ヲ, are distinguished by ancient usage, but at the present time the distinction is no longer observed.
In most parts of Japan, ヂ di and ジ zi, ヅ du and ズ zu, are distinguished from one another in their pronunciation, although they are pronounced alike in some parts of the country.
II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Words are divided into eight classes, that is, parts of speech—Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Postpositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
Note—There is nothing in Japanese to answer to the English Articles, definite or indefinite.
Of Nouns.
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, niwi, garden; Nipon, Japan.
Nouns are either Proper or Common:—
* A Proper Noun is the name of any particular person, place, or thing, as Yokohama, Kosi.
* A Common Noun is a name given in common to everything of the same kind, as tukuye, table.
Nouns are varied by number and gender.
Of Number.
There are two numbers, the Singular and Plural.
In Japanese, nouns change their forms in a few cases; generally they have the same forms, both in their plural and singular. But when they change their forms the plural is rendered by adding domo, gata, or ra to the singular; as ko, child; danna, gentleman; shosei, student, in the singular; and kodomo, dannagata, shoseira, in the plural.
The number of nouns generally are distinguished by numeral adjectives; as hito hitori, one person; hito futari, two persons.
Of Gender.
Nouns have three genders—the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
​The masculine denotes the male sex; as, otoko, man. The feminine denotes the female sex; as onna, woman. The neuter denotes whatever is without sex; as yama, mountain.
There are two different ways of distinguishing sex:—
| Masculine. | Feminine. |
| otoko, man. | onna, woman. |
| teishu, husband. | niyobo, wife. |
| sō, monk. | ama, nun. |
| goko, widow. | yamome, widower. |
| segare, son. | musume, daughter. |
| titi, father. | haha, mother. |
| oji, uncle. | oba, aunt. |
| oi, nephew. | mei, niece. |
| hana muko, bridegroom. | hana yome, bride. |
| danna, gentleman. | fuzin, lady. |
| Masculine. | Feminine. |
| otoko no ko, male child. | onna no ko, female child. |
| ontori, male bird. | mentori, female bird. |
| Tei, Emperor. | Niyotei, Empress. |
| Ō, King. | Niyo-ō, Queen. |
Of Case.
There are three cases; namely, the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective.
The nominative is rendered by placing the sign wa, ga, or mo after nouns; as, otoko ga or wa, mo, ikimasu, man goes.
The possessive is formed by putting the sign no after nouns; as, otoko no kimono, man’s dress.
The objective is rendered by the sign wo, ni, or ga—Otoko ga onna wo utimasita, A man has beaten a woman. In the potential mood, ga is used as a sign of the objective case.
    Note—The signs of the nominative, wa and mo are in opposition to each other. When two things or persons do the same actions, mo is used; as, Onna mo otoko mo ikimasu, Both man and woman go. But when they do some different actions, wa is used; as, Onna wa kayerimasu ga (but) otoko wa orimasu, Woman goes away, but man stays.
    Ga is sometimes used in an emphatic sentence; as, Watakusi ga simasita, I have done it.
    Ni, the sign of the objective case, answers to the dative in Latin; and in English it may be translated into ‘to,’ or ‘for;’ as Kane wo otoko ni yare, Give money to the man.
Of Adjectives.
An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun.
​Adjectives have three degrees of comparison—the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
The comparative is formed by placing yori or yorimo (more than) before the positive; as, yori yoi, better; and the superlative by putting the words ichi ban, or mottomo, before the positive; as, itti ban, or mottomo yoi, best.
There are three kinds of adjectives, namely, qualificative, quantitative, and demonstrative:—
* Qualificative adjectives express the quality; as, kireina shomotu, fine books.
* Quantitative adjectives express the quantity; as, takusanna shomotu, many books.
* Demonstrative adjectives serve to point out; as, kono shomotu, this book; sono shomotu, that book.
Of Pronouns.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun. There are three kinds of pronouns—Personal, Interrogative, and Demonstrative.
    Note—Relative Pronouns are not used in conversation.
​The whole of the personal pronouns in their simple forms may be represented thus:
| | First Person. | Second Person. | Third Person. |
| Singular | watakusi, | anata, | are, or kare. |
| Plural | watakusi domo, | anatayata, | arera, or karera. |
The cases are rendered by placing ni, no, and the other particles after pronouns, as in cases of watakusi ga, or wa, I; watakusi ni, me.
Are and arera are seldom used in conversation. Generally the names of persons are repeated, or else demonstrative adjectives and hito or okata (person) are used; as, Kono okata ga ikimasu, This person goes.
2. Interrogative Pronouns are used to ask questions.
There are three kinds of interrogative pronouns—dare, which is applied to persons; nani, which is applied to things, or inferior animals; and dore, which is used when a choice is expressed.
The cases are rendered by the particles no, ni, wa, and the others as in case of a noun. Examples:—Sokoni dare ga imasu ka? Who is there? Sokoni nani ga imasu ka? What is there? Dore wo anata wa torimasu ka? Which do you take?
    Note—When any question is asked, the sign ka is always put at the end of the sentence.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns serve to point out the object spoken of.
​There are two kinds of demonstrative pronouns, namely, kore and sore, which correspond to ‘this’ and ‘that’ in English. They have cases, which are rendered like cases of a noun: they have the same forms both in the plural and singular. Examples: Kore wo ō-torinasare, Take this; Watakusi ni sore wo kudasare, Give me that.
OF VERBS.
A Verb is a word used to express existence or action. Verbs are of three kinds—Active, Passive, and Neuter.
* An Active Verb expresses action passing from an actor to some object; as, Watakusi wa shomotu wo mimasu, I see or read a book.
* A Passive Verb expresses the suffering of an action performed by another; as, Watakusi wa hita ni miraremasu, I am seen by people.
* A Neuter Verb is neither active nor passive; it expresses existence, condition of being, and action limited to the actor; as, Watakusi wa nemurimasu, I sleep.
Inflection of Verbs.
Verbs are inflected to express voices, moods, and tenses. There are three kinds of Japanese verbs—first, ​utu, to strike; second, nageru, to throw; third, suru, to do, or make.
1. Active Voice.
When the verbs are used in conversation, u of the verbs of the first kind is substituted by i, and masu in an affirmative sentence, or masen in a negative sentence is added, as utimasu or utimasen; ru of that of the second is taken away, and masu or masen is put, as nagemasu or nagemasen; uru of that of the third is substituted by i, and masu or masen is added, as simasu or simasen.
2. Passive Voice.
In the case of passive voices, u of the verb of the first kind is substituted by are, and masu or masen; as, Utare masu, Are or is beaten. This rule applies to the verbs of the second kind; as, Nagerare masu, Is or are thrown down. Uru of that of the third kind is substituted by erare, and masu or masen is added; as, Kerai ni serare masu, He is, or they are, made a servant or servants.
Of Moods.
Verbs have five moods—the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.
* The Indicative Mood is the simple affirmation of a fact; as, Watakusi ga mimasu, I see (it).
* The Potential Mood expresses the power of doing ​an action; as, Watakusi wa sore ga miyemusu, or Watakusi wa sore wo miru koto ga dekimasu, I can see it or that.
* The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, and is preceded by a conjunction (mosi), and followed by another conjunction (nara or naraba); as, Moshi anata ga ikimasu nara, If you go. Sometimes the word mosi is omitted; as, Anata ga ikimasu nara, If you go.
* The Imperative Mood commands or entreats, as, Miyo or Mite-kudasare, See, or Pray see.
* The Infinitive Mood expresses an action without regard to persons or numbers; as, Miru koto, To see.
Of Tenses.
Verbs have three tenses—the Present, the Past, and the Future.
* The Present Tense expresses what is going on at present; as, Watakusi ga yomimasu, I read, or am reading.
* The Past Tense represents an action as finished; as, Watakusi wa kono shomotu wo yomimasita, I have read, or I read this book.
* The Future Tense represents an action which is yet to be done; as, Watakusi wa yomimasho, I shall read.
Conjugation of Verbs.
Verbs are divided into three classes. These are ​distinguished by the termination of the present infinitive. The first ends in u, as suku, to like; the second ends in ru, as kangayru, to think; the third ends in uru, as suru, to make.
Conjugation of Regular Verbs.
First Conjugation ending in U—Iku, To go.
Indicative Mood. Present Tense.
| Watakushi wa ik-imasu, I go. | Watakusi domo wa ik-imasu, we go. |
| Anata wa ik-imasu, you go. | Anatagata wa ik-imasu, you go. |
| Are wa ik-imasu, he or she goes. | Arera wa ik-imasu, they go. |
Past Tense.
| Watakusi wa ik-imasita, I went or have gone. | Watakusi domo wa ik-imasita, we went. |
| Anata wa ik-imasita, you went or have gone. | Anatagata wa ik-imasita, you went. |
| Are wa ik-imasita, he went, or has gone. | Arera wa ik-imasita, they went. |
Future Tense.
| Watakusi wa ik-imasho, I shall go. | Watakusi domo wa iki-imasho, we shall go. |
| Anata wa ik-imasho, you will go. | Anatagata wa ik-imasho, you will go. |
| Are wa ik-imasho, he or she will go. | Arera wa ik-imasho, they will go. |
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
| Watakusi wa ik-emasu, I can go. | Watakusi domo wa ik-emasu, we can go. |
| Anata wa ik-emasu, you can go. | Anatagata wa ik-emasu, you can go. |
| Are wa ik-emasu, he can go. | Arera wa ik-emasu, they can go. |
Past Tense.
| Watakui wa ik-emasita, I could go. | Watakusi domo wa ik-emasita, we could go. |
| Anata wa ik-emasita, you could go. | Anatagata wa ik-emasita, you could go. |
| Are wa ik-emasita, he could go. | Arera wa ik-emasita, they could go. |
Future Tense.
| Watakusi wa ik-emasho, I shall be able to go. | Watakusi domo wa ik-emasho, we shall be able to go. |
| Anata wa ik-emasho, you will be able to go. | Anatagata wa ik-emasho, you will be able to go. |
| Are wa ik-emasho, he will be able to go. | Arera wa ik-emasho, they will be able to go. |
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
| Mosi watakusi ga ik-imasu nara, if I go. | Most watakusi domo ga ik-imasu nara, if we go. |
| Mosi anata ga ik-imasu nara, if you go. | Mosi anatagata ga ik-imasu nara, if you go. |
| Mosi are ga ik-imasu nara, if he or she go. | Mosi arera ga ik-imasu nara, if they go. |
Past Tense.
| Mosi watakusi ga ik-imasita nara, if I went, or have gone. | Mosi watakusi domo ga ik-imasita nara, if we went, or have gone. |
| Mosi anata ga ik-imasita nara, if you went, or have gone. | Mosi anatagata ga ik-imasita nara, if you went, or have gone. |
| Mosi are ga ik-imasita nara, if he went, or has gone. | Mosi arera ga ik-imasita nara, if they went, or have gone. |
Imperative Mood.
| Command | Ike, |
| Entreaty | I-tte-okure, | Go. |
| Entreaty | I-tte-kudarase, |
Infinitive Mood.
Iku koto, To go.
The same form of verbs is used for all the persons, singular or plural; so, hereafter, the verbs for the first persons only will be repeated.
Second Conjugation ending in ru—Miru, to see.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa mi-masu, I see. | 1. Watakusi domo wa mi-masu, we see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa mi-masita, I saw, or have seen. | 1. Watakusi domo wa mi-masita, we saw, or have seen. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa mi-masho, I shall see. | 1. Wakusi domo wa mi-masho, we shall see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa miru koto ga dekimasu, I can see. | 1. Watakusi domo wa miru koto ga dekimasu, we can see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa miru koto ga dekimasita, I could see. | 1. Watakusi domo wa miru koto ga dekimasita, we could see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa miru koto ga dekimasho, I shall be able to see. | 1. Watakusi domo wa miru koto ga dekimasho, we shall be able to see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Mosi watakusi ga mimasu nara, if I see. | 1. Mosi watakusi domo ga mimasu nara, if we see. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Mosi watakusi ga mimasita nara, if I saw or have seen. | 1. Mosi watakusi domo ga mimasita nara, if we saw, or have seen. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Imperative Mood.
| Command | Miyo, |
| Entreaty | Mi-te-okure, | See. |
| Entreaty | Mi-te-kudarase, |
Infinitive Mood.
Miru koto, to see.
Conjugation of Third Verb—Kuru, to come.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kimasu, I come. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kimasu, we come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kimasita, I came. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kimasita, we came. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kimasho, I shall come. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kimasho, we shall come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kuru koto ga dekimasu, I can come. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kuru koto ga dekimasu, we can come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kuru koto ga dekimasita, I could come. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kuru koto ga dekimasita, we could come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa kuru koto ga dekimasho, I shall be able to come. | 1. Watakusi domo wa kuru koto ga dekimasho, we shall be able to come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Mosi watakusi ga kimasu nara, if I come. | 1. Mosi watakusi domo ga kimasu nara, if we come. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Mosi watakusi ga kimasita nara, if I came. | 1. Mosi watakusi domo ga kimasita nara, if we came. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Imperative Mood.
| Ki-te-okure, | Come. |
| Ki-te-kudasare, | Come. |
Infinitive Mood.
Kuru koto, to come.
The Verb used Negatively.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikimasen, I do not go. | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikimasen, we do not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikimasenanda, I did not go. | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikimasenanda, we did not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikimasumai, I shall not go. | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikimasumai, we shall not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Potential Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikemasen, | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikemasen, we cannot go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikemasenanda, I could not go. | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikemasenanda, we could not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Future Tense.
| 1. Watakusi wa ikemasumai, I shall not be able to go. | 1. Watakusi domo wa ikemasumai, we shall not be able to go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
| 1 Mosi watakusi ga ikimasen nara, if I do not go. | 1. Mosi watakusi domo ga ikimasen nara, if we do not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Past Tense.
| 1. Mosi watakusi ga ikimasenanda nara, if I did not go. | 1. Mosi watakusi ga ikimasenanda nara, if we did not go. |
| 2. . . . . . | 2. . . . . . |
| 3. . . . . . | 3. . . . . . |
Imperative Mood.
| Iku-na, | Do not go. |
| I-tte-kudasaruna, | Do not go. |
Of Adverbs.
An Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, an adjective, or other adverb; as, kono kodomo wa shomotu wo yoku yomimasu, These children read books well.
Adverbs may be divided into the following six classes:—
* Adverbs of time—ima, now; hayaku, quickly; sudeni, already; konniti, to-day; miyo-niti, to-morrow; and others.
* Adverbs of place—sokoni, there; kokoni, here; tikaku, nearly, &c.
* Adverbs of quality; as, yoku, well; kireini, beautifully; kitaini, wonderfully, &c.
* Adverbs of quantity—sukosi, little; takusan, much.
* Adverbs of sequence or order—dai-ittini, firstly; dai-nini, secondly.
* Adverbs of mood—sayo, just so; hei, yes; zituni, truly; īye, no, &c.
Of Postpositions.
A List of Postpositions.
Tameni, for; wuyeni, above; atoni, after; utini, within, or in; mayeni or mayewo, before; aidani, between; sitani, below; hokani, out of, or without; tikani, near; hōni, toward. (These are used with the article no; as, iye no uchini, in the house; kuni no tameni, for the country, or for the sake of the country.)—Made, into, or to; mukatte, against; oite, in. (These are used with ni; as, London ni made, to London.)—Koyete, beyond; hanarete, off; nukete or tōsite, through. (With wo; as, mado wo nukete, through the window.)—Kara, from; ni or ye, to; made, into; to, with; nasini, without;—without any additional word; as, London kara, from London; kono tokoro ni, in this place.
Of Conjunctions.
A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together; as, Watakusi to kono ko ga Asakusa ye ikimasu, I and this child go to Asakusa.
There are two kinds of conjunctions, namely, copulative and disjunctive.
* Copulative conjunctions are—momata, also; to, and; kara, since; naraba or nara, if; dakara, therefore, &c.
* Disjunctive conjunctions are—keredomo, although; ga, but; sikasi, yet; aruiwa or matawa, or; yorimo, than, &c. ​
Of Interjections.
An Interjection expresses some sudden wish or emotion of the mind; as, Ā do itashimasho, Ah! what shall I do?
The principal interjections are—Ō, Ā, Ha-hā, Ho-i, Nasakenai, Oya-oya, Are, Naruhodo, &c.
* ↑ Here ni means ‘by’ in English
* ↑ There is another form of potential mood—iku koto ga dekimasen.