# The Journal of Indian Botany/Volume 1/January 1920/Distribution of Liverworts in the Western Himalayas

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THE
Journal of Indian Botany.
DISTRIBUTION OF LIVERWORTS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS
BY
S. R. Kashyap,
Professor of Botany, Government College, Lahore.
A few months ago the writer had an occasion to visit the eastern part of the Chandrabhaga valley, the Lingti plain beyond the Inner Himalayas, and the Beas valley, where collections of Liverworts were made. These collections along with others made in various other parts of the Western Himalayas by the writer during the last few years afford sufficient data for a survey of the general distribution of Liverworts in this region which it is proposed to discuss in this paper. A number of species from various parts of the Western Himalayas has already been published by the writer in the New Phytologist, 1913 and 1914, aud the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 1916 and 1917.
Geographical.
By "Western Himalayas" is to be understood that part of the Himalayan range which extends from the Baralacha pass on the east to the Indus in Gilgit on the west. On the Baralacha pass are the sources of the Chandrabhaga on the southern side while on the northern and eastern sides are the feeders of the Indus and the Sutlej respectively. About this place also the main Himalayan chain gives rise to a branch, the Middle Himalayas, a continuation more or less of the main axis, and running to the west parallel to the above-mentioned range towards its south. The Middle Himalayan range gives rise, near its beginning, to a high ridge, the Bara Bangahal range, running at right angles to it towards the south, which forms the watershed between the Beas on the east and the Ravi on tho west. From the Bara ​Bangahal range is given off another range towards the west running more or less parallel to the Middle range. This range is known as the Outer Himalayas. The Middle and the Outer ranges may be said to terminate where the Chandrabhaga and the Eavi respectively pierce them to debouch on the plains. Going up one of the feeders of the Chandrabhaga from Kashtwar one has to cross a range which separates the waters of the Chandrabhaga from those of the Jehlum in order to enter the valley of Kashmir.
A few more facts in connection with the geography of these ranges should be borne in mind before discussing the distribution of any group of plants. The Outer Himalayas have a mean altitude of about 15,000 ft., though some peaks rise up to 17,000 ft. Most of the hill-stations for summer for the Punjab are situated on this range at an elevation of about 6—7,000 ft., as Simla, Dalhousie, Murree, etc. The passes in this range are about 8,000 ft. high. The Middle Himalayas have a mean elevation of about 17,000 ft. though some peaks rise to 19,000 ft. The passes range from 13,000 to 17,000 ft. The inner range has a mean altitude of about 18,000 ft. though some peaks rise to more than 20,000 ft. Passes range from 17,000 to 18,000 ft. in Pangi. The lowest pass is the Zojila in Kashmir, 11,000 ft. The Baralacha in British Lahoul is 16,200 ft.
Area Visited.
The places visited by the writer are sufficiently numerous and different as regards altitude, etc., to provide reasonably reliable data for the study of distribution though naturally there is a great field for more work in this direction as the area under investigation is so large and diversified while the interior is not easily accessible and requires a certain amount of equipment to be explored.
In the Outer Himalayas the writer has visited Simla, Dalhousie, Murree and some other smaller places but the collections from some of the latter (including Murree) are not sufficiently large to draw detailed conclusions though notes as regards the relative numbers of individuals of Liverworts are available. The Beas valley (Kulu) has also been visited. The Outer Himalayas have been crossed at two places to enter the Ravi valley and at one place (Murree) to enter the Jehlum valley. The Middle Himalayas have been crossed at two places at quite a long distance from each other, the Sauch pass (14,300 ft.) leading to Pangi and the Rohtang pass (13,400 ft.) between Kulu and British Lahoul. The Ravi valley has been explored along the river from Chamba to Chhatrari. The Chandrabhaga has been followed from its source to about 200 miles. The Kashmir valley was entered from the Chandrabhaga valley by crossing the Sinthan ​pass. The Inner Himalayas have been crossed only at one place, the Baralacha pass (16,200 ft.). The country beyond that has been visited for about twenty miles up to Lingti Sumdo but the climatic conditions on that side are so uniform over large areas that nothing new would probably be found even much further inwards. The minimum elevation of this region ia 14,000 ft. In all cases the forms collected most were from the road-side along the rivers at different levels and at various levels during the crossing of the ranges though short excursions were also often made away from the main road.
General Results.
The more important general conclusions may be stated briefly as follows:—
Most of the species found in the Western Himalayas are thallose.
In the Outer Himalayas the number of species found at a given altitude decreases in proceeding from the eastern end to the west. This decrease is very much more marked if we take into consideration the number of individuals. (Vide lists of species at the end.)
As regards vertical distribution, the number increases up to a certain height in going from the plains. The number in the plains is very small. It increases up to about 7,000 ft. and begins to decrease again after that. This applies also to the number of individuals. (Vide lists of species at the end.)
On the northern side of the Outer range the same law holds good but the number of species and individuals is much smaller. Thallose forms are chiefly found only near springs. In other places they are as a rule absent.
The horizontal distribution in the Ravi valley probably follows the rule given above but the data are too few to admit of a definite statement being made. (Vide list.)
On the southern side of the Middle Himalayas the number is even smaller than on the northern side of the Outer range, and it decreases as we go up.
In the Chandrabhaga valley it can be definitely stated that the number decreases as we go down the river. The number on both sides of the river is very small, but of the two the left bank, i.e., the northern slope of the Middle range is comparatively richer. Pangi is the only part where any foliose forms have been met with. They are absent both to the east and west of it.
The initial level of this valley is very high, being above 8,000 ft. in the Chamba territory. The largest number of individuals is met with between 8,000 and 9,000 ft. in Pangi and up to 11,000 ft. in British Lahoul. The explanation of this difference no doubt lies ​in the fact that the latter part is much more open. The initial level of the valley is of course higher in Lahoul than in Pangi.
There are absolutely no Liverworts beyond the Inner range. Of the other cryptogams only one alga which looked like a spirogyra was seen. No fungus, but two or three lichens were observed. One or two species of mosses were noted near running water. Only a single fern plant was seen but unfortunately was not identified. The flowering plants of this interesting region would be dealth with at a later date. It may perhaps be mentoined by the way that red snow due to the unicellular alga Chlaydomonas nivalis was observed just below the Baralacha pass on the south side at about 16,000 ft.
The facts of vertical distribution on the southern slopes of the Outer Himalayas can readily be explained by the increase in the rain-fall with the increase in height up to a certain limit after which the very low temperature acts as an adverse factor.
One interesting result as regards vertical distribution is that both the highest and the lowest genera of the Marchantiales are met with at the highest and the lowest levels. The lowest genus Riccia is represented by R. robusta at Lahore (700 ft.) and at Lahoul (11,000 ft.). Of the highest genus Marcharitia, M. nepalensis and M. palmata are very common in the plains and the outer Himalayas up to about 7,000 ft., while M. polymorpha goes up to about 11,000 ft. in the Chandrabhaga valley. Another genus, Grimaldia, about midway between the lowest and the highest genera is also widely distributed in this region. The only Indian species, G. indica, is very common from the foot of the Himalayas to about 11,000 ft.
The horizontal distribution is not so easy to explain. That the rainfall is not an essential factor is shown by the fact that it does not differ very much in the different places where collections have been made. Probably temperature connected with a higher latitude has something to do with it. The problem requires more study.
In the Ravi valley the rainfall is not a very important factor as it is not very high and isaccompanied by a comparatively low temperature, and Liverworts are thus generally met with only near permanently moist places. A few occur otherwise.
In the Beas valley (Kulu) although the rainfall is not very high but the broad valley is surrounded by hills on all sides and at higher levels there is a luxuriant Liverwort flora which compares very well as regards the number of species and individuals with localities further to the east.
In the Chandrabhaga valley rainfall does not count as a factor at all in the distribution of Liverworts. It is very small and therefore ​has no effect. The only place for which rainfall data are available is Kyelang in British Lahoul. It js about six inches during the whole season (June to September) and including the melted snowfall it is not more than twenty-three inches in the whole year. During the greater part of the year it is very cold.
Beyond the Inner Himalayas the dry and cold atmosphere does not allow any Liverwort to grow. The rainfall is extremely small and the temperature very low. Strong winds are usually blowing. The country is a desolate barren desert.
Floristic Details.
Below are given the lists of species found at the different places visited. Of course some more species are certain to be found at every one of these places when a more intensive study is undertaken and more time is devoted to each place, but it may safely be stated that this number would in no case be very large and since this statement affects all the places equally the relative abundance of the Liverwort flora of any locality is not affected. It may also be stated that all these places were visited some time between the end of June and the end of September though several were visited at other times of the year also. The best time for Liverworts in the Himalayas is between July and September. In the plains the best time is late winter and spring.
Mussoorie. (6-7,000 ft.)
Mean Max. temp.—Mean min. temp.—Long. 30° 27' N. Lat. 78° 5' E. Average annual rainfall 96". (Though this hill-station is not situated in the Western Himalayas strictly speaking, but the list would be useful for purposes of comparison of the West and East Himalayan floras.)
1. Riccia himalayensis Sb. 2. Targionia hypophyllah 3. Gyathodium tuberosum Kash. 4. Aitchisoniella himalayensis Kash. 5. Athalamia pinguis Falc. 6. Gollaniella pusilla St. 7. Plagiochasma appendiculatum L. et L. 8. P. articulatum Kash. 9. Reboulia hemispherica (L.) Raddi. 10. Fimbriaria Blumeana Nees. 11. F. angusta St. 12. P. mussuriensis Kash. 13. Grimaldia indica St. 14. Stephensoniella brevipedunculata Kash. 15. Exormotheca tuberifera Kash. 16. Cryptomitrium himalayense Kash. 17. Dumortiera velutina Schffn. 18. D. hirsuta (Sw.) R. Bl. nees. (?) 19. Marchantia nepalensis L. et L. 20. M. palmata Nees. 21. Aneura indica St. 22. Metzgeria pubescens (Schrank) Raddi. 23. Metzgeria himalayensis Kash. (Both species at about 5,000 ft.) 24. Pellia calycina (Tayl.) Nees. 25. Fossombronia himalayensis Kash. ​26. Sewardiella tuberifera Kash. 27. Anthoceros himalayensis Kash. 28. Anthoceros erectus Kash. 29. Notoihylas Levieri Schffr. 30. Madotheca macroloba St. 31. M. Gollani St. 32. M. appendiculata St. 33. M. sp. 34. Lopholea minor Nees. 35. Chiloscyphus himalayensis St. 36. Frullania himalayensis St. 37. F. retusa Mitt. 38. Plagiochila sp. 39. Solenostema purpurata Mitt.? 40-42. Lejeuneas.
In this locality Liverworts occur in great abundance. Cliffs are covered with huge patches of thallose forms and in suitable places trunks of trees and rocks have dense masses of foliose forms on them.
Kulu, Dulchi pass. (6,000-7,000 ft.).
Long, 31° 50' N. to 32° 26' N. Lat. 76° 56' E. to 77° 33' E. Aver, annual rainfall, 47.9 in. Mean Max. temp.—Mean Min. temp. (Long, and Lat. are of Kulu Tahsil, the other data apply to Nagar.)
The following species were collected. The references are to the list given under Mussoorie:—
Nos. 1 to 16, 19, 24, 25, 27, and in addition Plagiochasma simlensis Kash. and 2 or 3 foliose forms. More would certainly be found if a careful search is made for them. Practically all of these were collected along the road-side within a space of a few yards. Riccia pathanhotensis Kash. and Fegatella conica were collected at a lower level in the same valley. Many of the above species occurs at other levels also in Kulu.
In numbers the flora is almost as abundant as Mussoorie.
(Simla. 6,000-7,000 ft.)
Long. 31° 6' Lat. 77° 10' E. Aver, annual rainfall. 63 in Mean Max. temp. 61.9° Mean Min. temp. 51.3°
Nos. 1 to 11, 13 to 17, 19 to 21, 24 to 29, and in addition Riccia pathanhkotensis, Plagiochasma simlensis and Fegatella conica.
The number of individuals is quite large, nearly as abundant as at Mussoorie.
Dalhousie. 6,000—7,000 ft. (7,687 ft.)
Long. 33° 32' N. Lat. 75° 58' E. Aver, annual rain. 86.35". Mean Max. temp. — Mean Min. temp.
Nos. 3, 7 to 9, 13, 21, 24, Lophocolea (2 species), Chiloscyphus sp., Frullania retusa, Some more species would no doubt be found but the flora is undoubtedly very poor both in numbers of species and individuals, very much poorer than in the first three localities.
Murree. 6,000—7,000 ft. (7,517 ft.)
Long. 33° 55' N. Lat. 73° 23'E. Aver, annual rain. 59". Mean Max. temp. 65.9°. Mean Min. temp. 52.9°.
Full list not available, but flora certainly poor. Very much like Dalhousie, perhaps poorer. ​ Of the next two localities the first, Pathankote, is at the foot of the Outer Himalayas, and the second, Lahore, is in the plains. The poverty of the species is noteworthy,
Pathankote.
Long. 32° 16 N. Lat. 75° 40' E. Aver, annual rain. 47" Mean. Mas. temp.—Mean Min temp.—Riccia pathankotensis, Grimaldia indica and Fimbriaria pathankotensis are the only common species, the first two much more so than the third. The first is quite abundant along the river flowing near by.
Lahore. (700 ft.)
Long. 31° 35' N. Lat. 74" 20' E. Aver, annual rain. 19.58". Mean Max. temp. 90.9°. Mean Min. temp. 64.2.
The only Liverworts that are found throughout the year here and there in favourable places are Riccia sanguinca Kash., Marchantia nepalensis and M. palmata. In winter Riccia robusta Kash., B. cruciata Kash. and B. pathankotensis are also seen, the first in pretty large numbers. Ricccia indica St. appears in some years in a water-channel about March. Very rarely Plagiochasma appendiculatum, P. articulatum, Grimaldia inclica and Anthoceros himalayensis are met with along the river bank. This list is the result of very thorough observations extending over a number of years and can hardly be improved. All the species except the first three and perhaps the fourth also are undoubtedly brought down from other places by the canal water.
The Ravi valley, (about 3,000 ft.)
The following species have been found. The localities, where recorded, are also noted:—
(Ghamba, the main town, is situated at an elevation of 3,027 ft. Long. 32° 29' N. Lat. 76° 11' E. Aver, annual rain. 47.60". Mean Max. temp. 77.7°. Mean Min. temp. 56.5°
    Targionia hypophylla.
    Athala Mia pinguis.
    Grimaldia indica.
    Plagiochasma appendiculatiim.
    P. articulatum,
    Beboulia hemispherica.
    Sauchia spongiosa. Chamba-Pangi road, about 10,000 ft.
    Fegatella conica. Common in moist places on northern slopes ;
also Chamba-Pangi road.
    Wicsnerella denudata. Above Khajiar.
    Dumorticra vclutina. Common in moist places. ​
Marchantia ncpalansis.
M. palmata.
Aneura Levieri. Chainba-Chuari road.
P cilia calycina. Common in moist places.
Met zg aria pubascans. Chamba-Pangi road, about 10,000 ft.
Calycularia crispatula. Dalhousie-Khajiar road.
Fossombronia himalayansis. Chamba-Pangi road.
Anthoccros sp. Along the Ravi above Chamba.
Madoiheca sp. Pangi road.
Badula sp. Dalhousie-Khajiar road ; Chamba-Pangi road.
Galypogcia sp.
Chiloscyphus gollani St. Pangi road.
C. argutus, Nces.
Nardia sp. Pangi road.
Plagiochila sp.
Arachniopsis sp. Pangie road, about 11,000 ft.
Lcjaunia sp. Pangi road.
Frullania sp.
The number of individuals is very small and specimens are found only at long intervals. Pallia, Damortiara, and Pcgatalla are pretty common in or near running water. Wiasiiarclla has beeQ found in one or two places.
Chandrabhaga valley. (8,000—13,000 ft.)
Biccia himalayansis. Near Salgraon, Chamba-Lahoul.
B. sp. Along with the above.
B. robusta. Above Kyelang, about 11,000 ft. Very curious distribution as it occurs in Lahore also at 700 ft.
Grimaldia indica. Above Kyelang, about J 1,000 ft. Also occurs at Lahore, etc.
Athalamia dioica. Near Saor, Pangi.
Mindal Pangicnsis. Along with the above.
Bcboulia hemisphar ica. Above Kyelang, about 11,000 ft. Very common in the Himalayas.
Fagatalla conica. Near Kilar bridge, Pangi, and elsewhere.
Prcissia commutata. Along with the above, and elsewhere.
Dumortiera ■valutina. At the above place and common elsewhere, also in moist places.
Marchantia polymorpha. Common in moist places.
Pallia calycina. Common in moist places.
Pallia epiphylla ? Near Shaichu, Pangi.
Aneura Levieri. Near Shaichu, Pangi.
Anthoccros sp. Near Sissoo, British Lahoul, about 10,000 ft. ​ Madotheca ovalis Gottsch. Near Kilar bridge, Pangi.
M. sp. Along with the above.
Badula sp. Along with the above.
Arachniopsis sp. Below Gurdhar pass, about 13,000 ft.
Lophozia sp. Along with the above.
The number of individuals is very small and specimens are met with only at long intervals. Going down the Chandrabhaga to Padar and Kashtwar the Liverwort flora becomes decidedly poorer and hardly any specimens are seen for miles. Going up the Chenab no Liver- worts are met with above Jispa, about 11,000 ft.
As stated before no Liverworts occur boyond the Baralacha pass in the country visited. It is probable that none occur in the whole of Ladak.
No. of species in the different localities — Mussoorio Kulu Simla Dalhousie Ravi Valley Chenab Valley Lingti Plain 42 24 28 11 28 20
Southern slopes of the Outer
Between
Between
Beyond
Himalayas.
Outer and
Middle and
Inner Hima-
Middle Hima-
Inner Hima-
layas,
layas
layas.
Rererences to Literature
For many geographical and climatic data the writer is indebced to the Gazetteers of Chamba, Kulu and Mandi, and the Gazetteer of India. Some of the figures about temperature and rainfall were obtained from the Meteorological Observatory, Lihore. The area of which the writer has first-hand knowledge has been indicated in the paper. All the species mentioned have been collected by the wiiter himself. Descriptions of these will be found in Stephani's Species hepaticarWn and the following papers by the writer : —
1. Morphological and biological notes on new and little-known went Himalayan Liverworts I, II and III. New Phytologist, 1913 and 1914.
2. Liverworts of the Western Himalayas and the Punjab. I and II. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 191G and 1917.
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