OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peregrinus Proteus

See also Peregrinus Proteus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PEREGRINUS PROTEUS (2nd cent. A D), Cynic philosopher, of Parium in Mysia. At an early age he was suspected of parricide, and was obliged to leave his native place. During his wanderings he reached Palestine, where he ingratiated himself with the Christian community, and became its virtual head. His fanatical zeal and craving for notoriety led to his imprisonment, but the governor of Syria let him go free, to prevent his posing as a martyr. He then returned to Parium to claim his paternal inheritance, but finding that the circumstances of his father's death were not yet forgotten, he publicly surrendered all claims to the property in favour of the municipality. He resumed his wandering life, at first assisted by the Christians, but having been detected profaning the rites of the Church, he was excommunicated During a visit to Egypt he made the acquaintance of the famous Cynic Agathobulus and joined the sect. Meeting with little encouragement, he made his way to Rome, whence he was expelled for insulting the emperor Antoninus Pius. Crossing to Greece, he finally took up his abode at Athens Here he devoted himself to the study and teaching of philosophy, and obtained a considerable number of pupils, amongst them Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in very favourable terms But, having given offence by his attacks on Herodes Atticus and finding his popularity diminishing, he determined to create a sensation He announced his intention of immolating himself on a funeral pyre at the celebration of the Olympian games in 165, and actually carried it out. Lucian, who was present, has given a full description of the event.
C. M. Wieland's Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus Proteus (Eng. trans., 1796) is an attempt to rehabilitate his character. See also Lucian, De morte Peregrini; Aulus Gellius xii. 11; Ammianus Marcellinus xxix.; Philostratus, Vit. Soph. ii. 1, 33; J. Bernays, Lucian und die Kyniker (1875); E. Zeller, “Alexander und Peregrinus," in his Vortrage und Abhandlungen, ii. (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Percy, Thomas (bishop)

See also Thomas Percy (bishop of Dromore) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PERCY, THOMAS (1729–1811), bishop of Dromore, editor of the Percy Reliques, was born at Bridgnorth on the 13th of April 1729. His father, Arthur Lowe Percy, a grocer, was of sufficient means to send his son to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1746. He graduated in 1750 and proceeded M.A. in 1753. In the latter year he was appointed to the vicarage of Easton Maudit, Northamptonshire, and three years later was instituted to the rectory of Wilby in the same county, benefices which he retained until 1782. In 1759 he married Anne, daughter of Barton Gutterridge. At Easton Maudit most of the literary work for which he is now remembered—including the Reliques—was completed. When his name became famous he was made domestic chaplain to the duke and duchess of Northumberland, and was tempted into the belief that he belonged to the illustrious house of Percy. Through his patron's influence he became dean of Carlisle in 1778 and bishop of Dromore in Ireland in 1782. His wife died before him in 1806, the good bishop, blind but otherwise in ​sound health, lived until the 30th of September 1811. Both were buried in the transept which Percy added to Dromore Cathedral.
Dr Percy’s first work was a translation from a Portuguese manuscript of a Chinese story, published in 1761. Two years later he published Five Pieces of Runic Poetry, translated from the Islandic. In 1763 he edited the earl of Surrey’s poems with, an essay on early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon, and published a key to the New Testament. His Northern Antiquities (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri Mallet His reprint of The Household Book of the Earl of Northumberland in 1512 is of the greatest value for the illustrations of domestic life in England at that period. But these works are of little estimation when compared with the Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). This was based on an old manuscript collection of poetry, rescued by Percy in Humphrey Pitt’s house at Shifnal, Shropshire, from the hands of the housemaid who was about to light the fire with it. The manuscript was edited in its complete form by J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall in 1867–1868.
See A. C. C. Gaussen, Percy Prelate and Poet (1908). The Reliques has been edited by various hands, notably by H. B. Wheatley (1876) The fourth edition was by Percy’s nephew, Thomas Percy (1768–1808), himself a writer of verse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rutile

See also Rutile on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTILE, the most abundant of the three native forms of titanium dioxide (TiO$_2$); the other forms being anatase (q.v.) and brookite (q.v.). Like anatase, it crystallizes in the tetragonal system, but with different angles and cleavages, it being crystallographically related to cassiterite, with which -it is isomorphous. The crystals resemble cassiterite in their prismatic habit and terminal pyramid planes (fig. 1) and also in the twinning: the prism planes are striated vertically, Geniculated twins, with e (101) as twin-plane, are of frequent occurrence, and the twinning is usually several times repeated, giving rise to triplets (fig. 2), sextets and octets.
| Fig. 1. | Fig. 2. |
| Fig. 1. | Fig. 2. |
Twin-lamellae are often present in the crystals. Acicular crystals are sometimes twinned together to form reticulated skeletal plates to which the name "sagenite," from Gr. σαγήνη (a net), is applied. A rarer type of twinning, on the plane (301), gives rise to heart-shaped or kite-shaped forms. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces of the prisms m (110). and a (100). The colour is usually reddish-brown, though yellowish in the very fine needles, and black in the ferruginous varieties (“nigrine” and “ilmenorutile”): the streak is pale brown. The name rutile, given by A. G. Werner in 1803, refers to the colour, being from the Latin rutilus (red). Crystals are transparent to opaque, and have a brilliant metallic-adamantine lustre. The hardness is 61/2 and the specific gravity 4·2, ranging, however, up to 5·2 in varieties containing 10% of ferric oxide. The refractive indices and the positive birefringence are high.
Rutile occurs as a primary constituent in eruptive rocks, but more frequently in schistose rocks. As delicate acicular crystals it is often enclosed in mica and quartz: in mica (q.v.) it gives rise to the phenomenon of asterism; and clear transparent quartz (rock-crystal) enclosing rutile is often cut las a gem under the name of “Venus’ hair stone” (Veneris crinis of Pliny). Larger crystals occur in the cavities of granite and crystalline schists; very large twinned crystals have been found at Graves Mountain in Lincoln county, Georgia, and good specimens have been obtained from several places in Norway, and the Swiss and Tirolese Alps. As a secondary mineral, rutile in the form of minute needles is of wide distribution in various sedimentary rocks, especially clays and slares. As rounded grains it is often met with in auriferous sands and gravels. The mineral has little economic value: it has been used for imparting a yellow colour to glass and porcelain, and for this purpose is mined at Risor and other places in Norway. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ruthin

See also Ruthin on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTHIN (Rhudd ddin, "red fortress"), a municipal and contributory parliamentary borough (with Denbigh and Holt) and market town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, situated on a hill rising from the river Clwyd, 21 m. from Chester, and 215 from London by rail. Pop. (1901) 2643. It is on the Great Western railway (Denbigh, Corwen & Ruthin branch). Apart from the legends of Arthur and his limestone block (shown in the market-place), the first event of note in its history is its connexion with the de Grey de Ruthyn family (the first lord died 1353). Owen Glendower attacked it unsuccessfully in 1400. It was sold by the de Greys to Henry VII., and Elizabeth gave it to the earl of Warwick. In 1646, after two months' siege, it was dismantled by the Parliamentarians. The new castle occupies the same site, and is built of the same coloured sandstone as the old. New buildings for the Free Grammar School (founded in 1595 by Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster, who also in 1590 had built the hospital for twelve decayed housekeepers), were opened in the town in 1893. The old (conventual) Anglican church of St Peter, once belonging to “Les Bonshommes,” and made collegiate in 1310 by John de Grey, has a Perpendicular north aisle roof, nearly 500 panels of carved oak, and cloisters which have been made into a house for the warden of the hospital. Agriculture is the staple, but there are chemical, aerated waters, bricks, terra-cotta and other manufactures.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rutherford, Mark

See also Hale White on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTHERFORD, MARK, the pen-name of William Hale White, English author, who was born at Bedford about 1830. His father, William White, a member of the nonconformist community of the Bunyan Meeting, removed to London, where he was well known as a doorkeeper of the House of Commons; he wrote sketches of parliamentary life for the Illustrated Times, papers afterwards collected by his son as The Inner Life of the House of Commons (1897). The son was educated for the Congregational ministry, but the development of his views prevented his taking up that career, and he became a clerk in the admiralty. He had already served an apprenticeship to journalism before he made his name as a novelist by the three books “edited by Reuben Shapcott,” The Autobiography of Mark Rutherford (1881), Mark Rutherford's Deliverance (1885), and The Revolution in Tanner's Lane (1887). Under his own name he translated Spinoza's Ethic (1883). Later books are Miriam's Schooling, and other Papers (1890), Catherine Furze (2 vols., 1893), Clara Hopgood (1896), Pages from a Journal, with other Papers (1900), and John Bunyan (1905). Though for a long time little appreciated by the public, his novels—particularly the earlier ones—have a power and style which must always give his works a place of their own in the literary history of their time.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rutherglen

See also Rutherglen on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTHERGLEN (locally pronounced Rŭglen), a royal municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of royal burgh (1901) 18,279. It is situated on the left bank of the Clyde, 21/2 m. by the Caledonian railway S.E. of Glasgow, with the E. of which it is connected by a bridge. The parish church stands near the spire of the ancient church where, according to tradition, the treaty was made in 1297 with Edward I., by which Sir John Menteith undertook to betray Wallace to the English. The principal public building is the town hall, dating from 1861. The industries include collieries, chemical works, dye-works, cotton- and paper-mills, chair-making, tube-making, pottery, rope- and twine-works and some shipbuilding. It forms one of the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs, with Dumbarton, Port-Glasgow, Renfrew and Kilmarnock.
Rutherglen was erected into a royal burgh by David I. in 1126. It then included a portion of Glasgow, but in 1226 the boundaries were rectified so as to exclude the whole of the city. In early times it had a castle, which was taken by Robert Bruce from the English in 1313. It was kept in good repair till after the battle of Langside (1568), when it was burnt by order of the regent Moray. In 1679 the Covenanters published their “Declaration and Testimony” at Rutherglen prior to the battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Brig (1679).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rutherford, William Gunion

See also William Gunion Rutherford on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTHERFORD, WILLIAM GUNION (1853–1907), English scholar, was born in Peeblesshire on the 17th of July 1853. He was educated at St Andrews and Oxford, where he graduated in natural science, with a view to following the medical profession, which he abandoned in favour of a scholastic career. From 1883 to 1901 he was headmaster of Westminster school; and his death, on the 19th of July 1907, deprived classical scholarship in England of one of its most brilliant modern representatives. Rutherford devoted special attention to Attic idioms and the language of Aristophanes. His most important work, the New Phrynichus (1882), dealing with the Atticisms of the grammarian, was supplemented by his Babrius (1883), a specimen of the later Greek, which was the chief subject of C. A. Lobeck's earlier commentary (1820) on Phrynichus. His edition (1896–1905), of the Aristophanic scholia from the Ravenna MS. was less successful. Mention may also be made of his Elementary Greek Accidence and Lex Rex, a list of cognate words in Greek, Latin and English.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rutilius Rufus, Publius

See also Publius Rutilius Rufus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RUTILIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS, Roman statesman, orator and historian, born c. 158 B.C. He was on intimate terms with the younger Scipio, under whom he served in the Numantine War (134), and he also accompanied Q. Metellus Numidicus in the campaign against Jugurtha (109). In 105 he was elected to the consulship, and restored the discipline of the army and introduced an improved system of drill. Subsequently, he went as legate to Q. Mucius Scaevola, governor of Asia. By assisting his superior in his efforts to protect the provincials from the extortions of the publicani, or farmers of taxes, Rufus incurred the hatred of the equestrian order, to which the publicani belonged. In 92 he was charged with the very offence of extortion which he had done his utmost to prevent. The charge was absurd, but as the juries at that time were chosen from the equites, his condemnation was only to be expected. Rufus accepted the verdict with the resignation befitting a Stoic and pupil of Panaetius. He retired to Mytilene, and afterwards to Smyrna, where he spent the rest of his life, and where Cicero saw him as late as the year 78. Although invited by Sulla to return to Rome, Rufus refused to do so. It was doubtless during his stay at Smyrna that he wrote his autobiography and a history of Rome in Greek, part of which is known to have been devoted to the Numantine War. He possessed a thorough knowledge of law, and wrote treatises on that subject, some fragments of which are quoted in the Digests. He was also well acquainted with Greek literature.
See Cicero, Pro Fonteio, 17, Brutus, 22, 30; Livy, epit. 70; Macrobius, Sat. 1. xvi. 34; Appian, Hisp. 88; Athenaeus iv. p. 168; W. H. Suringar, De Romanis Autobiographis (Leiden, 1846); H. Peter, Hist. Rom. Reliquiae, 1. cclxi.–cclxviii. (life), frags. p. 187; A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist. of Rome, i. p. 484.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mattoon

See also Mattoon, Illinois on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MATTOON, a city of Coles county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the east central part of the state, about 12 m. south-east of Peoria. Pop. (1890), 6833; (1900), 9622, of whom 430 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,456. It is served by the Illinois Central and Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, which have repair shops here, and by inter-urban electric lines. The ​city has a public library, a Methodist Episcopal Hospital, and an Old Folks’ Home, the last supported by the Independent Order of Odd Fellows. Mattoon is an important shipping point for Indian corn and broom corn, extensively grown in the vicinity, and for fruit and livestock. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine shop products, stoves and bricks; in 1905 the factory product was valued at $1,308,781, an increase of 71.2% over that in 1900. The municipality owns the waterworks and an electric lighting plant. Mattoon was first settled about 1855, was named in honour of William Mattoon, an early landowner, was first chartered as a city in 1857, and was reorganized under a general state law in 1879.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maturin, Charles Robert

See also Charles Maturin on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MATURIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1782–1824), Irish novelist and dramatist, was born in Dublin in 1782. His grandfather, Gabriel Jasper Maturin, had been Swift’s successor in the deanery of St Patrick. Charles Maturin was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and became curate of Loughrea and then of St Peter’s, Dublin. His first novels, The Fatal Revenge; or, the Family of Montorio (1807), The Wild Irish Boy (1808), The Milesian Chief (1812), were issued under the pseudonym of “Dennis Jasper Murphy.” All these were mercilessly ridiculed, but the irregular power displayed in them attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott, who recommended the author to Byron. Through their influence Maturin’s tragedy of Bertram was produced at Drury Lane in 1816, with Kean and Miss Kelly in the leading parts. A French version by Charles Nodier and Baron Taylor was produced in Paris at the Théâtre Favart. Two more tragedies, Manuel (1817) and Fredolfo (1819), were failures, and his poem The Universe (1821) fell flat. He wrote three more novels, Women (1818), Melmoth, the Wanderer (1820), and The Albigenses (1824). Melmoth, which forms its author’s title to remembrance, is the best of them, and has for hero a kind of “Wandering Jew.” Honoré de Balzac wrote a sequel to it under the title of Melmoth réconcilié à l’église (1835). Maturin died in Dublin on the 30th of October 1824.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Matthisson, Friedrich von

See also Friedrich von Matthisson on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MATTHISSON, FRIEDRICH VON (1761–1831), German poet, was born at Hohendodeleben near Magdeburg, the son of the village pastor, on the 23rd of January 1761. After studying theology and philology at the university of Halle, he was appointed in 1781 master at the classical school Philanthropin in Dessau. This once famous seminary was, however, then rapidly decaying in public favour, and in 1784 Matthisson was glad to accept a travelling tutorship. He lived for two years with the Swiss author Bonstetten at Nyon on the lake of Geneva. ​In 1794 he was appointed reader and travelling companion to the princess Louisa of Anhalt-Dessau. In 1812 he entered the service of the king of Württemberg, was ennobled, created counsellor of legation, appointed intendant of the court theatre and chief librarian of the royal library at Stuttgart. In 1828 he retired and settled at Wörlitz near Dessau, where he died on the 12th of March 1831. Matthisson enjoyed for a time a great popularity on account of his poems, Gedichte (1787; 15th ed., 1851; new ed., 1876), which Schiller extravagantly praised for their melancholy sweetness and their fine descriptions of scenery. The verse is melodious and the language musical, but the thought and sentiments they express are too often artificial and insincere. His Adelaide has been rendered famous owing to Beethoven’s setting of the song. Of his elegies, Die Elegie in den Ruinen eines alten Bergschlosses is still a favourite. His reminiscences, Erinnerungen (5 vols., 1810–1816), contain interesting accounts of his travels.
Matthisson’s Schriften appeared in eight volumes (1825–1829), of which the first contains his poems, the remainder his Erinnerungen; a ninth volume was added in 1833 containing his biography by H. Döring. His Literarischer Nachlass, with a selection from his correspondence, was published in four volumes by F. R. Schoch in 1832.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mattress

See also Mattress on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MATTRESS (O.Fr. materas, mod. matelas; the origin is the Arab. al-materah, cushion, whence Span. and Port. almadraque, Ital. materasso), the padded foundation of a bed, formed of canvas or other stout material stuffed with wool, hair, flock or straw; in the last case it is properly known as a “palliasse” (Fr. paille, straw; Lat. palea); but this term is often applied to an under-mattress stuffed with substances other than straw. The padded mattress on which lay the feather-bed has been replaced by the “wire-mattress,” a network of wire stretched on a light wooden or iron frame, which is either a separate structure or a component part of the bedstead itself. The “wire-mattress” has taken the place of the “spring mattress,” in which spiral springs support the stuffing. The term “mattress” is used in engineering for a mat of brushwood, faggots, &c., corded together and used as a foundation or as surface in the construction of dams, jetties, dikes, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Matthias (disciple)

See also Saint Matthias on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​MATTHIAS, the disciple elected by the primitive Christian community to fill the place in the Twelve vacated by Judas Iscariot (Acts i. 21–26). Nothing further is recorded of him in the New Testament. Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., I. xii.) says he was, like his competitor, Barsabas Justus, one of the seventy, and the Syriac version of Eusebius calls him throughout not Matthias but Tolmai, i.e. Bartholomew, without confusing him with the Bartholomew who was originally one of the Twelve, and is often identified with the Nathanael mentioned in the Fourth Gospel (Expository Times, ix. 566). Clement of Alexandria says some identified him with Zacchaeus, the Clementine Recognitions identify him with Barnabas, Hilgenfeld thinks he is the same as Nathanael.
Various works—a Gospel, Traditions and Apocryphal Words—were ascribed to him; and there is also extant The Acts of Andrew and Matthias, which places his activity in “the city of the cannibals” in Ethiopia. Clement of Alexandria quotes two sayings from the Traditions: (1) Wonder at the things before you (suggesting, like Plato, that wonder is the first step to new knowledge); (2) If an elect man’s neighbour sin, the elect man has sinned.