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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manasses, Constantine

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​MANASSES, CONSTANTINE, Byzantine chronicler, flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I. (Comnenus) (1143–1180). He was the author of a Chronicle or historical synopsis of events from the creation of the world to the end of the reign of Nicephorus Botaniates (1081), written by direction of Irene, the emperor’s sister-in-law. It consists of about 7000 lines in the so-called “political” metre. There is little to be said of it, except that it is rather more poetical than the iambic chronicle of Ephraim (about 150 years later). It obtained great popularity and appeared in a free prose translation; it was also translated into Slavonic. The poetical romance of the Loves of Aristander and Callithea, also in “political” verse, is only known from the fragments preserved in the Ῥοδωνία (rose-garden) of Macarius Chrysocephalus (14th century). Manasses also wrote a short biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces (all except one unpublished) on artistic and other subjects.
Editions.—Chronicle in Bonn, Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., 1st ed. Bekker (1837) and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxxvii.; Aristander and Callithea in R. Hercher’s Scriptores erotici graeci, ii. (1859); “Life of Oppian” in A. Westermann, Vitarum scriptores graeci minores (1845). A long didactic poem in “political” verse (edited by E. Miller in Annuaire de l’assoc. pour l’encouragement des études grecques en France, ix. 1875) is attributed to Manasses or one of his imitators. See also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manbhum

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​MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Purulia. Area, 4147 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,301,364, showing an increase of 9.1% since 1891. Manbhum district forms the first step of a gradual descent from the table-land of Chota Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern and eastern portions the country is open, and consists of a series of rolling downs dotted here and there with isolated conical hills. In the western and southern tracts the country is more broken and the scenery much more picturesque. The principal hills are Dalma (3407 ft.), the crowning peak of a range of the same name; Gangabari or Gajboro (2220 ft.), the highest peak of the Baghmundi range, about 20 m. south-west of Purulia; and Panchkot or Panchet (1600 ft.), on which stands the old fort of the rajas of Panchet. The hills are covered with dense jungle. The chief river is the Kasai, which flows through the district from north-west to south-east into Midnapore, and on which a considerable floating trade in sal timber is carried on. The most numerous aboriginal tribe are the Sontals; but the Bhumij Kols are the characteristic race. In Manbhum they inhabit the country lying on both sides of the Subanrekha. They are pure Mundas, but their compatriots to the east have dropped the title of Munda and the use of their distinctive language, have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming Hindus in religion. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals were once the terror of the surrounding districts; they are now more peaceful.
Three principal crops of rice are grown, one sown broadcast early in May on table-lands and the tops of ridges, an autumn crop, and a winter crop, the last forming the chief harvest of the district. Other crops are wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulses, oilseeds, linseeds, jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, pan and tobacco. Owing to the completeness of the natural drainage, floods are unknown, but the country is liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. The principal articles of export are oilseeds, pulses, ghi, lac, indigo, tussur silk (manufactured near Raghunathpur), timber, resin, coal, and (in good seasons) rice. The chief imports are salt, piece goods, brass utensils and unwrought iron. Cotton hand-loom weaving is carried on all over the district. Manbhum contains the Jherria coalfield, in the Damodar valley, where a large number of mines have been opened since 1894. The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission at Pakheria, with a printing press that issues a monthly journal in Sonthali; and a German Lutheran mission has been established since 1864. The district is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, while two branches of the East Indian railway serve the coalfield.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manasseh (tribe)

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​MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for “he who causes to forget,” but see H. W. Hogg, Encyc. Bib., s.v.); in the Bible, a tribe of Israel, the elder but less important of the “sons” of Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of Ephraim, but its boundaries can scarcely be defined. It merged itself with its “brother” in the south, and with Issachar, Zebulun and other tribes in the north (Josh. xvii. 7 sqq.). From the latter it was separated for a time by a line of Canaanite cities extending from Dor to Bethshean, which apparently were not all subdued till the days of David or Solomon (Judg. i. 27; 1 Sam. xxxi. 10; 1 Kings ix. 15). Besides its western settlement in the fertile glades of northern Samaria, running out into the great plain, there were territories east of the Jordan reckoned to Manasseh. Gilead and Bashan were said to have been taken by Machir, and a number of places of uncertain identification were occupied by Nobah and Jair (Num. xxxii. 41; Judg. x. 3–5). It seems most natural to suppose that these districts were held before the Israelites crossed over to the west (cf. the tradition Num. xxi., Deut. iii.). On the other hand, in Judg. v. 14, Machir may conceivably belong to the west, and it is possible that, according to another tradition, these movements were the result of the complaint of the Joseph tribes that their original territory was too restricted. In the genealogical lists, Machir, perhaps originally an independent branch, is the eldest son of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 1 b, 2); but according to later schemes he is Manasseh’s only son (Num. xxvi. 28–34). Intermixture with Arameans is indicated in the view that he was the son of Manasseh and an Aramean concubine (1 Chron. vii. 14), and this is supported by the statement that the Arameans of Geshur and Maacah (cf. 2 Sam. x. 6; Gen. xxii. 24) dwelt among the Israelites of eastern Jordan (Josh. xiii. 13). Subsequently, at an unknown period of history, sixty cities were lost (1 Chron. ii. 23). The story of the daughters of the Manassite Zelophehad is of interest for the Hebrew law of inheritance (Num. xxvii. 1–11, xxxvi.).
Some details of the history of this twofold branch of the Israelites are contained in the stories of Gideon (W. Manasseh) and Jephthah (E. Manasseh). The relations between Saul and Jabesh-Gilead point to the close bond uniting the two districts, but the details have been variously interpreted: Winckler, for example, suggesting that Saul himself was originally from E. Manasseh and that he followed in the steps of Jephthah (Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test., pp. 216 seq. 227). Generally speaking, its position in the west made it share the fortunes of Ephraim, whilst on the east the proximity of Ammonites and Moabites controlled its history; see also the articles on its southern neighbours, Gad and Reuben, and the articles Genealogy (Biblical); and Jews: History.  (S. A. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mancha, La

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​MANCHA, LA (Arabic, Al Mansha, “the dry land” or “wilderness”), a name which when employed in its widest sense denotes the bare and monotonous elevated plateau of central Spain that stretches between the mountains of Toledo and the western spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on the S. by the Sierra Morena and on the N. by the Alcarria region. It thus comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete and Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the 16th century the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de Montearagon or de Aragon, and the western simply as La Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and south-western sections respectively were distinguished by the epithets Alta and Baja (upper and lower). La Mancha is famous as the scene of Cervantes’ novel Don Quixote; in appearance, with its multitude of windmills and vast tracts of arid land, it remains almost exactly as Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso and Argamasilla de Alba, both near Alcázar de San Juan, are connected by tradition with episodes in Don Quixote.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Revels, Master of the

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​REVELS, MASTER OF THE.—The history of the Revels office has an interesting place in that of the English stage (see also Drama, and Theatre). Among the expenses of the royal Wardrobe we find provision made for tunicae and viseres in 1347 for the Christmas ludi of Edward III.; during the reign of Henry VII. payments are also recorded for various forms of court revels; and it became regular, apparently, to appoint a special functionary, called Master of the Revels, to superintend the royal festivities, quite distinct from the Lord of Misrule (q.v.). In Henry VII.’s time he seems to have been a minor official of the household. In Henry VIII.’s time, however, the post became more important, and an officer of the Wardrobe was permanently employed to act under the Master of the Revels. With the patent given to John Farlyon in 1534 as Yeoman of the Revels, what may be considered as an independent office of the Revels (within the general sphere of the lord chamberlain) came into being; and in 1544 Sir Thomas Cawarden received a patent as Master of the Revels, he being the first to become head of an independent office, Magister Jocorum, Revelorum et Mascorum omnium et singularium nostrorum vulgariter nuncupatorum Revells and Masks. Cawarden was Master till 1559. Soon after his appointment, the office and its stores were transferred to a dissolved Dominican monastery at Blackfriars, having previously been housed at Warwick Inn in the city, the Charterhouse, and then at the priory of St John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell, to which a return was made after Cawarden’s death. Sir Thomas Benger succeeded Cawarden, and Edmund Tylney followed him (1579–1610); it was the appointment of the latter’s nephew, Sir George Buck, as deputy-master, with the reversion to the mastership, which led to so much repining on the part of the dramatist, John Lyly, who was himself a candidate. Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended to a general censorship of the stage, which in 1624 was put directly in the hands of the lord chamberlain, thus leading to the licensing act of 1737 (see Drama).
See E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (1904); and his Notes on the History of the Revels Office under the Tudors (1906), with authorities quoted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reutlingen

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​REUTLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, situated on the Echatz, an affluent of the Neckar, near the base of the Achalm and 36 m. by rail S. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 23,850. It is a quaintly built town, with many picturesque houses and a fine Gothic church of the 13th and 14th centuries dedicated to St Mary, which was restored in 1893–1901; it contains in the choir a replica of the Holy Sepulchre and a sculptured stone font, and has a tower 240 ft. high. Reutlingen has three other Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a town hall, and several monuments, including one to the emperor William I. and another to Friedrich List. The industries of the town are numerous, and include the spinning and weaving of cotton, dyeing and bleaching; also the manufacture of leather, machinery, furniture, shoes, paper, clothing, hardware, bricks, beer and woollen goods. Hops, vines and fruit are grown in the neighbourhood. Reutlingen has several schools and educational establishments, including a celebrated homological institute. It is also famous as the place where Pastor Gustav Werner (1809–1887) founded his Christian Socialist refuge, which has become widely known in philanthropic circles.
Reutlingen, which is first mentioned in 1213, became a free imperial town in the 13th century and was fortified by the emperor Frederick II., remaining loyal to him and to his son, Conrad IV. A member of the league of Swabian towns, its citizens defeated Count Ulrich of Württemberg on the 14th of May 1377. Later it joined the Swabian League and was favoured by the emperor Maximilian I. It came into the possession of Württemberg in 1802. An explosion which took place on the 27th of December 1852 destroyed many houses in the town.
See Rupp, Aus der Vorzeit Reutlingens und seiner Umgegend (Stuttgart, 1869); Hochstetter, Führer durch Reutlingen und Umgebung (Reutlingen, 1901); and Zwiesele, Geognostischer Führer in der Umgegend von Reutlingen (Stuttgart, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reuss, Édouard Guillaume Eugene

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​REUSS, ÉDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGÉNE (1804–1891), Protestant theologian, was born at Strassburg on the 18th of July 1804. He studied philology in his native town (1819–22), theology at Göttingen under J. G. Eichhorn; and Oriental languages at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius, and afterwards at Paris under Silvestre de Sacy (1827–28). In 1828 he became Privatdozent at Strassburg. From 1829 to 1834 he taught Biblical criticism and Oriental languages at the Strassburg Theological School; he then became assistant, and afterwards, in 1836, regular professor of theology at that university. The sympathies of Reuss were German rather than French, and after the annexation of Alsace to Germany he remained at Strassburg, and retained his professorship till, in 1888, he retired on a pension. Amongst his earliest works were: De libris veteris Testamenti apoerypliis plebi non negandis (1829), Ideen zur Einleitung in das Evangelium Johannis (1840) and Die Johanneische Theologie (1847). In 1852 he published his Histoire de la théologie chrétienne an siècle apostolique, which was followed in 1863 by L’Histoire du canon des saintes écritures dans l’église chrétienne. In 1874 he began to publish his translation of the Bible, La Bible, nouvelle traduction avec commentaire. It was the criticism and exegesis of the New Testament which formed the subject of Reuss's earlier labours—in 1842, indeed, he had published in German a history of the books of the New Testament, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften N. Test.; and though his own views were liberal, he opposed the results of the Tübingen school. After a time he turned his attention also to Old Testament criticism, for which he was especially fitted by his sound knowledge of Hebrew. In 1881 he published in German his Geschichte der heiligen Schriften A. Test., a veritable encyclopedia of the history of Israel from its earliest beginning till the taking of Jerusalem by Titus; He died at Strassburg on the 15th of April 1891.
Reuss belonged to the more modern section of the Liberal party in the Lutheran Church. His critical position was to some extent that of K. H. Graf and J. Wellhausen, allowing for the circumstances that he was in a sense their forerunner, and was actually for a time Graf's teacher. Indeed, he was really the originator of the new movement, but hesitated to publish the results of his studies. For many years Reuss edited with A. H. Cunitz (b. 1812) the Beiträge zu den theologischen Wissenschaften. With A. H. Cunitz and J. W. Baum (1809–1878), and after their death alone, he edited the monumental edition of Calvin’s works (38 vols., 1863 ff.). His critical edition of the Old Testament appeared a year after his death. His son, Ernest Rudolf (b. 1841), was in 1873 appointed city librarian at Strassburg.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reveillé

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​REVEILLÉ (Fr. réveillez, imperative of réveiller, to awaken, Lat. re- and vigilare, to watch), the signal by call of bugle or beat of drum to announce to soldiers the time to awake and begin duty.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reuss, August Emanuel von

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​REUSS, AUGUST EMANUEL VON (1811–1873), Austrian geologist and palaeontologist, the son of Franz Ambrosius Reuss (1761–1830), was born at Bilin in Bohemia on the 8th of July 1811. He was educated for the medical profession, graduating in 1834 at the university of Prague, and afterwards practising for fifteen years at Bilin. His leisure was devoted to mineralogy and geology, and the results of his researches were published in Geognostische Skizzen aus Böhmen (1840–44) and Die Versteinerungen der Böhmischen Kreideformation (1845–46). In 1849 he gave up his medical practice, and became professor of mineralogy at the university of Prague. There he established a fine mineralogical collection, and he became the first lecturer on geology. In 1863 he was appointed professor of mineralogy in the university of Vienna. He investigated the Cretaceous fauna of Gosau, and studied the Crustacea, including entomostraca, the corals, bryozoa, and especially the foraminifera of various geological formations and countries. He died at Vienna on the 26th of November 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reuterholm, Gustaf Adolf, Baron

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REUTERHOLM, GUSTAF ADOLF, Baron (1756-1813), Swedish statesman. After a brief military career he was appointed Kammerherr to Sophia Magdalena, queen consort of Gustavus III., and subsequently became intimately connected with the king's brother, Charles, then duke of Sudermania. He remained in the background throughout the reign of Gustavus III., whom he constantly opposed and by whom he was imprisoned along with the other malcontents in 1789. He was abroad at the time of the king's death, but a summons from his friend, now duke regent, speedily recalled him, and in 1793 he was made a member of the council of state and one of the “lords of the realm.” At first he seemed inclined to adopt a liberal system, and reintroduced the freedom of the press. He did this solely, however, to reverse the Gustavian system, and persecuted the stalwarts of the late king (e.g. G. M. Armfelt, J. K. Toll) with a petty vindictiveness which excited general disgust. Towards the end of the regency, Reuterholm inclined towards an alliance with Russia on the basis of a marriage between the young king, Gustavus IV., and the empress Catherine's granddaughter, Alexandra Pavlovna, an alliance frustrated by the bigotry of the intended groom. At home the Swedish government ended as ultra-reactionary, owing to an insignificant riot in Stockholm which so alarmed Reuterholm that he threatened all printers who printed anything relating to the constitutions of the French republic or the United States of America with the loss of their privileges. In March 1795 he closed the Swedish Academy because A. G. Silfverstolpe in his inaugural address had ventured to disapprove of the coup d'état of 1789. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November 1st, 1796) Reuterholm was expelled from Stockholm. For the next twelve years he lived abroad under the name of Tempelcrentz. After the revolution of 1809 he returned to Sweden, but was denied all access to Charles XIII., and quitted his country for good. He died in Schleswig on the 27th of December 1813.
See Sveriges Historia (Stockholm, 1877-1881), vol. v.
(R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Titus Tatius

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​TITUS TATIUS, in Roman legend, the Sabine king of Cures, who waged war upon the Romans to avenge the rape of the Sabine women (see Romulus). After various indecisive conflicts ​the latter, who had become Roman matrons, intervened and prevailed upon the combatants to cease fighting. A formal treaty was then arranged between the Romans and Sabines, whereby Romulus and Tatius were to be joint and equal rulers of the Roman people. Rome was to retain its name and each citizen was to be called a Roman, but as a community they were to be called Quirites (q.v.); the Sabines were to be incorporated in the state and admitted into the tribes and curies. After this arrangement had lasted for five years it came to an end by the death of Tatius, who was killed out of revenge by the inhabitants of Lavinium. According to Mommsen, the story of his death, (for which see Plutarch) looks like an historical version of the abolition of blood-revenge. Tatius, who in some respects resembles Remus, is not an historical personage, but the eponymous hero of the religious college called Sodales Titii. As to this body Tacitus expresses two different opinions, representing two different traditions: that it was introduced either by Tatius himself to preserve the Sabine cult in Rome; or by Romulus in honour of Tatius, at whose grave its members were bound to offer a yearly sacrifice. The sodales fell into abeyance at the end of the republic, but were revived by Augustus and existed to the end of the 2nd century A.D. Augustus himself and the emperor Claudius belonged to the college, and all its members were of senatorial rank. Varro derives the name from the Titiae aves which were used by the priests in certain auguries.
See Livy i. 10–14; Tacitus, Annals, i. 54, Hist. ii. 95; Dion. Halic. ii. 36–52; Plutarch, Romulus, 19–24; Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung (1885) iii. 446; Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bk. ix. 3, 14; x. 5.