OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Iphicrates

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​IPHICRATES, Athenian general, son of a shoemaker, flourished in the earlier half of the 4th century B.C. He owes his fame as much to the improvements which he made in the accoutrements of the peltasts or light-armed mercenaries (so called from their small round shield, πέλτη) as to his military successes. Increasing the length of their javelins and swords, substituting linen corselets for their heavy coats-of-mail, and introducing the use of a kind of light leggings, called after him “iphicratides,” he increased greatly the rapidity of their movements (Diod. Sic. xv. 44). He also paid special attention to discipline, drill and manœuvres. With his peltasts Iphicrates seriously injured the allies of the Lacedaemonians in the Corinthian War, and in 392 (or 390) dealt the Spartans a heavy blow by almost annihilating a mora (battalion of about 600 men) of their famous hoplites (Diod. Sic. xiv. 91; Plutarch, Agesilaus, 22). Following up his success, he took city after city for the Athenians; but in consequence of a quarrel with the Argives he was transferred from Corinth to the Hellespont, where he was equally successful. After the peace of Antalcidas (387) he assisted Seuthes, king of the Thracian Odrysae, to recover his kingdom, and fought ​against Cotys, with whom, however, he subsequently concluded an alliance. About 378 he was sent with a force of mercenaries to assist the Persians to reconquer Egypt; but a dispute with Pharnabazus led to the failure of the expedition (Diod. Sic. xv. 29–43). On his return to Athens he commanded an expedition in 373 for the relief of Corcyra, which was besieged by the Lacedaemonians (Xenophon, Hellenica, vi. 2). On the peace of 371, Iphicrates returned to Thrace, and somewhat tarnished his fame by siding with his father-in-law Cotys in a war against Athens for the possession of the entire Chersonese. The Athenians, however, soon pardoned him and gave him a joint command in the Social War. He and two of his colleagues were impeached by Chares, the fourth commander, because they had refused to give battle during a violent storm. Iphicrates was acquitted but sentenced to pay a heavy fine. He afterwards remained at Athens (according to some he retired to Thrace) till his death (about 353).
There is a short sketch of his life by Cornelius Nepos; see also C. Rehdantz, Vitae Iphicratis, Chabriae et Timothei (1854); Bauer, Griech. Kriegsaltert. in Müller’s Handbuch, 4, § 49; and histories of Greece, e.g. Holm, Eng. trans., vol. iii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ipek

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​IPEK (Slav. Petch, Lat. Pescium), a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo and sanjak of Novibazar, 73 m. E.N.E. of Scutari, near the eastern base of the Mokra Planina, the Montenegrin frontier, and the headwaters of the Ibar and White Drin. Pop. (1905), about 15,000, principally Albanians and Serbs. A small stream bearing, like several others in the Balkan peninsula, the name of Bistritza (the bright or clear), flows through the town. On one of the neighbouring heights is situated the monastery of Ipek, founded by Archbishop Arsenius in the 13th century, and famous as the seat until 1690 of the patriarchs of the Servian church. The buildings are surrounded by thick walls, and comprise a large central church (Our Lady’s), and two side chapels (the Martyrs’ and St Demetrius’), each surmounted by a leaden cupola. The church dates from the 16th and 17th centuries. Among its numerous objects of interest are the white marble tombs of Arsenius and other chiefs of the Servian church, and the white marble throne on which the patriarchs were crowned. Ipek has been incorrectly identified by some writers with Doclea or Dioclea (Duklé in Montenegro), the birthplace of Diocletian, and the capital of a small principality which was overthrown by the Bulgarians in the 11th century.
See Barth, Reise durch das Innere der europäischen Turkei (Berlin, 1864); A. P. Irby and G. M. M. Mackenzie, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey (1877); M. E. Durham, Through the Lands of the Serb (London, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naquet, Alfred Joseph

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​NAQUET, ALFRED JOSEPH (1834–), French chemist and politician, was born at Carpentras (Vaucluse), on the 6th of October 1834. He became professor in the faculty of medicine in Paris in 1863, and in the same year professor of chemistry at Palermo, where he delivered his lectures in Italian. He lost his professorship in 1867 with his civic rights, when he was condemned to fifteen months’ imprisonment for his share in a secret society. On a new prosecution in 1869 for his book Religion, propriété, famille he took refuge in Spain. Returning to France under the government of Emile Ollivier he took an active share in the revolution of the 4th of September 1870, and became secretary of the commission of national defence. In the National Assembly he sat on the extreme Left, consistently opposing the opportunist, policy of successive governments. Re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies he began the agitation against the marriage laws with which his name is especially connected. His proposal for the re-establishment of divorce was discussed in May 1879, and again in 1881 and 1882, and became law two years later. Naquet, although he disapproved in principle of a second chamber, secured his election to the senate in 1883 to pilot his measure through that body. In 1886 by his efforts divorce became legal after three years of definite separation on the demand of one of the parties concerned. In 1890 he resigned from the senate to re-enter the Chamber of Deputies, this time for the 5th arrondissement of Paris, and took his seat with the Boulangist deputies. After Boulanger’s suicide his political influence declined, and was further compromised by accusations (of which he was legally cleared) in connexion with the Panama scandals.
The thesis written for his doctorate, Application de l’analyse chimique à la toxicologie (1859), was followed by many papers on chemistry contributed to learned journals, and his Principes de chimie fondés sur les théories modernes (1865) reached its 5th edition in 1890. He is better known by his political works, Socialisme collectiviste et socialisme libéral (1890, Eng. trans., 1891), L’Humanité et la patrie (1901), Loi du divorce (1903), L’Anarchie et le collectivisme (1904), Désarmement ou alliance anglaise (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Napoleon (game)

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​NAPOLEON, a round game of cards (known colloquially as “Nap”). Any number may play. The cards rank as at whist, and five are dealt to each player. The deal being completed, the player to the dealer’s left looks at his hand and declares how many tricks he would play to win against all the rest, the usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default of declaring he says “I pass,” and the next player has a similar option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called “going Nap.” The player who declares to make most has to try to make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent him. The declaring hand has the first lead, and the first card he leads makes the trump suit. The players, in rotation, must follow suit if able. If the declarer succeeds in making at least the number of tricks he stood for he wins whatever stakes are played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring Nap wins he receives double stakes all round; if he loses he only pays single stakes all round. Sometimes, however, a player is allowed to go “Wellington” over “Nap,” and even “Blucher” over “Wellington.” In these cases the caller of “Wellington” wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller of “Blucher” receives six times and loses three times the stake. Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misère, i.e. no tricks. This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives a single on three if he takes none.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Napoleon II.

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​NAPOLEON II., emperor of the French, the style given by the Bonapartists to the son of Napoleon I., Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles, duke of Reichstadt (q.v.). The fact that in 1814, by Napoleon I.’s abdication in his favour, the king of Rome (as he was then styled) became for a few days titular emperor “by the will of the people,” was held by Prince Louis Napoleon to justify his own assumption of the style of Napoleon III. which, as seeming to involve a dynastic claim, gave such offence to the legitimist powers, notably the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nara (India)

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​NARA, an important water channel in Sind, India, probably representing a former bed of the Indus, though now traversing the desert far E. of the river. Its total length is 250 m.; and by means of cross cuts, weirs and embankments, it has been made to irrigate no less than 429 sq. m., with a navigable length of 425 m.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Natick

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​NATICK, a township of S.E. Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the S.E. end of Cochituate Lake. Pop. (1890) 9118; (1900) 9488, of whom 1788 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 9866. The area of the township is 12·375 sq. m. The township’s largest village, also named Natick, lying 18 m. W.S.W. of Boston, is served by the Boston & Albany railroad; it has the Walnut Hill preparatory school, the Leonard Morse hospital, and a public library, the Morse institute, which was given by Mary Ann Morse (1825–1862) and was built in 1873. In the village of South Natick is the Bacon Free Library (1880), in which is housed the Historical, Natural History and Library Society. In 1905 the factory product was valued at $3,453,094; the boots and shoes manufactured in 1905 were valued at $2,896,110 or 83·9% of the town’s total, the output of brogans being especially important. Other distinctive manufactures are shirts and base-balls. Natick is the Indian name, signifying “our land,” or “hilly land,” of the site (originally part of Dedham) granted in 1650 to John Eliot, for the “praying” Indians. There was an Indian church in Natick, at what is now called South Natick or “Oldtown,” from 1660 to 1716; and for some years the community was governed, in accordance with the eighteenth chapter of Exodus, by “rulers of tens,” “rulers of fifties,” and “rulers of hundreds.” Until 1719 the Indians held the land in common. In 1735 the few Indians remaining were put under guardianship. The township owns a copy of Eliot’s Indian Bible. An Eliot monument was erected in 1847 on the Indian burying-ground near the site of the Indian church, now occupied by a Unitarian church. Of the Eliot oaks, made famous by Longfellow’s sonnet, one was cut down in 1842, the other still stands. Henry Wilson learned to make shoes here, and in the presidential campaign in 1840 gained the sobriquet of the “Natick Cobbler.” By the colonial authorities Natick was considered as a “plantation” until the establishment of the church; in 1762 the parish (erected in 1745) became a district, and in 1781 this was incorporated as a town.
See “Natick,” by S. D. Hosmer, Daniel Wight and Austin Bacon, in vol. 2 of S. A. Drake’s History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880); and Oliver N. Bacon, History of the Town of Natick (Boston, 1856).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Natanz

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​NATANZ, a minor province of Persia, situated in the hilly district between Isfahan and Kashan, and held in fief by the family of the Hissam es Saltaneh (Sultan Murad Mirza, d. 1882). It contains eighty-two villages and hamlets, has a revenue of about £4000, and a population of about 23,000. It is divided into four districts: Barzrud, Natanzrud, Tarkrud and Badrud. Natanz pears are famous throughout the country. The western part of the province is traversed from north to south by the old high-road between Kashan and Isfahan, with the well-known stations of Kuhrud (7140 ft.) and So (7560 ft.). This road was practically abandoned when the Indian government telegraph line, which ran along it, was removed to a road farther east in 1906. The capital of the little province is Natanz, a large village with a population of about 3000, situated 69 m. north of Isfahan, at an elevation of 5670 ft. It has an old mosque, with a minaret 123 ft. in height, built in 1315.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nationality

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​NATIONALITY, a somewhat vague term, used strictly in international law (see International Law, Private) for the status of membership in a nation or state (for the conditions of which see State, Allegiance, Naturalization, Alien), and in a more extended sense in political discussion to denote an aggregation of persons claiming to represent a racial, territorial or some other bond of unity, though not necessarily recognized as an independent political entity. In this latter sense the word has often been applied to such people as the Irish, the Armenians and the Czechs. A “nationality” in this connexion represents a common feeling and an organized claim rather than distinct attributes which can be comprised in a strict definition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Natrolite

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​NATROLITE, a mineral species belonging to the zeolite group. It is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate with the formula Na$_2$Al$_2$Si$_3$O$_{10}$·2H$_2$O, and containing sodium (Na$_2$O, 16·3%), was named natrolite by M. H. Klaproth in 1803. “Needle-stone” or “needle-zeolite” are other names, alluding to the common acicular habit of the crystals, which are often very slender and are aggregated in divergent tufts. Larger crystals have the form of a square prism terminated by a low pyramid: the prism angle being nearly a right angle (88° 451/2′), the crystals are tetragonal in appearance, though actually orthorhombic. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. The mineral also often occurs in compact fibrous aggregates, the fibres having a divergent or radial arrangement (hence the name radiolite for one variety). From other fibrous zeolites natrolite is readily distinguished by its optical characters: between crossed nicols the fibres extinguish parallel to their length, and they do not show an optic figure in convergent polarized light. Natrolite is usually white or colourless, but sometimes reddish or yellowish. The lustre is vitreous, or in finely fibrous specimens sometimes silky. The spec. grav. is 2·2, and the hardness is 51/2. The mineral is readily fusible, melting in a candle-flame, to which it imparts a yellow colour owing to the presence of sodium. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of gelatinous silica.
Natrolite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic igneous rocks. The best specimens are the diverging groups of white prismatic crystals found in compact basalt at the Puy-de-Marman, Puy-de Dôme, France. The largest crystals are those from Brevig in Norway. The walls of cavities in the basalt of the Giant’s Causeway, in Co. Antrim, are frequently encrusted with slender needles of natrolite, and similar material is found abundantly in the volcanic rocks (basalt and phonolite) of Salesel, Aussig and several other places in the north of Bohemia.
Several varieties of natrolite have been distinguished by special names. Fargite is a red natrolite from Glenfarg in Perthshire. Bergmannite or Spreustein is an impure variety which has resulted by the alteration of other minerals, chiefly sodalite, in the augite-syenite of southern Norway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nathanael

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​NATHANAEL, a character in the New Testament, who appears in John i. 45 sqq; as one of the first disciples of Jesus. In John xxi. 2 he is described as belonging to Cana of Galilee. The account of his call reveals to us a man of a deeply spiritual and sincere nature. Otherwise we know nothing beyond the mention of his name as one of the seven to whom, after the Resurrection, Christ revealed himself at the sea of Tiberias (John xxi. 2). But the interest he has evoked is shown by the attempts to identify him with other New Testament characters. Of these the one which has found most favour sees in him the apostle Bartholomew (q.v.). The actual identification must however remain a matter of pure conjecture. Still less can be said for the attempts to find in Nathanael another name for the apostle Matthew, or for Matthias, or for Paul “the ​apostle of visions,” or even for the writer of the Fourth Gospel himself.
Bibliography.—For the story of Nathanael’s call see Archbishop Trench, Studies in the Gospels, No. 2, and on his character, J. H. Newman’s Sermons for the Festivals of the Church, No. 27.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nathubhoy, Sir Mangaldas

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​NATHUBHOY, SIR MANGALDAS (1832–1890), Seth or head of the Kapol Bania caste, well known for their thrift and keen commercial instincts. He was born on the 15th of October 1832, of a family whose ancestors emigrated from Diu to Bombay soon after Bombay came into British possession. His grandfather, Ramdas Manordas, amassed a considerable fortune, which, owing to the premature death of his father, came into the sole possession of Mangaldas at the age of eleven. He had to take charge of the business in early life, though he gave some time to English studies. On the death of his wife he established a dispensary at Kalyan in her memory and also a special female ward in connexion with the David Sassoon hospital in Poona. As a merchant Mangaldas was upright and successful. In social matters he stood forth as a reformer, and to him the change to election from hereditary succession to the headship of the caste is due. In 1862 he founded a fellowship in Bombay university to allow graduates to spend some years in Europe. A bequest in his will enabled the university to establish seven similar scholarships. He took keen interest in learning, and in such institutions as the Asiatic and geographical societies. In 1866 he was nominated to the legislative council and sat till 1874. In 1867 he revived the Bombay association, a political body, over which he presided for a time. In 1872 he was made C.S.I., and in 1875 the dignity of Knight Bachelor was conferred on him. Besides a large donation to the Indian Famine Fund, Sir Mangaldas is known to have expended £500,000 on charities. He died at Bombay on the 9th of March 1890.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macomer

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​MACOMER, a village of Sardinia in the province of Cagliari, from which it is 95 m. N.N.W. by rail, and the same distance S.W. of Golfo degli Aranci. Pop. (1901), 3488. It is situated 1890 ft. above sea-level on the southern ascent to the central plateau (the Campeda) of this part of Sardinia; and it is the junction of narrow-gauge lines branching from the main line eastwards to Nuoro and westwards to Bosa. The old parish church of S. Pantaleone has three Roman mile-stones in front of it, belonging to the Roman high-road from Carales to Turris Libisonis. The modern high-road follows the ancient. The district, especially the Campeda, is well fitted for grazing and horse and cattle breeding, which is carried on to a considerable extent. It is perhaps richer in nuraghi than any other part of Sardinia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macrauchenia

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​MACRAUCHENIA, a long-necked and long-limbed, three-toed South American ungulate mammal, typifying the suborder Litopterna (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macon

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​MACON, a city and the county-seat of Bibb county, Georgia, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on both sides of the Ocmulgee river (at the head of navigation), about 90 m. S.S.E. of Atlanta. Pop. (1900), 23,272, of whom 11,550 were negroes; (1910 census) 40,665. Macon is, next to Atlanta, the most important railway centre in the state, being served by the Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Georgia Southern & Florida, the Macon Dublin & Savannah, and the Macon & Birmingham railways. It was formerly an important river port, especially for the shipment of cotton, but lost this commercial advantage when railway bridges made the river impassable. It is, however, partially regaining the river trade in consequence of the compulsory substitution of drawbridges for the stationary railway bridges. The city is the seat of the Wesleyan female college (1836), which claims to be the first college in the world chartered to grant academic degrees to women; Mercer University (Baptist), which was established in 1833 as Mercer Institute at Penfield, became a university in 1837, was removed to Macon in 1871, and controls Hearn Academy (1839) at Cave Spring and Gibson Mercer Academy (1903) at Bowman; the state academy for the blind (1852), St Stanislaus’ College (Jesuit), and Mt de Sales Academy (Roman Catholic) for women. There are four orphan asylums for whites and two for negroes, supported chiefly by the Protestant Episcopal and Methodist Churches, and a public hospital. Immediately east of Macon are two large Indian mounds, and there is a third mound 9 m. south of the city. Situated in the heart of the “Cotton Belt,” Macon has a large and lucrative trade; it is one of the most important inland cotton markets of the United States, its annual receipts averaging about 250,000 bales. The city’s factory products in 1905 were valued at $7,297,347 (33.8% more than in 1900). In the vicinity are large beds of kaolin, 30 m. wide, reaching nearly across the state, and frequently 35 to 70 ft. in depth. Macon is near the fruit-growing region of Georgia, and large quantities of peaches and of garden products are annually shipped from the city.
Macon (named in honour of Nathaniel Macon) was surveyed in 1823 by order of the Georgia legislature for the county-seat of Bibb county, and received its first charter in 1824. It soon became the centre of trade for Middle Georgia; in 1833 a steamboat line to Darien was opened, and in the following year 69,000 bales of cotton were shipped by this route. During the Civil War the city was a centre for Confederate commissary supplies and the seat of a Treasury depository. In July 1864 General George Stoneman (1822–1894) with 500 men was captured near the city by the Confederate general, Howell Cobb. Macon was finally occupied by Federal troops under General James H. Wilson (b. 1837) on the 20th of April 1865. In 1900–1910 the area of the city was increased by the annexation of several suburbs.