OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meyer, Julius Lothar

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​MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (1830–1895), German chemist, was born on the 19th of August 1830, at Varel in Oldenburg. He was the son of a physician, and went to study medicine first at Zürich University in 1851, and then, two years later, at Würzburg, where he had R. Virchow as his teacher in pathology. The influence of C. F. W. Ludwig, under whom he studied at Zürich, decided him to devote his attention to physiological chemistry, and therefore he went, after his graduation (1854), to Heidelberg, where R. Bunsen held the chair of chemistry. There he was so influenced by G. R. Kirchhoff’s mathematical teaching that he took up the study of mathematical physics at Königsberg under F. E. Neumann. In 1859 he became privat-docent in physics and chemistry at Breslau, where in the preceding year he had graduated as Ph. D. with a thesis on the action of carbon monoxide on the blood. In 1866 he accepted a post in the School of Forestry at Neustadt-Eberswalde, but soon moved to Carlsruhe Polytechnic. During the Franco-German campaign the Polytechnic was used as a hospital, and he took an active part in the care of the wounded. Finally, in 1876, he became professor of chemistry at Tübingen, where he died on the 11th of April 1895. His name is best known for the share he had in the periodic classification of the elements. He noted, as did J. A. R. Newlands in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals; and in particular he showed that if the atomic weights are plotted ​as ordinates and the atomic volumes as abscissae, the curve obtained presents a series of maxima and minima, the most electro-positive elements appearing at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modernen Theorien der Chemie, which was first published in Breslau in 1864, contains a discussion of relations between the atomic weights and the properties of the elements. In 1882 he received from the Royal Society, at the same time as D. J. Mendeléeff, the Davy medal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law. A younger brother, O. E. Meyer, became professor of physics at Breslau in 1864.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meyer, Victor

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​MEYER, VICTOR (1848–1897), German chemist, was born at Berlin on the 8th of September 1848, and studied at Heidelberg University under R. W. Bunsen, H. F. M. Kopp, G. R. Kirchhoff and H. L. F. Helmholtz. At the age of twenty he entered J. F. W. A. Baeyer’s laboratory at Berlin, attacking among other problems that of the composition of camphor. In 1871, on Baeyer’s recommendation, he was engaged by H. von Fehling as his assistant at Stuttgart Polytechnic, but within a year he left to succeed J. Wislicenus at Zürich. There he remained for thirteen years, and it was during this period that he devised his well-known method for determining vapour densities, and carried out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882, on the death of W. Weith (1844–1881), professor of chemistry at Zürich University, he undertook to continue the lectures on benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of thiophen. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Hans Hübner (1837–1884) in the professorship of chemistry at Göttingen, where stereo-chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in 1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in Heidelberg. He died on the 8th of August 1897. In recognition of his brilliant experimental powers, and his numerous contributions to chemical science, he was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society in 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meynell, Alice Christiana

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​MEYNELL, ALICE CHRISTIANA (1850–), English poet and essayist, was the daughter of T. J. Thompson. Her early life was spent chiefly in Italy, and she was educated by her father. Her first volume of verse, Preludes (1875), illustrated by her sister Elizabeth, afterwards Lady Butler, attracted little public notice, but the delicacy and beauty of the poems and especially of the sonnet “Renunciation,” were warmly praised by Ruskin. She married in 1877 the well-known Roman Catholic journalist and author Wilfrid Meynell, who became proprietor and editor of the Weekly Register. Under W. E. Henley’s editorship she wrote regularly in prose for the National Observer, and also later for the Pall Mall Gazette, the Saturday Review, &c. Her Poems (1893), including much of the earlier volume of Preludes, brought her at last more definitely before the public; and this was followed in 1901 by another slender book of delicate verse, Later Poems. Mrs Meynell also showed herself a fine critic of poetry by her admirable selection, The Flower of the Mind (1897), an anthology of English verse. She edited the Selected Poems (1894) of T. G. Hake, the Poetry of Pathos and Delight (1896) of her intimate friend Coventry Patmore, and the selections from Patmore in the “Muses' Library.” Her prose essays, remarkable for fineness of culture and peculiar restraint of style, appeared in successive volumes as The Rhythm of Life (1893), The Colour of Life and other Essays (1896), The Children (1897), and The Spirit of Place (1898). Later books are London Impressions (1898) and The Work of John S. Sargent (1903).
See W. Archer, Poets of the Younger Generation (1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meyer, Konrad Ferdinand

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​MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825–1898), Swiss poet and novelist, was born at Zürich on the 11th of October 1825. After studying law at the university, he went for considerable periods to Lausanne, Geneva and Paris, and in Italy interested himself in historical research. In 1875 he settled at Kilchberg near Zürich, was created in 1880 a doctor philosophiae honoris causa by that university, and died at Kilchberg on the 28th of November 1898. After Gottfried Keller, Konrad Meyer is the most important Swiss poet of modern times, though as a novelist he was perhaps more successful. His poetical works include Balladen (1867); Romanzen und Bilder (1870); the epic poem, Huttens letzte Tage (1871); and Gedichte (1882; 20th ed., 1901). Among his novels must be specially mentioned Jürg Jenatsch (1876; 20th ed., 1894); Der Schuss von der Kanzel (1878); Der Heilige (1880; 12th ed., 1894; English by M. von Wendheim, Thomas à Becket, the Saint, 1885); Die Richterin (1885); Die Versuchung des Pescara (1887); Angela Borgia (1891). His shorter stories were collected in two volumes in 1885 (5th ed., 1892).
See A. Reitler, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1885); Lina Frey, K. F. Meyer’s Gedichte und Novellen (1892); K. E. Kranzos, K. F. Meyer (1899); A. Frey, K. F. Meyer (1900); H. Kraeger, K. F. Meyer: Quellen und Wandlungen seiner Gedichte (1901); B. Meyer, K. F. Meyer in der Erinnerung seiner Schwester (1904); Briefwechsel zwischen Luise von François und K. F. Meyer, herausg. von A. Bettelheim (1905); A. Langmesser, K. F. Meyer (1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meyrifab

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​MEYRIFAB, a small semi-nomad tribe of Africans of Semitic stock, settled on the east bank of the Nile near Berber. Contrary to Arab custom, it is said they never marry slaves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mezzofanti, Giuseppe Caspar

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​MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE CASPAR (1774–1849), Italian cardinal and linguist, was born on the 17th of September 1774, at Bologna, and educated there. He was ordained priest in 1797, and in the same year became professor of Arabic in the university, but shortly afterwards was deprived for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic. In 1803 he was appointed assistant librarian of the institute of Bologna, and soon afterwards was reinstated as professor of oriental languages and of Greek. The chair was suppressed by the viceroy in 1808, but again rehabilitated on the restoration of Pius VII. in 1814, and continued to be held by Mezzofanti until his removal from Bologna to Rome in 1831, as a member of the congregation de propaganda fide. In 1833 he succeeded Angelo Mai as chief keeper of the Vatican library, and in 1838 was made cardinal and director of studies in the Congregation. He died at Rome on the 15th of March 1849. His peculiar talent, comparable in many respects to that of the so-called “calculating boys,” was not combined with any exceptional measure of intellectual power, and produced nothing of permanent value. It seems certain, however, that he spoke with considerable fluency, and in some cases even with attention to dialectic peculiarities, some fifty or sixty languages of the most widely separated families, besides having a less perfect acquaintance with many others.
See Russell, Life of the Cardinal Mezzofanti (London, 1857); A. Bellesheim, Giuseppe Cardinal Mezzofanti (Würzburg, 1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Meyer, Paul Hyacinthe

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​MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (1840–), French philologist, was born in Paris on the 17th of January 1840. He was educated at the École des Chartes, and in 1863 was attached to the manuscript department of the Bibliothèque Nationale. In 1876 he became professor of the languages and literatures of southern Europe at the Collège de France. In 1882 he was made director of the École des Chartes, and a year later was nominated a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He was one of the founders of the Revue critique, and a founder and the chief contributor to Romania (1872). Paul Meyer began with the study of old Provençal literature, but subsequently did valuable work in many different departments of romance literature, and ranks as the chief modern authority on the French language. He is the author of Rapports sur les documents manuscrits de l’ancienne littérature de la France conservés dans les bibliothèques de la Grande Bretagne (1871); Recueil d’anciens textes bas-latins, provençaux et français (2 parts, 1874–1876); Alexandre le Grand dans la littérature française du moyen âge (2 vols., 1886). He edited a great number of old French texts for the Société des anciens textes français, the Société de l’histoire de France and independently. Among these may be mentioned Aye d’Avignon (1861), with Guessard; Flamença (1865); the Histoire of Guillaume le Maréchal (3 vols., 1892–1902); Raoul de Cambrai (1882), with A. Longnon; Fragments d’une vie de Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry (1885); Guillaume de la Barre (1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mezzanine

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​MEZZANINE (It. mezzano; Fr. entresol; Ger. Zwischengeschoss), in architecture, a storey of small height introduced between two lofty storeys, or sometimes employed to allow of the introduction of two storeys equal together in height to lofty rooms on the same floor.
# Washington's letter to Baker

                New Windsor May 29, 1781
Sir,
A day or two ago I requested Col. Harrison to apply to you for a pair of Pincers to fasten the wire of my teeth. –I hope you furnished him with them.– I now wish you would send me one of your scrapers as my teeth stand in need of cleaning, and I have little prospect of being in Philadelph. soon.– It will come very safe by the Post– & in return, the money shall be sent so soon as I know the cost of it.–
    I am Sir,
       Yr Very Hble Serva
          G. Washington
This work was published before January 1, 1929, and is in the public domain worldwide because the author died at least 100 years ago.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Howth

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​HOWTH [pronounced Hōth], a seaside town of Co. Dublin, Ireland, on the rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It is frequented by the residents of the capital as a watering-place. The artificial harbour was formed (1807–1832) between the mainland and the picturesque island of Ireland’s Eye, and preceded Kingstown as the station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was found after its construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly used by fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, standing picturesquely on a cliff above the sea, was founded about 1235, and has a monastic building attached to it. The embattled castle contains the two-handed sword of Sir Almeric Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of Howth, and a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, with Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, prostrate before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of Howth is of great beauty. Howth is connected with the capital by electric tramway, besides the railway, and another tramway encircles the hill.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hoylake

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​HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the Wirral railway. With West Kirby to the south, at the mouth of the estuary of the Dee, it forms the urban district of Hoylake and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. The well-known links of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. The town has a considerable population of fishermen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Howrah

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​HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area is about 11 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of 35% in the decade. Since 1872 the population has almost doubled, owing to the great industrial development that has taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East Indian railway, and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It is also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also cotton mills, oil mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering works. Sibpur Engineering College lies on the outskirts of the town. There is a hospital, with a department for Europeans, and Howrah forms a suburban residence for many people who have their place of business in Calcutta.
The District of Howrah extends southwards down the right bank of the Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For revenue purposes it is included within the district of Hugli Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 850,514, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. In addition to the two steam tramways and the East Indian railway, the district is crossed by the high-level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with the Hugli at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining low-lying lands are maintained by the government.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hoy

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​HOY (Norse Haey, “high island”), the second largest island of the Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. It has an extreme length from N.W. to S.E. of 131/3 m., its greatest breadth from E. to W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. It is situated 2 m. S.W. of Pomona, from which it is separated by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west it rises abruptly from the sea, presenting in this respect a marked contrast to the rest of the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a whole are low-lying. Its eastern and southern shores are indented by numerous bays, one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. long, with a breadth varying from 1/4 m. to more than 1 m., affording to any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest weather of the Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the islands of Graemsay, Cava, Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, while the peninsula of South Walls, forming the southern side of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in all but name. Red and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. in height, stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run of rocky coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of Rora. In the interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit in either the Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between Ward Hill and the ridge of the Hamars to the south-east is situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an enormous block of sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 141/2 ft. broad, and 61/2 ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in which two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the sagas, and his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was supposed to be used to close the entrance. The generally accepted theory is that it was a pagan altar which some hermit afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in the island are the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 ft.), besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at Linksness, the nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, South Ness and North Bay, the last three all on the harbour of Long Hope.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Howler

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​HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of tropical American monkeys, now known scientifically as Alouata, although formerly designated Mycetes. These monkeys, which are of large size, with thick fur, sometimes red and sometimes black in colour, are characterized by the inflation of the hyoid-bone (which supports the roof of the tongue) into a large shell-like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and giving the peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their title. To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of the face slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the crown. The long tail is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the under surface of the extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large companies, and in the early morning, and again in the evening, make the woods resound with their cries, which are often continued throughout the night. They feed on leaves, and are in the habit of sitting on the topmost branches of trees. When active, they progress in regular order, led by an old male. (R. L.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Howitzer

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​HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form howitz, and the Ger. Haubitz, from the Bohemian houfnice = catapult, from which come also, through the Ital. obiza or obice, the French forms obus = shell and obusier = howitzer), a form of mobile ordnance in use from the 16th century up to the present day. It is a short and therefore comparatively light gun, which fires a heavy projectile at low velocity. A high angle of elevation is always given and the angle of descent of the projectile is consequently steep (up to 70°). On this fact is based the tactical use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the greatest value for “searching” trenches, folds of ground, localities, &c., which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and, above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place amongst the weapons used in siege warfare.
See Artillery, Ordnance and Fortification and Siegecraft.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Howson, John Saul

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​HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816–1885), English divine, was born at Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. After receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of which his father was head-master, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there became tutor successively to the marquis of Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In 1845 Howson, having taken orders, accepted the post of senior classical master at the Liverpool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom he succeeded as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it was largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the vicarage of Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of Chester Cathedral, where he gave himself vigorously to the work of restoring the crumbling fabric, collecting nearly £100,000 in five years for this purpose. His sympathies were with the evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the “Eastward position,” but he was by no means narrow. He did much to reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building of the King’s School for boys, and the Queen’s School for girls (both in Chester), was due in a great measure to the active interest which he took in educational matters. He died at Bournemouth on the 15th of December 1885, and was buried in the cloister garth of Chester. Howson’s chief literary production was The Life and Epistles of St Paul (1852) in which he collaborated with Conybeare.
The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive passages, which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such as those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and historical sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the treatment of the Pauline theology.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nicomedes I.

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​NICOMEDES I., son of Zipoetes, king of Bithynia (c. 278–248 B.C.). He made himself master of the whole country and put to death his brother, who had set himself up as an independent ruler. He enlarged and consolidated the kingdom, founded the great city of Nicomedia as the capital, and fought successfully for some time with Antiochus of Syria. His reign seems to have been prosperous and uneventful; the year of his death is uncertain.
Livy xxxviii. 16; Justin xxv. 2; Memnon in C. Müller, Frag. hist. Graec. iii. 535.