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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacro Bosco, Johannes de

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​SACRO BOSCO, JOHANNES DE [John Holywood] (d. 1244 or 1256), astronomical author, studied at Oxford and was afterwards professor of mathematics at the university of Paris. He wrote a treatise on spherical astronomy, Tractatus de sphaera, first printed at Ferrara in 1472. This was the second astronomical work to be printed. Although recording no advance on the Arabian commentaries on Ptolemy, it gained a great reputation; twenty-four editions appeared .before 1500, and at least forty between 1500 and 1647, in which year the last edition was published, at Leiden. About the year 1232 he wrote De anni ratione or De computo ecclesiastic (printed editions at Paris in 1538 (?), 1550, 1572 and at Antwerp in 1547 and 1566), in which he points out the increasing error of the Julian calendar, and suggests a remedy which is nearly the same as that actually used under Gregory XIII. three hundred and fifty years later. . He also wrote Algorismus or De arte numemndi, printed in 1490 (?), in 1517 (Vienna), 1521 (Cracow), 1523 (Venice); 'De astralabid and Breviarum juris.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saddle

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​SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives Lat. sedere, Eng. “ sit,” “ settle,” “ seat,” &c.), a seat, usually of leather, fixed by girths to the back of a horse for riding; also a padded cushion for the back of a draught horse, fastened by girths and crupper; to it are attached the supports for the shafts, and rings for the reins (see Saddlery). The word is also applied to many objects resembling a saddle in shape or function, such as a block to support a spar in a ship, or in machinery to support a rod, or in masonry (q.v.) the top or “ apex stone ” of the gable of a roof, &c.
Saddle bars, in architecture (Fr. traverses), are narrow horizontal iron bars passing from mullion to mullion, and often through the whole window from side to side, to steady the sto'ne work, and to form stays, to which the lead work is secured. When the bays of the windows are wide, the lead lights are further strengthened by upright bars, passing through eyes forged on the saddle bars, and called stanchions. When saddle bars pass right through the mullions in one piece, and are secured to the jambs, they have sometimes been called “ stay bars.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacrarium

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​ SACRARIUM, the term in classic architecture given to the cella of a temple, and to the apartment in a dwelling house which was sacred to a deity. In medieval architecture the term is applied on the European continent to that portion of a chancel, which, enclosed with a railing or balustrade in front of the altar, is devoted to the celebration of the Holy Eucharist; this in England is generally known as the presbytery.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sacristy

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​SACRISTY (through Fr. sacristie, from med. Lat. sacristia or sacristina), the term in ecclesiastical architecture given to the room or hall in a large church wherein are kept the vestments and utensils (sacra) used in the services and celebrations. Like the diaconicou in the Greek Church, it was usually situated on the north side of the chancel, but its position varies according to that of the chapter-house, as it is generally placed between the latter and the church.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saddleworth

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​SADDLEWORTH, an urban district in the Colne Valley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 14 m. N.E. of Manchester, on the London &, North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,320. It lies on the western, side of the elevation of Stanedge, which here forms the watershed between streams flowing westward to the Irish Sea and eastward to the North Sea. Early earthworks and tumuli are numerous in the locality. The Huddersfield canal follows the valley, and, like the railway, is carried under Stanedge by a long tunnel.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tergeste

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​TERGESTE (mod. Trieste, q.v.), an ancient city of Istria, 26 m. by road E.S.E. of Aquileia, at the northern extremity of the peninsula of Istria, in a bay at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Its importance was in ancient days, as now, mainly due to its commerce as the outlet of Pannonia and Dalmatia. It is first mentioned about 100 B.C. as a village. In 52 B.C. it was attacked by barbarian tribes from the interior. In 33 B.C. Augustus during his Dalmatian wars built a wall and towers there, as an inscription records; in a medieval copy of it the emperor Frederick III. mentions his own restoration of the city walls for the fourth time in 1470. At this time it probably became a colony, as it certainly was in Pliny's days. It appears to have had an extensive territory assigned to it. The loftily situated cathedral of S. Giusto occupies the site of a Roman temple, some of the walls and columns of which may be seen in the tower. Into the façade are built fragments of sepulchral reliefs. The church itself has a curious plan which is due to its having been formed out of two distinct churches standing side by side, which were united in the 14th century. Each of these is a basilica with ancient columns and mosaics in the apse. The southern church, S. Giusto, has a central dome. The so-called Arco di Riccardo is a half-buried Roman arch with Corinthian pilasters, possibly a triumphal arch, possibly connected with an aqueduct.
The museum contains inscriptions, mosaic pavements, &c., from the ancient town, of which no remains beyond those mentioned now exist above ground.
See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. Latin. V. (1883), p. 53 sqq.; T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero (Oxford, 1887), III., 343; G. Caprini, Trieste (Bergamo, 1906).
(T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terek (province)

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​TEREK, a province of Russian Caucasia, situated N. of the Caucasus chain. It is bounded by the government of Stavropol on the N., by the Caspian Sea and Daghestan on the E., by Tiflis and Kutais on the S., and by the Black Sea district and the province of Kuban on the W., and has an area of 23,531 sq. m. From Mount Elbruz to Kasbek the southern boundary coincides with the main range of the Caucasus, and thus includes some of its highest peaks; further east it follows a sinuous line so as to enclose the secondary chains and their ramifications. Nearly one-third of the area is occupied by hilly tracts, the remainder being undulating and flat land belonging to the depression of the Terek; one-half of this last, on the left bank of the river, is occupied by sandy deserts, salt clay steppes, and arid stretches unsuited for cultivation. The Caucasus Mountains are described under that heading. Tertiary formations, overlain by Quaternary deposits, cover a wide area in the prairies and steppes. Mineral springs occur near Pyatigorsk.
The climate is continental. The mean annual temperatures are 49.6° Fahr. at Pyatigorsk (1680 ft. above the sea; January 39°, July 70°) and 47.7° at Vladikavkaz (2345 ft.; January 23°, July 69°), but frosts a few degrees below zero are not uncommon. The mountain slopes receive an abundance of rain (37 in.), but the steppes suffer much from drought (rainfall between 10 and 20 in.). Nearly the whole of the government belongs to the drainage area of the river Terek, but the north-west corner is drained by the upper tributaries of the Kuma. In the lower part of its course the Terek flows at a higher level than that of the neighbouring plains, and is kept in its bed by ernbankments. Nevertheless inundations are frequent and cause great destruction.
The estimated population in 1906 was 1,044,800. The province is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Vladikavkaz, Groznyi, Kizlyar, Nalchik, Pyatigorsk, Sunzhinsk and Khasavyurt, the last two being nomad centres of administration. Agriculture has developed greatly on the prairies, the area under crops being 9 per cent. of the total. Rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes are the principal crops. The vine is very extensively cultivated, especially in the districts of Kizlyar and Pyatigorsk, where 1,500,000 gallons of wine are made annually. Live-stock breeding is widely engaged in, and fishing is an important source of income, especially at the mouth of the Terek. Bees are generally kept, and yield every year nearly half a million sterling worth of honey and wax. Melons, cucumbers and sunflowers are extensively grown. The railway, which formerly stopped at Vladikavkaz, has been continued from the Beslan station, near Vladikavkaz, to Petrovsk on the Caspian Sea, and thence to Baku.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terbium

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​TERBIUM [symbol Tb, atomic weight 159.2 (O=16)], a metallic chemical element belonging to the rare earth group; it was originally called erbia by its discoverer Mosander (see Rare Earth). Pure terbium compounds were obtained by G. Urbain (Compt. rend., 1904 seq.) by fractional crystallization of the nickel double nitrates, the ethyl sulphates, and the bismuth double nitrates of the terbium earths. Terbium appears to be trivalent. The oxide is a black or brown powder according as it is prepared from the exalate or sulphate, and when pure it is non-fluorescent, but mixed with gadolinia or alumina it possesses this property. It yields colourless salts; the crystallized sulphate has the formula Tb$_2$(SO$_4$)$_3$·8H$_2$O.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terceira

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​TERCEIRA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 48,770; area, 224 sq. m. Terceira, i.e. “ the third,” was so called as being the third island of the archipelago to be discovered by the Portuguese. From its central position it was long the seat of administration, but its capital, Angra (q.v.) or Angra do Heroismo (pop. 10,788), has lost much of its cornmercial importance. The other chief towns are Ribeirinha (3090), and Praia da Victoria (3236). Unlike the neighbouring islands, Terceira exhibits few extensive traces of volcanic action; and the summits of its mountains are generally level. It abounds in grain and cattle; but the wines are inferior, and fruits are raised merely for internal consumption. (See also Azores.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terebinth

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​TEREBINTH, botanical name Pistacia Terebinthus, a member of the natural order Anacardiaceae, usually a small tree common in the south of Europe and the whole Mediterranean area. It has a purplish grey bark and compound leaves with two to four pairs, and an odd terminal one, of smooth dark green oval blunt leaflets, which when young are thin, translucent and strongly tinged with reddish purple. The very small numerous uni sexual flowers are borne on panicles which spring from just above the scars of last year's leaves. The fruit is a small roundish bright red drupe with a scanty pulp. The plant has been long known in English gardens. A liquid oleo-resinous exudation, known as Chian, Scio or Cyprus turpentine, is obtained by cutting the stem. The Chian turpentine of commerce is obtained exclusively from the island of Scio; the produce is very small, a large tree yielding only 10 or 11 ounces in one year. An allied species, P. Lentiscus, is the mastich tree.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terek (river)

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​TEREK, a river of Russian Caucasia. It rises in the Caucasus, on the slopes of Mount Kasbek, in several head-streams, and flows north as far as Vladikavkaz, just above which it emerges from the mountains, Then it flows N.W. and N. as far as approximately 43° 45' N., whereupon it swings round to the E. and pursues that direction as far as 46° 30' E. Finally, after a comparatively short run towards the N.N.E., it branches out into a large delta on the west side of the Caspian Sea. This river, the ancient Alutas, is at first an impetuous mountain torrent, as are also all its chief tributaries—the Zunzha on the right, and the Ardon, Urukh, Cherek, Urvan, Chegem, Baksan and Malka on the left. All these streams, except the first-named, rise at altitudes of 8000 to 9000 ft. between Mount Kasbek and Mount Elbruz. In its lower course the Terek becomes very sinuous and sluggish, and frequently overflows its banks with disastrous results. Opposite its mouth it forms large sand-banks in the Caspian, and is nowhere navigable. Its length is 300 m., and the area of its drainage basin extends to 22,800 sq. m.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teraphim

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​TERAPHIM (A.V. sometimes transcribes, e.g. Judges xvii. 5; xviii. 14 seq.; Hosea iii. 4; sometimes translates “image,” 1 Sam. xix. 13; “idols,” Zech. x. 2; “idolatry,” 1 Sam. xv. 23: R.V. renders consistently “teraphim”), a Hebrew word, found only in the plural, of uncertain etymology. The name appears to be applied to some form of idol (cf. Gen. xxxi. 19 and 30), but details as to its precise configuration, &c., are lacking. From 1 Sam. xix. 13, 16 it would seem that in the early monarchical period a regular place in every household was still reserved for the teraphim; while in the 8th century Hosea (iii. 4) speaks of “ephod and teraphim” as essential elements in the national worship. Later the teraphim with other adjuncts of heathenish worship were banned by the prophets. The meaning of the Elohistic story in Gen. xxxv. 2–4 clearly is that the employment of teraphim and of other heathen practices of Aramean paganism was given up by Israel in order that they might serve Jehovah alone at Bethel. In Judges and Hosea the teraphim are closely associated with the ephod; both are mentioned in connexion with divination (cf. 2 Kings xxiii. 24; Ezek. xxi. 21 [26]; Zech. x. 2). Whether the teraphim were “consulted” by lot or not is uncertain. In view of Ezek. xxi. 21 and Hosea iii. 4 it is difficult to suppose that the teraphim were purely household idols. The Rabbinical conjectures on the subject can be found in Buxtorf, Lex. Talm. (ed. Fischer), 1315 seq. One of the most curious is that the teraphim consisted of a mummified human head (see also Ephod). (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Terentianus

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​TERENTIANUS, surnamed Maurus (a native of Mauretania), Latin grammarian and writer on prosody, flourished probably at the end of the 2nd century A.D. His references to Septimius Serenus and Alfius Avitus, who belonged to the school of “new poets” (poetae neoterici or novelli) of the reign of Hadrian and later, seem to show that he was a near contemporary of those writers. He was the author of a treatise (incomplete) in four books (written chiefly in hexameters), on letters, syllables, feet and metres, of which considerable use was made by later writers on similar subjects. The most important part of it is that which deals with metres, based on the work of Caesius Bassus, the friend of Persius. By some authorities Terentianus has been identified with the prefect of Syene mentioned in Martial (i. 86), which would make his date about a century earlier; others, again, who placed Petronius at the end of the 3rd century (a date no longer held), assigned Terentianus to the same period, from his frequent references to that author.
Best edition, by H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.; with commentary by L. Santen (1825); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), 373a.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volcano Islands

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​VOLCANO ISLANDS, three small islands in the western Pacific Ocean, S. of the Bonin Islands, forming part of the Japanese empire (annexed in 1891). They are also known as the Magellan Archipelago, and in Japan as Kwazan-retto (series of volcanic islands). They are situated between 24° and 26° N. and 141° and 142° E. Their names are Kita-iwo-jima (Santo Alessandro), Iwo-jima (Sulphur) and Minami-iwo-jima (Santo Agostino). Kita-iwo-jima—which, as its name (kita) implies, is the most northerly of the three—rises 2520 ft. above the water, and Minami-iwo-jima, the most southerly, to a height of 3021 ft. The islands are not inhabited. With this group is sometimes included another island, Arzobispo, nearer the Bonin group.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volcei

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​VOLCEI (mod. Buccino), an ancient town of Lucania, 2128 ft. above sea-level, the chief town of the independent tribe of the Volceiam, Vulcientes or Volcentani, whose territory was bounded N. by that of the Hirpini, W. and S. by Lucania and E. by the territory of Venusia. Some pre-Roman ruins still exist (Not. Scav., 1884, 115). It became a municipium, and in A.D. 323 had an extensive territory attached to it, including the town of Numistro, the large Cyclopean walls of which may still be seen, 21/2 m. below Muro Lucano. Below the town is a well-preserved Roman bridge over the Tanager (mod. Tanagro).
See G. Patroni in Notizie degli scavi (1897), 183.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vol 9:8

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volcae

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​VOLCAE, a Celtic people in the province of Gallia Narbonensis, who occupied the district between the Garumna (Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cévennes), and the Rhodanus (or even farther to the east in earlier times), corresponding roughly to the old province of Languedoc. They were divided into two tribes, the Arecomici on the east and the Tectosages (whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west, separated by the river Arauris (Hérault) or a line between the Arauris and Orbis (Orbe). The Volcae were free and independent, had their own laws, and possessed the jus Latii. The chief town of the Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse); of the Arecomici, Nemausus (Nîmes); the capital of the province and residence of the governor was Narbo Martius (Narbonne). It was said that there was an early settlement of Volcae Tectosages near the Hercynia Silva in Germany; Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who invaded and settled in Asia Minor in the country called after them Galatia.
See A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, i. ii. (1896, 1904), s. vv. “Arecomici” and “Tectosagi”; T. R. Holmes, Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul (1899) p. 513; A. Desjardins, Géographie de la Gaule romaine, i. (1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Volci

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​VOLCI, or Vulci, an ancient town of Etruria. The circuit of the walls measures about 4 m., and scanty traces of them and of Roman buildings within them still exist. The Ponte della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with a main arch of 66 ft. span, 98 ft. above the stream, is also Roman. An aqueduct passes over it. The former wealth of the town is mainly proved by the discoveries made in its extensive necropolis from 1828 onwards—Greek vases, bronzes and other remains—many of which are now in the Vatican. By 1856 over 15,000 tombs had, it was calculated, had been opened. These were entirely subterranean, and little is now to be seen on the site but a great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller ones. The frescoes from the François tomb, discovered in 1857, illustrating Greek and Etruscan myths, are now in the Museo Torlonia at Rome. Volci was one of the twelve towns of Etruria. Coruncanius triumphed over the people of Vulsinii and Volci in 280 B.C., and the colony of Cosa was founded in their territory. This seems to have led to the decline of the city, and it does not seem to have been of great importance in the Roman period, though it became an episcopal see.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), i. 437, ii. 503; S. Gsell, Fouilles dans la nécropole de Vulci (Paris, 1891), for the excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earlier publications). (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teviotdale

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​TEVIOTDALE, the valley of the Teviot, Roxburghshire, Scotland. In a limited sense the word describes the stretch above Hawick (9 m.) and, in a wider sense, the whole vale, extending in a north-easterly direction from Teviothead nearly to the confines of the parish of Roxburgh, a distance of 23 m. It is sometimes incorrectly used as an alternative name for the shire, much of the area of which, in point of fact, lies outside the Teviot drainage basin. There are numerous points of interest in the dale. Henry Scott Riddell (1798–1870), the poet, was buried at Teviothead. Almost side by side in the churchyard are the obelisk near his grave and the memorial stone erected in the cemetery wall to John Armstrong of Gilnockie, the celebrated freebooter, who, along with several followers, was treacherously seized in 1530 and hanged at Caerlanrigg, in the immediate vicinity, by order of James V. Riddell is further commemorated by a monument on Dryden hill. Branxholm tower, the peel of Goldielands, and Harden castle (on Harden burn, a tributary of Northwick water) are spots familiar through the writings of Sir Walter Scott and many Border ballads. Five m. to the east of Hawick stands the hill of Ruberslaw (1392 ft.). Among the crags on its summit is the rock, still called “Peden’s chair,” from which Alexander Peden preached to conventicles of Covenanters. Below Hawi-ck interest principally centres around Minto, Hassendean-the Hazeldean of Sir Walter Scott’s song, “Jock o’ Hazeldean”—and Ancrum.