OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Heinz

From volume 7 of the work.
Swiss painter; b. at Basle, 11 June, 1564; d. near Prague, Bohemia, October, 1609. He appears to have been a pupil of Hans Bock, and to have educated himself by diligent practice in copying the works of Hans Holbein the younger. Between 1585 and 1587 he lived in Rome, registering himself a pupil; to Hans von Aachen. He next settled in Bohemia in 1591, and was at once appointed court painter to Rudolf II, but he remained at Prague for two years only, as in 1593 he was commissioned to make some copies from the antique for the emperor, and for that purpose went to Rome, where he spent some years. In 1604 we hear of him in Augsburg, and from the time we know little of his history, until his decease is recorded in a village outside of Prague. His works were at one time in extraordinary demand, but later on suffered an eclipse, and are now not so highly esteemed as they deserve. His portraits and landscapes are his best works; the family portrait at Berne and that of his patron Rudolf II at Vienna are excellent examples of serious and academic portraiture. In his landscapes he was too fond of a remarkable green colour, but in composition his works were simple and not so crowded as were those of many of his contemporaries in the Dutch School. He was constantly investigating subtle questions of light, and almost all of his landscapes show the interest he took in this technical matter. A notable work by him is the "Rape of Proserpine", which hangs in the Dresden Gallery, and was engraved by Kilian; in the same gallery are two other well-known works, "Lot and His Daughters" and "Ecce Homo". He had a son, who bore the same name, and who painted a few religious pictures not of special importance; several of these works hitherto attributed to the son are now believed to be late productions by the father.
Woermann, Gesch. Der Kunst (Dresden, 1902); Bohemian Dict. Of Artists (Dlabacz, 1877); Schweizerisches Kunstlerlexikon (1902).
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare

From volume 12 of the work.
Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare, missionary and sinologist, born at Cherbourg, 17 July, 1666; died at Macao, 17 Sept., 1736; entered the Society of Jesus 17 Sept., 1683, and departed for China in 1698. He laboured as missionary chiefly in the province Kwang-si. When the Christian faith was proscribed by Emperor Yong-tching, in January, 1724, Prémare was confined with his colleagues in Canton. A still more rigorous edict banished him to Macao. In his retirement he studied profoundly the language and literature of China, and in the opinion of sinologists he, of all the older missionaries, best succeeded in grasping their peculiarities and beauties. His principal work is entitled: "Notitia linguæ sinicæ"; in simple form it explains the rules and usage of the vulgar Chinese language (siao shue), and the style of the written, literary language (wen tchang). The famous English sinologist, James Legge, calls it "an invaluable work, of which it could hardly be possible to speak in too high terms". Father de Prémare is one of the missionaries who furnished Father Jean-Baptiste du Halde with the material for his "Description de la Chine" (Paris, 1735). We owe him, in particular, the translation of the maxims taken from the Shu-King (Du Halde, II, 298); of eight odes of the Shi-King (II, 308); of the "Orphan of the House of Tchao", a Chinese tragedy (III, 341); the notes on the course of study, literary degrees and examinations of the Chinese (II, 251); etc. In "Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses" we find many letters from Father Prémare. A much greater number of his writings are unedited, preserved, chiefly, at the National Library (Paris). Many undertake the defence of figurism, the name of a singular system of interpreting ancient Chinese books, the inventor of which was Father Joachim Bouvet. Following Bouvet, Prémare thought he discovered in the Chinese King (see CHINA) suggestions of Christian doctrines and allusions to the mysteries of Christianity. The written Chinese words and characters are to him but symbols that hide profound senses. The three or four missionaries who adopted these ideas of Bouvet were never authorized to publish them in book form. The most important work which Father de Prémare wrote in their defence has only recently appeared, translated from the Latin by M. Bonnetty, director of the "Annales de philosophie chrétienne", aided by Abbé Perny, formerly missionary to China. It is entitled: "Vestiges choisis des principaux dogmes de la religion chrétienne, extraits des anciens livres chinois" (Paris, 1878).
DE BACKER-SOMMERVOGEL, Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus, VI, 1196-1201; IX, 784; CORDIER, Bibliotheca Sinica, I; BRUCKER, Etudes religieuses, 6 ser., III, 425 (1877).
Joseph Brucker.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Franz Allioli

From volume 1 of the work.
​Allioli, Joseph Franz, b. at Sulzbach, 10 August, 1793; d. at Augsburg, 22 May, 1873. He studied theology at Landshut, was ordained at Ratisbon, 1816, studied Oriental languages at Vienna, Rome, and Paris (1818–20), became professor in the University at Landshut in 1824, and was transferred with the university to Munich in 1826, but owing to a weak throat he had to accept a canonry at Ratisbon, in 1835, and became Dean of the chapter at Augsburg, in 1838. His works are: "Aphorismen über den Zusammenhang der heiligen Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments, aus der Idee des Reichs Gottes" (Ratisbon 1819); "Häusliche Alterthümer der Hebräer nebst biblischer Geographie" (1821); "Biblische Alterthümer" (Landshut, 1825); "Handbuch der biblischen Alterthumskunde" (in cooperation with Grätz and Haneberg, Landshut, 1843–44); "Übersetzung der heiligen Schriften Alten und Neuen Testaments, aus der Vulgata, mit Bezug auf den Grundtext, neu übersetzt und mit kurzen Anmerkungen erläutert, dritte Auflage von Allioli umgearbeitet" (6 vols., Nürnberg, 1830–35). This work received a papal approbation, 11 May, 1830.
Hergenröther in Kirchenlex.; Wetzer und Welte, Konversations-Lexikon, 3 ed. (St. Louis, 1902); Vig., Dict. de la bible (Paris, 1895).
A. J. Maas.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Gasser von Valhorn

From volume 6 of the work.
An Austrian sculptor, b. 22 Nov., 1816 at Prägraten, Tyrol; d. 28 Oct., 1900. He was first instructed by his father, a wood-carver, and later studied at the Academy, Vienna. In 1846 he went to Rome, where a government stipend enabled him to remain several years. On his return he settled in Vienna (1852), and executed five heroic figures for the portal of the cathedral at Speyer: Our Lady, the Archangel St. Michael, St. John the Baptist, St. Stephen and St. Bernard of Clairvaux, completed in 1856. Also in Speyer he carved seven reliefs for the Kaiserhalle. The marble statue of Rudolph IV on the Elizabeth bridge over the Danube Canal, Vienna, is by him. Other works are the statues of Maximilian I, Frederick the Warlike, and Leopold of Hapsburg for the Museum of the Arsenal; the marble statues of the Seven Liberal Arts in the staircase of the Opera House; twenty-four figures for the Cathedral of St. Stephen; the relief of Duke Rudolph the Founder for the New Townhall; the "Prometheus" and the "Genevieve" for the Court Theatre; a number of statues for the Altlerchenfelder Church; busts of Herodotus and Aristarchus for the university; and portraits of Maximilian of Mexico and of his wife the Empress Charlotte. He also made a bust of the Emperor Francis Joseph for the Hotel de Ville, Paris, and sculptures for the new cathedral, Linz. Most important among his works are the subjects for the Votive Church, Vienna, modelled around the year 1873: the Coronation of Mary, the group of the Trinity, a figure of Christ the Redeemer, statues for the high and side altars, nine angels, and the tympan reliefs tor the three main portals. Glasser was professor at the Academy from 1865 to 1873, and was inscribed among the nobility in 1879. In spite of his long life, and much good work, he had but small influence on the development of modern sculpture in Austria.
M. L. Handley.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Georg Strossmayer

From volume 14 of the work.
(Josip Juraj), Bishop of Diakovár, born at Essegg in Croatia-Slavonia, 4 February, 1815; died 8 April, 1905. He came from a family of German peasants who had immigrated into Croatia. After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied theology in the seminary at Diakovár and the higher seminary at Budapest, where he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy when only twenty years of age. In 1838 he was ordained priest and was for two years vicar at Peterwardein. In 1840 he went to the Augustineum at Vienna; in 1842 obtained the degree of Doctor of Theology, and was then made professor at Diakovár. In 1847 he became court chaplain, prefect in the Augustineum and professor of canon law at the University of Vienna. On 18 November, 1849, he was appointed Bishop of Diakovár, and was consecrated on 8 September, 1850. At the same time he was Apostolic Administrator of Belgrade-Semendria in Serbia. In 1898 the pope conferred the pallium on him.
At the Vatican Council he was one of the most notable opponents of papal infallibility, and distinguished himself as a speaker. The pope praised Strossmayer's "remarkably good Latin." A speech in which he defended Protestantism made a great sensation. Afterwards another speech, delivered apparently on 2 June, 1870, was imputed to him. It is full of heresies and denies not only infallibility but also the primacy of the pope. The forger is said to have been a former Augustinian, a Mexican named Dr. José Agustín de Escudero. After the council Strossmayer maintained his opposition longer than all the other bishops and kept up a connection with Döllinger and Reinkens until October, 1871. Then he notified them that he intended to yield "at least outwardly". Finally, on 26 December, 1872, he published the decrees of the council in his official paper. At a later date he repeatedly proclaimed his submission to the pope, as in his pastoral letter of 28 February, 1881, on Sts. Cyril and Methodius, expressing his devotion to the papal see at times in extravagant language.
In politics he was an active supporter of the Croatian national party and Panslavism. He exerted himself to advance his people in civilization, yet he strengthened national hatreds by his political agitation. He used the large revenues of his diocese to found primary schools, a seminary, the academy for southern Slavs at Agram (1867), the university (1874), and a picture gallery also at Agram. Under his direction Augustín Theiner edited the "Vetera monumenta Slavorum meridionalium" (1863). During 1866-82 he built a fine and splendidly ornamented cathedral. He sought to win the non-Catholic Serbians to Rome by the use of the Old Slavonic liturgy.
Klemens Löffler.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Joseph Gabriel Rheinberger

From volume 13 of the work.
A composer and organist, born at Vaduz, in the Principality of Lichtenstein, Bavaria, 17 March, 1839; died at Munich, 25 Nov., 1901. When seven years old, he already served as organist in his parish church, and at the age of eight composed a mass for three voices. After enjoying for a short time the instruction of Choir-master Schmutzer in Feldkirch, he attended the conservatory at Munich from 1851 to 1854, and finished his musical education with a course under Franz Lachner. In 1859 he was appointed professor of the theory of music and organ at the conservatory, a position which he held until a few months before his death. Besides his duties as teacher he acted successively as organist at the court Church of St. Michael, conductor of the Munich Oratorio Society, and instructor of the solo artists at the royal opera. In 1867 he received the title of royal professor, and became inspector of the newly established royal school for music, now called the Royal Academy of Music. In 1877 he was promoted to the rank of royal court conductor, which position carried with it the direction of the music in the royal chapel. Honoured by his prince with the title of nobility and accorded the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy by the Munich University, Rheinberger for more than forty years wielded as teacher of many of the most gifted young musicians of Europe and America, perhaps more influence than any of his contemporaries. As a composer he was remarkable for his power of invention, masterful technique, and a noble, solid style. Among his two hundred compositions are oratorios (notably "Christoforus" and "Monfort"); two operas; cantatas for soli, chorus, and orchestra ("The Star of Bethlehem", "Toggenburg", "Klãrchen auf Eberstein" etc.); smaller works for chorus and orchestra; symphonies ("Wallenstein"), overtures, and chamber music for various combinations of instruments, Most important of all his instrumental works are his twenty sonatas for organ, the most notable productions in this form since Mendelssohn. Rheinberger wrote many works to liturgical texts, namely, twelve masses (one for double chorus, three for four voices a cappella, three for women's voices and organ, two for men's voices and one with orchestra), a requiem, Stabat Mater, and a large number of motets, and smaller pieces. Rheinbergen's masses rank high as works of art, but some of them are defective in the treatment of the text. Joseph Renner, Jr., has recently remedied most of these defects, and made the masses available for liturgical purposes.
KRAYER, Joseph Rheinberger (Ratisbon, 1911); RENNER, Rheinberger's Messen in Kirchen-musikalisches Jahrbuch (Ratisbon, 1909).
JOSEPH OTTEN
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abrasives

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABRASIVES, term applied to substances used in polishing and grinding. They include implements fashioned from natural materials, such as grindstones, millstones, whetstones, etc., mineral substances used in a granulated form and artificial abradants.
The familiar grindstone, known from the earliest times, is made from a gritty tenacious sandstone, found in abundant ​in Germany and the British Isles, and plentiful in Ohio and other Western States. Millstones and buhrstones, the latter of which are largely imported from France, are used in grinding coarse cereals, cement rock and certain minerals. The increasing use of the roller process in flour-making has decreased the demand for millstones. Oilstones, scythestones, and whetstones are chiefly of American origin, although an appreciable amount is imported from Belgium, Italy, and France. Pumice is a volcanic ash used in scouring powders and soaps. It is found in Utah and Nebraska, and is also brought from the Lipari Islands. Crystalline quartz is used for sandpaper, garnet for woodworking and shoemaking and corundum for metals, the latter being the hardest material known except the diamond. Alundum is a very efficient abrasive for hardened and toughened steels. Carborundum or carbide of silicon is extensively used in difficult tasks. One of the newest abrasives is electrite, which has a composition between alundum and carborundum. The water power of Niagara Falls is used for the treatment and manufacture of abrasives in great plants that have been established near the Falls.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abstinence

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
ABSTINENCE, the act or habit of refraining from something to which we have a propensity, or in which we find pleasure; but it is more particularly applied to the privation or sparing use of food. Abstinence has been enjoined and practiced for various ends, as sanitary, moral, or religious. Abstinence of flesh on certain days is obligatory in the Roman Catholic Church.
Source: Collier's New Encyclopedia 1. (1921) New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company. 12.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abruzzi, Prince Luigi Amadeo of Savoy-Aosta, Duke of

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABRUZZI (äb-röts′ē), PRINCE LUIGI AMADEO OF SAVOY-AOSTA, DUKE OF, Italian explorer; born in Madrid, Jan. 29. 1873; nephew of King Humbert; in May, 1899, he started on an expedition, in the specially prepared steamer "Star of Italy," for Franz Josef Land, intending, when frozen in, to use sledges in a search for the North Pole and the balloon explorer. Dr. Andrée. He returned to Norway in September, 1900, after having reached a point in latitude 86° 33′ N., surpassing Nansen's farthest N. record by 19′. In 1906 he led an expedition into equatorial Africa. A personal feat was the climbing of Mt. Ruwenzori, 16,600 feet high, whose summit, so far as known, had never before been reached. In 1909, he reached the top of Mt. Austen in India, 24,000 feet. During the war with Tripoli, he headed an Italian squadron operating in the Adriatic and Mediterranean. At the outbreak of the World War, ho was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Italian navy, and after the entrance of his own country into the conflict in May. 1915, he acted in co-operation with the allied admirals in controlling the waters of southern Europe.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Absolute

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
ABSOLUTE, opposed to relative; means that the thing is considered in itself and without reference to other things.
1. Absolute or non-connotative, according to Whately, is opposed to attributive or connotative. The former does not take note of an attribute connected with the object, which the latter does.
2. According to J. S. Mill, it is incorrect to regard non-connotative and absolute as synonymous terms. He considers absolute to mean non-relative, and to be opposed to relative.
In metaphysics, absolute means existing independently of any other cause.
A case absolute, in grammar, is one consisting essentially of a substantive and a participle, which form a clause not agreeing with or governed by any word in the remainder of the sentence. In Greek, the absolute case is the genitive; in Latin, the ablative; in English, it is considered to be the nominative.
In law, personal rights are divided into absolute and relative — absolute, which pertain to men as individuals; and relative, which are incident to them as members of society, standing in various relations to each other. The three chief rights of an absolute kind are the right of personal security, the right of personal liberty, and the right of private property.
Absolute, in natural philosophy, is generally opposed to relative. As this relativity may be of many kinds, various shades of meaning arise, thus:
1. Absolute or real expansion of a liquid, as opposed to its apparent expansion, the expansion which would arise when the liquid is heated, if the vessel containing it did not itself expand. (See Atkinson's “Ganot's Physics,” bk. vi, ch. iii.)
2. Absolute gravity is the gravity of a body viewed apart from all modifying influences, as, for instance, of the atmosphere. To ascertain its amount, therefore, the body must be weighed in vacuo.
3. Absolute motion is the change of place on a body produced by the motion so designated viewed apart from the modifying influence arising from disturbing elements of another kind.
4. Absolute space is space considered apart from the material bodies in it.
5. Absolute time is time viewed apart from events or any other subjects of mental conception with which it may be associated.
6. Absolute force of a center: Strength of a center.
Absolute zero, an imaginary temperature so low that there would be no heat left.
Source: Collier's New Encyclopedia 1. (1921) New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company. 11-12.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Absolution

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
ABSOLUTION, in ecclesiastical usage, the freeing from sin or its penalties.
Source: Collier's New Encyclopedia 1. (1921) New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company. 12.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abraham, Plains of

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABRAHAM, PLAINS OF and HEIGHTS OF. a table-land near Quebec, rising above the St. Lawrence, where the battle of Quebec was fought between the British and French (1759). A noble monument now marks the spot.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Absorption

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
ABSORPTION, the act, operation, or process of absorbing, sucking in, or swallowing anything, or otherwise causing it to disappear in another body. Absorption by organized bodies is the taking up or imbibing, by means of their tissues, of material suitable for their nourishment.
In chemistry, absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid, or by a porous solid; and in natural philosophy it is the taking up rays of light and heat by certain bodies through which they are passing.
Absorption of heat is the retention and consequent disappearance of rays of heat in passing into or through a body colder than themselves.
Absorption of the earth is a term used by Kircher and others for the subsidence of tracts of land produced by earthquakes or other natural agencies.
Source: Collier's New Encyclopedia 1. (1921) New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company. 12.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abruzzi and Molise

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABRUZZI AND MOLISE, a political division of Italy, including the provinces of Aquila, Teramo, Chieti. and Campobasso. The Abruzzi is wild and mountainous, the Apennines here reaching their loftiest heights, in Gran Sasso d'ltalia nearly 10,000 feet, in the N., and Majella over 9,000, in the S. Cattle-raising is its chief industry. The Molise, comprising the province of Campobasso, yields considerable grain and fruit. Asphalt deposits occur there. The area is 6,387 square miles. Pop. about 1,550,000.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Absalom

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABSALOM, the third son of David, king of Israel, remarkable for his beauty. He contrived to win the affections of the people, and then stirred up a formidable rebellion. A battle was fought in the forest of Ephraim, in which the rebels were defeated. In the flight, as Absalom was riding under a tree, he was caught in the branches, in which position Joab, the commander of David's army, thrust him through. The grief of David for his loss was excessive.
# Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abscess

Edition of 1921; disclaimer.
​ABSCESS, a gathering of pus in any tissue or organ of the body. It is so called because there is an abscessus (=a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them. It results from the softening of the natural tissues, and the exudations thus produced.
# Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996/2009-04-03/Chapter 7

Chapter 7
Local Government
Status of municipalities
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