OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Commemoration (in Liturgy)

From volume 4 of the work.
The recital of a part of the Office or Mass assigned to a certain feast or day when the whole cannot be said. When two Offices fall on the same day and when, according to the rules of the rebrics, one of them cannot be transferred to another day, it is in part celebrated by way of a commemoration. Offices have different degrees of importance (doubles, semi-doubles, etc.) assigned them at their institution, and it is this that mainly determines precedence in cases of conflict.
At Mass a commemoration consists in saying the collect, Secret, and Post-Communion proper to the feast or day which is being commemorated. In the Office commemorations occur at Lauds and Vespers and consist in reciting the antiphons, with their versicles and responses, of the Benedictus and Magnificat respectively, adding in each case an oremus with the oration proper. These are called special commemorations as distinguished from the common, which are in the Office when the latter is of an inferior rite. These commemorative prayers of the Mass vary according to the season of the year. When two or more special commemorations have to be made, the order is determined by the rank or relative importance of the feasts and Offices. When two Offices fall on the same day there is said to be "occurrence"; and when the second Vespers of a preceding Office coincides with the first Vespers of the following there is "concurrence." When one of the two occurring, or concurring, Offices is very solemn and the other relatively unimportant, all mention of the latter is omitted.
Patrick Morrisroe.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni de' Marignolli

From volume 16 of the work.
Born at Florence about 1290; place and date of death unknown. When quite a youth he received the Franciscan habit at the convent of Santa Croce, Florence; later on, as he himself tells us, he held the chair of theology at the University of Bologna. Nothing more is known of his religious life until Benedict XII sent him with other Franciscans on a mission to the Emperor of China, as a result of the Chinese embassy which arrived at Avignon in 1338. Marignolli became one of the greatest travellers in Asia, and has left an account of his itinerary much studied today by geographers of the extreme East. In Dec., 1338, he left Avignon, arriving at Naples, on 10 Feb., 1339, and on 1 May reached the Court of Andronicus III at Constantinople, where he treated in vain with the clergy concerning the reunion with Rome. From there he passed to the Crimea and thence to Sarai, carrying papal letters to Usbek, Khan of Kiptchak, who sent an escort with him as far as Armalec, where he arrived in the winter of 1340. Towards the end of 1341 he left Armalec and crossed the desert of Gobi to Peking, where he was received with great honours at the Chinese Court. After three years at Peking he travelled through the greater part of southern China as far as Columbum (Quilon) and Cape Comorin. He visited Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the Indian Ocean, and then returned to the Coromandel Coast. There he embarked for Malabar, and thence took the route to Europe by the Persian Gulf, Ormuz, Gezd, Ispahan, and then by Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Egypt, arriving at Naples in 1353. From there he went to Florence and arrived at Avignon after fifteen years' absence. In March, 1354, the pope named him Bishop of Bisignano; and in 1356 Florence sent him as papal legate to Avignon. In 1357 Emperor Charles IV called him to be his councillor with the office also of court historian. Some years afterwards he compiled his "Chronicon Bohemiæ", in which he described his eastern travels. The work was edited by Dobner in "Monumenta historica Bohemiæ" (Prague, 1768).
MEINERT, Johannes von Marignola minder Bruders und papstlichen Legaten, Reise in das Morgenland, tr. from Latin, in Abhandl, der königl. böhm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft, VII (Prague, 1820); KUNSTMANN in Histor.-polit. Blätter, XXXVIII, 701-19, 793-813; YULE, Cathay and the Way Thither, II (London, 1866), 309-94; DE GUBERNATIS in Storia dei viaggiatori italiani nelle Gudie Orientoli (Leghorn, 1875), 142-60; DA CIVEZZA, Saggio di bibliografia San Francescana (Prato, 1879), 372-83. Cf. also FERUSSAC in Bulletin de la soc. de géographie, II (1824), 115-20; PALACKY in Würdigung der alten böhm. Geschichtschreiber (Prague, 1830), 164-72; AMAT DA S. FILIPPO, Studi bibl. e biogr., etc. (Rome, 1871), 103-9; POTTHAST, Bibliotheca hist. medii vi, I, 767; ROHRICHT, Bibliotheca geographica Palestin (Berlin, 1890), n. 207.
GIROLAMO GOLUBOVICH
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni da Bologna

From volume 2 of the work.
Flemish Renaissance sculptor, b. at Douai, in Flanders, about 1524; d. at Florence in 1608. Vasari gives little information about this eminent sculptor. He calls him "a youth of great talent and of spirit" and says he was one of the competitors with Cellini for the colossal figure of Neptune in his chariot drawn by sea horses. The duke, who was to decide the competition, although assured that Giovanni's model was superior to the others, did not confide the undertaking to him. We can judge of what he would have made of that commission from the bronze Neptune prepared for the fountain at Bologna.
Giovanni was called Il Fiammingo from the place of his birth. He studied in Rome and settled in Florence, having been adopted by the wealthy Bernardo Vecchietti, who treated him as his son. He was thoroughly Florentine in sentiment, and in Florence are preserved his two masterpieces, "Mercury" and the "Rape of the Sabines". In the former, in the Bargello, he has come nearer to expressing swift, flashing motion and airy lightness than has any other artist of that or a later period. The figure of the youth with winged feet, holding the caduceus, and borne aloft upon a head of Æolus, is masterly in its expression of earnest purpose and light, easy movement. Hardly less important is the "Rape of the Sabines" in marble under the Loggia dei Lanzi, in which Count Ginori posed for the figure of the triumphant youth who carries away a struggling woman in the embrace. Other works are the group of "Hercules and Nessus", the equestrian bronze figure of "Duke Cosimo I" in the Piazza Signoria and the bas-relief of the doorway of the Cathedral of Pisa. Besides these, he executed more than one crucifix, a figure of "Diana", another of "Venus", and four syrens similar to the larger ones on the Bologna fountain. Vasari mentions a bronze figure of "Bacchus" and a "Samson" in combat with two Philistines, both larger than life size. Giovanni's work is marked by freedom and grace, while free from the fault of exaggeration which so injures much of the sculpture of the very late Renaissance.
DESJARDINS, La vie de Jean Boulogne (1883).
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giraud de Borneil

From volume 6 of the work.
A Provençal troubadour, b. about the middle of the twelfth century, at Excideuil in the Viscounty of Limoges. The precise dates of his life are not known, but according to the best authorities, it fell between 1160 and 1219. Although of humble birth Giraud de Borneil counted among his patrons many kings, as: Richard Coeur de Lion, whom he accompanied to Palestine, on the Third Crusade; Bohemond III, Prince of Antioch Fernando III of Castile; Alfonso IX of Leon; Pedro II of Aragon, to whom he addressed several poems, and Sancho, King of Navarre who did not deserve the admiration the poet bestowed upon him. With his feudal lord, Gui V, Viscount of Limoges, however, he was not always on good terms. His life was simple and studious. In winter he frequented the schools of learning and studied literature under the most ce!ebrated teachers of the period. In summer, accompanied by two singers who recited his songs, he visited the courts of his royal patrons. He never married and at death divided his property between some poor relations and his parish church of Saint-Gervais. Giraud enjoyed in his time a very high reputation. Dante, in the "De vulgari eloquio" (II, 2), reckons him one of the three great troubadours, Arnaud Daniel and Bertrand de Born being the other two. An anonymous Provençal biographer of the thirteenth century goes so far as to say: "He was the best troubadour of those who lived before him or came after him, and for that reason was called the master of the troubadours, a title which is still applied to him in the opinion of those who know something about poetry and love." Dante, however, challenges this verdict and places Arnaud Daniel far above Giraud de Borneil (Purgatory XXVI). No complete edition of Giraud de Borneil's works has as yet appeared. The eighty poems ascribed to him with some certainty are scattered through various collections, including: Raynouard, "Choix des poésies originales des troubadours" (Paris 1816), and Millot "Histoire litteraire des troubadours" (Paris, 1774). His early poems, in which the influence of Arnaud Daniel is felt, belong to that form called in Provençal trobar clus, in which the meaning is involved and obscure. He soon rejected this manner and claimed in tenson (poem in form of a dialogue) that "easy and simple poetry is more esteemed and liked". Among the best of his poems are: an alba (song at daybreak) where he makes a graceful compromise between the popular and the studied forms of poetry, the love songs addressed to Alamanda d'Estanc; a few sirventes (political and satirical poems), in which the poet gives expression to the chivalrous ideals of the age, and some pastoredas.
LOUIS N. DELAMARRE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni da Verrazano

From volume 15 of the work.
Navigator, b. about 1485, of good family, at Val di Greve, near Florence; executed at Puerto del Pico, Spain, November, 1527.
Entering the naval service of Francis I of France, he soon became famous as a corsair, preying on the ships of Spain and Portugal, one of his prizes in 1522 being the treasure-ship sent to Charles V by Cortés with Mexican spoils, valued at nearly two million dollars.
In Jan., 1524, he began a voyage of discovery to the New World on behalf of his patron Francis I, during which he kept a log-book of his experiences. In 1556 Ramusio published in his collection of voyages a letter written by Verrazano giving an account of his voyage to the coast of North America and its exploration from 30 degrees to 50 degrees N. lat. It is the first post-Columbian description of the North Atlantic coast, and gives the first description of New York Bay and harbour and the present Hudson River. Thence he sailed along Long Island Sound to Block Island and Newport, of which he makes mention. From this note-book of the voyage his brother Hieronimo drew in 1529 a map of the North Atlantic coast, which is now in the museum of the Propaganda at Rome, and testifies to the accuracy of Verrazano's observations along the coast as far as a point in the present State of Maine, whence he returned to France, arriving at Dieppe in July, 1524.
Little that is authentic is known of his subsequent career; Spanish records relate that he was captured in 1527, while cruising off the coast of Cadiz, and executed by order of the Emperor Charles V. The authenticity of his letter descriptive of his voyage along the Atlantic coast has given rise to an extensive historical controversy, but the most recent researches affirm its reliability as well as that of his brother's map, the best sixteenth-century map extant in its original form, which has special influence on the subsequent cartography of the time.
A bronze statute, set up in 1910, by his admiring fellow-countrymen, facing the mouth of the great river on whose east bank the metropolis of the United States has grown, proclaims their conviction that Giovanni da Verrazano, and not Henry Hudson, was its discoverer.
Memorial History of the City of New York, II (New York, 1892); BREVOORT, Verrazano the Navigator (New York, 1874); IDEM, Verrazano the First Explorer of the Atlantic Coast in Magazine of Am. Hist., VIII (New York, 1882), 481; DE COSTA, Verrazano the Explorer (New York, 1880); MURPHY, Voyages of Verrazano (New York, 1875); Collections of N.Y. Hist. Soc., I (New York, 1841), 37; BENNETT, Catholic Footsteps in Old New York (New York, 1909).
THOMAS F. MEEHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Girba

From volume 6 of the work.
A titular see in the province of African Tripoli. It is an island, in ancient times called Meninx, and included three principal cities, Meninx, Tipasa and Girba, whence its present name. At least two bishops of Girba are known, Monnulus and Vincent, who assisted at the Councils, of Carthage in 255 and 525 (Toulotte, Géographie de l'Afrique chrétienne Proconsulaire, Paris, 1892, pp. 353 and 380). In the seventh century it is again found under the name of Terepiton, a corrupt form for Gergiton or Gerbiton (Byzant. Zeitschrift, II, 1893, 26, 31). During the Middle Ages the Christians of Sicily and Aragon disputed its possession with the Arabs, and the Spaniards seized upon it several times during the sixteenth century, notably in 1510 and 1535. In 1560 the Corsair Dragut surprised the Spanish fleet, which lost thirty vessels and five thousand men. The garrison was put to death and with the bones of the slain the Turks built a pyramid called Bordj-er-Rious, the fortress of the skulls which existed until the middle of the nineteenth century, when the bones were removed to the Christian cemetery of Hount-Souk. Today the island of Djerba numbers forty thousand souls, several hundreds of whom are Maltese Catholics who earn a livelihood as sponge-fishers. The climate is mild and the soil well cultivated. The island belongs to the regency of Tunis, which is under French protectorate.
SMITH, Dict. of Gr. and Roman Geog. (London, 1828) II, 329, s.v. Meninx.
S. VAILHÉ
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Girolamo Benzoni

From volume 2 of the work.
Born at Milan about 1519. He went to America in 1541 and successively visited the Antilles and the Isthmus, Guatemala, and the west coast of South America. He returned to Spain and thence to Italy, in 1556. Of his subsequent life nothing is known. Some hints in his book suggest that his main purpose in the New World was commerce, which he often had to carry on with difficulty as trading by foreigners in the Spanish colonies was not looked upon with favor by the Spaniards. Benzoni, while not unsuccessful in what he undertook, conceived an inveterate hatred of the Spanish people and Government and in return for the protection given him and for favors which he was compelled reluctantly to acknowledge, wrote and published a book of diatribes and accusations against Spain in America. It contains interesting details about the countries he visited, but abounds in errors and often in intentional misstatements. What Benzoni states about the Antilles is a clumsy rehash of Las Casas. His reports on the conquests of Mexico, and Peru bristle with errors.
The book of Benzoni "Historia del Mondo Nuovo" was published at Venice in 1565. He dedicated it to Pope Pius IV. It was at the time when the controversy concerning the treatment of the Indians was hottest, and a work, written by one who had just returned from the New World after a stay of fifteen years could not fail to attract attention. In writing it, no standard of criticism was applied; this was not in the spirit of the times. The ultra-philanthropists found Benzoni a welcome auxiliary, and foreign nations, all more or less leagued against Spain for the sake of supplanting its mastery of the Indies, eagerly adopted his extreme statements and sweeping accusations. Several editions were published in rapid succession; translations were made into English as well as into several other languages. Intrinsically, the book has small merit, except in as far as it presents and describes facts witnessed by the author. Even these are not always faithfully reported. It might be called a controversial document because of its violent partiality and hostility. It does not notice mitigating circumstances, and ignores what is good when it does not suit the author. Benzoni writes sometimes like a disappointed trader, and always as a man of limited education and very narrow views. His "Historia del Mondo Nuovo" (Venice, 1565) was reprinted in 1572, and translated into French by Eustace Vignon, 1579. Aside from the annotations which are often trivial and as partial as the book itself, the English translation, "History of the New World by Girolamo Benzoni" (London, 1857), by the Hakluyt Society, is certainly the best.
AD. F. BANDELIER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Girolamo Campagna

From volume 3 of the work.
Born in Verona, 1552; died about 1623 or 1625. He was an able, but not strikingly individual sculptor of Northern Italy. He studied under Jacopo Sansovino and Danese Cattaneo, and completed many of the latter's works. To him we owe the figure of Doge Leonardo Loredano on the tomb which Cattaneo made at SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. After his master's death, Campagna went to Padua where he secured the commission intended for Cattaneo in the church of St. Anthony. This was his masterpiece, a bas-relief of the saint bringing back to life a man who had been murdered. Some years later Campagna made another trip to Padua and wrought the bronze tabernacle for the chapel of the Blessed Sacrament. The greater part of his life was spent in Venice, and there we have the majority of his works: the statues of St. Francis and St. Clare bearing the ostensorium at Santa Maria de'Miracoli; that of St. Giustina over the door of the Arsenal, commemorating the battle of Lepanto, which occurred on her feast-day (7 October, 1571), during Campagna's lifetime; the colossal St. Sebastian at the Zecca; the figures of Our Lady, the Archangel Gabriel and patron saints of Venice, in relief on the Ponte di Rialto; the group in bronze of Christ on a globe, supported by the Four Evangelists at San Giorgio Maggiore. In Verona there is a good Annunciation over the portal of the old Palazzo del Consiglio and a Madonna at the Collegio dei Mercatanti.
Perekins, Italian Sculptors (London and New York); Idem, Historical Handbook of Italian Sculpture (New York, 1883).
M. L. Handley.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cisamus

From volume 3 of the work.
Cisamus, a titular see of Crete. Kisamos, or Kissamos, was a harbour on the north-west coast of Crete in a bay of the same name, and served Aptera as a port of entry. Lequien (II, 272) gives only two Greek bishops, Theopemptus in 692 and Leo in 787; Gams (404) adds Gerasimus about 1500. The see still exists, and is suffragan to Candia. During the occupation of the island by the Venetians there was also a Latin see subject to Gortyna and Candia. Ten bishops are mentioned by Lequien (III, 927-930) from 1346 to 1589; twenty by Eubel (I, 192, II, 142) from about 1305 to 1498. Angelo Barbadigo (created cardinal by the antipope Nicholas V) who was present at Rome at the coronatlon (1328) of Emperor Louis IV, became administrator apostolicus Chironensis in Crete, Bishop of Cisamus, and afterwards of Verona. Kissamos, or Kissamo Kasteli, is now a little port frequented only by coasting boats.
S. PÉTRIDES
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Citharizum

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Armenia. The city was situated in Asthianene or Balabitene, a region between Masius and Anti-Taurus, north of Commagene and Mesopotamia. Justinian built a castle there, in which he stationed a garrison under the command of a duke. He also included it in the province, Armenia Quarta, which he had just formed. In 613 Citharizum was taken by Ashot, a general of the Persian king, Chosroes II. In the records of the trullan Council (692) we meet the name of Marianus, Bishop of Kitharizon (or Kithariza), for the name seems to have been indeclinable (Lequien, I, 453). No other bishop is known. the city is mentioned in Parthey, "Notitia Prima", about 840 as belonging to Armenia Quarta, under the metropolis of Melitene. It is identified with the modern village Keterig.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Citation

From volume 3 of the work.
(Lat. citare).
A legal act through which a person, by mandate of the judge, is called before the tribunal for trial. It is called verbal when the judge sends an apparitor to the accused to call him to judgment on a fixed day. If the citation be made by a public summons it is called edictal. When a person has been arrested by the officers of the law his citation is said to be real. Citations are also distinguished into simple and peremptory. The former is had when the judge orders a person to appear on a determined day before his tribunal, but does not add a threat nor declare that a prolongation of the time will not be allowed; the latter, or peremptory citation is that which imposes a strict obligation to appear and declares that no later summons will be issued, so that if the person cited does not obey this one, he will be considered contumacious. Real citation is had recourse to, when the accused is suspected of meditating flight or is contumacious; edictal citation, when the defendant can be reached in no other way; peremptory citation only under extraordinary circumstances. A peremptory citation is held to be the equivalent in effect to three simple citations. In a judicial process, a citation is ordinarily so necessary that if it be omitted, every other act of the trial is null and void. There are some exceptions to this, as, for example, if a person be taken red-handed, or when the accused is already before the tribunal, or when there is danger in delay. There are many requisites for a legitimate citation, as that it be asked for by one party to the suit, that it contain the names of plaintiff and defendant, the cause of the summons, the day and place of judgment and so forth. When a certain judge has issued a valid citation, the case must be tried before him, even though other judges would have been competent. If the citation be not couched in the prescribed legal style, or if it be issued for one beyond the court's jurisdiction, it may be disregarded. When the plaintiff is contumacious, he may be condemned to pronounced without him. Contumacity on the part of the defendant creates a presumption of his guilt, and in a real action puts the other party in temporary possession of the disputed object.
WILLIAM H.W. FANNING