OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Stephen Russell Mallory

From volume 9 of the work.
An American statesman; born in the Island of Trinidad, W. I., 1813; died at Pensacola, Florida, United States, 9 Nov., 1873. He was educated at the Jesuit College at Springhill, Mobile, Alabama, then studied law, and was admitted to the Bar of the State of Florida in or about the year 1839. In the Seminole War (1835-42) he served as a volunteer through many arduous campaigns. After serving the State of Florida as probate judge and the United States as collector of customs at Key West, he was elected to the United States Senate from Florida in 1851, and re-elected in 1857. At the breaking out of the Civil War he followed the fortunes of his own state, resigning his seat in the Senate in 1861, and entering actively into the organization of the Southern Confederacy. President Jefferson Davis appointed him Secretary of the Navy of the Southern Confederacy (7 Feb., 1861), and Mallory found himself in the most responsible post of the naval department at the very moment when one of the most bloody wars in history was on the point of breaking out, without any naval stores or even a solitary vessel of war. He was obliged to create his navy literally out of the raw material. History records the success with which this desperate situation was handled (see also SEMMES, RAPHAEL). When the end came, in April, 1865, he accompanied Jefferson Davis in his flight from Richmond. He then went to La Grange, Georgia, where his family were residing, was arrested there (20 May, 1865), and was kept a prisoner for ten months in Fort Lafayette, on a small island in New York harbour. Released on parole in 1866, he returned to Pensacola, Florida, where he practised law until his death.
SEMMES, Memoirs of Service Afloat during the War between the States (Baltimore, 1689); Rebellion Records (Washington, D. C.); The Freeman's Journal (New York, Nov., 1873) files; Encycl. Nat. Biog. s. v.; Appleton's Cyclop. of American Biography, s. v.
THOMAS F. MEEHAN.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Stephen White

From volume 15 of the work.
Antiquarian and polyhistor; b. at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1574; d. in Galway, 1646. He belonged to a family devoted to religion and education. In 1592 Trinity College, Dublin, was founded, and S. White (in all probability Stephen White) was one of the few students named in the charter. Unwilling to take the oath of supremacy, he left his native land and entered the Irish College at Salamanca, Spain, where in 1596 he joined the Society of Jesus, and taught from 1602 to 1606. The domestic record says of him "plurimum profecit in litteris". This skill he employed as one of the two principal collaborators of William Bathe's systematic language method called "Janua linguarum", a work on which Comenius twenty years later based his celebrated "Janua linguarum reserata". In 1606 he went to Germany and lectured on theology at Ingolstadt, at Dillingen, and other places. He applied himself assiduously to the study of history and was generally reputed to be one of the most leaned men of his time in Europe. Ussher calls him "a man profoundly versed in the ancient records, not of Ireland alone, but of other countries". His chief interest was in Irish history. To him is due the honour of fixing the historic label "Scotia" where it belongs — to Ireland. He called attention to the rich treasures of Irish literature preserved in the monasteries and libraries of Germany, and generously supplied many noted scholars, as Ussher and Colgan, with accurate copies of Irish manuscripts accompanied by critical emendations and valuable commentaries. His biographical notices of early Irish saints were utilized in the "Acta SS." What gave him the bent towards early Irish history seems to have been the publication at Frankfurt by Camden of two works by Gerald of Wales, libelling Ireland and its people. In refutation he wrote his best-known work "Apologia pro Hibernia adversus Cambri calumnias". After an absence of nearly thirty-eight years he returned to Ireland to join the staff at the Jesuit college recently established at Dublin. The college, however, was in a short time suppressed by the Government, and the property was confiscated and handed over to Trinity College. For some years he laboured in his native Diocese of Waterford and Lismore, mainly engaged in teaching catechism to children. In 1644 he went to Galway where he died.
HOGAN, Life of Father Stephen White, S.J. in The Waterford Archaeological Journal, III (1897); REEVE, Memoir of White 1861); CORCORAN, Studies in the History of Classical Teaching, 1500-1700 (Dublin, 1911); KELLY, notes to WHITE, Apologia; SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la comp. de Jesus.
M. J. Flaherty.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Stephen of Autun

From volume 14 of the work.
Bishop, liturgical writer, b. at Bangé (hence surnamed Blagiacus or de Balgiaco) in Anjou; d. at the abbey of Cluny, 1139 or early in 1140. Of his younger days nothing is known except that he was the son of Gaucerannus, lord of Bange, and the uncle of Humbert, Archbishop of Lyons. He appears in history (1112) as Bishop of Autun. As such he was present (1115) at a synod of Tournus. A letter is in existence of the year 1116, written to him from the Lateran by Pascal II in which the pope places the Diocese of Autun under his special protection and confirms to Stephen various privileges. In 1129 Stephen was among the prelates who assisted at the coronation of Philip, eldest son of Louis VI of France. He built a cathedral, beginning in 1120, which was solemnly consecrated (1131) by Pope Innocent II. He always showed a great admiration for the religious state, and in 1136 resigned his see and entered the monastery of Cluny. The abbot, Peter the Venerable, under whom he entered and died, gives great praise to his learning and piety. His "Tractatus de Sacramento Altaris", printed together with some other documents relating to Stephen, in P.L., CLXXII, 1371, is an ascetico-liturgical treatise, consisting of twenty chapters and a preface, in which he speaks of the ordination and duties of each of the Minor and Major Orders; and of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and gives a literal and allegorical explanation of the Canon. He is one of the earliest writers using the term transubstantiation. This treatise, published in 1517 by Montalon, canon of Autun, was ascribed by some to Stephen II of Autun (d. 1189), but is vindicated for the earlier bishop by Mabillon, "Annales O.S.B.", VI, 270.
HURTER, Nomencl., II (Innsbruck, 1906), 75; Gallia christiana, IV, 389; DUCHESNE, Fastes Episc., I, 339; Hist. Litt. de la France, XI (Paris, 1759), 710; CEILLIER, Auteurs Sacres, XIV (Paris, 1863), 304.
FRANCIS MERSHMAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Stephen of Tournai

From volume 14 of the work.
Stephen of Tournai, canonist, born at Orléans, 1128; died at Tournai, September, 1203. He entered the Order of the Canons Regular at Saint-Euverte in Orléans about 1150, then studied canon and Roman law at Bologna, returning to his monastery in 1160. He was elected abbot of Saint-Euverte in 1167 and of Sainte-Geneviève at Paris in 1177. The latter monastery he almost entirely rebuilt, establishing a monastic school in connexion with it. In 1192 he became Bishop of Tournai, but was greatly hampered in the exercise of his episcopal functions by the opposition of the people as well as by the interdict placed on France on account of the divorce proceedings of Philip II. He is the author of "Summa in decretum Gratiani" (1159), which is to a great extent based on the similar works of Paucapalea, Rufinus, and Rolandus (Alexander III). It was first edited by Schulte (Giessen, 1891). His letters, edited by Molinet (Paris, 1679), are printed in P. L., CXI, 309-625.
BERNOIS, Etienne de Tournai, 1128-1203 (Orléans, 1906); SCHULTE in the introduction to his edition of the Summa; WAUTERS in Biog. belgique, VI (Brussels, 1878), 719-25.
MICHAEL OTT
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Pandamuttu

​Pandamuttu. — A sub-division of Palli, The name is made by Winslow to mean a number of torches ​arranged so as to represent an elephant. The Pallis, however, explain it as referring to the pile of pots, which reaches to the top of the marriage pandal (pandal, booth, mutti, touching). The lowest pot is decorated with figures of elephants and horses.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Pandi

​Pandi (pig). — Recorded as an exogamous sept of Asili, Bōya, and Gamalla. Pandipattu (pig catchers) and Pandikottu (pig killers) occur as exogamous septs of Oddē.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Pandito

​Pandito.——Pandit or Pundit (pandita, a learned man) has been defined * as "properly a man learned in Sanskrit lore. The Pundit of the Supreme Court was a Hindu law-officer, whose duty it was to advise the English Judges when needful on questions of Hindu law. The office became extinct on the constitution of the High Court (in 1862). In the Mahratta and Telugu ​countries, the word Pandit is usually pronounced Pant (in English colloquial Punt)." In the countries noted, Pant occurs widely as a title of Brāhmans, who are also referred to as Pantulu vāru. The titles Sanskrit Pundit, Telugu Pundit, etc., are still officially recognised at several colleges in the Madras Presidency. Pandit sometimes occurs as an honorific prefix, e.g., Pandit S. M. Natesa Sastri, and Panditan is a name given to Tamil barbers (Ambattan). In some parts of the Tamil country, Panditar is used as a name for Mādhva Brāhmans, because, it is said, many of them were formerly engaged as pandits at the Law Courts.
Pandito is further the name of "an Oriya caste of astrologers and physicians. They wear the sacred thread, and accept drinking water only from Brāhmans and Gaudos. Infant marriage is practiced, and widow marriage is prohibited."* I am informed that these Panditos engage Brāhmans for their ceremonials, do not drink liquor, and eat fish and mutton, but not fowls or beef. The females wear glass bangles. They are known by the name of Khodikāro, from khodi, a kind of stone, with which they write figures on the floor, when making astrological calculations. The stone is said to be something like soapstone.
Pandita occurs as an exogamous sept of Stānikas.
* ↑ * Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson.
* ↑ * Madras Census Report, 1901.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Pandāriyar

​Pandāriyar.— Pandāriyar or Pandārattar, denoting custodians of the treasury, has been returned as a title of Nattamān, Malaimān, and Sudarmān.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Panasa

​Panasa.— The Panasas are a class of alm seekers in the Telugu country, who are said to ask alms only from Kamsalas. The word panasa means constant repetition of words, and, in its application to the Panasa, probably indicates that they, like the Bhatrāzu bards and panegyrists, make up verses eulogising those from whom they seek alms. It is stated in the Kurnool Manual (1886) that "they take alms from the Bēri Kōmatis and goldsmiths (Kamsalas), and no others. The story goes that, in Golkonda, a tribe of Kōmatis named Bacheluvāru were imprisoned for non-payment of arrears of revenue. Finding certain men of the artificer class who passed by in the street spit betel nut, they asked the artificers to get them released. The artificers, pitying them, paid the arrears, and procured their release. It was then that the Kamsalis fixed a vartana or annual house-fee for the maintenance of the Panasa class, on condition that they should not ask for alms from the other castes." The Panasas appear every year in the Kurnool district to collect their dues.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Panchama

​Panchama.——The Panchamas are, in the Madras Census Report, 1871, summed up as being "that great division of the people, spoken of by themselves as the fifth caste, and described by Buchanan and other writers as the Pancham Bandam." According to Buchanan,*the Pancham Bandum "consist of four tribes, the Parriar, the Baluan, the Shekliar, and the Toti." Buchanan further makes mention of Panchama Banijigaru and Panchama Cumbharu (potters). The Panchamas were, in the Department of Public Instruction, called "Paraiyas and kindred classes" till 1893. This classification was replaced, for convenience of reference, by Panchama, which included Chacchadis, Godāris, Pulayas, Holeyas, Mādigas, Mālas, Pallans, Paraiyans, Totis, and Valluvans. "It is," the Director of Public Instruction wrote in 1902, "for Government to consider whether the various classes concerned should, for the sake of brevity, be described by one simple name. The terms Paraiya, low caste, outcaste, carry with them a ​derogatory meaning, and are unsuitable. The expression Pancham Banda, or more briefly Panchama, seems more appropriate." The Government ruled that there is no objection to the proposal that Paraiyas and kindred classes should be designated Panchama Bandham or Panchama in future, but it would be simpler to style them the fifth class.
The following educational privileges according to the various classes classified as Panchama may be noted: —
    (1) They are admitted into schools at half the standard rates of fees.
    (2) Under the result grant system (recently abolished), grants were passed for Panchama pupils at rates 50 per cent, higher than in ordinary cases, and 15 per cent, higher in backward localities.
    (3) Panchama schools were exempted from the attendance restriction, i.e., grants were given to them, however small the attendance. Ordinary schools had to have an attendance of ten at least to earn grants.
    (4) Panchama students under training as teachers get stipends at rates nearly double of those for ordinary Hindus.
An interesting account of the system of education at the Olcott Panchama Free Schools has been written by Mrs. Courtright.*
Panchama is returned, in the Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a sub-division of Balija and Banajiga.
* ↑ • Journey through Mysore, etc.,1807.
* ↑ * How we teach the Paraiya, 3rd ed,, Madras, 1906.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Panikkar

​Panikkar.— Panikkar, meaning teacher or worker, has been recorded, in the Malayālam country, as a title of barbers, Kammālan, Mārān, Nāyar, Pānān, and Paraiyan. In former times, the name was applied, in Malabar, to fencing-masters, as the following quotations show: —
1518. "And there are very skilful men who teach this art (fencing), and they are called Panicars." — Barbosa.
1553. "And when the Naire comes to the age of 7 years, he is obliged to go to the fencing-school, the master of which (whom they call Panical) they regard as a father, on account of the instruction he gives them." — Barros.
1583. "The maisters which teach them be graduates in the weapons which they teach, and they be called in their language Panycaes." — Castaneda.
A class of people called Panikkan are settled in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts. Some of them are barbers to Shānāns. Others have taken to weaving as a profession, and will not intermarry with those who are employed as barbers. "The Panikkans are," Mr. Francis writes,* "weavers, agriculturists, and traders. They employ Brāhmans as priests, but these are apparently not received on terms of equality by other Brāhmans. The Panikkans now frequently call themselves Illam Vellālas, and change their title in deeds and official papers from Panikkan to Pillai. They are also taking to wearing the sacred thread and giving up eating meat. The caste is divided into three vagais or endogamous classes, namely, Mitāl, Pattanam, and Malayālam, and ​each of these again has five partly exogamous septs or illams (families), namely, Mūttillam, Tōranattillam, Pallikkillam, Manjanāttillam, and Sōliya-illam. It is stated that the Mitāl and Pattanam sections will eat together though they do not intermarry, but that the Malayālam section can neither dine with nor marry into the other two. They are reported to have an elaborate system of caste government, under which eleven villages form a gadistalam (or stage), and send representatives to its council to settle caste matters; and eleven gadistalams form a nādu (or country), and send representatives to a chief council, which decides questions which are beyond the competence of the gadistalams." The occurrence of Malayām as the name of a sub-division, and of the Malayālam word illam as that of the exoga- mous septs, would seem to indicate that the Panikkans are immigrants from the westward into the Tamil country.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Pancharamkatti

​Pancharamkatti.— A sub-division of Idaiyan, which derives its name from the neck ornament (panchāram) worn by the women.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Panimagan

​Panimagan (work children). — A name for Mukkuvans who are employed as barbers for members of their caste.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ignacio de Arbieto

From volume 1 of the work.
Jesuit, born at Madrid, February, 1585; died at Lima, Peru, 7 August 1670. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1603, and was ordained a priest at Lima, in 1612. He was appointed to the chair of philosophy at Quito in Ecuador, went thence to Arequipa, and finally to Lima, where he died. He taught (with interruptions) for twenty-five years in Peru, and spent his last years in writing the "Historia del Perú y de las fundaciones que he hecho en él la Compañía de Jesús." The manuscript is at the National Archives of Lima, and in a hopeless state of decay.
Leon y Pinelo, Epitome de la biblioteca oriental y accidental (Madrid, 1737–38, 2d ed.); Torres-Saldamaondo, Antinqous Jesuitas del Peru (Lima, 1882); Mendiburu, Diccionario historico-biografico (Lima, 1874), I.
Ad. F. Bandelier
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ignace-Gaston Pardies

From volume 11 of the work.
French scientist, b. at Pau, 5 Sept., 1636; d. of fever contracted whilst ministering to the prisoners of Bicêtre, near Paris, 22 April, 1673. He entered the Society of Jesus 17 Nov., 1652 and for a time taught classical literature; during this period he composed a number of short Latin works, in prose and verse, which are praised for their delicacy of thought and style. After his ordination he taught philosophy and mathematics at the College of Louis-le-Grand in Paris. His early death cut short a life of unusual activity in the sciences. His earliest work is the "Horolgium Thaumanticum Duplex" (Paris, 1662), in which is described an instrument he had invented for constructing various kinds of sun-dials. Three years later appeared his "Dissertatio de Motu et Natura Cometarum", published separately in Latin and in French (Bordeaux, 1665). His "Discours du mouvement local" (Paris, 1670), "La Statique" (Paris, 1673), and the manuscript "Traité complet d'Optique", in which he followed the undulatory theory, form part of a general work on physics which he had planned. He opposed Newton's theory of refraction and his letters together with Newton's replies (which so satisfied Pardies that he withdrew his objections) are found in the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1672 and 1673. His "Discours de la Connaissance des Bestes" (Paris, 1672) combatted Descartes's theories on the subject so feebly that many looked on it as a covert defence rather than a refutation, an impression which Pardies himself afterwards endeavoured to destroy. His "Elémens de Géométrie" (Paris, 1671) was translated into Latin and English. He left in manuscript a work entitled "Art de la Guerre" and a celestial atlas comprising six charts, published after his death (Paris, 1673-74). His collected mathematical and physical works were published in French (The Hague, 1691) and in Latin (Amsterdam, 1694).
SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la C. de J. (Brussels, 1895).
Edward C. Phillips.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ignacio de Iriarte

From volume 8 of the work.
Painter, b. at Azcoitia, Guipuzcoa, in 1620; d. at Seville, 1685. Iriarte was the son of Esteban de Iriarte and Magdalena Zabala, and received his early education at home, but in 1642 went to Seville, and entered the studio of the elder Herrera. Here he learned to understand colouring, but he was never able to draw the human figure with spirit or accuracy, and therefore determined to devote his attention exclusively to landscape, and was the one Spanish artist who walked that rarely trodden path, and obtained in it the greatest possible celebrity. In 1646 we hear of him as residing at Aracena, near to the mountains, and there it was that he married Doña Francisca de Chaves, but his first wife lived a very short time, and in 1649 he married in Seville his second wife Doña Maria Escobar. He was an original member of the Academy of Seville, its first secretary in 1660, and again secretary from 1667 to 1669. For very many years, he was the intimate friend and associate of Murillo, who praised his landscapes very highly, and on many occasions the two artists worked together, Murillo executing the figures, and Iriarte the landscape. In consequence, however, of a dispute with reference to a series of pictures on the life of David, this division of labour came to an end, and the two painters, both of them men of great determination, decided to work separately and not in conjunction. Murillo painted the whole of the picture representing an episode in the life of David, and Iriarte contented himself with his exquisite landscapes, as a rule wild and rugged scenes, somewhat allied to those of Salvator Rosa, in which at that time he was the greatest exponent. There is a landscape preserved at Madrid in an unfinished condition, with the figures merely sketched in by Murillo and the background left incomplete by Iriarte, and this is said to have been left incomplete at the time of the quarrel. The painter has been called the Spanish Claude Lorraine, and Murillo declared that his best landscapes were painted "by Divine inspiration", but the comparison and statement are not accurate, as there is a forced character and an imaginary romance about Iriarte's landscapes with an extraordinary lack of atmosphere. They are, however, pleasing and attractive, although rare. His works are to be found principally in Madrid, but can also be studied in the galleries of St. Petersburg and the Louvre.
QUILLIET, Dictionaire des Peintres Espagnols (Paris, 1816); DE CASTRO Y VELASCO, El Museo Pictorico y Escala Optica (Madrid, 1715); STIRLING-MAXWELL, Annals on the Artists of Spain (London, 1848); HUARD, Vie Complete des Peintres Espagnols (Paris, 1839); HARTLEY, A Record of Spanish Painting (London, 1904).
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ignacio Barbosa-Machado

From volume 2 of the work.
A Portuguese historian, born at Lisbon in 1686; died in 1734. He pursued his studies at the University of Coimbra, was later sent to Brazil as a magistrate, and after the death of his wife entered the ecclesiastical state. He has left a number of historical works, the most important of which is "Fastos Politicos e Militares de Antiqua e Nova Lusitania" (Lisbon, 1745), dealing with the history of Portugal and Brazil. He was a brother of the more famous Diego Machado Barbosa (1682-1772), also a priest and writer, and author of a notable monument of Portuguese literature "Bibliotheca Lusitana, Historica, Critica e Chronologica" (Lisbon, 1741-59).
V. FUENTES