OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tontine

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​TONTINE, a system of life insurance owing its name to Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian banker, born at Naples early in the 17th century, who settled in France about 1650. In 1653 he proposed to Cardinal Mazarin a new scheme for promoting a public loan. A total of 1,025,000 livres was to be subscribed in ten portions of 102,500 livres each by ten classes of subscribers, the first class consisting of persons under 7, the second of persons above 7 and under 14, and so on to the tenth, which consisted of persons between 63 and 70. The annual fund of each class was to be divided among the survivors of that class, and on the death of the last individual the capital was to fall to the state. This plan of operations was authorized under the name of “tontine royale” by a royal edict, but this the parlement refused to register, and the idea remained in abeyance till 1689, when it was revived by Louis XIV., who established a tontine of 1,400,000 livres divided into fourteen classes of 100,000 each, the subscription being 300 livres. This tontine was carried on till 1726, when the last beneficiary died—a widow who at the time of her decease was drawing an annual income of 73,500 livres. Several other government tontines were afterwards set on foot; but in 1763 restrictions were introduced, and in 1770 all tontines at the time in existence were wound up. Private tontines continued to flourish in France for some years, the “tontine Lefarge,” the most celebrated of the kind, being opened in 1791 and closed in 1889.
The tontine principle has often been applied in Great Britain, at one time in connexion with government life annuities. Many such tontines were set on foot between the years 1773 and 1789, those of 1773, 1775 and 1777 being commonly called the Irish tontines, as the money was borrowed under acts of the Irish parliament. The most important English tontine was that of 1789, which was created by 29 Geo. III. c. 41. Under this act over a million was raised in 10,000 shares of £100, 5s. It was also often applied to the purchase of estates or the erection of buildings. The investor staked his money on the chance of his own life or the life of his nominee enduring for a longer period than the other lives involved in the speculation, in which case he expected to win a large prize. It was occasionally introduced into life assurance, more particularly by American life offices, but newer and more ingenious forms of contract have now made the tontine principle practically a thing of the past. (See National Debt; Insurance.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tooke, Thomas

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​TOOKE, THOMAS (1774–1858), English economist, was born at St Petersburg on the 29th of February 1774. Entering a large Russian house in London at an early age, he acquired sound practical experience of commercial matters and became a recognized authority on finance and banking. He was one of the earliest advocates of free trade and drew up the Merchants' Petition presented to the House of Commons by Alexander Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton. He gave evidence before several parliamentary committees, notably the committee of 1821, on foreign trade, and those of 1832, 1840 and 1848 on the Bank Acts. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1821. He died in London on the 26th of February 1858.
Tooke was the author of Thoughts and Details on the High and Low Prices of the last Thirty Years (1823), Considerations on the State of the Currency (1826), in both of which he showed his hostility to the policy afterwards carried out in the Bank Act of 1844, but he is best known for his History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation during the Years 1703–1856 (6 vols., 1838–1857). In the first four volumes he treats (a) of the prices of corn, and the circumstances affecting prices; (b) the prices of produce other than corn; and (c) the state of the circulation. The two final volumes, written in conjunction with W. Newmarch (q.v.), deal with railways, free, trade, banking in Europe and the effects of new discoveries of gold.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saki

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​SAKI, the native name of a group of tropical American monkeys nearly allied to those known as uakaris (see Uakari), with which they agree in the forward inclination of the lower incisor teeth, the depth of the hinder part of the lower jaw, and the non-prehensile tail. The sakis, which form the genus Pithecia, are specially characterized by their long and generally bushy tails, distinct whiskers and beard, and the usually elongated hair on the crown of the head, which may either radiate from a point in the centre, or be divided by a median parting. They are very delicate animals, difficult to keep in confinement, and in that state exhibiting a gentle disposition, and being normally silent (see Primates).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salad

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SALAD (Med. Lat. salata, salted, pickled, salare, to sprinkle with salt), a dish, originally dressed with salt, of green uncooked herbs, such as lettuce, endive, mustard, cress, &c., usually served with a flavouring of onion, garlic or leeks, and with a dressing of vinegar, oil, mustard, pepper and salt, or with a cream, for which there are many receipts; hard-boiled eggs, radishes and cucumber are also added.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sakura-Jima

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​SAKURA-JIMA, a Japanese island, oval in shape and measuring 7 m. by 5 m., lying in the northern part of the Bay of Kagoshima (31° 40′ N., 130° 35′ E.). It has a volcano 3743 ft. high (of which an eruption was recorded in 1779), and is celebrated for its hot springs, its oranges and its giant radishes (daikon), which sometimes weigh as much as 70 ℔.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saké

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​SAKÉ, the national beverage of Japan. In character it stands midway between beer and wine. It is made chiefly from rice (see Brewing). Saké contains 12 to 15% of alcohol and about 3% of solid matter (extractives), 0.3% of lactic ​acid, a small quantity of volatile acid, 0·5% of sugar and 0·8% of glycerin. There are about 20,000 saké breweries in Japan, and the annual output is about 150 million gallons. Saké is a yellowish-white liquid, its flavour somewhat resembling that of madeira or sherry. It is warmed prior to consumption, as the flavour is thereby improved and it is rendered more digestible. The name is said to be derived from the town of Osaka which, from time immemorial, has been famous for its saké. According to Morewood it is probable that the wine called “sack” in England derived its name from the Japanese liquor, being introduced by Spanish and Portuguese traders (see Wine).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salade

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SALADE, Sallet or Salet, a head-piece introduced in the early 15th century replacing the heavy helmet. Its essential features are its smooth rounded surface, like an inverted bowl, and its long projecting neck guard. Usually there was no movable vizor, but the front fixed part covered most of the face, a slit being left for the eyes. The word is said to come through the Old Fr. from the Span. celada, Ital. celata, Lat. caelata, sc. cassis, engraved helmet, caelare, to engrave, chase (see Helmet).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salaam

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SALAAM (Arab. salam, "peace"), the Oriental term for a salutation. The word is used for any act of salutation, as of an ambassador to a monarch, and so in a secondary sense of a compliment. Properly it is the oral salutation of Mahommedans to each other; but it has acquired the special meaning of an act of obeisance.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Supan, Alexander Georg

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SUPAN, ALEXANDER GEORG (1847-1920), Austrian geographer, was born at Innichen, South Tirol, March 3 1847. He was educated at the Laibach gymnasium, and in 1870 took his doctor's degree at Graz, afterwards becoming a teacher in the Oberrealschule at Laibach. In 1872 he left Laibach and studied geography at Vienna, Dresden and Halle, returning in 1877. In 1881 he was appointed professor of geography at the university of Czernowitz, and in 1884 became editor of Petermanns Mitteilungen, retaining this post until 1909, when he accepted the chair of geography at Breslau. Under Supan's editorship Petermanns Mitteilungen was more concerned with reports and accounts of geographical work in every sphere than with original papers and records of discovery, and a feature in which the editor was much interested was the publication of supplements to the Mitteilungen. An account of the economic produce of N. America, 1880-5, appeared in this manner in 1886, and Die Bevölkerung der Erde, founded 1872 by Hermann Wagner and Behm, was continued by Supan as a supplement from 1890 to 1910. In 1889 he became editor of the statistical calendar of the Almanack de Gotha. His original contributions to geographical science are chiefly concerned with climatology and oceanography, and his published works include Lehrbuch der Geographie (1873); Statistik der unteren Luftströmungen (1881); Grundzüge der physischen Erdkunde (1884); Deutsche Schulgeographie (1895; latest ed. 1915) and Die territorialische Entwicklung der europäischen Kolonien (1906), besides many papers in Petermanns Mitteilungen. He died at Breslau July 6 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stürmer, Boris Vladimirovich

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STURMER, BORIS VLADIMIROVICH (1849-1917), Russian politician, was born in 1849, the son of an emigrant—his father being captain of a fire brigade at Tula. He studied at the university of Petrograd, and there made friends with Count Bobrinsky, a member of one of the leading Russian families, who introduced him into the upper circle of Petrograd society. His affable manners and his ability to win the confidence of important people
are the only explanation of his brilliant success in a circle to which he did not belong by birth or fortune. He started his career in the Chamberlain's department of the Imperial Court, but he held at the same time different situations in the Senate, the Ministry of Justice and elsewhere. When in 1892 the Government rejected the candidate nominated to the presidency of the executive board of the Tver Zemstvo, Stürmer, whose name was on the list of the Tver gentry, was appointed to this office. It was the first case of a president of the Zemstvo being appointed instead of being elected. In 1894 Stürmer was appointed governor of the Novgorod, and later of the Iaroslavl province. Subsequently he was in charge of a department of the Home Office. In 1904 he was created member of the State Council, but he never took an active part in the legislative work. Meanwhile he won the confidence of the Court, and he was made prime minister in Jan. 1916, at a period when the Emperor, avoiding strong personalities, wished to secure the fulfilment of his orders by devoted servants. As prime minister Stürmer's reactionary attitude provoked a strong opposition in liberal and patriotic circles; rumours accusing him of connexions with Germany were widely spread without real proof. These accusations were finally brought to the tribune of the Duma by M. Milyukov and resulted in Stürmer's resignation in November. After Sazonov's dismissal Stürmer took the portfolio of Foreign Affairs, and his activities in this department resulted in the premature declaration of war by Rumania, so disastrous for that country and for Russia. He was arrested after the revolution, and he died in prison of disease in Sept. 1917.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sudermann, Hermann

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SUDERMANN, HERMANN (1857-), German dramatist and novelist (see 26.20). His novels include Das hohe Lied (1909); and Litauische Geschichten (1917); while in 1911 appeared a volume of short stories, Die indische Lilie. His later plays include Strandkinder (1910); Der Bettler von Syrakus (1911); Der gute Ruf (1913); Die Lobgesänge des Claudian (1914), and Das Höhere Leben (1919).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sukhomlinov, Vladimir

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SUKHOMLINOV, VLADIMIR (1848-), Russian general and war minister, was born in 1848. He passed through the cavalry school in St. Petersburg, and in 1867 was given a commission in the Guard Ulans. He graduated from the Academy of the General Staff in 1874. He took part in the war with Turkey in 1877-8 as an officer of the general staff, and was awarded the St. George Cross of the fourth degree. From 1884 to 1886
he commanded a dragoon regiment and from 1886 to 1897 he was the head of the officers' cavalry school in St. Petersburg, having meantime in 1890 been promoted to the rank of general. His next appointment was as commander of the 10th Cavalry Division. In 1899, while commanding the troops of the Kiev military district, Gen. Dragomirov appointed him as his chief-of-staff and later as his assistant. His close connexion with Gen. Dragomirov, who enjoyed enormous prestige in the Russian army, ensured Sukhomlinov's future career. After the death of Dragomirov, he was appointed commander in Kiev.
From 1909 to 1916 he was Russian war minister, and it was under him that two Russian orders for mobilization were given at the outbreak of the World War. Self-confident and ambitious Sukhomlinov played a disastrous rôle in the administration of the Russian army. Notwithstanding the discovery, even in Oct. 1914, that there was an insufficiency of shells, rifles and cartridges, he assured the Duma that everything was all right. It was only in 1916, under strong pressure of public opinion, that the Tsar Nicholas II. dismissed him from office. Finally he was brought up for trial on a charge of treason. The court found him guilty of offences in office, and he was sentenced to penal servitude. Later Sukhomlinov was freed by an amnesty granted by the Bolsheviks and went to Finland. In 1921 he began the publication of his memoirs. (N. N. G.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sutton, Sir Henry

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SUTTON, SIR HENRY (1845-1920), English judge, was born Jan. 10 1845. He was educated at Rugby and Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1868. He was called to the bar in 1870, in 1890 was made junior counsel to the Treasury, and in 1905 was raised to the King's Bench division, being knighted in 1906. He retired in 1910, and died in London May 30 1920.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sturdza, Demetrius

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​STURDZA, DEMETRIUS (1833–1914), Rumanian statesman (see 25.1051), died in 1914.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stürgkh, Carl, Count

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​STÜRGKH, CARL, Count (1859–1916), Austrian prime minister from Nov. 3 1911 to the time of his murder, was born on Oct. 30 1859, of an ancient noble Styrian family, and in 1881 he became an official of the Statthalterei at Graz, and later of the Ministry of Education. He left the State service in 1891, when he was elected as a representative of the loyal land-holding interest to the Reichsrat. He attached himself to the Left of the German party, and came forward as a keen opponent of universal suffrage. He was from Feb. 10 1909 to Nov. 3 1911 Minister of Education, and a zealous advocate of the humanistic education traditional in the gymnasia. Stürgkh was one of the committee of five ministers who decided on the dispatch of the ultimatum to Serbia and the declaration of war, which brought on the World War. He was lulled on Oct. 21 1916 by a shot fired by the Social Democrat Friedrich Adler, a son of the Social Democrat leader, Viktor Adler, as a protest against Stürgkh's government without parliament. (See Austrian Empire.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tayug

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​TAYUG, a town of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the Agno river, 33 m. E. of Lingayen, the capital. Pop. (1903) 10,400. The river furnishes water for irrigating the low fields in the vicinity. The town’s inhabitants are farmers, and rice is the principal crop. Pangasinan and Ilocano are the languages spoken.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tazza

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​TAZZA (Ital., cf. Fr. tasse, Ger. Tasse, cup; all from Persian tas, goblet), a word generally adopted by archaeologists and connoisseurs for a type of drinking vessel. It is a shallow saucer-like dish either mounted on a stem and foot or on a foot alone.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tchernaiev, Mikhail Gregorjovich

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​TCHERNAIEV, MIKHAIL GREGORJOVICH (1828–1898), Russian general, a member of a noble family, was born on the 24th of October 1828. Educated at the Nicholas Staff College, he entered the army in 1847, and distinguished himself in the Crimean war and in the Caucasus. After serving as divisional chief of the staff in Poland, he went to Orenburg in 1858 as assistant to the commander of the line of the Syr-Darya, and the following year commanded an expedition to support the Kirghiz tribes on the borders of the Sea of Aral against the Khivans. He did duty on the staff of the army of the Caucasus for a time, and returned to Orenburg as chief of the staff. In 1864, having reached the rank of major-general, he made his famous march with 1000 men across the steppes of Turkestan to Chimkent in Khokand, to meet another Russian column from Semipalatinsk, in Siberia, in conjunction with which he successfully stormed Chimkent, and then unsuccessfully attacked Tashkent, 80 miles farther south. Wintering at Chimkent, he captured Tashkent the following year. This was contrary to his instructions, and although he was received in St Petersburg with enthusiasm, and presented with a sword of honour by the emperor, he was not again employed in the military service, and retired from it in July 1874. He bought, and edited with great success, the Russkiy Mir in Slavonic interests, devoting himself to the Panslavic idea. In the summer of 1876 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Servian army, but on entering Turkey was driven back by Osrhan Pasha, who followed him into Servia, defeating him at Zayechar and Yavor in July, and the campaign in Servia proved disastrous. He rashly proclaimed Milan king of Servia in September, and in October Aleksinats and Deligrad were in the hands of the Turks, and the road open to Belgrade. An armistice was concluded, and Tchernaiev resigned his command. In 1877 he visited Austria in connexion with his propaganda, but was expelled, and lived for a time in France. In 1879 he organized a Bulgarian rising, but was arrested at Adrianople and sent back to Russia. He succeeded Kaufmann (q.v.) as governor of Turkestan in 1882, but his aggressive policy led to his recall two years later, when he was appointed a member of the council of war at St Petersburg. In 1886 his opposition to the Central Asian Military railway caused him to lose his seat in the council. He died on the 16th of August 1898, at bis country seat in the province of Mogilev.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teach, Edward

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​TEACH [Thatch or Thach], EDWARD (d. 1718), English pirate, popularly known as Blackbeard, is believed to have been born at Bristol. He is said to have gone out to the West Indies during the war of the Spanish Succession, to have engaged in privateering, and after the declaration of peace (1713) to have turned pirate, but he is not actually heard of in this capacity till the end of 1716. The following year he captured a large French merchantman, rechristened her " Queen Anne's Revenge," and converted her into a warship of forty guns. His robberies and outrages in the Spanish main, the West Indies, and on the coasts of Carolina and Virginia, quickly earned him an infamous notoriety. He made his winter quarters in a convenient inlet in North Carolina, the governor of which colony was not above sharing in the proceeds of his crimes, but the governor of Virginia at last despatched two sloops, manned from the British warships on the station, to cut him out. On the 22nd of November 1718 Lieutenant Maynard, commanding the attacking forces, boarded Teach's sloop, after a sharp fight, and himself shot the pirate dead. Teach seems to have been an ignorant ruffian. His personal appearance was remarkable. His nickname was due to his habit of tying up the ends of his long and bushy black beard with ribbon and curling them back over his ears. Johnson in his General History of the Pyrates gives his name as Teach, but according to the official records it was really Thatch or Thach.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tea-caddy

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​TEA-CADDY, a box, jar, canister or other receptacle for tea. The word is believed to be derived from catty, the Chinese pound, equal to about a pound and a third avoirdupois. The earliest examples that came to Europe were of Chinese porcelain, and approximated in shape to the ginger-jar. They had lids or stoppers likewise of china, and were most frequently blue and white. The English kilns at first imitated them, but speedily devised forms and ornament of their own, and there was hardly a ceramic factory in the country which did not compete for the supply of the new fashion. But tea-caddies were not for long confined to procelain or faience. They were presently made in a great variety of materials, and in an equal variety of shapes. Wood, pewter, tortoise-shell, brass, copper and even silver were employed, but in the end the material most frequently used was wood, and there still survive vast numbers of Georgian box-shaped caddies in mahogany, rosewood, satin- wood and other choice timbers, often mounted in brass and delicately inlaid, with knobs of ivory, ebony or silver. Although many examples were made in Holland, principally of the earthen- war of Delft, the finer varieties enamelled, enriched with ciphers, and emblazoned with heraldry, the tea-caddy was a typically English product. As the use of the jar waned and that of the box increased, the provision of different receptacles for green and black tea was abandoned, and the wooden caddy, with a lid and a lock, was made with two and often three divisions, the centre portion being reserved for sugar. Chippen- dale's caddies in Louis Quinze fashion were delightful, with their claw and ball feet and exquisite finish. On the whole the mahogany or rosewood caddy of the latter part of the 18th and the early years of the 19th century was, from the artistic point of view, the most elegant and satisfying. The wood was rich and well-marked, the inlay simple and delicate, the form graceful and unobtrusive. Even when it took the shape of a miniature sarcophagus, imitated from the massive wine- coolers of the Empire period, with little claw feet and brass rings, it was a decidedly pleasing object. The larger varieties were known as tea-chests. As tea grew cheaper it became less important that it should be kept constantly under the mistress's eye, and the tea-caddy gradually fell into desuetude. It has, however, never gone entirely out of use, though handsome examples are now most commonly regarded as ornaments or preserved in collections.