OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Declaration of

See also Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN, DECLARATION OF, a sort of manifesto issued in 1789 by the Constituent Assembly in the French Revolution, to be inscribed at the head of the constitution when it should be completed. It stated the fundamental principles which inspired the revolution. Historians have traced a connexion with the declarations of rights which preceded the constitution of some of the states of the American Union, especially of Virginia, but the situation in France at the time, and the influence of the writings of the philosopher made the proposal for such a statement very natural. The declaration overturned the political and social principles upon which the existent régime stood. It has served as a base for modern civil legislation and is still a force in European history. The final text voted by the Assembly was accepted by the king on the 5th of October 1789, at first conditionally, then with modifications. It contains a preamble and 17 articles. They proclaim and define political equality and liberty in its various manifestations, determine the character of the law and the conditions of its application, and state at the same time the restrictions upon the individual will which are necessary ​for the benefit of society. Similar declarations were attached to the constitution of 1793 and to that of the year III.
See E. Blum, La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen, text with commentary (Paris, 1902); L. Bourgeois and A. Metin, Declaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen, 1789 (Paris, 1901); G. Jellinck, Die Erklärung der Menschen und Bürgerrechte (Leipzig, 1895). This study has been translated into English by Rudolf Tombo (New York), and has aroused considerable controversy; see E. Boutmy, “ La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen et M. Jellinck," in Annales des sciences politiques for the 15th of July 1902; also E. Walsh, La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen et l'assemblée constituent, Travaux préparatoires (Paris, 1903 .
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madison (New Jersey)

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​MADISON, a borough of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 27 m. (by rail) W. of New York City and 4 m. S.E. of Morristown. Pop. (1890), 2469; (1900), 3754, of whom 975 were foreign-born and 300 were negroes; (1905), 4115; (1910), 4658. It is served by the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad. The borough is attractively situated among the hills of Northern New Jersey, is primarily a residential suburb of New York and Newark, and contains many fine residences. There are a public library and a beautiful public park, both given to the borough by Daniel Willis James (1832–1907), a prominent metal manufacturer; the library is closely allied with the public schools. Madison is the seat of the well-known Drew theological seminary (Methodist Episcopal; founded in 1866 and opened in 1867), named in honour of Daniel Drew (1788–1879), who, having acquired great wealth from steamboat and railway enterprises, especially from trading in railway stocks, presented the large and beautiful grounds and most of the buildings. The seminary’s course covers three years; no fee is charged. In connexion with the seminary the Drew settlement in New York City—officially the department of applied Christianity—has for its object the “practical study of present-day problems in city evangelism, church organization, and work among the poor.” In 1907–1908 the seminary had 9 instructors, 175 students, and a library of more than 100,000 volumes, especially rich in works dealing with the history of Methodism and in Greek New Testament manuscripts. About 2 m. N.W. of Madison is Convent Station, the seat of a convent of the Sisters of Charity, who here conduct the college of St Elizabeth, for girls, founded in 1859; also conducted by the Sisters of Charity is St Joseph’s preparatory school for boys, founded in 1862. The cultivation of roses and chrysanthemums is practically the only industry of Madison. Madison owns and operates its waterworks and electric-lighting plant. Before 1844 when it took its present name (in honour of President Madison), Madison was called Bottle Hill; it is one of the older places of the state, and its first church (Presbyterian) was built about 1748. The borough was incorporated in 1889.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madou, Jean Baptiste

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​MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1796–1877), Belgian painter and lithographer, was born at Brussels on the 3rd of February 1796. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts and was a pupil of François. While draughtsman to the topographical military division at Courtrai, he received a commission for lithographic work from a Brussels publisher. It was about 1820 that he began his artistic career. Between 1825 and 1827 he contributed to Les Vues pittoresques de la Belgique, to a Life of Napoleon, and to works on the costumes of the Netherlands, and later made a great reputation by his work in La Physionomie de la société en Europe depuis 1400 jusqu’ à nos jours (1836) and Les Scènes de la vie des peintres. It was not until about 1840 that he began to paint in oils, and the success of his early efforts in this medium resulted in a long series of pictures representing scenes of village and city life, including “The Fiddler,” “The Jewel Merchant,” “The Police Court,” “The Drunkard,” “The Ill-regulated Household,” and “The Village Politicians.” Among his numerous works mention may also be made of “The Feast at the Château” (1851), “The Unwelcome Guests” (1852, Brussels Gallery), generally regarded as his masterpiece, “The Rat Hunt” (acquired by Leopold II., king of the Belgians), “The Arquebusier” (1860), and “The Stirrup Cup.” At the age of sixty-eight he decorated a hall in his house with a series of large paintings representing scenes from La Fontaine’s fables, and ten years later made for King Leopold a series of decorative paintings for the château of Ciergnon. Madou died at Brussels on the 31st of March 1877.
For a list of his paintings see the annual report of the Academy of Belgium for 1879. (F. K.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madoz, Pascual

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​MADOZ, PASCUAL (1806–1870), Spanish statistician, was born at Pampeluna on the 7th of May 1806. In early life he was settled in Barcelona, as a writer and journalist. He joined the Progresista party formed during the first Carlist war, 1833–40. He saw some service against the Carlists; was elected deputy to the Cortes of 1836; took part for Espartero, and then against him; was imprisoned in 1843; went into exile and returned; was governor of Barcelona in 1854, and minister of finance in 1855; had a large share in secularizing the Church lands; and after the revolution of 1868 was governor of Madrid. He had, however, no great influence as a leader and soon went abroad, dying at Genoa in 1870. Madoz was distinguished from most of the politicians of his generation by the fact that in middle life he compiled what is still a book of value—a geographical, statistical and historical dictionary of Spain and its possessions oversea, Diccionario geográfico, estadístico y histórico de España, y sus posesiones de Ultramar (Madrid, 1848–1850).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madison (Indiana)

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​MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, about 90 m. below Cincinnati, and 44 m. above Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1870), 10,709; (1890), 8936; (1900), 7835 (554 foreign-born and 570 negroes); (1910), 6934. Madison is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railroad and by river steamboats. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs above the river and has two public parks. In Madison are a King’s Daughters’ Hospital, a children’s home, and the Drusilla home for old ladies, and immediately north of the city are the buildings of the Indiana South-eastern Insane Hospital. Madison is a trading centre of the surrounding farming region, whose principal products are burley tobacco, grain and fruits (peaches, apples, pears, plums and small fruits). The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Madison was settled about the beginning of the 19th century; was incorporated as a town in 1824, and was first chartered as a city in 1836.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madeley

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​MADELEY, a market town in the municipal borough of Wenlock, and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 159 m. N.W. from London, with stations on the London & North Western (Madeley Market) and Great Western railways (Madeley Court). Pop. of civil parish (1901), 8442. There are large ironworks, ironstone and coal are mined, and potter’s clay is raised. The church of St Michael (1796) replaced a Norman building. The living was held from 1760 to 1783 by John William Fletcher or de la Flechêre, a close friend of the Wesleys. The parish includes a portion of Coalbrookdale (q.v.), and the towns of Ironbridge and Coalport. Ironbridge, a town picturesquely situated on the steep left bank of the Severn, adjoins Madeley on the south-west. It takes its name from the iron bridge of one span crossing the river, erected in 1779. This bridge is a remarkable work considering its date; it was probably the first erected, at any rate on so large a scale, and attracted great attention. It is the work of Abraham Darby, the third of the name, one of the famous family of iron-workers in Coalbrookdale. Here are brick and tile works and lime-kilns. There is a station (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western railway, across the river. Coalport lies also on the Severn, S. of Madeley and 2 m. S.E. of Ironbridge, with a station on the Great Western railway. It has large china works, founded at the close of the 18th century, which subsequently incorporated those of Caughley, across the Severn, and of Nantgarw in Glamorganshire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madi

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​MADI (A-Madi), a negro race of the Nile valley, occupying both banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel immediately north of Albert Nyanza. Tradition makes them immigrants from the north-west. They are remarkable for the consideration shown to their women, who choose their own husbands, are never ill-treated or hard-worked, and take part in tribal deliberations. The Madi build sepulchral monuments of an elaborate type, two huge narrow stones sloping towards each other with two smaller slabs covering the opening between them. They have been much harried by the Azandeh and Abarambo. They were visited by W. Junker in 1882–1883, and described by him in Petermann’s Mittheilungen for May 1883.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cotton, James Sutherland

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​COTTON, JAMES SUTHERLAND (1847-1918), British man of letters (see 7.255), died at Salisbury July 10 1918. He contributed articles on Indian subjects to the E.B. and spent the later years of his life cataloguing European MSS. relating to India in the India Office library.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cotton, Sir Henry John Stedman

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​COTTON, SIR HENRY JOHN STEDMAN (1845-1915), Anglo-Indian administrator (see 7.254), lost his seat in Parliament in 1910. He died in London Oct. 23 1915.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cromer, Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of

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CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1st Earl of (1841-1917), British statesman and diplomatist (see 7.484). Lord Cromer's life was prolonged for nearly ten years after his return from Egypt; and, in spite of enfeebled health, culminating in a serious illness in 1914 from which he never completely recovered, he took an important share in political, social and literary movements at home. He was constant in his attendance in the House of Lords, and indefatigable in the work of its committees; he was a leading member of the free trade section of the Unionist party; he was active in opposition to female suffrage, and in combating anti-vivisection propaganda. Besides publishing his two volumes of Modern Egypt, he composed several addresses and pamphlets, wrote frequently for the periodicals, and from 1912 onwards was a regular contributor of signed articles and reviews of books to the Spectator — his vigorous and informed writing becoming an attractive feature of the paper. When the British Protectorate of Egypt was proclaimed, he completed his history of the modern development of that country in a small volume entitled Abbas II., containing matter which it would have been indiscreet to publish so long as Abbas remained Khedive. While he was forward in promoting the study of Oriental languages, his strongest affection was for the Greek and Latin classics with which he had only become acquainted in mature life; he became president of the Classical Society, and endowed a Greek prize for the British Academy. In the critical period of which the main features were the budget of 1909 and the Parliament bill of 1911, Lord Cromer played an energetic part. He failed to prevent the rejection of the budget by the House of Lords; but he was successful in his untiring efforts to persuade moderate Unionist and cross-bench peers to counter the “Die-hard” movement, and to vote for the Parliament bill rather than force the Government to swamp the House by an unlimited creation. It was in the performance of another patriotic duty, during the World War, that he met his death. In spite of age and indifferent health he accepted the laborious and invidious task of chairman of the special commission to inquire into the abortive Dardanelles operations. The sittings occupied the autumn of 1916, and while engaged on the draft report he was seized in Dec. with an attack of influenza. Before he had recovered, he resumed the work of the commission, which completely broke him down. He died a few weeks after the beginning of the new year. Seldom has there been a life more singly and successfully devoted to the good of his country.
See Lord Sanderson's Memoir of Evelvn, Earl of Cromer (1917).
    (G. E. B.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Crile, George Washington

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CRILE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1864- ), American surgeon, was born at Chili, O., Nov. 11 1864. After graduating from Ohio Northern University (1884), he studied medicine at Wooster University (M.D. 1887) and later at Vienna, London and Paris. He taught at Wooster from 1889 to 1900. He was professor of Clinical Medicine at Western Reserve University from 1900 to 1911, and was then made professor of Surgery. During the Spanish-American War he was made a member of the Medical Reserve Corps and served in Porto Rico (1898). He was made an hon. F.R.C.S. (London) in 1913. After America entered the World War he became major in the medical O.T.C., and professional director (1917-8). He served with the B.E.F. in France and was senior consultant in surgical research (1918-9). He was made lieutenant-colonel in June 1918 and colonel later in the year. He made important contributions to the study of blood pressure and of shock in operations. Realizing that any strong emotion, such as fear before operation, produced shock, he attempted to allay dread by psychic suggestion, also endeavouring to prevent the subjective shock which affects the patient, even when under general anaesthesia, by first anaesthetizing the operative region with cocaine for several days, if necessary, before operating. Thus nerve communication between the affected part and the brain was already obstructed when the general anaesthetic was administered (see Anoci- Association, 1914, with Dr. Wm. E. Lower). For his work in shockless surgery he received a gold medal from the National Institute of Social Sciences in 1914.
Among his works are: Surgical Shock (1897); On the Blood Pressure in Surgery (1903); Hemorrhage and Transfusion (1909); Surgical Anemia and Resuscitation (1914); The Origin and Nature of the Emotions (1915); Man an Adaptive Mechanism (1916); A Mechanistic View of War and Peace (1916) and The Fallacy of the German State Philosophy (1918).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cordonnier, Victor Louis Émilien

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CORDONNIER, VICTOR LOUIS ÉMILIEN (1858-), French general, was born at Surgy (Nièvre) March 23 1858, and after passing through the military college of St. Cyr entered the infantry as sub-lieutenant in 1879. Eight years later he graduated from the École de Guerre, and thereafter staff and regimental service (including tours of duty in the Alps and in Algeria) alternated till in 1905 he was appointed an instructor at the École de Guerre. He had already served as commander of the cadet battalion and director of studies at St. Cyr, and from this time till 1910 his work was wholly instructional. In this period he wrote his work Les Japonais en Mandchourie (published 1911), a study which soon took rank as the most important critical work on the Russo-Japanese War and was translated into several languages (English translation, The Japanese in Manchuria, Part I. 1912, Part II. 1914). In 1910 on promotion to colonel he took command of an infantry regiment and in 1913 he was promoted general of brigade and appointed to command the new 87th Brigade, forming part of the reënforced couverture created by the Three Years' Service Act.
In command of this brigade, Cordonnier played a distinguished part in the successful action of Mangiennes on Aug. 10 1914, and in the heavy fighting of the IV. Army in the Ardennes. Before the battle of the Marne he had been advanced to the command of the 3rd Division, and he led this formation in that battle and in the advance to Ste. Menehould and the Argonne which followed. On Sept. 15 he was severely wounded, and though he resumed his command in October, he had again to be invalided. In December, having meantime become general of division and an officer of the Legion of Honour, he commanded his division in the bitter trench-warfare fighting in the Argonne, and in Jan. 1915 he was in charge of a group of divisions in Alsace. From May 1915 he commanded the VIII. Corps in the St. Mihiel sector. In July 1916, having been meantime awarded the grade of commander in the Legion of Honour, he was appointed to command the French contingent of the Salonika armies grouped under Sarrail, which became the “Armée française d'Orient.”
In general charge of the Allied left wing in Sarrail's autumn offensive he fought the actions of Ostrovo, Fiorina, Armenohor and Kenali, but owing to acute differences with Sarrail, which are discussed elsewhere, he returned to France just before the battle at Monastir which his movements and combats had prepared. He was already gravely ill, and immediately on landing in France was sent into hospital, where he underwent an operation for cancer. A command on the French front had been promised to him but he was never fit to take it up, and soon after the end of the World War he was placed on the retired list. He then devoted himself to historical and critical work on the war. In 1921 he published an account of the operations of the 87th Brigade under the title Une Brigade au feu; Potins de Guerre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trade Winds

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​TRADE WINDS, the name given to the winds which blow from the tropical belts of high pressure towards the equatorial belt of low pressure, from the north-east in the northern hemisphere and from the south-east in the southern. They are exceedingly regular, especially over the oceans, where there is no disturbing influence from the great land masses. They receive their name from this feature, the term “trade” being used in the otherwise obsolete sense of “direction” or “course” (cf. “tread”). The area of their greatest influence may be taken to extend from about 3° to 35° N., and from the equator to 28° S., though these belts are actually somewhat narrower at any given season, as the whole system of surface winds over the globe moves north and south following the sun. The westerly winds prevalent in the belts respectively north of the northern tropical belt of high pressure, and south of the southern, are sometimes known as anti-trades, their direction being opposite to that of the trade winds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tracy, Benjamin Franklin

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​TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1830-), American lawyer and soldier, was born in Owego, New York, on the 26th of April 1830. He was educated at the Owegp academy, was admitted to the bar in 1851, was district-attorney of Tioga county in 1853–1859, and was a member of the state Assembly in 1862. In 1862 he organized the 109th and the 137th regiments of New York Volunteer Infantry and (Aug. 28) was made colonel of the former. In September 1864 he became colonel of the 127th United States Colored Infantry; in 1864–1865 was in command of the prison camp at Elmira, New York, and in March 1865 was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers. He received a Congressional medal of honour in 1895 for gallantry at the Wilderness in May 1864. He was United States district-attorney for the eastern district of New York in 1866–1873, and an associate judge of the New York court of appeals in 1881–1882. In 1889-1893 he was secretary of the navy in the cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison, and then resumed the practice of law in New York City. He was chairman of the commission which drafted the charter for Greater New York, and in 1897 was defeated as Republican candidate for mayor of the city. In 1899 he was counsel for Venezuela before the Anglo-Venezuelan boundary arbitration commission in Paris.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trade

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​TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms tred, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track), originally a term meaning track or course, and so surviving in “trade-wind” (q.v.), a wind which always blows in one course; hence a way of life, business or occupation, and, specifically, the handicraft in which a man has been trained and which he makes his means of livelihood, or the mercantile business which he carries on for profit, as opposed to the liberal arts or professions. A further development of meaning makes the word synonymous with commerce, comprehending every species of exchange or dealing in commodities.
See Commerce; Balance of Trade; Free Trade; Protection; Tariffs; Trade Organization; and also the sections dealing with trade and commerce under the various countries.