OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marietta (Ohio)

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​MARIETTA, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Muskingum, about 115 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890), 8273; (1900), 13,348, including 679 foreign-born and 361 negroes; (1910), 12,923. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Marietta Division), the Baltimore & Ohio (Marietta & Parkersburg, Marietta & Zanesville, and Ohio River divisions) and the Marietta, Columbus & Cleveland railways, and by steamboat lines to several river ports; a bridge across the Ohio connects it with Williamstown, West Virginia. The city is in a hilly country of much natural beauty, and is of considerable historic interest. On the banks of the Muskingum is a public park, facing which stood the oldest church in the state; this was burned in 1905, but was subsequently rebuilt in the old style. Near by are some 18th century buildings, some interesting earthworks of the “mound-builders,” and a cemetery in which are buried many soldiers who fought in the War of Independence. Marietta is the seat of Marietta College, dating from 1830, which in 1908 had more than 500 students. It possesses a library of 60,000 volumes, including some rare collections, especially the Stimson collection of books bearing on the history of the North-West Territory. Petroleum, coal, and iron-ore abound in the neighbouring region, and the city has a considerable trade in these and in its manufactures of chairs, leather, flour, carriages, wagons, boats, boilers, bricks and glass. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,599,287.
Marietta, named in honour of Marie Antoinette, is the oldest settlement in the state and in the North-west Territory. It was founded in 1788 by a company of Revolutionary officers from New England under the leadership of General Rufus Putnam, and in the same year the North-West Territory was formally organized here. The pseudo-classicism of the period of Marietta’s foundation is indicated by the names—Capitolium for one of ​the public squares, Sacra Via for one of the principal streets, and Campus Martius for the fortification. The settlement was incorporated as a town in 1800 and chartered as a city in 1852. In 1800 the village of Harmar, including the site on which Fort Harmar was built in 1785, was annexed.
See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mariinsk

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​MARIINSK, a town of Russia, in West Siberia and the government of Tomsk, on the bank of the Kiya river and on the Siberian railway, 147 m. E.S.E. of Tomsk. Pop. (1897), 8300. It is built of timber, but has a stately cathedral. There are tanneries and soapworks; and Mariinsk is an entrepôt for the goldmines.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marillac, Charles de

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​MARILLAC, CHARLES DE (c. 1510–1560), French prelate and diplomatist, came of a good family of Auvergne, and at the age of twenty-two was advocate at the parlement of Paris. Suspected, however, of sympathizing with the reformers, he deemed it prudent to leave Paris, and in 1535 went to the East with his cousin Jean de la Forêt, the first French ambassador at Constantinople. Cunning and ambitious, he soon made his mark, and his cousin having died during his embassy, Marillac was appointed his successor. He did not return from the East until 1538, when he was sent almost immediately to England, where he remained ambassador until 1543. He retained his influence during the reign of Henry II., fulfilling important missions in Switzerland and at the imperial court (1547–1551), and at the courts of the German princes (1553–1554). In 1555 he was one of the French deputies at the conferences held at Mark near Ardres to discuss peace with England. His two last missions were at Rome (1557) and at the Diet of Augsburg (1559). In 1550 he was given the bishopric of Vannes, and in 1557 the archbishopric of Vienne; he also became a member of the privy council. He distinguished himself as a statesman at the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau in 1560, when he delivered an exceedingly brilliant discourse, in which he opposed the policy of violence and demanded a national council and the assembly of the states general. Irritated by his opposition, the Guises compelled him to leave the court, and he died on the 2nd of December of the same year.
His works include: Discours sur la roupture de la Trefve en l’an 1556 (Paris, 1556), and “Sommaire de l’ambassade en Allemagne de feu M$^r$. l’archévesque de Vienne en l’an 1550,” published in Ranke’s Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, vol. vi. (Leipzig, 1882). See J. Kaulek, Correspondance politique de Castillon et Marillac (1537–1542) (Paris, 1885); P. de Vassière, Charles de Marillac (Paris, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marigny, Jean de

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​MARIGNY, JEAN DE (d. 1350), French bishop, was a younger brother of the preceding. Entering the church at an early age, he was rapidly advanced until in 1313 he was made bishop of Beauvais. During the next twenty years he was one of the most notable of the members of the French episcopate, and was particularly in favour with King Philip VI. He devoted himself in 1335 to the completion of the choir of Beauvais Cathedral, the enormous windows of which were filled with the richest glass. But this building activity, which has left one of the most notable Gothic monuments in Europe, was broken into by the Hundred Years’ War. Jean de Marigny, a successful administrator and man of affairs rather than a saintly churchman, was made one of the king’s lieutenants in southern France in 1341 against the English invasion. His most important military operation, however, was when in 1346 he successfully held out in Beauvais against a siege by the English, who had overrun the country up to the walls of the city. Created archbishop of Rouen in 1347 as a reward for this defence, he enjoyed his new honours only three years; he died on the 26th of December 1350.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marigold

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​MARIGOLD. This name has been given to several plants, of which the following are the best known: Calendula officinalis, the pot-marigold; Tagetes erecta, the African marigold; T. patula, the French marigold; and Chrysanthemum segetum, the corn marigold. All these belong to the order Compositae; but Caltha palustris, the marsh marigold, belongs to the order Ranunculaceae.
The first-mentioned is the familiar garden plant with large orange-coloured blossoms, and is probably not known in a wild state. There are now many fine garden varieties of it. The florets are unisexual, the “ray” florets being female, the “disk” florets male. This and the double variety have been in cultivation for at least three hundred years, as well as a proliferous form, C. prolifera, or the “fruitful marigolde” of Gerard (Herball, p. 602), in which small flower-heads proceed from beneath the circumference of the flower. The figure of “the greatest double marigold,” C. multiflora maxima, given by Gerard (loc. cit. p. 600) is larger than most specimens now seen, being 3 in. in diameter. He remarks of “the marigolde” that it is called Calendula “as it is to be seene to flower in the calends of almost euerie moneth.” It was supposed to have several specific virtues, but they are non-existent. “The marigold, that goes to bed wi’ the sun,” is mentioned by Shakespeare, Winter’s Tale, iv. 3.
Tagetes patula, and T. erecta, the French and African marigolds, are natives of Mexico, and are equally familiar garden plants, having been long in cultivation. Gerard figures five varieties of Flos africanus, of the single and double kind (loc. cit., p. 609). Besides the above species the following have been introduced later, T. lucida, T. signata, also from Mexico, and T. tenuifolia from Peru.
Chrysanthemum segetum, the yellow corn marigold, is indigenous to Great Britain, and is frequent in corn-fields in most parts of England. When dried it has been employed as hay. It is also used in Germany for dyeing yellow. Gerard observes that in his day “the stalke and leaues of Corne Marigolde, as Dioscorides saith, are eaten as other potherbes are.”
Caltha palustris, the marsh marigold, or king-cups, the “winking Mary-buds” of Shakespeare (Cymb., ii. 3), is a common British plant in marshy meadows and beside water. It bears smooth heart-shaped leaves, and flowers with a golden yellow calyx but no corolla, blossoming in March and April. The flower-buds preserved in salted vinegar are a good substitute for capers. A double-flowered variety is often cultivated, and is occasionally found wild.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Press

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​PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press), a word which appears in English in the 13th and 14th centuries with three particular ​meanings, viz. (1) crowd or throng, often used of the mêlée in a battle, (2) a shelved cupboard for books or clothes, and (3) an apparatus for exerting pressure on various substances, and for various purposes. The first meaning is still current, though usually it has a literary air; a specific use is the nautical one of “press of sail,” i.e. as much sail as the Wind will allow; cf. the similar use of “crowd.” The second use has given way to other words, but is still the technical term in use in libraries, where the books bear “press-marks” specifying the case or shelf where they may be found. As a term for a machine or apparatus for exerting pressure, there are innumerable examples, usually with a qualifying word giving the purpose for which the pressure is applied, either for attaining compression into a small space, or a required shape, or for extracting juices or liquids, or the methods adopted for exerting the pressure. The printing-press has given rise to obvious transferred uses of the word “press”: thus it is applied to an establishment for printing, e.g. the Clarendon Press, at Oxford, or the Pitt Press, at Cambridge, to a printing-house and to the staff which conduct the business, to the issue of printed matter and especially to its daily or periodical issue, hence newspapers and periodicals generally. According to the New English Dictionary this use originated in phrases such as “the liberty of the press,” “to write for the press,” &c. The earliest quotation given is from the first number of the Dublin Press, 1797. For the history of the liberty or freedom of the press see Press Laws; also Newspapers and Periodicals. For the punishment of “pressing” see Peine Forte et Dure. It is now recognized that “press” in “press gang,” “to press,” i.e. to force or compulsorily enlist men for naval or military service, is a word distinct from the above. It stands for the earlier “prest,” and is ultimately due to French prêter, to lend (see Impressment).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prescot

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​PRESCOT, a market town and urban district in the Ormskirk parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 8 m. E. of Liverpool by the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901), 7855. It is of considerable antiquity, and received a grant for a market and fair in the 7th year of Edward III. A church existed in the 13th century. The present church of St Mary is in various styles, with a lofty tower and spire and carved timber roof. The chief industry is the making of watches, and the town has long been celebrated for the production of watch movements and tools. The industry was first introduced in 1730 by John Miller from Yorkshire. There is also a manufacture of electric cables. John Philip Kemble, the actor, was born at Prescot in 1757. To the north of the town is Knowsley Park, the demesne of the earls of Derby, with a mansion of various dates from the 15th century onward, containing a fine collection of pictures. Prescot was formerly of greater importance in relation to the now populous district of south-west Lancashire; it was also a postal centre, and it is curious to notice that such addresses as "Liverpool, near Prescot" were necessary.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Present

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​PRESENT, an adjective, adverb and substantive meaning that which is at hand or before one in place or in time. Also another substantive meaning a gift, and a verb meaning to bring into the presence of, to offer, to deliver. The verb is pronounced presént; the others présent. The first group is due to the Latin praesens, the present participle of praeesse, to be before one or at hand; from this participle was formed the verb praesentare, to bring before one, exhibit, show. The sense of “ gift ” is due to ​the O. Fr. phrase mettre en présent à quelqu'un, to bring something into the presence of a person, to offer, give. The legal formal phrase “these presents” is common, especially in the form “know all men by these presents,” as an opening to a deed, more particularly to a deed-poll which cannot be referred to as an “indenture.” The phrase “these present words, documents, writings,” &c. is an adaptation of a similar phrase in O.Fr. ces presentes (sc. ettres). As ecclesiastical terms “to present” or “presentation” are used of the “presenting” or nomination by the patron to the bishop of the person chosen by him to fill a vacant benefice. When the bishop is patron he does not “present,” but “collates.” “Presentiment,” foreboding, the feeling of something impending, must be distinguished in etymology; it is derived from the Lat. praesentire, to perceive beforehand.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Presidency

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​PRESIDENCY, an administrative unit of the Indian empire. The word is derived from the title of president or chief of the council of a principal factory under the early East India Company —a title which lasted until governors were appointed under act of parliament in 1784. It thence came to be applied to the three original provinces of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. It is now restricted to Madras and Bombay, in distinction to the lieutenant-governorships. In Anglo-Indian usage, “presidency” was also applied to the capital city as opposed to the country beyond, termed the “mofussil”; and this usage lingers in such phrases as “presidency town,” “presidency magistrate,” and “presidency college.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Presentationism

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​PRESENTATIONISM (from Lat. prae-esse, praesens, present), a philosophical term used in various senses deriving from the general sense of the term “presentation.” According to G. F. Stout (cf. Manual of Psychology, i. 57), presentations are “whatever constituents or our total experience at any moment directly determine the nature of the object as it is perceived or thought of at that moment.” In Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, vol. ii., a presentation is “an object in the special form under which it is cognized at any given moment of perceptual or ideational process.” This, the widest definition of the term, due largely to Professor James Ward, thus includes both perceptual and ideational processes. The term has, indeed, been narrowed so as to include ideation, the correlative “representation” being utilized for ideal presentation, but in general the wider use is preferred. When the mind is cognizing an object, the object “presents” itself to the senses or to thought in one of a number of different forms (e.g. a picture is a work of art, a saleable commodity, a representation of a house, &c.). Presentation is thus essentially a cognitive process. Hence the most important use of the term “presentationism,” which is defined by Ward, in Mind, N.S. (1893), ii. 58, as “a doctrine the gist of which is that all the elements of psychical life are primarily and ultimately cognitive elements.” This use takes precedence of two others: (1) that of Hamilton, for presentative as opposed to representative theories of knowledge, and (2) that of some later writers who took it as equivalent to phenomenon (q.v.). Ward traces the doctrine in his sense to Hume, to whom the mind is a “kind of theatre” in which perceptions appear and vanish continually (see Green and Grose edition of the Treatise, i. 534). The main problem is as to whether psychic activity is “presented” or not. Ward holds that it is not presented or presentable save indirectly.
For the problems connected with Presentation and Presentationism see especially the article Psychology and authorities there quoted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Press Gang

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​ PRESS GANG, the popular name for the companies of officers and men who were commissioned to execute the warrants for the impressment of seamen in Great Britain (see Impressment). These bodies consisted of a captain, one or more lieutenants, and a band of trustworthy men. They were sent to seaports, or occasionally to inland towns where sailors' were likely to be met when going from one coast to another. A “rendezvous” was opened, volunteers were enlisted, deserters arrested, and such “able bodied persons” as were liable to be pressed for service in the fleet were seized, and sent to the guard ships (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pepusch, John Christopher

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​PEPUSCH, JOHN CHRISTOPHER (1667-1752), English musician, of German parentage, was born in Berlin. He began his study of music at an early age, and about 1700 left Berlin and went to England, where he had various engagements, and where he went on with his researches into ancient music. He composed a number of church services and instrumental pieces, besides music for masques and plays, but he is best known in connexion with the founding in 1710 of the Academy of Ancient Music. In 1713 he was made a Mus. D. of Oxford, and in 1746 F.R.S. In 1718 he married Margarita de l'Épine (d. 1746), who, as the first Italian to sing in England, was described in 1692 in the London Gazelle simply as "the Italian woman." Pepusch died in London on the 20th of July 1752. His Trealise on Harmony (anonymous 1st ed. 1730) is believed to have been an embodiment of his rules drafted by his pupil Viscount Paisley, afterwards earl of Abercorn.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perch (fish)

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​The shape of its body is well proportioned, but many variations occur, some specimens being singularly high-backed, others low and long-bodied, sometimes such variations are local, and Agassiz and other naturalists at one time thought it possible to distinguish two species of the common perch of Europe; there are not even sufficient grounds, however, for separating specifically the North-American form, which in the majority of ichthyological works is described as Perca flavescens. The brilliant and striking colours of the perch render it easily recognizable even at a distance. A rich greenish-brown with golden reflections covers the back and sides, which are ornamented with five or seven dark cross-bands. A large black spot occupies the membrane between the last spines of the dorsal fin; and the ventral, anal and lower part of the caudal are bright vermilion. In the large peaty lakes of north Germany a beautiful variety is not uncommon, in which the golden tinge prevails, as in a goldfish.
The Perch, Perca fluviatilis.
The perch is strictly carnivorous and most voracious; it wanders about in small shoals within a certain district, playing sad havoc among small fishes, and is therefore not to be tolerated in waters where valuable fry is cultivated. Perch of three pounds in weight are not infrequently caught in suitable localities; one of five would now be regarded as an extraordinarily large specimen, although in older works we read of individuals exceeding even that weight.
Perch are good, wholesome food, and highly esteemed in inland countries where marine fish can be obtained only with difficulty. The nearly allied pike-perch is one of the best European food fishes. The perch is exceedingly prolific; it begins to spawn when three years old, in April or in the first half of May, depositing the ova, which are united by a viscid matter in lengthened or net-shaped bands, on water plants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pepsin

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​PEPSIN, an enzyme or ferment obtained by drying the mucous lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of a pig, sheep or calf. As used in medicine it consists of a light yellow-brown or white powder or of pale yellow translucent grains or scales. It is only slightly soluble in water and alcohol. Pepsin is used to help gastric digestion in old people and in those in whom there is a deficient secretion of the gastric juice. It is useful in chronic catarrhal conditions of the stomach, the dyspepsia of alcoholism, and in gastric ulcer and cancer of the stomach.
Pepsin digests the albumens but is useless in the digestion of fats or carbohydrates. It may also be used to predigest albuminous foods. The following is a method of peptonizing beef. Take 1/4 Ib of minced raw lean beef, 1/2 pint of water containing 0·2% of hydrochloric acid, place in a jar with 30 grs. of pepsin, set in a warm place at 110° F. for 3 hours, stirring occasionally. Then quickly boil it. It is usually unnecessary to strain it, as the meat is reduced to a fine almost impalpable powder which is readily assimilated. Many varieties of proprietary peptonizing tablets are on the market and are convenient for the preparation of peptonized milk. The following is a method of preparing it. Take a clean glass quart bottle, pour in a pint of perfectly fresh cold milk, then add a teacupful of cold water in which a peptonizing tablet has been dissolved. Submerge the bottle in a can of water at 100° F. for from 5 to 10 minutes, take out the bottle and place on ice to prevent the further action of the pepsin. If no ice is convenient bring the milk to a boil for the same purpose. If the action of the pepsin be continued for a much longer period the milk becomes bitter to the taste from the development of excess of peptones. Predigested foods should not be used over a long period or the digestive functions of the stomach may atrophy from disuse.
Pancreatic solution, derived from the pancreas of a pig digested in alcohol, has the power of converting starch into sugar, and albumen and fibrin into peptones. It only acts in an alkaline medium and at a temperature under 140° F. If used to peptonize milk sodium bicarbonate should be added. Many commercial preparations are on the market. Trypsin, the principal ferment of the pancreas, also changes proteids into peptones.