OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tea-poy

See also Teapoy on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TEA-POY (Hindustani tēpāi), a small table, supported upon a tripod, or even upon four legs, for holding a tea-service or an urn. The word was also sometimes applied to a large porcelain or earthenware tea-caddy, and more frequently to the small bottles, often of Battersea enamel, which fitted into receptacles in the caddy and actually contained the tea.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tchihatcheff, Pierre Alexandrowitsch de

See also Pyotr Chikhachyov on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TCHIHATCHEFF, PIERRE ALEXANDROWITSCH DE (1812–1890), Russian naturalist and geologist, was born at Gatchina, near St Petersburg, in 1812. He entered the diplomatic service and was (1842-44) attached to the embassy at Constantinople; whence he visited Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. In 1844, he was charged with a scientific mission to the Altai mountains. He died at Florence on the 13th of October 1890 (N.S.).
His publications include: Voyage scientifique dans l’Altai oriental et les parties adjacentes de la frontière de Chine (with atlas, 1845); Asie Mineure; description physique, statistique et archéologique de cette contrée (4 vols, with 3 atlases, 1853–69); Le Bosphore et Constantinople (1864, another ed. 1877); Considerations géologiques sur les Îles Océaniques (1878); and Espagne, Algérie et Tunisie (1880).
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Marulla

MARULLA, a young Girl of the Island of Lemnos.
The Turks having attacked the capital of this island, in the time of Mahomet II. it was defended with great vigour; even the women assisting in defence of their honours and their religion. Wounded by the stroke that had killed her father, she descended from the wall, and rushed amidst the enemy with all the vigour that enthusiasm and despair inspires; she was seconded by the garrison, who caught her fury; and the next day, when the Venetian general arrived, with his fleet, to succour the people, instead of a ​tle he beheld a triumph. The people in their best apparel, and the magistrates in their robes of ceremony, went to meet him, conducting their fair deliverer. Charmed with her heroism, the general commanded each soldier to make her a present; promised that she should be adopted by the republic; and offered her in marriage, any of the captains who accompanied him. Marulla replied, It was not by chance that she could chuse a husband; for the virtues of a camp would not make a good master of a family, and that the hazard would be too great.
F. C.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Margaret of France

MARGARET OF FRANCE, Duchess of Berri and Savoy, Daughter of Francis I.; horn 1523;
Learned Greek and Latin, professed herself a patroness of the sciences and learned men, and, after her father's death, gained a great name by her beauty, piety, learning, and amiable qualities. She married Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, 1559, and died of a pleurisy 1574, aged 51, occasioned, as it was thought, by her anxiety to perform properly the offices of hospitality to Henry III. and his suite, on his return from Poland. The most illustrious of the literati contended who should praise her best, and her subjects called her the Mother of her People.
L'Advocat's Dict.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Maria

MARIA, Daughter of Abraham Ben Althophaiel, of Granada,
Famous for her genius, memory, learning, and knowledge of music. She died in the 545th year of the Hegira.
Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispanæ Escurialiensis.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Marinella, (Lucretia)

MARINELLA (LUCRETIA),
A Venetian lady of great wit and beauty, who wrote many popular works in prose and verse; amongst which is one to prove the superiority of women, in courage, address, virtue, and prudence, &c. called La Nobilita delle Donne, printed at Venice 1601, 8vo.; the Lives of St. Francis and the Virgin Mary, &c.
F. C. &c
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Marozia

She procured John X. to be deposed, Leo VI. to be put to death in prison, and in 931 placed on the pontifical throne John IX. whom she had by Sergius III. Marozia had been successively wife to Adalbert and his son Guy; and when the latter died, Hugh, king of Italy and Provence, Guy's brother-in-law, married her, that he might be master of the castle of Rome.
L'Advocat's Biog.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Marquets, (Anne de)

Understanding Greek and Latin, she translated from the latter the Poems of Flaminius, Paris, 1569, 8vo.; and also the Latin Commentary, by Claude d'Espence, on the Sunday Collects; and wrote Sonnets for the Sundays. A collection of her fugitive pieces was published, which were much admired by Ronsard. Claude d'Espence was her friend, and left her an annuity of 30 livres, by his will, dated 1571. She lost her sight two years before she died.
F. C. &c.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Marina

MARINA, a famous Mexican Lady, who was of great Service to Cortez in subjugating that Kingdom.
According to Antonio de Solis, Marina was the daughter of the cazique of Guazwalca, a province of the kingdom of Mexico, bordering on that of Tabasco. By an accident, which is variously related, she was carried away in her youth to Xicatongo, a strong place on the frontiers of Yucatan, kept by a Mexican garrison. There she was brought up in a manner ill suited to her birth, until, by a fresh accident, sale or captivity, she became the property of the cazique of Tabasco, who presented her amongst some other Indian women to Cortez. She was superior both in beauty and intelligence to her companions, and understood not only the Mexican but the ​Yucatan language, and thereby proved a check upon the other interpreters. Besides, she soon acquired the Spanish tongue, and indeed manifested an admirable talent for attaining languages. By her address she found out a conspiracy to destroy the Spaniards on a certain day, and discovered it to Cortez. Bernando Diaz calls her the excellent Donna Marina.
Modern Universal History.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thümmel, Moritz August von

See also Moritz August von Thümmel on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THÜMMEL, MORITZ AUGUST VON (1738–1817), German humorist and satirical author, was born on the 27th of May 1738 at Schönefeld near Leipzig. Educated at Rossleben and the university of Leipzig, where he studied law, he held from 1761 till 1783 various offices in the ducal court of Saxe-Coburg, where he became privy councillor and minister of state. He retired in 1783 and died at Coburg on the 26th of October 1817. He wrote a comic prose epic, Wilhdmine, oder der vermählte Pedant (1764); and Die Inoculation der Liebe (1771), a tale in verse. His most famous work is his Reise in die mittäglichen Provinzen von Frankreich im Jahre 1785–1786 (1701–1805), a “sentimental journey” in ten volumes, in which the influence of Wieland is unmistakable. Schiller, who found this work wanting in aesthetic dignity, yet allowed that the keen knowledge of men and things it displays makes it a valuable contribution to literature. Thummel's other writings are unimportant.
His collected works were published at Leipzig in six volumes (1812), and again in 1820 (7 vols.), with a biography by J. E. von Gruner. The most recent edition is that of 1855 (8 vols.). See also F. Bobertag, Erzählende Prosa der klassischen Periode vol. i. (Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. exxxvi., 1886). Wilhelmine has also been edited by R. Rosenbaum (1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tiaret

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​TIARET (Tahert), a town of Algeria, in the Tell Atlas, department of Oran, 122 m. S.E. of Mostaganem by rail. It occupies an important strategic position on a pass through the mountains at an elevation of 3552 ft. Pop. (1906), 5778, of whom 3433 were Europeans. The Wadi Tiaret flows through the town in a series of cascades. The upper town, the residential quarter, is on the right bank of this stream. The citadel occupies a separate hill on the other side of the wadi. The chief business centre is the lower town where are also the principal public buildings. On another hill opposite the citadel is the native town.
The citadel occupies the site of a Roman station believed to be that of Tingurtia. Tiaret (Berber for “station ”) was a town of note at the time of the Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century and is stated by Ibn Khaldun to have offered a stubborn resistance to Sidi-Okba. In 761 it was taken by Abdurrahman ibn Rostem, the founder of the dynasty of the Beni Rustām (Rostem). Their empire, which during the reign of Abdurrahman (761-784) and his son Abdul Wahab (784-823) extended over the greater part of the modern Algeria, was known as the Ibadite Empire from Abdallah ibn Ibad, the founder of the heretical sect to which Abdurrahman belonged. The Ibadites represented the moderate section of the Kharijites (see Mahommedan Religion). Seven princes of the Rustamite house succeeded Abdul Wahab at Tiaret, but in 909 the dynasty was overthrown by the Fatimite general al Shi'i. Two years later Tiaret was captured by Massala ibn Habbus of the Miknasa dynasty of Morocco, and after his death in 924 two other princes of the same house maintained their independence, but in 933 the Fatimites again gained the mastery. The Ibadites, after being expelled from the Tell, took refuge in Wargla. They were driven thence in the 11th century and migrated to Mzab, where their descendants still profess the Ibadite doctrines (see Mzabites). After its second capture by the Fatimites, Tiaret ceased to be the capital of a separate state. For a long period it was included in the sultanate of Tlemçen, and in the 16th century fell to the Turks. It was one of the chief towns of Abd el Kader, but was occupied by the French in 1843. At Takdempt, 6 m. west of Tiaret, Abd el Kader had his principal arsenal. About a mile from Takdempt are ruins of a town supposed to be the remains of the Ibadite capital. Eighteen miles S.S.W. of Tiaret are the sepulchral monuments known as the Jedars (see Algeria: § Archaeology).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Théot, Catherine

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​ THÉOT, CATHERINE (d. 1794), French visionary, was born at Barenton (Manche). From her youth a victim of hallucinations, a long course of religious asceticism in the convent of the Miramiones in Paris unhinged her mind, and she was placed under restraint. Liberated in 1782, her early delusions concerning a Messiah became accentuated; that she was destined to be the mother of the new Messiah, she was now assured; she. pictured to her followers the fantastic features of the coming Paradise on earth; and was hailed as the “Mother of God.” From the idea of the advent of a Messiah to its realization was but a step; in Robespierre the Théotists saw the redeemer of mankind; and preparations for his initiation were put in train. The enemies of Robespierre, resenting his theocratic aims, seized upon his relations with the Théotists as an engine of revenge; Catherine, with Gerle (q.v.) and others, was arrested and imprisoned, and a letter to Robespierre discovered in her house: In the Convention M. G. A. Vadier trumped up the conspiracy of Théot, asserting that Catherine was a tool of Pitt, that the mummeries of the Théotists were but a cloak for clerical and reactionary intrigue, and hinting that Robespierre favoured their designs. The case was adjourned to the Revolutionary Tribunal, and figured in the proceedings of the 9th Thermidor. The accused were ultimately acquitted, Catherine herself having died in prison on the 1st of September 1794.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thóroddsen, Jón Þor Ðarson

See also Jón Thoroddsen elder on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​Thóroddsen, Jón Þor Ðarson (1819–1868), Icelandic poet and novelist, was born in 1819 at Reykhólar in western Iceland. He studied law at the university of Copenhagen, entered the Danish army as volunteer in 1848 in the war against the insurgents of Schleswig and Holstein, who were aided by Prussia and the other German States. He went back to Iceland in 1850, became sheriff (sýslumaður) of Barðastrandarsýsla, and later in Borgarfjarðarsýsla, where he died in 1868. He is the first novel writer of Iceland. Jónas Hallgrímsson had led the way by his short stories, but the earliest veritable Icelandic novel was Jón Thóroddsen’s Piltur og stúlka (“Lad and Lass”), a charming picture of Icelandic country life. Still better is Maður og kona (“Man and Wife”), published after his death by the Icelandic Literary Society. He had a great fund of delicate humour, and his novels are so essentially Icelandic in their character, and so true in their descriptions, that he is justly considered by most of his countrymen not only as the father of the Icelandic novel, but as the best novelist Iceland has produced. His poems, mostly satirical, are deservedly popular; he follows Jónas Hallgrímsson closely in his style, although he cannot reach him in lyrical genius. (S. Bl.)
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/22

[Sidenote: 22. Hamza and Obeida expedition.]
The alleged expeditions against the Koreish caravans by Hamza and the other by Obeida in pursuit of caravans which escaped, are in themselves improbable. Mohammad would not send fifty or sixty persons to waylay a caravan guarded by two or three hundred armed men.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/24

[Sidenote: 24. The affair at Nakhla.]
The affair of the Nakhla marauding party, as related in the traditions, is full of discrepancies, and is altogether inconsistent and untrustworthy. The very verse (Sura, ii, verse 214) which the biographers say was revealed on the occasion, and which I have quoted above (para. 16), contains a reference to the Meccans' fighting against the Moslems, which runs counter to the assumption of the European biographers, who make it an aggressive attack on the part of Mohammad. It is probable that Mohammad might have sent some six or eight scouts to bring in news of the movements and condition of the Koreish, whose attitude towards Mohammad had become more hostile since his flight to Medina. As the Koreish had a regular and uninterrupted route to Syria for traffic, it was only reasonable on the part of Mohammad to take precautions, and he was always on his guard. The biographers "Ibn Is-hak", "Ibn Hisham" (p. 424), Tabri (Vol. II, p. 422), Ibnal Athir in "Kamil" (Vol. II, p. 87), Halabi in Insanul Oyoon (Vol. III, p. 318), say, that Mohammad had given written instructions to Abdoollah-bin-Jahsh, which was to the effect "bring me intelligence of their affairs." They also say that Mohammad was displeased with Abdoollah's affair at Nakhla, and said, "I never commanded thee to fight in the Sacred Month." The biographers also relate that Mohammad even paid blood-money for the slain.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/26

[Sidenote: 26. The first aggressions after the Hegira, if from Mohammad, might fairly be looked upon as retaliation.]
Even taking it for granted that the first aggressions after the Hegira were solely on the part of the Moslems, and that several of the caravans of the Koreish had been waylaid and plundered, and blood had been shed, it would be unfair to condemn Mohammad. Such attacks, had they been made, might fairly be looked upon as a retaliation for the ill-treatment of the Moslems before the flight from Mecca. "Public war is a state of armed hostility between sovereign nations or governments. It is a law and requisite of civilized existence that men live in political continuous societies, forming organized units called states or nations, whose constituents bear, enjoy and suffer, advance and retrograde together, in peace and in war. The citizen or native of hostile country is thus an enemy, as one of the constituents of the hostile state or nation, and as such is subjected to the hardships of war." The almost universal rule of most remote times was, and continues to be with barbarous nations, that the private individual of a hostile country is destined to suffer every privation of liberty and protection, and every description of family ties. But Mohammad protected the inoffensive citizen or private individual of the hostile country. He even protected those who had actually come out of Mecca to fight at Badr, but were reluctant to do so. Mohammad had desired quarters to be given to several persons in the Koreish army at Badr. Abul Bakhtari, Zamaa, Hárith Ibn Amir, Abbás and other Bani Háshim were amongst those named.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Contributions to Political Science by Francis Lieber, LL.D., Vol. II of his miscellaneous writings, p. 251, London, 1881.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 4/27

[Sidenote: 27. The Jews broke treaties.]
Mohammad, on his first arrival at Medina, made a treaty of alliance with the Jews, by which the free exercise of their religion and the possession of their rights and property were guaranteed. It was stipulated in the treaty that either party, if attacked, should come to the assistance of the other. Medina should be sacred and inviolable for all who joined the treaty. But the Jews broke their treaty and rebelled. They assisted the enemy during the siege of Medina, and committed treason against the city.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/21

[Sidenote: 21. The alleged instances examined.]
There is no proof that Mohammad, after the Hegira, commenced hostilities against the Koreish by intercepting their caravans. The alleged instances of the caravans being waylaid by the Moslems at Medina are not corroborated by authentic and trustworthy traditions. They have also internal evidences of their improbability. The Medina people had pledged themselves only to defend the Prophet from attack, and not to join him in any aggressive steps against the Koreish. Therefore, it seems impossible that they should have allowed Mohammad to take any aggressive steps against the Koreish which would have involved them in great trouble.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "Mahomet did not send the Medina converts on any hostile expedition against the Koreish, until they had warred with him at Badr, and the reason is, that they had pledged themselves to protect him only at their homes."—K. Wackidi, 48; Muir's Life of Mahomet, Vol. III, p. 64, note.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/23

[Sidenote: 23. The Abwa, Bowat, & Osheira expeditions.]
The alleged expeditions of Abwa, Bowat, and Osheira, said to have been led by Mohammad himself to intercept the Mecca caravans, but in vain, are altogether without foundation. He might have gone, if he had gone at all, to Abwa, and Osheira to negotiate friendly terms with Bani Dhumra and Bani Mudlij, as his biographers say, he did.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "K. Wackidi, 98-1/2. The provisions are noted only generally, "that neither party would levy war against the other, nor help their enemies." The version quoted by Weil binding the Bani Dhumra to fight for the faith, &c., is evidently anticipatory and apocryphal. It is not given by the Secretary of Wackidi in his chapter of treaties."—Muir's Life of Mahomet, III, p. 67, note.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 4/28

[Sidenote: 28. Bani Kainúkaá, Bani Nazeer, Koreiza, Khyber, and Ghatafán.]
The Bani Kainúkaá were the first among the Jews who broke the treaty and fought against Mohammad between the battles of Badr and Ohad.
The Bani Nazeer broke their compact with Mohammad after his defeat at Ohad. They had also made a conspiracy to kill Mohammad. They were banished; some of them went over to Khyber. The Jewish tribe of Koreiza had defected from their allegiance to Mohammad, and entered into negotiations with the enemy, when Medina was besieged by the Koreish and Bedouin tribes at the battle of the Ditch. They were afterwards besieged by Mohammad. They surrendered at the discretion of Sád, who passed a bloody judgment against them. The Jews of Khyber (including those of Nazeer) and Bani Ghatafán, who had lately besieged Medina with the Koreish in the battle of the Ditch, made alliance against Mohammad, and were making preparations for an attack on him. They had been inciting the Bani Fezára and other Bedouin tribes in their depredations, and had combined with Bani Sád-Ibn Bakr to attack upon Medina. They were subjected at Khyber, and made tributaries, paying jizya in return of the protection guaranteed to them.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Hishamee, p. 545. Gottengen, 1859; or, The Life of Muhammad, by Abd etl Malik ibn Hishám. London: Trübner and Co., 1867.
* ↑ Hishamee, p. 757.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 3/25

[Sidenote: 25. At Badr Mohammad had come only in his defence.]
Some of the European biographers of Mohammad allege, that the battle of Badr was brought by Mohammad himself. They appear to hesitate to justify Mohammad in defending himself against the superior numbers of the Koreish, who had advanced to attack him as far as Badr, three stages from Medina. It is alleged that Mohammad intended to attack the caravans returning from Syria, conducted by Abu Sofian, his arch-enemy, therefore he set out upon his march with eighty refugees and two hundred and twenty-five people of Medina, and halted at Safra to waylay the caravan. Abu Sofian, warned of Mohammad's intention, sent some one to Mecca for succour. The Koreish, with nine hundred and fifty strong, marched forth to rescue the caravan. In the meantime, the caravan had passed unmolested, but the Koreish held a council whether to return or go to war. On the one hand, the biographers say, it was argued that the object for which they had set out having been secured, the army should at once retrace its steps. Others demanded that the army should advance. Two tribes returned to Mecca, the rest marched onwards; but it is not fair to allege that Mohammad had set forth to attack the caravan. Had he any such intention, the people of Medina, who had pledged themselves only to defend him against personal attack, would not have accompanied him. The presence of a large number of the Ansárs, the people of Medina, more than double that of the Mohajirins, the refugees, is a strong proof that they had come out only in their defence.
Mohammad, on receiving intelligence of the advancing force of the Koreish, set out from Medina to check the advance of the Meccan force, and encountered it at Badr, three days' journey from Medina. The Meccan army had advanced nine days' journey from Mecca towards Medina. The forces met at Badr on the 17th of Ramzan (13th January 623), the Meccans had left Mecca on the 8th of Ramzan (4th January), and Mohammad started only on the 12th of Ramzan (8th January), about four days after the Meccan army had actually set out to attack him. Supposing Abu Sofian had some reason for apprehending an attack from Medina, and sent for succour from Mecca, but the object of the Meccan army of the Koreish for which they had set out having been secured, the caravan having passed unmolested, they ought at once to have retraced their steps. The fact that Mohammad left Medina four days after the Koreish had left Mecca with a large army advancing towards Medina, is strongly in his favour.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 4

IV.—The Jews.
* 27. The Jews broke treaties
* 28. Bani Kainukaa, Bani Nazeer, Khyber, and Ghatafán
* 29. Notice of them in Koran
* 30. The judgment of Sád
* 31. Defensive character of the expedition against the Jews of Khyber