OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cities of Refuge

From volume 12 of the work.
Towns which according to the Jewish law enjoyed the right of asylum and to which anyone who had unintentionally slain another might flee and be protected from the "avenger of blood". The barbarous custom of blood-revenge still exists among the Arab tribes. In virtue of it the kinsman of anyone put to death considers it a duty to avenge him by killing the intentional or even unintentional slayer. The Biblical cities of refuge were six in number, viz., to the west, Cedes in Galilee, Sichem in Mount Ephraim, and Hebron in the south; to the east, beyond the Jordan, Bosor, which is in the plain of the tribe of Ruben, Ramoth in Galaad of the tribe of Gad, and Gaulon in Basan of the tribe of Manasses (Josue xx, 7-8). It appears from Deut., xix, 2, 7, and from other considerations that three cities were originally intended-those to the west-which were probably established in the time of Josias, when the boundaries and population of the Jewish state were comparatively small. When in post-Exilic times the Jews covered a wider area, the other three were doubtless added, as we find the number stated as six in Numbers (xxxv, 6) and Josue (xx, 7-8).
The right of asylum was recognized in the Old Testament, but under conditions that are carefully laid down in the Jewish law. One who had treacherously and intentionally sullied his hands with blood was allowed to find no refuge at the altar of God. Indeed he might be taken away from it to death (Ex., xxi, 14). He might even be struck down at the altar, as in the case of Joab (III Kings, ii, 30, 31, 34). Protection was granted to those who had unintentionally taken the life of another (Deut., xix, 2-7). In order to justify his claim to immunity the fugitive had to prove to the authorities of the sanctuary or town that his deed was unpremeditated. After submitting his evidence he was allowed to remain within the prescribed precincts. He could not return to his old home, nor could he appease the avenger by money. Thus some expiation for his imprudence was exacted, and he became virtually a prisoner within the boundaries of the city to which he had fled. He could leave it only at the risk of his life at the hands of the avenger of blood. We are not informed by what means he was supported in the city of refuge, but probably he was obliged to work for his subsistence. Whether his family could join him in his exile is also a matter of mere conjecture. It is generally maintained that originally every altar or sanctuary in the land could extend its protection to anyone who had unintentionally taken the life of another. But with the suppression of the provincial high places and altars by Josiah (B.C. 621) the right of asylum naturally fell with them, and provision was made for a continuance of the ancient usage on a modified basis by the selection of certain cities of refuge.
GIGOT, Outlines of Jewish History (New York, 1903), 143.
James F. Driscoll.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ciudad Real

From volume 3 of the work.
(ECCLESIA CLUNIENSIS
Bishopric-Priorate of the Military Orders of Spain, directly subject to the Holy See. To counteract the disadvantages caused by the dispersion of the church lands appertaining to the military orders of Santiago, Alcántara, Calahorra, and Montesa, Article VI of the Concordat of 1851 decrees that a special circumscription (coto redondo) be formed for the churches belonging to the aforesaid orders and that the government thereof be confided to a prior, with episcopal rank, and furthermore that said see be designated as in partibus infidelium. Consequently, by the Bull "Ad Apostolicam Beati Petri", Pius IX created (1875) the Bishopric-Priorate of the Military Orders, assigning to it as territory all the province of Ciudad Real, some towns of which had hitherto belonged to the Diocese of Toledo, others to the Dioceses of Cuenca and Cordova. The residence of the bishop is at Ciudad Real (population, 1900, 15,327). At the same time the pope accorded to King Alfonso XII and to his successors, as Grand Masters of the Military Orders, the right to nominate within three months the bishop-prior, whenever a vacancy occurred, and at the same time to solicit for him from the Holy See the title of Bishop of Dora in partibus infidelium, which church was to remain perpetually united to the Priorate of Ciudad Real. The execution of the Bull was confided to the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo, by whom (4 June, 1876) the entire province of Ciudad Real was made a bishopric-priorate of the Military Orders, and for all canonical purposes constituted a territory vere et proprie nullius di cesis, i.e. exempt from all neighbouring jurisdiction.
GOMEZ SALAZAR Y LA FUENTE, Lecciones de disciplina eclesiástica (3d ed., Madrid, 1880), I, 268-70, 484-91; HERVÁS Y BUENDÍA, Diccionario hist. geograf. de la prov. de Ciudad-Real (Madrid, 1892).
EDUARDO DE HINOJOSA
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour

From volume 13 of the work.
Born at Saint-Paul-Trois-Chateaux (Drome, France), 4 August, 1792; died in Paris, 3 January, 1857. After his ordination to the priesthood at Rome in 1818, he was assigned to the Archdiocese of Paris. He was named canon of the cathedral of Nîmes in 1822, became favorably known as a preacher, and contributed to "L'Avenir". In 1837, during a vacancy, he was chosen administrator of the Diocese of Nimes, and two years later was raised to the episcopal See of Digne. His administration was marked by his encouragement of ecclesiastical studies, a practical desire to increase the importance of the functions exercised by his cathedral chapter, and a faithful observance of canonical forms in ecclesiastical trials. The same principles actuated him in his rule of the Archdiocese of Paris, to which he was called largely because of his prompt adhesion to the new government after the Revolution of 1848. He held in 1849 a provincial council in Paris, and in 1850 a diocesan synod. In 1853 he officiated at the marriage of Napoleon III, who had named him senator the previous year. Although in his answer to Pius IX he declared the definition of the Immaculate Conception inopportune, he was present at the promulgation of the Decree and shortly afterwards solemnly published it in his own diocese. The benevolent co-operation of the imperial government enabled him to provide for the needs of the poor churches in his diocese and to organize several new parishes. He also aimed at introducing the Roman Rite in Paris and was progressing favorably in this direction when he was killed by an interdicted priest named Verger.
L'episcopat francais, 1802-1905 (Paris, 1907), 215-16; 460-61, passim; MCCAFFREY, History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Century, I (2nd ed., Dublin, 1910), 63, 236, 241, 243-4.
N.A. WEBER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marianus of Florence

From volume 9 of the work.
A Friar Minor and historian, born at Florence about the middle of the fifteenth century, exact date of birth uncertain; died there, 20 July, 1523. Very little is known of the life and personality of this great chronicler of the Franciscan Order. That his writings should, likewise, share in this general oblivion is due to a number of causes, principal among which is the difficulty of procuring them, not any of his chronicles or other works ever having been published. In his most noted work entitled "Fasciculus Chronicarum", there is contained a history of the Franciscan Order from the beginning up to the year 1486. That Marianus should have written three centuries after the death of St. Francis in no way tells against his trustworthiness as a historian, for he had access to original sources now lost, of which some precious fragments have been passed on to us through him. The crudeness and inelegance of his style of which Wadding complains may, perhaps, have been due to the impatience of the good nun Dorothea Broccardi (Dorothea scripsit appears on all her handiwork), who offered to be his amanuensis and who was continually pressing him for copy. Marianus fell a victim to the plague while engaged in administering the last sacraments to the stricken inhabitants of his native city. Besides the "Fasciculus Chronicarum", he is the author of a "Catalogus seu brevis historia feminarum ordinis Sanctæ Claræ" which contains biographical sketches of more than 150 illustrious women of the Second Order of St. Francis. Among his other writings may be mentioned "Historia Montis Alverniæ", "Historia Provinciæ Etruriæ Ordinis Minorum", "Itinerarium Urbis Romæ", and "Historia Translationis Habitus Sancti Francisci a Monte Acuto ad Florentiam" which has been translated into Italian and published by Fr. Roberto Razzoli in his monograph, "La Chiesa d'Ognissanti in Firenze, Studi storicocritici" (Florence, 1898).
WADDING, Scriptores Ordinis Minorum (Rome, 1907), 167; BARTHOLI, Tractatus de Indulgentia S. Mariœ de Portiuncula, ed. SABATIER (Paris, 1900), 136-164; GOLUBOVICH, Biblioteca Bio-Bibliografica della Terra Santa (Quaracchi, 1906), 77-80; ROBINSON, A Short Introduction to Franciscan Literature (New York, 1907), 17, 42.
STEPHEN M. DONOVAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marie-Marthe-Baptistine Tamisier

From volume 14 of the work.
(Called by her intimates EMILIA)
Initiator of international Eucharistic congresses, born at Tours, 1 Nov., 1834; died there 20 June, 1910. From her childhood her devotion to the Blessed Sacrament was extraordinary; she called a day without Holy Communion a veritable Good Friday. In 1847 she became a pupil of the Religious of the Sacred Heart at Marmoutier, remaining there four years. Without any special attraction for the life of a religious she made three unsuccessful attempts to enter it; the third was in the Convent of Perpetual Adoration founded by Ven. Père Eymard, who assured her she still belonged to our Lord in the Blessed Sacrament. A lady of wealth sought her aid in establishing a community of perpetual adoration but this plan also came to naught. She then (1871) went to live near the tomb of Blessed Jean Vianney at Ars. Coming under the direction of Abbè Chevrier of Lyons she found her true vocation, at once contemplative and active in the Eucharistic cause. She had been prepared for it by many trials and disappointments. Throughout France and beyond, by extensive correspondence and by travel she spread the devotion. With the help of Mgr de Ségur and Mgr Richard, then Bishop of Belley, pilgrimages were started to sanctuaries where Eucharistic miracles had taken place. Their success led to Eucharistic congresses. At the Lourdes Congress she was called the Jeanne d'Arc of the Blessed Sacrament, but her name was not publicly associated with the congresses until after her death. Canon Vaudon's history of the congresses published just before her death, though giving a detailed account of her apostolic career, calls her only "Mlle . . . ". She lived for some years at Issoudun and ministered there to the Shrine of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart. All her spare means, though often depriving herself, she devoted to the education of poor aspirants to the priesthood.
Mlle Tamisier in The Sentinel of the Blessed Sacrament (New York, July, 1911); VAUDON, L'Œuvre des Congrès Eucharistiques (Paris and Montreal, 1910); L'Idéal (Paris, 1910).
B. Randolph.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Marie Josephine Goetz

From volume 6 of the work.
Second superior-general of the Society of the Sacred Heart, daughter of Joseph Goetz of Strasburg and Marie Anne Wagner; b. 7 March, 1817; d. 4 January, 1874; her parents dying early, her education was left to the care of an aunt who sent her to school at the Convent of the Sacred Heart, Besancon. At first her silent, observant, and distant attitude showed that she felt herself out of tune with her surroundings, but in the second year she threw herself into school life and carried all before her in lessons and play. At the age of seventeen she entered the novitiate of the Sacred Heart at Montet and took her first vows in 1837. In 1842 she was entrusted with the charge of the school at Besancon, which was going through a difficult phase. Her judicious management showed what might be expected of her in the future, and immediately after profession in 1847 she was appointed mistress of novices at Conflans. She continued in this charge, to which was afterwards added the government of the house as superior, until 1864, when she was named vicar-general. The failing strength of the foundress made it necessary for her to have some one at hand, to whom she could communicate her views for the future. She found a full understanding of them in Mother Josephine Goetz, who was elected superior-general in 1865 after the death of Blessed Madeleine Sophie Barat.
Mother Goetz governed as superior-general for nine years. Her work was principally one of consolidation and development of what had been established or projected by the foundress. She established a training school at Conflans to prepare the young religious for their duties as teachers, and entrusted to a small committee the revision and adaptation of the curriculum of studies to the growing needs of the order. During the Franco-Prussian war and the time of the siege and Commune in Paris, Reverend Mother Goetz was obliged to withdraw to Laval, that communications with her religious might not be cut off. She employed the enforced leisure of those months in collating and revising the summaries of decrees and decisions of the general congregations of the Society of the Sacred Heart. Reverend Mother Goetz made visitations of the houses then existing in Europe, as far as time and health permitted - but her strength rapidly failed and she died from a stroke of paralysis, after a few days' illness. The marking features of her personality were breadth of view and rapid intuition that appeared unerring as an instinct, directness of intention and strength of purpose which lay concealed under a timid exterior, but astonished by their force when circumstances called for prompt decision and action - and a characteristic grace of humility which seemed to be her distinguishing supernatural gift.
J. Stuart.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sisters of Christian Charity

From volume 3 of the work.
Also called DAUGHTERS OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, an institute for teaching poor schools and for the care of the blind, founded at Paderborn, Germany, on August, 1849, by Pauline von Mallinckrodt (b. 3 June, 1817, at Minden, Westphalia; d. 30 April, 1881), sister to the famous Hermann von Mallinckrodt. The institute, which was confirmed 7 Feb., 1888, by Leo XIII, had attained great success throughout Germany when, in 1873, its members were forced into exile by the persecution of the Kulturkampf. Some went to South America, where there are now many flourishing communities. Others emigrated to New Orleans, U.S.A., where, in April 1873, they founded a house and took charge of a parochial school. Mother Pauline followed shortly after and established a new provincial mother-house, at Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania. Since then these sisters have opened houses in the Archdioceses of Baltimore, Chicago, Cincinnati, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and St. Paul, and in the Dioceses of Albany, Belleville, Brooklyn, Detroit, Harrisburg, Newark, Sioux City, and Syracuse. They have in these establishments 668 sisters, 46 novices, 25 postulants, conducting 2 academies, 54 parochial schools, 2 orphan asylums, and 1 industrial school. In 1887 the sisters were allowed to return to Germany. The mother-house at Paderborn was reopened and the activities of the religious extended with their former success throughout Germany. They have houses in Belgium and Bohemia.
F.M. RUDGE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word

From volume 7 of the work.
This congregation, with simple vows, was founded by Rt. Rev. C.M. Dubuis, Bishop of Galveston. In 1866, this prelate travelled as far as France in search of religious, who would devote themselves to works of mercy in his large diocese. He addressed himself to Mother Angelique, Superioress of the Convent of the Incarnate Word, at Lyons, and requested her to train some worthy subjects for the missions of Texas. Mother Angelique complied with his demand, received into her community two or three postulants, and prepared them in a special manner for their future work; thus was formed the nucleus of the new congregation, which was to be known as the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word. The three sisters embarked for Texas soon after, and landed at Galveston in December, 1866. Arrived at their mission, they devoted themselves to the care of the sick. In 1867 and 1868 other bands of zealous sisters, educated and professed in the same convent at Lyons, came to their assistance; their arrival opened for the congregation a new era: the existing works were perfected, and others established. On 31 March, 1869, Bishop C.M. Dubuis sent from Galveston a colony of these sisters to found a convent at San Antonio; in 1870, he erected this new community into an independent centre, on the occasion of vesting the first postulants admitted into the San Antonio novitiate. Previous to 1874, the sisters had been solely occupied in caring for the sick, the aged, and orphans, but following the counsel of Rt. Rev. A.D. Pellicer, first Bishop of San Antonio, they then engaged in educational work. The community of San Antonio, with its dependent houses, was organized into a generalate in August, 1897, with the sanction of Bishop John A. Forest.
At present, the congregation is governed by a superioress general and her council composed of six members. The mother-house, novitiate, and normal department are situated in San Antonio, Texas. The probation as postulant and novice lasts two years. Perpetual profession is preceded by give years of annual vows. The constitutions, based upon the Rule of St. Augustine, were approved by the Holy See in 1905. The congregation, as its name indicates, is especially consecrated to the Incarnate Word. The sisters foster the pious and constant ambition to learn and to teach how to know, love, and serve more and more God made Man; they endeavour to reproduce in their daily conduct His two favourite virtues, charity and obedience. The sisters also cultivate a particular devotion to the Blessed Sacrament and to Mary Immaculate. The congregation has developed considerably during the past forty years. From a small colony of three sisters in 1869, it has grown to a flourishing community of five hundred and forty-two members, and has under its direction five colleges, thirteen academies, twenty-eight schools, four orphanages, nine hospitals, and two homes for the aged. These establishments are distributed throughout the States of Texas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, and the Republic of Mexico.
JAS. P. CANNING
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Dicuil

From volume 4 of the work.
Irish monk and geographer, b. in the second half of the eighth century; date of death unknown. Of his life nothing is known except that he belonged probably to one of the numerous Irish monasteries of the Frankish Kingdom, became acquainted, by personal observation, with the islands near England and Scotland, and wrote between 814 and 816 an astronomical, and in 825 a geographical, work. The astronomical work is a sort of computus in four books, in prose and verse, preserved only in a manuscript which formerly belonged to the monastery of Saint-Amand, and is now at Valenciennes. More famous is the "De mensura Orbis terrae", a summary of geography, giving concise information about various lands. This work was based upon a "Mensuratio orbis" prepared by order of Theodosius II (435), a manuscript copy of which had found its way to the Carlovingian court. Godescale had already made use of this copy (781-83) in the composition of his celebrated "Evangelistarium". Dicuil draws also upon Pliny, Solinus, Orosius, Isidore of Seville, and other authors, and adds the results of his own investigations. In the nine sections he treats in turn of Europe, Asia, Africa, Egypt, and Ethiopia, the area of the earth's surface, the five great rivers, certain islands, the length and breadth of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the six (highest) mountains. Although mainly a compilation, this work is not without value. Dicuil is our only source for detailed information of the surveys carried out under Theodosius II; his quotations, generally exact, are of service for the textual criticism of the authors mentioned; of great interest, too, are the few reports which he got from the travelers of his time; as, for instance, from the monk Fidelis who (762?) journeyed along the canal then still existing, between the Nile and the Red Sea; and from clerics who had lived in Iceland six months. The manuscript was known to Welser, Isaac Vossius, Salmasius, Hardouin, and Schopflin; it first appeared in print under the title: "Dicuili Liber de mensura orbis terrae ex duobus codd. mss. bibliothecae imperialis nunc primum in lucem editus a Car. Athan. Walckenaer" (Paris, 1807). The latest and best edition is that of G. Parthey (Berlin, 1870).
An excellent commentary is that by LETRONNE in his Recherches geographiques et critiques sur le livre De mensura orbis terrae compose . . . par Dicuil (Paris, 1814).
SCHWEDER, Beitrdge zur Kritik der Chorographie des Augustus (Kiel, 1876), I; DUMMLER, Die handschriftiche Ueberlieferung der lateinischen Dichtunges aus der Zeit der Karolinger in Neues Archiv fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde (Hanover, 1897), IV, 256-258; ARCHER in Dict. Nat. Biog., TRAUBE, Zur Chorographie des Augustus in Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Classe der K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1891 (Munich, 1892), 406-409.
OTTO HARTIG
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Diaconicum

From volume 4 of the work.
(Gr. diakonikon)
The Diaconicum in the Greek Church is the liturgical book specifying the functions of the deacon; it is also the name given to the Orationes pro pace (diakonika) to be said by him before the people. Primarily, however, the word denoted an annex to the Christian basilica, where necessary supplies for the service of the altar were kept and preparations were made for the Holy Sacrifice. The diaconicum is distinct from the prothesis, a small room where the offerings of the people were received. In large churches the diaconicum majus comprised several rooms: the salutatorium, for reception and audiences of the bishop; the thesaurarium, where sacred vessels and books were kept; and the diaconicum properly so called. Possibly the Greek pastophorion, where the Holy Eucharist was reserved, was simply the diaconicum. Prothesis and diaconicum are ordinarily on either side of the apse. In Syrian churches, where they are regularly found, they are built on a rectangular plan and have two stories. They also exist in Byzantine churches, in the basilicas of Africa and frequently even in the churches of other regions.
KRAUS, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (Freiburg im Br., 1896), I, 300; IDEM, Real-Encyckl. d. christl. Alterthümer (Freiburg, 1882), I, 358.
R. Maere.