OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rector

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​RECTOR (Lat. for “ ruler,” “ guide,” &c., from regere, “ rule ”), a title given to the bearers of certain ecclesiastical and academical offices. In the Roman empire, after Constantine, the title rector was borne by governors of provinces subordinate to the prefects or exarchs. In the middle ages it was given to certain secular officials, e.g. the podestas of some Italian towns, but more especially to the heads of the universities, the representatives and rulers of the universitas magistrorum et scholarium, elected usually for a very short time. After the humanistic movement of the Renaissance the style rector was also given to the chief masters of schools containing several classes, and in some parts of Germany (e.g. Saxony, Württemberg) it is still thus used instead of the more modern title of Director. Rector is also still the title of the heads of the Scottish universities (Lord Rector), who are elected for three years, and of the German universities (Rector Magnificus), in which the office is held for a year by a representative of each faculty in turn. In those German universities where the rectorship is held by the sovereign (Rector Magnificentissimus), the acting head is known as Prorector. “ Rector ” is also the title of the heads of Exeter and Lincoln Colleges, Oxford. The heads of all Jesuit colleges are “ rectors.”
As an ecclesiastical title rector was once loosely used for rulers of the Church generally, whether bishops, abbots or parish priests (see Du Cange, Rectores ecclesiarum) . The Rectores Apostolici Patrimonii were clerics of the Roman Curia charged with the duty of looking after the interests of the patrimony of St Peter. The ecclesiastical title rector, however, became ultimately confined in certain parts of Europe (Poland, Spain and notably England) to the office of a priest having a cure of souls. In its English use it is thus synonymous with “ curate ” in the sense used in the Prayer Book. In the middle ages a large number of rectories were held by religious houses, which drew the bulk of the tithes and appointed vicars to do the work. Hence the modern distinction in England between rectors and vicars. A rector is incumbent of a benefice never held under a monastery, and he receives all the tithes; a vicar (i.e. of an ancient benefice) draws only such tithes as were left to the benefice by the religious house which held it. On the suppression of the monasteries the “ great tithes ” were often bestowed by the crown on laymen, who, as owning the rectorial tithes, were and are known as “ lay rectors.” It follows that, rectories being usually richer than vicarages, the style of “ rector ” is in England slightly more dignified than that of “ vicar.” In the American Protestant Episcopal Church the incumbents of churches are called rectors.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Red Wing

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​RED WING, a city and county seat of Goodhue county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, near the head of Lake Pepin, about 40 m. S.E. of St Paul. Pop. (1905, state census) 8149, 2138 being foreign-born; (1910) 9048. It is served by the Chicago Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Red Wing is the seat of the Lutheran Ladies' Seminary (1894) and the Red Wing Theological Seminary (Lutheran, 1885), and in the vicinity is the State Training School for Boys and Girls, originally the Minnesota State Reform School. In the city are the Carnegie-Lawther library, a Federal building, a municipal theatre, the T. B. Sheldon Memorial Auditorium, in connexion with which is a School of Music, a Y.M.C.A. building, a City Hospital, St John's Hospital (1902) and an old ladies' home. Red Wing is an important wheat market and shipping point.
In 1695 Le Sueur built a post on Prairie Island, in the Mississippi, about 8 m. above the site of Red Wing, for the purpose, according to Charlevoix, of interposing a barrier between the warring Dakotas and Chippewas; and in 1727 René Boucher built on the shore of Lake Pepin a fort which, after various vicissitudes, was abandoned in 1753. An Indian village occupied the site of Red Wing probably for many years before the arrival of the first whites, two Swiss missionaries, Samuel Denton and Daniel Gavin, who maintained a mission here in 1837–46. In 1848 another mission was established by the American Board. Red Wing (named from an Indian chief) was platted in 1853 and was chartered as a city in 1857.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harcourt, Lewis Vernon Harcourt, 1st Viscount

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HARCOURT, LEWIS VERNON HARCOURT, 1st Viscount (1863-), British politician, was born in London Feb. 1 1863, the eldest surviving son of Sir William Harcourt (see 12.939). He was educated at Eton and afterwards travelled widely, becoming well known for his interest in art. In 1899 he married the only daughter of Walter H. Burns, of New York. In 1904 he was elected as Liberal member for the Rossendale division of Lancs., retaining the seat until 1917, and on the formation of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's Government (1905) became First Commissioner of Works. In 1910 he became Secretary of State for the Colonies in the Asquith Cabinet, but on the formation of the Coalition Government in 1915 again became First Commissioner of Works. In 1916 he was raised to the peerage. He was appointed a trustee of the Wallace Collection, British Museum, London Museum and National Portrait Gallery.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hann, Julius von

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HANN, JULIUS VON (1839-1921), Austrian meteorologist, was born at Linz, Upper Austria, March 23 1839, and was educated at the Gymnasium of Kremünster and afterwards at Vienna. From 1865 to 1868 he was master at the Oberrealschule at Linz, and in 1865 was appointed editor of the Zeitschrift für Meteorologie. In 1877 he became director of the Meteorologische Zentralanstalt and professor of meteorology at the university of Vienna. In 1897 he was appointed professor at Graz, but in 1900 returned to Vienna as professor of cosmical physics. His meteorological researches were of the greatest value and importance (see 18.266, 286). His published works include Allgemeine Erdkunde (with F. von Hochstetter and A. Pokorny, 1872; 5th ed. 1896); Handbuch der Klimatologie (1883; latest ed. 1908); and Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (1901; latest ed. 1914), besides numerous meteorological papers contributed to the Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Vienna. Dr. Hann was in 1912 made a foreign knight of the Prussian Ordre Pour le Mérite. He celebrated the jubilee of his doctorate in 1918, and died at Vienna Oct. 1 1921.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hara, Takashi

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HARA, TAKASHI (1856-1921), Japanese statesman, was born at Morioka in Feb. 1856. His early studies were made at the now defunct Law College of the Department of Justice, but he abandoned the law, before graduating, in favour of journalism, joining the staff of the Hochi Shimbun, an important Tokyo daily newspaper. He acted as special correspondent in Korea in 1882, when the late Marquess Inouye was envoy to that country,
and subsequently entered the diplomatic service as a junior official in the Foreign Office. He was then appointed consul at Tientsin and in 1886 became secretary and chargé d'affaires in Paris. When the late Marquess Inouye was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Mr. Hara became his personal secretary. In 1892 he was appointed director of the commercial bureau at the Foreign Office and was promoted in 1895 to Vice-Minister of the Department. He was sent as minister to Korea from 1896-7, when he again turned to newspaper control and became chief editor of the Osaka Mainichi. Still deeply interested in politics he was one of the right-hand men of the late Prince Hirobumi Ito, when the latter organized the Seiyu-Kai (Liberal) party in Aug. 1900, and subsequently became its leading spirit. From the end of 1900 to May 1901 he filled the chair of the Minister of Communications in the Ito Ministry. Reverting once again to journalism he then became the chief editor of the Osaka Shimpo, and was elected a member of the House of Representatives for his native city in 1902, being reëlected at each subsequent election. In 1906, he definitely abandoned his journalistic career in favour of affairs of State and was appointed Minister for Home Affairs in the first Saionji Ministry. On the fall of this Cabinet in 1908 he spent two years visiting Europe and America. Returning to Japan he accepted the portfolio of the Minister for Home Affairs in the second Saionji administration, which was in office from 1911 to 1912. During the short period of the Katsura administration Mr. Hara held no office, but returned to his former position at the Ministry for Home Affairs for the third time under the Yamamoto administration of 1913 to early in 1914. When this Cabinet resigned, owing to the rejection of the Budget by the House of Peers, Mr. Hara retired for a time from active politics, though still retaining his leadership of the Seiyu-Kai. The Terauchi administration, which was generally considered to be conservative, came to an end in the autumn of 1918, and Mr. Hara was invited to form a Cabinet which might appreciate the growing desires and aspirations of the people of Japan towards liberalism. On Sept. 29 1918 Mr. Hara, the first commoner to become prime minister of Japan, formed an administration based, for the first time in the history of Japanese political development, on strictly parliamentary principles. He was assassinated on Nov. 4 1921 in Tokyo.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hardie, James Keir

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HARDIE, JAMES KEIR (1856-1915), British Labour politician, was born at Newarthill in Lanarkshire Aug. 15 1856. His father, a ship's carpenter, was frequently out of work owing to illness and the decline of his trade, and his mother had to go out to work soon after her son was born. Being unable to send him to school she taught him reading herself, and when only six years old he had to earn money as a message boy. A year or two later he began work in the mines and earned his living underground for 16 years, often working 12 and 14 hours a day. At 22 years he was acting as local miners' secretary. After victimization in consequence of a strike he obtained work at Cumnock, Ayrshire, and was shortly afterwards elected secretary of the Ayrshire Miners' Association. Advanced Radical ideas attracted him, and before he was 25 years old he was to the fore in political meetings. He helped Henry George in his land agitation and was a staunch co-worker with Robert Smillie in the miners' movement. At the Trade Union Congress in 1887 he attacked the secretary,
Mr. Broadbent, for supporting capitalist candidates at elections, thus starting the campaign for Independent Labour representation which he brought into prominence in 1888 by contesting Mid-Lanark as an Independent Labour candidate. From this time on he worked unceasingly for an independent political party for the workers. At the general election of 1892 he was elected for S. West Ham and appeared at Westminster as the first Labour member. In 1893 he presided over the first conference of the Independent Labour party and the following year was elected chairman of the party, an office to which he was reëlected annually until 1899. In 1895 he had lost his seat in Parliament, but in 1900 he was elected for Merthyr Tydfil. In the great strike in the South Wales coal-field in 1898 he addressed, together with Robert Smillie, huge meetings of miners, and in the general election of 1906 he was reëlected to Parliament for Merthyr Tydfil. In addition to his work for the Labour and Socialist movement at home he was one of the most ardent pioneers of international socialism, and visited many countries in his endeavour to bring together the workers of different lands. The collapse of the International on the outbreak of the World War was a great sorrow to him, and is thought to have hastened his death, which took place in 1915 when he had only just completed his fifty-ninth year.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Harvey, George

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HARVEY, GEORGE (1864-), American editor and diplomat, was born at Peacham, Vt., Feb. 16 1864, and was educated at the Peacham academy. At the age of 18 he became a reporter on the Springfield (Mass.) Republican and later on the New York World. In 1885 he was appointed by Gov. Green of New Jersey as aide-de-camp on his staff, and was reappointed by Gov. Abbett. The latter also made him insurance commissioner of New Jersey in 1890. During 1891-4 he was managing editor of the New York World. Then for several years he was engaged in the construction of electric railways and in 1898 organized a syndicate which secured possession of the lines in Havana, Cuba. The following year he purchased The North American Review, which he thereafter edited for several years. During 1900-15 he was president of the publishing house of Harper & Bros., and during 1902-13 was editor of Harper's Weekly. In 1903 he purchased the Metropolitan Magazine. He was said to have been the first to suggest (in 1906) Woodrow Wilson, then president of Princeton, as a presidential possibility. In the campaign of 1912 he gave Wilson strong support; but after the latter's nomination an estrangement developed, due, as it was generally understood, to the fact that Wilson intimated that his cause was being jeopardized by Harvey's officiousness. In 1916 Harvey urged the election of Charles E. Hughes, the Republican candidate for president. He was strongly opposed to the League of Nations on the ground that it involved the yielding of national sovereignty. In 1918 he established The North American Review's War Weekly, later called Harvey's Weekly, which bitterly denounced the Wilson administration. He was present at the Republican National Convention of 1920, but not as a delegate, and was influential in the nomination of Senator Harding. In 1921 he was appointed ambassador to England by President Harding.
He was the author of The Power of Tolerance, and Other Speeches (1911).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hankow

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HANKOW, China (see 12.919). At the mouth of the Han river a great commercial entrepôt is provided for China by the three large cities, Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang, at the point where the Han flows into the Yangtsze. Prior to the commencement of disorder in 1911 the development of railway communications in the interior of China had largely increased the wealth and importance of this great distributing centre. Hankow, on the N. bank of the Yangtsze, is the terminus of the completed Peking-Hankow trunk line, and Wuchang, on the S. bank, the terminus of the line, in process of construction, from Canton. But during the turmoil of the revolution, and on more than one occasion thereafter, Hankow suffered materially because of its strategical importance to the contending factions. On Nov. 1 1911 two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire as the result of a bombardment by the imperialists; nevertheless, the population of the three cities united was reckoned by the Maritime Customs in 1916 at 1,321,280 and in 1920 at about 1,500,000.
The black-tea trade, Hankow's staple industry in former days, declined steadily between 1915 and 1920, partly because of the competition of Indian and Ceylon teas, but chiefly because of the elimination of the Russian buyer — the total amount of black leaf shipped abroad from China in 1919 being 288,398 piculs, as against 771,141 piculs in 1915. But in other directions the trade of the port expanded steadily, in spite of political excursions and alarms; its net value in 1919 was 200 million taels, as against 170 millions in 1917. The industrial development of the district, increasingly active after the conclusion of the World War, was reflected in a large demand for machinery and plant for new factories. In 1919 Hankow-milled yarn was selling at a higher price than yarn imported from Japan. The export trade in wood-oil and sesamum-seed, of which Hankow is the chief centre, increased very rapidly.
The number of residents in the British Concession recorded by the census of 1920 included 163 British and 341 Japanese out of a total of 678. The German Concession, like that at Tientsin, was taken over by the Chinese authorities after China's declaration of war on the side of the Allies; early in 1920 it was understood that Japan was negotiating with the Chinese Government to acquire it by purchase.
(J. O. P. B.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hanotaux, Albert Auguste Gabriel

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HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853-), French statesman and historian (see 12.923), was active during the World War as historian and propagandist, producing Histoire de la Guerre de 1914 (9 vols., 1914); Le Traité de Versailles (1919) and Histoire de la Nation française (17 vols., 1920). He was employed on more than one semi-official mission abroad, notably to the Vatican, and in 1921 was the third French delegate on the League of Nations.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hart, Sir Robert

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HART, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1835-1911), Anglo-Chinese statesman (see 13.30), left China in July 1907 after 45 years of service as inspector-general of the Imperial Maritime Customs. A year before his feelings had been hurt and his authority diminished in the eyes of the customs service, by the action of the Chinese Government in appointing high Chinese officials to be “administrators” of the service, with control over the inspector-general and his staff; and although the Peking authorities made partial amends for the discourtesy thus shown him, by declining his resignation and by increasing his titular rank while on leave of absence, the remaining years of his life were undoubtedly affected by recollection of the lack of appreciation thus displayed by those whom he had served so long and so loyally. After 50 years of residence at Peking and complete absorption in Chinese affairs, a life of enforced leisure in England had a depressing effect upon his spirits and his health. The book which he wrote, after the Boxer rising, in 1901, remains his only published work; he declined to write his memoirs, and by his will left instructions to his executors which apparently preclude all hope of his voluminous diaries being used for biographical or historical purposes. Despite the disappointments of his later career, Sir Robert Hart left a name in China whose greatness will endure; his life's work stands out against the confused background of Chinese affairs as that of one who combined the qualities of an administrator with something of the poetic temperament and the mind of a specula- tive philosopher, a figure as picturesque in its way as that of Gordon or Cecil Rhodes. The multifarious activities of his career were reflected by the large number of honours and decorations conferred upon him by European sovereigns, rulers and learned societies; at the time of his death, he was the possessor of 13 grand crosses. By imperial edicts every high honour in the gift of the Chinese throne had been bestowed upon him, including the Double Dragon and the Peacock's Feather. He was a junior guardian of the heir-apparent, and his ancestors had been retrospectively ennobled for three generations. He died at Great Marlow on Sept. 20 1911. (J. O. P. B.)
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Claudia Rufina

CLAUDIA RUFINA, a noble British Lady, about the Year 100, Wife of Aulus Rufus Pudens, a Bononian Philosopher, and one of the Roman Equestrian Order;
Said to have been a great associate with the poet Martial, who, in many places, highly extols her for beauty, learning, and eminent virtues: of her poetic writings, Balæus mentions a book of Epigrams, Elegy on her Husband's Death, and other verses om various subjects; besides which, she is said to have written many things in prose.
Female Worthies.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Cheron, (Elizabeth Sophia)

CHERON, (ELIZABETH SOPHIA) born at Paris, 1648, died 1711, aged 63, distinguished herself greatly by her Application to Music, Painting, and Poetry;
Daughter of Henry Cheron, a painter, native of Meaux, and educated in the protestant religion; but became, some years afterwards, a catholic. Le Brun, in 1676, invited her to the meetings of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. She understood Latin, Italian, and Spanish; played on several instruments, and had a fine voice. Her portraits, amongst which are several crowned heads, were always painted in an allegorical and ingenious manner.
​Her chief historical pieces are, a Flight into Egypt; Cassandra interrogating a Familiar on the Fate of Troy; and Jesus in a Sepulchre. The only portrait ever taken of Madame des Houlieres was done by her.
None surpassed her in the variety of her accomplishments and talents. Her poetry has ease, gaiety and imagination. And, besides several smaller pieces, some original, some translations, after studying Hebrew, that she might better understand the Psalms and Canticles, she published translations of them in French verse.
She did not alone excel in portraits, but understood figures, and her groups are much admired by connoisseurs. She is said to have been able to join cheerfully in any conversation without the least interruption to her pencil. She was respected and admired by all lovers of literature. The emperor Joseph offered her a considerable pension if she would remove to Vienna; and, on her declining it, sent her models of his face and those of all the imperial family. She had a pension of 500 livres from Lewis XIV. At the age of 60 she married le Hay, engineer to the king, an old friend, merely to raise his fortune. She was exceedingly pious and amiable.
Memoirs of French Ladies, Father Feejoo, &c.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Clement, (Margaret)

CLEMENT, (MARGARET) born 1508,
Niece to Sir Thomas More, in whose house she was brought up, and carefully educated with his daughter in the learned languages, and almost all the liberal sciences, in which she seems to have made a great progress. She corresponded with the celebrated Erasmus, who commends her epistles for their good sense and chaste Latin. Mr. Thomas More, who wrote the life of his great grandfather Sir Thomas, makes honourable mention of her, and styles her a learned woman.
About the year 1531, she was married to her tutor, Dr. John Clements. They had one daughter, named Winifred, on whose education she bestowed the same care as was taken of her own. Mr. Anthony Wood styles her an ingenious and learned woman, and says, she was married to Mr. William Rastall (nephew to Sir Thomas More) a celebrated writer, and the most eminent lawyer of his time.
Female Worthies.