# A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity

Authoritative reference work covering the development of electromagnetism, optics, and the aether theories prior to the development of relativity and quantum mechanics
DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS SERIES.
A HISTORY
OF THE
THEORIES OF AETHER AND ELECTRICITY
FROM THE AGE OF DESCARTES TO THE CLOSE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
BY E. T. WHITTAKER, Hon. Sc. D. (Dubl.); F. R. S.; Royal Astronomer of Ireland.
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON, NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA. HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., Ltd., DUBLIN. 1910.
DUBLIN: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, BY PONSONBY AND GIBBS.
​The author desires to record his gratitude to Mr. W. W. Rouse Ball, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and to Professor W. McF. Orr, F. R. S., of the Royal College of Science for Ireland; these friends have read the proof-sheets, and have made many helpful suggestions and criticisms.
Thanks are also due to the Board of Trinity College, Dublin, for the financial assistance which made possible the publication of the work.
Contents.
Chapter I.
The Theory of the Aether in the Seventeenth Century.
Page
Chapter II.
Electric and Magnetic Science, Prior to the Introduction of the Potentials.
CHAPTER III.
Galvanism, from Galvani to Ohm.
CHAPTER IV.
The Luminiferous Medium, from Bradley to Fresnel.
CHAPTER V.
The Aether as an Elastic Solid.
CHAPTER VI.
Faraday.
CHAPTER VII.
The Mathematical Electricians of the Middle of the Nineteenth Century.
CHAPTER VIII.
Maxwell.
CHAPTER IX.
Models of the Aether.
CHAPTER X.
The Followers of Maxwell.
CHAPTER XI.
Conduction in Solutions and Gases, from Faraday to J. J. Thomson.
CHAPTER XII.
The Theory of Aether and Electrons in the Closing Years of the Nineteenth Century.
Memorandum on Notation
Vectors are denoted by letters in clarendon type, as E.
The three components of a vector E are denoted by E$_x$, E$_y$, E$_z$, and the magnitude of the vector is denoted by E, so that
$E^{2}=E_{x}^{2}+E_{y}^{2}+E_{z}^{2}$
The vector product of two vectors E and H, which is denoted by [E.H], is the vector whose components are (E$_y$H$_z$ - E$_z$H$_y$, E$_z$H$_x$ - E$_x$H$_z$, E$_x$H$_y$ - E$_y$H$_x$). Its direction is at right angles to the direction of E and H, its magnitude is represented by twice the area of the triangle formed by them.
The scalar product of two vectors E and H is E$_x$H$_x$ + E$_y$H$_y$ + E$_z$H$_z$. It is denoted by (E.H).
The quantity ${\frac {\partial E_{x}}{\partial x}}+{\frac {\partial E_{y}}{\partial y}}+{\frac {\partial E_{z}}{\partial z}}$ is denoted by div E.
The vector whose components are
$\left({\frac {\partial E_{z}}{\partial y}}-{\frac {\partial E_{y}}{\partial z}},{\frac {\partial E_{x}}{\partial y}}-{\frac {\partial E_{z}}{\partial x}},{\frac {\partial E_{y}}{\partial x}}-{\frac {\partial E_{x}}{\partial z}}\right)$
is denoted by curl E.
If V denote a scalar quantity, the vector whose components are $\left(-{\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}},-{\frac {\partial V}{\partial y}},-{\frac {\partial V}{\partial z}}\right)$ is denoted by grad V.
The symbol ∇ is used to denote the vector operator whose components are ${\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}$, ${\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}$, ${\frac {\partial }{\partial x}}$.
Differentiation with respect to the time is frequently indicated by a dot placed over the symbol of the variable which is differentiated.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1956, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 67 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
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