OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senarmont, Henri Hureau de

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​SENARMONT, HENRI HUREAU DE (1808–1862), French mineralogist and physician, was born at Broué, Eure et Loire, on the 6th of September 1808. He became engineer-in-chief of mines, and professor of mineralogy and director of studies at the École des Mines at Paris. He was distinguished for his researches on polarization and on the artificial formation of minerals. He also wrote essays and prepared maps on the geology of Seine et Marne and Seine et Oise for the Geological Survey of France (1844). He died'in Paris on the 30th of June 1862.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senebier, Jean

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​SENEBIER, JEAN (1742–1809), Swiss pastor and voluminous writer on vegetable physiology, was born at Geneva on the 6th of May 1742. He is remembered on account of his contributions to our knowledge of the influence of light on vegetation. Though Marcello Malpighi and Stephen Hales had shown that a great part of the substance of plants must be obtained from the atmosphere, no progress was made until Charles Bonnet observed on leaves plunged in aerated water bubbles of gas, which Joseph Priestley recognized as oxygen. Ian Ingenhousz proved the simultaneous disappearance of carbonic acid; but it was Senebier who clearly showed that this activity was confined to the green parts, and to these only in sunlight, and first gave a connected view of the whole process of vegetable nutrition in strictly chemical terms. He died at Geneva on the 22nd of July 1809.
See Sachs, Geschichte d. Botanik, and Arbeiten, vol. ii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senefelder, Alois

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​SENEFELDER, ALOIS (1771–1834), German inventor of lithography, was born at Munich on the 6th of November 1771, his father Peter being an actor at the Theatre Royal. Owing to the death of his father he was unable to continue his legal studies at the university of Ingolstadt, and tried to support himself as a performer and author, but without success. In order to accelerate the publication of one of his works, he frequently spent whole days in the printing office, and found the process of printing so simple that he conceived the idea of purchasing a small printing press, thus enabling himself to print and publish his own compositions. Unable to pay for the engraving of his compositions, he attempted to engrave them himself. He made numerous experiments with little success; tools and skill were alike wanting. Copper-plates were expensive, and the want of a sufficient number entailed the tedious process of grinding and polishing afresh those he had used. About this period his attention was accidentally directed to a fine piece of Kellheim stone which he had purchased for the purpose of grinding his ink. His first idea was to use it merely for practice in his exercises in writing backwards, the ease with which the stone could be ground and polished afresh being the chief inducement. While he was engaged one day in polishing a stone slab on which to continue his exercises, his mother entered the room and desired him to write ​her a bill for the washer-woman, who was waiting for the linen. Neither paper nor ink being at hand, the bill was written on the stone he had just polished. The ink used was composed of wax, soap and lamp-black. Some time afterwards, when about to wipe the writing from the stone, the idea all at once struck him to try the effect of biting the stone with aqua fortis. Surrounding the stone with a border of wax, he covered its surface with a mixture of one part of aqua fortis and ten parts of water. The result of the experiment was that at the end of five minutes he found the writing elevated about the tenth part of a line (1/120 in.) He then proceeded to apply the printing ink to the stone, using at first a common printer’s ball, but soon found that a thin piece of board covered with fine cloth answered better, communicating the ink more equally. He was able to take satisfactory impressions, and, the method of printing being new, he hoped to obtain a patent for it, or even some assistance from the government. For years Senefelder continued his experiments, until the art not only became simplified, but reached a high degree of excellence in his hands. In later years the king of Bavaria settled a handsome pension on Senefelder. He died at Munich in 1834, having lived to see his invention brought to comparative perfection.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senega

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​SENEGA, the dried root of the Polygala Senega, which is official in the United Kingdom and United States pharmacopoeias. Senega contains an active principle, saponin. Senega is used chiefly as a stimulating expectorant in chronic bronchitis. It is occasionally used as a diuretic in renal dropsy. It is a cardiac depressant, and is contra-indicated in diseased conditions of the heart. It has a tendency to upset the digestion, and is therefore only used in combination with other drugs in what are termed expectorant mixtures.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Senarmont, Alexandre Antoine Bureau de

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​SENARMONT, ALEXANDRE ANTOINE HUREAU DE (1769–1810), French artillery general, was born at Strassburg, and educated at the Metz school for engineer and artillery cadets. In 1785 he was commissioned in the artillery, in which he served as a regimental officer for fifteen years. In 1800 he won great credit both by his exertions in bringing the artillery of the Army of Reserve over the Alps and by his handling of guns in the battle of Marengo. In 1806, as a general of brigade, and commander of the artillery of an army corps, he took part in the Jena and Eylau campaigns. But he is remembered chiefly in connexion with the “caseshot attack” which was the central feature of Napoleon’s matured tactical. system, and which Senarmont put into execution for the first time at Friedland (q.v.). For this feat he was made a baron, and in 1808 he was promoted general of division by Napoleon on the field of battle in front of Madrid. He was killed at the siege of Cadiz on the 26th of October 1810.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seneca (tribe)

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​SENECA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian stock. They call themselves Tshoti-nondawaga, “ people of the mountain.” The French called them Tsonnontouan. Their former range was in western New York state between Seneca lake and the Genesee river. They were one of the Six Nations League of the Iroquois, and eventually became the most important tribe of the league. They were foremost in all the Iroquoian wars, and were the official guardians of the western frontier of the league. On the defeat of the Erie and Neuter tribes they occupied the county west of Lake Erie and south along the Alleghany to Pennsylvania. They fought on the English side in the War of Independence. About 2700 are now on reservations in New York State, while a few are in Oklahoma and on Grand River reservation, Ontario.
For Seneca Cosmology see 21st Ann. Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol. (1899–1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seneca Falls

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​SENECA FALLS, a village of Seneca county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of Seneca Falls, on Seneca Outlet, pr river (which connects Lake Seneca and Lake Cayuga), about 42 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1900) 6519, of whom 801 were foreign-born; (1905) 6733; (1910) 6588; of the township, including the village (1910) 7407. The village is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Lehigh Valley and electric suburban railways, and by the Seneca & Cayuga Canal. In the village are the Mynderse (public) Library and the Johnson Home for Old Ladies (1868). Cayuga Lake Park, a pleasure resort, is 3 m. distant and is reached by electric railway. The village is the shipping point for a farming and dairying region. The river here falls 50 ft. and provides a good water power; among the manufactures are pumps and hydraulic machinery, woollen goods, wagons and farm implements. Seneca Falls was settled about 1790, and was first incorporated as a village in 1831, its charter as revised in 1902 being similar in some respects to that of a city. In Seneca Falls on the 19th and 20th of July 1848 was held a Woman's Rights Convention, the first in the United States.
# 2006 Royal Command Convoking NPA

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Published in the Government Gazette of Thailand, vol. 123, pt. 121 ko, dated 19 December BE 2549 (2006), pp. 1.
ROYAL COMMAND Convocation of the National People's Assembly BE 2549 (2006)
BHUMIBOL ADULYADEJ, REX
Phra Bat Somdet Phra Poramin Maha Bhumibol Adulyadej is graciously pleased to proclaim that:
Pursuant to the appointment of the members of National's People Assembly in accordance with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand (Interim) Buddhist Era 2549 (2006). Be it, therefor, commanded by the King the National People's Assembly be convoked on 17 December BE 2549 (2006).
Announced on 16 December BE 2549 (2006), being the 61st Year of the Present Reign.
Countersigned by
General Surayud Chulanont
Prime Minister
This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wagner, Adolf

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​WAGNER, ADOLF (1835–), German economist, was born at Erlangen on the 25th of March 1835. Educated at Göttingen and Heidelberg, he was professor of political science at Dorpat and Freiburg, and after 1870 at Berlin. A prolific writer on economic problems, he brought out in his study of the subject the close relation which necessarily exists between economics and jurisprudence. He ranks without doubt as one of the most eminent German economists and a distinguished leader of the historical school. His leanings towards Christian socialism made him one of those to whom the appellation of “Katheder-Socialisten” or “socialists of the (professional) chair” was applied, and he was one of the founders of the Verein für Socialpolitik. In 1871 he undertook, in conjunction with Professor E. Nasse (1829–1890), a new edition of Rau's Lehrbuch der politischen Ökonomie, and his own special contributions, the Grundlegung and Finanzwissenschaft, afterwards published separately, are probably his most important works. He approaches economic studies from the point of view that the doctrine of the jus naturae, on which the physiocrats reared their economic structure, has lost its hold on belief, and that the old a priori and absolute conceptions of personal freedom and property have given way with it. He lays down that the economic position of the individual, instead of depending merely on so-called natural rights or even on his natural powers, is conditioned by the contemporary juristic system, which is itself an historical product. These conceptions, therefore, of freedom and property, half economic, half juristic, require a fresh examination. Wagner accordingly investigates, before anything else, the conditions of the economic life of the community, and in subordination to this, determines the sphere of the economic freedom of the individual. Among his works are Beiträge zur Lehre von den Banken (1857), System der deutschen Zettelbankgesetzgebung (1870–1873) and Agrar- und Industriestaat (1902).
His brother, Hermann Wagner (1840–), a distinguished geographer, joined the Geographical Institute of Justus Perthes in 1868, and was editor of the statistical section of the Gothaer Almanack up to 1876. In 1872 he founded Die Bevölkerung der Erde, a critical review of area and population, and in 1880 he was appointed professor of geography at Göttingen. He was editor of the Geographisches Jahrbuch from 1880 to 1908. His publications include Lehrbuch der Geographie (7th ed., 1903) and Methodischer Schulatlas (12th ed., 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wagtail

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​WAGTAIL (Wagsterd and Wagstyrt, 15th century fide T. Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. 221, 253; Uuagtale, Turner, 1544, p. 53), the popular name for birds of the subfamily Motacillinae, which, together with the Anthinae (see Pipit), form the passerine family Motacillidae.
The pied wagtail Motacilla lugubris is a common and generally distributed species in the British Islands, and common throughout northern Europe, but migrating southwards over a relatively narrow range in winter. The white wagtail, M. alba of Linnaeus, has a wide range in Europe, Asia and Africa, visiting England almost yearly, and chiefly differing from the ordinary British in its lighter-coloured tints—the cock especially having a clear grey instead of a black back. Three other species occur in England, but the subfamily with several genera and very many species ranges over the Old World, except Australia and Polynesia, whilst the Asiatic species reach North-West America.
Wagtails are generally parti-coloured birds, frequenting streams and stagnant water, and feeding on seeds, insects, worms, small molluscs and crustaceans. The bill is thin and elongated, and the tail is very long. The nests are made of moss, grass and roots, with a lining of hair and feathers; four to six eggs are laid, bluish white or brown, or yellowish with spots and markings.
The genus Motacilla (an exact rendering of the English “wagtail,” the Dutch Kwikstaart, the Italian Codatremola and other similar words), which, as originally founded by Linnaeus, contained nearly all the “soft-billed” birds of early English ornithologists, was restricted by various authors in succession, following the example set by Scopoli in 1769, until none but the wagtails remained in it.  (A. N.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wagon

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​WAGON, or Waggon, a large four-wheeled vehicle for the carriage of heavy loads, and drawn by two or more horses. This is the general English use of the term, where it is more particularly confined to the large vehicles employed in the carrying of agricultural produce. It is also used of the uncovered heavy rolling stock for goods on railways. In America the term is applied also to lighter vehicles, such as are used for express delivery, police work, &c., and to various forms of four-wheeled vehicles used for driving, to which the English term “cart” would be given. The word “wagon” appears to be a direct adaptation of Du. Wagen (cf. Ger. Wagen, Swed. Vagn, &c.). Skeat finds the earliest use of the word in Lord Berner's translation of Froissart (1523-1525), so that it is by no means an early word. The O.E. cognate word was wœgn, later wœn, by dropping of g (cf. regn, ren, rain), modern “wain.” The root of all these cognate words, meaning to carry, is seen in Lat. vehere. The term “wagon” or “waggon” is applied technically in bookbinding to a frame of cane used for trimming the edges of gold leaf. In architecture a “wagon-ceiling” is a boarded roof of the Tudor time, either of semicircular or polygonal section. It is boarded with thin panels of oak or other wood ornamented with mouldings and with loops at the intersections.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wagga-Wagga

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​WAGGA-WAGGA, a town of Wynyard county, New South Wales, Australia, on the left bank of the river Murrumbidgee, 309 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney and 267 m. N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 5114. The Murrumbidgee is here spanned by a steel viaduct, the approaches of which are formed by heavy embankments. Wagga-Wagga has a school of art with a library attached, a fine convent picturesquely situated on Mount Erin, a good racecourse and agricultural show-grounds. There is a considerable amount of gold-mining in the district, which, however, is chiefly pastoral, although cereals, tobacco and wine are produced in considerable quantities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malet, Lucas

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​MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison (1852–), English novelist. She was the eldest daughter of Charles Kingsley, and was born at Eversley on the 4th of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and at University College, London, and married in 1876 William Harrison, rector of Clovelly. After her husband’s death in 1897 she eventually settled in London. She had already written several books—Mrs Lorimer (1882), Colonel Enderby’s Wife (1885), Little Peter (1887), A Counsel of Perfection (1888)—when she published her powerful story, The Wages of Sin (1891), which attracted great attention. Her History of Sir Richard Calmady (1901) had an even greater success. Her other novels include The Carissima (1896), The Gateless Barrier (1900), On the Far Horizon (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Malcolm

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​MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom, Malcolm I., king from 943 to 954, and Malcolm II., king from 1005 to 1034, are shadowy and unimportant personages.
Malcolm III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the “large-headed,” was a son of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar Ætheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and “was his man.” However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The ​Scot obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm’s Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm’s sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal houses.
Malcolm IV. (c. 1141–1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the “Maiden,” and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. (1867–1879), and The Reign of William Rufus (1882); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876–1880); E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (1862); and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maldon

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​MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in the Maldon parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an acclivity rising from the south side of the Blackwater, 43 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east and west railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056, but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel, nave and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique form) at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The tower of St Mary’s Church shows Norman work with Roman materials. The other public buildings are the grammar school, founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D’Arcy’s tower, built in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are manufactures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a farm colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are remains of Beeleigh Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of the 12th century. They consist of the chapter-house and another chamber, and are of fine Early English work. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3028 acres.
At Maldon (Maelduna, Melduna, Mealdon or Meaudon) palaeolithic, neolithic and Roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an early settlement. It is not, however, an important Roman site. An earthwork, of which traces exist, may be Saxon or Danish. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Edward the Elder established a “burh” there about 921, and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the Danes in 991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commercial importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by the Chronicle. Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of Henry I., and thus is entered as on terra regis in Domesday. Henry II. granted the burgesses their first charter, probably in 1155, giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights, also freedom from county and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage and all tolls, by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This charter was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 1344, and by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London granted further judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. confirmed the charters in 1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII. in 1525. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554, and received confirmatory charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and 1592, from Charles I. in 1631, Charles II. and James II. In 1768 the incorporation charter was regranted, with modifications in 1810.