OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muscovite

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​MUSCOVITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the mica group (see Mica). It is also known as potash-mica, being a potassium, hydrogen and aluminium orthosilicate, H$_2$KAl$_3$(SiO$_4$)$_3$. ​As the common white mica obtainable in thin, transparent cleavage sheets of large size it was formerly used in Russia for window panes and known as “Muscovy glass”; hence the name Muscovite, proposed by J. D. Dana in 1850. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system; distinctly developed crystals, however, are rare and have the form of rough six-sided prisms or plates: thin scales without definite crystal outlines are more common. The most prominent feature is the perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane (𝑐 in the figure), on which the lustre is pearly in character. The hardness is 2–21/2, and the spec. grav. 2·8–2·9. The plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry and the acute bisectrix nearly normal to the cleavage; the optic axial angle is 60–70°, and double refraction is strong and negative in sign.
Muscovite frequently occurs as fine scaly to almost compact aggregates, especially when, as is often the case, it has resulted by the alteration of some other mineral, such as felspar, topaz, cyanite, &c.; several varieties depending on differences in structure have been distinguished. Fine scaly varieties are damourite, margarodite (from Gr. μαργαρίτης, a pearl), gilbertite, sericite (from σηρικός, silky), &c. In sericite the fine scales are united in fibrous aggregates giving rise to a silky lustre: this variety is a common constituent of phyllites and sericite-schists. Oncosine (from ὄγκοσις, intumescence) is a compact variety forming rounded aggregates, which swell up when heated before the blowpipe. Closely related to oncosine are several compact minerals, included together under the name pinite, which have resulted by the alteration of iolite, spodumene and other minerals. Other varieties depend on differences in chemical composition. Fuchsite or “chrome-mica” is a bright green Muscovite containing chromium; it has been used as a decorative stone. Oellacherite is a variety containing some barium. In phengite there is more silica than usual, the composition approximating to H$_2$KAI$_3$(Si$_3$O$_8$)$_3$.
Muscovite is of wide distribution and is the commonest of the micas. In igneous rocks it is found only in granite, never in volcanic rocks; but it is abundant in gneiss and mica-schist, and in phyllites and clay-slates, where it has been formed at the expense of alkali-felspar by dynamo-metamorphic processes. In pegmatite-veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-schist it occurs as large sheets of commercial value, and is mined in India, the United States and Brazil (see Mica), and to a limited extent, together with felspar, in southern Norway and in the Urals. Large sheets of Muscovite were formerly obtained from Solovetsk Island, Archangel. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Musa Khel

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​MUSA KHEL, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of the Punjab province of India. They are of Kakar origin, numbering 4670 fighting men. They enter British territory by the Vihowa, Pass, and carry on an extensive trade, but are not dependent on India for the necessaries of life. They are a peaceful and united race, and have been friendly to the British, but at enmity with the Khetrans and the Baluch tribes to the south of their country. In 1879 the Musa Khels and other Pathan tribes to the number of 5000 made a demonstration against Vihowa, but the town was reinforced and they dispersed. In 1884 they were punished, together with the Kakars, by the Zhob Valley Expedition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phaedo

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​PHAEDO, Greek philosopher, founder of the Elian school, was a native of Elis, born in the last years of the 5th century B.C. In the war of 401–400 between Sparta and Elis he was taken prisoner and became a slave in Athens, where his beauty brought him notoriety. He became a pupil of Socrates, who conceived a warm affection for him. It appears that he was intimate with Cebes and Plato, and he gave his name to one of Plato's dialogues. Athenaeus relates, however, that he resolutely declined responsibility for any of the views with which Plato credits him, and that the relations between him and Plato were the reverse of friendly Aeschines also wrote a dialogue called Phaedo. Shortly after the death of Socrates Phaedo returned to Elis, where his disciples included Anclupylus, Moschus and Pleistanus, who succeeded him. Subsequently Menedemus and Asclepiades transferred the school to Eretria, where it was known as the Eretrian school and is frequently identified (e.g. by Cicero) with the Megarians. The doctrines of Phaedo are not known, nor is it possible to infer them from the Platonic dialogue. His writings, none of which are preserved, were in the form of dialogues. As to their authenticity nothing is known, in spite of an attempt at selection by Panaetius (Diog Laert. ii. 64), who maintains that the Zopyrus and the Simon are genuine. Seneca has preserved one of his dicta (Epist. 94. 41), namely that one method of acquiring virtue is to frequent the society of good men.
See Wilamowltz, Hermes, xiv. 189 seq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phaer, Thomas

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​PHAER (or Phayer), THOMAS (1510?–1560), English translator of Virgil, was educated at Oxford and at Lincoln’s Inn. He published in 1535 Natura brevium, and in 1543 Newe Boke of Presidentes. He says on the title-page of his version of the Aeneid that he was “solicitor to the king and queen’s majesties, attending their honourable council in the marches of Wales.” He settled at Kilgarran in Pembrokeshire, and combined the study of medicine with his legal practice. He wrote several medical works, and was admitted M.D. of Oxford in 1559. He contributed to Sackville’s Mirrour for Magistrates, “Howe Owen Glendower, being seduced by false prophecies, toke upon him to be Prince of Wales.” In 1558 appeared The Seven First Bookes of the Eneidos of Virgil converted into English Meter. He had completed two more books in April 1560 and had begun the tenth, but he died in the autumn of that year, leaving his task incomplete. The translation was finished by Thomas Twyne in 1584. Phaer’s translation, which was in rhymed fourteen-syllabled lines, was greatly admired by his contemporaries, and he deserves credit as the first to attempt a complete version, the earlier renderings of Surrey and Gawain Douglas being fragmentary although of greater poetic value.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phalanx

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​PHALANX (Gr. φάλαγξ, of unknown origin), the name, in Greek history of the arrangement of heavy-armed infantry in a single close mass of spearmen (see Army: History). In anatomy, the Latin plural phalanges is the term applied to the bones of the finger and toe, and in botany to a group of united stamen clusters. The term “phalanx” was adopted by F. C. M. Fourier (q.v.) as the name of the socialistic community living in a “phalanstery.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phaedra

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​PHAEDRA, in Greek legend, daughter of Minos and Pasiphae. With her sister Ariadne she was carried off by Theseus to Athens, and became his wife. On the way to Eleusis she met Hippolytus, son of Theseus by a former wife (Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, or her sister Antiope), and fell in love with him. Finding her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving behind a letter in which she accused Hippolytus of having made dishonourable proposals. The same story, in the main, is told of Bellerophon and Anteia. It formed the subject of tragedies by Sophocles, Euripides (two, one of which is extant), Seneca and Racine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Norther

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​NORTHER, a winter wind accompanying the “cold wave” that follows the passage of a cyclone across the United States of America. A warm S.E. or S.W. wind on the east of such a cyclone materially slackens or entirely dies away, and is followed, often suddenly, by the piercingly cold norther. The passage of a cyclone across America is usually from W. to E., and the cyclonic system of circulation would produce these results; but as the North American cyclones usually originate east of the Rocky Mountains, the warm air drawn from the Gulf of Mexico is not only followed by the cold air drawn from the Arctic regions, but the body of cold air slides down the eastern slopes of the Rockies and advances as a solid wedge (the “cold wave”) under the cyclone itself. “Uncomfortably warm in the lightest clothing,” a traveller upon the prairies of Texas may become “uncomfortably cold before he can wrap his blanket around him” (W. Ferrel, A Popular Treatise on the Winds). The temperature may fall 50° F. in twenty-four hours.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Northcote, James

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​NORTHCOTE, JAMES (1746–1831), English painter, was born at Plymouth on the 22nd of October 1746. He was apprenticed to his father, a poor watchmaker of the town, and during his spare hours was diligent with brush and pencil. In 1769 he left his father and started as a portrait-painter. Four years later he went to London and was admitted as a pupil into the studio and house of Reynolds. At the same time he attended the Academy schools. In 1775 he left Reynolds, and about two years later, having acquired the requisite funds by portrait-painting in Devonshire, he went to study in Italy. On his return to England, three years later, he revisited his native county, and then settled in London, where Opie and Fuseli were his rivals. He was elected associate of the Academy in 1786, and full academician in the following spring. The “Young Princes murdered in the Tower,” his first important historical work, dates from 1786, and it was followed by the “Burial of the Princes in the Tower,” both paintings, along with seven others, being executed for Boydell’s Shakespeare gallery,. The “Death of Wat Tyler,” now in the Guildhall, was exhibited in 1787; and shortly afterwards Northcote began a set of ten subjects, entitled “The Modest Girl and the Wanton,” which were completed and engraved in 1796. Among the productions of Northcote’s later years are the “Entombment” and the “Agony in the Garden,” besides many portraits, and several animal subjects, like the “Leopards,” the “Dog and Heron,” and the “Lion”; these latter were more successful than the artist’s efforts in the higher departments of art, as was indicated by Fuseli’s caustic remark on examining the “Angel opposing Balaam”—Northcote, you are an angel at an ass, but an ass at an angel.” The works of the artist number about two thousand, and he made a fortune of £40,000. He died on the 13th of July 1831.
Northcote was emulous of fame as an author, and his first essays in literature were contributions to the Artist, edited by Prince Hoare. In 1813 he embodied his recollections of his old master in a Life of Reynolds. His Fables—the first series published in 1828, the second posthumously in 1833—were illustrated with woodcuts by Harvey from Northcote’s own designs. In the production of his Life of Titian, his last work, which appeared in 1830, he was assisted by William Hazlitt, who previously, in 1826, had given to the public in the New Monthly Magazine his recollections of Northcote’s pungent and cynical “conversations,” the bitter personalities of which caused much trouble to the painter and his friends.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Northeim

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​NORTHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ruhme, 12 m. by rail N. of Göttingen and at the junction of railways to Cassel and Nordhausen. Pop. (1905) 7984. It has an interesting Evangelical church, containing some old wood-carving and stained glass, a Roman Catholic church, several schools and a training college for schoolmasters. There are manufactures of tobacco, sugar and boots; other industries are flour-milling, tanning and brewing. The place is said to date from the 9th century; it obtained civic rights in 1208, and later became a member of the Hanseatic League. It was stormed by the imperial troops in June 1627. The Benedictine abbey of St Blasius was founded in 1063 and dissolved at the Reformation.
See Wennigerholz, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Northeim (Northeim, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Northfield (Minnesota)

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​NORTHFIELD, a city of Rice county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Cannon river, about 35 m. S. of St Paul. Pop. (1905) 3438; (1910) 3265. It is served by the Chicago Great-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. It is a shipping centre for the products of the farming and dairying region in which it lies, but it is most widely known for its educational institutions. It is the seat of the Baker School for Nervous and Backward Children, a private institution; of St Olaf College (Norwegian Lutheran), founded in 1874; and of Carleton College (founded in 1866 by Congregationalists but now non-sectarian, opened in 1870), one of the highest grade small colleges in the West, and the first in the North-west to abolish its preparatory academy. Carleton College has the Goodsell Observatory, which gives the time to the railways of the North-west, and publishes a magazine, Popular Astronomy. The Scoville Memorial Library (1896) of the College had 23,000 volumes in 1909. Northfield has a public library and the Minnesota Odd Fellows' Widows and Orphans Asylum. Named in honour of John W. North, who laid out Northfield and several other western towns, it was settled about 1851, incorporated as a village in 1868, and chartered as a city in 1875.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Northfield (Vermont)

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​NORTHFIELD, a village of Washington county, Vermont, U.S.A., in Northfield township, about 35 m. S.E. of Burlington, in the Green Mountains region. Pop. (1910) of the village 1918; of the township 3226. Northfield is served by the Central Vermont railway. It is the seat of Norwich University, founded in 1819 as the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Norwich, Windsor county, Vermont, by Captain Alden Partridge (1785–1854). Captain Partridge was a professor in the U.S. Military Academy in 1813–1816 and acting superintendent of the Academy in 1816–1817, and was president of Norwich University until 1843, he founded various other military schools besides the one at Norwich. Norwich University was incorporated in 1834 under its present name, and in 1866, when the buildings at Norwich were burned, was removed to Northfield. The charter requires “a course of military instruction, both theoretical and practical,” and the discipline of the institution is military in form and principle. In 1898 the university was recognized by the General Assembly of Vermont as the military college of the state. It offers courses leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science in civil engineering, in electrical engineering and in chemistry. In 1908 it had 13 instructors and 168 students. Dewey Hall (1902), the administration building, was named in honour of Admiral George Dewey, a former student in the university. In the township there are outcrops of good granite and of verde antique, and along a range of hills E. of the village there is a deposit of very fine black slate. The hills furnish excellent grazing for cattle, and much milk is shipped to New England cities. The township of Northfield was incorporated in 1781; the original settlement on the site of the present village was made in 1785, and the village was incorporated in 1855.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Northfleet

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​NORTHFLEET, an urban district of Kent, England, within the parliamentary borough of Gravesend, on the Thames, 22 m. E. by S. of London by the South Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 12,906. The church of St Botolph is of Norman foundation, but the nave is principally Decorated and the chancel Perpendicular, and the tower, having fallen down, was rebuilt in 1628. The church contains a brass of the 14th ​century and other interesting monuments. The nave and chancel have undergone modern restoration. Huggens College, with residences for impoverished ladies, was established in 1847 by John Huggens of Sittingbourne. Besides chemical manufactures, there are chalk, lime, cement and brick works and a shipbuilding yard. Swanscombe almost adjoins Northfleet on the south-west. Its name is said to be derived from a camp formed here by the Danish king, Sweyn, and tradition fixes at this spot the meeting between William the Conqueror and the men of Kent, to whom was confirmed the possession of all their ancient laws and privileges.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Remington, Frederick

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REMINGTON, FREDERICK (1861-1909), American artist, was born at Canton, New York, on the 4th of October 1861. He was a pupil of the Yale Art School, and of the Art Students' League, New York, and became known as an illustrator, painter and sculptor. Having spent much time in the West, whither he went for his health, and having been with the United States troops in actual warfare, he made a specialty of rendering the North American Indian and the United States soldier as seen on the western plains. In the Spanish-American War he was with the army under General Shafter as war correspondent. He died on the 26th of December 1909, near Ridgefield, Connecticut. His statuettes of soldiers, Indians, cowboys and trappers are full of character, while his paintings have been largely reproduced. He wrote several volumes of stories, including Pony Tracks (1895), Crooked Trails (1898), Sundown Leflare (1899), and John Ermine of the Yellowstone (1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Remedios

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​REMEDIOS, or San Juan de Los Remedios, town of Santa Clara province, Cuba, in the municipality of San Juan de Los Remedios. Pop. of the town (1907), 6988; of the municipality, 21,573. The town is served by a branch of the Cuban Central railway, extending from Caibarién to Camajuani, where it connects with the main line. The site is low and flat, and unhealthily wet in the rainy season. The port of Remedios is Caibarién pop. in 1907, 8333), on the N. coast, about 5 m. E. Both are in the sugar country, and sugar is the base of their economic interests. The first settlement on the site of the present town was made in 1515–16, and in 1545 Remedios was created a villa with an ayuntamiento (council).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Remembrancer

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​REMEMBRANCER, the name originally of certain subordinate officers of the English Exchequer. The office itself is of great antiquity, the holder having been termed remembrancer, memorator, rememorator, registrar, keeper of the register, despatcher of business (Maddox, History of the Exchequer). There were at one time three clerks of the remembrance, styled king’s remembrancer, lord treasurer’s remembrancer and remembrancer of first-fruits. The latter two offices have become extinct, that of remembrancer of first-fruits by the diversion of the fund (Queen Anne’s Bounty Act 1838), and that of lord treasurer’s remembrancer on being merged in the office of king’s remembrancer (1833). By the Queen’s Remembrancer Act 1859 the office ceased to exist separately, and the queen’s remembrancer was required to be a master of the court of exchequer. The Judicature Act 1873, s. 77, attached the office to the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Court of Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 transferred it to the central office of the Supreme Court. By s. 8 the king’s remembrancer is a master of the Supreme Court, and the office is usually filled by the senior master. The king’s remembrancer department of the central office is now amalgamated with the judgments and married women’s acknowledgments department. The king’s remembrancer still assists at certain ceremonial functions—relics of the former importance of the office—such as the nomination of sheriffs, the swearing-in of the lord mayor of London, the trial of the pyx and the acknowledgments of homage for crown lands. Other duties are set out in the Second Report of the Legal Departments Commission, 1874.
“Remembrancer” is also the title of an official of the corporation of the city of London, whose principal duty is to represent that body before parliamentary committees and at council and treasury boards.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reminiscence

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​REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember), the recognized translation of the Greek ἀνἀμνησις, which is used technically by Plato in his doctrine that the soul recovers knowledge of which it had direct intuition in a former incorporeal existence. The doctrine may be regarded as the poetical precursor of modern a priori theories of knowledge and of “race-memory” and the like. In common language “reminiscence” is synonymous with “recollection.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Remagen

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​REMAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 12 m. above Bonn, by the railway from Cologne to Coblenz, and at the junction of the Ahr valley railway to Adenau. Pop. (1900) 3534. The (Roman Catholic) parish church is remarkable for a gate (Römertor) with grotesque sculptures of animals, dating from the 12th century. Archaeologists have variously interpreted its original purpose, whether as church door, city gate or palace gate. The industry of the place. is almost wholly concerned with the preparation of wine, in which a large export trade is done. ]ust below the town, on a height overlooking the Rhine, stands the Apollinaris church, built 1839–53 on the site of a chapel formerly dedicated to St Martin, and containing the relics of St Apollinaris. It is a frequent place of pilgrimage from all parts of the lower Rhine. According to legend, the ship conveying the relics of the three kings and of Bishop Apollinaris from Milan to Cologne in 1164 could not be got to move away from the spot until the bones of St Apollinaris had been interred in St Martin's chapel.
Remagen (the Rigomagus of the Romans) originally belonged to the duchy of Jülich. Many Roman antiquities have been discovered here. In 1857 a votive altar dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Mercury was unearthed, and is now in the Provincial Museum at Bonn.
See Kinkel, Der Führer durch das Ahrthal nebst Beschreibung der Stadt Remagen (2nd ed., Bonn, 1854).