OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Akyab

See also Sittwe and Sittwe District on Wikipedia; Akyab in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
AKYAB, a district and city within the Arákán division of British Burmah, and under the jurisdiction of the chief commissioner of that province. The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of Bengal, between 20° and 21½° N. lat., and 92° 12′ and 94° E. long. It forms the northernmost district of British Burmah, and the largest of the three districts of the Arákán division. It is bounded on the N. by the Chittagong district of Bengal; on the E. by the Sumadoung ranges, which separate it from Independent Burmah; on the S. by the Arákán districts of Rámri and Sandoway; and on the W. by the Bay of Bengal. In 1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed under a special administration, with a view to the better government of the wild tribes which inhabit them. The present area is returned at 4858 square miles, of which 521 square miles are cultivated, 913 cultivable but not actually under tillage, and 3424 square miles uncultivable and waste. The population of the district in 1872 amounted to 263,152, of whom 192,885 were Buddhists or Jains, 47,349 Mahometans, 8687 Hindus, 13,928 aborigines, and 303 Christians. The central part of the district consists of three fertile valleys, watered by the Myu, Koladyne, and Lemyu. These rivers approach each other at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal channels, creeks, and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible supplies of rice, which the abundant water carriage brings down to the port of Akyab at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns are Khúmgchú in the extreme north-east of the district; Koladyne in the centre; Arákán, further down the rivers; and Akyab on the coast, where their mouths converge. This district passed into the hands of the British, together with the rest of Arákán division, at the close of the first Burmese war of 1825.
Akyab, Town and Port, situated at the point of convergence of the three large rivers Myu, Koladyne, and Lemyu, 20° 9′ N. lat., and 92° 56′ E. long., is the chief town of the district of the same name, and the most flourishing city of the Arákán division. The town is regularly built, with broad streets running at right angles to each other. The port is commodious, is the seat of a large export trade in rice, and possesses steam communication direct with Calcutta once a fortnight, except during the south-west monsoon. The population in 1871–72 numbered 15,281. Akyab monopolises almost the whole sea-borne trade of the province of Arákán, amounting in 1871–72 to 1,345,417; to which the export of rice contributed £105,894. During 1871–72, 256 vessels, of a total burden of 129,061 tons, entered the port; and 262 vessels, of a burden of 130,203 tons, cleared.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Ak-su

See also Aksu City and Prefecture on Wikipedia; Aksu in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
AK-SU, a town of Chinese Turkestan, is situated in 41° 7′ N. lat., 79° E. long., 250 miles N.E. of Yarkand. It has a flourishing trade, and is resorted to for purposes of commerce by caravans from all parts of Central Asia. There are some cotton manufactures; and the place is celebrated for its richly-ornamented saddlery made from deer-skin. A Chinese garrison is stationed here, and copper and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals. The district is well cultivated, and sheep and cattle are extensively reared. The population of the town is about 20,000; that of the town and district 100,000.
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Chang Yung

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​CHANG Yung 張勇 (T. 非熊), 1616–1684, general, was a native of Hsien-ning, Shensi. He served under the Ming dynasty as colonel, but surrendered in 1645 to the Manchu prince, Ajige [q. v.], at Kiukiang, Kiangsi. Given the lower rank of major, he served in the army under Mêng Ch'iao-fang [q. v.], governor-general of Shensi. He showed his bravery in many battles, was commended by Mêng, and was given in 1653 the minor hereditary rank of Ch'ing-ch'ê tu-yü of the third class. In 1658 he served under Hung Ch'êng-ch'ou [q. v.] as a brigade-general in the conquest of Yunnan, and by 1661 was made provincial commander-in-chief of that province. Transferred to Kansu in 1663, he guarded the northwestern borders from being invaded by the Mongols, the Eleuths, and the aborigines of Kokonor, and commanded their respect. He refused to join Wu San-kuei [q. v.] in the rebellion of 1673–81, and fought against Wang Fu-ch'ên [q. v.] who joined Wu in 1674. For this act of loyalty he was highly honored by the Manchu Court at Peking. In 1675 he was made General Ching-ni (靖逆將軍), given the hereditary rank of Marquis Ching-ni, and invested with power to control the officials of the whole province of Kansu. In 1676 his rank was raised to marquis of the first class with the honorary title of Junior Tutor and Grand Preceptor of the Heir Apparent. After his death (1684) ​he was given the posthumous rank of Junior Preceptor. He was canonized as Hsiang-chuang 襄壯.
Chang Yung was a powerful military leader in his day who won many battles in spite of the handicap of a disabled right foot. Several generals who later became powerful, such as Chao Liang-tung [q. v.], rose to eminence because of his help. The Khoshotes and aborigines of Kokonor feared him, and when they were pressed eastward by Galdan [q. v.] in 1678 they were kept away from the borders of Kansu by Chang Yung. Later emperors did honor to his memory: in 1732 Emperor Shih-tsung entered his name in the Temple of Eminent Statesmen and in 1767 the rights of perpetual inheritance were added to his hereditary rank.
[1/261/1a; 2/78/31a; 3/273/31a; P'ing-ting San-ni fang-lüeh (see under Han T'an); P'ing-ting Shuo-mo fang-lüeh (see under Chang Yü-shu).]
Fang Chao-ying
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Chang Yü-chao

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​CHANG Yü-chao 張裕釗 (T. 廉卿, H. 濓亭), 1833–1894, man of letters, was born in a village near Wuchang, Hupeh. His father, Chang Shan-chün 張善準 (T. 樹程, 平泉, H. 愚公, 1796–1865), was a local scholar of some note. After studying under his father, he obtained in 1846 his chü-jên degree, and in 1850 went to Peking where he was made a secretary of the Grand Secretariat. Late in 1852, when the Taipings threatened Wuchang, he returned to his native place and shortly after became a member of the secretarial staff of Tsêng Kuo-fan [q. v.] with whom he had become acquainted during his stay in Peking. With Wu Ju-lun and Li Shu-ch'ang [qq. v.] he then studied diligently the belles-lettres of the T'ung-ch'êng school (see under Fang Pao). Unlike other followers of Tsêng Kuo-fan he was indifferent to political and military affairs, hence he did not obtain an official position. After the Taipings had been subdued and Tsêng Kuo-fan twice took office in Nanking as governor-general of Liang-Kiang, Chang was invited to the city to direct several academies, at the same time assisting Tsêng in cultural matters. In 1881 Chang was made chief compiler of a gazetteer Kao-ch'un, Kiangsu, and corrected the drafts compiled by local scholars. The gazetteer was printed in the same year in 28 chüan under the title 高淳縣志 Kao-ch'un hsien-chih. Late in the 1880's he served for a few years as director of the Lien-ch'ih (蓮池) Academy at Pao-ting, Chihli, and then went to Sian, Shensi, where he lived under the patronage of the Tartar General Jung-lu [q. v.].
Chang Yü-chao and Wu Ju-lun were perhaps the two best writers of the ku-wên, or archaic, style at the close of the Ch'ing period. Chang's prose works were edited and printed in 1882 by his pupil, Cha Yen-hsü (see below), under the title 濓亭文集 Lien-t'ing wên-chi, 8 chüan. Another collection of his prose, entitled Lien-t'ing i-wên (遺文), 5 chüan, and a collection of his verse, Lien-t'ing i-shih (詩), 2 chüan, were printed in 1895 by Li Shu-ch'ang. Chang's letters were collected by Liu Shêng-mu 劉聲木 (T. 述之, H. 十枝, original ming 體信) under the title 張濓卿尺牘 Chang Lien-ch'ing ch'ih-tu, and were printed in 1929 in Liu's 桐城文學叢書 T'ung-ch'êng wên-hsüeh ts'ung-shu. Chang Yü-chao was also a famous calligrapher.
Among the disciples of Chang Yü-chao, not including those who were taught by both Chang and Wu Ju-lun (for whom see under Wu), were the following brilliant writers: Chu Ming-p'an 朱銘盤 (T. 俶簡, H. 曼君, 1852–1893); Cha Yen-hsü 查燕緒 (T. 翼甫, H. 繼亭, 1843–1917); Sun Pao-t'ien 孫葆田 (T. 佩南, 1840–1911); and Chang Chien 張謇 (T. 季直, H. 嗇庵, 嗇翁, 1853–1926). All of them left works, among them the 校經室文集 Chiao-ching shih wên-chi, 6 chüan (1916), a collection of prose by Sun Pao-t'ien; and the 張季子九錄 Chang Chi-tzŭ chiu-lu (1931), the collected works of Chang Chien, who was the chuang-yüan of 1894, and later became an industrialist and social reformer.
[1/491/19b; 6/51/10a; Liu Shêng-mu (see above), T'ung-ch'êng wên-hsüeh yüan-yüan k'ao (淵源考) 1909, chüan 10; Lien-t'ing wên-chi (see above), passim.]
Hiromu Momose
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Chao-tsu Yüan Huang-ti

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​CHAO-tsu Yüan Huang-ti, temple and posthumous names of Mönge Temür. See under Nurhaci.
# Dreams of a Spirit-Seer/Appendix 4

APPENDIX IV.
KANT'S PRIVATE AND PUBLIC OPINION OF SWEDENBORG.
"The opinion expressed by Swedenborg's editor, Dr. J. F. Immanuel Tafel, of the University of Tübingen, in the Sammlung von Urkunden, iv., 255, that it was Kant's fear of ridicule among his philosophical colleagues that led him to affect so trifling an attitude toward an author who had in reality deeply and lastingly impressed him, seems to be borne out by the passages quoted by Tafel from Kant's letter to Moses Mendelssohn.
Kant on Swedenborg in Letters to Moses Mendelssohn.
From the letter of February 7th, 1766.
"I have sent you by post some 'Träumereien,' and beg most respectfully that after retaining a copy yourself, if you so please, you will send the others to the Court-Preacher Sack, to the Councillor of the Consistory Spaulding, to Provost Süsmilch, to Professors Lambert, Sultzer, and Formey. It is a hastily prepared treatise, and presents rather an outline of the manner in which questions of this kind may be treated than the treatment itself."
From the letter of April 8th, 1766.
"As a matter of fact it would be difficult for me to conceive of a method of so clothing my thoughts that I shall not subject myself to ridicule. It seemed to me the wisest course to take advantage of others and first do the ridiculing myself; and in this I have been perfectly frank since the attitude of my own mind is inconsistent and, so far as these stories are concerned, I cannot help having a slight inclination for things of this kind, and indeed, as regards their reasonableness, I cannot help cherishing an opinion that there is some validity in these experiences in spite of all the absurdities involved in the stories about them, and the crazy and unintelligible ideas which deprive them of their real value."
WILLIAM BYLES AND SONS, PRINTERS, 129, FLEET ST., LONDON, AND BRADFORD.
# Dreams of a Spirit-Seer/Appendix 3

APPENDIX III.
THE RELATIVE PRIORITY OF THE "LETTER" AND THE "DREAMS."
Regarding the disputed date of this letter the reader is referred to a lengthy discussion in the Reclam edition of the Träume, ed. Kehrbach, Leipzig, 1880: pp. 25–33, and to the documents concerning Swedenborg, Tafel: Vol. II., pp. 620–625. The former editor favours 1763, the latter 1758, as the true date. Inasmuch as several events mentioned in the letter occurred, as all now agree, subsequent to 1758, that date may be regarded as now set aside by universal consent. The circumstance that Kant speaks in the letter of being entirely unacquainted with Swedenborg's writings, whereas in the "Dreams" he professes to have read the Arcana through, would seem to favour a date for the letter considerably prior to that of the "Dreams," 1766. On the other hand, the mention in the letter of Swedenborg's intended journey to London the "next year" to publish a volume which would answer Kant's inquiries, a journey actually made in 1769, when the work on the "Two Worlds," De Commercio, was brought out discussing the theories of Aristotle, Descartes and Leibnitz, this also being Swedenborg's only journey to London since 1761, would seem to be strong evidence in favour of 1768. Against this conclusion, however, may be brought the fatal circumstance that Fraülein von Knobloch was married in the year 1763 or 1764 to a General von Klingshorn, and hence could hardly have been addressed in 1768 under her maiden name. (See Reclam ed. p. 32.)
As to the significance of the date as bearing upon the question of Kant's final estimate of Swedenborg's philosophy of the two worlds I think it has been much over-rated, for the two following reasons: I. That the humorous and flippant style of the "Dreams" forbid our attaching very serious weight to anything whether of fact or ​opinion alleged therein; II. The true and sufficient evidence of Swedenhorg's influence on Kant is unmistakaljly shown in his Inaugural Dissertation on the Two Worlds written in 1770, the year following the publication of Swedenhorg's De Commercio, and in subsequent lectures on Metaphysics and Psychology which have recently been edited by Du Prel and Heinze. See Introduction p. 35.
S.
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Huang Tsung-yen

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​HUANG Tsung-yen 黃宗炎 (T. 晦木, 立谿, H. 鷓鴣先生), 1616–1686, scholar, artist, Ming loyalist, second son of Huang Tsun-su (see under Huang Tsung-hsi), was a native of Yü-yao, Chekiang. He, together with his elder brother, Huang Tsung-hsi [q. v.], and his younger brother, Huang Tsung-hui 黃宗會 (T. 澤望, H. 縮齋, 石田先生, 1618–1663), were known as the "Three Huangs" 三黃. All were pupils of the last prominent Ming philosopher, Liu Tsung-chou [q. v.]. Early in the Ch'ung-chên period (1628–1644) Huang Tsung-yen became a senior licentiate. When Peking fell to the Manchus he disposed of some of his property in order to finance the restoration of the waning dynasty. He and his elder brother went to the vicinity of Shaohsing to meet the Prince of Lu (see under Chu I-hai) and organized the volunteer encampment known as Shih-chung ying (see under Huang Tsung-hsi). He was twice—in 1650 and ​again in 1656—arrested by the Manchus and sentenced to die for his political activities, but was saved by the help of his elder brother and their faithful friends.
Realizing then that there was no hope for the restoration of the defunct dynasty, he turned to the study of the Classics, making the Classic of Changes his special pursuit. Later he left home to make his living by the sale of medicines and objects of art produced by his own hands, such as paintings, calligraphy and carved ink-stones. His work, 周易象辭 Chou-i hsiang-tz'ŭ, in 21 chüan, with two short supplementary treatises, in 尋門餘論 Hsün-mên yü-lun, in 2 chüan, and 圖書辨惑 T'u-shu pien-huo, in 1 chüan, received critical notice in the Ssŭ-k'u Catalogue and was copied into the Imperial Manuscript Library (for both see under Chi Yün). This collection is also recorded under the title, 憂患學易 Yu-huan hsüeh-i. Like his brother, Huang Tsung-hsi, he questioned the antiquity of the diagrams, attributed by the Sung philosophers to the Classic of Changes, and so helped to undermine the cosmology on which that philosophy was based (see under Hu Wei). The two supplementary, works were printed in the Chao-tai ts'ung-shu (see under Ch'ên Chên-hui) where, however, the second of the two titles reads: 易學辨惑 I-hsüeh pien-huo.
It is said that Huang Tsung-yen painted in the style of the T'ang artist, Li Chao-tao 李昭道, who is often referred to as "Little General Li" 小李將軍 and whose father, Li Ssŭ-hsün 李思訓 (T. 建見, 651–716), was known as "General Li". Huang Tsung-yen's younger brother, Huang Tsung-hui, became a senior licentiate in 1644 and qualified for the metropolitan examination in that year, but Peking fell before the examination took place. Like his brother, he was ardently loyal to the fallen dynasty, but being younger and more emotional, the change made him despondent and pessimistic. In later years he gave himself up to poetry and drinking, and then to Buddhism.
[M.36/13/28a; M.59/54/7a; 2/68/4b; 3/411/1a, 468/5a; Yü-yao-hsien chih (1899) 23/5a, 6a; Ssŭ-k'u 6/3a.]
Tu Lien-chê
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Huang Yü-chi

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​HUANG Yü-chi 黃虞稷 (T. 俞邰 and 楮園), 1629–1691, scholar and bibliophile, was a native of Shang-yüan (Nanking). His family came originally from Chin-chiang, Fukien, but moved to Kiangsu when his father, Huang Chü-chung 黃居中 (T. 明立, H. 海鶴, chü-jên of 1585), became proctor of the Imperial Academy at Nanking. In 1678 Huang Yü-chi was summoned to compete in the special examination known as po-hsüeh hung-tz'ŭ (see under P'êng Sun-yü) which was held in Peking in the following year. But being in mourning for the death of his mother, he declined. He participated in the compilation of the official Ming History (Ming-shih) on the specific recommendation of the chief director, Hsü Yüan-wên [q. v.]. In 1684 he was appointed to assist in drafting the Ta Ch'ing i-t'ung chih, or "Comprehensive Geography of the Empire" (see under Hsü Ch'ien-hsüeh), with special responsibility for the geography of Fukien province from which his ancestors had come. ​This topographical project was first carried on in Peking, but when the chief director, Hsü Ch'ien-hsüeh [q. v.] retired from official life and moved south to continue the project in his own home, Huang Yü-chi went with him. In the summer of 1691 he went to his home in Nanking and died soon thereafter.
His poetry was regarded favorably by contemporary critics, but it is as bibliophiles that both Huang Yü-chi and his father are best known. His father assembled a library of more than 60,000 chüan, and he himself added to it some 20,000 chüan. The library was first known as Ch'ien-ch'ing chai 千頃齋 and was so designated by contemporaries such as Ch'ien Ch'ien-i and Huang Tsung-hsi [qq. v.], the latter having occasion to consult it frequently between the years 1630 and 1641. But it was also called Ch'ien-ch'ing t'ang, as indicated by the title of the famous catalogue of Ming literature, 千頃堂書目 Ch'ien-ch'ing t'ang shu-mu, compiled by Huang Yü-chi. This catalogue, in 32 chüan, was doubtless consulted by the compilers of the bibliographical section of the official Ming History. The descriptive notice of it in the Ssŭ-k'u Catalogue (see under Chi Yün) says, "For the investigation of the literature of the Ming period this book is most dependable." Other bibliographies of the same nature were Chiao Hung's [q. v.] Kuo-shih ching-chi chih, the bibliographical section in Fu Wei-lin's [q. v.] Ming-shu, and Yu T'ung's [q. v.] Ming-shih i-wên chih. The Ch'ien-ch'ing-t'ang shu-mu circulated for more than two centuries solely in manuscript form, appearing in print for the first time in 1916 in the Shih-yüan ts'ung-shu, compiled by Chang Chün-hêng (see under Cha Chi-tso). This fact accounts for the existence, in older libraries, of variant transcripts of the catalogue—some showing differences of considerable importance.
[1/489/26a; 3/427/27a; 30/3/17a; 32/4/12b; 泉州府志 Ch'üan-chou fu-chih (1763) 55/7b; Yeh Ch'ang-ch'ih, Ts'ang-shu chi-shih shih (see under P'an Tsu-yin); Ch'ien Ch'ien-i [q. v.], 黃氏千頃齋藏書記 in Mu-chai yu-hsüeh chi (Ssŭ-pu ts'ung-k'an ed.) 26/2b; Ssŭ-k'u 85/4b.]
Tu Lien-chê
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Hung-kuang

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​HUNG-kuang. Reign title of Chu Yu-sung [q. v.].
# Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Huang Wu

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​HUANG Wu 黃梧 (T. 君宣), d. 1674, age 57 (sui), Ming-Ch'ing general, was a native of P'ing-ho, Fukien. He served under Chêng Ch'êng-kung [q. v.] as brigade-general and defended the strategic city of Hai-ch'êng on the southern coast of Fukien. In 1656 he killed his colleague, surrendered the city to the Manchu prince, Jidu [q. v.], and was made Duke of Hai-ch'êng 海澄公, by Emperor Shih-tsu. In the next year he was associated with Li Shuai-t'ai [q. v.] and Ma Tê-kung [q. v.] in the Fukien campaign and for his services was made Grand Guardian of the Heir Apparent. The utilization of the services of Shih Lang [q. v.] against the Fukien insurgents, the execution of Chêng Chih-lung [q. v.], the regulation of ocean trade as a means of suppressing piracy and insurrection, and the strengthening of costal defenses were among the measures advocated by Huang Wu. After cooperating with Kêng Chi-mao [q. v.] in the capture of Amoy and other islands from the insurgents in 1663, he was assigned to garrison Yün-hsiao 雲霄 in the extreme south of Fukien. From here the government troops crossed over to T'ung-shan 銅山 and forced Chêng Ching [q. v.] to flee to Taiwan. In 1667 Huang Wu's dukedom was fixed at the first rank to continue through twelve generations. When Kêng Ching-chung [q. v.] revolted and sent a summons to follow him, Huang Wu was seriously ill. His indignation is reputed to have hastened his death. He was given the posthumous name Chung-k'o 忠恪.
[1/267/5b; 2/9/8a; 3/270/3a; 9/4/17a; 12/10/1a; 漳州府志 Chang-chou fu-chih (1715) 32/14b; P'ing-ho hsien-chih (1719) 9/21a.]
Earl Swisher
# Education and Art in Soviet Russia/Document 22

DOCUMENT No. 22
Paintings at the Former Kremlin
The Collegium in charge of museums and preservation of art objects and relics of the past attached to the People's Commissariat of People's Education has entrusted to a special committee the examination of the picture gallery at the former Kremlin which heretofore has been hardly accessible.
​The picture arrangements on the Gallery's walls does not meet the most elementary museum requirements. Without any system the paintings have been permanently set into the walls and are separated from each other by only a narrow framework, which arrangement makes an intelligent examination of the Gallery impossible. Besides, many pictures, owing to differences in atmospheric conditions, have suffered considerably: they have shown cracks and in many places paints have deteriorated—all this threatening to ruin the pictures. The system of cataloguing the artists was arbitrary; for instance, paintings of the Netherlands school were ascribed to Italian masters; first-class works were left unclassified, while second-rate things were ascribed to first-class masters.
The Collegium has decided to remove from the Palace's Gallery paintings interesting from the point of view of scientific examination, and transfer them to the gallery of the Rumiantzev Museum where the paintings, after restoration and investigation, might be exhibited for popular examination.
Special mention is made of a few pictures of the Rembrandt School, two Netherlands primitives, one Florentine portrait of the 16th century, a sketch by Rubens, and finally a number of paintings by Italian masters of the 17th century.
# Education and Art in Soviet Russia/Document 17

DOCUMENT No. 17
A Decree
The Academy of Art, as a State Institution, is hereby declared dissolved. The Higher Art School is thus dissociated from the Academy of Art, with all corresponding credits and capital, and reorganized into an independent art school.
The Museum of the Academy of Art is placed in the hands of the Commissariat of Education.
All moneys and the entire property of the Academy of Art are declared the property of the Soviet Republic, to be used as a fund designed to meet special needs of art culture.
Chairman of Soviet of People's Commissaries, :
| | V. Ulianoy (Lenin). |
| People's Commissaires: | |
| | A. Lunacharsky, Stalin and G. Chicherin. |
| Chief Clerk of the Soviet of People's Commissaires, ||
| | V. Bonch-Bruevitch. |
| Secretary of the Soviet, |
| | N. P. Gorbunov. |