# A Dictionary of Music and Musicians/Harpsichord

From volume 1 of the work.
​HARPSICHORD (Fr. Clavecin; Ital. Clavicembalo, Gravicembalo, not unfrequently Cembalo only, also Harpicordo; Germ. Clavicymbel, Kielflügel, Flügel). The most important of the group of keyed instruments that preceded the pianoforte, holding during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries a position analogous to that now accorded to the grand pianoforte. It had a place in the orchestra as an accompanying instrument when the first opera and the first oratorio were performed (Florence and Rome, about A.D. 1600), and during the time of Handel and Bach was the constant support to the recitativo secco, its weak bass notes being reinforced by large lutes and viols, and ultimately by violoncellos and double basses. Towards the end of the 18th century the instrument was withdrawn, and the big fiddles were left by themselves to accompany the ordinary recitative in a fashion more peculiar than satisfactory.
The name harpsichord is the English variant of the original harpicordo, which, like clavicembalo, clavicordo, spinetto [App. p.668 "spinetta"], and pianoforte, betrays its Italian origin. The clavicordo was a table-shaped, five-cornered harpicordo, rectangular, like the German clavichord, but otherwise quite different from that instrument, which was made to sound by 'tangents,' or simple brass uprights from the keys. All instruments of the harpsichord, clavicembalo, or spinet family were on the plectrum principle, and therefore were incapable of dynamic modification of tone by difference of touch. The strings were set in vibration by points of quill or hard leather, elevated on wooden uprights, known as jacks, and twitching or plucking them as the depression of the keys caused the points to pass upwards. [Jack.] Leather points were probably used first [App. p.668 "The Correr upright spinet or clavicytherium that was in the Music Loan Collection at Kensington, 1885, now the property of Mr. G. Donaldson of London, is perhaps the oldest instrument of the harpsichord and spinet kind in existence. This instrument preserves traces of brass plectra, not leather. See Spinet vol. iii. p. 651a, footnote."], since we learn from Scaliger, who lived 1484–1550 (Poetices, lib. i. cap. 48), that crowquills were introduced in keyed instruments subsequent to his boyhood, and he informs us that through them the name 'spinet' (from spine, a thorn or point) became applied to what had been known as the 'clavicymbal' and 'harpichord.' The Canon Paul Belisonius, of Pavia, is said to have introduced quills: the use of leather is shown in a harpsichord by Baffo, dated A.D. 1574, and presently to be referred to; and in one by the elder Andreas Ruckers of Antwerp, dated A.D. 1614, now in the possession of Col. Hopkinson.
It is the principle of the plectrum that derives the descent of the harpsichord from the psaltery, just as the pianoforte is derived, by analogy at least, from the dulcimer, and the clavichord from the moveable-bridged monochord; the model for the shape of the long harpsichord being that kind of psaltery which the common people called 'istromento di porco'—from a supposed resemblance between the trapeze form and a pig's head. [See Psaltery.] There is an interesting suggestion of this connection of the harpsichord with the psaltery preserved in the church of the Certosa, near Pavia, built about A.D. 1475. King David, who in the Middle Ages always played a psaltery, is there shown holding an 'istromento di porco.' The body of the psaltery is open, and shows eight keys, lying parallel with the eight strings. David touches the keys with his right hand, and uses the left to damp the strings. All this may be the sculptor's fancy, but Dr. Ambros (Geschichte der Musik, 1864) regards it as a recollection of a real instrument, although obsolete, somewhere seen by him.
The earliest mention of the harpsichord is under the name of clavicymbolum, in the rules of the Minnesingers, by Eberhard Cersne, A.D. 1404. With it occur the clavichord, the monochord and other musical instruments in use at that time. [See Clavichord.] The absence of any prior mention or illustration of keyed stringed instruments is negative evidence only, but it may be assumed to prove their invention to have been shortly before that date say in the latter half of the 14th century, especially as Jean de Muris, writing in A.D. 1323 (Musica speculativa), and enumerating musical instruments, makes no reference to either clavicembalo or clavichord, but describes the monochord (recommending four strings however) as in use for measuring intervals at that time. Moreover there was no music wire before this epoch [App. p.668 "hammered music wire existed but could not have been extensively used"]; the earliest record of wire drawing being A.D. 1351, at Augsburg. It may occur to the reader—why ​were hammers not sooner introduced after the natural suggestion of the Dulcimer, instead of the field being so long occupied by the less effective jack and tangent contrivances? The chasm untraversable by all forgotten Cristoforis and Schröters was the gap between wrestplank and soundboard, for the passage of the hammers, which weakened the frame and prohibited the introduction of thicker strings strong enough to withstand the impact of hammers. It took more than three hundred years to bridge this chasm by stronger framing, and thus render hammers possible.
As pianofortes have been made in three quite different shapes, the grand, the square, and the upright, there were as many varieties of the jack instruments—to wit, the harpsichord proper (clavicembalo, clavecin, or flügel) of trapeze form; the clavicordo, of oblong or pentangular form, frequently called spinet or virginal; and the upright harpsichord, or clavicytherium. It must be remembered that the long harpsichords were often described as spinet or virginal, from their plectra or their use by young ladies; but the table-shaped ones known commonly by the latter names were never called harpsichords. No specimen of the upright harpsichord seems to exist, yet the instrument has been made in a comparatively recent period, since a receipt for one, dated 1753, and signed by the maker, Samuel Blumer, 'Harpsichord and Spinet Maker in Great Poultney Street, near Golden Square, London. N.B. Late foreman to Mr. Shudi,' is in the possession of Messrs. Broadwood. [App. p.668 "Respecting upright harpsichords, see Upright Grand Piano, vol. iv. p. 208b, l. 1–19."]
Reference to the oblong 'clavicordi,' in which South Kensington Museum is rich, will be found under Spinet. The actual workmanship of all these Italian keyed instruments was indifferent; we must turn to the Netherlands for that care in manipulation and choice of materials which, united with constructive ingenuity equalling that of the best Italian artists, culminated in the Double Harpsichords of the Ruckers family of Antwerp. [See Ruckers.]
Of this family there were four members living and working between 1579 and 1651 or later, who achieved great reputation. Their instruments are known by their signatures; and by the monograms forming the ornamental rosette or soundhole in the soundboard—a survival from the psaltery. The great improvement of the harpsichord is attributed to Hans, the eldest, who, by adding to the two unison strings of each note a third of shorter length and finer wire tuned an octave higher, increased the power and brilliancy of the tone. To employ this addition at will, alone, or with one or both the unison strings, he contrived, after the example of the organ, a second keyboard, and stops to be moved by the hand, for the control of the registers or slides of jacks acting upon the strings. By these expedients all the legitimate variety ever given to the instrument was secured. The Ruckers harpsichord given by Messrs. Broadwood to South Kensington Museum, signed and dated 'Andreas Ruckers me fecit Antverpiæ 1651' (see next page), said to have been left by Handel to Christopher Smith, shows these additions to the construction, and was, in the writer's remembrance, before the soundboard gave way, of deliciously soft and delicately reedy timbre. The tension being comparatively small, these harpsichords lasted much longer than our modern pianofortes, even of the best construction. James Shudi Broadwood ('Notes,' 1838) states that many Ruckers harpsichords were in existence and good condition until nearly the end of the last century, and fetched high prices; one having sold in 1770 for 3000 francs (£120).
When the Ruckers family passed away we hear no more of Antwerp as the city of harpsichord ​makers; London and Paris took up the tale. But all these Antwerp workmen belonged of right to the Guild of St. Luke, the artist's corporation, to which they were in the first instance introduced by the practice of ornamenting their instruments with painting and carving. In 1557 ten of the Antwerp harpsichord makers petitioned the deans and masters of the guild to be admitted without submitting masterpieces, and the chiefs of the commune consenting, in the next year they were received. The responsibility of signing their work was perhaps the foundation of the great reputation afterwards enjoyed by Antwerp for harpsichords and similar musical instruments. ('Recherches,' etc., Léon de Burbure, Brussels, 1863.)
In these 18th-century harpsichords, the Flemish practice of ornamenting with painting—often the cause of an instrument being broken up when no longer efficient—was done away with; also the laudable old custom of mottoes to remind the player of the analogous brevity of life and sound, of the divine nature of the gift of music, or of dead wood reviving as living tone. But it was when the instrument went out altogether that ​this enrichment of picture galleries by the demolition of harpsichords was most effected. The number of Ruckers however known to exist has been extended by research to upwards of thirty [App. p.668 "The number of existing Ruckers harpsichords and spinets catalogued by the present writer is (1888) 68"]. Still there was great care in the artistic choice of wood and in the cabinet-work of Tschudi's beautiful instruments. One in the possession of Her Majesty the Queen, and long preserved in Kew Palace, is quite a masterpiece in these respects. It bears Tschudi's name, spelt, as was usual, Shudi; the date 1740 and maker's number 94 are inside. The compass is as in the South Kensington Ruckers, G to F, without the lowest G♯. Two, of 1758 (probably) and 1766, are in the New Palace at Potsdam, and were Frederick the Great's. [App. p.668 "Both the Shudi harpsichords at Potsdam are dated 1766. See Shudi, vol. iii. p. 489b, l. 9–27."] Messrs. Broadwood have one dated 1771, with five and a half octaves, C to F, Venetian Swell and five stops, comprising the two unisons and octave of the Ruckers, with a slide of jacks striking the strings much nearer to the bridge (also a Ruckers contrivance), and producing a more twanging quality of tone, the so-called 'lute'-stop and a 'buff'-stop of small pieces of leather, brought into contact with the strings, damping the tone and thus giving a kind of pizzicato effect. This fine instrument was used by Moscheles in his Historical Concerts in 1837, and by Mr. Pauer in similar performances in 1862, 63, and 67. There is also one in the Musik Verein at Vienna of similar construction, made by 'Burkat Shudi et Johannes Broadwood,' and dated 1775, which belonged to Joseph Haydn. This was the young Shudi; it is very doubtful if another harpsichord exists with Broadwood's name upon it. [App. p.668 "for the number of Shudi and Broadwood harpsichords existing, see Shudi, vol. iii. p. 489b, l. 46–7; and p. 490, list of Shudi and Shudi & Broadwood harpsichords. The latest instrument by these makers now (1888) known to exist is numbered 1137 and dated 1790."]
[ A. J. H. ]
* ↑ The King's Birthday Ode was accompanied by the harpsichord until June 4th, 1795, when a grand piano was substituted, a harpsichord having been used at the rehearsal.
* ↑ The oldest trace in the Netherlands of the harpsichord or clavecin is that a house in Antwerp, in the parish of Notre Dame, bore in 1582 the name of 'de Clavizimbele.'