OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shogun

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​SHOGUN (Japanese for “generalissimo”), in Japan, originally merely the style of a general in command in the field, a title which only gradually came into existence at the beginning of the 8th century, the mikado himself having previously been regarded as the only authority. The rise of a military class and of shoguns (generals) was a development coincident with the division of supremacy between the Minamoto and Taira clans (see Japan: History). In 1192 the emperor Takahira made the Minamoto leader, Yoritomo, a Sei-i-tai-shogun (“barbarian-subjugating generalissimo”) or general-in-chief, and this office became stereotyped in the hands of successive great military leaders, till in 1603 Lyéyasu Tokugawa became shogun and established the Tokugawa dynasty in power. The shogunate from that time till 1867 exercised the de facto sovereignty in Japan, though in theory subordinate to the mikado. The revolution of 1867 swept away and abolished the shogunate and restored the mikado's supreme authority.
The term “Tycoon,” which was commonly used by foreigners in the 19th century, is merely a synonym for shogun, being the English rendering of the Japanese taiko or taikun, “great lord.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shofar

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​SHOFAR, Schofar or Shofer, the ancient ram's horn trumpet of the Hebrews, sometimes also translated cornet in the English Bible. The shofar consisted of a natural horn turned up at the bell end, and, having a short conical bore of very large calibre, it would be capable of producing at most the fundamental octave and twelfth. The shofar has continued in use in the Jewish synagogue until the present day, being blown with great solemnity once every year at the impressive service held on the Day of Atonement. The shofar was more generally used by the Israelites than the other horn Keren, and although figuring largely as a signal instrument in battle, and used for rousing the people against the foe, it can hardly be regarded as a military instrument, but rather as the token of God's presence in their midst, to give them the victory as in the case of Joshua and Gideon. It was the shofar that was used to call the people together on a solemn feast day (Ps. lxxxi. 3). (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sholapur

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​SHOLAPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Central division of Bombay. The city is 164 m. S.E. from Poona by rail. Municipal area, about 8 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 75,288. Since 1877 it has ceased to be a military cantonment. Its great fort, of Mahommedan construction, dates from the 14th to 17th centuries. The large bazaar is divided into seven sections, one of which is used on each day of the week. There are two municipal gardens, with fine tanks and temples. It is an important centre of trade, with three cotton mills.
The District of Sholapur has an area of 4541 sq. m. Except in Karmala and Barsi subdivisions, in the north and east, where there is a good deal of hilly ground, the district is generally flat or undulating; but it is bare of vegetation, and presents everywhere a bleak treeless appearance. The chief rivers are the Bhima and its tributaries—the Man, the Nira and the Sina—all flowing towards the south-east. Lying in a tract of uncertain rainfall, Sholapur is peculiarly liable to seasons of scarcity; much, however, has been done by the opening of canals and tanks, such as the Ekruk and Ashti tanks, to secure a better water-supply, the Ekruk tank near Sholapur city is the second largest irrigation work in the Deccan. In 1901 the population was 720,977, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The principal crops are millet, pulse, oil seeds and cotton. There are manufactures of silk and cotton cloth, and blankets. The chief trading mart is Barsi. Pandharpur is a popular place of pilgrimage. The Great Indian Peninsula railway runs through the district, with a junction for the Southern Mahratta railway, and another junction for the Barsi light railway, recently extended to Pandharpur.
Sholapur passed from the Bahmani to the Bijapur kings and from them to the Mahrattas. In 1818, on the fall of the peshwa, it was ceded to the British, when it formed part of the Poona collectorate, but in 1838 it was made a separate district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shoddy

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​SHODDY, in origin probably a factory term and first applied to the waste thrown off or “shed” during the process of wool manufacture. It is now the name given to a special type of fabric made from remanufactured materials, i.e. materials which have already been spun into yarn and woven into cloth but have been torn up or “ground up”—as this operation is termed technically—into a fibrous mass, and respun and rewoven. The term “shoddy” is sometimes applied to all fabrics made of such remanufactured materials, of which there are many types, such as “mungos,” “extracts,” “flocks,” &c., but strictly it should be confined to a cloth produced from fabrics originally made from English and the longer cross-bred wools. Mungo is produced from fabrics originally made from Botany and short fine wools; extract is the wool fibre obtained from goods originally composed of wool and cotton from which the cotton has been “extracted” by sulphuric acid or some other agent; and flocks mostly come from milling, raising and cropping machines. There are some few other particular types of minor importance.
The operations of converting rags, tailors' clippings, &c., into these remanufactured materials are as follows: dusting, to render the subsequent operations as healthy and agreeable as possible; seaming i.e. taking out every little bit of sewing thread (unless the rags are for extracting) in order that a good “spin” may result; sorting into the various qualities and colours; oiling, to cause the fibres to glide upon one another, and thus separate so far as possible without breakage; and finally grinding, i.e. tearing up into a fibrous mass which may be readily spun into threads. The last-named operation is usually spoken of as “grinding,” but really it is anything but grinding, being more of a teasing-out operation, the object being to preserve the length of the fibre so far as possible. The remanufactured materials are necessarily very short in fibre, so that it is usually necessary to mix, i.e. “blend,” some better material with them to carry the bulk through the machines into the yarn. With this object in view, sometimes good wool or noils (the short from combing), but more often cotton, is employed. The yarns thus spun are in the majority of cases woven into pieces as weft yarns, the warps usually being cotton; but there are some exceptions, a really good mungo blend being readily woven as warp.
Upon the whole the “cheap and nasty” idea usually associated with the term “shoddy,” in reference to these remanufactured materials, is quite a mistake. Some most excellent cloths are produced, and when price is taken into consideration it must be conceded that the development of this industry has benefited the working classes of Great Britain and other countries to a remarkable extent. Many are now well clothed, who, without the advent of the remanufactured materials, would have been clothed in rags.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Saint Chamont, (Madame la Marquise de)

SAINT CHAMONT (MADAME LA MARQUISE DE), was the Daughter of an Italian Architect, and a Parisian Lady of Fashion.
Her maiden name was Margaretta, but before the age of fourteen she was married to the Marquis de Saint Chamont, who died in the year 1750, at which time, she was obliged to prove her marriage by a process which lasted three years. The merits of which were, during the whole time, not only the subject of conversation in Paris, but throughout all Europe; but at last she triumphed over an host of enemies and false witnesses, who strove to vilify and defame her.
She commenced author, it is said, at the particular request of the marquis her husband; and first wrote an ​elegy, on the Duke of Sully, which stamped her fame as a writer. In all her works we meet with a pure diction, natural reflections, noble sentiments, pathetic, ingenious and void of all affectation.
She wrote many pieces for the theatre, which were well received; and many works which have contended for the prizes of the French academy. An eulogium on Descartes has been highly admired. She likewise wrote Les Amans sans le savoir, which is much esteemed.
Mrs. Thicknesse.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Saliez

SALIEZ, a French Lady, who married a Magistrate of Alby, who dying left her a young Widow.
Being a woman of excellent understanding, and having a strong desire to improve and cultivate it, she in 1704 formed a society for the sake of an agreeable and refined intercourse; an establishment which made her soon so universally known and admired, that the academy of Padua sent her letters patent, appointing her one of their members. In her letter of thanks to that learned body, she discovers an uncommon degree of solicitude for the honour of her own sex. She laments the want of that elegance of stile in her compositions, which some of her cotemporaries, and other female writers have possessed—but attributes it to a provincial education, and being deprived of the conversation of the beaux esprits of the court and capital, where alone, she says, the flowers of language and elegant turns of expression are to be gathered.
Madame de Saliez also formed a project of establishing a new sect of female philosophers; speaking of which, in a letter to the Marchioness de Montpellier, she says, "the end of this sect, is to live ​commodiously, and to determine all reasonable women to shake off that yoke of constraint, which error, or custom, have established in the world. But it will be necessary first to consider of some rules, and such as we ought strictly to adhere to. We must reject those who love to speak of their birth, connections, or finery, or in any sort to commend themselves. We must exclude all prudes and coquettes; I think likewise, Madam, it will be right, to banish love from such a society, and substitute in its place, friendship, cordiality, politeness, good humour, and respect towards each other; such respect, I mean, as arises from esteem, not from any consideration of superior birth, fortune, &c. for every one must have the liberty of speaking their own sentiments, without reserve, and offer their opinion, without the least fear of giving offence to others who may differ from them."
The above extract will sufficiently shew the turn of mind this celebrated lady possessed; for though she wrote on a great variety of subjects, both in prose and verse, the honour of her sex, and their equality with men, seemed to be the grand hinge on which most of her writings turned. She lived to a great age, highly esteemed and honoured, and died at Alby, the place of her nativity, in 1730.
Mrs. Thicknesse.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Sade, (Laura)

SADE (LAURA), a Lady of Avignon, Wife of Hugues de Sade; died of the Plague in that City 1348,
Celebrated for the enthusiastic admiration, and constant love of Petrarch, who, after he became ​acquainted with her, left off his irregularities of conduct; and, though the reserve and delicacy of Laura would never permit him to hope for a return, she treated him with friendship, and appears not to have been in reality, insensible to his love, which rendered her renowned throughout Europe.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Scala, (Alessandria)

SCALA (ALESSANDRIA), a Florentine Lady.
Among the circumstances favourable to the promotion of letters in the fifteenth century, was the partiality shewn to these studies, and the proficiency made in them, by women, illustrious by their birth, or eminent for their personal accomplishments. Among these, Alessandria, the daughter of Bartolomeo Scala, was peculiarly distinguished. The extraordinary beauty of her person was surpassed by the endowments of her mind. At an early age she was a ​proficient, not only in the Latin, but in the Greek tongue, which she had studied under Joannes Lasca and Demetrius Chalcondyles. Such an union of excellence attracted the attention, and is supposed to have engaged the affections of Politian, who wrote her many complimentary verses, which she answered; but gave her hand to the Greek Marullus, who enjoyed at Florence the favour of Lorenzo de Medici, and in the elegance of his Latin compositions emulated the Italians themselves. Hence probably arose the dissentions between Marullus and Politian, the monuments of which yet remain in their writings. She was happy in her marriage, and died 1506.
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Scaliger, (Lucia)

SCALIGER (LUCIA), born of respectable Parents in the City of Venice, 1637,
Learned the Latin, Spanish, and French languages, writing letters in each, full of such sentiments as would instruct even the best letter writers. In playing and singing she made great progress: in painting she had Alexander Varotari for a master, who followed the colouring of Titian, and at the same time taught Bartholomew Scaliger, her uncle. She refused the invitations of some Italian and foreign princesses, who sought her as their maid of honour: she married in her own country, and amongst her other children, had Maria Theodora, who painted with skill. She lived to the end of 1700. She was a relation of the famous Scaliger, and of many others remarkable for their learning and genius.
Abec. Pitt.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Saphia

SAPHIA, a Moorish Spaniard of Seville,
Distinguished for her oratorical and poetical powers, was so much skilled in the art of penmanship that she was at the same time the admiration and example to writers. She died, aged thirty years, at the expiration of the 417th year of the Hegira. An epigram ​of hers on the art of good writing, is preserved in the library of the Escurial.
Bibliothecæ Arabico–Hispanæ Escurialiensis.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Sarrochia, (Margaretta)

SARROCHIA (MARGARETTA), a Neapolitan Lady of the 17th Century,
Who wrote an heroic poem on the life of Scanderbeg, King of Albania. Her house was the resort of men of letters, and she was flattered very much in her time.
F. C.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Saint-Aubin, (Madame de)

SAINT-AUBIN (MADAME DE),
Author of some romances, written in an easy, natural stile. Her first work was Le Danger des Liaisons, ou Memoirs de la Baronne de Blemon. Her maiden name was d'Oville, she married M. de Saint-Aubin, a gentleman of good family in Burgundy, and after his death the baron d'Andlau. She wrote also memoirs, in the form of letters between two young persons of quality.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Oldfield, Anne

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OLDFIELD, ANNE,
A celebrated English actress, was born in Pall-Mall in 1683. Her father, an officer in the army, left her poor; but the sweetness of her voice, and her inclination for the stage noticed by Farquhar, the comic writer, decided her destiny. She became the mistress of Mr, Maynwaring, and after his death of General Churchill. But notwithstanding these derilections, she was humane and benevolent ​In the highest degree, and a real friend to the indigent Savage, on whom she bestowed an annuity, although he had not the most remote claim upon her beyond his poverty and genius. She died in 1730, and was buried in Westminster Abbey with great pomp. She left two sons, one by each of the gentlemen with whom she lived, and to whom she behaved with the duty, fidelity, and attachment of a wife.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Olga

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OLGA,
Wife of Igor, the second monarch of Russia, was born of the best family in Plescow. She bore Igor one son, called Swetoslaw. Igor being murdered by the Drewenses, Olga revenged his death. She went afterwards to Constantinople, where she was baptized by the name of Helen. The emperor, John Zimisces, was her godfather, and fell in love with her; but she, alleging their spiritual affinity, refused to marry him. Her example induced many of her subjects to embrace Christianity, but had no effect on her son. She died at Pereslaw, in the eightieth year of her age, fourteen years after her baptism.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Olympias

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OLYMPIAS,
Daughter of the King of Epirus, married Philip, King of Macedonia, by whom she had Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness and suspected infidelity induced Philip to repudiate her, and marry Cleopatra, niece of Attains. This incensed Olympias, and Alexander, her son, shared her indignation. Some have attributed the murder of Philip to the intrigues of Olympias, who paid the greatest honour to the dead body of her husband's murderer. Though the administration of Alexander was not altogether pleasing to Olympias, she did not hesitate to declare publicly, that he was not the son of Philip, but of Jupiter. On Alexander's death, B. C. 824, Olympias seized on the government, and cruelly put to death Aridaeus, one of Philip's Illegitimate sons, who had claimed the throne, and his wife Eurydice, as well as Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, with a hundred of the principal men of Macedonia. Cassander besieged her in Pydna, where she had retired, and after an obstinate defence she was obliged to surrender. Two hundred soldiers were sent to put her to death, but the splendour and majesty of the queen overawed them, and she was at last massacred by those whom she had injured by her tyranny. She died about 316, B. C.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Orleans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of

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ORLEANS, ELIZABETH CHARLOTTE, DUCHESS OF,
Only daughter of the Elector Charles Louis of the Palatinate, was born at Heidelberg, in 1662. She was a princess of distinguished talents and character, and lived for half a century in the court of Louis the Fourteenth without changing her German habits or manners. She was carefully educated at the court of her aunt, afterwards the Electress Sophia of Hanover, and when nineteen, married Duke Philip of Orleans, from reasons of state policy. She was without personal charms, but her understanding was strong, and she was celebrated for her wit. Madame de Maintenon was her implacable enemy; but Louis the Fourteenth was attracted by her frankness, integrity, and vivacity. She often attended him to the chase. She has described herself and her situation with much life and humour in her "German Letters." The most valuable of these are contained in the "Life and Character of the Duchess Elizabeth Charlotte of Orleans," by Professor Schütze, published at Leipzic, in 1820. Her second son was made regent, after Louis the Fourteenth's death. Her own death occurred in 1722.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/O'Neill, Miss

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O'NEILL, MISS,
Was born in Ireland, about 1791. Her father was the stage-manager of the Drogheda theatre; and she was introduced on the boards at an early age. When quite young she went to Dublin, where her personation of Juliet, in Shakspere's play of "Romeo and Juliet," established her reputation. She was engaged at one of the principal London theatres; and she soon became one of the most popular actresses of the day. At the time of her leaving the stage, on her marriage with W. Becher, Esq., M. P., she was in the receipt of twelve thousand pounds a year; the whole profits of which she is said to have distributed among her numerous relations.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Oberlin, Madeleine Salome

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OBERLIN, MADELEINE SALOME,
Distinguished for her intelligence, piety, and the perfect unison of soul which she enjoyed with her husband, the good and great John Frederick Oberlin, was born at Strasbourg, in France. Her father, M. Witter, a man of property, who had married a relative ​of the Oberlin family, gave his daughter an excellent education. John James Oberlin was the pastor of Waldbach, a small village in the Ban de la Roche, or Valley of Stones, a lonely, sterile place, in the north-eastern part of France. Here he devoted himself to the duties of his holy office, doing good to all around him. Under his care and instruction, the poor ignorant peasantry became pious. Industrious, and happy. In all his actions he followed what he believed to be a divine influence, or the leadings of providence; and his courtship and marriage were guided by his religious feelings. Oberlin's sister resided with him at Waldbach, and managed his house. Madeleine Witter came to visit Sophia Oberlin. Miss Witter was amiable, and her mind had been highly cultivated; but she was fond of fashion and display. Twice had Frederick Oberlin declined to marry young ladies who had been commended to him, because he had felt an inward admonition that neither of these was for him. But now, when Madeleine came before him, the impression was different. Two days prior to her intended departure, a voice seemed to whisper distinctly, "Take her for thy partner!" "It is impossible," thought he; "our dispositions do not agree." Still the secret voice whispered, "Take her for thy partner!" He slept little that night; and in his morning prayer, he earnestly entreated God to give him a sign whether this event was in accordance with the Divine will; solemnly declaring that if Madeleine acceded to the proposition with great readiness, he should consider the voice he had heard as a leading of Providence.
He found his cousin in the garden, and immediately began the conversation by saying, "You are about to leave us, my dear friend. I have received an intimation that you are destined to be the partner of my life. Before you go will you give me your candid opinion whether you can resolve upon this step?"
With blushing frankness, Madeleine placed her hand within his; and then he knew that she would be his wife.
They were married on the 6th. of July, 1768. Miss Witter had always resolved not to marry a clergyman; but she was devotedly attached to her excellent husband, and cordially assisted in all his plans. No dissatisfaction at her humble lot, no complaints of the arduous duties belonging to their peculiar situation, marred their mutual happiness.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Octavia, daughter of Claudius

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OCTAVIA,
Daughter of Claudius, Emperor of Rome, and Messalina, was betrothed to Silanus; but through the intrigues of Agrippina, the neice and fourth wife of Claudius, she was married, when only fifteen, to the Emperor Nero. This wretched tyrant soon divorced her to marry Poppæa, who had her banished to Campania. She was recalled by the people; but Poppæa, resolved on her ruin, caused her to be again banished to an island. There she was ordered to kill herself by opening her veins. She died at the age of twenty. Her head was cut off and carried to Poppæa. To great personal charms, Octavia added modesty, sweetness, beneficence, purity of manners, talents, and irreproachable conduct; and the people in Rome mourned her loss with the greatest grief. She died about the year 56.
# A Cyclopaedia of Female Biography/Orlandine, Emilia of Siena

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ORLANDINE, EMILIA OF SIENA,
Flourished in 1726. One of her sonnets is very celebrated—"Love is a Great Folly." It would seem that the poetess felt, in the depths of her soul, this bitter truth. She has left many poems, full of energy and sentiment, which are dispersed in various collections.