# Measuring Tools/Chapter 1

CHAPTER I
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD MEASUREMENTS
While every mechanic makes use of the standards of length every day, and uses tools graduated according to accepted standards when performing even the smallest operation in the shop, there are comparatively few who know the history of the development of the standard measurements of length, or are familiar with the methods employed in transferring the measurements from the reference standard to the working standards. We shall therefore here give a short review of the history and development of standard measurements of length, as abstracted from a paper read by Mr. W. A. Viall before the Providence Association of Mechanical Engineers.
Origin of Standard Measurements
By examining the ruins of the ancients it has been found that they had standard measurements, not in the sense in which we are now to consider them, but the ruins show that the buildings were constructed according to some regular unit. In many, if not all cases, the unit seems to be some part of the human body. The "foot," it is thought, first appeared in Greece, and the standard was traditionally said to have been received from the foot of Hercules, and a later tradition has it that Charlemagne established the measurement of his own foot as the standard for his country.
Standards Previous to 1800
In England, prior to the conquest, the yard measured, according to later investigations, 39.6 inches, but it was reduced by Henry I in 1101, to compare with the measurement of his own arm. In 1324, under Edward II, it was enacted that "the inch shall have length of three barley corns, round and dry, laid end to end; twelve inches shall make one foot, and three feet one yard." While this standard for measurement was the accepted one, scientists were at work on a plan to establish a standard for length that could be recovered if lost, and Huygens, a noted philosopher and scientist of his day, suggested that the pendulum, which beats according to its length, should be used to establish the units of measurement. In 1758 Parliament appointed a commission to investigate and compare the various standards with that furnished by the Royal Society. The commission caused a copy of this standard to be made, marked it "Standard Yard, 1758," and laid it before the House of Commons. In 1742, members of the Royal Society of England and the Royal Academy of Science of Paris agreed to exchange standards, and two bars 42 inches long, with three feet marked off upon them, were sent to Paris, and one of these was returned later with "Toise" marked upon it. In 1760 a yard bar was prepared by Mr. Bird, which was afterwards adopted as a standard, as we shall see later.
In 1774 the Royal Society offered a reward of a hundred guineas for a method that would obtain an invariable standard, and Halton proposed a pendulum with a moving weight upon it, so that by counting the beats when the weight was in one position and again when in another, and then measuring the distance between the two positions, a distance could be defined that could at any time be duplicated. The Society paid 30 guineas for the suggestion, and later the work was taken up by J. Whitehurst with the result that the distance between the positions of the weight when vibrating 42 and 84 times a minute was 59.89358 inches. The method was not further developed.
How the Length of the Meter was Established
In 1790, Talleyrand, then Bishop of Autun, suggested to the Constituent Assembly that the king should endeavor to have the king of England request his parliament to appoint a commission to work in unison with one to be appointed in France, the same to be composed of members of the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Science, respectively, to determine the length of a pendulum beating seconds of time. England did not respond to the invitation, and the French commission appointed considered first of all whether the pendulum beating seconds of time, the quadrant of the meridian, or the quadrant of the equator should be determined as a source of the standard. It was decided that the quadrant of the meridian should be adopted and that 0.0000001 of it should be the standard.
The arc of about nine and one-half degrees, extending from Dunkirk on the English Channel to Barcelona on the Mediterranean and passing through Paris, should be the one to be measured. The actual work of measuring was done by Mechain and Delambre according to the plans laid down by the commission. Mechain was to measure about 25 per cent of the arc, the southern portion of it, and Delambre the remainder; the reason for this unequal division was that the northern division had been surveyed previously, and the territory was well-known, whereas the southern part was an unknown country, as far as the measurement of it went, and it was expected that many severe difficulties would have to be surmounted. The Revolution was in progress, and it was soon found that the perils attending the measurement of the northern part were greater than those attending the southern part of the territory. The people looked askance at all things that they did not understand, and Delambre with his instruments was looked upon as one sent to further enthrall them. He was set upon by the people at various times and although the authorities endeavored to protect him, it was only by his own bravery and tact that he was able to do his work and save his life. The Committee of Safety ordered that Mechain and Delambre close their work in 1795, and it was some time afterward before it was resumed.
Having completed the field work, the results of their labors were laid before a commission composed of members of the National Institute and learned men from other nations, who had accepted the invitation that had been extended to them, and after carefully reviewing and calculating the work, the length of the meridian was determined, and from it was established the meter as we now have it. A platinum bar was made according to the figures given, and this furnishes the prototype of the meter of the present time. Notwithstanding all of the care taken in establishing the meter, from work done by Gen. Schubert, of Russia, and Capt. Clarke, of England, it has been shown that it is not 0.0000001 of the quadrant passing through Paris, but of the one passing through New York.
The Standard Yard in England—Its Loss and Restoration
Whether incited by the work of the French or not, we do not know, but in the early part of this century the English began to do more work upon the establishment of a standard, and in 1816 a commission was appointed by the crown to examine and report upon the standard of length. Capt. Kater made a long series of careful observations determining the second pendulum to be 39.1386 inches when reduced to the level of the sea. This measurement was made on a scale made by Troughton—who, by the way, was the first to introduce the use of the microscope in making measurements—under the direction of and for Sir Geo. Schuckburgh. In 1822, having made three reports, after many tests, it was recommended that the standard prepared by Bird in 1760, marked "Standard Yard, 1760," be adopted as the standard for Great Britain.
The act of June, 1824, after declaring that this measure should be adopted as the standard, reads in Sec. III.: "And whereas it is expedient that the Standard Yard, if lost, destroyed, defaced or otherwise injured should be restored to the same length by reference to some invariable natural Standard; and whereas it has been ascertained by the Commissioners appointed by His Majesty to inquire into the Subjects of Weights and Measures, that the Yard, hereby declared to be the Imperial Standard Yard, when compared with a Pendulum vibrating Seconds of Mean Time in the latitude of London, in a Vacuum at the Level of the Sea, is in the proportion of Thirty-six Inches to Thirty-nine Inches and one thousand three hundred and ninety-three ten thousandth parts of an Inch; Be it enacted and declared, that if at any Time hereafter the said Imperial Standard Yard shall be lost, or shall be in any manner destroyed, defaced or otherwise injured, it shall and may be restored by making a new Standard Yard bearing the same proportion to such Pendulum, as aforesaid, as the said Imperial Standard Yard bears to such Pendulum."
It was not long after this act had been passed, if indeed not before, that it became known that the pendulum method was an incorrect one, as it was found that errors had occurred in reducing the length obtained to that at the sea level, and despite the great pains that had been taken, it is doubtful if the method was not faulty in some of its other details.
When the Houses of Parliament were burned in 1834, an opportunity was offered to try the method upon which so much time and care had been spent. A commission was appointed and to Sir Francis Baily was assigned the task of restoring the standard. He did not live to complete the task, dying in 1844. He succeeded in determining the composition of the metal that was best adapted to be used, which metal is now known as Baily's metal.
Rev. R. Sheepshanks constructed a working model as a standard and compared it with two Schuckburg's scales, the yard of the Royal Society, and two iron bars that had been used in the ordnance department. Having determined to his own satisfaction and that of his associates the value of the yard, he prepared the standard imperial yard, known as Bronze No. 1, a bronze bar 38 × 1 × 1 inch, with two gold plugs dropped into holes so that the surface of the plugs passes through the center plane of the bar. Upon these plugs are three transverse lines and two longitudinal lines, the yard being the distance from the middle transverse line—the portion lying between the two longitudinal ones—of one plug, to the corresponding line on the other plug. Forty copies were made, but two of these being correct at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, and these two, together with the original and one other, are kept in England as the standards for reference. In 1855 the standard as made by Rev. Sheepshanks was legalized.
Attempts to Fix a Standard in the United States
The Constitution empowers Congress to fix the standards of weights and measures, but up to 1866 no legal standard length had been adopted. In his first message to Congress Washington said: "A uniformity in the weights and measures of the country is among the important objects submitted to you by the Constitution, and if it can be derived from a standard at once invariable and universal, it must be no less honorable to the public council than conducive to the public convenience."
In July, 1790, Thomas Jefferson, then Secretary of State, sent a report to Congress containing two plans, both based on the length of the pendulum, in this case the pendulum to be a plain bar, the one plan to use the system then existing, referring it to the pendulum as the basis, and the other to take the pendulum and subdivide it, one-third of the pendulum to be called a foot. The whole length was that of one beating seconds of time. He made a table to read as follows:
10 Points make a Line. 10 Lines make a Foot. 10 Feet make a Decad. 10 Decads make a Rood. 10 Roods make a Furlong. 10 Furlongs make a Mile.
Congress did not adopt his system, and as England was then working on the problem, it was decided to await the results of its labors. In 1816, Madison, in his inaugural address, brought the matter of standards to the attention of Congress, and a committee of the House made a report recommending the first plan of Jefferson, but the report was not acted upon. In 1821, J. Q. Adams, then Secretary of State, made a long and exhaustive report in which he favored the metric system, but still advised Congress to wait, and Congress—waited.
What the Standards are in the United States
The standard of length which had generally been accepted as the standard, was a brass scale 82 inches long, prepared by Troughton for the Coast Survey of the United States. The yard used was the 36 inches between the 27th and 63d inch of the scale. In 1856, however "Bronze No. 11" was presented to the United States by the British government. This is a duplicate of the No. 1 Bronze mentioned before, which is the legalized standard yard in England. It is standard length at 61.79 degrees F., and is the accepted standard in the United States. A bar of Low Moor iron, No. 57, was sent at the same time, and this is correct in length at 62.58 degrees F. The expansion of Bronze No. 11 is 0.000342 inch, and that of the iron bar is 0.000221 inch for each degree Fahrenheit. While the yard is the commonly accepted standard in this country, it is not the legal standard. In 1866 Congress passed a law making legal the meter, the first and only measure of length that has been legalized by our government. Copies of the meter and kilogram, taken from the original platinum bar at Paris, referred to before, were received in this country by the President and members of the Cabinet, on Jan. 2, 1890, and were deposited with the Coast Survey. By formal order of the Secretary of the Treasury, April 5, 1893, these were denominated the "Fundamental Standards."
The International Bureau of Weights and Measures
After the original meter was established, it was found that copies made by various countries differed to a greater or less extent from the original, and believing that a copy could be made from which other copies could be more readily made than from the end piece meter, and that better provision could be made for the preservation of the standard, France called a convention of representatives from various States using the system, to consider the matter. The United States representatives, or commissioners, were Messrs. Henry and Hildegard, who met with the general commission in 1870. The commissioners at once set at work to solve the problem presented to them, but the Franco-Prussian war put an end to their deliberations. The deliberations were resumed later, and May 20, 1875, representatives of the various countries signed a treaty providing for the establishment and maintenance, at the common expense of the contracting nations, of a "scientific and permanent international bureau of weights and measures, the location of which should be Paris, to be conducted by a general conference for weights and measures, to be composed of the delegates of all the contracting governments."
This bureau is empowered to construct and preserve the international standards, to distribute copies of the same to the several countries, and also to discuss and initiate measures necessary for the determination of the metric system. The commission adopted a form for the standard as shown in Fig. 1. The lines representing the length of the meter are drawn on the plane A, which is the neutral plane, and will not change in length should the bar deflect. The bar is made of 90 per cent platinum and 10 per cent iridium, about 250 kilograms having been melted when preparations were made for the first standard, so that all of the copies made from this cast represent the same coefficient of expansion and are subject to the same changes as the original. The French government presented to the bureau the pavilion Breteuil, opposite the Park of St. Cloud, which was accepted and put into order and is now the repository of the originals of the meter and the kilogram. The expense attending the first establishment of the bureau was about $10,000 to the United States, and since then its share of the annual expense has been about $900. The standards in the possession of the United States were received through the international bureau.
The Commercial Value of a Standard
Having at the disposal of the nation a standard of length, the question arises, "What can be made of it commercially, and how do we know when we have a copy of the standard?"
Fig. 1. Form of Bar Adopted for International Standards of Length
In 1893, the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co. decided to make a new standard to replace the one they had at that date. Mr. O. J. Beale was detailed to do this work. He prepared steel bars about 40 inches long by 1¼ inch square, and after planing them, they were allowed to rest for several months. At the ends of these bars he inserted two gold plugs, the centers of which were about 36 inches apart, and a little beyond these two others about one meter apart. A bar was placed in position upon a heavy bed. This was so arranged that a tool carrier could be passed over the bar. The tool carrier consisted of a light framework, holding the marking tool. One feature of the marking was that the point of the marking tool was curved and had an angle, so that if dropped it made an impression in the form of an ellipse. In graduations, ordinarily, the line, when highly magnified, is apt to present at its ends an impression less definite than in the center, by reason of the form of the objective. The line made with the tool mentioned is short, and that portion of the line is read which passes, apparently, through the straight line in the eye-glass of the microscope. In order to make these lines as definite as possible, the point was lapped to a bright surface. After being placed in position, the microscope, which could be placed on the front of the tool carrier, was set to compare with the graduation on the standard bar from which the new bar was to be prepared. After such a setting the readings were made by three persons, and by turning the lever the marking tool was dropped, making a very fine line, so fine indeed, that when the authorities in Washington began the examination of the bar later on they declared that no line had been made upon these studs.
After making the first line, the carriage was moved along to compare with the other line on the standard, and after the correction had been made by the use of the micrometer in the microscope, the marking tool was again dropped, giving the second line, which was intended to mark the limit of one yard over-all. The same operation was repeated in the marking of the meter. The whole of this work was done, of course, with the greatest care, and, while the theoretical portion of it appears very simple in detail, it required a great deal of time and patience before the last line had been made. The bar thus marked was taken to Washington, and in Mr. Beale's presence was compared by the attendants with Bronze No. 11 and later with Low Moor bar, No. 57.
In comparing this standard, a method was employed very similar to that used in marking it. The bar, properly supported, was placed upon a box that rested upon rolls, and on this same box was placed the government standard with which the Brown & Sharpe standard was to be compared. The standard was placed in position under the microscope, and after being properly set to the standard, the bar to be measured was placed under the microscope, and by the micrometer screw of the microscope the variation was measured. Three comparisons were made by each of the attendants on each end before determining the reading of the microscope, and after such comparisons and many repetitions of it, the value of the standard No. 2 was found to be 36.00061 inches for the yard, and 1.0000147 meter for the meter.
After this work had been done, Mr. Beale prepared a second standard which he called No. 3, and after examining, as shown above, the error was found to be 0.00002 inch for the yard, and 0.000005 meter for the meter. Observing these variations as compared with the standards originally made, we find they are very close, and it is doubtful if many repeated trials would furnish more accurate work, when we remember that out of forty original standards made, but two are correct at 62 degrees Fahrenheit.
After establishing a yard, the problem of obtaining an inch comes next, and this was made by subdividing the yard into two equal parts, these into three, and the three further subdivided into six parts. It should be particularly noted that no mention has been made of a standard inch, as there is none, the standard yard only existing, the subdivision of which falls upon those undertaking standard work. There is a remarkable agreement between at least three leading gage makers of this country and abroad, and each came to the result by its own method of subdividing the standard yard.
Kinds of Measurements and Measuring Tools
The measurements in the shop may, in general, be divided into measurements of length and measurements of angles. The length measurements in turn may be divided into line measurements and end measurements, the former being made by placing a rule or similar instrument against the object being measured, and comparing its length with the graduations on the measuring instruments; the latter are made by comparing the object being measured with the measuring instrument, by bringing the object measured into actual contact with the measuring surfaces of the instrument. Examples of line measurements are the ordinary measurements made with the machinist's rule, and examples of end measurement are those made by the micrometer, measuring machines, and snap gages. Angular measurements can also be divided into two classes; those measured directly by graduations on the instrument, and those measured by comparison with a given angle of the instrument.
Measuring instruments may also be divided into two classes, according to whether they actually are used for measuring, or whether they are principally used for comparing objects with one another. According to this classification all kinds of rules and protractors belong to the first class, whereas all gages belong to the second class. The ordinary instruments for length measurements, the regular machinists' rule, the caliper square, and the ordinary micrometer caliper, are too well known to require any additional explanation. The same is true of the regular bevel protractor for measuring angles. We shall therefore in the following chapters deal principally with special measuring tools, and with such methods in the use of tools which are likely to suggest improvements, or otherwise be valuable to the user and maker of measuring tools.