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# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Kirschmann - Some Effects of Contrast

Am. J. Ps. = American Journal of Psychology
Simultaneous visual contrast includes contrast in brightness, saturation, color, and emotional tone. It is dependent on several variables: the extent and distance from each other of the contrasting surfaces, the intensity of the light from the objects, the shade of color, and the degree of saturation. Within the limits of clear perception, the intensity of brightness, and probably also of color contrast, increases proportionally to the linear extent of the inducing part of the retina, or to the square root of the surface content. A less intensity of correspondingly larger extent does not change the strength of the contrast. Color contrast is best, when brightness contrast is excluded and there is a combination of medium degrees of saturation of the colors. Experiment shows that black and white are not sensations, but concepts, influenced by the relativity of the maxima of brightness and saturation, and the correction of sense-perceptions by previous experience. The effect of colored illumination in the case of slightly colored glasses is altered by an illusion of the judgment, previous knowledge leading to the incorrect supposition that the objects are seen in their usual colors. But with glasses of more saturated colors, two other factors assist recognition of the true color, fatigue of the retina and absence of any relation between the glass-color and other colors, it being only in the first moments that we compare the present with the normal illumination. Contrast has a large influence in the idea of polish, which is not given as sensation, but is a product of the combinations of sensations. Emotional contrast is not independent of contrast in brightness and quality, but it determines the aesthetic effect of the colors and their combinations as a result of simultaneous contrast of the sensations. The maximum emotional effect is reached when color, brightness, and saturation are properly contrasted. Other effects of contrast are light-induction — so far known as accompanying successive and contour contrasts — and, under some circumstances, the repression of an otherwise perfectly apparent difference. The absolute intensities and colors of objects are untrustworthy factors of the visual percepts, and it is to contrast that we owe the recognition and determination of the objects of the external world.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Jastrow - Studies from the Laboratory of Experimental Psychology

Am. J. Ps. = American Journal of Psychology
1. The effect of fore -knowledge upon repetition-times. Conclusion reached was that, "as the range of possible words decreases in extent, as the, subject's expectation is more and more definite, the time needed to repeat the word becomes shorter." 2. A novel optical illusion. Investigation of the bands produced by moving a horizontal rod up or down before a rotating disk composed of two rectors differing in color and shade. 3. Accessory apparatus for accurate time-measurements. (a) For control of the chromoscope. (b) For timing the rotation of disks, (c) For a way of color-mixing. 4. The psycho-physic series and the time-sense. Experiment consisted in assigning time-intervals given on the metronome to different classes. Results grouped themselves approximately under the psycho-physic law. 5. The psycho-physic series and the motor sense. Movements of the forearm within the limits 5 to 190 millimeters were assigned to six classes. Results approximated an arithmetic rather than a geometric series. 6. The interference of mental processes — a preliminary survey. The problem is the power of carrying on two mental processes at once. Motor processes interfere with motor processes; and the time of performing certain mental processes (reading sentences, words, etc.) is increased by motor processes.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Johnson - The Logical Calculus - Part 2

This is the second part of a two-part article; the first part is Summary: Johnson - The Logical Calculus - Part 1
The aim of the paper is not to add one more to the numerous systems of notation and symbolic method that have been already worked out more or less independently, but rather to bring out some underlying principles and assumptions which belong equally to the ordinary Formal Logic, to Symbolic Logic, and to the so-called Logic of Relatives. At the same time, it is hoped to present the work of different writers or different branches in a more systematic and comprehensive form than has hitherto been done. The Principle of Formal Inference. The principle of formal inference is expressed in the formula "(b and c) implies c"; i.e. a conclusion formally reached is simply a determinant of the data expressed in the premises. Notation for Propositional Synthesis. As determinative synthesis has always been represented by multiplication, we shall use the symbol a.b to stand for "a and b" The symbol a$\cdot$b may stand for "a or b." Notation for the Molecular Analyzed Proposition. J. adopts a notation suggested by Mr. Peirce's paper on the "Logic of Relatives " in the Johns Hopkins Studies in Logic: "We may express molecular propositions of any order as follows: p$_x$, p$_{xy}$, p$_{xyz}$, p$_{xyz0}$, etc., — representing such propositions as 'Coal is produced,' 'Coal is produced in England,' 'Coal was produced in England in 1890, etc" Notation for the Synthesis of Molecular Propositions. p$_x$$\cdot$q$_x$ = (p$\cdot$q)$_x$ : p$_x$$\cdot$q$_x$ = (p$\cdot$q)$_x$. Then follow symbols for The Synthesis of Singly-Quantitative Propositions, for the Transition from the Synthesis of Unanalyzed Propositions to Multiple Quantification, for Complex Combinations involving Multiple Quantifications. The final ​outcome of this method of notation, according to J., is the same as that adopted at the end of Mr. Peirce's paper. The chief object of the paper is to exhibit the unity of the whole Logical Calculus, by showing its dependence on the single group of fundamental laws regulating the pure synthesis and pure negation of propositions.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walton, Izaak

See also Izaak Walton on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walton (wa̤l′tŭn), Izaak, a famous English author and "The Father of Angling," was born at Stafford, England, Aug. 9, 1593, and died at Winchester, England, Dec. 15, 1683. He was engaged in trade in London, as a linen-draper, between the years 1624 and 1644, and made a competence, upon which he retired and devoted himself to literary pursuits, and to angling, of which he became a renowned exponent. Besides his quaint and fascinating treatise on the rod—The Complete Angler or the Contemplative Man's Recreation (1653), he wrote a series of sketches of English divines, embraced in what is known, in their collective character, as Walton's Lives. These sketches dealt with Dr. John Donne, Richard Hooker ("the judicious Hooker"), George Herbert the poet and divine, Bishop Robert Sanderson and Sir Henry Wotten, the English diplomatist and author. Walton's Lives have deservedly found a place in the best literature and are sure of a long immortality. Considering the stormy era in which he lived, that of the great English Revolution (1642-60), waged by the Parliamentary army against Charles I and on to the Restoration, it is curious to note the serenity of mind and life of Master Izaak Walton.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walrus

See also Walrus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walrus (wŏl′rŭs), a marine carnivorous mammal, closely related to seals and sea lions. It is known by its enormous down-turned tusks or canine teeth, projecting from the upper jaw, sometimes reaching a length of thirty inches, The tusks are of solid ivory; are useful in defense, an aid in digging and in climbing. Old animals are almost naked, the young ones quite thickly covered with fur of a pale brown color.
Walruses have a thick, clumsy body, deepest at the shoulders, and their feet, which are adapted for swimming, are also
WALRUS
furrowed so as to hold on to smooth surfaces. They reach a length of 12 feet or more and a weight of 2,200 pounds. There are two living species, one found in the Atlantic and one in the Pacific. The Atlantic form is still found on the coast of Labrador and Hudson Bay, but formerly extended further south. The Pacific form is more northern, being rarely found on the mainland. They feed largely on clams and other mollusks, which they dig from the sea-bottom with their tusks. They visit islands and ice-floes, and congregate in considerable numbers during the breeding period. They are hunted for their hides, oil and ivory, and their flesh is relished by natives along the Arctic coast. Their decrease is a very serious loss to native Alaskan. The polar bear is the most dreaded natural enemy.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walsall

See also Walsall on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walsall (wŏl′sal), a town in Staffordshire, England, eight miles northwest of Birmingham. Its churches and most of its public buildings are all modern. Harper's almshouses founded by James I, memorial cottages for 12 poor couples or widows and a cottage hospital are among its charities. It has a public library, town-hall, guildhall, theater and schools, including a grammar-school founded in 1554. Its situation in a region of extensive coal-mines and limestone quarries, with iron, stone and brick-clay near, makes it a manufacturing town, with iron and brass foundries. Locks, keys, bolts, pulleys and all kinds of ironware used in making carriages or harness are special manufactures. Walsall was fortified by Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great, held by William the Conqueror as a royal house, belonged to Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (the king-maker), and was given by Henry VIII to the duke of Northumberland. Population 96,171.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Waltham, Mass.

See also Waltham, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Waltham (wŏl′thăm), Mass., Middlesex County, on Charles River, ten miles northwest of Boston, is a suburb of that city. It has a Swedenborgian academy, a free public library, and numerous schools and churches. It is known all over the world for its machine-made watches, of which about 3,500 a day are turned out, making watch-tools, watch-dials and watch-screws. Clothing is an important industry, and automobiles are made to a considerable extent. There are also cotton cloth, hosiery, machinery, paper produced, and there are bleaching and dye works. It was settled in 1630. Population 27,834.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walpurgis Night

See also Walpurgis Night on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walpur′gis Night is in Germany the night in which the witches and wizards hold their yearly gathering, the largest being the one held on the Brocken in the Harz Mountains. It originally was a vigil kept the night before May 1, in honor of St. Walpurgis, a sister of some early English missionaries to Germany, who established convents in that country, but it was changed with the belief in witchcraft to its present signification.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walsh, the Most Reverend John

See also John Walsh (archbishop) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walsh, the Most Reverend John, born in Kilkenny, Ireland, 1830, died at Toronto, 1898; studied at St. John's College, Waterford, Ireland. Coming to Canada in 1852, he became a student at the Grand Seminary, Montreal. Ordained a priest in St. Michael's Cathedral, Toronto, in 1854 by Bishop Charbonnel. His first charge was that of Brock Mission, Lake Simcoe, in 1855. In 1857, in charge of the parish of St. Mary's, Toronto. Appointed to the rectorship of St. Michael's cathedral in 1859. In 1862 promoted and became vicar-general of the diocese. Visited Rome in 1864 Appointed Bishop of London (Western Canada), the see being transferred from Sandwich to that city in 1869. His work there was exceptionally successful. The debt of the diocese was paid off, and new churches, convents and an episcopal residence were erected. Visited Rome on two occasions later. On the second occasion, 1887, he assisted at the jubilee of Pope Leo XIII at St. Peter's. In 1889 he was appointed to the archbishopric of Toronto.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walther von der Vogelweide

See also Walther von der Vogelweide on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walther von der Vogelweide (väl′tẽr fṓn dẽr fō′gel-vī′dā), (Walter of the Bird-Meadow), a German minstrel or minnesinger, was born in Tyrol, between 1160 and 1170. He was attached to the court of Duke Frederick of Austria, at Vienna, for many years, and at his death went from court to court after the fashion of the minnesinger. His early poems were love-songs, but the crusades and civil troubles of Germany furnished the subjects of his later verses. He stands in the front rank of the lyrical poets of his country. He died in 1228 or 1230 at Würzburg, where Frederick II had given him a valuable estate. A monument was erected there to his memory in 1843, and a statue of him at Innsbruck in 1877. See Minnesinger and Literature (German.)
# The New Student's Reference Work/Wanamaker, John

See also John Wanamaker on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Wan′amaker, John, an American merchant, postmaster-general of the United States during 1889-93, and man of affairs, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., July 11, 1838, and was educated in the public schools of that city. In 1861, after removing for a time to Indiana, he set up in business for himself in his native city; and in 1876, after turning his establishment into a colossal department-store, with a separate house in New York City, he became the head of the firm—one of the largest concerns in the United States. In the conduct of these establishments he introduced the profit-sharing system among his employés, to their great pecuniary advantage; while his philanthropies manifested themselves in other directions, especially in the founding of Bethany Presbyterian Church and its organizations at Philadelphia and in presiding over the Young Men's Christian Association in that city. He also showed his great organizating and executive ability in the office of postmaster-general of the United States, to which he was appointed in 1889 by President Benjamin Harrison. During the Civil War he was one of the founders of the Christian Commission.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Walsingham, Sir Francis

See also Francis Walsingham on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Walsingham (wŏl′sĭng-ăm), Sir Francis, an English statesman, was born at Chiselhurst, Kent, in 1536. He studied at Cambridge. He was distinguished among Queen Elizabeth's ministers for acuteness and for knowledge of public affairs. He was sent on an embassy to France in 1570, to the Netherlands in 1578, to France again in 1581 and to Scotland in 1583. He was secretary of state to Elizabeth, and managed foreign affairs by a system of spies, having it is said, had nearly 60 agents in his service. In this way he got possession of the correspondence of Mary, Queen of Scots, which was used to prove her guilty of conspiring against the life of Queen Elizabeth and he was one of the commissioners at her trial. He died on April 6, 1590.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Wampum

See also Wampum on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Wampum (wŏm′pŭm), the name of Indian money, consisting of strings of shells and shell-beads, which were worn as ornaments. They were used mostly by the Algonquins, and were made on Long Island and around New York. The white wampum, called wampumpeag, was made from the conch-shell and the black or purple wampum or suckanhock from the hard-shell clam. The black was worth twice as much as the white. The beads were made by breaking the shells, rubbing the pieces smooth on a stone, and drilling holes in them so they could be strung. The French, Dutch and New England settlers made use of them, from four to six beads being worth a penny. A string was called a fathom, and was worth from five to ten shillings. A string of wampum was given with every article of a treaty, and a belt of wampum to bind the whole transaction. The belts were embroidered with colored beads, which formed a record of the event.
# The Popular Magazine/Volume 58/Number 4/The Implacable Friend

* information about this edition.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
   According to his lights, Fred Ticely was an honest business man, but his lights weren't bright enough for Bruce Waring, who proved that friendship can be as implacable as enmity.
The Implacable Friend
By Theodore Seixas Solomons
Author of “The Young Barbarian,” “Santa Claws,” Etc.
We would all be lucky to have a friend implacable in Bruce Waring's manner. There is more than a fine “yarn” of Alaskan mining to this tale. It is also the story of the saving of a man from himself. Frederick Ticely, supersalesman, believed in making what you have to sell look as pretty as possible. Waring believed in making it look just what it was. Incidentally, if we were in the habit of putting a text to our stories, this one might well bear the ancient one about casting your bread upon the waters. Certainly Ticely's kindness to young Waring was repaid many times over.
(A Complete Novel)
* I. The Grubstaked Man 1
* II. “For the Gift Without the Giver Is Bare” 3
* III. Changing Horses in Midstream 5
* IV. In a Far Wilderness 7
* V. Chance Values of Greek Myths 10
* VI. Supersalesmanship 13
* VII. Gathering Way 16
* VIII. Waring Is Bewildered 18
* IX. Joan Asks Questions 20
* X. A Busy Calm Before the Storm 23
* XI. Consternation 27
* XII. The Nudge 29
* XIII. A Miners' Meeting 33
* XIV. During the Night 35
* XV. Joan Sinks the Red Canoe 38
* XVI. The Implacable Friend 40
* XVII. The Letter and the Spirit 42
* XVIII. Collins Corners Joan 44
* XIX. Waring Surprises Himself 47
* XX. Requital 50
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1947, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 76 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CXLIV

​ⅭⅩⅬⅣ. The Landholder [Oliver Ellsworth], Ⅳ.
By the proposed constitution the new Congress will consist of nearly one hundred men; when our population is equal to Great Britain of three hundred men, and when equal to France of nine hundred. Plenty of Lawgivers! why any gentlemen should wish for more is not conceivable.
…Convention foreseeing this danger, have so worded the article, that if the people should at any future time judge necessary, they may diminish the representation.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CXLVII

​ⅭⅩⅬⅦ. James Wilson in the Pennsylvania Convention.
November 30, 1787.
Mr. Wilson. It is objected that the number of members in the House of Representatives is too small. This is a subject somewhat embarrassing, and the convention who framed the article felt the enbarrassment. …
The convention endeavored to steer a middle course, and when we consider the scale on which they formed their calculation, there are strong reasons why the representation should not have been larger. On the ratio that they have fixed, of one for every thirty ​thousand, and according to the generally received opinion of the increase of population throughout the United States, the present number of their inhabitants will be doubled in twenty-five years, and according to that progressive proportion, and the ratio of one member for thirty thousand inhabitants, the House of Representatives will, within a single century, consist of more than six hundred members. Permit me to add a further observation on the numbers—that a large number is not so necessary in this case as in the cases of state legislatures. In them there ought to be a representation sufficient to declare the situation of every county, town and district, and if of every individual, so much the better, because their legislative powers extend to the particular interest and convenience of each; but in the general government its objects are enumerated, and are not confined in their causes or operations to a county, or even to a single state. No one power is of such a nature as to require the minute knowledge of situations and circumstances necessary in state governments possessed of general legislative authority. These were the reasons, Sir, that I believe had influence on the convention to agree to the number of thirty thousand; and when the inconveniences and conveniences on both sides are compared, it would be difficult to say what would be a number more unexceptionable.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CXLVI

​ⅭⅩⅬⅥ. James Wilson in the Pennsylvania Convention.
November 28, 1787.
The truth is, Sir, that the framers of this system were particularly anxious, and their work demonstrates their anxiety, to preserve the state governments unimpaired—it was their favorite object; and, perhaps, however proper it might be in itself, it is more difficult to defend the plan on account of the excessive caution used in that respect than from any other objection that has been offered here or elsewhere.… I trust it is unnecessary to dwell longer upon this subject; for, when gentlemen assert that it was the intention of the federal convention to destroy the sovereignty of the states, they must conceive themselves better qualified to judge of the intention of that body than its own members, of whom not one, I believe, entertained so improper an idea.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CXLV

​ⅭⅩⅬⅤ. James Wilson in the Pennsylvania Convention.
November 28, 1787.
Mr. President, we are repeatedly called upon to give some reason why a bill of rights has not been annexed to the proposed plan… But the truth is, Sir, that this circumstance, which has since occasioned so much clamor and debate, never struck the mind of any member in the late convention till, I believe, within three days of the dissolution of that body, and even then of so little account was the idea that it passed off in a short conversation, without introducing a formal debate or assuming the shape of a motion.…
…Thus, Sir, it appears from the example of other states, as well as from principle, that a bill of rights is neither an essential nor a necessary instrument in framing a system of government, ​since liberty may exist and be as well secured without it. But it was not only unnecessary, but on this occasion it was found impracticable—for who will be bold enough to undertake to enumerate all the rights of the people?—and when the attempt to enumerate them is made, it must be remembered that if the enumeration is not complete, everything not expressly mentioned will be presumed to be purposely omitted.
# The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787/Volume 3/Appendix A/CXLIII

​ⅭⅩⅬⅢ. James Wilson in the Pennsylvania Convention.
November 26, 1787.
It was observed in the convention, that the Federal convention had exceeded the powers given to them by the several legislatures; but Mr. Wilson observed, that however foreign the question was to the present business, he would place it in its proper light. The Federal convention did not act at all upon the powers given to them by the States, but they proceeded upon original principles, and having framed a constitution which they thought would promote the happiness of their country, they have submitted it to their consideration, who may either adopt or reject it, as they please.