OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoke-on-Trent

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​STOKE-ON-TRENT, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, on the upper Trent, in the heart of the Potteries district. Pop. (1901), 30,458, This was the population of the separate borough of Stoke-upon-Trent (area, 1882 acres) which existed until 1910. In 1908 arrangements were made whereby Stoke-upon-Trent, Burslem, Fenton, Hanley, Longton and Tunstall should be amalgamated as one borough, under the name of Stoke-on-Trent, from the 31st of March 1910. The new corporation consists of a mayor, 26 aldermen and 78 councillors. Stoke is on the North Staffordshire railway, 146 m. north-west from London by the London & North-Western railway; and on the Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) Canal. The principal public buildings in the old town of Stoke are the town hall, with assembly rooms, law library and art gallery, the market hall, the Minton memorial building, containing a school of art and science; the free library and museum, and the North Staffordshire infirmary, founded in 1815 at Etruria, and removed to its present site in 1868. The head offices of the North Staffordshire Railway Company are here. Four large firms manufacturing every variety of art china and earthenware alone employ over 5000 hands. Coal-mining and iron and machine manufactures are also carried on. A statue commemorates Josiah Wedgwood, born at Burslem in 1730; but other famous names in the pottery trade are more intimately connected with Stoke. Thus Josiah Spode the second was born here in 1754, and had a great house at Penkhull, on the western outskirts of Stoke. He entered into partnership with the Copelands, who continued his business. Herbert Minton (1793–1858) was the founder of another of the large works. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
In the Domesday Survey of 1086 half the church of Stoke and lands in Stoca are said to have belonged to Robert of Stafford. Part of Stoke (Stoche or Stoca) at this time belonged to the Crown, since the royal estate of Penculla (now Penkhull) was included within its bounds. Frequent references to the parish church of Stoke are found during the 14th and 15th centuries. Contemporary writers from 1787 onwards describe Stoke as a market town, but the official evidence states that the market rights were not acquired until 1845. Since then the market days have been Saturday and Monday. Stoke-upon-Trent became the railway centre and head of the parliamentary borough of Stoke-upon-Trent, comprising the whole of the Staffordshire Potteries, which was created by the Reform Bill of 1832. In 1874 it was incorporated as a municipality. From 1833 to 1885 Stoke returned two members to parliament. From the early 17th century, if not earlier, porcelain and earthenware manufactories existed at Stoke-upon-Trent, but they remained unnoticed until in 1686 Dr Plot wrote his survey of Staffordshire. In the middle of the 18th century there was a great industrial development in the Pottery district.
See John Ward, The Borough of Stoke-upon-Trent (London, 1843).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stokesley, John

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​STOKESLEY, JOHN (c. 1475-1539), English prelate, was born at Colly Weston in Northamptonshire, and became a fellow of Magdalen College, serving also as a lecturer. In 1498 he was made principal of Magdalen Hall, and in 1 505 vice-president of Magdalen College. Soon after 1509 he was appointed a member of the royal council and chaplain to Henry VIII. In 1520 he was at the Field of the Cloth of Gold; in 1529 and 1530 he went to France and Italy as ambassador to Francis I. and to gain opinions from foreign universities in favour of the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. In 1530 he became bishop of London. In 1533 he christened the princess Elizabeth, and his later years were troubled by disputes with Archbishop Cranmer. Stokesley opposed all changes in the doctrines of the Church and was very active in persecuting heretics. He was a man of learning, writing in favour of Henry's divorce, and with Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of Durham, a treatise against Cardinal Pole. He died on the 8th of September, 1539.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoddard, Richard Henry

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​STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY (1825–1903), American author, was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of July 1825. He spent most of his boyhood in New York City, where he became a blacksmith and later an iron moulder, but in 1849 he gave up his trade and began to write for a living. He contributed to the Union Magazine, the Knickerbocker Magazine, Putnam's Monthly Magazine and the New York Evening Post. In 1853 Nathaniel Hawthorne helped him to secure the appointment of inspector of customs of the Port of New York. He was confidential clerk to George B. McClellan in the New York dock department in 1870–1872, and city librarian of New York in 1874–1875; literary reviewer for the New York World (1860–1870); one of the editors of Vanity Fair; editor of the Aldine (1869–1874), and literary editor of the Mail and Express (1880–1903). He died in New York on the 12th of May 1903. Among the numerous books that he edited are The Loves and Heroines of the Poets (1861); Melodies and Madrigals, Mostly from the old English Poets (1865); The Late English Poets (1865), selections; Griswold's Poets and Poetry of America (1872), and Female Poets of America (1874); The Bric-a-Brac Series, in 10 vols. (1874–1876); English Verse, in 5 vols. edited with W. J. Linton (1883); and four editions of Poe's works, with a memoir (1872–1894). His original poetry includes Footprints (1849), privately printed and afterwards suppressed; Poems (1852); the juveniles, Adventures in Fairyland (1853); Town and Country (1857), and The Story of Little Red Riding Hood (1864); Songs of Summer (1857); The King's Bell (1862), one of his most popular narrative poems; Abraham Lincoln: A Horatian Ode (1865), The Book of the East (1867), Poems (1880), a collective edition; and The Lion's Cub, with Other Verse (1890). He also wrote Life, Travels and Books of Alexander von Humboldt (1860); Under the Evening Lamp (1892), essays dealing mainly with the modern English poets; and Recollections Personal and Literary (1903), edited by Ripley Hitchcock. More important than his critical was his poetical work, which at its best is sincere, original and marked by delicate fancy, and felicity of form; and his songs have given him a high and permanent place among American lyric poets.
His wife Elizabeth Drew (Barstow) Stoddard (1823–1902), poet and novelist, was born in Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, on the 6th of May 1823. She studied at Wheaton Seminary, Norton, Mass. After her marriage in 1852 she assisted her husband in his literary work, and contributed stories, poems and essays to the periodicals. She wrote three novels — The Morgesons (1862), Two Men (1865) and Temple House (1867), and a volume of poems (1895). A new edition of her novels was issued in 1901. She died in New York on the 1st of August 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoke Poges

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​STOKE POGES, a village in the south of Buckinghamshire, England, 3 m. N. of Slough, famous for its connexion with the poet Thomas Gray. The church of St Giles has portions of Norman, Early English, and later dates, and contains a fine Decorated canopied tomb and brasses of members of the family of Moleyns. A passage or cloister leading towards the ancient manor-house contains some good original stained-glass windows. Gray is buried beside his mother in the churchyard, and there is a monument to his memory in the adjacent Stoke Park. The churchyard is generally considered to be the original of the poet's Elegy in a Country Churchyard; and the manor-house finds mention in his Long Story. West End Cottage, where he often stayed, remains in altered form as Stoke Court. Burnham Beeches (q.v.), now preserved to public use, and a favourite resort of the poet, are 3 m. distant to the north-west.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stokes, Whitley

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​STOKES, WHITLEY (1830-1909), British lawyer and Celtic scholar, was a son of William Stokes (1804-1878), and a grand- son of Whitley Stokes (1763-1845), each of whom was regius professor of physic in the university of Dublin. In his day, William Stokes, who was the author of several books on medical subjects, was one of the foremost physicians in Europe. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, young Stokes became an English barrister in 1855, and in 1862 he went to India, where he filled several official positions. In 1877 he was appointed legal member of the viceroy's council, and he drafted the codes of civil and criminal procedure and did much other valuable work of the same nature. In 1879 he was president of the commission on Indian law. He returned to England in 1882. In 1887 he was made a C.S.I., and two years later a C.I.E.; he obtained honorary degrees from many universities, and was a fellow of the British Academy. He died in London on the 13th of April 1909. Whitley Stokes is perhaps most famous as a Celtic scholar, and in this field he worked both in India and in England. He studied Irish, Breton and Cornish texts, and among his numerous works may be mentioned editions of Three Irish Glossaries (1862); Three Middle-Irish Homilies (1877); and Old Irish Glosses at Wursburg and Carlsruhe (1887). He was one of the editors of the hische Texte published at Leipzig (1880- 1900); and he edited and translated Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (1890). With Professor A. Bezzenberger he wrote Urkeltischer Sprachschatz (1894). His principal legal work was The Anglo-Indian Codes (1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stoke Newington

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​STOKE NEWINGTON, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded E. by Hackney and W. by Islington, and extending N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 51,247. It is mainly occupied by small villas. On its western boundary, adjoining Green Lanes, lies Clissold Park (54 acres) and outside the north-western boundary is Finsbury Park (115 acres). In Church Street is the ancient parish church of St Mary, largely restored, but still bearing the stamp of antiquity; opposite to it stands a new church in Decorated style by Sir Gilbert Scott. In the north of the borough are the main waterworks and reservoirs of the New River Company, though the waterway continues to a head in Finsbury. Stoke Newington is partly in the north division of the parliamentary borough of Hackney, but the district of South Hornsey, included in the municipal borough, is in the Hornsey division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 863.5 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/La Union (Salvador)

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​LA UNION, a seaport and the capital of the department of La Union, Salvador, 144 m. E.S.E. of San Salvador. Pop. (1905) about 4000. La Union is situated at the foot of a lofty volcano, variously known as Conchagua, Pinos and Meanguera, and on a broad indentation in the western shore of Fonseca Bay. Its harbour, the best in the republic, is secure in all weathers and affords good anchorage to large ships. La Union is the port of shipment for the exports of San Miguel and other centres of production in eastern Salvador.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/La Union (Spain)

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​LA UNION, a town of eastern Spain in the province of Murcia, 5 m. by rail E. of Cartagena and close to the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 30,275, of whom little more than half inhabit the town itself. The rest are scattered among the numerous metal works and mines of iron, manganese, calamine, sulphur and lead, which are included within the municipal boundaries. La Union is quite a modern town, having sprung up in the second half of the 19th century. It has good modern municipal buildings, schools, hospital, town hall and large factories.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laas, Ernst

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​LAAS, ERNST (1837–1885), German philosopher, was born on the 16th of June 1837 at Fürstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strassburg. In Kant’s Analogien der Erfahrung (1876) he keenly criticized Kant’s transcendentalism, and in his chief work Idealismus und Positivismus (3 vols., 1879–1884), he drew a ​clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived transcendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagoras the founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume. Throughout his philosophy he endeavours to connect metaphysics with ethics and the theory of education.
His chief educational works were Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern Gymnasialklassen (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii, 1894), and Der deutsche Unterricht auf höhern Lehranstalten (1872; 2nd ed. 1886). He contributed largely to the Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos. (1880–1882); the Litterarischer Nachlass, a posthumous collection, was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, Der Positivismus von Ernst Laas (1902); Gjurits, Die Erkenntnistheorie des Ernst Laas (1903); Falckenberg, Hist. of Mod. Philos. (Eng. trans., 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Labarum

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​LABARUM, the sacred military standard of the early Christian Roman emperors, first adopted by Constantine the Great after his miraculous vision in 312, although, according to Gibbon, he did not exhibit it to the army till 323. The name seems to have been known before, and the banner was simply a Christianized form of the Roman cavalry standard. Eusebius (Life of Const. i. 31) describes the first labarum as consisting of a long gilded spear, crossed at the top by a bar from which hung a square purple cloth, richly jewelled. At the upper extremity of the spear was a golden wreath encircling the sacred monogram, formed of the first two letters of the name of Christ. In later banners the monogram was sometimes embroidered on the cloth. A special guard of fifty soldiers was appointed to protect the sacred standard. The derivation of the word labarum is disputed; it appears to be connected with the Basque labarva, signifying standard. See Flag.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/La Villemarqué, Théodore Claude Henri, Vicomte Hersart de

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​LA VILLEMARQUÉ, THÉODORE CLAUDE HENRI, Vicomte Hersart de (1815–1895), French philologist and man of letters, was born at Keransker, near Quimperlé, on the 6th of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton family, which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed Saint Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion in arms of Du Guesclin. La Villemarqué devoted himself to the elucidation of the monuments of Breton literature. Introduced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as correspondent to the Academy of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. His works include: Contes populaires des anciens Bretons (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of the romances of the Round Table; Essai sur l’histoire de la langue bretonne (1837); Poèmes des bardes bretons du sixième siècle (1850); La Légende celtique en Irelande, en Cambrie et en Bretagne (1859). The popular Breton songs published by him in 1839 as Barzaz Breiz were considerably retouched. La Villemarqué’s work has been superseded by the work of later scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to arouse popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the 8th of December 1895.
On the subject of the doubtful authenticity of Barzaz Breiz, see Luzel’s Preface to his Chansons populaires de la Basse-Bretagne, and, for a list of works on the subject, the Revue Celtique (vol. v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laacher See

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​LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W. of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea, is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (Abbatia Lacensis) founded in 1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating from the 12th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802 it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits, who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which still appears, entitled Stimmen aus Maria Laach. In 1892 the monastery was again occupied by the Benedictines.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Laager

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​LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch leger, Ger. lager, connected with Eng. “lair”) for a temporary defensive encampment, formed by a circle of wagons. The English word is “leaguer,” an armed camp, especially that of a besieging or “beleaguering” army. The Ger. lager, in the sense of “store,” is familiar as the name of a light beer (see Brewing).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Label

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​LABEL (a French word, now represented by lambeau, possibly a variant; it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word appearing in the English “lap,” a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus applied to the fillets (infulae) attached to a bishop’s mitre. In heraldry the “label” is a mark of “cadency.”
In architecture the term “label” is applied to the outer projecting moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called “Dripstone” or “Weather Moulding,” or “Hood Mould.” The former terms seem scarcely applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply, sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a “roll” or “scroll-moulding,” so called because it resembles the part of a scroll where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental architecture than in English.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peace (river)

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​PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky Mountains near 55° N., and breaking through the mountains, flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district between 56° 40′ and 60° N., and between 112° W. and the Rocky Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer

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​PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804–1894), American educationist, was born at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the 16th of May 1804. Early in life she was assistant in A. Bronson Alcott’s school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is probably her Record of Mr Alcott’s School (1835). She had been instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational methods of Froebel, and in 1860 opened in Boston a small school resembling a kindergarten. In 1867 she visited Germany for the purpose of studying Froebel’s methods. It was largely through her efforts that the first public kindergarten in the United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of January 1894. She was the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann.
Among her publications are: Kindergarten in Italy (1872); Reminiscences of William Ellery Channing (1880); Lectures in the Training Schools for Kindergartners (1888); and Last Evening with Allston, and other Papers (1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peabody, George

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​PEABODY, GEORGE (1795–1869), American philanthropist, was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire, England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was born in the part of Danvers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the 18th of February 1795. When eleven years old he became apprentice at a grocery store. At the end of four years he became assistant to his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a business in Georgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of 1812, he became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at Georgetown, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager. Through his energy and skill the business increased with astounding rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile concerns in the world. About 1837 he established himself in London as merchant and money-broker at Wanford Court, in the city, and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The number of his benefactions to public objects was very large. He gave £50,000 for educational purposes at Danvers; £200,000 to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various sums to Harvard University; £700,000 to the trustees of the Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the southern states; and £500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses for the working-classes in London. He received from Queen Victoria the offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks. He died in London on the 4th of November 1869; his body was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried in his native town.
See the Life (Boston, 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford.