OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Littlehampton

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​LITTLEHAMPTON, a seaport and watering-place in the Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, at the mouth of the Arun, 62 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7363. There is a beach of firm sand. The harbour is easily accessible in all weathers, and has a small general trade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Little Falls (Minnesota)

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​LITTLE FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Morrison county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on both banks of the Mississippi river, about 88 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 2354; (1900) 5774, of whom 1559 were foreign-born, chiefly Germans and Swedes; (1905) 5856; (1910) 6078. It is served by the Northern Pacific railway. The city is situated in a prosperous farming region, and has excellent water-power and various manufactures. Little Falls was settled about 1850, was chartered as a city in 1889 and adopted a new charter in 1902. Here was buried the Chippewa chief, Hole-in-the-Day (c. 1827–1868), or Bagwunagijik, who succeeded his father, also named Hole-in-the-Day, as head chief of the Chippewas in 1846. Like his father, the younger Hole-in-the-Day led his tribe against the Sioux, and he is said to have prevented the Chippewas from joining the Sioux rising in 1862. His body was subsequently removed by his relatives.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lithosphere

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​LITHOSPHERE (Gr. λίθος, a stone, and σφαῖρα, a sphere), the crust of the earth surrounding the earth’s nucleus. The superficial soil, a layer of loose earthy material from a few feet to a few hundreds of feet in thickness, lies upon a zone of hard rock many thousands of feet in thickness but varying in character, and composed mainly of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones and metamorphic rocks. These two layers form the lithosphere. All the tectonic movements of the solid nucleus produce changes in the mobile lithosphere. Volcanic and seismic activity is manifested, mountains are folded, levels change, fresh surfaces are exposed to denudation, erosion and deposition. The crust is thus subject to constant change while retaining its more or less permanent character.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Litmus

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​LITMUS (apparently a corruption of lacmus, Dutch lacmoes, lac, lac, and moes, pulp, due to association with “lit,” an obsolete word for dye, colour; the Ger. equivalent is Lackmus, Fr. tournesol), a colouring matter which occurs in commerce in the form of small blue tablets, which, however, consist mostly, not of the pigment proper, but of calcium carbonate and sulphate and other matter devoid of tinctorial value. Litmus is extensively employed by chemists as an indicator for the detection of free acids and free alkalis. An aqueous infusion of litmus, when exactly neutralized by an acid, exhibits a violet colour, which by the least trace of free acid is changed to red, while free alkali turns it to blue. The reagent is generally used in the form of test paper—bibulous paper dyed red, purple or blue by the respective kind of infusion. Litmus is manufactured in Holland from the same kinds of lichens (species of Roccella and Lecanora) as are used for the preparation of archil (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Litotes

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​LITOTES (Gr. λιτότης, plainness, λιτός, plain, simple, smooth), a rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a statement by turning it into a denial of the contrary, e.g. “a citizen of no mean city,” i.e. a citizen of a famous city, “A. is not a man to be neglected.” Litotes is sometimes used for what should be more strictly called “meiosis” (Gr. μείωσις, lessening, diminution, μείων, lesser), where the expressions used apparently are weak or understated, but the effect is to intensify.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadolin, Jörgen

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​SADOLIN, JÖRGEN (c. 1499–1559) Danish reformer, the son of Jens Christensen, a curate and subsequently a canon of Viborg cathedral, and consequently, in all probability, born (c. 1499) out of wedlock, as his Catholic opponents frequently took care to remind him, He himself never used the name Sadolinus, which seems to have been invented subsequently by his son Hans, and points to the fact that the family were originally saddle-makers. We first hear of him on the 1st of December 1525, when Frederick I. permitted him to settle at Viborg to teach young persons of the poorer classes “ whatever might be profitable.” On this occasion he is described as “ magister ” and no doubt got his degree abroad, where he seems to have been won for the Reformation. He sided with Hans Tausen when the latter first began to preach the gospel at Viborg, and Tausen, though himself only in priest's orders, shortly before he left the place, ordained Sadolin (1529). Amongst “ the free priests ” who attended the herredag of Copenhagen in 1530 Sadolin occupied a prominent place. Frederick subsequently transferred him to Funen, where he acted, according to his own expression, as “adjutor in verbo” to Knud Gyldenstjerne, bishop of Odense. At the diocesan council held on the 27th of May 1532, during the absence of the bishop, he presented to the assembled priests a translation of Luther's catechism, with Luther's name omitted, preceded by an earnest plea in favour of a better system of education and a more practical application of the Christian life, which occupies a conspicuous place in the literature of the Danish Reformation. In the following year Sadolin published the first Danish translation of the Confession of Augsburg. He disappears during the troublous times of “C’-revens Fejde ” (1533–1536), though we get a glimpse of him at the end of 1536 as one of the preachers at Vor Frue Kirke, the principal church of Copenhagen. On the 2nd of September 1537 he was consecrated by the German reformer, Johann Bugenhagen, who himself only had priest's orders, superintendent, or first evangelical bishop, of Funen. As bishop he was remarkable for the success with which he provided the necessary means for the support of churches, schools and hospitals in his widespread diocese, which had been deprived of its usual sources of income by the wholesale confiscation of church property. Towards the Catholics he adopted a firm, but moderate and reasonable, tone, and his indulgence towards the monks in St Knud's cloister drew down upon him a fierce attack from the Puritan clergyman of Odense, who absurdly accused him of being a crypto-Catholic. He gave the funeral oration over Christian III. in St John's Church at Odense in February 1559, though now very infirm and blind, and died at the end of the same year.
See Bricka, Dansk Biografish Lx. Art. Sadolin (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadowa

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​SADOWA (Czech, Sádová), a village of Bohemia, Austria, 4 m. N.W. of Königgrätz. Pop. (1900) 183, exclusively Czech. Sadowa, with the small adjoining wood, was one of the principal and most hotly contested Prussian positions in the decisive battle now usually called by the name of Königgrätz (see Seven Weeks' War).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadhu

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​SADHU, a Hindu ascetic, corresponding to the Mahommedan fakir (q.v.). The Sadhus, who are known also as Sanyasis, Gosains and Bairagis, are of various sects, hold peculiar opinions, indulge in strange practices, and subject themselves in many cases to cruel hardships and fantastic disciplines. They range in moral standing from the peripatetic philosopher to the idle vagabond. Some lead the life of contemplation, which Hindus consider especially holy; others pose as alchemists, physicians, fortune-tellers, palmists or acrobats; while others yet again practise voluntary tortures, such as holding one arm upright until it withers, or lying continually upon a bed of spikes. Some go about almost naked, or smeared all over with ashes; but the usual garment of an ascetic is stained an orange red with Ochre. Hence was derived the colour of the Mahrattal flag. Alone among Hindus their dead are buried instead of being burned, usually in a sitting posture, and often in salt. During the disturbed period of Indian history, before British rule was firmly established, armed bodies of Sanyasis or Gosains attached themselves to the Mahratta armies, and also ravaged Northern Bengal in the time of Warren Hastings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadler, Michael Thomas

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​SADLER, MICHAEL THOMAS (1780–1835), English, social reformer and economist, was born at Snelston, Derbyshire, on the 3rd of January 1780. Settling down in business in Leeds in 1800, he early took an active part. in political life, devoting himself particularly to the administration of the poor law. In 1828 he wrote Ireland: its Evils and their Remedies, in which he advocated a poor-law, and a tax on absenteeism. He also took a share in the Malthusian controversy, writing The Law of Population: a Treatise in Disproof of the Super-fecundity of Human Beings and developing the Real Principle of their Increase (1830). He entered parliament in 1829 as member for Newark, and devoted his efforts to questions of social reform. He took a leading part in the agitation for the prevention of child labour in factories—he was chairman of, the committee appointed to inquire into the subject. He contested Leeds after the Reform Bill of 1832 (Aldborough, for which 'he had sat after Newark, being deprived of its member), but was defeated by Macaulay. In 1834 he was unsuccessful at Huddersfield, and failing health prevented any further attempts to re-enter parliament. He settled down in Belfast, where his firm had business interests, and died at New Lodge on the 29th of July 1835.
See R. B. Seeley, Memoirs of M. T. Sadler (1842).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadoleto, Jacopo

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​SADOLETO, JACOPO (1477–1547), Italian humanist and churchman, was born at Modena in 1477, and, being the son of a noted jurist, was designed for the same profession. He gave himself, therefore, to humanistic studies and acquired reputation as a Latin poet, his best-known piece being one on the group of Laocoon. Passing to Rome, he obtained the patronage of Cardinal Carafa and adopted the ecclesiastical career. Leo X. chose him as his secretary along with Pietro Bembo, and in 1517 made him bishop of Carpentras. Sadoleto had a remarkable talent for affairs and approved himself a faithful servant of the papacy in many difficult negotiations under successive popes, especially as a peacemaker; but he was no bigoted advocate of papal authority, and the great aim of his life was to win back the Protestants by peaceful persuasion—he would never countenance persecution—and by putting Catholic doctrine in a conciliatory form. Indeed his chief work, a Commentary on Romans, though meant as a prophylactic against the new doctrines, gave great offence at Rome and Paris. Sadoleto was a diligent and devoted bishop and left his diocese with reluctance even after he was made cardinal (1536). His piety and tolerant spirit, combined with his reputation for scholarship and eloquence and his diplomatic abilities, give him a unique place among the churchmen of his time. He died in 1547.
His collected works appeared at Mainz in 1607, and include, besides his theologico-irenical pieces, a collection of Epistles, a treatise on education (first published in 1533), and the Phaedrus, a defence of philosophy, written in 1538. The best collection is that published at Verona (1737–1738); it includes the life by Fiordibello. See also Péricaud, Fragments biographiques sur Jacob Sadolet (Lyons, 1849); ]oty, Étude sur Sadolet (Caen, 1857); Balan, Monumenta, vol. i. (Innsbruck, 1885); Rochini's edition of the letters (Modena, 1872).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sade, Donatien Alphonse François, Count

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​SADE, DONATIEN ALPHONSE FRANÇOIS, Count [usually called the marquis de Sade] (1740–1814), French licentious writer, was born in Paris on the 2nd of June 1740. He entered the light-horse at fourteen and saw considerable military service before returning to Paris in 1766. Here his vicious practices became notorious, and in 1772 he was condemned to death at Aix for an unnatural offence, and for poisoning. He fled to Italy, but in 1777 he was arrested in Paris, removed to Aix for trial, and there found guilty. In 1778 he escaped from prison, but was soon re-arrested and finally committed to the Bastille. Here he began to write plays and obscene novels. In 1789 he was removed to the Charenton Lunatic Asylum, but was discharged in 1790, only to be recommitted as incurable in 1803. He died there on the 2nd of December 1814. Among his works, all of the type indicated, were Justine (1791), Juliette (1792), Philosophie dans le boudoir (1793) and Les Crimes de l’amour (1800). The word Sadism, meaning a form of sexual perversion, is derived from his name.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sadiya

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​SADIYA, the extreme north-east frontier station of British India, in the Lakhimpur district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It stands high on a grassy plain, nearly surrounded by forest-clad mountains, on the right bank of what is locally (but erroneously) considered the main stream of the Brahmaputra. On the opposite bank a railway has recently been opened which connects with the Assam-Bengal line. Sadiya is garrisoned by detachments of native infantry and military police, and is the base of a chain of outposts. There is a bazaar, to which the hill-men beyond the frontier—Mishmis, Abors and Khamtis—bring down rubber, wax, ivory and musk, to barter for cotton-cloth, salt, metal goods, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sado

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​SADO, an island belonging to Japan, lying 32 m. W. of Niigata, on 38° N., 138° 30' E. It has a circumference of I3O m., an area of 336 sq. m. and a population of 113,000. The port is Ebisa, on the east coast; and at a distance of 16½ m., near the west coast, is the town of Aikawa, having in its vicinity gold and silver mines, for which Sado is famous. They have been worked from very early times. Sado consists of two parallel hill ranges separated by a lower isthmus; the loftiest peak is that of Kimpokuzan (3815 ft.), to the north of Aikawa.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Necrosis

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​NECROSIS (Gr. νεκρός, corpse), a term restricted in surgery to death of bone. A severe inflammation, caused by a violent blow, by cold, or by the absorption of various poisons, as mercury and phosphorus, is the general precursor of necrosis. The dead part, analogous to the slough in the soft tissues, is called a sequestrum or exfoliation. At first it is firmly attached to the living bone around; gradually, however, the dead portion is separated from the living tissue. The process of separation is a slow one. New bone is formed around the sequestrum, which often renders its removal difficult. As a rule the surgeon waits until the dead part is loose, and then cuts down through the new case and removes the sequestrum. The cavity in which it lay gradually closes, and a useful limb is the result.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Necropolis

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​NECROPOLIS, a cemetery (q.v.) or burying-place, literally a “city of the dead” (Gr. νεκρός, corpse, and πόλις, city). Apart from the occasional application of the word to modern cemeteries outside large towns, the term is chiefly used of burial-grounds near the sites of the centres of ancient civilizations.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nectar

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​NECTAR, in ancient mythology generally coupled with ambrosia, the nourishment of the gods in Homer and in Greek literature generally. Probably the two terms were not originally distinguished; but usually both in Homer and in later writers nectar is the drink and ambrosia the food. On the other hand, in Alcman nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides ambrosia the drink. Each is used in Homer as an unguent (Iliad, xiv. 170; xix. 38). Both are fragrant, and may be used as perfume. According to W. H. Roscher (Nektar und Ambrosia, 1883; see also his article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie) nectar and ambrosia were originally only different forms of the same substance—honey, regarded as a dew, like manna, fallen from heaven, which was used both as food and drink. (See also Ambrosia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Need-Fire

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​NEED-FIRE, or Wild-Fire (Ger. Notfeuer, O. Ger. nodfyr), a term used in folklore to denote a curious superstition which survived in the Highlands of Scotland until a recent date. Like the fire-churning still customary in India for kindling the sacrificial fire, the needor wild-fire is made by the friction of one piece of wood on another, or of a rope upon a stake. Need-fire is a practice of shepherd peoples to ward off disease from their herds and flocks. It is kindled on occasions of special distress, particularly at the outbreak of a murrain, and the cattle are driven through it. Its efficacy is believed to depend on all other fires being extinguished. The kindling of the need-fire in a village near Quedlinburg was impeded by a night light burning in the parsonage (Pröhle, Harz-Bilder, Leipzig, 1855). According to one account, in the Highlands of Scotland the rule that all common fires must be previously extinguished applied only to the houses situated between the two nearest running streams (Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folklore, p. 53 seq.). In Bulgaria even smoking during need-fire is forbidden. Two naked men produce the fire by rubbing dry branches together in the forest, and with the flame they light two fires, one on each side of a cross-road haunted by wolves. The cattle are then driven between the two fires, from which glowing embers are taken to rekindle the cold hearths in the houses (A. Strausz, Die Bulgaren, p. 198). In Caithness the men who kindled the need-fire had previously to divest themselves of all metal. In some of the Hebrides the men who made the fire had to be eighty-one in number and all married. In the Halberstadt district in Germany, the rope which was wound round the stake, must be pulled by two chaste boys; while at Wolfenbüttel, contrary to usual custom, it is said that the need-fire had to be struck out of the cold anvil by the smith. In England the need-fire is said to have been lit at Birtley within the last half-century. The superstition had its origin in the early ideas of the purifying nature of flame.
See also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 501 sqq.; Kelly, Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and Folklore, p. 48 sqq.; Elton, Origins of English History, p. 293 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, iii. 301.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Needle-Gun

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​NEEDLE-GUN (Zündnadelgewehr), a military breech-loading rifle, famous as the arm of the Prussians in 1866 and of the Germans in 1870–1871. It was the invention of the gunsmith Johann Nicholas von Dreyse (1787–1867), who, beginning in 1824, had made many experiments, and in 1836 produced the complete needle-gun. From 1841 onwards the new arm was gradually introduced into the Prussian service, and later into the military forces of many other German states. Dreyse was ennobled in 1864. The principal details of the arm (pattern 1841) are as follows:—
| Breech | Bolt system |
| Calibre | ·607 in. |
| Weight without bayonet | 10 ℔ 4 oz. |
| Charge (black powder) | 4·15 grains |
| Bullet (lead) | 478 grains |
| Muzzle velocity | 1000 f.s. |
| Sighted to | 800 paces (656 yds.) |
In practice the needle-gun proved to have numerous defects; its effective range was very short compared to that of the muzzle-loading rifles of the day, and conspicuously so as against the chassepot: the escape of gas at the breech was, moreover, very great. A paper cartridge was used. An improved model, giving greater muzzle velocity and increased speed in loading, was introduced later, but this was soon replaced by the Mauser rifle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neemuch

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​NEEMUCH, or Nimach, a town of Central India, with a British military cantonment, within the state of Gwalior, on the border of Rajputana, with a station on the Rajputana railway, 170 m. N. of Mhow. Pop. (1901) 21,588. In 1857 it was the most southerly place to which the Mutiny extended. The brigade of native troops of the Bengal army, which was stationed there, mutinied and marched to Delhi, the European officers taking refuge in the fort, where they were besieged by a rebel force from Mandasor, and defended themselves gallantly until relieved by the Malwa field force. Since 1895 it has been the headquarters of the political agent in Malwa.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Neenah

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​NEENAH, a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the N.W. shore of Lake Winnebago, 82 m. N. by E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 5083; (1900) 5954, of whom 1559 were foreign-born; (1905) 6047; (1910) 5734. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Milwaukee, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways, by two interurban electric railways, and by steamboat lines on the lake and on the Fox river, which flows out of Lake Winnebago at this point. Several bridges connect it with Menasha, on the opposite side of the river, and the two cities form one industrial community. Doty Island, at the mouth of the river, belongs partly to Neenah and partly to Menasha. Neenah is a trade centre of the surrounding agricultural region, in which dairying, especially cheese-making, is carried on extensively. The Fox river (with a fall of 12 ft.) furnishes good water-power for the manufactories. There was a trading post at or near the site of Neenah during the French régime in Wisconsin, but there was no actual settlement until well into the 19th century. Neenah was chartered as a city in 1873; its name is derived from an Indian word meaning “running water” or “rapids.”