OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shrimp

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​SHRIMP, a name applied in general to the smaller crustacea of the order Macrura and in particular to an edible species found on the coasts of northern Europe (Crangon vulgaris). The shrimps and their allies are distinguished from the larger Macrura, such as the lobsters and crayfishes, by greater development of the paddle-like limbs of the abdomen or tail, which are used in swimming. The abdomen is usually sharply bent between the third and fourth segments and has a characteristically humped appearance when straightened out.
The common shrimp is found abundantly on the coasts of the British Islands, in shallow water wherever the bottom is sandy. It is 2 or 3 in. long, slightly flattened and with the rostrum or beak, in front of the carapace, very short. It is of a translucent greyish colour, speckled with brown and closely resembles the sand in which it lives. On many parts of the coast the shrimp fishery is of considerable importance. The instrument generally employed is a bag-shaped net attached to a semicircular hoop, provided with a long handle and pushed over the surface of the sand by a fisherman wading in the water at ebb-tide. When boiled, the body becomes of a brownish colour and on this account the species is sometimes termed the “brown shrimp.” The name of “pink shrimp” is given to Pandalus montagui or annulicornis, which turns red on boiling and which resembles in form the larger “prawns,” having a long rostrum or beak, saw-edged above and below. The smaller species of Leander, especially L. squilla, are sold as “cup shrimps” in some places.
The larger shrimp-like crustacea are generally known as “prawns,” the name being especially applied in Britain to the species Leander serratus, formerly called Palaemon serratus, which is highly esteemed for the table. In warmer seas many other kinds of prawns are caught for food. These are generally species of the genus Penaeus (like P. caramote of the Mediterranean) which are distinguished from all those already mentioned by having pincers on the first three, instead of only on the first two pairs of legs. The large river-prawns of the genus Palaemon ​(closely allied to Leander) found in most tropical countries are also often used as food. In the West Indies Palaemon jamaicensis, and in the East Indies Pal. carcinus attain almost the dimensions of full-grown lobsters.
The name of shrimps is sometimes given to members of the order Schizopoda, which differ from most of the Macrura in having swimming branches or exopodites on the thoracic legs. In particular the Schizopods of the family Mysidae, which are abundant in the sea round our coasts, are often called “Opossum-shrimps” from the fact that the female is provided with a ventral pouch or “marsupium” in which the eggs and young are carried. (W. T. Ca.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shroud

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​SHROUD (O. Eng. scrud, garment; cf. Icel. skrudh, in the secondary sense of rigging, allied with “shred,” O. Eng. screade, a piece, strip), originally a word meaning garment, clothing or covering, but now particularly applied to the garment in which a dead body is wrapped preparatory to burial, a winding sheet. The shroud is usually a long linen sheet wrapping the entire body. This was formerly dipped in melted wax (Lat. cera), whence the name “cerecloth,” often wrongly written serecloth or searcloth and “cerements.” In nautical usage the Icelandic meaning of skrudh, tackle, rigging of a ship, has been adopted in English; the “shrouds” of a ship are the set of ​ropes which stretch from the heads of a ship’s masts to the sides as supports (see Rigging).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shrove Tuesday

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​SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent, so called as the day on which “shrift” or confession was made in preparation for the great fast. Skeat (Etym. Dict.) derives the word “shrive,” of which “shrove” is the past tense, ultimately from the Lat. scribere, to write, to draw up a law, and hence to prescribe (cf. Ger. schreiben), through the Anglo-Saxon scrifan, to shrive, impose a penance, to judge. Shrove Tuesday is called the French Mardi gras, “Fat Tuesday,” in allusion to the fat ox which is ceremoniously paraded through the streets. The Germans know it as Fastendienstag. It is celebrated in Catholic countries, as the last day of the carnival, with feasting and merrymaking, of which, in England, the eating of pancakes alone survives as a social custom, the day having been called at one time “Pancake Tuesday.” The association of pancakes with the day was probably due to the necessity for using up all the eggs, grease, lard and dripping in stock preparatory to Lent, during which all these were forbidden.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philemon and Baucis

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​PHILEMON and BAUCIS, the hero and heroine of a beautiful story told by Ovid (Metam. viii. 610–715), the scene of which is laid in Phrygia. Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, visited earth in human form; tired and weary, they sought shelter for the night, but all shut their doors against them except an aged couple living in a humble cottage, who afforded them hospitality. Before their departure the gods revealed themselves, and bade their hosts follow them to the top of a mountain, to escape the punishment destined to fall on the rest of the inhabitants. The country was overwhelmed by a flood; the cottage, which alone remained standing, was changed into a magnificent temple. The gods appointed Philemon and Baucis priest and priestess, and granted their prayer that they might die together. After many years they were changed into trees—Philemon into an oak, Baucis into a lime. The story, which emphasizes the sacred duty of hospitality, is probably of Phrygian origin, put together from two widely circulated legends of the visits of gods to men, and of the preservation of certain individuals from the flood as the reward of piety. It lingers in the account (Acts xiv.) of the healing of the lame man by Paul at Lystra, the inhabitants of which identified Paul and Barnabas with Zeus and Hermes, "come down in the likeness of men."
Similar stories are given in J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie (Eng. trans., 1883, ii. 580, and iii. 38).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philes, Manuel

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​PHILES, MANUEL (c. 1275–1345), of Ephesus, Byzantine poet. At an early age he removed to Constantinople, where he was the pupil of Georgius Pachymeres, in whose honour he composed a memorial poem. Philes appears to have travelled extensively, and his writings contain much information concerning the imperial court and distinguished Byzantines. Having offended one of the emperors by indiscreet remarks published in a chronograph, he was thrown into pr1son and only released after an abject apology. Philes is the counterpart of Theodorus Prodromus in the time of the Comneni; his character, as shown in his poems, is that of a begging poet, always pleading poverty, and ready to descend to the grossest flattery to obtain the favourable notice of the great. With one unimportant exception, his productions are in verse, the greater part in dodecasyllabic iambic trimesters, the remainder in the fifteen-syllable “political” measure.
Philes was the author of poems on a great variety of subjects: on the characteristics of animals, chiefly based upon Aelian and Oppian, a didactic poem of some 2000 lines, dedicated to Michael Palaeologus; on the elephant; on plants, a neurological poem, probably written on the death of one of the sons of the imperial house; a panegyric on John Cantacuzene, in the form of a dialogue; a conversation between a man and his soul; on ecclesiastical subjects, such as church festivals, Christian beliefs, the saints and fathers of the church; on works of art, perhaps the most valuable of all his pieces for their bearing on Byzantine iconography, since the writer had before him the works he describes, and also the most successful from a literary point of view, occasional poems, many of which are simply begging letters in verse.
Editions the natural history poems in F Lehrs and F. Dubner, Poetae bucolici et didactici (Didot series, 1846); Manuelis Philae Carmina medita, ed. A. Martini (1900); Manuelis Philae Carmina ed. E Miller (1855–1857). See also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philidor, François André Danican

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​PHILIDOR, FRANÇOIS ANDRÉ DANICAN (1726–1795), French composer and chess-player, was born at Dreux, on the 7th of September 1726, of a musical family. The family name was Danican, but that of Philidor, added in the middle of the 17th century, eventually supplanted the older name. François André received a musical education as a member of the corps of pages attached to the orchestra of the king; and subsequently he earned his living by giving lessons and copying music. Much of his time was, however, devoted to chess, at which he soon became an expert. He spent many years in travelling on the Continent and in England, meeting and defeating the most noted players of the time, and is regarded as the strongest player and greatest theoretician of the 18th century. Returning to France in 1754, he resolved to devote himself seriously to musical composition, and after producing several works of minor importance brought out at Paris, in the year 1759, his successful light opera, Blaise le Savetier, which was followed by a number of others, notably Le Soldat magicien (1760), Le Jardinier et son seigneur (1761), Le Sorcier (1762), and Tom Jones (1764). He died in London on the 31st of August 1795.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip

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​PHILIP (Gr. Φίλιππος, fond of horses, from φιλείν, to love, and ίππος. horse, Lat. Philippus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe), a masculine proper name, popularized among the Christian nations as having been that of one of the apostles of Christ. Notices of distinguished men who have borne this name are arranged below in the following order: (1) Biblical; (2) Kings of Macedonia, France, Germany and Spain; (3) other rulers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philetas

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​PHILETAS of Cos, Alexandrian poet and critic, flourished in the second half of the 4th century B.C. He was tutor to the son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and also taught Theocritus and the grammarian Zenodotus. His thinness made him an object of ridicule; according to the comic poets, he carried lead in his shoes to keep himself from being blown away. Over-study of Megarian dialectic subtleties is said to have shortened his life. His elegies, chiefly of an amatory nature and singing the praises of his mistress Battis (or Bittis), were much admired by the Romans. He is frequently mentioned by Ovid and Propertius, the latter of whom imitated him and preferred him to his rival Callimachus, whose superior mythological lore was more to the taste of the Alexandrian critics. Philetas was also the author of a vocabulary called Ἄτακτα, explaining the meanings of rare ​and obscure words, including words peculiar to certain dialects; and of notes on Homer, severely criticized by Aristarchus.
Fragments edited by N. Bach (1828), and T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci; see also E. W. Maass, De tribus Philetae carminibus (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philemon

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​PHILEMON (c. 361–263 B.C.), Greek poet of the New Comedy, was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse. He settled at Athens early in life, and his first play was produced in 330. He was a contemporary and rival of Menander, whom he frequently vanquished in poetical contests. Posterity reversed the verdict and attributed Philemon's successes to unfair influence. He made a journey to the east, and resided at the court of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, for some time. Plutarch (De Cohibenda Ira, 9) relates that on his journey he was driven by a storm to Cyrene, and fell into the hands of its king Magas, whom he had formerly satirized. Magas treated him with contempt, and finally dismissed him with a present of toys. Various accounts of his death are given; a violent outburst of laughter, excess of joy at a dramatic victory, or a peaceful end while engaged in composing his last Work (Apuleius, Florida, 16; Lucian, Macrob. 25; Plutarch, An Seni, p. 725). Of the ninety-seven plays which he is said to have composed, the titles of fifty-seven and considerable fragments have been preserved. Some of these may have been the work of his son, the younger Philemon, who is said to have composed fifty-four comedies. The Merchant and The Treasure of Philemon were the originals respectively of the Mercator and Trinummus of Plautus. The fragments preserved by Stobaeus, Athenaeus and other writers contain much wit and good sense. Quintilian (Instit. x. 1, 72) ​assigned the second place among the poets of the New Comedy to Philemon, and Apuleius, who had a high opinion of him, has drawn a comparison between him and Menander.
See A. Meineke, Menandri et Philemonis reliquiae (1823, including Bentley’s emendations); T. Kock, Comicorum graecorum fragmenta, vol. iii (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Snow-shoes

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​SNOW-SHOES, a form of footgear devised for traveling over snow. Nearly every American Indian tribe has its own particular shape of shoe, the simplest and most primitive being those of the far north. The Eskimos possess two styles, one being triangular in shape and about 18 in. in length, and the other almost circular. Southward the shoe becomes gradually narrower and longer, the largest being the hunting snow-shoe of the Crees, which is nearly 6 ft. long and turned up at the toe. Of snow-shoes worn by people of European race that used by lumbermen is about 3½ ft. long and broad in proportion, while the tracker's shoe is over 5 ft. long and very narrow. This form has been copied by the Canadian snow-shoe clubs, who wear a shoe about 3½ ft. long and 15 to 18 in. broad, slightly turned up at the toe and terminating in a kind of tail behind. This is made very light for racing purposes, but much stouter for touring or hunting.
Snow-shoes are made of a single strip of some tough wood, usually hickory, curved round and fastened together at the ends and supported in the middle by a light cross-bar, the space within the frame thus made being filled with a close webbing of dressed caribou or neat's-hide strips, leaving a small opening just behind the cross-bar for the toe of the moccasined foot. They are fastened to the moccasin by leather thongs, sometimes by buckles. The method of walking is to lift the shoes slightly and slide the overlapping inner edges over each other, thus avoiding the unnatural and fatiguing " straddle-gait " that would otherwise be necessary. Immoderate snow-shoeing leads to serious lameness of the feet and ankles which the Canadian voyageurs call mal de raquette. Snow-shoe racing is very common in the Canadian snow-shoe clubs, and one of the events is a hurdle-race over hurdles 3 ft. 6 in. high. Owing to the thick forests of America the snow-shoe has been found to be more suitable for use than the Norwegian ski, which is, however, much used in the less-wooded districts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soap-bark

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​SOAP-BARK, the inner bark of Quillaja saponaria, a large tree which grows in Chile. Reduced to powder, it is employed as a substitute for soap, since it forms a lather with water, owing to the presence of a glucoside saponin, sometimes distinguished as Quillai saponin. The same, or a closely similar substance, is found in soap wort {Saponaria officinalis), in senega root (Polygala senega) and in sarsaparilla; it appears to be chemically related to digitonin, which occurs in digitalis. The saponins (with few exceptions) have the general formula C$_n$H$_{2n–8}$O$_{10}$, and by the action of dilute acids they are hydrolysed into sugars and sapogenins, which are usually inert pharmacologically. An alternative name for them, and especially for those which are pharmacologically active, is sapotoxins; on this nomenclature the hydrolytic products are termed saponins. Applied as a snuff to the mucous membrane of the nose, saponin (either in soap- bark or in senega root) promotes a violent sneezing. Solutions injected under the skin are violent local irritants and general depressants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Snow-line

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​SNOW-LINE. In the higher latitudes, and in the most elevated parts of the surface of the earth, the atmosphere may be normally so cold that precipitation is chiefly in the form of snow, which lies in great part unmelted. The snow-line is the imaginary line, whether in latitude or in altitude, above which these conditions exist. In the extreme polar regions they exist at sea-level, but below lat. 78° the snow-line begins to rise, since at the lower elevations the snow melts in summer. In N. Scandinavia the line is found at about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Alps at about 8500 ft., and on high mountains in the tropics at about 18,000 to 19,000 ft. These figures, however, can only be approximate, as many considerations render it impossible to employ the term " snow-line " as more than a convenient generalization.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Snuff

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​SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.), the name of a powdered preparation of tobacco used for inhalation (for the manufacture see Tobacco). The practice of inhaling snuff became common in England in the 17th century, and throughout the 18th century it was universal. At first each quantity inhaled was fresh grated (Fr. ráper), whence the coarser kinds were later known as " rappee. " This entailed the snuff-taker carrying with him a grater with a small spoon at one end and a box to hold the grated snuff at the other. Early 18th-century graters made of ivory and other material are in existence. Later the box and the grater were separated. The art and craft of the miniature painter, the enameller, jeweller and gold- and silver-smith was bestowed upon the box. The humbler snuff-takers were content with boxes of silver, brass or other metal, horn, tortoise-shell or wood. The mull (q.v.), a silver-mounted ram's head, is a large table snuff-box. Though " snuff-taking " ceased to be fashionable at the beginning of the 19th century, the gold and jewelled snuff-box has continued to be a typical gift of sovereigns to those whom they delight to honour.
This, word " snuff " must be distinguished from that meaning the charred inch of a candle or lamp, which is a variant of " snip " or " snop, " to cut off, trim, cf. Dan. snubbe. Constant trimming or snuffing of candles was a necessity until obviated by the modern methods of candle manufacture, and the snuffers consisted of a pair of scissors with a closed box forming a receptacle for the charred wick cut off; the snuffers usually had three small feet which allowed them to stand on a tray. Made of silver, silver-gilt or other metal, " snuffers " were formerly a decorative article of plate in the equipment of a household. There is a beautiful example of silver snuffers with enamel decorations in the British Museum. These belonged to Cardinal Bainbridge and date from the reign of Henry VIII.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Soane, Sir John

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​SOANE, SIR JOHN (1753–1837), English architect and art collector, was born near Reading of a humble family whose name of Swan he afterwards altered to Soan or Soane. His talent as a boy attracted the attention of George Dance, junior, the architect, who with other friends helped him on. He won the Royal Academy's silver (1772) and gold (1776) medals, and a travelling studentship, and went to Italy to study (1777–1780). Returning to England he got into practice as an architect, and in 1784 married a rich wife. He became architect to the Bank of England, which he practically rebuilt in its present form, and did other important public work. He became an A.R.A in 1795, and R.A. in 1802, and professor of architecture to the Royal Academy in 1806. In 1831 he was knighted. In his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields he brought together a valuable antiquarian museum (now the Soane Museum) , which in 1835 he presented to the nation with an endowment; and there he died in 1837. (See Museums.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Snowdrop

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​SNOWDROP, Galanthus nivalis, the best known representative of a small genus of the order Amaryllidaceae, all the species of which have bulbs, linear leaves and erect flower-stalks, destitute of leaves but bearing at the top a solitary pendulous bell-shaped flower. The white perianth is six-parted, the outer three segments being larger and more convex than the inner series. The six anthers open by pores or short slits. The ovary is three-celled, ripening into a three-celled capsule. The snowdrop is a doubtful native of Great Britain, but is largely cultivated for market in Lincolnshire. There are numerous varieties, differing in the size of the flower and the period of flowering. Other distinct species of snowdrop are the Crimean snowdrop, G. plicatus, with broad leaves folded like a fan, and G. Elwesii, a native of the Levant, with large flowers, the three inner segments of which have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch than the commoner kinds. All the species thrive in almost ​any soil or position, and when once planted should be left to themselves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Snyders, Franz

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​SNYDERS, FRANZ (1579–1657), Flemish painter of animals and still life, was born and died at Antwerp. In 1593 he was studying under Pieter Breughel the younger, and afterwards received instruction from Hendrick van Balen, the first master of Van Dyck. He devoted himself to painting flowers, fruit and subjects of still life, but afterwards turned to animal-painting, and executed with the greatest skill and spirit hunting pieces and combats of wild animals. His composition is rich and varied, his drawing correct and vigorous, his touch bold and thoroughly expressive of the different textures of furs and skins. His excellence in this department excited the admiration of Rubens, who frequently employed him to paint animals, fruit and still life in his own pictures, and he assisted Jordaens in a similar manner. In the lion and boar hunts which bear the name of Snyders the hand of Rubens sometimes appears. He was appointed principal painter to the archduke Albert, governor of the Low Countries, for whom he executed some of his finest works. One of these, a " Stag-Hunt," was presented to Philip III., who commissioned the artist to paint several subjects of the chase, which are still preserved in Spain.