OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bentivoglio, Giovanni

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​BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI (1443–1508), tyrant of Bologna, descended from a powerful family which exercised great influence in Bologna during the 15th century, was born after the murder of his father, then chief magistrate of the commune. In 1462 Giovanni contrived to make himself master of the city, although it was nominally a fief of the church under a papal legate. He ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, but the brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and his ​decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices, to some extent compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare Borgia (q.v.) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1500, when he was crushing the various despots of Romagna, but Bentivoglio was saved for the moment by French intervention. In 1502 he took part in the conspiracy against Cesare, but, when the latter obtained French assistance, he abandoned his fellow-conspirators and helped Borgia to overcome them. During the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded Alexander VI. in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope, Julius II., was determined to reduce all the former papal states to obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side, he led an army against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio and forced him to abandon the city (November 1506). The deposed tyrant took refuge with the French, whom he trusted more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508.
Bibliography.—P. Litta, Le Famiglie celebri Italiane, vol, iii. (Milan, 1834); P. Villari, Machiavelli (Eng. trans., London, 1892); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (London, 1897); A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868). (L. V.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bentivoglio, Guido

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​BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO (1579–1644), Italian cardinal, statesman and historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. After studying at Padua, he went to reside at Rome, and was received with great favour by Pope Clement VIII., who made him his private chamberlain. The next pope, Paul V., created him archbishop of Rhodes in 1607, and appointed him as nuncio to Flanders and afterwards to France; on his return to Rome in 1621 he was created cardinal and entrusted by Louis XIII. with the management of French affairs at the papal court. He became the intimate friend of Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him to the suburban see of Palestrina in 1691. An able writer and skilful diplomatist, Bentivoglio was marked out as Urban’s successor, but he died suddenly on the 7th of September 1644 at the opening of the conclave. Bentivoglio’s principal works are:—Della Guerra di Fiandria (best edition, Cologne, 1633–1639), translated into English by Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654); Relazioni di G. Bentivoglio in tempo delle sue Nunziature di Fiandria e di Francia (Cologne, 1630); Lettere diplomatiche di Guido Bentivoglio (Brussels, 1631, frequently reprinted, best edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 vols., Turin, 1852). The complete edition of his works was published at Venice in 1668 in 4to. A selection of his letters has been adopted as a classic in the Italian schools.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bentinck, Lord William

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​BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM (1774–1839), governor-general of India, was the second son of the 3rd duke of Portland and was born on the 14th of September 1774. He entered the army, rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and was present at Marengo. In 1803 he was nominated governor of Madras, where he quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir Henry Gwillim, and several members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at Vellore in 1807 led to his recall. His name was considered at this time for the post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead; and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord Amherst in that office. His governor-generalship (1827–1835) was notable for many reforms, chief among which were the suppression of the Thugs (q.v.), the abolition of suttee, and the making of the English language the basis of education in India. It was on this last subject that Lord Macaulay’s famous minute was written. Lord William’s administration was essentially peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died at Paris on the 17th of June 1839.
See Demetrius C. Boulger, Lord William Bentinck, in the “Rulers of India” series (1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cutch, Gulf of

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​CUTCH, GULF OF, an inlet of the sea on the coast of western India. It lies between the peninsula of Kathiawar and that of Cutch, leading into the Runn of Cutch.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Custos Rotulorum

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​CUSTOS ROTULORUM, the keeper of the English county records, and by virtue of that office the highest civil officer in the county. The appointment until 1545 lay with the lord chancellor, but is now exercised by the crown under the royal sign-manual, and is usually held by a person of rank, most frequently the lord-lieutenant of the county. He is one of the justices of the peace. In practice the records are in the custody of the clerk of the peace. This latter official was, until 1888, appointed by the custos rotulorum, but since the passing of the Local Government Act of that year, the appointment is made by the standing joint-committee of the county council. Lambarde described the custos rotulorum as a “man for the most part especially picked out either for wisdom, countenance or credit.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cutch, Runn of

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​CUTCH, RUNN OF, or Rann of Kach, a salt morass on the western coast of India in the native state of Cutch. From May to October it is flooded with salt water and communicates, at its greatest extent, with the Gulf of Cutch on the west and the Gulf of Cambay on the east, these two gulfs being united during the monsoon. It varies in breadth from five to eighty miles across, and during the rains is nearly impassable for horsemen. The total area of this immense morass is estimated at about 8000 sq. m., without including any portion of the Gulf of Cutch, which is in parts so shallow as to resemble a marshy fen rather than an arm of the sea. The Runn is said to be formed by the overflow of the rivers Pharan, Luni, Banas and others, during the monsoon; but in December it is quite dry, and in most places hard, but in some moist and muddy. The soil is impregnated ​with salt, and the Runn is an important source for the supply of salt. The present condition of the Runn is probably the result of some natural convulsion, but the exact method of its formation is disputed. The wild ass is very common on the borders of this lake, being seen in herds of 60 or 70 together.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cuthbert, Saint

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​CUTHBERT, SAINT (d. 687), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably a Northumbrian by birth. According to the extant Lives he was led to take the monastic vows by a vision at the death of bishop Aidan, and the date of his entry at Melrose would be 651. At this time Eata was abbot there, and Boisel, who is mentioned as his instructor, prior, in which office Cuthbert succeeded him about 661, having previously spent some time at the monastery of Ripon with Eata. Bede gives a glowing picture of his missionary zeal at Melrose, but in 664 he was transferred to act as prior at Lindisfarne. In 676 he became an anchorite on the island of Farne, and it is said that he performed miracles there. In 684 at the council of Twyford in Northumberland, Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, prevailed upon him to give up his solitary life and become a bishop. He was consecrated at York in the following year as bishop of Hexham, but afterwards he exchanged his see with Eata for that of Lindisfarne. In 687 he retired to Farne, and died on the island on the 20th of March 687, the same day as his friend Hereberht, the anchorite of Derwentwater. He was buried in the island of Lindisfarne, but his remains were afterwards deposited at Chester-le-Street, and then at Durham.
Another Cuthbert was bishop of Hereford from 736 to about 740, and archbishop of Canterbury from the latter date until his death in October 758.
There are several lives of St Cuthbert, the best of which is the prose life by Bede, which is published in Bede’s Opera, edited by J. Stevenson (1841). See also C. Eyre, The History of St Cuthbert (1887); and J. Raine, St Cuthbert (1828).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Custom-house

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​CUSTOM-HOUSE, the house or office appointed by a government where the taxes or duties (if any) are collected upon the importation and exportation of commodities; where duties, bounties or drawbacks payable or receivable upon exportation or importation are paid or received, and where vessels are entered and cleared. In the United Kingdom there is usually a custom-house established at every port or harbour to which any considerable amount of shipping resorts, the officer in charge being called “collector of customs”; in the minor ports the officer is usually termed “superintendent of customs” or “principal coast officer.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Customs Duties

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​CUSTOMS DUTIES, the name given to taxes on the import and export of commodities. They rank among the most ancient, as they continue to prevail as one of the most common modes, in all countries, of levying revenue for public purposes. In an insular country like the United Kingdom customs duties came in process of time to be levied only or chiefly in the seaports, and thus applied only to the foreign commerce, where they may be brought under the control of fair and reasonable principles of taxation. But this simplification of customs duties was only reached by degrees; and during a long period special customs were levied on goods passing between England and Scotland; and the trade of Ireland with Great Britain and with foreign countries was subjected to fiscal regulations which could not now stand in the light of public reason. The taxes levied, on warrant of some ancient grant or privilege, upon cattle or goods at a bridge or a ferry or other point of passage from one county or province to another, of which there are some lingering remains even in the United Kingdom, and those levied at the gates of cities on the produce of the immediate country—a not uncommon form of municipal taxation on the European continent—are all of the nature of customs dues. It is from the universality of this practice that the English term “customs” appears to have been derived.
See Taxation; Protection; Tariff.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Custozza

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​CUSTOZZA, a village of Italy, in the province of Verona, 11 m. S.W. of Verona, famous as the scene of two battles between the Austrians and the Italians in the struggle for Italian unity. The first battle of Custozza was fought on the 23rd-25th of July 1848, the Austrians commanded by Field-Marshal Radetzky being victorious over the Piedmontese army under King Charles Albert. The second battle was fought on the 24th of June 1866, and resulted in the complete victory of the Austrians under the archduke Albert, over the Italian army of King Victor Emmanuel I. (See Italian Wars, 1848–1870.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Custrin

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​CÜSTRIN, or Küstrin, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, a fortress of the first rank, at the confluence of the Oder and Warthe, 18 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Oder and 51 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,473 (including the garrison). It consists of the town proper within the strong fortifications, a suburb on the left bank of the Oder, and one on the right bank of the Warthe. There are three Evangelical churches and one Roman Catholic, and a handsome town hall. There are bridges over both rivers. Cüstrin has some manufactories of potato-meal, machinery, pianos, furniture, cigars, &c., and there is a considerable river trade.
About 1250 a town was erected on the site of Cüstrin, where a fishing village originally stood. From 1535 till 1571 it was the residence of John, margrave of Brandenburg-Cüstrin, who died without male heirs in 1571. Cüstrin was the prison of Frederick the Great when crown-prince, and the scene of the execution of his friend Hans Hermann von Katte on the 6th of November 1730.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Customary Freehold

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​CUSTOMARY FREEHOLD, in English law, a species of tenure which may be described as a variety of copyhold. It is also termed privileged copyhold or copyhold of frank tenure. It is a tenure by copy of court roll, but not expressed to be at the will of the lord. It is, in fact, only a superior kind of copyhold, and the freehold is in the lord. It is subject to the general law of copyholds, except where the law may be varied by the custom of the particular manor. (See Copyhold.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Narborough, Sir John

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​NARBOROUGH, SIR JOHN (d. 1688), English naval commander, was descended from an old Norfolk family. He received his commission in 1664, and in 1666 was promoted lieutenant for gallantry in the action with the Dutch fleet off the Downs in June of that year. After the peace he was chosen to conduct a voyage of exploration in the South Seas. He set sail from Deptford on the 26th of November 1669, and entered the Straits of Magellan in October of the following year, but returned home in June 1671 without accomplishing his original purpose. A narrative of the expedition was published at London in 1694 under the title An Account of several late Voyages and Discoveries to the South and North. During the second Dutch War Narborough was second captain of the lord high-admiral’s ship the ​“Prince,” and conducted himself with such conspicuous valour at the battle of Solebay (Southwold Bay) in May 1672 that he won special approbation, and shortly afterwards was made rear-admiral and knighted. In 1675 he was sent to suppress the Tripoline piracies, and by the bold expedient of despatching gun-boats into the harbour of Tripoli at midnight and burning the ships he induced the dey to agree to a treaty. Shortly after his return he undertook a similar expedition against the Algerines. In 1680 he was appointed commissioner of the navy, an office he held till his death in 1688. He was buried at Knowlton church, Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory.
See Charnock, Biog. Nav. i.; Hist. MSS. Comm. 12th Rept.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nardi, Jacopo

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​NARDI, JACOPO (b. 1476), Florentine historian, occupied various positions in the service of the Florentine republic after the expulsion of the Medici in 1494, and even on their return in 1512 he continued in the public service. In 1527 he joined in the movement for the expulsion of the family and was instrumental in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Passerini, who were attacking the Palazzo della Signoria. When the Medici again definitely became masters of Florence in 1530, Nardi was exiled from the city and his property confiscated. He spent the rest of his days in various parts of Italy, chiefly in Venice, and wrote a statement of the claims of the Florentine exiles against the Medici, addressed to the emperor Charles V. The exact date of his death is unknown. His chief work is his Istorie della Città di Firenze, covering the period from 1498 to 1538, in part based on Biagio Buonaccorsi’s Diario.
L. Arbib’s edition of Nardi’s history (Florence, 1842) contains a biography of the author, and so does that of Agenore Gelli (Florence, 1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nares, Sir George Strong

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​NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831–), English Arctic explorer, son of a captain in the navy, was educated at the Royal Naval College at New Cross, and entered the navy in 1846. After being employed for some time on the Australian station, in 1852 he became mate of the “Resolute” in the Arctic expedition which was sent out in that year. Serving in the Crimea upon his return, he was appointed lieutenant in charge of the naval cadets on the inauguration of the “Britannia” training ship, and was then employed in surveying work on the N.E. coast of Australia and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of captain in 1869. While in command of the “Challenger” (1872–1874), in the famous voyage of deep-sea exploration round the world, he was ordered home to take command of the Arctic expedition which set sail in the spring of 1875 in the ships “Alert” and “Discovery.” He published a narrative of the voyage on his return, and for his services was made K.C.B. (1876). Two years later he was sent in command of the “Alert” to survey Magellan Strait. From 1879 to 1896 he was attached to the Harbour Department of the Board of Trade. He retired from active service in 1886, and became a vice-admiral in 1892. (See Polar Regions.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Narbonne-Lara, Louis Marie Jacques Amalric, Comte de

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​NARBONNE-LARA, LOUIS MARIE JACQUES AMALRIC, Comte de (1755–1813), French soldier and diplomatist, was born at Colorno, in the duchy of Parma, on the 24th of August 1755. He was the son of one of the ladies-in-waiting of Elizabeth, duchess of Parma, and his father was either a Spanish nobleman or—as has been alleged—Louis XV. himself. He was brought up at Versailles with the princesses of France, and was made colonel at the age of twenty-five. He became maréchal-de-camp in 1791, and, through the influence of Madame de Stael, was appointed minister of war. But he showed incapacity in this post, gave in his resignation, and joined the Army of the North. Incurring suspicion as a Feuillant and also by his policy at the war office, he emigrated after the 10th of August 1792, visited England, Switzerland and Germany, and returned to France in 1801. In 1809 he re-entered the army as general of division, and was subsequently minister plenipotentiary at Munich and aide de camp to Napoleon. In 1813 he was appointed French ambassador at Vienna, where he was engaged in an unequal diplomatic duel with Metternich (q.v.) during the fateful months that witnessed the defection of Austria from the cause of Napoleon to that of the Allies. He died at Torgau, in Saxony, on the 17th of November 1813.
See A. F. Villemain, Souvenirs contemporains (Paris, 1854).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Narainganj

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​NARAINGANJ, or Narayanganj, a town of India, in the Dacca district of eastern Bengal and Assam, situated near the junction of two rivers with the Meghna, 10 m. by rail S. of Decca city. Pop. (1901) 24,472. As the port of Dacca, having steamer communication with both Calcutta and Chittagong, it has become the chief entrepot for the jute trade of eastern Bengal. There are 73 jute-presses, employing 6000 hands, and the annual export of jute exceeds 300,000 tons. It also ranks as the model municipality of Bengal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Narcissus (mythology)

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​NARCISSUS, in Greek mythology, son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Leiriope, distinguished for his beauty. The seer Teiresias told his mother that he would have a long life, provided he never looked upon his own features. His rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) drew upon him the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed himself) and the flower that bears his name sprang up on the spot where he died. According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console himself for the death of a favourite twin-sister, his exact counterpart, sat gazing into the spring to recall her features by his own. Narcissus, representing the early spring-flower, which for a brief space beholds itself mirrored in the water and then fades, is one of the many youths whose premature death is recorded in Greek mythology (cf. Adonis, Linus, Hyacinthus); the flower itself was regarded as a symbol of such death. It was the last flower gathered by Persephone before she was carried off by Hades, and was sacred to Demeter and Core (the cult name of Persephone), the great goddesses of the underworld. From its associations Wieseler takes Narcissus himself to be a spirit of the underworld, of death and rest. It is possible that the story may have originated in the superstition (alluded to by Artemidorus, Oneirocritica, ii. 7) that it was an omen of death to dream of seeing one’s reflection in water.
See Ovid, Metam. iii. 341–510; Pausanias ix. 31; Conon, Narrationes, 24; F. Wieseler, Narkissos (1856); Greve in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i. 293.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maneteneris

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​MANETENERIS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Purus river, and between it and the Jurua, north-western Brazil. They manufacture cotton cloth, and have iron axes and fish hooks. The men wear long ponchos, the women sacks open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are essentially a waterside people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and beautifully made.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mangabey

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​MANGABEY, a name (probably of French origin) applied to the West African monkeys of the genus Cercocebus, the more typical representatives of which are characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. (See Primates.)