OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fedchenko, Alexis Pavlovich

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​FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH (1844–1873), Russian naturalist and traveller, well known for his explorations in central Asia, was born at Irkutsk, in Siberia, on the 7th of February 1844; and, after attending the gymnasium of his native town, proceeded to the university of Moscow, for the study more especially of zoology and geology. In 1868 he travelled through Turkestan, the district of the lower Syr-Darya and Samarkand; and shortly after his return he set out for Khokand, where he visited a large portion of territory till then unknown. Soon after his return to Europe he perished on Mont Blanc while engaged in an exploring tour in Switzerland, on the 15th of September 1873.
Accounts of the explorations and discoveries of Fedchenko have been published by the Russian government,—his Journeys in Turkestan in 1874, In the Khanat of Khokand in 1875, and Botanical Discoveries in 1876. See Petermann’s Mittheilungen (1872–1874).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Niepce, Joseph Nicéphore

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​NIEPCE, JOSEPH NICÉPHORE (1765–1833), French physicist, and one of the inventors of photography, was born at Châlon-sur-Saône on the 7th of March 1765. In 1792 he entered the army as a sub-lieutenant, and in the following year he saw active service in Italy. Ill-health and failing eyesight compelled him to resign his commission before he had risen above the rank of lieutenant; but in 1795 he was nominated administrateur of the district of Nice, and he held the post until 1801. Returning in that year to his birthplace, he devoted himself along with his elder brother Claude (1763–1828) to mechanical and chemical researches; and in 1811 he directed his attention to the rising art of lithography. In 1813 the idea of obtaining sun pictures first suggested itself to him in this connexion; and in 1826 he learned that L. J. M. Daguerre was working in the same direction. In 1829 the two united their forces, “pour coopérer au perfectionnement de la découverte inventée par M. Niepce et perfectionnée par M. Daguerre” (see also Photography). Niepce died at Gras, his property near Châlon, on the 3rd of July 1833. A nephew, Claude Félix Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor (1805–1870), served with distinction in the army, and also made important contributions towards the advancement of the art of photography; he published Recherches photographiques (Paris, 1855) and Traité pratique de gravure héliographique sur acier et sur verre (Paris, 1866).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nieuport

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​NIEUPORT (Flem. Nieuwpoort), a town of Belgium in the province of West Flanders. Pop. (1904) 3780. It was the port of Ypres, and is situated on the Yser about 10 m. S. of Ostend. It was strongly fortified in the middle ages and its siege by the French in 1488–1489 is an episode of its heroic period. Under its walls in 1600 Maurice of Nassau defeated the Archduke Albert and the Spaniards. It contains an ancient cloth market, a fine town-hall and an old church, and outside is a lighthouse dating from 1289. Nieuport Bains, 2 m. from the town, is a fashionable seaside resort dating only from 1869. It has a fine pier extending 1500 yds. out to sea and flanking the entrance to the Yser, which has been canalized. The bathing is excellent, and in the season the place is largely frequented by visitors.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Niger, Gaius Pescennius

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​NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS, governor of Syria under the emperor Commodus. On the death of Pertinax (A.D. 193), he was saluted emperor by the troops at Antioch, but unaccountably delayed marching on Rome until he learned that Septimius Severus, one of the rival claimants, had assumed the offensive. He then strongly garrisoned Byzantium and the principal towns of Asia Minor, but after his legate Aemilianus had been defeated and slain near Cyzicus he himself was driven from Nicaea and routed near the Cilician Gates. Having failed in an effort to escape towards the Euphrates, he was brought back and put to death in 194.
Aelius Spartianus, Pescennius Niger; Dio Cassius lxxii. 8; lxxiii. 13, 14.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nifo, Agostino

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​NIFO, AGOSTINO [Augustinus Niphus] (c. 1473–1538 or 1545), Italian philosopher and commentator, was born at Japoli in Calabria. He settled for a time at Sezza and subsequently proceeded to Padua, where he studied philosophy. He lectured at Padua, Naples, Rome and Pisa, and won so high a reputation that he was deputed by Leo X. to defend the Catholic doctrine of Immortality against the attack of Pomponazzi and the Alexandrists. In return for this he was made Count Palatine, with the right to call himself by the name Medici. In his early thought he followed Averroes, but afterwards modified his views so far as to make himself acceptable to the orthodox Catholics. In 1495 he produced an edition of the works of Averroes; with a commentary compatible with his acquired orthodoxy. In the great controversy with the Alexandrists he opposed the theory of Pomponazzi that the rational soul is inseparably bound up with the material part of the individual, and hence that the death of the body carries with it the death of the soul. He insisted that the individual soul, as part of absolute intellect, is indestructible, and on the death of the body is merged in the eternal unity.
His principal philosophical works are De immortalitate animi (1518 and 1524); De intellectu et daemonibus; De infinitate primi motoris quaestio and Opuscula moralia et politica. His numerous commentaries on Aristotle were widely read and frequently reprinted, the best-known edition being one printed at Paris in 1654 in fourteen volumes (including the Opuscula).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nigdeh

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​NIGDEH (Arab. Nakidah), the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on the Kaisarieh-Cilician Gates road. It is remarkable for the beauty of its buildings, dating from almost all ages of the Seljuk period. After the fall of the sultanate of Rum (of which it had been one of the principal cities), Nigdeh became independent, and, according to Ibu Batuta, ruinous, and did not pass into Ottoman hands till the time of Mahommed II. It represents no classical town, but, with Bor, has inherited the importance of Tyana, ​whose site lies about 10 m. S.W. A Hittite-inscribed monument brought perhaps from Tyana, has been found at Nigdeh. The population (20,000) includes a large Greek and a small Armenian community. The Orthodox metropolitan of Iconium resides here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nigel

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​NIGEL (d. 1169), bishop of Ely, head of the exchequer in the reigns of Henry I. and Henry II., was brought into the exchequer in early life (1130). Soon after his uncle Roger of Salisbury secured him the bishopric of Ely, much to the disgust of the monks. Nigel was at first retained in Stephen’s service; but, like his uncle and his brothers, incurred the suspicion of leaning towards the Angevin interest, when Roger of Salisbury and Alexander of Lincoln were arrested by Stephen (January 1139). Nigel attempted to maintain himself in his see by force of arms, but he was forced to fly to the empress at Gloucester. He was reconciled to Stephen in 1142 and restored to his see; but he now became involved in a quarrel with the powerful Henry of Winchester. Ranulph, his first treasurer and representative at Ely, had been extortionate and dishonest, and the monks accused Nigel, probably with some justification, of spending the estates and treasures of the see in maintaining knights and gaining court influence. Henry of Winchester, who can have had little sympathy with bishops of Nigel’s type, took up their quarrel, and Nigel was forced to go to Rome. Fortunately, both in these quarrels and in all his difficulties with Stephen, he secured the strong and uniform support of the Roman Curia. At the accession of Henry II. (1154) Nigel was summoned to reorganize the exchequer. He was the only surviving minister of Henry I., and his knowledge of the exchequer business was unrivalled. This was the great work of his life. It is to the work of his son Richard, the Dialogus de Scaccario, that we are indebted for our knowledge of the procedure of the exchequer as it was left by Nigel. The bishop took little part in politics, except as an administrator. In 1166 his health was broken by a paralytic seizure. Except for another quarrel with his monks, who accused him of despoiling their church and gained the ear of Pope Adrian, the last part of his life was laborious and uneventful.
See Dr Liebermann’s Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario; J. H. Round’s Geoffrey de Mandeville.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nieremberg, Juan Eusebio

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​NIEREMBERG, JUAN EUSEBIO (1595–1658), Spanish Jesuit and mystic, was born at Madrid in 1595, joined the Society of Jesus in 1614, and subsequently became lecturer on Scripture at the Jesuit seminary in Madrid, where he died on the 7th of April 1658. He was highly esteemed in devout circles as the author of De la afición y amor de Jesús (1630), and De la afición y amor de María (1630), both of which were translated into Arabic, Flemish, French, German, Italian and Latin. These works, together with the Prodigios del amor divino (1641), are now forgotten, but Nieremberg’s version (1656) of the Imitation is still a favourite, and his eloquent treatise, De la hermosura de Dios y su amabilidad (1649), is the last classical manifestation of mysticism in Spanish literature. Nieremberg has not the enraptured vision of St Theresa, nor the philosophic significance of Luis de León, and the unvarying sweetness of his style is cloying; but he has exaltation, unction, insight, and his book forms no unworthy close to a great literary tradition.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nierstein

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​NIERSTEIN, a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 8 m. S. from Mainz by the railway to Worms. Pop. (1905) 4445. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, an old Roman bath—Sironabad—and sulphur springs. It is famous for its wines, in which a large export trade is done. Nierstein was originally a Roman settlement, and was a royal residence under the Carolingian rulers. Later it passed from the emperor to the elector palatine of the Rhine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glaucus 4.

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​4. Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found himself opposed to Diomedes, with whom he was connected by ties of hospitality, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes brazen, the expression “golden for brazen” (Iliad, vi. 236) came to be used proverbially for a bad exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain by Ajax.
All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gleichen

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​GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named from their resemblance to each other (Ger. gleich = like, or resembling). The first is a group of three, each situated on a hill in Thuringia between Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener Gleiche (1221 ft. above the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the emperor Henry IV. in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of whom, Ernest III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend. Having been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a Turkish woman, who returned with him to Germany and became his wife, a papal dispensation allowing him to live with two wives at the same time (see Reineck, Die Sage von der Doppelehe eines Grafen von Gleichen, 1891). After belonging to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property of Prussia in 1803. The second castle is called Mühlburg (1309 ft. above the sea). This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. in 1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third castle, Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains a collection of weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession of it in 1368. It was built about 935 (see Beyer, Die drei Gleichen, Erfurt, 1898). The other group consists of two castles, Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. Both are in ruins and crown two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Göttingen.
The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage with Miss Laura Seymour, daughter of Admiral Sir George Francis Seymour, a branch of the Hohenlohe family having at one time owned part of the county of Gleichen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glaucus 3.

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​3. Glaucus, the son of Minos and Pasiphaë. When a child, while playing at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to Aesculapius. The story was the subject of plays by the three great Greek tragedians, and was often represented in mimic dances.
See Hyginus, Fab. 136; Apollodorus iii. 3. 10; C. Höck, Kreta, iii. 1829; C. Eckermann, Melampus, 1840.
All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig

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​GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719–1803), German poet, was born on the 2nd of April 1719 at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt. Having studied law at the university of Halle he became secretary to Prince William of Brandenburg-Schwedt at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald von Kleist, whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of Dessau; but he soon gave up his position, not being able to bear the roughness of the “Old Dessauer.” After residing a few years in Berlin he was appointed, in 1747, secretary of the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt. “Father Gleim” was the title accorded to him throughout all literary Germany on account of his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace and the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled Halladat oder das rote Buch (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (1758). These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II., are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of that long series of noble political songs in which later German literature is so rich. With this exception, Gleim’s writings are for the most part tamely commonplace in thought and expression. He died at Halberstadt on the 18th of February 1803.
Gleim’s Sämtliche Werke appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811–1813; a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by ​A. Sauer in 1882. A good selection of Gleim’s poetry will be found in F. Muncker, Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker (1894). See W. Körte, Gleims Leben aus seinen Briefen und Schriften (1811). His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols. (1894–1896), with Uz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schüddekopf.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glaucus 2.

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​2. Glaucus, usually surnamed Potnieus, from Potniae near Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil, Georgics, iii. 267; Hyginus, Fab. 250, 273). On the isthmus of Corinth, and also at Olympia and Nemea, he was worshipped as Taraxippus (“terrifier of horses”), his ghost being said to appear and frighten the horses at the games (Pausanias vi. 20). He is closely akin to Glaucus Pontius, the frantic horses of the one probably representing the stormy waves, the other the sea in its calmer mood. He also was the subject of a lost drama of Aeschylus.
All the above are exhaustively treated by R. Gaedechens in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glazunov, Alexander Constantinovich

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​GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865– ), Russian musical composer, was born in St Petersburg on the 10th of August 1865, his father being a publisher and bookseller. He showed an early talent for music, and studied for a year or so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he composed a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as op. 5), but his opus 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte suite on S-a-c-h-a, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 1884 he was taken up by Liszt, and soon became known as a composer. His first symphony was played that year at Weimar, and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris exhibition in 1889. In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were performed in London under his own conducting. In 1900 he became professor at the St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works, including orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian school, and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared with contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form, and he was much influenced by Brahms, though in “programme music” he is represented by such works as his symphonic poems The Forest, Stenka Razin, The Kremlin and his suite Aus dem Mittelalter. His ballet music, as in Raymonda, achieved much popularity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Glebe

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​GLEBE (Lat. glaeba, gleba, clod or lump of earth, hence soil, land), in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance of the incumbent of a church. Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, s.v. “Glebe Lands”) says: “Every church of common right is entitled to house and glebe, and the assigning of them at the first was of such absolute necessity that without them no church could be regularly consecrated. The house and glebe are both comprehended under the word manse, of which the rule of the canon law is, sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur.” In the technical language of English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in abeyance, that is, it exists “only in the remembrance, expectation and intendment of the law.” But the freehold is in the parson, although at common law he could alienate the same only with proper consent,—that is, in his case, with the consent of the bishop. The disabling statutes of Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops, 1559, and Dilapidations, &c., 1571) made void all alienations by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for the term of twenty-one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 27, Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let on lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres of glebe situate most conveniently for occupation must not be leased. By the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 108) and 1858 glebe lands may be let on building leases for not more than ninety-nine years and on mining leases for not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842, the Glebe Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister’s dwelling-house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in addition to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot claim a glebe unless there be a landowner’s district annexed; and even in that case, when there are two ministers, it is only the first who has a claim.
See Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed.); Cripps, Law of Church and Clergy; Leach, Tithe Acts (6th ed.); Dart, Vendors and Purchasers (7th ed.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hartford City

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​HARTFORD CITY, a city and the county-seat of Blackford county, Indiana, U.S.A., 62 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 2287; (1900) 5912 (572 foreign-born); (1910) 6187. The city is served by the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati & Louisville, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and the Indiana Union Traction line (electric). There are oil and natural gas wells in the vicinity, and the city has pulp and paper mills, glass and tile works, and manufactories of woodenware, and nitro-glycerine and powder. The municipality owns and operates its water-works system. The first settlement in the vicinity was made in 1832. Hartford City became the county-seat of Blackford county when that county was erected in 1837; it was laid out in 1839 and was first incorporated as a town in 1867.