OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roubaix

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​ROUBAIX, a manufacturing town of northern France, in the department of Nord, 6 m. N.E. of Lille on the railway to Ghent. Pop. (1906) 110,055. Roubaix is situated about a mile from the Belgian frontier on the Roubaix Canal, which connects the lower Deule with the Scheldt by way of the Marcq and the Espierre. Tramways connect the town with Lille and with the neighbouring communes of Tourcoing (pop. 62,694), Croix (pop. 16,202) and Wattrelos (pop. 14,618), with which it unites to form one great industrial centre. The chief business of Roubaix is the woollen manufacture, but cotton, silk and other materials are also produced. The chief of these are fancy and figured stuffs for garments, velvet and upholstering fabrics. Wool-combing and wool-dressing works, spinning-mills, weaving establishments, dye-houses and printing-works occupy some 50,000 work-people, and four hundred firms act as commission agents for the sale of raw material and the other requisites for the industry. Power is supplied chiefly by steam, less than 5000 out of 28,000 looms being hand-looms. There are breweries, rubber-works, metal foundries and machinery-works in the town. Tomato and grape growing under glass for the winter market is extensively prosecuted. To maintain the high standard of artistic taste which has made the industry of Roubaix a success, schools have been multiplied. By the co-operation of the town and the state the national school of industrial arts was founded in 1883. This is a small university of art, commerce and industry, the twenty-two courses of which include all the branches of knowledge useful in any of those pursuits. Among the public institutions are the tribunal of commerce and the chamber of commerce, the exchange, a board of trade-arbitration and the establishment (bureau de conditionnement) for determining the nature and weight of silk, wool and cotton.
The prosperity of Roubaix had its origin in the first factory franchise granted in 1469 by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, to Peter, lord of Roubaix, a descendant of the royal house of Brittany. In the 18th century Roubaix suffered from the jealousy of Lille of which it was a dependency, and it was not till the 10th century that its industries acquired real importance. The population, which in 1804 was only 8700, had risen in 1861 to 40,000, in 1866 to 65,000, and in 1876 to 83,000.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roucher, Jean Antoine

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​ROUCHER, JEAN ANTOINE (1745–1794), French poet, the son of a tailor of Montpellier, was born on the 22nd of February 1745. By an epithalamium on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette he gained the favour of Turgot, and obtained ​a salt-tax collector ship. His poem was entitled Les Mais; it appeared in 1779, was praised in MS., damned in print and restored to a just appreciation by the students of literature of the 19th century. It has the drawbacks of merely didactic descriptive poetry on the great scale, but occasionally displays much grace and spirit. The malicious wit of Rivarol's mot on the ill-success of the poem, “C’est le plus beau naufrage du siècle,” is not intelligible unless it is said that one of the most elaborate passages describes a shipwreck. Roucher was a disciple of Voltaire, and therefore a friend of the Revolution, but he remained moderate in his opinions. He frequently presided over an anti-Jacobin club, and denounced the tyranny of the popular demagogues in supplements published with the Journal de Paris in 1792. He was arrested on the 4th of October 1793, and, accused of being the leader of a conspiracy among the prisoners at Saint Lazare, was sent to the guillotine on the same tumbril with his friend André Chénier on the 25th of July 1794. Roucher translated in 1790 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. His letters from prison were edited by his son-in-law under the title of Consolations de ma captivité (1797), and his death was made the subject of a tragedy in 1834 by his brother Claude Roucher-Deratte, a voluminous writer.
See A. Guillois, Pendant la terreur, la poète Roucher, 1745–1794 (1890), founded on the poet's papers by one of his descendants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rouelle, Guillaume François

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​ROUELLE, GUILLAUME FRANÇOIS (1703–1770), French chemist, was born in 1703 at Mathieu, near Caen. He started as an apothecary, but in 1742 he was appointed experimental demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris, where he was especially influential and popular as a teacher, numbering Lavoisier and J. L. Proust among his pupils. Many stories are told of the vivacity and enthusiasm with which he lectured, of the absent-mindedness which sometimes led him, forgetting that his pupils could not hear what he was saying, to continue his explanations while he was out of the classroom looking for some piece of apparatus, and of the vigorous tirades, generally culminating in the epithet “plagiaire,” in which he used to indulge against men with whom he disagreed (Höfer, Hist. de la chimie, ii. 378). His most important achievement was to define “salts”—a term formerly used in the most loose and indeterminate way—as the compounds formed by the union of acids and bases, and further to distinguish between neutral, basic and acid salts. Other subjects on which he published papers were the inflammation of turpentine and other essential oils by nitric acid, and the methods of embalmment practised by the Egyptians. He died at Passy on the 3rd of August 1770. He is known as Rouelle the elder, to distinguish him from his younger brother and assistant, Hilaire Marin (1718–1779), who, on his resignation in 1768, succeeded him as demonstrator at the Jardin du Roi.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rouergue

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​ROUERGUE (Ruthenensis pagus), one of the old provinces of France, was originally inhabited by the Rulheni. It was bounded on the N. by Auvergne, on the S. and S.W. by Languedoc, on the E. by Gévaudan and the Cévennes and on the W. by Quercy. It included (1) the county of Rodez, (2) Haute and Basse Marche; and it was divided between the dioceses of Rodez and Vabres (province d’Alby after this province had been separated from that of Bourges in 1678). Administratively it formed first a sénéchoussée, dependent on Languedoc (capital Villefranche, in the Basse Marche), and later it was attached to the military governments of Guienne and Gascony. It was then part of the departments of Aveyron and of Tarnet-Garonne. The county of Rodez, after having been in the possession of the houses of Toulouse and Carlat, fell in the 14th century into that of Armagnac. Jean II. of Armagnac having served Charles V. faithfully during his wars with England, received from him, in 1374, what were called the four “châtellenies” with the “Commun de la paix,” a tax which had been established there to organize resistance against foreigners. Jean V. of Armagnac was deprived of the county for crime and treason against Louis XI., in 1469, but afterwards it was given back to Charles of Armagnac, who died without legitimate issue in 1496. Its possession was then disputed between King Francis I. and the duke of Alençon, who at last compromised (1519); the king ceded the county to his sister Marguerite d’Angouleme, who took it as dowry first to the duke of Alençon, and then to her second husband Henri d’Albret, king of Navarre. The county afterwards passed to Jeanne d’Albret, then to Henri IV., and was joined to the crown lands in 1590.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rouget de Lisle, Claude Joseph

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ROUGET DE LISLE, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1760-1836), French author, was born on the 10th of May 1760, at Lons-le-Saunier (Jura). He entered the army as an engineer, and attained the rank of captain. He was one of those authors whom a single work has made famous. The song which has immortalized him, the Marseillaise, was composed at Strassburg, where Rouget de Lisle was quartered in April 1792. He wrote both words and music in a fit of patriotic excitement after a
public dinner. The piece was at first called Chant de guerre de l'armée du Rhin, and only received its name of Marseillaise from its adoption by the Provençal volunteers whom Barbaroux introduced into Paris, and who were prominent in the storming of the Tuileries. The author was a moderate republican, and was cashiered and thrown into prison; but the counter-revolution set him at liberty. He died at Choisy-le-Roi (Seine et Oise) on the 26th of June 1836. The stirring melody of the Marseillaise and its ingenious adaptation to the words serve to disguise the alternate poverty and bombast of the words themselves. Rouget de Lisle wrote a few other songs of the same kind, and in 1825 he published Chants français, in which he set to music fifty songs by various authors. His Essais en vers et en prose (1797) contains the Marseillaise, a prose tale of the sentimental kind called Adelaïde et Monville, and some occasional poems.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sebastian (king)

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​SEBASTIAN, king of Portugal (Port. Sebastião) (1554–1578), the posthumous son of Prince John of Portugal and of his wife Joanna, daughter of the emperor Charles, was born in 1554, and became king in 1557, on the death of his grandfather John III. of Portugal. During his minority (1557–1568), his grandmother Queen Catherine and his great uncle the Cardinal Prince Henry acted jointly as regents. Sebastian’s education was entrusted to a Jesuit, D. Luiz Conçalves da Camara and to D. Aleixo de Menezes, a veteran who had served under Albuquerque. He grew up resolved to emulate the medieval knights who had reconquered Portugal from the Moors. He was a mystic and a fanatic, whose sole ambition was to lead a crusade against the Mahommedans in north-west Africa. He entrusted the government to the Jesuits; refused either to summon the Cortes or to marry, although the Portuguese crown would otherwise pass to a foreigner, and devoted himself wholly to hunting, martial exercises and the severest forms of asceticism. His first expedition to Morocco, in 1574, was little more than a reconnaissance; in a second expedition Sebastian was killed and his army annihilated at Al Kasr al Kebir (4th of August 1578). Although his body was identified before burial at Al Kasr, reinterred at Ceuta, and thence (1582) removed by Philip II. of Spain to the Convento dos Jeronymos in Lisbon, many Portuguese refused to credit his death. “Sebastianism” became a religion. Its votaries believed that the rei encuberto, or “hidden king,” was either absent on a pilgrimage, or, like King Arthur in Avalon, was awaiting the hour of his second advent in some enchanted island. Four pretenders to the throne successively impersonated Sebastian; the first two, known from their places of birth as the “King of Penamacor” and the “King of Ericeira,” were of peasant origin; they were captured in 1584 and 1585 respectively. The third, Gabriel Espinosa, was a man of some education, whose adherents included members of the Austrian and Spanish courts and of the Society of Jesus in Portugal. He was executed in 1594. The fourth was a Calabrian named Marco Tullio, who knew no Portuguese; he impersonated the “hidden king” at Venice in 1603 and gained many supporters, but was ultimately captured and executed. The Sebastianists had an important share in the Portuguese insurrection of 1640, and were again prominent during the Miguelite wars (1828–34). At an even later period Sir R. F. Burton stated that he had met with Sebastianists in remote parts of Brazil (Burton, Camoens, vol. i.p. 363, London, 1881), and the cult appears to have survived until the beginning of the 20th century, although it ceased to be a political force after 1834.
See Portugal, History; J. Barbosa Machado, Memorias para . . . . . o governo del rey D. Sebastião (4 vols., Lisbon, 1736–1741); Miguel d’Antas, Les Faux Don Sébastien (Paris, 1866); São Mamede, Don Sébastien et Philippe II (Paris, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seborrhoea

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​SEBORRHOEA, a medical term applied to describe an accumulation on the skin of the normal sebaceous secretion mixed with dirt and forming scales or a distinct incrustation. On the head, where it is commonly seen, it may interfere with the nutrition of the hair and cause partial baldness, A form of this disease occurs in young infants. The main treatment consists in thoroughly cleansing the parts. The crusts may be softened with oil and the affected skin regularly washed with soft soap and rectified spirit. The sebum frequently accumulates in the sebaceous ducts, giving rise to the minute black points often noticed on the face, back and chest in young adults, to which the term comedones is applied. A form of this disorder, of larger size and white appearance, is termed milium. These affections may to a large extent be prevented by strict attention to ablution and brisk friction of the skin, which will also often remove them when they begin to appear. The retained secretion may be squeezed out or evacuated by incision and the skin treated with some simple sulphur application.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Seawrack

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​ SEAWRACK, the detached seaweeds thrown up, often in great quantities, by the sea and used for manure, also formerly for making kelp. It consists largely of species of Fucus — brown seaweeds with flat branched ribbon-like fronds, characterized in F. serratus by a saw-toothed margin and in F. vesiculosus, another common species, by bearing air-bladders. Also of Zostera marina, so-called sea-grass, a marine flowering plant with bright green long narrow grass-like leaves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sebenico

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​SEBENICO (Serbo-Croatian, Šibenik), an episcopal city, and the centre of an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria; at the end of a branch railway from Knin. Pop. (1900) of city and commune, 24,751. Sebenico is built on a hill overlooking the river Kerka, which here forms a broad basin, connected by a winding channel with the Adriatic Sea, 3 m. S.W. The city is partly walled, and guarded on the seaward side by the 16th-century castle of St Anna and two dismantled forts. Venetian influence is everywhere manifest; the Lion of St Mark is carved over the main gateway and on many public buildings; and among the narrow and steep lanes of the city there are numerous examples of Venetian Gothic or early Renaissance architecture. Sebenico has been the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop since 1298. It has also an orthodox bishop. The Roman Catholics, who constitute the majority of citizens, possess a lofty and beautiful cruciform cathedral, built entirely of stone and metal. Probably no other church of equal size in Europe is similarly constructed. Even the waggon vaults over the nave, choir and transepts are of stone unprotected by lead or tiles. The older part of the cathedral, dating from 1430 to 1441, and including the fine north doorway, is Italian Gothic. Giorgio Orsini of Zara, who had studied architecture in Venice and been strongly influenced by the Italian Renascence, carried on the work of construction until his death in 1475. It was finished early in the 16th century; and thus the cathedral belongs to two distinct periods and represents two distinct styles.
Sebenico is lighted by electric light; the power being supplied by the celebrated falls of the Kerka, near Scardona, on the north. Sebenico is a steamship station, with an excellent harbour. Wine, oil, corn and honey are produced in the neighbourhood; many of the inhabitants are fishermen and seamen. The Latin name of Sicum is adopted in public inscriptions; but the city cannot be identified with the Roman colony of Sicum, which was probably situated farther south. Sebenico first became prominent in the 12th century as a favourite residence of the Croatian kings. From 1358 to 1412 it was ruled by Hungary; it subsequently formed part of the Venetian dominions. In 1647 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the Turks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Secchi, Angelo

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​SECCHI, ANGELO (1818–1878), Italian astronomer, was born on the 29th of June 1818 at Reggio in Lombardy, and entered the Society of Jesus at an early age. In 1849 he was appointed director of the observatory of the Collegio Romano, which was rebuilt in 1853; there he devoted himself with great perseverance to researches in physical astronomy and meteorology till his death at Rome on the 26th of February 1878.
The results of Secchi’s observations are contained in a great number of papers and memoirs. From about 1864 he occupied himself almost exclusively with spectrum analysis, both of stars (Catalogo delle stelle di cui si è determinato lo spettro luminoso, Paris, 1867, 8vo; “Sugli spettri prismatici delle stelle fisse,” two parts, 1868, in the Atti della Soc. Ital.) and of the sun (Le Soleil, Paris, 1870, 8vo; 2nd ed., 1877).
For a list of his publications see Poggendorff, Biographisch-Literarische; also see Monthly Notices R.A.S., No. 39, and Carlo Bricarelli, “Vita e opere di A. Secchi,” Nuovi Linc. Mem. (1888), vol. 4.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sebastian, St

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SEBASTIAN, ST, a Christian martyr whose festival is celebrated on the 20th of January. According to St Ambrose (in Psalm 118, oct. 20) Sebastian was a native of Milan, went to Rome at the height of Diocletian's persecution, and there suffered martyrdom. The Acta of St Sebastian, falsely attributed to the same St Ambrose, are far less sparing of details. They make him a citizen of Narbonne and captain of the first cohort under the emperors Diocletian and Maximian. Having secretly become a Christian, Sebastian was wont to encourage those of his brethren who in the hour of trial seemed wavering in their profession. This was conspicuously the case with the brothers Marcus and Marcellinus. He made many converts, several of whom suffered martyrdom. Diocletian, having been informed of this conduct, sent for him and earnestly remonstrated with him, but, finding him inflexible, ordered him to be bound to a stake and shot to death. After the archers had left him for dead, a devout woman, Irene, came by night to take his body away for burial, but, finding him still alive, carried him to her house, where his wounds were dressed. No sooner had he wholly recovered than he hastened to confront the emperor, reproaching him with his impiety; Diocletian ordered him to be instantly carried off and beaten to death with rods. The sentence was forthwith executed, his body being thrown into the cloaca, where, however, it was found by another pious matron, Lucina, whom Sebastian visited in a dream, directing her to bury him ad Catacombas juxta vestigia apostolorum. It was on this spot, on the Appian way, that was built the basilica of St Sebastian, which was a popular place of pilgrimage in the middle ages. The translation of his relics to Soissons in 826 made that town a new centre of his cult. St Sebastian is specially invoked against the plague. As a young and beautiful soldier, he is a favourite subject of sacred art, being most generally represented undraped, and severely though not mortally wounded with arrows.
See Acta Sanctorum, January, ii. 257-296; Bibliotheca hagiographica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 7543-7549; A. Bell, Lives and Legends of the Evangelists, Apostles and other early Saints (London, 1901), pp. 238-240.
    (H. De.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prime Vertical

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​PRIME VERTICAL, in astronomy, the vertical circle passing east and west through the zenith, and intersecting the horizon in its east and west points (see Astronomy).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Primogeniture

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​PRIMOGENITURE (Lat. primus, first, and genitus, born, from gignere, to bring forth), a term used to signify the preference in inheritance which is given by law, custom or usage, to the eldest son and his issue, or in exceptional cases to the line of the eldest daughter. The practice is almost entirely confined to the United Kingdom, having been abolished by the various civil codes of the European states, and having' been rejected in the United States as contrary to the spirit of the constitution. The history of primogeniture is given in the article SUCCESSION, while the existing English law will be found in the articles HEIR; INHERITANCE; WILL, &c. But it may be brieiiy said here that the English law provided that in ordinary cases of inheritance to land of in testates the rule of primogeniture shall prevail among the male children of the person from whom descent is to be traced, but not among the females; and this principle is applied throughout all the degrees of relationship. There are exceptions to this rule, as in the cases of “ gavel kind ” and “ borough-English, ” and in the copyhold lands of a great number of manors, where customs analogous to those of gavel kind and borough English have existed from time immemorial. In another class of exceptions the rule of primogeniture is applied ​to the inheritance of females, who usually take equal shares in each degree. The necessity for a sole succession has, for example, introduced succession by primogeniture among females in the case of the inheritance of the Crown, and a similar necessity led to the maxim of the feudal law that certain dignities and offices, castles acquired for the defence of the realm, and other inheritances under “ the law of the sword,” should not be divided, but should go to the eldest of the co-heiresses (Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 76; Co. Litt., 165a). There are also many other special customs by which the ordinary rule of primogeniture is varied. It may be remarked that the English law of inheritance of land creates a double preference, subject to certain exceptions and customs, in favour of the male over the female and of the first-born among the males. This necessitates the rule of representation by which the issue of children are regarded as standing in the places of their parents, called “ representative primogeniture.” The rule appears to have been firmly established in England during the reign of Henry III., though its application was favoured as early as the 12th century throughout the numerous contests between brothers claiming by proximity of blood and their nephews claiming by representation, as in the case of King John and his nephew Prince Arthur (Glanvill, vii. c. 3; Bracton, De Legibus, ii. c. 30).
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law; K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real Property; Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law and Early History of Institutions; C. S. Kenny, Law of Primogeniture in England.