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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cooper, Sir Astley Paston

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​COOPER, SIR ASTLEY PASTON (1768–1841), English surgeon, was born at the village of Brooke in Norfolk on the 23rd of August 1768. His father, Dr Samuel Cooper, was a clergyman of the Church of England; his mother was the author of several novels. At the age of sixteen he was sent to London and placed under Henry Cline (1750–1827), surgeon to St Thomas’s hospital. From the first he devoted himself to the study of anatomy, and had the privilege of attending the lectures of John Hunter. In 1789 he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy at St Thomas’s hospital, where in 1791 he became joint lecturer with Cline in anatomy and surgery, and in 1800 he was appointed surgeon to Guy’s hospital, on the death of his uncle, William Cooper. In 1802 he received the Copley medal for two papers read before the Royal Society of London on the destruction of the membrana tympani; and in 1805 he was elected a fellow of that society. In the same year he took an active part in the formation of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, and published in the first volume of its Transactions an account of an attempt to tie the common carotid artery for aneurism. In 1804 he brought out the first, and in 1807 the second, part of his great work on hernia, which added so largely to his reputation that in 1813 his annual professional income rose to £21,000 sterling. In the same year he was appointed professor of comparative anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons and was very popular as a lecturer. In 1817 he performed his famous operation of tying the abdominal aorta for aneurism; and in 1820 he removed a wen from the head of George IV., and about six months afterwards received a baronetcy, which, as he had no son, was to descend to his nephew and adopted son, Astley Cooper. He served as president of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 and again in 1836, and he was elected a vice-president of the Royal Society in 1830. He died on the 12th of February 1841 in London, and was interred, by his own desire, beneath the chapel of Guy’s hospital. A statue by E. H. Baily was erected in St Paul’s.
His chief works are Anatomy and Surgical Treatment of Hernia (1804–1807); Dislocations and Fractures (1822); Lectures on Surgery (1824–1827); Illustrations of Diseases of the Breast (1829); Anatomy of the Thymus Gland (1832); Anatomy of the Breast (1840). See Life of Sir A. Cooper, by B. B. Cooper (1843).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cooper, Thomas Sidney

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​COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY (1803–1902), English painter, was born at Canterbury on the 20th of September 1803. In very early childhood he showed in many ways the strength of his artistic inclinations, but as the circumstances of his family did not admit of his receiving any systematic training, he began before he was twelve years old to work in the shop of a coach painter. A little later he obtained employment as a scene painter; and he alternated between these two occupations for about eight years. But the desire to become an artist continued to influence him, and all his spare moments were given up to drawing and ​painting from nature. At the age of twenty he went to London, drew for a while in the British Museum, and was admitted as a student of the Royal Academy. He then returned to Canterbury, where he was able to earn a living as a drawing-master and by the sale of sketches and drawings. In 1827 he settled in Brussels; but four years later he returned to London to live, and by showing his first picture at the Royal Academy (1833) began an unprecedentedly prolonged career as an exhibitor. Cooper’s name is mainly associated with pictures of cattle or sheep, and the most notable of the many hundred he produced are: “A Summer’s Noon” (1836), “A Drover’s Halt on the Fells” (1838), “A Group in the Meadows” (1845), “The Half-past One o’Clock Charge at Waterloo” (1847), “The Shepherd’s Sabbath” (1866), “The Monarch of the Meadows” (1873), “Separated but not Divorced” (1874), “Isaac’s Substitute” (1880), “Pushing off for Tilbury Fort” (1884), “On a Farm in East Kent” (1889), “Return to the Farm, Milking Time” (1897). He was elected A.R.A. in 1845 and R.A. in 1867. He presented to his native place, in 1882, the Sidney Cooper Art Gallery, built on the site of the house in which he was born. He wrote his reminiscences, under the title of My Life, in 1890; and died on the 7th of February 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cooper, Samuel

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​COOPER, SAMUEL (1609–1672), English miniature painter. This artist was undoubtedly the greatest painter of miniatures who ever lived. He is believed to have been born in London, and was a nephew of John Hoskins, the miniature painter, by whom he was educated. He lived in Henrietta St., Covent Garden, and frequented the Covent Garden Coffee-House. Pepys, who makes many references to him, tells us he was an excellent musician, playing well upon the lute, and also a good linguist, speaking French with ease. According to other contemporary writers, he was a short, stout man, of a ruddy countenance. He married one Christiana, whose portrait is at Welbeck Abbey, and he had one daughter. In 1668 he was instructed by Pepys to paint a portrait of Mrs Pepys, for which he charged £30. He is known to have painted also the portrait of John Aubrey, which was presented in 1691 to the Ashmolean Museum, as we ​learn from his correspondence with John Ray, the naturalist. Evelyn refers to him in 1662, when, on the occasion of the visit that the diarist paid to the king, Cooper was drawing the royal face and head for the new coinage.
Magnificent examples of his work are to be found at Windsor Castle, Belvoir Castle, Montague House, Welbeck Abbey, Ham House, the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam and in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. His largest miniature is in the possession of the duke of Richmond and Gordon at Goodwood. A piece of the artist’s handwriting is to be seen at the back of one of his miniatures in the Welbeck Abbey collection, and one of his drawings in black chalk is in the University Gallery at Oxford. His own portrait of himself is in the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
The date of his death has been handed down by a record in the diary of Mary Beale, the miniature painter; and in some letters from Mr Charles Manners, addressed to Lord Roos, dated 1672, now amongst the duke of Rutland’s papers at Belvoir, the writer refers to Cooper’s serious illness on the 4th of May, and to his doubt as to whether the artist would ever recover. Mary Beale’s reference to his decease is in the following words: “Sunday, May 5, 1672—Mr Samuel Cooper, the most famous limner of the world for a face, dyed.”
For a fuller account see the History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C. Williamson, vol. i. p. 64. (G. C. W.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cooper, Thomas (bishop)

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​COOPER (or Couper), THOMAS (c. 1517–1594), English bishop and writer, was born in Oxford, where he was educated at Magdalen College. He became master of Magdalen College school, and afterwards practised as a physician in Oxford. His literary career began in 1548, when he compiled, or rather edited, a Latin dictionary Bibliotheca Eliotae, and in 1549 he published a continuation of Thomas Lanquet’s Chronicle of the World. This work, known as Cooper’s Chronicle, covers the period from A.D. 17 to the time of writing, and was reprinted in 1560 and 1565. In 1565 appeared the first edition of his greatest work, Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae, and this was followed by three other editions. Queen Elizabeth was greatly pleased with the Thesaurus, generally known as Cooper’s Dictionary; and its author, who had been ordained about 1559, was made dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1567. Two years later he became dean of Gloucester, in 1571 bishop of Lincoln and in 1584 bishop of Winchester. Cooper was a stout controversialist; he defended the practice and precept of the Church of England against the Roman Catholics on the one hand and against the Martin Marprelate writings and the Puritans on the other. He took some part, the exact extent of which is disputed, in the persecution of religious recusants in his diocese, and died at Winchester on the 29th of April 1594.
Cooper’s Admonition against Martin Marprelate was reprinted in 1847, and his Answer in Defence of the Truth against the Apology of Private Mass in 1850.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cooper, Thomas (writer)

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​COOPER, THOMAS (1805–1892), English Chartist and writer, the son of a working dyer, was born at Leicester on the 20th of March 1805. After his father’s death his mother began business as a dyer and fancy box-maker at Gainsborough. Young Cooper was apprenticed to a shoemaker. He had a passion for knowledge; studied Greek, Latin and Hebrew in his spare time; and in 1827 gave up cobbling to become a schoolmaster, and, later, a Methodist preacher. His affairs did not prosper, and after going to Lincoln, where he obtained work on a local newspaper, he came to London in 1839. Here he became assistant to a second-hand bookseller, but in 1840 he joined the staff of the Leicestershire Mercury. His support of the Chartist movement obliged him to resign his position, but he undertook to edit The Midland Counties Illuminator, a Chartist journal, in 1841. He became a leader of the extreme Chartist party, and for his action in urging on the strike of 1842 he was imprisoned in Stafford gaol for two years. Here he produced The Purgatory of Suicides, a political epic in ten books, embodying the radical ideas of the time. In his efforts to publish this work after his liberation he came under the notice of Benjamin Disraeli and Douglas Jerrold. Through Jerrold’s help it appeared in 1845, and Cooper then turned his attention to lecturing upon historical and educational subjects. In 1856 he suddenly renounced the free-thinking doctrines which he had held for many years, and became a lecturer on Christian evidences. He died at Lincoln on the 15th of July 1892. Among his other works may be mentioned the Bridge of History over the Gulf of Time (1871) and the Life of Thomas Cooper, written by Himself (1872).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegesippus (Christian)

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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegesippus (translator)

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​HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the Jewish War of Josephus under the title De bello Judaico et excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340–397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through the stages Ἰώσηπος, Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century).
Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E. Schürer, History of the Jewish People (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F. Vogel, De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete (Erlangen, 1881).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegius, Alexander

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​HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433–1498), German humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of Thomas à Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius’s chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes.
See D. Reichling, “Beiträge zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius,” in the Monatsschrift für Westdeutschland (1877); H. Hamelmann, Opera genealogico-historica (1711); H. A. Erhard, Geschichte des Wiederaufblühens wissenschaftlicher Bildung (1826); C. Krafft and W. Crecelius, “Alexander Hegius und seine Schüler,” from the works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius’s pupils, in Zeitschrift des bergischen Geschichtsvereins, vii. (Bonn, 1871).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegesias of Magnesia

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​HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian, flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as “Asiatic” (cf. Timaeus). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (cod. 250) that the only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational events.
See Cicero, Brutus 83, Orator 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys’s note, ad Att. xii. 6; Dion. Halic. De verborum comp. iv.; Aulus Gellius ix. 4; Plutarch, Alexander, 3; C. W. Müller, Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa (1898); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of “Asiatic” style, with example from Hegesias.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heide

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​HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Glückstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumünster-Tönning. Pop. (1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the peasant forces by the Danes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heidegger, Johann Heinrich

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​HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633–1698), Swiss theologian, was born at Bärentschweil, in the canton of Zürich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July 1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632–1696), and was appointed professor extraordinarius of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zürich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620–1667) in the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the Formula Consensus Helvetica in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.
His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief are De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae (1667–1671); Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis (1670); De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea, &c. (1670); Historia papatus (1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); Manuductio in viam concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae (1686); Tumulus concilii Tridentini (1690); Exercitationes biblicae (1700), with a life of the author prefixed; Corpus theologiae Christianae (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer); Ethicae Christianae elementa (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared in 1698, under the title Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri.
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopädie and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; and cf. W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik, ii. 353 ff.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegemon of Thasos

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​HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed Φακῆ from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him, except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to Aristotle (Poetics, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached Athens, his parody of the Gigantomachia was being performed; it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He ​was also the author of a comedy called Philinne (Philine), written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).
Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880); B. J. Peltzer, De parodica Graecorum poesi (1855).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegemony

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​HEGEMONY (Gr. ἡγεμονία, leadership, from ἡγεῖσθαι, to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position of predominance (primus inter pares) among other equal states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by Macedon (see Greece: Ancient History, and Delian League).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hegesippus (statesman)

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​HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed Κρώβυλος (“knot”), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De Halonneso was delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes.
See Demosthenes, De falsa legatione 364, 447, De corona 250, Philippica iii. 129; Plutarch, Demosthenes 17, Apophthegmata, 187D; Dionysius Halic. ad Ammaeum, i.; Grote, History of Greece, ch. 90.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Flagship

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​FLAGSHIP, the vessel in a fleet which carries the flag, the symbol of authority of an admiral.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Flageolet

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​FLAGEOLET, in music, a kind of flûte-à-bec with a new fingering, invented in France at the end of the 16th century, and in vogue in England from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. The instrument is described and illustrated by Mersenne, who states that the most famous maker and player in his day was Le Vacher. The flageolet differed from the recorder in that it had four finger-holes in front and two thumb-holes at the back instead of seven finger-holes in front and one thumb-hole at the back. This fingering has survived in the French flageolet still used in the provinces of France in small orchestras and for dance music. The arrangement of the holes was as follows: 1, left thumb-hole at the back near mouthpiece; 2 and 3, finger-holes stopped by the left hand; 4, finger-hole stopped by right hand; 5, thumb-hole at the back; 6, hole near the open end. According to Dr Burney (History of Music) the flageolet was invented by the Sieur Juvigny, who played it in the Ballet comique de la Royne, 1581. Dr Edward Browne, writing to his father from Cologne on the 20th of June 1673, relates, “We have with us here one . . . and Mr Hadly upon the flagelet, which instrument he hath so improved as to invent large ones and outgoe in sweetnesse all the basses whatsoever upon any other instrument.” About the same time was published Thomas Greeting’s Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet (London, 1675 or 1682), a rare book of which the British Museum does not possess a copy. The instrument retained its popularity until the beginning of the 19th century, when Bainbridge constructed double and triple flageolets. The three tubes were bored parallel through one piece of wood communicating near the mouthpiece which was common to all three. The lowest notes of the respective tubes were .
The word flageolet was undoubtedly derived from the medieval Fr. flajol, the primitive whistle-pipe. (K. S.)
* ↑ Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), bk. v. pp. 232-237.
* ↑ See Sir Thomas Browne’s Works, vol. i. p. 206.
* ↑ See Capt. C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments (London, 1891), pp. 18-22 and pl. 4; also Complete Instructions for the Double Flageolet (London, 1825); and The Preceptor, or a Key to the Double Flageolet (London, 1815).