OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tokugawa

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​TOKUGAWA, the name of a Japanese family which provided the ruling dynasty of shōguns from 1603 until the revolution which restored the power of the mikado in 1867. The founder of this dynasty was Iyéyasu Tokugawa (1542–1616), a great general and consummate politician, who was connected by descent with the Minamoto clan. The most famous of the subsequent shōguns was his grandson Iyemitsu (from 1623 to 1650. (See Japan: History.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone, Marcus

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​STONE, MARCUS (1840-), English painter, son of Frank Stone, A.R.A., was trained by his father and began to exhibit at the Academy before he was eighteen; and a few years later he illustrated with much success books by Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope, and other writers, friends of his family. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1877, and academician in 1887. In his earlier pictures he dealt much with historical incidents, but in his later work he occupied himself chiefly with a particular type of dainty sentiment, treated with much charm, refinement and executive skill. One of his canvases is in the National Gallery of British Art. Most of his works have been engraved, and medals have been awarded to him at exhibitions in all parts of the world.
See the Life and Work of Marcus Stone, R.A., by A. L. Baldry (Art Journal office, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone (Staffordshire)

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​STONE, a market town in the western parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, on the river Trent, 7 m. N. of Stafford by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5680. Part of the walls and crypt remain of an abbey which dates from the foundation of a college of canons in 670. The church of St Michael dates from 1750, the abbey church having collapsed in the previous year. Alleyne's grammar school is a foundation of 1558. The chief industry is shoemaking, but malting, brewing and tanning are also carried on. At Bury Bank, on the hills to the north, an earthwork is traditionally considered to be the site of the capital of the Kingdom of Mercia; there are other works in the neighbourhood at Saxon Low.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone Age

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​STONE AGE, the term employed by anthropologists to describe the earliest stage of human civilization when man had gained no knowledge of metals, and his weapons and utensils were formed of stone, horn or bone. The term has no chronological value, as the Stone Age was earlier in some parts of the world than in others, and even to-day races exist who are still in their Stone Age. This first period of human culture has been subdivided by Lord Avebury into Palaeolithic and Neolithic, words which have been generally accepted as expressing the two stages of the rough, unpolished and the finely finished and polished stone implements. (See Archaeology.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone, Frank

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​STONE, FRANK (1800-1859), British painter, was born in Manchester, and was entirely self-taught. He was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1833 and member in 1843; and an associate of the Royal Academy in 185 1. The works he first exhibited at the Academy were portraits, but ​from 1840 onwards he contributed figure pictures, scenes from Shakespeare, scripture and sentimental subjects, many of which were engraved.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone, Lucy

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​STONE, LUCY [Blackwell] (1818-1893), American reformer, anti-slavery and woman's-rights leader, was born in West Brookfield, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1818. Her father refused her the college education that she so eagerly desired, but she earned enough to carry her through Oberiin College, where she graduated in 1847. She immediately went on the lecture platform as an advocate of abolition and of woman's rights, and her remarkable voice and commanding eloquence often held in check the most disorderly audiences. In 1855 she married Dr Henry B. Blackwell (1824-1909), a prominent abolitionist and advocate of woman's rights, who agreed that she should keep her maiden name; after 1870 he assisted his wife in the management of the Woman's Journal of Boston, of which she became editor in 1872. She allowed her New Jersey property to be sold for taxes, and then published a pamphlet on “taxation without representation.” She campaigned for woman's suffrage amendments in Kansas (1867), Vermont (1870), Michigan (1874), Colorado (1877) and Nebraska (1892). She died in Dorchester, Mass., on the 18th of October 1893. Her daughter, Alice Stone Blackwell (b. 1857), carried on, with her father, the Woman's Journal after 1893, and in 1885-1905 edited the Woman's Column.
Her husband's sisters, Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) and Emily Blackwell (1826-1910), were prominent physicians. The former graduated at the Geneva Medical College, Geneva, New York, in 1849, receiving the first physician's degree granted to a woman in the United States, and studied in Philadelphia, in Paris and in London, where she began to practise in 1869. She died at Hastings on the 1st of June 1910. Emily Blackwell graduated at the Medical Department of Western Reserve University in 1854; in 1853, with her sister, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children; and she was for many years dean of the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary which she and her sister established in 1865.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone-fly

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​STONE-FLY, the name given to medium-sized, neuropterous insects of the family Perlidae with long flexible antennae, wide thoracic sterna and with the wings resembling, as regards size, shape and the fan-like folding of the posterior pair, those typical of the Orthoptera except that the anterior pair is membranous and not coriaceous. The immature forms, which are aquatic, carnivorous and active, are very like the adults except in the absence of wings and in their method of respiration, which is either cutaneous or effected by means of variously placed integumental tufts richly supplied with tracheae. By some authors the Perlidae are regarded as a special order, Plecoptera; by others as a sub-order of an order Platyptera, which contains the Termitidae and some other insects as well.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone River, Battle of

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​STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF, a battle of the American Civil War, called the battle of Murfreesboro by the Confederates, fought on the 31st of December 1862 and the 2nd of January 1863. After his appointment in October to command the Army of the Cumberland, General W. S. Rosecrans with Chattanooga as his objective moved from Nashville upon General Braxton Bragg, who left the winter quarters he had established at Murfreesboro and met the Union army on Stone river immediately north of Murfreesboro, on the last day of December. The plan of attack on each side was to crush the enemy’s right. Bragg’s left, commanded by Lieut.-General W. J. Hardee, overlapped and bore back the Union right under Major-General A. McD. McCook, and Major-General T. L. Crittenden commanding the Union left was hurriedly called back from his attack on the Confederate right to support McCook. The Union right was crumpled up on the centre, where Major-General G. H. Thomas’s corps checked the Confederate attack. There was practically no fighting on the 1st of January, but on the 2nd the Confederates renewed the attack, Major-General J. C. Breckinridge with Bragg’s right attempting in vain to displace Crittenden’s division on high ground above the river. On the night of the 3rd Bragg withdrew and the Union army occupied Murfreesboro. Tactically a drawn battle, Stone River was strategically a Union victory. The losses on both sides were heavy: of 37,712 Confederates present for duty, 1294 were killed, 7945 were wounded, and about 2500 were missing; and of 44,800 Union soldiers present for duty, 1677 were killed, 7543 were wounded and 3686 were missing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stone, Nicholas

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​STONE, NICHOLAS (1586–1647), English sculptor and architect, was the son of a quarryman of Woodbury, near Exeter, and as a boy was apprenticed to Isaac James, a London mason. About 1603 he went to Holland and worked under the sculptor Hendrik de Keyser (1567-1621) and his son Pieter, and married his master's daughter. Stone is said to have made the portico to the Westerkerk at Amsterdam. Returning to London about 1613 with Bernard Janssens (fl. 1610-1630), a fellow pupil, he settled in South wark and obtained a large practice; in 1619 he was appointed master-mason to James I., and in 1626 to Charles I.; and he died in London on the 24th of August 1647. Stone, whose work is associated with Inigo Jones's introduction of Renaissance architecture into England, ranks as the great sculptor of his time and the rejuvenator of the art in England. He is best known by his monuments, notably those to Sir Francis Vere, the earl of Middlesex, and Francis Holies in West- minster Abbey; Sir Dudley Digges at Chilham church, Kent; Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, in Dover Castle (removed to Greenwich); Sir Thomas Sutton, at the Charterhouse (with Janssens); Sir Robert Drury at Hawstead church, Suffolk; Sir William Stonhouse at Radley church, Berkshire; Sir Thomas Bodley at Merton College, Oxford; Sir William Pope, in Wroxton church, near Banbury; Sir Nicholas Bacon, in Redgrave church, Suffolk (with Janssens); Dr John Donne (winding-sheet), at St Paul's Cathedral; and Sir Julius Caesar, in St Helen's, Bishopsgate.
He had three sons: John (d. 1667), a sculptor; Henry (d. 1653)—commonly known as " Old Stone "—a painter, whose copies of Van Dyck were famous, and whose portraits of Charles I. and others are in the National Portrait Gallery, and Nicholas (d. 1647), a sculptor, who worked under Bernini at Rome and left a sketch-book, which, with a note-book of his father's (giving a list of his works between 1614 and 1641), is in the Soane Museum.
See an article by A. E. Bullock in the Architectural Review, 1907, and the same author's illustrated monograph Some Sculptural Works of Nicholas Stone (Batsford, London, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polo, Gaspar Gil

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​POLO, GASPAR GIL (?1530–1591), Spanish novelist and poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between 1566 and 1573; but this professor was not named Gaspar. He is also confused with his own son, Gaspar Gil Polo, the author of De origine et progressu juris romani (1615) and other legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626. A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Montemayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the writer's name, recommended that “ the Diana enamorada should be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself ”; the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical.
The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals; interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into English, French, German and Latin. The English version of Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manuscript fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of Caspar Barth, entitled Erotodidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a performance of uncommon merit as well as a bibliographical curiosity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollock

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​POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has contributed many important members to the legal and other professions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distinguished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780–1847), chief justice of Bombay; Sir jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783–1870), chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart. (1786–1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan in 1841–1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in 1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed the name of Montagu-Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior Wrangler at Cambridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in 1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants being prominent in many fields. The chief baron's eldest son, Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815–1888), became a master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrance (1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845), being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford (1883–1903), and the second son, Walter Herries Pollock (b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's) remembrance in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers Pollock (1859–1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861), and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich, and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till 1910. The chief baron’s fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock (1823–1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873 became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polonaise

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​POLONAISE (i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious dance, usually written in ¾ time. As a form of musical composition it has been employed by such composers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in ceremonial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession of music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance. The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollux, Julius

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​POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian and sophist of the 2nd century A.D. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was, appointed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery; the Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words, may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus, and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for individual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus; in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially consulted.
The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are monographs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional antiquities, 1875).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollux

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​POLLUX, or Pollucite, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H$_2$Cs$_4$Al$_4$(SiO$_3$)$_9$. Caesium oxide (Cs$_2$O) is present to the extent of 30–36%, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is 6½% and the specific gravity 2·90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral “castor” (see Petalite), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollok, Robert

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​POLLOK, ROBERT (1798–1827), Scottish poet, son of a small farmer, was born at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the 19th of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and afterwards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiritual life and destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827), which passed through many editions and became a favourite in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the 18th century, but with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling and copious force of words and images. The poem at once became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the 18th of September 1827, its author died of consumption.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pollokshaws

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​POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shows or woods (and is locally styled “the Shaws”) and the lands of Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the 13th century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell. Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple industries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 1813, and is governed by a. council and provost. About 2 m. south-west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the end of the 18th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moorhead

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​MOORHEAD, a city and the county-seat of Clay county, Minnesota, U.S.A., opposite Fargo, North Dakota, on the E. bank of the Red River and about 215 m. N.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890), 2088; (1900), 3730; (1905). 4794; (1910), ​4840. Moorhead is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific railways. The city is the seat of one of the state normal schools (1888) and of Concordia College (Norwegian Lutheran; 1891), which in 1907–1908 had 500 students. Moorhead, named in honour of James K. Moorhead (1806–1884), a Republican representative in Congress from Pennsylvania in 1859–1869, was settled in 1871, was incorporated as a village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1881.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moose

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​MOOSE, the North American Indian (Algonquian) name of the North American representative of the European elk (q.v.). The word is said to mean “cropper” or “trimmer,” from the animal’s habit of feeding on the branches of trees.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moore, George Foot

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​MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851–), American Biblical scholar, was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, on the 15th of October 1851, the son of William Eves Moore (1823–1899), a prominent Presbyterian minister, long the permanent clerk of the Presbyterian General Assembly. The son graduated at Yale in 1872 and at Union Theological Seminary in 1877, was ordained in 1878, and from 1878 to 1883 was pastor of the Putnam Presbyterian Church, Zanesville, Ohio. He was Hitchcock professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Andover Theological Seminary in 1883–1902, and was president of its faculty in 1899–1901; in 1902 he became professor of theology and in 1904 professor of the history of religion at Harvard University His chief critical work dealt with the Hexateuch, and more particularly the Book of Judges (Commentary, 1895; text, translation and notes, 1898; text with critical notes, 1900).