OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bartlett, John Russell

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​BARTLETT, JOHN RUSSELL (1805–1886), American historical and linguistic student, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the 23rd of October 1805. From his first to his eighteenth year he lived in Kingston, Canada; he was then in turn, from 1824 to 1836, a clerk in a dry goods store, a book-keeper and a bank cashier at Providence, and for more than ten years after 1836 he was a bookseller in New York City, returning to Providence in 1850. In 1850–1853 he was the commissioner on the part of the United States for the survey of the boundary between the United States and Mexico, but owing to the lack of funds did not finish the work. After being superseded by another commissioner upon the accession of President Franklin Pierce, he published A Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora and Chihuahua (2 vols., 1854), which contains much valuable scientific and historical material concerning the south-west. From 1855 to 1872 he was secretary of state of Rhode Island, and while serving in this capacity thoroughly re-arranged and classified the state records, and prepared various bibliographies and compilations, relating chiefly to the history of the state. He is chiefly remembered however, for his Dictionary of Americanisms (1848), a pioneer work, which, although later dialect changes have, of course, deprived it of completeness or final authoritativeness, is still of value to students of language and remains the chief contribution to the subject. He died in Providence on the 28th of May 1886.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules

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​BARTHÉLEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, JULES (1805–1895), French philosopher and statesman, was born at Paris on the 19th of August 1805. In his early years he was an active political journalist, and from 1826 to 1830 opposed the reactionary policy of the king in Le Globe. At the revolution of 1830 he signed the protestation of the journalists on the 28th of July 1830. After 1830 he contributed to different newspapers—Le Constitutionnel, Le National and the Courrier français—until 1833, when he gave up politics in order to devote himself to the history of ancient philosophy, undertaking a translation of Aristotle, which occupied him the greater part of his life (1837–1892). The reputation which he gained from this work won for him the chair of ancient philosophy at the Collège de France (1838) and a seat at the Academy of Moral and Political Science (1839). After the revolution of 1848 he was elected as a republican deputy; but was obliged to withdraw after the coup d’état of Louis Napoleon. In 1855 he went as member of the international commission to Egypt to report on the possibility of the proposed Suez canal, and by the articles which he wrote he contributed largely to making the project popular in France. Elected deputy again in 1869, he joined the opposition to the Empire, and in 1871 bent all his efforts to the election of Thiers as president of the republic, acting afterwards as his secretary. Appointed senator for life in 1875, he took his place among the moderate republicans, and from September 1880 to November 1881 was minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of Jules Ferry. The most important event of his administration was the annexation of Tunis under the form of a French protectorate, which he actively promoted. He died on the 24th of November 1895. His principal works, besides the translation of Aristotle and a number of studies connected with the same subject, are Des Védas (1854), Du Bouddhisme (1856) and Mahomet et le Coran (1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bartoli, Daniello

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​BARTOLI, DANIELLO (1608–1685), Italian Jesuit priest, was born at Ferrara and entered the Society of Jesus in 1623. Debarred from the foreign mission field, he attained high distinction as a preacher and as a teacher of rhetoric in Genoa, Florence and Rome. He wrote (in Italian) a book called The Learned Man as a counterblast to the widespread reading of romances, and also a history of his order in 6 vols. (Rome, 1650–1673), which is particularly informing with regard to the early work of the society in Asia. He died at Rome.
A collected edition of his works, in 12 vols., was published by Marietti at Turin, 1825–1856; another in 50 vols. at Florence in 1826.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Barthélemy, François, Marquis de

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​BARTHÉLEMY, FRANÇOIS, Marquis de (1747 or 1750–1830), French politician, was educated by his uncle the abbé Jean Jacques Barthélemy for a diplomatic career, and after serving as secretary of legation in Sweden, in Switzerland and in England, was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Switzerland, in which capacity he negotiated the treaties of Basel with Prussia and Spain (1795). Elected a member of the Directory in May 1797, through royalist influence, he was arrested at the coup d’état of the 18 Fructidor (17th of September 1797) and deported to French Guiana, but escaped and made his way to the United States and then to England. He returned to France after the 18 Brumaire, entered the senate in February 1800 and contributed to the establishment of the consulship for life and the empire. In 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, took part in the drawing up of the constitutional charter and was named peer of France. During the Hundred Days he lived in concealment, and after the second Restoration obtained the title marquis, and in 1819 introduced a motion in the chamber of peers tending to render the electoral law more aristocratic.
His Papiers have been published by J. Kaulek, 4 vols. (Paris, 1886–1888). See A. Sorel, L’Europe et la Révolution française, iv. (Paris, 1892); L. Sciout, Le Directoire (Paris, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bartlett, Paul Wayland

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​BARTLETT, PAUL WAYLAND (1865–), American sculptor, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Truman H. Bartlett, an art critic and sculptor. When fifteen he began to study at Paris under Frémiet, modelling from animals in the Jardin des Plantes. He won a medal at the Paris Salon of 1887. Among his principal works are: “The Bear Tamer,” in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; the equestrian statue of Lafayette, in the Place du Carrousel, Paris, presented to the French Republic by the school children of America; the powerful and virile Columbus and Michelangelo, in the Congressional Library, Washington, D.C.; the “Ghost Dancer,” in the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; the “Dying Lion”; the equestrian statue of McClellan in Philadelphia; and a statue of Joseph Warren in Boston, Massachusetts. His bronze patinas of reptiles, insects and fish are also remarkable.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bartolini, Lorenzo

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​BARTOLINI, LORENZO (1777–1850), Italian sculptor, was born in Vernio in Tuscany. After acquiring great skill and reputation as a modeller in alabaster, he went in 1797 to Paris, where he studied painting under Desmarets, and afterwards sculpture under F. F. Lemot. The bas-relief “Cleobis and Biton,” with which he gained the second prize of the Academy in 1803, at once established his fame as a sculptor and gained for him a number of influential patrons. He executed many minor pieces for Denon, besides busts of Méhul and Cherubini. His great patron, however, was Napoleon, for whom he executed a colossal bust, and who sent him to Carrara to found a school of sculpture. Here he remained till after the fall of Napoleon, and then took up his residence in Florence, where he resided till his death. His works are varied and include an immense number of busts. The best are, perhaps, the group of Charity, the “Hercules and Lichas” and the “Faith in God,” which exemplify the highest types of Bartolini’s style. Popular opinion in Italy associates his qualities as a sculptor with those of Thorwaldsen and Canova.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amathus

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​AMATHUS, an ancient city of Cyprus, on the S. coast, about 24 m. W. of Larnaka and 6 m. E. of Limassol, among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (ἄμαθος, sand). The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco-Phoenician influences (1000–600 B.C.). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern, i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see Citium) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician “New-Town”) in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of Onesilas of Salamis which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Persia in 500–494 B.C. (Herod. v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilas. The phil-Hellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385–380 B.C. in conjunction with Citium and Soli (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after Alexander the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended, but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in Roman time.
The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn (Strabo 340, quoting Hipponax, fl. 540 B.C.), partly from its copper mines (Ovid, Met. x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, Inselreise, iv. 195; W. H. Engel, Kypros, i. 111 ff.). Ovid also mentions its sheep (Met. x. 227); the epithet Amathusia in Roman poetry often means little more than “Cypriote,” attesting however the fame of the city.
Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of Alexandria (Johannes Eleëmon), as late as 606–616, and a ruined Byzantine church marks the site; but it was already almost deserted when Richard Cœur de Lion won Cyprus by a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The rich necropolis, already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works of art to New York (L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus, 1878 passim) and to the British Museum (Excavations in Cyprus, 1894 (1899) passim); but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the Louvre in 1867. Two small sanctuaries, with terra-cotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, i. ch.1). (J. L. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amati

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​AMATI, the name of a family of Italian violin-makers, who flourished at Cremona from about 1550 to 1692. According to Fétis, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were the first Italians who made violins. They were succeeded by Antonio and Geronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another Nicolo, son of Geronimo, was born on the 3rd of September 1596 and died on the 12th of August 1684. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His pattern was usually small, but he also made the so-called “Grand Amatis.” Of his pupils the most famous were Andrea Enamieri and Antonio Stradivari.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amarar

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​AMARAR, a tribe of African “Arabs” inhabiting the mountainous country on the west side of the Red Sea from Suakin northwards towards Kosseir. Between them and the Nile are the Ababda and Bisharin tribes and to their south dwell the Hadendoa. The country of the Amarar is called the Etbai. Their headquarters are in the Ariab district. The tribe is divided into four great families: (1) Weled Gwilei, (2) Weled Aliab, (3) Weled Kurbab Wagadab, and (4) the Amarar proper of the Ariab district. They claim to be of Koreish blood and to be the descendants of an invading Arab army. Possibly some small bands of Koreish Arabs may have made an inroad and converted some of the Amarar to Islam. Further than this there is little to substantiate their claim.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905); Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1891); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amasia

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​AMASIA (anc. Amasia), the chief town of a sanjak in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor and an important trade centre on the Samsun-Sivas road, beautifully situated on the Yeshil Irmak (Iris). Pop. 30,000; Moslems about 20,000, of whom a large proportion are Kizilbash (Shia); Christians (mostly Armenians), 10,000. It was one of the chief towns of the kingdom of Trebizond and of the Seljuks, one of whose sultans, Kaikobad I., enriched it with fine buildings and restored the castle, which was thus enabled to stand a seven months’ siege by Timur. It was also much favoured by the early Osmanli sultans, one of whom, Selim I., was born there. Bayezid II. built a fine mosque. The place was modernized about a generation ago by Zia Pasha, the poet, when governor, and is now an unusually well built Turkish town with good bazaar and khans and a fine clock-tower. The ​Americans and the Jesuits have missionary schools for the Armenian population. Amasia has extensive orchards and fruit gardens still, as in Ibn Batuta’s time, irrigated by water wheels turned by the current of the river; and there are steam flourmills. Wheat, flour and silk are exported.
Ancient Amasia has left little trace of itself except on the castle rock, on the left of the river, where the acropolis walls and a number of splendid rock-cut tombs, described by Strabo as those of the kings of Pontus, can be seen. The cliff is cut away all round these immense sepulchres so that they stand free. The finest, known from its polished surfaces as the “Mirror Tomb,” is about 2 m. from the modern city. Amasia rose into historical importance after the time of Alexander as the cradle of the power of Pontus; but the last king to reign there was the father of Mithradates Eupator “The Great.” The latter, however, made it the base of his operations against the Romans in 89, 72 and 67 B.C. Pompey made it a free city in 65, after Mithradates’ fall. It was the birthplace of Strabo. (D. G. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amaryllis

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​AMARYLLIS (the name of a girl in classical pastoral poetry), in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing the belladonna lily (Amaryllis Belladonna), a native of South Africa, which was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the 18th century. This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, producing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves, 1–11/2 ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem, bearing at the top a cluster of 6–12 funnel-shaped flowers, of a rose colour and very fragrant. Several forms are known in cultivation. Most of the so-called Amaryllis of gardens belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amatitlán

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​AMATITLÁN, or San Juan de Amatitlán, the capital of a department bearing the same name in Guatemala, on Lake Amatitlán, 15 m. S.W. of Guatemala city by the transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios to San José. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. The town consists almost entirely of one-storeyed adobe huts inhabited by mulattoes and Indians, whose chief industry is the production of cochineal. In 1840 only a small Indian village marked its site, and its subsequent growth was due to the sugar plantations established by a Jesuit settlement. The wells of the town are strongly impregnated with salt and alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs. Lake Amatitlán, 9 m. long and 3 m. broad, lies on the northern side of the great Guatemalan Cordillera. Above it rises the four-cratered volcano of Pacaya (8390 ft.), which was in eruption in 1870. The outlet of the lake is a swift river 65 m. long, which cuts a way through the Cordillera, and enters the Pacific at Istapa, after forming at San Pedro a fine waterfall more than 200 ft. high.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amaurosis

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​AMAUROSIS (Gr. for “blinding,”), a term for “deprivation of sight,” limited chiefly to those forms of defect or loss of vision which are caused by diseases not directly involving the eye.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anencletus

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​ANENCLETUS, or Anacletus, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century he is treated in the catalogues as two persons—Anacletus and Cletus. According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve years (c. 77–88).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anecdote

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​ANECDOTE (from ἀν-, privative, and ἐκδίδωμι, to give out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret histories—Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the titles of his secret history of Justinian’s court—or portions of ancient writers which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the first time. Of such anecdota there are many collections; the earliest was probably L. A. Muratori’s, in 1709. In the more general and popular acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short accounts of detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the collections are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852), known as the Percy Anecdotes (1820–1823).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anemone

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​ANEMONE, or Wind-Flower (from the Gr. ἄνεμος, wind), a genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety species in the north and south temperate zones. Anemone nemorosa, wood anemone, and A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower, occur in Britain; the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties. The plants are perennial herbs with an underground rootstock, and radical, more or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an involucre of three leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear long hairy styles which aid their distribution by the wind. Many of the species are favourite garden plants; among the best known is Anemone coronaria, often called the poppy anemone, a tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like divided leaves, and large showy poppy-like blossoms on stalks of from 6 to 9 in. high; the flowers are of various colours, but the principal are scarlet, crimson, blue, purple and white. There are also double-flowered varieties, in which the stamens in the centre are replaced by a tuft of narrow petals. It is an old garden favourite, and of the double forms there are named varieties. They grow best in a loamy soil, enriched with well-rotted manure, which should be dug in below the tubers. These may be planted in October, and for succession in January, the autumn-planted ones being protected by a covering of leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in May and June, and when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till planting time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of the single varieties is a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and often brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or crocus. The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming plants, of which A. hortensis and A. fulgens have less divided leaves and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require similar treatment. Another set is represented by A. Pulsatilla, the Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface hairy; these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A. japonica, and its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially, are amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials; they grow well in light soil, and reach 21/2 to 3 ft. in height, blooming continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf species, represented by the native British A. nemorosa and A. apennina, are amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for planting in woods and shady places.
The genus Hepatica is now generally included in anemone as a subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are varieties of the common South European A. Hepatica; they are charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Anerio

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​ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about 1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are printed in Proske’s Musica Divina and other modern anthologies, and it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part worthy of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally given as 1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567, and seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some of his numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But the statement, which continues to be repeated in standard works of reference, that “he was one of the first of Italians to use the quaver and its subdivisions” is incomprehensible. Quavers were common property in all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and semiquavers appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574. The two brothers are probably the latest composers who handled 16th-century music as their mother-language; suffering neither from the temptation ​to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might have learnt from the elder brother’s master, Nanino, nor from the necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work of their own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could live. The 12-part Stabat Mater in the seventh volume of Palestrina’s complete works has been by some authorities ascribed to Felice Anerio.