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# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 1/2

[Sidenote: 2. Notices of the persecution in the Koran.]
The oppressions, trials, and sufferings which the early Moslems underwent compelled them to fly from their homes, leaving their families and property in the hands of their oppressors. They chose this course rather than revert to paganism. They held steadfastly to the one true God whom their Prophet had taught them to trust and believe. All these facts are clearly outlined in the following verses of the Koran:—
"And as to those who when oppressed have fled their country for the sake of God, We will surely provide them a goodly abode in this world, but greater the reward of next life, did they but know it."
"They who bear ills with patience, and put their trust in the Lord!"—xvi, 43, 44.
"To those also who after their trials fled their country, then did their utmost and endured with patience, verily, thy Lord will afterwards be forgiving, gracious."—Ibid, 111.
"But they who believe, and who fly their country, and do their utmost in the cause of God, may hope for God's mercy: and God is Gracious, Merciful."—ii, 215.
"And they who have fled their country and quitted their homes and suffered in my cause and have fought and fallen—I will blot out their sins from them and will bring them into gardens beneath which the streams do flow."—iii, 194.
"And as to those who fled their country for the cause of God, and were afterwards slain, or died, surely with goodly provision will God provide for them! for verily, God is the best of providers!"—xxii, 57.
"Those believers who sit at home free from trouble, and those who toil in the cause of God with their substance and their persons, shall not be treated alike. God hath assigned to those who strive with their persons and with their substance, a rank above those who sit at home. Goodly promises hath He made to all: But God hath assigned to those who make efforts a rich recompense above those who sit still at home."
"The angels, when they took the souls of those who had been unjust to their own weal, demanded, 'What hath been your state?' They said, 'We were the weak ones of the earth.' They replied, 'Was not God's earth broad enough for you to flee away in?' These! their home shall be Hell, and evil the passage to it"—
"Except the men and women and children who were not able through their weakness to find the means of escape, and were not guided on their way. These haply God will forgive: for God is Forgiving, Pardoning."—iv, 97, 99, 100.
"God doth not forbid you to deal with kindness and fairness towards those who have not made war upon you on account of your religion, or driven you forth from your homes: verily, God loveth those who act with fairness."
"Only doth God forbid you to make friends of those who, on account of your religion, have warred against you, and have driven you forth from your homes, and have aided your expulsion: and whoever maketh friends of them, these therefore are evil-doers."—lx, 8, 9.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 10/57

[Sidenote: 57. Treatment of the prisoners of war.]
Some of the war prisoners had received the condign punishment of execution for their crimes in conformity with the laws of war. It has been alleged by some European biographers of Mohammad that their (the war prisoners') execution was cruel, and that they were accused of no crime except their scepticism and political antagonism.
The persons executed were as follows:—
    1. Nadhr-bin-Harith.
    2. Okba.
    3. Abul Ozza.
    4. Moavia-bin-Mughira.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Muir's Life of Mahomet, Vol. IV, p. 307.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 10/59

1.—Nadhr-bin-Harith.
[Sidenote: 59. The execution of Nadhr Ibn Harith.]
Nadhr (Nazr), one of the prisoners of war, was executed after the battle of Badr for his crime of severely tormenting the Moslems at Mecca. Musáb had distinctly reminded him of his torturing the companions of Mohammad, so there was nothing of a cruel and vindictive spirit of the Prophet displayed towards his enemies in the execution of Nazr as it is made out by Sir W. Muir. On the other hand, his execution is denied by some critics, like Ibn Manda and Abú Naeem, who say, that Nazr-bin-Haris was present at the battle of Honain, A.H. 8, six years after that of Badr, and was presented with one hundred camels by Mohammad. Sir W. Muir himself puts down very quietly Nadhir Ibn al Harith's name in a foot-note (Vol. IV, page 151) as a recipient of one hundred camels at Honain. The same Nadhr-bin-Harith is shown among the earliest Moslem refugees who had fled to Abyssinia. These discrepancies leave no doubt that the story of Nadhr's execution is not a fact. It is also related by the narrators, who assert Nazr's execution at Badr, that his daughter or sister came to Mohammad and addressed him several verses, the hearing of which produced such a tender emotion in him, that his eyes shed tears and said, he would not have issued orders for his execution had he heard these verses before. The following are two of the verses which Mohammad heard:
    "Má kán Zarraka lao mananta va rubba mámannal
       "fata va ho-al mughizul mohnihoo."
    Thou wouldst no harm have seen to set him free,
       Anger how high for pardon has no plea.
But Zobier-bin-Bakár says, he heard some learned men who objected to these verses on the ground that they were all concocted; and I think that the whole story of Nazr's execution is a spurious one.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Wackidi Campaigns of Mohammad, p. 101, Calcutta, 1855.
* ↑ "It was at Otheil that the cruel and vindictive spirit of Mahomet towards his enemies first began to display itself."—Muir's Life of Mohamet, Vol. III, p. 115. After this, the author narrates the execution of Nazr. Ibn Is-hak. Vide Ibn Hisham, p. 458; Wackidi, p. 108; Abu Daood, Vol. II, p. 10. This story is not given by Ibn Hisham and Ibn Sád.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 10

X.—The alleged Cruelties in executing Prisoners of War and others.
* 57. Treatment of the prisoners of war
* 58. Law of nations regarding the prisoners of war
* 59. The execution of Nadher Ibn Harith
* 60. The execution of Okba
* 61. Free liberty granted to Ozza, a prisoner of war
* 62. Abul Ozza proved a traitor and was executed
* 63. The execution of Moavia Ibn Mughira
* 64. Justification of Mughira's execution
* 65. The intended execution of the prisoners of Badr and the wrong version of Sir W. Muir
* 66. Mohammad was never blamed in the Koran for releasing prisoners
* 67. The Koran enjoins the prisoners of war to be either freely liberated or ransomed, but neither executed nor enslaved
* 68. High treason of the Bani Koreiza against Medina and their execution
* 69. The whole of the Bani Koreiza were never executed
* 70. The women and children of Bani Koreiza were never sold
* 71. The exaggerated number of persons executed
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 1/3

[Sidenote: 3. Insults suffered by Mohammad.]
The Prophet himself suffered insults and personal injuries from the hands of his persecutors. He was prevented from offering his prayers (xcvi, 10). He allowed himself to be spat upon, to have dust thrown upon him, and to be dragged out of the Kaaba by his own turban fastened to his neck. He bore all these indignities with the utmost humility, and he daily beheld his followers treated oppressively. After his uncle's death his life was attempted, but he escaped by flying to Medina.
"And call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee, to detain thee prisoner or to kill thee or to banish thee: they plotted—but God plotted; and of plotters is God the best."—viii, 30.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 1/5

[Sidenote: 5. The Hegira.]
Mohammad, being much troubled by the intolerance of the people and the personal safety and security of himself and his followers being endangered, and mutual intercourse denied, saw that it was hopeless to expect any forbearance on the part of the Koreish, who would not permit him to live and preach his religion at home, and looked for assistance and protection from a strange land. He asked the people of Medina to receive and protect him. The Medina converts, who had come to Mecca on pilgrimage, pledged themselves to Mohammad, and promised to defend him as they would defend their wives and children. The Medina converts, although not acting on the offensive, became at once objects of suspicion to the Koreish, who endeavoured to seize those who were in Mecca. They maltreated one of the Medina converts who fell into their hands, and the work of persecution was recommenced in right earnest. Two months elapsed before the believers, except those detained in confinement or who were unable to escape from slavery, or women and children, could emigrate. Families after families silently disappeared, and house after house was abandoned. One or two quarters of the city were entirely deserted. The Koreish held a council and proscribed Mohammad, who escaped together with Abu Bakr, leaving Ali in his house, around whom, to lull the suspicions of his neighbours, he threw his own mantle, and desired him to occupy his bed. Mohammad and his follower took refuge in a cave. The Koreish despatched scouts in all directions to search for Mohammad, but in vain. After hiding for three days in the cave, Mohammad and Abu Bakr started for Medina, where they arrived safely.
The foregoing circumstances would have fully justified immediate hostilities on the part of Mohammad, but he did not take up arms until compelled to do so by the attacks of the Meccans.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "The support of the Medina adherents, and the suspicion of an intended emigration, irritated the Koreish to severity; and this severity forced the Moslems to petition Mahomet for leave to emigrate. The two causes might co-exist and re-act one another; the persecution would hasten the departure of the converts, while each fresh departure would irritate the Koreish to greater cruelty."—William Muir's Life of Mahomet, Vol. II, pp. 242, 243, foot-note.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 1/6

[Sidenote: 6. The persecution of the Moslems by the Koreish after their flight from Mecca.]
Notwithstanding the flight of the Prophet and of all the early Moslem converts who were able to effect an escape except their families, women and children, and those weak Moslems who could not leave Mecca, the Meccans or the Koreish did not forgive the fugitives and did not abstain from their aggressions against them. They maltreated the children and weak Moslems left at Mecca (iv, 77, 99 and 100), expelled the Moslems from their houses, and would not allow them to come back to Mecca for a pilgrimage (ii, 214). The Meccans several times invaded the Medina territory with the avowed intention of making war upon the Moslems (and actually fought the battles of Bedr, Ohad, Khandak or Ahzáb, at Medina), consequently the Moslems were forced to resort to arms in pure self-defence.
These were sufficient grounds for the Moslems to assume the offensive. They were desirous also of rescuing their families and those who had been unable to join in the flight from the tyranny and oppression of the Meccans. Yet they were in no instance the aggressors. Driven from their homes and families they did not resort to arms until absolutely compelled to do so in self-defence.
All that Mohammad claimed for himself and his followers was, full liberty of conscience and actions, and permission to preach and practice his religion without being molested. This being refused, he advised his followers to leave the city and seek refuge elsewhere. They emigrated twice to Abyssinia, and for the third time were expelled to Medina, where he himself followed, when his own life was attempted.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 10/58

[Sidenote: The law of nations regarding the prisoners of war.]
Before reviewing the case of each prisoner, I must note, by way of introductory remarks, that, under the international or military law, a prisoner of war is a public enemy armed or attached to the hostile army for active aid, and who has fallen into the hands of the captor, either fighting or wounded, on the fields or in the hospitals, by individual surrender or capitulation. All soldiers, of whatever species of arms; all men who belong to the rising en masse of the hostile country; all those who are attached to the army for its efficiency and promote directly the object of the war, except religious persons, officers of medical staff, hospital nurses and servants, all disabled men or officers on the field, or elsewhere, if captured, all enemies who have thrown away their arms and asked for quarters, are prisoners of war, and as such exposed to the inconveniences as well as entitled to the privileges of a prisoner of war. He is subject to no punishment for being a public enemy, nor is any revenge wreaked upon him by the international infliction of any suffering or disgrace, by cruel imprisonment, want of food, by mutilation, death, or any other barbarity. But a prisoner of war remains answerable for his crimes committed against the captor's army or people before he was captured, and for which he has not been punished by his own authorities. All prisoners of war are liable to the infliction of retaliatory measures.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 1/1

[Sidenote: 1. The early persecutions of Moslems by the people of Mecca.]
The severe persecution which Mohammad and his early converts suffered at Mecca at the hands of their fellow-citizens, the Koreish, is a fact admitted by all historians.
The Koran, which may be regarded as a contemporary record of the ill-feeling manifested towards the Prophet and his followers, bears ample testimony to the fact. Not only were the early Moslems persecuted for renouncing the pagan religion and obtaining converts to the monotheistic religion of Mohammad, but they were also tortured and otherwise ill-treated to induce them to return to the religion which they had forsaken. The persecution seems to have been so great that Mohammad was compelled to recognize those of his followers, who by force and cruelty were compelled to renounce Islam and profess paganism, but were inwardly steadfast in their belief of the one true God, as true Moslems.
The Koran says:
"Whoso after he hath believed in God denieth Him, if he were forced to it, and if his heart remain steadfast in the faith, shall be guiltless; but whoso openeth his breast to infidelity, on them, in that case, shall be wrath from God, and a severe punishment awaiteth them."—Sura xvi, 108.
"The incarceration and tortures," says Mr. Stobart, "chiefly by thirst in the burning rays of the sun, to which these humble converts were subjected, to induce their recantation and adoration of the national idols, touched the heart of Mahomet, and by divine authority, he permitted them, under certain circumstances, to deny their faith so long as their hearts were steadfast in it."

## Footnotes

* ↑ Islam and its Founder, by J.W.H. Stobart, B.A., page 76. But, in fact, there was no such permission. The verse quoted above says, that the wrath and punishment of God will be on those who deny God, except those who do so by being forced. The latter were not put on the same footing as the former; in short, those who denied God under compulsion were not counted unbelievers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Whale-oil

See also Whale oil on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WHALE-OIL, the oil obtained from the blubber of various species of the genus Balaena, as B. mysticetus, Greenland or " right” whale (northern whale-oil), B. australis (southern whale-oil), Balaenoptera longimana, Balaenoptera borealis (Finback oil, Finner whale-oil, Humpback oil). The “orca” or “killer” whale, and the “beluga” or white whale, also yield “whale-oils.” “Train-oil” proper is the northern whale-oil, but this term has been applied to all blubber oils, and in Germany, to all marine animal oils—fish-oils, liver oils, and blubber oils. The most important whale-oil is sperm or spermaceti oil, yielded by the sperm-whales.
Whale-oil varies in colour from a bright honey yellow to a dark brown, according to the condition of the blubber from which it has been extracted. At best it has a rank fishy odour, and the darker the colour the more disagreeable the smell. With lowering of the temperature stearin, accompanied with a small proportion of spermaceti, separates from the oil, and a little under the freezing point nearly the whole of these constituents may be crystallized out. When separated and pressed, this deposit is known as whale tallow, and the oil from which it is removed is distinguished as pressed whale-oil; this, owing to its limpidity, is sometimes passed as sperm-oil. Whale-oil is principally used in oiling wools for combing, ​in batching flax and other vegetable fibres, in currying and chamois leather-making, and as a lubricant for machinery. Sperm-oil is obtained from the cavity in the head of the sperm-whale, and from several smaller receptacles throughout the body of the animal During the life of the whale the contents of these cavities are in a fluid condition, but no sooner is the "head matter" removed than the solid wax spermaceti separates in white crystalline flakes, leaving the oil a clear yellow fluid having a fishy odour. Refined sperm-oil is a most valuable lubricant for small and delicate machinery (see Oils).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wharf

See also Wharf and Wharfinger on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WHARF, a place for loading or unloading ships or vessels, particularly a platform of timber, stone or other material along the shore of a harbour or along the bank of a navigable river against which vessels may lie and discharge their cargo or be loaded. The O. Eng. word hwerf meant literally a turning or turning-place (hweorfan, to turn, cf. Goth, hwairban, Gr. καρπός, wrist), and was thus used particularly of a bank of earth, a dam which turns the flow of a stream, the cognate word in Dutch, werf, meant a wharf or a shipbuilder’s yard, cf. Dan. vaerft, dockyard, and the current meaning of the word is probably borrowed from Dutch or Scandinavian languages.
In English law all water-borne goods must be landed at specified places, in particular hours and under supervision; wharves, which by the Merchant Shipping Act 1895, § 492, include quays, docks and other premises on which goods may be lawfully landed, are either “sufferance wharves,” authorized by the commissioners of customs under bond, or “legal wharves” specially appointed by treasury warrant and exempt from bond. There are also wharves authorized by statute or by prescriptive right. The owner or occupier of a wharf is styled a “wharfinger,” properly “wharfager,” with an intrusive n, as in “messenger” and “passenger.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wharton, Francis

See also Francis Wharton on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WHARTON, FRANCIS (1820–1889), American legal writer and educationalist, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of March 1820. He graduated at Yale in 1839, was admitted to the bar in 1843, became prominent in Pennsylvania politics as a Democrat, and in Philadelphia edited the North A merican and United States Gazette. He was professor of English history and literature at Kenyon College, Gambler, Ohio, in 1856–1863. He took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church in 1862 and in 1863–1869 was rector of St Paul's Church, Brookline, Massachusetts. In 1871–1881 he taught ecclesiastical polity and canon law in the Protestant Episcopal Theological School at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and at this time he lectured on the conflict of laws at Boston University. For two years he travelled in Europe, and after two years in Philadelphia he went to Washington, D.C., where he was lecturer on criminal law (1885–1886) and then professor of criminal law (1886–1888) at Columbian (now George Washington) University; in 1885–1888 he was solicitor (or examiner of claims) of the Department of State, and from 1888 to his death on the 21st of February 1889 was employed on an edition (authorized by Congress) of the Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States (6 vols., 1889, ed. by J. B Moore), which superseded Sparks’s compilation. Wharton was a “broad churchman” and was deeply interested in the hymnology of his church. He received the degree of LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh in 1883, and was the foremost American authority on international law.
He published: A Treatise on the Criminal Law of the United States (1846; many times reprinted); State Trials of the Untied States during the Administrations of Washington and Adams (1849); A Treatise on the Law of Homicide in the United States (1855); with Moreton Stille, A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence (1855); Modern Theism (1859). in which he applied rules of legal evidence to modern sceptical theories; A Treatise on the Conflict of Laws (1872; 3rd ed 1903); A Treatise on the Law of Negligence (1874); A Commentary on the Law of Agency and Agents (1876), A Commentary on the Law of Evidence in Civil Issues (1877; 3rd ed. 1888); a companion work on Criminal Evidence; Commentary on the Law of Contracts (1882); Commentaries on Law (1884); and a Digest of the International Law of the United States (3 vols. 1886).
See the Memoir (Philadelphia, 1891) by his daughter, Mrs Viele, and several friends; and J. B. Moore's “Brief Sketch of the Life of Francis Wharton,” prefaced to the first volume of the Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wharncliffe, James Archibald Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie, 1st Baron

See also James Stuart-Wortley, 1st Baron Wharncliffe on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​WHARNCLIFFE, JAMES ARCHIBALD STUART-WORTLEY-MACKENZIE, 1st Baron (1776–1845), English statesman, was the son of Colonel Stuart, son of the 3rd earl of Bute and of his wife Mary Wortley-Montagu (Baroness Mountstuart in her own right), as whose heir Colonel Stuart added the name of Wortley, taking later also that of Mackenzie (which his son in later life discarded) as heir to his uncle J. S. Mackenzie of Rosehaugh. He entered the army, becoming colonel in 1797, but retired in 1801 and devoted himself to politics, sitting in parliament as a Tory for Bossiney in Cornwall till 1818, when he was returned for Yorkshire. His attitude on various questions became gradually more Liberal, and his support of Catholic emancipation lost him his seat in 1826. He was then raised to the peerage as Baron Wharncliffe of Wortley, a recognition both of his previous parliamentary activity and of his high position among the country gentlemen. At first opposing the Reform Bill, he gradually came to see the undesirability of a popular conflict, and he separated himself from the Tories and took an important part in modifying the attitude of the peers and helping to pass the bill, though his attempts at amendment only resulted in his pleasing neither party. He became, lord privy seal in Peel’s short ministry at the end of 1834, and again joined him in 1841 as lord president of the council. In 1837 he brought out an edition of the writings of his ancestress, Lady Mary Wortley-Montagu (new ed. 1893). On his death in 1845 he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son, John Stuart-Wortley (1801–1855), whose son Edward, 3rd baron (1827–1899), best known as chairman of the Manchester, Lincoln & Sheffield railway, converted under him into the Great Central, was created 1st earl of Wharncliffe and Viscount Carlton in 1876; his name was prominently identified with railway enterprise, and became attached to certain features of its nomenclature. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his nephew Francis (b. 1856).
Among other members of the family, several of whom distinguished themselves in law, politics, art and the army, may be mentioned the 1st baron’s third son, James Archibald Stuart-Wortley (1805–1881), recorder of London and solicitor-general; his son, C. B. Stuart-Wortley, K.C . (b. 1851), became well known in parliament as under-secretary for the home office (1885, and 1886–1892) and deputy-chairman of committees.