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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazara (India)

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​HAZARA, a district of British India, in the Peshawar division of the North-West Frontier Province, with an area of 3391 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by the Black Mountain, the Swat country, Kohistan and Chilas; on the E. by the native state of Kashmir; on the S. by Rawalpindi district; and on the W. by the river Indus. On the creation of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901 the district was reconstituted, the Tahsil of Attock being transferred to Rawalpindi. The district forms a wedge of territory extending far into the heart of the outer Himalayas, and consisting of a long narrow valley, shut in on both sides by lofty mountains, whose peaks rise to a height of 17,000 ft. above sea level. Towards the centre of the district the vale of Kagan is bounded by mountain chains, which sweep southward still maintaining a general parallel direction, and send off spurs on every side which divide the country into numerous minor dales. The district is well watered by the tributaries of the Indus, the Kunhar, which flows through the Kagan Valley into the Jhelum, and many rivulets. Throughout the scenery is picturesque. To the north rise the distant peaks of the snow-clad ranges; midway, the central mountains stand clothed to their rounded summits with pines and other forest trees, while grass and brushwood spread a green cloak over the nearer hills, and cultivation covers every available slope. The chief frontier tribes on the border are the cis-Indus Swatis, Hassanzais, Akazais, Chagarzais, Pariari Syads, Madda Khels, Amazais and Umarzais. Within the district Pathans are not numerous.
The name Hazara possibly belonged originally to a Turki family which entered India with Timur in the 14th century, and subsequently settled in this remote region. During the prosperous period of the Mogul dynasty the population included a number of mixed tribes, which each began to assert its independence, so that the utmost anarchy prevailed until Hazara attracted the attention of the rising Sikh monarchy. Ranjit Singh first obtained a footing here in 1818, and, after eight years of constant aggression, became master of the whole country. During the minority of the young maharaja Dhuleep Singh, the Sikh kingdom fell into a state of complete disorganization; the people seized the opportunity for recovering their independence, ​and rose in 1845 in rebellion. They stormed the Sikh forts, laid siege to Haripur, and drove the governor across the borders. After the first Sikh War it was proposed to transfer Hazara with Kashmir to Gulab Singh, but it remained under the Lahore government in charge of James Abbott, who pacified it in less than a year and held it single-handed throughout the troubles of the second Sikh War. It was also undisturbed during the Mutiny. The population in 1901 was 560,288, showing an increase of 8·52% in the decade. The headquarters are at Abbotabad; pop. (1901) 7764. Through the Kagan valley and over the Babusar pass at its head lies the most direct route from the Punjab to Chilas and Gilgit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hayne, Robert Young

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​HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (1791–1839), American political leader, born in St Paul’s parish, Colleton district, South Carolina, on the 10th of November 1791. He studied law in the office of Langdon Cheves (1776–1857) in Charleston, S.C., and in November 1812 was admitted to the bar there, soon obtaining a large practice. For a short time during the War of 1812 against Great Britain, he was captain in the Third South Carolina Regiment. He was a member of the lower house of the state legislature from 1814 to 1818, serving as speaker in the latter year; was attorney-general of the state from 1818 to 1822, and in 1823 was elected, as a Democrat, to the United States Senate. Here he was conspicuous as an ardent free-trader and an uncompromising advocate of “States Rights,” opposed the protectionist tariff bills of 1824 and 1828, and consistently upheld the doctrine that slavery was a domestic institution and should be dealt with only by the individual states. In one of his speeches opposing the sending by the United States of representatives to the Panama Congress, he said, “The moment the federal government shall make the unhallowed attempt to interfere with the domestic concerns of the states, those states will consider themselves driven from the Union.” Hayne is best remembered, however, for his great debate with Daniel Webster (q.v.) in January 1830. The debate arose over the so-called “Foote’s Resolution,” introduced by Senator Samuel A. Foote (1780–1846) of Connecticut, calling for the restriction of the sale of public lands to those already in the market, but was concerned primarily with the relation to one another and the respective powers of the federal government and the individual states, Hayne contending that the constitution was essentially a compact between the states, and the national government and the states, and that any state might, at will, nullify any federal law which it considered to be in contravention of that compact. He vigorously opposed the tariff of 1832, was a member of the South Carolina Nullification Convention of November 1832, and reported the ordinance of nullification passed by that body on the 24th of November. Resigning from the Senate, he was governor of the state from December 1832 to December 1834, and as such took a strong stand against President Jackson, though he was more conservative than many of the nullificationists in the state. He was intendant (mayor) of Charleston, S.C., from 1835 to 1837, and was president of the Louisville, Cincinnati & Charleston railway from 1837 to 1839. He died at Asheville, N.C., on the 24th of September 1839. His son, Paul Hamilton Hayne (1830–1886), was a poet of some distinction, and in 1878 published a life of his father.
See Theodore D. Jervey, Robert Y. Hayne and his Times (New York, 1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haywood, Eliza

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​HAYWOOD, ELIZA (c. 1693–1756), English writer, daughter of a London tradesman named Fowler, was born about 1693. She made an early and unhappy marriage with a man named Haywood, and her literary enemies circulated scandalous stories about her, possibly founded on her works rather than her real history. She appeared on the stage as early as 1715, and in 1721 she revised for Lincoln’s Inn Fields The Fair Captive, by a Captain Hurst. Two other pieces followed, but Eliza Haywood made her mark as a follower of Mrs Manley in writing scandalous and voluminous novels. To Memoirs of a certain Island adjacent to Utopia, written by a celebrated author of that country. Now translated into English (1725), she appended a key in which the characters were explained by initials denoting living persons. The names are supplied to these initials in the copy in the British Museum. The Secret History of the Present Intrigues of the Court of Caramania (1727) was explained in a similar manner. The style of these productions is as extravagant as their matter. Pope attacked her in a coarse passage in The Dunciad (bk. ii. 11. 157 et seq.), which is aggravated by a note alluding to the “profligate licentiousness of those shameless scribblers (for the most part of that sex which ought least to be capable of such malice or impudence) who in libellous Memoirs and Novels reveal the faults or misfortunes of both sexes, to the ruin of public fame, or disturbance of private happiness.” Swift, writing to Lady Suffolk, says, “Mrs Haywood I have heard of as a stupid, infamous, scribbling woman, but have not seen any of her productions.” She continued to be a prolific writer of novels until her death on the 25th of February 1756, but her later works are characterized by extreme propriety, though an anonymous story of The Fortunate Foundlings (1744), purporting to be an account of the children of Lord Charles Manners, is generally ascribed to her.
A collected edition of her novels, plays and poems appeared in 1724, and her Secret Histories, Novels and Poems in 1725. See also an article by S. L. Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazara (Race)

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​HAZARA, a race of Afghanistan. The Hazaras are of Mongolian origin, speak a dialect of Persian, and belong to the Shiah sect of Mahommedans. They are of middle size but stoutly made, with small grey eyes, high cheek bones and smooth faces. They are descendants of military colonists introduced by Jenghiz Khan, who occupy all the highlands of the upper Helmund valley, spreading through the country between Kabul and Herat, as well as into a strip of territory on the frontier slopes of the Hindu Kush north of Kabul. In the western provinces they are known as the Chahar Aimak (Hazaras, Jamshidis, Taimanis and Ferozkhois), and in other districts they are distinguished by the name of the territory they occupy. They are pure Mongols, intermixing with no other races (chiefly for the reason that no other races will intermix with them), preserving their language and their Mongol characteristics uninfluenced by their surroundings, having absolutely displaced the former occupants of the Hazarajat and Ghor. They make good soldiers and excellent pioneers. The amir’s companies of engineers are recruited from the Hazaras, and they form perhaps the most effective corps in his heterogeneous army. They are now recruited into the British service in India.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazard

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​HAZARD (O. Fr. hazard, from Span. azar, unlucky throw at dice, misfortune, from Arab, al, and zar, dice), a game of dice (called Craps in America), once very popular in England and played for large stakes at the famous rooms of Crockford (St James’s Street, London) and Almack (Pall Mall, London). The player or “caster” calls a “main” (that is, any number from five to nine inclusive). He then throws with two dice. If he “throws in,” or “nicks,” he wins the sum played for from the banker or “setter.” Five is a nick to five, six and twelve are nicks to six, seven and eleven to seven, eight and twelve to eight and nine to nine. If the caster “throws out” by throwing aces, or deuce-ace (called crabs or craps), he loses. When the main is five or nine the caster throws out with 11 or 12; when the main is six or eight he throws out with 11; when the main is seven he throws out with 12. If the caster neither nicks nor throws out, the number thrown is his “chance,” and he keeps on throwing till either the chance comes up, when he wins, or till the main comes up, when he loses. When a chance is thrown the “odds” for or against the chance are laid by the setter to the amount of the original stake. Seven is the best main for the caster to call, as it can be thrown in six different ways out of the thirty-six casts which are possible with dice. Supposing seven to be the main; then the caster wins if he throws 7 or 11; he loses if he throws crabs or 12. If he throws any other number, 4 for example, that is his chance. The odds against him are two to one, as 7 can be thrown in six ways, but 4 only in three; hence six to three, or two to one, are the correct odds, and if the original stake was £1, the setter now lays £2 to £1 in addition. It is useful to remember that 2 and 12 can be thrown in one way; 3 and 11 in two ways; 4 and 10 in three ways; 5 and 9 in four ways; 6 and 8 in five ways. The odds against the caster are thus given by Hoyle: If 7 is the main and 4 the chance, two to one; 6 and 4, five to three; 5 and 4, four to three; 7 and 9, three to two; 7 and 6, six and five; 7 and 5, three to two; 6 and 5, five to four; 8 and 5, five to four, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazaribagh

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​HAZARIBAGH, a town and district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of Bengal. The town is well situated at an elevation of 2000 ft. Pop. (1901) 15,799. Hazaribagh has ceased to be a military cantonment since the European penitentiary was abolished. There are a central jail and a reformatory school. The Dublin University Mission maintains a First Arts college.
The District comprises an area of 7021 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,177,961, showing an increase of 1% in the decade. The physical formation of Hazaribagh exhibits three distinct features: (1) a high central plateau occupying the western section, the surface of which is undulating and cultivated; (2) a lower and more extensive plateau stretching along the north and eastern portions; to the north, the land is well cultivated, while to the east the country is of a more varied character, the elevation is lower, and the character of a plateau is gradually lost; (3) the central valley of the Damodar river occupying the entire southern section. Indeed, although the characteristics of the district are rock, hill and wide-spreading jungle, fine patches of cultivation are met with in all parts, and the scenery is generally pleasing and often striking. The district forms a part of the chain of high land which extends across the continent of India, south of the Nerbudda on the west, and south of the Sone river on the east. The most important river is the Damodar, with its many tributaries, which drains an area of 2480 sq. m.
The history of the district is involved in obscurity until 1755, about which time a certain Mukund Singh was chief of the country. In a few years he was superseded by Tej Singh, who had gained the assistance of the British. In 1780 Hazaribagh, along with the surrounding territory, passed under direct British rule.
The district contains an important coal-field at Giridih which supplies the East Indian railway. There are altogether six mines. There are also mica mines which are gaining in importance. Rice and oilseeds are the principal crops. Tea cultivation has been tried but does not flourish, and is almost extinct. The only railways are the branch of the East Indian to the coal-field at Giridih, where there is a technical school maintained by the railway company, and the newly-opened Gaya-Katrasgarh chord line; but the district is traversed by the Grand Trunk road. Parasnath hill is annually visited by large numbers of Jain worshippers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hayter, Sir George

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​HAYTER, SIR GEORGE (1792–1871), English painter, was the son of a popular drawing-master and teacher of perspective who published a well-known introduction to perspective and other works. He was born in London, and in his early youth went to sea. He afterwards studied in the Royal Academy, became a miniature-painter, and was appointed in 1816 miniature-painter to the princess Charlotte. He passed some years in Italy, more especially in Rome, between 1816 and 1831, returned to London in the last-named year, resumed portrait-painting, now chiefly in oil-colour, executed many likenesses of the royal family, and attained such a reputation for finish and refinement in his work that he received the appointment of principal painter to Queen Victoria and teacher of drawing to the princesses. In 1842 he was knighted. He painted various works on a large scale of a public and semi-historical character, but essentially works of portraiture; such as “The Trial of Queen Caroline” (189 likenesses), “The Meeting of the First Reformed Parliament,” now in the National Portrait Gallery, “Queen Victoria taking the Coronation Oath” (accounted his finest production), “The Marriage of the Queen,” and the “Trial of Lord William Russell.” The artistic merits of Hayter’s works are not, however, such as to preserve to him with posterity an amount of prestige corresponding to that which court patronage procured him.
He is not to be confounded with a contemporary artist, John Hayter, who produced illustrations for the Book of Beauty, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Müller, Friedrich

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​MÜLLER, FRIEDRICH (1749–1825), German poet, dramatist and painter, usually known as Maler (i.e. painter) Müller, was born at Kreuznach on the 13th of January 1749. He studied painting at Zweibrücken, and in 1774–1775 settled in Mannheim, where in 1777 he was appointed court painter. In 1778 he was enabled by a public subscription to visit Italy, which remained his home for the rest of his life. In 1780 he became a Roman Catholic. He was unfavourably influenced by the study of Italian models, and gradually gave up painting and devoted himself to the study of the history of art; his services as cicerone were especially in demand among German visitors to Rome. Before he left Mannheim he had tried his hand at literature, under the influence of the Sturm und Drang movement. A lyric drama, Niobe (1778), attracted little attention; but Fausts Leben dramatisiert (1778) appealed to the turbulent spirit of the time, and Golo und Genoveva (begun in 1776, but not published till 1811) was an excellent imitation of Goethe’s Götz von Berlichingen. He struck out a more independent path in his idylls, notably Die Schafschur (1775) and Das Nusskernen (1811), in which, emancipating himself from the artificiality of Gessner, he reproduced scenes—not without a touch of satire—from the German peasant life of his day. He died at Rome on the 23rd of April 1825.
Maler Müller’s Werke appeared in 3 vols. (1811–1825); in 1868 H. Hettner published two volumes of Dichtungen von Maler Müller, which contain most of his writings. Gedichte von Maler Friedrich Müller; eine Nachlese zu dessen Werken appeared in 1873, and his Fausts Leben was reprinted by B. Seuffert in 1881. See A. Sauer, “Stürmer und Dränger,” vol. iii. (Kurschner’s Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 81, 1883); and B. Seuffert, Maler Müller (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Müller, Julius

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​MÜLLER, JULIUS (1801–1878), German Protestant theologian, was born at Brieg on the 10th of April 1801. He studied at Breslau, Göttingen and Berlin, first law, then theology; and in 1839 became professor ordinarius of theology at Halle (1839). In 1848 he helped to found the Deutsch-evang. Kirchentag, and two years later founded and edited (1850–1861), with Neander and K. I. Nitzsch, the Deutsche Zeitschrift für christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben. He died at Halle on the 27th of September 1878. A disciple of Neander and friend of Richard Rothe, Müller bitterly opposed the philosophy of Hegel and the criticism of F. C. Baur. His book, Über den Gegensatz des Protestantismus und des Catholicismus (1833), called forth a reply from Baur, and he was one of those who attacked D. Strauss’s Life of Jesus. In 1846 he had been deputed to attend the General Evangelical Synod at Berlin. Here he supported the Consensus-Union, and afterwards defended ​himself in the pamphlets Die erste Generalsynode der evang. Landeskirche Preussens (1847) and Die evangelische Union, ihr Wesen und göttliches Recht (1854). His chief work, however, was Die christliche Lehre der Sünde (2 vols., 1839; 5th ed., 1867; Eng. trans. from 5th ed.), in which he carried scholasticism so far as “to revive the ancient Gnostic theory of the fall of man before all time, a theory which found no favour amongst his theological friends” (Otto Pfleiderer).
Müller’s other works include Dogmat. Abhandlungen (1870), and Das christliche Leben (3rd ed., 1847). See M. Kähler, Julius Müller (1878); L. Schultze, Julius Müller (1879) and Julius Müller als Ethiker (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mühlhausen

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​MÜHLHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Thuringia, on the right bank of the Unstrut, 25 m. N.W. of Gotha by rail. Pop. (1905), 34,359. It consists of a new and an old town, surrounded by five suburbs, and has numerous old churches and towers. The most interesting churches are those of St Mary and of St Blasius, dating respectively from the 14th and the 12th century; the town-hall is also a fine medieval structure. The chief industries are the spinning and weaving of woollen and cotton. Other manufactures include needles, machinery, cigars, soap, hosiery, furniture and shoes. There are also establishments for dyeing, tanning, lime-burning, iron-making, brewing and the preparation of liqueurs.
Mühlhausen is one of the oldest towns in Thuringia, and is said to have been fortified in 925. Its early importance is shown by the grant of privileges made to it by the German King Henry I., and by the diet held here in 1135. During the Reformation period Mühlhausen became notorious as one of the chief seats of the Anabaptists. Thomas Münzer, one of their leaders, was captured in the vicinity and executed in the town. Internal dissensions and injuries received during the Thirty Years’ War and the Seven Years’ War afterwards reduced Mühlhausen to unimportance. In 1802 it lost its independence and passed to Prussia, in 1807 it was attached to the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 1815 it again became Prussian. The Teutonic Order established itself at Mühlhausen in 1200.
See E. Heydenreich, Aus der Geschichte der Reichsstadt Mühlhausen (Halle, 1900); Nebelsieck, Reformationsgeschichte der Stadt Mühlhausen (Magdeburg, 1905); Herquet, Urkundenbuch der ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Mühlhausen (Halle, 1874); F. Stephan, Verfassungsgeschichte der Reichsstadt Mühlhausen (Sondershausen, 1886); Jordan, Chronik der Stadt Mühlhausen (Mühlhausen, 1900–1906); and Führer durch Mühlhausen und Umgegend (1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mülheim-am-Rhein

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​MÜLHEIM-AM-RHEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 m. below Cologne, of which it is practically a suburb, and on the main lines of railway Cologne-Düsseldorf and Cologne-Elberfeld. Pop. (1905), 50,807. There are important manufactures of silk, ribbons, velvet, sailcloth, tobacco, vinegar, yarn and chemicals, in addition to rolling-mills, boiler works, telegraph works, breweries, tanneries and a ship-building yard. Mülheim also carries on a brisk trade by rail and river.
Of ancient foundation, Mülheim received municipal rights in 1322. Its industrial prosperity is in great part due to the influx of Protestants expelled from Cologne at the beginning of the 17th century. In 1784 the town suffered severely from an inundation caused by the rapid breaking-up of the ice on the Upper Rhine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mülheim-an-der-Ruhr

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​MÜLHEIM-AN-DER-RUHR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Ruhr, an affluent of the Rhine, about 7 m. W. from Essen and at the intersection of several railways. Pop. (1905), 93, 598. It has a parish church dating from the 12th century. Like most of the towns in this district, Mülheim finds its chief industry in iron-working, and contains numerous blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, foundries and engine-works; it also carries on manufactures of leather, wool, cotton, calico, tobacco, paper, beer, and other miscellaneous goods. An enormous traffic, by river and rail, is carried on in coal, and there is also a considerable trade in timber and colonial produce. In the neighbourhood are important sandstone quarries, glass-works, and a carpet manufactory. Mülheim was formerly included in the duchy of Berg, and became a town in 1508. In 1815 it passed to Prussia.