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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peace, Breach of the

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​PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically all criminal offences cognizable by English law involve a breach of the king’s peace, and all indictments whether for offences against the common law or by statute conclude “against the peace of our lord the king, his crown and dignity.” Historically this phrase, now legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and gradually extruded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords of manors and franchises, making crime a matter of national concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the rights of local magnates, or of the rights of the tribal chiefs of the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. The peace of the king was sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the institution of the office of justice of the peace.
In modern times the expression “breach of the peace” is usually limited to offences involving actual tumult, disturbances or disorder. As regards such offences, although they do not fall into the class of grave crimes described as felonies, officers of police and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as to immediate arrest without waiting for judicial warrant, than they possess as to other minor offences (see Arrest). Justices of the peace have under early statutes and the commission of the peace power to take sureties of the peace from persons who are threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanour and of many felonies to require the offender to enter into a recognizance (q.v.) to keep the peace.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peabody, Andrew Preston

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​PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811–1893), American clergyman and author, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts, on the 19th of March 1811, and was descended from Lieut. Francis Peabody of St Albans, who emigrated to Massachusetts in 1635. He learned to read before he was three years old, entered Harvard College at the age of twelve, and graduated in 1826, with the single exception of Paul Dudley (class of 1690) the youngest graduate of Harvard. In 1833 he became assistant pastor of the South Parish (Unitarian) of Portsmouth, New Hampshire; the senior pastor died before Peabody had been preaching a month, and he succeeded to the charge of the church, which he held until 1860 In 1852–1860 he was proprietor and editor of the North American Review. He was preacher to ​Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals from 1860 to 1881, and was professor emeritus from 1881 until his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of March 1893. On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.S.A., is a bronze tablet to his memory.
Besides many brief memoirs and articles, he wrote: Christianity the Religion of Nature (2nd ed., 1864), Lowell Institute Lectures; Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral Philosophy (1873); Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by Edward J. Young.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paër, Ferdinando

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​PAËR, FERDINANDO (1771–1830), Italian musical composer, was born at Parma on the 1st of June 1771. He studied the theory of music under the violinist Ghiretti, a pupil of the Conservatoire della Pietà de’ Turchini at Naples. His first opera, La Locanda de’ vagebondi. was published when he was only sixteen; others rapidly followed, and his name was soon famous throughout Italy. In 1797 he went to Vienna, where his wife, the singer Riccardi, had obtained an engagement at the opera; here he produced a series of operas, including his La Camilla ossia il Sotteraneo (1799) and his Achille (1801). In 1803 he was appointed composer to the court theatre at Dresden, where his wife was also engaged as a singer, and in 1804 the life appointment of Hofkapellmeister was bestowed upon him by the elector. At Dresden he produced, inter alia, Il Sargino (1803), ​an opera which obtained a wide popularity, and Leonora (1804), based on the same story as Beethoven’s Fidelio. In 1807 Napoleon while in Dresden took a fancy to him, and took him with him to Warsaw and Paris at a salary of 28,000 francs. In 1812 he succeeded Spontini as conductor of the Italian opera in Paris. This post he retained at the Restoration, receiving also the posts of chamber composer to the king and conductor of the private orchestra of the duke of Orleans. In 1823 he retired from the Italian opera in favour of Rossini. In 1831 he was elected a member of the Academy, and in 1832 was appointed conductor of his orchestra by King Louis Philippe. He died on the 3rd of May 1839.
Paër wrote in all 43 operas, in the Italian style of Paesiello and Cimarosa. His other works, which include nine religious compositions, thirteen cantatas, and a short list of orchestral and chamber pieces, are of little importance; in any case the superficial quality of his compositions was such as to secure him popularity while he lived and after his death oblivion.
See R. Eitner, Quellen-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1902), vii. 277, sqq., where a list of his works is given.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paz Soldan, Mariano Felipe

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​PAZ SOLDAN, MARIANO FELIPE (1821–1886), Peruvian historian and geographer, was born at Arequipa, on the 22nd of August 1821. He studied law, and after holding some minor judicial offices, was minister to New Granada in 1853. After his return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment of a model penitentiary at Lima, which he was enabled to accomplish through the support of General Castilla. In 1860 Castilla made him director of public works, in which capacity he superintended the erection of the Lima statue of Bolivar. He was also concerned in the reform of the currency by the withdrawal of the debased Bolivian coins. In 1861 he published his great atlas of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the first volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her independence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing the history down to 1839, was published after his death by his son. In 1870 he was minister of justice and worship under President Balta, but shortly afterwards retired from public life to devote himself to his great geographical dictionary of Peru, which was published in 1877. During the disastrous war with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was made professor in the National College, and where he wrote and published a history of the war (1884). He died on the 31st of December 1886.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Peabody

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​PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, 2 m. N.W. of Salem. Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) 15,721. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the Peabody institute (1852), a gift of George Peabody; in 1909 the institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is the Eben Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols. in 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Queen Victoria given by her to Mr Peabody. Among the places of interest in the township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of Rufus Choate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Independence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument, dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers’ monument, dedicated in 1881. Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves, glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in 1905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47·4% over that for 1900, and of the total the leather product represented 77·3%.
Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In 1752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district was made a separate township. In 1855 the township was divided into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody.
See Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H. Nevins.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pacatus Drepanius, Latinus

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​PACATUS DREPANIUS, LATINUS (or Latinius), one of the Latin panegyrists, flourished at the end of the 4th century A.D. He probably came from Aginnum (Agen), in the south of France, in the territory of the Nitiobriges, and received his education in the rhetorical school of Burdigala (Bordeaux). He was the contemporary and intimate friend of Ausonius, who dedicated two of his minor works to Pacatus, and describes him as the greatest Latin poet after Virgil. Pacatus attained the rank of proconsul of Africa (A.D. 390) and held a confidential position at the imperial court. He is the author of an extant speech (ed. E. Bährens in Panegyrici latini, 1874, No. 12) delivered in the senate house at Rome (389) in honour of Theodosius I. It contains an account of the life and deeds of the emperor, the special subject of congratulation being the complete defeat of the usurper Maximus. The speech is one of the best of its ​kind. Though not altogether free from exaggeration and flattery, it is marked by considerable dignity and self-restraint, and is thus more important as an historical document than similar productions. The style is vivid, the language elegant but comparatively simple, exhibiting familiarity with the best classical literature. The writer of the panegyric must be distinguished from Drepanius Florus, deacon of Lyons (c. 850), author of some Christian poems and prose theological works.
See M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (1904), iv. i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pabst, Frederick

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​PABST, FREDERICK (1836–1904), American brewer, was born at Nicholausreith, in Saxony, on the 28th of March 1836. In 1848 he emigrated with his parents to Chicago. There he became, first a waiter in an hotel, then a cabin-boy on a Lake Michigan steamer, and eventually captain of one of these vessels. In this last capacity he made the acquaintance of a German, Philip Best, the owner of a small but prosperous brewery at Milwaukee, and married his daughter. In 1862 Pabst was taken into partnership in his father-in-law’s brewery, and set himself to work to study the details of the business. After obtaining a thorough mastery of the art of brewing, Pabst turned his attention to extending the market for the beer, and before long had raised the output of the Best brewery to 100,000 barrels a year. The brewery was eventually converted into a public company, and its capital repeatedly increased in order to cope with the continually increasing trade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paca

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​PACA, the Brazilian name for a large, heavily-built, short-tailed rodent mammal, easily recognized by its spotted fur. This rodent, Coelogenys (or Agouti) paca, together with one or two other tropical American species, represents a genus near akin to the agoutis and included in the family Caviidae. Pacas may be distinguished from agoutis by their heavier and more compact build, the longitudinal rows of light spots on the fur, the five-toed hind-feet, and the peculiar structure of the skull, in which the cheek-bones are expanded to form large capsules on the sides of the face, each enclosing a cavity opening on the side of the cheek. Their habits are very similar to those of agoutis, but when pursued they invariably take to the water. The young, of which seldom more than one is produced at a birth, remain in the burrows for several months. The flesh is eaten in Brazil. Males may be distinguished from females by the skull, in which the outer surface of the cheek-bones is roughened in the former and smooth in the latter sex. The paca-rana (Dinomys branicki), from the highlands of Peru, differs, among other features, by its well-developed tail and the arrangement of the spots. (See Rodentia.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pabianice

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​PABIANICE, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Piotrkow, 30 m. N.W. of the town of Piotrkow, and 10 m. S.S.W. from Lodz railway station. Pop. (1897), 18,251. It lies amidst extensive forests round the head-waters of the Nér, which were the hunting-grounds of the Polish kings. It has woollen, cloth and paper mills, and manufactures agricultural implements.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pace, Richard

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​PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482–1536), English diplomatist, was educated at Winchester under Thomas Langton, at Padua, at Bologna, and probably at Oxford. In 1509 he went with Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge, archbishop of York, to Rome, where he won the esteem of Pope Leo X., who advised Henry VIII. to take him into his service. The English king did so, and in 1515 Pace became his secretary and in 1516 a secretary of state. In 1515 Wolsey sent him to urge the Swiss to attack France, and in 1519 he went to Germany to discuss with the electors the impending election to the imperial throne. He was made dean of St Paul’s in 1519, and was also dean of Exeter and dean of Salisbury. He was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and in 1521 he went to Venice with the object of winning the support of the republic for Wolsey, who was anxious at this time to become pope. At the end of 1526 he was recalled to England, and he died in 1536. His chief literary work was De fructu (Basel, 1517).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pace

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​PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch), one movement of the leg in walking; hence used of the amount of ground covered by each single movement, or generally of the speed at which anything moves. The word is also used of a measure of distance, taken from the position of one foot to that of the other in making a single “pace,” i.e. from 21/2 ft. (the military pace) to 1 yard. The Roman passus was reckoned from the position of the back foot at the beginning of the pace to the position of the same foot at the end of the movement, i.e. 5 Roman feet, 58·1 English inches, hence the Roman mile, mille passus＝1646 yards.
For pacing in horse-racing see Horse-racing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pacchia, Girolamo del, and Pacchiarotto, Jacopo

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​PACCHIA, GIROLAMO DEL, and PACCHIAROTTO (or Pacchiarotti), JACOPO, two painters of the Sienese school. One or other of them produced some good pictures, which used to pass as the performance of Perugino; reclaimed from Perugino, they were assigned to Pacchiarotto; now it is sufficiently settled that the good works are by G. del Pacchia, while nothing of Pacchiarotto’s own doing transcends mediocrity. The mythical Pacchiarotto who worked actively at Fontainebleau has no authenticity.
Girolamo del Pacchia, son of a Hungarian cannon-founder, was born, probably in Siena, in 1477. Having joined a turbulent club named the Bardotti he disappeared from Siena in 1535, when the club was dispersed, and nothing of a later date is known about him. His most celebrated work is a fresco of the “Nativity of the Virgin,” in the chapel of S Bernardino, Siena, graceful and tender, with a certain artificiality. Another renowned fresco, in the church of S Caterina, represents that saint on her visit to St Agnes of Montepulciano, who, having just expired, raises her foot by miracle. In the National Gallery of London there is a “Virgin and Child.” The forms of G. del Pacchia are fuller than those of Perugino (his principal model of style appears to have been in reality Franciabigio); the drawing is not always unexceptionable; the female heads have sweetness and beauty of feature, and some of the colouring has noticeable force.
Pacchiarotto was born in Siena in 1474. In 1530 he took part in the conspiracy of the Libertini and Popolani, and in 1534 he joined the Bardotti. He had to hide for his life in 1535, and was concealed by the Observantine fathers in a tomb in the church of S Giovanni. He was stuffed in close to a new-buried corpse, and got covered with vermin and dreadfully exhausted by the close of the second day. After a while he resumed work; he was exiled in 1539, but recalled in the following year, and in that year or soon afterwards he died. Among the few extant works with which he is still credited is an “Assumption of the Virgin,” in the Carmine of Siena. Other works rather dubiously attributed to him are in Siena, Buonconvento, Florence, Rome and London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pache, Jean Nicolas

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​PACHE, JEAN NICOLAS (1746–1823), French politician, was born in Paris, of Swiss parentage, the son of the concierge of the hotel of Marshal de Castries. He became tutor to the marshal’s children, and subsequently first secretary at the ministry of marine, head of supplies (munitionnaire général des vivres), and comptroller of the king’s household. After spending several years in Switzerland with his family, he returned to France at the beginning of the Revolution. He was employed successively at the ministries of the interior and of war, and was appointed on the 20th of September 1793 third deputy suppléant of Paris by the Luxembourg section. Thus brought into notice, he was made minister of war in the following October. Pache was a Girondist himself, but aroused their hostility by his incompetence. He was supported, however, by Marat, and when he was superseded in the ministry of war by Beurnonville (Feb. 4, 1794) he was chosen mayor by the Parisians. In that capacity he contributed to the fall of the Girondists, but his relations with Hébert and Chaumette, and with the enemies of Robespierre led to his arrest on the 10th of May 1794. He owed his safety only to the amnesty of the 25th of October 1795. After acting as commissary to the civil hospitals of Paris in 1799, he retired from public life, and died at Thin-le-Moutier on the 18th of November 1823.
See L. Pierquin, Mémoires sur Pache (Charleville, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pacheco, Francisco

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​PACHECO, FRANCISCO (1571–1654), Spanish painter and art historian, was born at Seville in 1571. Favourable specimens of his style are to be seen in the Madrid picture gallery, and also in two churches at Alcala de Guadaira near Seville. He attained great popularity, and about the beginning of the 17th century opened an academy of painting which was largely attended. Of his pupils by far the most distinguished was Velazquez, who afterwards became his son-in-law. From about 1625 he gave up painting and betook himself to literary society and pursuits; the most important of his works in this department is a treatise on the art of painting (Arte de la pintura: su antigüedad y grandeza, 1649), which is of considerable value for the information it contains on matters relating to Spanish art. He died in 1654.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pabna

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​PABNA, or Pubna, a town and district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the river Ichhamati, near the old bed of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 18,424. The district of Pabna has an area of 1839 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,420,461, showing an increase of 4·8% in the decade. It is bordered along its entire east face by the main stream of the Brahmaputra or Jamuna, and along its south-west face by the Ganges or Padma. It is entirely of alluvial origin, the silt of the annual inundations overlying strata of clay on sand. Apart from the two great bordering rivers, it is intersected by countless water-channels of varying magnitude, so that during the rainy season every village is accessible by boat and by boat only. Almost the whole area is one green rice-field, the uniform level being broken only by clumps of bamboos and fruit-trees, which conceal the village sites. The district is a modern creation of British rule, being first formed out of Rajshahi district in 1832, and possesses no history of its own. The two staple crops are rice and jute. Sirajganj, on the Brahmaputra, is the largest mart for jute in Bengal. The Eastern Bengal railway cuts across the south-west corner of the district to Sara, where a bridge crosses the Ganges. The district was affected by the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which was most severely felt at Sirajganj.