OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hogshead

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​HOGSHEAD, a cask for holding liquor or other commodities, such as tobacco, sugar, molasses, &c.; also a liquid measure of capacity, varying with the contents. As a measure for beer, cider, &c., it equals 54 gallons. A statute of Richard III. (1483) fixed the hogshead of wine at 63 wine-gallons, i.e. 52½ imperial gallons. The etymology of the word has been much discussed. According to Skeat, the origin is to be found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in several Teutonic languages, in Dutch oxhooft (modern okshoofd), Dan. oxehoved, O. Swed. oxhufvod, &c. The word should therefore be “oxhead,” and “hogshead” is a mere corruption. It has been suggested that the name arose from the branding of such a measure with the head of an ox (see Notes and Queries, series iv. 2, 46, note by H. Tiedeman). The New English Dictionary does not attempt any explanation of the term, and takes “hogshead” as the original form, from which the forms in other languages have been corrupted. The earlier Dutch forms hukeshovet and hoekshoot are nearer to the English form, and, further, the Dutch for “ox” is os.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hogg, Thomas Jefferson

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​HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792–1862), English man of letters, was born at Norton, Durham, on the 24th of May 1792. He was educated at Durham grammar school and at University College, Oxford. Here he became the intimate friend of the poet Shelley, with whom in 1811 he was expelled from the university for refusing to disclaim connexion with the authorship of the pamphlet The Necessity for Atheism. He was then sent to study law at York, where he remained for six months. Hogg’s behaviour to Harriet Shelley interrupted his relations with her husband for some time, but in 1813 the friendship was renewed in London. In 1817 Hogg was called to the bar, and became later a revising barrister. In 1844 he inherited £2000 under Shelley’s will, and in 1855, in accordance with the wishes of the poet’s family, began to write Shelley’s biography. The first two volumes of it were published in 1858, but they proved to be far more an autobiography than a biography, and Shelley’s representatives refused Hogg further access to the materials necessary for its completion. Hogg died on the 27th of August 1862.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hohenasperg

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​HOHENASPERG, an ancient fortress of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, 10 m. N. of Stuttgart, is situated on a conical hill, 1100 ft. high, overlooking the town of Asperg. It was formerly strongly fortified and was long the state prison of the kingdom of Württemberg. Among the many who have been interned here may be mentioned the notorious Jew financier, Joseph Süss-Oppenheimer (1692–1738) and the poet C. F. D. Schubart (1739–1791). It is now a reformatory. Hohenasperg originally belonged to the counts of Calw; it next passed to the counts palatine of Tübingen and from them was acquired in 1308 by Württemberg. In 1535 the fortifications were extended and strengthened, and in 1635 the town was taken by the Imperialists, who occupied it until 1649.
See Schön, Die Staatsgefangenen von Hohenasperg (Stuttgart, 1899); and Biffart, Geschichte der Württembergischen Feste Hohenasperg (Stuttgart, 1858).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillenburg

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​DILLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, delightfully situated in the midst of a well-wooded country, on the Dill, 25 m. N.W. from. Giessen on the railway to Troisdorf. Pop. 4500. On an eminence above it lie the ruins of the castle of Dillenburg, founded by Count Henry the Rich of Nassau, about the year 1255, and the birthplace of Prince William of Orange (1533). It has an Evangelical church, with the vault of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg, a Roman Catholic church, a classical school, a teachers’ seminary and a chamber of commerce. Its industries embrace iron-works, tanneries and the manufacture of cigars. Owing to its beautiful surroundings Dillenburg has become a favourite summer resort.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillens, Julien

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​DILLENS, JULIEN (1849–1904), Belgian sculptor, was born at Antwerp on the 8th of June 1849, son of a painter. He studied under Eugène Simonis at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts. In 1877 he received the prix de Rome for “A Gaulish Chief taken Prisoner by the Romans.” At Brussels, in 1881, he executed the groups entitled “Justice” and “Herkenbald, the Brussels Brutus.” For the pediment of the orphanage at Uccle, “Figure Kneeling” (Brussels Gallery), and the statue of the lawyer Metdepenningen in front of the Palais de Justice at Ghent, he was awarded the medal of honour in 1889 at the Paris Universal Exhibition, where, in 1900, his “Two Statues of the Anspach Monument” gained him a similar distinction. For the town of Brussels he executed “The Four Continents” (Maison du Renard, Grand’ Place), “The Lansquenets” crowning the lucarnes of the Maison de Roi, and the “Monument t’ Serclaes” under the arcades of the Maison de l’Etoile, and, for the Belgian government, “Flemish Art,” “German Art,” “Classic Art” and “Art applied to Industry” (all in the Palais des Beaux Arts, Brussels), “The Laurel” (Botanic Garden, Brussels), and the statue of “Bernard van Orley” (Place du petit Sablon, Brussels). Mention must also be made of “An Enigma” (1876), the bronze busts of “Rogier de la Pasture” and “P. P. Rubens” (1879), “Etruria” (1880), “The Painter Leon Frederic” (1888), “Madame Leon Herbo,” “Hermes,” a scheme of decoration for the ogival façade of the hôtel de ville at Ghent (1893), “The Genius of the Funeral Monument of the Moselli Family,” “The Silence of Death” (for the entrance of the cemetery of St Gilles), two caryatides for the town hall of St Gilles, presentation plaquette to Dr Heger, medals of MM. Godefroid and Vanderkindere and of “The Three Burgomasters of Brussels,” and the ivories “Allegretto,” “Minerva” and the “Jamaer Memorial.” Dillens died at Brussels in November 1904.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillingen

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​DILLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube, 25 m. N.E. from Ulm, on the railway to Ingolstadt. Pop. (1905) 6078. Its principal buildings are an old palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of Augsburg and now government offices, a royal gymnasium, a Latin school with a library of 75,000 volumes, seven churches (six Roman Catholic), two episcopal seminaries, a Capuchin monastery, a Franciscan convent and a deaf and dumb asylum. The university, founded in 1549, was abolished in 1804, being converted into a lyceum. The inhabitants are engaged in cattle-rearing, the cultivation of corn, hops and fruit, shipbuilding and the shipping trade, and the manufacture of cloth, paper and cutlery. In the vicinity is the Karolinen canal, which cuts off a bend in the Danube between Lauingen and Dillingen. In 1488 Dillingen became the residence of the bishops of Augsburg; was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and 1648, by the Austrians in 1702, and on the 17th of June 1800 by the French. In 1803 it passed to Bavaria.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diligence

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​DILIGENCE, in law, the care which a person is bound to exercise in his relations with others. The possible degrees of diligence are of course numerous, and the same degree is not required in all cases. Thus a mere depositary would not be held bound to the same degree of diligence as a person borrowing an article for his own use and benefit. Jurists, following the divisions of the civil law, have concurred in fixing three approximate standards of diligence—viz. ordinary (diligentia), less than ordinary (levissima diligentia) and more than ordinary (exactissima diligentia). Ordinary or common diligence is defined by Story (On Bailments) as “that degree of diligence which men in general exert in respect of their own concerns.” So Sir William Jones:—“This care, which every person of common prudence and capable of governing a family takes of his own concerns, is a proper measure of that which would uniformly be required in performing every contract, if there were not strong reasons for exacting in some of them a greater and permitting in others a less degree of attention” (Essay on Bailments). The highest degree of diligence would be that which only very prudent persons bestow on their own concerns; the lowest, that which even careless persons bestow on their own concerns. The want of these various degrees of diligence is negligence in corresponding degrees. These approximations indicate roughly the greater or less severity with which the law will judge the performance of different classes of contracts; but English judges have been inclined to repudiate the distinction as a useless refinement of the jurists. Thus Baron Rolfe could see no difference between negligence and gross negligence; it was the same thing with the addition of a vituperative epithet. See Negligence.
Diligence, in Scots law, is a general term for the process by which persons, lands or effects are attached on execution, or in security for debt.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dill

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* Dill (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens), leaf and inflorescence.
DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens), a member of the natural botanical order Umbelliferae, indigenous to the south of Europe, Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. It resembles fennel in appearance. Its root is long and fusiform; the stem is round, jointed and about a yard high; the leaves have fragrant leaflets; and the fruits are brown, oval and concavo-convex. The plant flowers from June till August in England. The seeds are sown, preferably as soon as ripe, either broadcast or in drills between 6 and 12 in. asunder. The young plants should be thinned when 3 or 4 weeks old, so as to be at distances of about 10 in. A sheltered spot and dry soil are needed for the production of the seed in the climate of England. The leaves of the dill are used in soups and sauces, and, as well as the umbels, for flavouring pickles. The seeds are employed for the preparation of dill-water and oil of dill; they are largely consumed in the manufacture of gin, and, when ground, are eaten in the East as a condiment. The British Pharmacopoeia contains the Aqua Anethi or dill-water (dose 1-2 oz.), and the Oleum Anethi, almost identical in composition with caraway oil, and given in doses of 1/2-3 minims. Dill-water is largely used as a carminative for children, and as a vehicle for the exhibition of nauseous drugs.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillen, Johann Jakob

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​DILLEN [Dillenius], JOHANN JAKOB (1684–1747), English botanist, was born at Darmstadt in 1684, and was educated at the university of Giessen, where he wrote several botanical papers for the Ephemerides naturae curiosorum, and printed, in 1719, his Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated with figures drawn and engraved by his own hand, and containing descriptions of many new species. In 1721, at the instance of the botanist William Sherard (1659–1728), he came to England, and in 1724 he published a new edition of Ray’s Synopsis stirpium Britannicarum. In 1732 he published Hortus Elthamensis, a catalogue of the rare plants growing at Eltham, Kent, in the collection of Sherard’s younger brother, James (1666–1738), who, after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to gardening and music. For this work Dillen himself executed 324 plates, and it was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica botanica to him, as “opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit.” In 1734 he was appointed Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford, in accordance with the will of W. Sherard, who at his death in 1728 left the university £3000 for the endowment of the chair, as well as his library and herbarium. Dillen, who was also the author of an Historia muscorum (1741), died at Oxford, of apoplexy, on the 2nd of April 1747. His manuscripts, books and collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by his successor at Oxford, Dr Humphry Sibthorp (1713–1797), and ultimately passed into the possession of the university.
For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillmann, Christian Friedrich August

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​DILLMANN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1823–1894), German orientalist and biblical scholar, the son of a Württemberg schoolmaster, was born at Illingen on the 25th of April 1823. He was educated at Tübingen, where he became a pupil and friend of Heinrich Ewald, and studied under F. C. Baur, though he did not join the new Tübingen school. For a short time he worked as pastor at Gersheim, near his native place, but he soon came to feel that his studies demanded his whole time. He devoted himself to the study of Ethiopic MSS. in the libraries of Paris, London and Oxford, and this work caused a revival of Ethiopic study in the 19th century. In 1847 and 1848 he prepared catalogues of the Ethiopic MSS. in the British Museum and the Bodleian library at Oxford. He then set to work upon an edition of the Ethiopic bible. Returning to Tübingen in 1848, in 1853 he was appointed professor extraordinarius. Subsequently he became ​professor of philosophy at Kiel (1854), and of theology at Giessen (1864) and Berlin (1869). He died on the 4th of July 1894.
In 1851 he had published the Book of Enoch in Ethiopian (German, 1853), and at Kiel he completed the first part of the Ethiopic bible, Octateuchus Aethiopicus (1853–1855). In 1857 appeared his Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache (2nd ed. by C. Bezold, 1899); in 1859 the Book of Jubilees; in 1861 and 1871 another part of the Ethiopic bible, Libri Regum; in 1865 his great Lexicon linguae aethiopicae; in 1866 his Chrestomathia aethiopica. Always a theologian at heart, however, he returned to theology in 1864. His Giessen lectures were published under the titles, Ursprung der alttestamentlichen Religion (1865) and Die Propheten des alten Bundes nach ihrer politischen Wirksamkeit (1868). In 1869 appeared his Commentar zum Hiob (4th ed. 1891) which stamped him as one of the foremost Old Testament exegetes. His renown as a theologian, however, was mainly founded by the series of commentaries, based on those of August Wilhelm Knobels’ Genesis (Leipzig, 1875; 6th ed. 1892; Eng. trans, by W. B. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1897); Exodus und Leviticus, 1880, revised edition by V. Ryssel, 1897; Numeri, Deuteronomium und Josua, with a dissertation on the origin of the Hexateuch, 1886; Jesaja, 1890 (revised edition by Rudolf Kittel in 1898). In 1877 he published the Ascension of Isaiah in Ethiopian and Latin. He was also a contributor to D. Schenkel’s Bibellexikon, Brockhaus’s Conversationslexikon, and Herzog’s Realencyklopädie. His lectures on Old Testament theology, Vorlesungen über Theologie des Allen Testamentes, were published by Kittel in 1895.
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie; F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Wolf Baudissin, A. Dillmann (Leipzig, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dilettante

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​DILETTANTE, an Italian word for one who delights in the fine arts, especially in music and painting, so a lover of the fine arts in general. The Ital. dilettare is from Lat. delectare, to delight. Properly the word refers to an “amateur” as opposed to a “professional” cultivation of the arts, but like “amateur” it is often used in a depreciatory sense for one who is only a dabbler, or who only has a superficial knowledge or interest in art. The Dilettanti Society founded in 1733–1734 still exists in England. A history of the society, by Lionel Cust, was published in 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dillon, Arthur Richard

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​DILLON, ARTHUR RICHARD (1721–1807), French archbishop, was the son of Arthur Dillon (1670–1733), an Irish gentleman who became general in the French service. He was born at St Germain, entered the priesthood and was successively curé of Elan near Mezières, vicar-general of Pontoise (1747), bishop of Evreux (1753) and archbishop of Toulouse (1758), archbishop of Narbonne in 1763, and in that capacity, president of the estates of Languedoc. He devoted himself much less to the spiritual direction of his diocese than to its temporal welfare, carrying out many works of public utility, bridges, canals, roads, harbours, &c.; had chairs of chemistry and of physics created at Montpellier and at Toulouse, and tried to reduce the poverty, especially in Narbonne. In 1787 and in 1788 he was a member of the Assembly of Notables called together by Louis XVI., and in 1788 presided over the assembly of the clergy. Having refused to accept the civil constitution of the clergy, Dillon had to leave Narbonne in 1790, then to emigrate to Coblenz in 1791. Soon afterwards he went to London, where he lived until his death in 1807, never accepting the Concordat, which had suppressed his archiepiscopal see.
See L. Audibret, Le Dernier Président des États du Languedoc, Mgr. Arthur Richard Dillon, archevêque de Narbonne (Bordeaux, 1868); L. de Lavergne, Les Assemblées provinciales sous Louis XVI (Paris, 1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chuncho

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​CHUNCHO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the forests east of Cuzco, central Peru. They are a fierce and savage people who have preserved their independence. They are said to be akin to their neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal houses, and live chiefly by hunting. Chuncho has also been used to describe one of three aboriginal stocks of Peru, the others being Quichua and Aymara.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Church, Frederick Edwin

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​CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826–1900), American landscape painter, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th of May 1826. He was a pupil of Thomas Cole at Catskill, New York, where his first pictures were painted. Developing unusual technical dexterity, Church from the beginning sought for his themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls, the Andes, and tropical forests—he visited South America in 1853 and 1857,—volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and the phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these plausible and effective. In their time these paintings awoke the wildest admiration and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in the United States and in Europe eagerly seeking them, though their vogue has now passed away. In 1849 Church was made a member of the National Academy of Design. His “Great Fall at Niagara” (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and a large “Twilight” is in the Walters Gallery, Baltimore, Maryland. Among his other canvases are “Andes of Ecuador” (1855), “Heart of the Andes” (1859), “Cotopaxi” (1862), “Jerusalem” (1870), and “Morning in the Tropics” (1877). He died on the 7th of April 1900, at his house on the Hudson river above New York City, where he had lived and worked for many years. He was the most prominent member of the so-called “Hudson River School” of American artists.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chulalongkorn, Phra Paramindr Maha

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​CHULALONGKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853–1910), king of Siam, eldest son of King Maha Mongkut, was born on the 21st of September 1853. His full signature, used in all important state documents, consists of twenty-seven names, but it is by the first four that he is usually known. Educated in his childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good knowledge of the English language and of Western culture. But his surroundings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, 1st October 1868, and was crowned on the 11th of November following, a ceremony marked by the innovation of permitting the presence of Europeans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was carried on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery, and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East Indies, an undertaking until then without precedent among the potentates of eastern Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of power than he gave evidence of his recognition of the importance of modern culture by abolishing slavery in Siam. He simplified court etiquette, no longer demanding, for example, that his subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still more important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included among his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience. This was followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the construction of roads and railways, and the further development of the army and fleet which his father had initiated. To him Siam is indebted for its standard coinage, its postal and telegraph service, and for the policing, sanitation and electric-lighting of Bangkok. Several of his sons, including the crown prince, were educated in England, and in the summer of 1897 he himself visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht on the 29th of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen Victoria at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also Siam.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chunar

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​CHUNAR, or Chunarghur, a town and ancient fortress of India, in the district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces, situated on the south bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901) 9926. The fort occupies a conspicuous site on the summit of an abrupt rock which commands the river. It was at one time a place of great strength, and still contains a magazine, and is fortified with batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the remains of a Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the former importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar is first mentioned in the 16th century, when in possession of Sing Joanpore. In 1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the Afghan, and forty-five years later was recovered by the emperor Akbar after sustaining a siege of six months. It fell into the ​hands of the English under General Carnac in 1763 after a prolonged resistance which caused considerable loss to the assailants. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed here by Warren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company in September 1781.