OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hughes, Hugh Price

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​HUGHES, HUGH PRICE (1847–1902), British Nonconformist divine, was born at Carmarthen on the 8th of February 1847, the son of a surgeon. He began to preach when he was fourteen, and in 1865 entered Richmond College to study for the Wesleyan Methodist ministry under the Rev. Alfred Barrett, one of whose daughters he married in 1873. He graduated at London University in 1869, the last year of his residence. He established in 1887 the West London Mission, holding popular services on Sunday in St James’s Hall, Piccadilly, when he preached from time to time on the housing of the poor, sweating, gambling and other subjects of social interest. In connexion with this mission he founded a sisterhood to forward the social side of the work, which was presided over by Mrs Hughes. He had started in 1885 the Methodist Times, and rapidly made it a leading organ of Nonconformist opinion. He was a born fighter, and carried the fire and eloquence he showed on the platform and in the pulpit into journalism. He supported Mr W. T. Stead in 1885, as he had earlier supported Mrs Josephine Butler in a similar cause; he attacked the trade in alcohol; was an anti-vivisectionist; he advocated arbitration; and his vehement attacks on Sir Charles Dilke and Charles Stewart Parnell originated the phrase the “Nonconformist conscience.” He differed strongly, however, from a large section of Nonconformist opinion in his defence of the South African War. He was long regarded with some distrust by the more conservative section of his own church, but in 1898 he was made president of the Wesleyan Conference He raised large sums for church work, amounting it is said to over a quarter of a million of money. His energies were largely devoted to co-operation among the various Nonconformist bodies, and he was one of the founders and most energetic members of the National Council of the Evangelical Free Churches. He had long been in failing health when he died suddenly in London on the 17th of November 1902.
See his Life (1904) by his daughter, Dorothea Price Hughes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hughes, Sir Edward

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​HUGHES, SIR EDWARD (c. 1720–1794), British admiral, entered the Royal Navy in 1735, and four years later was present at Porto Bello. In 1740 he became lieutenant, and in that rank served in the Cartagena expedition of 1741, and at the indecisive battle of Toulon (1744). In H.M.S. “Warwick” he was present at the action with the “Glorioso,” but in default of proper support from the “Lark” (which was sailing in company with the “Warwick”), the combat ended with the enemy’s escape. The commander of the “Lark” was subsequently tried and condemned for his conduct, and Hughes received the vacant command. Captain Hughes was with Boscawen at Louisburg and with Saunders at Quebec. He was in continual employment during the peace, and as Commodore commanded in the East Indies from 1773 to 1777. It was not long before he returned to the East as a rear-admiral, with an overwhelming naval force. On his outward voyage he retook Goree from the French, and he was called upon to conduct only minor operations for the next two years, as the enemy could not muster any force fit to meet the powerful squadron Hughes had brought from the Channel. In 1782 he stormed Trincomalee a few days before the squadron of Suffren arrived in the neighbourhood. For the next year these Indian waters were the scene of one of the most famous of naval campaigns. Suffren (q.v.) was perhaps the ablest sea-commander that France ever produced, but his subordinates were factious and unskilful; Hughes on the other hand, whose ability was that born of long experience rather than genius, was well supported. No fewer than five fiercely contested general actions were fought by two fleets, neither of them gaining a decisive advantage. In the end Hughes held his ground. After the peace he returned to England, and, though further promotions came to him, he never again hoisted his flag. He had accumulated considerable wealth during his Indian service, which for the most part he spent in unostentatious charity. He died at his seat of Luxborough in Essex in 1794.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legation

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​LEGATION (Lat. legatio, a sending or mission), a diplomatic mission of the second rank. The term is also applied to the building in which the minister resides and to the area round it covered by his diplomatic immunities. See Diplomacy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legerdemain

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​LEGERDEMAIN (Fr. léger-de-main, i.e. light or sleight of hand), the name given specifically to that form of conjuring in which the performer relies on dexterity of manipulation rather than on mechanical apparatus. See Conjuring.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legas

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​LEGAS, one of the Shangalla group of tribes, regarded as among the purest types of the Galla race. They occupy the upper Yabus valley, S.W. Abyssinia, near the Sudan frontier. The Legas are physically distinct from the Negro Shangalla. They are of very light complexion, tall and thin, with narrow hollow-cheeked faces, small heads and high foreheads. The chiefs’ families are of more mixed blood, with perceptible Negro strain. The Legas are estimated to number upwards of a hundred thousand, of whom some 20,000 are warriors. They are, however, a peaceful race, kind to their women and slaves, and energetic agriculturists. Formerly independent, they came about 1900 under the sway of Abyssinia. The Legas are pagans, but Mahommedanism has gained many converts among them.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legge, James

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​LEGGE, JAMES (1815–1897), British Chinese scholar, was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in 1815, and educated at King’s College, Aberdeen. After studying at the Highbury Theological College, London, he went in 1839 as a missionary to the Chinese, but, as China was not yet open to Europeans, he remained at Malacca three years, in charge of the Anglo-Chinese College there. The College was subsequently moved to Hong-Kong, where Legge lived for thirty years. Impressed with the necessity of missionaries being able to comprehend the ideas and culture of the Chinese, he began in 1841 a translation in many volumes of the Chinese classics, a monumental task admirably executed and completed a few years before his death. In 1870 he was made an LL.D. of Aberdeen and in 1884 of Edinburgh University. In 1875 several gentlemen connected with the China trade suggested to the university of Oxford a Chair of Chinese Language and Literature to be occupied by Dr Legge. The university responded liberally, Corpus Christi College contributed the emoluments of a fellowship, and the chair was constituted in 1876. In addition to his other work Legge wrote The Life and Teaching of Confucius (1867); The Life and Teaching of Mencius (1875); The Religions of China (1880); and other books on Chinese literature and religion. He died at Oxford on the 29th of November 1897.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legate, Bartholomew

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​LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575–1612), English fanatic, was born in Essex and became a dealer in cloth. About the beginning of the 17th century he became a preacher among a sect called the “Seekers,” and appears to have held unorthodox opinions about the divinity of Jesus Christ. Together with his brother Thomas he was put in prison for heresy in 1611. Thomas died in Newgate gaol, London, but Bartholomew’s imprisonment was not a rigorous one. James I. argued with him, and on several occasions he was brought before the Consistory Court of London, but without any definite result. Eventually, after having threatened to bring an action for wrongful imprisonment, Legate was tried before a full Consistory Court in February 1612, was found guilty of heresy, and was delivered to the secular authorities for punishment. Refusing to retract his opinions he was burned to death at Smithfield on the 18th of March 1612. Legate was the last person burned in London for his religious opinions, and Edward Wightman, who was burned at Lichfield in April 1612, was the last to suffer in this way in England.
See T. Fuller, Church History of Britain (1655); and S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. ii. (London, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legend

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​LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read), in its primary meaning the history or life-story of a saint, and so applied to portions of Scripture and selections from the lives of the saints as read at divine service. The statute of 3 and 4 Edward VI. dealing with the abolition of certain books and images (1549), cap. 10, sect. 1, says that “all bookes . . . called processionalles, manuelles, legends . . . shall be . . . abolished.” The “Golden Legend,” or Aurea Legenda, was the name given to a book containing lives of the saints and descriptions of festivals, written by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, in the 13th century. From the original application of the word to stories of the saints containing wonders and miracles, the word came to be applied to a story handed down without any foundation in history, but popularly believed to be true. “Legend” is also used of a writing, inscription, or motto on coins or medals, and in connexion with coats of arms, shields, monuments, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Legendre, Louis

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​LEGENDRE, LOUIS (1752–1797), French revolutionist, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of May 1752. When the Revolution broke out, he kept a butcher’s shop in Paris, in the rue des Boucheries St Germain. He was an ardent supporter of the ideas of the Revolution, a member of the Jacobin Club, and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In spite of the incorrectness of his diction, he was gifted with a genuine eloquence, and well knew how to carry the populace with him. He was a prominent actor in the taking of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), in the massacre of the Champ de Mars (July 1791), and in the attack on the Tuileries (10th of August 1792). Deputy from Paris to the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent on mission to Lyons (27th of February 1793) before the revolt of that town, and was on mission from August to October 1793 in Seine-Inférieure. He was a member of the Comité de Sûreté Générale, and contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. When Danton was arrested, Legendre at first defended him, but was soon cowed and withdrew his defence. After the fall of Robespierre, Legendre took part in the reactionary movement, undertook the closing of the Jacobin Club, was elected president of the Convention, and helped to bring about the impeachment of J. B. Carrier, the perpetrator of the noyades of Nantes. He was subsequently elected a member of the Council of Ancients, and died on the 13th of December 1797.
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.); “Correspondance de Legendre” in the Révolution française (vol. xl., 1901).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panel

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​PANEL (O. Fr. panel, mod. panneau, piece of cloth, from Med. Lat. pannellus, diminutive of pannus, cloth), a piece of cloth, slip of parchment, or portion of a surface of wood or stone enclosed in a compartment. In the first sense the word survives in the use of “panel” or “pannel” for the cloth-stuffed lining of a saddle. From the slip of parchment on which the list of jurymen is drawn up by the sheriff, “panel” in English law is applied to a jury, who are thus said to be “empanelled.” In Scots law the word is used of the indictment, and of the person or persons named in the indictment; “panel” is thus the equivalent of the English “prisoner at the bar.” In building and architecture (Fr. panneau; Ital. quadretto, formello; Ger. Feld) “panel” is properly used of the piece of wood framed within the stiles and rails of a door, filling up the aperture; but it is often applied both to the whole square frame and the sinking itself, and also to the ranges of sunken compartments in cornices, corbel tables, groined vaults, ceilings, &c. In Norman work these recesses are generally shallow, and more of the nature of arcades. In Early English work the square panels are ornamented with quatrefoils, cusped circles, &c., and the larger panels are often deeply recessed, and form niches with trefoil heads and sometimes canopies. In the Decorated style the cusping and other enrichments of panels become more elaborate, and they are often filled with shields, foliages, and sometimes figures. Towards the end of this period the walls of important buildings were often entirely covered with long or square panels, the former frequently forming niches with statues. The use of panels in this way became very common in Perpendicular work, the wall frequently being entirely covered with long, short and square panels, which latter are frequently richly cusped, and filled with every species of ornament, as shields, bosses of foliage, portcullis, lilies, Tudor roses, &c. Wooden panellings very much resembled those of stone, except in the Tudor period, when the panels were enriched by a varied design, imitating the plaits of a piece of linen or a napkin folded in a great number of parallel lines. This is generally called the linen pattern. Wooden ceilings, which are very common, are composed of thin oak boards nailed to the rafters, collars, &c., and divided into panels by oak mouldings fixed on them, with carved bosses at the intersections.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panipat

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​PANIPAT, a town of British India, in Karnal district of the Punjab, 53 m. N. of Delhi by rail. Pop. (1901), 26,914. The town is of great antiquity, dating back to the great war of the Mahābhārata between the Pāndavas and Kaurava brethren, when it formed one of the tracts demanded by Yudisthira from Duryodhana as the price of peace. In modern times, the plains of Panipat thrice formed the scene of decisive battles which sealed the fate of upper India—in 1526, when Bāber completely defeated the imperial forces; in 1556, when his grandson, Akbar, on the same battlefield, conquered Himu, the Hindu general of the Afghān Adil Shāh, thus a second time establishing the Mogul power; and finally, on the 7th of January 1761, when Ahmad Shāh Durāni shattered the Mahratta confederacy. The neighbourhood is a favourite manœuvring ground for British camps of instruction. The modern town stands near the old bank of the Jumna, on high ground composed of the débris of earlier buildings. It is a centre of trade, and has manufactures of cotton cloth, metal-ware and glass. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pandulph

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​PANDULPH [Pandolfo] (d. 1226), Roman ecclesiastical politician, papal legate to England and bishop of Norwich, was born in Rome, and first came to England in 1211, when he was commissioned by Innocent III. to negotiate with King John. Obtaining no satisfactory concessions, he is said to have produced the papal sentence of excommunication in the very presence of the king. In May 1213 he again visited England to receive the king’s submission. The ceremony took place at Dover, and on the following day John, of his own motion, formally surrendered England to the representative of Rome to receive it again as a papal fief. Pandulph repaid this act of humility by using every means to avert the threatened French invasion of England. For nearly a year he was superseded by the cardinal-legate Nicholas of Tusculum; but returning in 1215 was present at the conference of Runnymede, when the great charter was signed. He rendered valuable aid to John who rewarded him with the see of Norwich. The arrival of the cardinal-legate Gualo (1216) relegated Pandulph to a secondary position; but after Gualo’s departure (1218) he came forward once more. As representing the pope he claimed a control over Hubert de Burgh and the other ministers of the young Henry III.; and his correspondence shows that he interfered in every department of the administration. His arrogance was tolerated while the regency was still in need of papal assistance; but in 1221 Hubert de Burgh and the primate Stephen Langton successfully moved the pope to recall Pandulph and to send no other legate a latere in his place. Pandulph retained the see of Norwich, but from this time drops out of English politics. He died in Rome on the 16th of September 1226 but his body was taken to Norwich for burial.
See W. Shirley, Royal and Other Historical Letters (“Rolls series”) vol. i.; Miss K. Norgate, John Lackland (1902); W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1897) vol. i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panegyric

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​PANEGYRIC, strictly a formal public speech delivered in high praise of a person or thing, and generally high studied or undiscriminating eulogy. It is derived from πανηγυρικός (a speech) “fit for a general assembly” πανήγυρις, panegyris). In Athens such speeches were delivered at national festivals or games, with the object of rousing the citizens to emulate the glorious deeds of their ancestors. The most famous are the Olympiacus of Gorgias, the Olympiacus of Lysias, and the Panegyricus and Panathenaicus (neither of them, however, actually delivered) of Isocrates. Funeral orations, such as the famous speech put into the mouth of Pericles by Thucydides, also partook of the nature of panegyrics. The Romans confined the panegyric to the living, and reserved the funeral oration exclusively for the dead. The most celebrated example of a Latin panegyric (panegyricus) is that delivered by the younger Pliny (A.D. 100) in the senate on the occasion of his assumption of the consulship, containing a somewhat fulsome eulogy of Trajan. Towards the end of the 3rd and during the 4th century, as a result of the orientalizing of the Imperial court by Diocletian, it became customary to celebrate as a matter of course the superhuman virtues and achievements of the reigning emperor. Twelve speeches of the kind (Pliny’s included), eight of them by famous Gallic rhetoricians (Claudius Mamertinus, Eumenius, Nazarius, Drepanius Pacatus) and three of anonymous authorship, have been collected under the title of Panegyrici veteres latini (ed. E. Bährens, 1874). Speaking generally, they are characterized by a stilted, affected style and a tone of gross adulation. There are extant similar orations by Ausonius, ​Symmachus and Ennodius, and panegyrics in verse by Claudian, Merobaudes, Priscian, Corippus and others.
See C. G. Heyne, “Censura xii. panegyricorum veterum,” in his Opuscula academica (1812), vi. 80–118; H. Rühl, De xii panegyricis latinis (progr. Greifswald, 1868); R. Pichin, Les Derniers écrivains profanes (Paris, 1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pane

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​PANE (Fr. pan, Lat. pannus, a cloth, garment), originally a piece of cloth, especially one of a number of pieces of cloth or other material joined to form one piece for a garment; the word is thus also applied to the “slashes” in the material of a dress made to show a rich lining or the colour of a lining when different from the outer side of the garment. In this sense the word only survives in English in “counterpane,” an outer coverlet for a bed. “Pane” is used frequently for the flat side of anything, especially in diamond-cutting of the sides to the “table” of a brilliant, or to the faces of a bolt nut or hammer-head. The most common use of the word now is that of a piece of glass filling a compartment in a window. In architecture the word is also applied to a bay of a window, compartment of a partition, side of a tower, turret, &c. (See Bay and Half-timber Work.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panentheism

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​PANENTHEISM, the name given by K. C. F. Krause (q.v.) to his philosophic theory. Krause held that all existence is one great unity, which he called Wesen (Essence). This Essence is God, and includes within itself the finite unities of man, reason and nature. God therefore includes the world in Himself and extends beyond it. The theory is a conciliation of Theism and Pantheism.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hyginus Gromaticus

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​HYGINUS (surnamed Gromaticus, from gruma, a surveyor’s measuring-rod), Latin writer on land-surveying, flourished in the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98–117). Fragments of a work on legal boundaries attributed to him will be found in C. F. Lachmann, Gromatici Veteres, i. (1848).
A treatise on Castrametation (De Munitionibus Castrorum), also attributed to him, is probably of later date, about the 3rd century A.D. (ed. W. Gemoll, 1879; A. von Domaszewski, 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hyginus, Gaius Julius

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​HYGINUS, GAIUS JULIUS, Latin author, a native of Spain (or Alexandria), was a pupil of the famous Cornelius Alexander Polyhistor and a freedman of Augustus, by whom he was made superintendent of the Palatine library (Suetonius, De Grammaticis, 20). He is said to have fallen into great poverty in his old age, and to have been supported by the historian Clodius Licinus. He was a voluminous author, and his works included topographical and biographical treatises, commentaries on Helvius Cinna and the poems of Virgil, and disquisitions on agriculture and bee-keeping. All these are lost.
Under the name of Hyginus two school treatises on mythology are extant: (1) Fabularum Liber, some 300 mythological legends and celestial genealogies, valuable for the use made by the author of the works of Greek tragedians now lost; (2) De Astronomia, usually called Poetica Astronomica, containing an elementary treatise on astronomy and the myths connected with the stars, chiefly based on the Καταστερισμοί of Eratosthenes. Both are abridgments and both are by the same hand; but the style and Latinity and the elementary mistakes (especially in the rendering of the Greek originals) are held to prove that they cannot have been the work of so distinguished a scholar as C. Julius Hyginus. It is suggested that these treatises are an abridgment (made in the latter half of the 2nd century) of the Genealogiae of Hyginus by an unknown grammarian, who added a complete treatise on mythology.
Editions.—Fabulae, by M. Schmidt (1872); De Astronomia, by B. Bunte (1875); see also Bunte, De C. Julii Hygini, Augusti Liberti, Vita et Scriptis (1846).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hyginus (pope)

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​HYGINUS, eighth pope. It was during his pontificate (c. 137–140) that the gnostic heresies began to manifest themselves at Rome.