OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Head-hunting

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​HEAD-HUNTING, or Head-Snapping, as the Dutch call it, a custom once prevalent among all Malay races and surviving even to-day among the Dyaks (q.v.) of Borneo and elsewhere. Martin de Rada, provincial of the Augustinians, reported its existence in Luzon (Philippine Islands) as early as 1577. The practice is believed to have had its origin in religious motives, the worship of skulls being universal among the Malays. Severe repressive measures have led to its decrease. Among the Igorrotes all that remains is the dance, accompanied by singing, around the bare pole on which the head was formerly fixed. With the Ilongotes a bridegroom must bring his bride a number of heads, those of Christians being preferred. The chief examples of head-hunters are the Was, a hill-tribe on the north-eastern frontier of India, and the Nagas and Kukis of Assam.
See Bock, Headhunters of Borneo (1881); W. H. Furness, Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters (Philadelphia, 1902); T. C. Hodson, “Head-hunting in Assam,” in Folk-Lore, xx. 2. 132.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazleton

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​HAZLETON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 25 m. S. of Wilkes-Barré. Pop. (1890) 11,872; (1900) 14,230, of whom 2732 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 25,452. It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania (for freight), and the Wilkes-Barré & Hazleton (electric) railways. The city is built on a broad tableland on Nescopeck or Buck Mountain, a spur of the Blue Mountains, about 1620 ft. above sea-level. It has a park and a number of handsome residences; and its agreeable climate and picturesque situation make it attractive as a summer resort. The city has a public library. Hazleton is near the centre of one of the richest coal regions (the Lehigh or “Eastern Middle Coal Field”) of the state, and its principal industry is the mining and shipping of anthracite coal. It has silk mills, knitting mills, shirt factories, breweries, macaroni factories, lumber and planing mills, important iron works, a casket factory and a large electric power plant. The value of ​the city’s factory products increased from $998,823 in 1900 to $2,185,876 in 1905, or 118.8%, only three other cities in the state having a population of 8000 or more in 1900 showing a greater rate of increase. There is a state hospital here for the treatment of persons injured in mines. Hazleton was settled in 1820, was laid out in 1836, was incorporated as a borough in 1856 and received a city charter in 1891. The local coal industry dates from 1837.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Head, Sir Edmund Walker

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​HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, Bart. (1805–1868), English colonial governor and writer on art, was the son of the Rev. Sir John Head, Bart., rector of Rayleigh, Essex. He was educated at Winchester school and Oriel College, Oxford, and taking his degree with first-class honours in classics, he became fellow of Merton College. On his father’s death in 1838, he succeeded to the baronetcy as 8th baronet. His services as poor-law commissioner, to which post he was appointed in 1841 after five years as assistant-commissioner, procured for him in 1847 the office of lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, whence he passed in 1854 to the governor-generalship of Canada, which he retained till 1861. The following year, having returned to England, Head was nominated a civil service commissioner. In 1857 he was sworn of the Privy Council, and in 1860 was decorated as K.C.B., while in the course of his career he received the degrees of D.C.L. at Oxford and LL.D. at Cambridge. He died in London on the 28th of January 1868, the baronetcy becoming extinct, as his only son had died in 1859.
Sir Edmund Head wrote the article “Painting” in the Penny Cyclopaedia; A Handbook of the Spanish and French Schools of Painting (1845); Shall and Will, or two Chapters on Future Auxiliary Verbs (1856); and Ballads and other Poems, Original and Translated (1868). He also edited F. T. Kugler’s Handbook of Painting of the ​German, Flemish, Dutch, Spanish, and French Schools (1854) and the Essays on the Administrations of Great Britain (1864), written by his lifelong friend, Sir George Cornewall Lewis. His translation from the Icelandic of Viga Glum’s Saga appeared in 1866.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hazebrouck

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​HAZEBROUCK, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Nord, on the canalized Bourre, 29 m. W.N.W. of Lille, on the Northern railway, between that town and St Omer. Pop. (1906), town, 8798; commune, 12,819. With the exception of the church of St Eloi, a building of the 16th century with a spire of fine open work 260 ft. high, and the hospice, occupying a convent built in the 16th and 17th centuries, there is little of architectural interest in the town. Hazebrouck is the seat of a sub prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance and a board of trade arbitration. It is the market for a fertile agricultural district, and has trade in live-stock, grain and hops. Cloth-weaving is the chief industry. Hazebrouck is an important junction, and railway employés form a large part of its population.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haüy, René Just

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​HAÜY, RENÉ JUST (1743–1822), French mineralogist, commonly styled the Abbé Haüy, from being an honorary canon of Notre Dame, was born at St Just, in the department of Oise, on the 28th of February 1743. His parents were in a humble rank of life, and were only enabled by the kindness of friends to send their son to the college of Navarre and afterwards to that of Lemoine. Becoming one of the teachers at the latter, he began to devote his leisure hours to the study of botany; but an accident directed his attention to another field in natural history. Happening to let fall a specimen of calcareous spar belonging to a friend, he was led by examination of the fragments to make experiments which resulted in the statement of the geometrical law of crystallization associated with his name (see Crystallography). The value of this discovery, the mathematical theory of which is given by Haüy in his Traité de minéralogie, was immediately recognized, and when communicated to the Academy, it secured for its author a place in that society. Haüy’s name is also known for the observations he made in pyro-electricity. When the Revolution broke out, he was thrown into prison, and his life was even in danger, when he was saved by the intercession of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1802, under Napoleon, he became professor of mineralogy at the museum of natural history, but after 1814 he was deprived of his appointments by the government of the Restoration. His latter days were consequently clouded by poverty, but the courage and high moral qualities which had helped him forward in his youth did not desert him in his old age; and he lived cheerful and respected till his death at Paris on the 3rd of June 1822.
The following are his principal works: Essai d’une théorie sur la structure des cristaux (1784); Exposition raisonnée de la théorie de l’électricité et du magnétisme, d’après les principes d’Aepinus (1787); De la structure considérée comme caractère distinctif des minéraux (1793); Exposition abrégée de la théorie de la structure des cristaux (1793); Extrait d’un traité élémentaire de minéralogie (1797); Traité de minéralogie (4 vols., 1801); Traité élémentaire de physique (2 vols., 1803, 1806); Tableau comparatif des résultats de la cristallographie, et de l’analyse chimique relativement à la classification des minéraux (1809); Traité des pierres précieuses (1817); Traité de cristallographie (2 vols., 1822). He also contributed papers, of which 100 are enumerated in the Royal Society’s catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the Journal de physique and the Annals du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Head

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​HEAD (in O. Eng. héafod; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. κεφαλή), the upper portion of the body in man, consisting of the skull with its integuments and contents, &c., connected with the trunk by the neck (see Anatomy, Skull and Brain); also the anterior or fore part of other animals. The word is used in a large number of transferred and figurative senses, generally with reference to the position of the head as the uppermost part, hence the leading, chief portion of anything.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalisz (government)

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​KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on the W., and the governments of Warsaw and Piotrków on the E. Its area is 4390 sq. m. Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards the west, and is drained by the Prosna and the Warta and their tributaries, and also by the Bzura. It was formerly covered with countless small lakes and thick forests; the latter are now mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist still. Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609 lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly Poles. Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants each amount to 7%. Agriculture is carried to perfection on a number of estates, as also livestock breeding. The crops principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Various domestic trades, including the weaving of linen and wool, are carried on in the villages. There are some factories, producing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530), Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141) and Wielun (7442).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalk

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​KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478. Kalk is an important junction of railway lines connecting Cologne with places on the right bank of the river. It has various iron and chemical industries, brickworks and breweries, and an electric tramway joins it with Cologne.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalkas

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​KALKAS, or Khalkas, a Mongoloid people mainly concentrated in the northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen, the Buriats. According to Sir H. Howorth they derive their name from the river Kalka, which runs into the Buir lake. Of all Mongolians they physically differ most from the true Mongol type (see Mongols). Their colour is a brown rather than a yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have, however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black hair of their race. They number some 250,000, and their territory is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu), Tsetien (Setzen), Sai’noi’m (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalinjar

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​KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort stands on an isolated rock, the termination of the Vindhya range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., overlooking the plains of Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most characteristic specimen of the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines, of central India. Its antiquity is proved by its mention in the Mahābhārata. It was besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the Afghan emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played a prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in 1857, when it was held by a small British garrison. Both the fort and the town, which stands at the foot of the hill, are of interest to the antiquary on account of their remains of temples, sculptures, inscriptions and caves.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalisch, Isidor

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​KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816–1886), Jewish divine, was born at Krotoschin in Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was educated at Berlin, Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to London, but passed on in 1849 to America, where he ministered as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark, New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave himself entirely to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as leader of the radical and reforming Jewish party.
Among his works are Wegweisen für rationelle Forschungen in den biblischen Schriften (1853); and translations of Nathan der Weise (1869); Sepher Jezirah (1877); and Munz’s History of Philosophy among the Jews (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and Hebrew verse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalisch, Marcus

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​KALISCH, MARCUS (or Maurice) (1828–1885), Jewish scholar, was born in Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885. He was one of the pioneers of the critical study of the Old Testament in England. At one time he was secretary to the Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the Rothschild family and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and other works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Pentateuch was Exodus (1855); this was followed by Genesis (1858) and Leviticus in two parts (1867–1872). Kalisch wrote before the publication of Wellhausen’s works, and anticipated him in some important points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in 1877–1878 two volumes of Bible studies (on Balaam and Jonah). He was also author of a once popular Hebrew grammar in two volumes (1862–1863). In 1880 he published Path and Goal, a brilliant discussion of human destiny. His commentaries are of permanent value, not only because of the author’s originality, but also because of his erudition. No other works in English contain such full citations of earlier literature.  (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalisz (town)

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​KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in 51° 46′ N. and 18° E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the banks of the Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia. Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1897), 21,680, of whom 37% were Jews. It is one of the oldest and finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a castle, a teachers’ institute and a large public park. The industrial establishments comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, cloth and sugar, and tanneries.
Kalisz is identified with the Calisia of Ptolemy, and its antiquity is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes on the 29th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and of the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835, in memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by Nicholas I. in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia was signed here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalinga

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​KALINGA, or Calinga, one of the nine kingdoms of southern India in ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running inland from the Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. The Kalinga of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it seems to have been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the time of Hsüan Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south and west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa. Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one division of the country of Telinga. Hsüan Tsang speaks of Kalinga (“Kie-ling-kia”) having its capital at what has been identified with the site either of Rajahmundry or Coringa. Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and Chicacole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem to prove that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalir, Eleazer

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​KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose hymns (piyyutim) are found in profusion in the festival prayers of the German synagogal rite. The age in which he lived is unknown. Some (basing the view on Saadiah’s Sefer ha-galuy) place him as early as the 6th century, others regard him as belonging to the 10th century. Kalir’s style is powerful but involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning.
Some beautiful renderings of Kalir’s poems may be found in the volumes of Davis & Adler’s edition of the German Festival Prayers entitled Service of the Synagogue.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kalispel

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​KALISPEL, or Pend d’Oreille, a tribe of North-American Indians of Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country around Pend d’Oreille Lake, Washington. They number some 600, and are settled on a reservation in Montana.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pleasure

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​PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. ἡδονή), a term used loosely in ordinary language as practically synonymous with “enjoyment.” As such it is applied equally to what are known as the “higher” or "intellectual” pleasures, and to purely “sensual," “animal” or “lower” pleasures. The conditions under which a man is pleased are the subject both or psychological and of ethical investigation. In general it may be said that pleasure and pain follow respectively upon the success of the failure of some effort, mental or physical (see Psychology); they may also attend upon purely passive sensations, e.g. a warm sun, a heavy shower, or upon associations with previous states of mind (i.e. a man may enjoy a sensation which is intrinsically painful, if it has pleasant associations). Recognition of the fact that mankind seeks pleasure and avoids pain has led some moralists to the conclusion that all human conduct is actuated by hedonic considerations: this is the direct antithesis to ethical theories which maintain an absolute criterion of right and wrong (see Hedonism; Ethics). Aristotle took a middle view, holding that pleasure, though not the end of virtuous action yet necessarily follows upon it (ἐπιγενόμενόν τι τέλος).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plebiscite

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​PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscitum, a decree of the plebs), a term borrowed from the French for a Vote of all the electors in a country taken on some specific question (see also Referendum). The most familiar example of the use of the plebiscite in French history was in 1852, when the coup d’état of 1851 was confirmed and the title of emperor was given to Napoleon III. In Roman constitutional law the plebiscitum was a decree enacted in the assembly of the plebs, the comitia tributa, presided over by a plebeian magistrate.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plehve, Viatscheslaf Konstantinovich

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​PLEHVE, VIATSCHESLAF KONSTANTINOVICH (1846–1904), Russian statesman, was born of Lithuanian stock in 1846. He was educated at Warsaw and studied law at the university in St Petersburg before he entered the bureaucracy in the department of justice, in which he rose rapidly to be assistant solicitor-general in Warsaw, then solicitor-general in St Petersburg, and in 1881 director of the state police. As assistant to the minister of the interior he attracted the attention of Alexander III. by the skill he showed in investigating the circumstances of the assassination of Alexander II. He received the title of secretary of state in 1894, became a member of the council of the empire, and in 1902 succeeded Sipiaguine as minister of the interior. Plehve carried out the “russification” of the alien provinces within the Russian Empire, and earned bitter hatred in Poland, in Lithuania and especially in Finland. He despoiled the Armenian Church, and was credited with being accessory to the Kishinev massacres. His logical mind and determined support of the autocratic principle gained the tsar’s entire confidence. He opposed commercial development on ordinary European lines on the ground that it involved the existence both of a dangerous proletariat and of a prosperous middle class equally inimical to autocracy. He was thus a determined opponent of M. de Witte’s policy. An attempt was made on his life early in 1904, and he was assassinated on the 28th of July of the same year by a bomb thrown under his carriage as he was on his way to Peterhof to make his report to the tsar; the assassin, Sasonov, was a member of the fighting organization of the socialist revolutionary party.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Playa

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​PLAYA (a Spanish word meaning “shore”), the name applied in America to a level plain formed of the deposits of a river which has no outlet to the sea or a lake. If at seasons of high water a river floods any area and temporarily converts it into a lake, which subsequently dries up in hot weather, the tract thus left dry is called a playa. The barren Black Rock Desert in north-western Nevada, about 100 m. in length by 15 in breadth, is typical.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pleiad

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​PLEIAD (Gr. Πλειάς), in Greek literature, the name given (by analogy from Pleiades, below) by the Alexandrian critics to seven tragic poets who flourished during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285–247 B.C.). In French literature, in addition to the Pleiad of Charlemagne, there were two famous groups of the kind. The first, during the reign of Henri III. (1574–1589), the chief member of which was Pierre de Ronsard, sought to improve the French language and literature by enthusiastic imitation of the classics; the second, under Louis XIII. (1610–1643), consisted of authors who excelled in the composition of Latin verse.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plebs

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​PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. πλῆθος), the “multitude,” or unprivileged class in the early Roman state. For the origin and history of this order see Patricians and Nobility. Its disqualifications were originally based on ​descent; but after the political equalization of the two orders the name was applied to the lower classes of the population without reference to their descent. Under the empire the word is regularly used of the city proletariate, or of the commons as distinct from knights and senators.