OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Klesl, Melchior

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​KLESL (or Khlesl), MELCHIOR (1552–1630), Austrian statesman and ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was born in Vienna. Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted to Roman Catholicism, and having finished his education at the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor of the university of Vienna; and as official and vicar-general of the bishop of Passau he exhibited the zeal of a convert in forwarding the progress of the counter-reformation in Austria. He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but more important was his association with the archduke Matthias which began about the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the originator and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed the concessions to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted to secure the election of Matthias to the imperial throne, and sought, but without success, to strengthen the new emperor’s position by making peace between the Catholics and the Protestants. When during the short reign of Matthias the question of the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the bishop, although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church, advised that this question should be shelved until some arrangement with the Protestant princes had been reached. This counsel was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian and to Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II. who believed that Klesl was hostile to the candidature of the latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake his influence with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and was released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdinand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on the 18th of September 1630.
See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, Khlesls Leben (Vienna, 1847–1851); A. Kerschbaumer, Kardinal Klesl (Vienna, 1865); and Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von Dietrichstein, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grasse, François Joseph Paul, Comte de

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​GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL, Marquis de Grasse-tilly, Comte de (1722–1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by Admiral Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned to France, published a Mémoire justificatif, and was acquitted by a court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 1788.
His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a Notice bibliographique sur l’amiral comte de Grasse d’après les documents inédits in 1840. See G. Lacour-Gayet, La Marine militaire de la France sous le règne de Louis XV (Paris, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Graslitz

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​GRASLITZ (Czech, Kraslice), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing, and the mother-of-pearl industry.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grass of Parnassus

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​GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant known as Parnassia palustris (natural order Saxifragaceae), found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is secreted by the base of each of the scales.
* Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). 1, one of the gland-bearing scales enlarged.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grasse

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​GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes Maritimes (till 1860 in that of the Var), 121/2 m. by rail N. of Cannes. Pop. (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a height of 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill, facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the town the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion (western) is laid out in accordance with modern French ideas. It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal see, but was then included in the diocese of Fréjus till 1860, when politically as well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly-formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a 12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town hall, which was formerly the bishop’s palace (13th century). There is a good town library, containing the muniments of the abbey of Lérins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes. In the chapel of the old hospital are three pictures by Rubens. The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732–1806) was a native of Grasse, and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery. Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the neighbourhood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which costs nearly £100 per 2 ℔) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at Grasse. (W. A. B. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grasmere

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​GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 121/2 m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth’s tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald’s day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by some from the Roman Floralia, but appears also to have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, A Rambler’s Note-Book at the English Lakes, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting in August.
The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Grate

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​GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable, and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished black surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate was rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae and acanthus leaves, the swags and festoons characteristic of their manner. The modern dog-grate is a somewhat similar basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable. In the closing years of the 19th century a “well-grate” was invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion being aided by an air-chamber below.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucas, John Seymour

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​LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849– ), English painter, was born in London, and was a student in the Royal Academy Schools. He was elected an associate of the academy in 1886 and academician in 1898, and became a constant exhibitor of pictures of historical and domestic incidents, notably of the Tudor and Stuart periods, painted with much skill and with close attention to detail. One of his most important works is a panel in the Royal Exchange, presented by the corporation of London, representing William the Conqueror granting the first charter to the city; and one of his earlier pictures, “After Culloden: Rebel Hunting,” is in the National Gallery of British Art.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucceius, Lucius

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​LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and correspondent of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and literary tastes, he may be compared with Atticus. Disgusted at his failure to become consul in 60, he retired from public life, and devoted himself to writing a history of the Social and Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero earnestly requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero’s) consulship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek and Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had taken considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period, would have greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material, and hinted that Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy. Lucceius almost promised, but did not perform. Nothing remains of any such work or of his history. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey; but, having been pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement until his death.
Cicero’s Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially Ad Fam. v. 12; and Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucera

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​LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 121/2 m. W.N.W. by rail of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated upon a lofty plateau, the highest point of which (823 ft.), projecting to the W., was the ancient citadel, and is occupied by the well-preserved castle erected by Frederick II., and rebuilt by Pierre d’Angicourt about 1280. The cathedral, originally Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the Gothic style; the façade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior was restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient Luceria, the key of the whole country. According to tradition the temple of Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the Trojan Palladium, and the town struck numerous bronze coins; but in history it is first heard of as on the Roman side in the Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314 B.C. a Latin colony was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent military history, and its position on the road from Beneventum, via Aecae (mod. Troja) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above ground, though several mosaic pavements have been found and there are traces of the foundations of an amphitheatre outside the town on the E. The town-hall contains a statue of Venus, a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th. Mommsen’s remarks on the local neglect of antiquities in Corp. Inscr. Lat. ix. 75). In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only restored in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens hither from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806 Lucera was the capital of the provinces of Basilicata and Molise. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucas, Sir Charles

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​LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648), English soldier, was the son of Sir Thomas Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man he saw service in the Netherlands under the command of his brother, and in the “Bishops’ War” he commanded a troop of horse in King Charles I.’s army. In 1639 he was made a knight. At the outbreak of the Civil War Lucas naturally took the king’s side, and at the first cavalry fight, Powick Bridge, he was wounded. Early in 1643 he raised a regiment of horse, with which he defeated Middleton at Padbury on July 1st. In January 1644 he commanded the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon afterwards, on Prince Rupert’s recommendation, he was made lieutenant-general of Newcastle’s Northern army. When Newcastle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained in the open country, and when Rupert’s relieving army crossed the mountains into Yorkshire he was quickly joined by Newcastle’s squadrons. At Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfax’s Yorkshire horse before him, but later in the day he was taken prisoner. Exchanged during the winter, he defended Berkeley Castle for a short time against Rainsborough, but was soon in the field again. As lieutenant-general of all the horse he accompanied Lord Astley in the last campaign of the first war, and, taken prisoner at Stow-on-the-Wold, he engaged not to bear arms against parliament in the future. This parole he must be held to have broken when he took a prominent part in the seizure of Colchester in 1648. That place was soon invested, and finally fell, after a desperate resistance, to Fairfax’s army. The superior officers had to surrender “at mercy,” and Lucas and Sir George Lisle were immediately tried by court martial and sentenced to death. The two Royalists were shot the same evening in the Castle of Colchester.
See Lloyd, Memoirs of Excellent Personages (1669); and Earl de Grey, A Memoir of the Life of Sir Charles Lucas (1845).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucca, Bagni di

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​LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena), a commune of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, containing a number of famous watering-places. Pop. (1901) 13,685. The springs are situated in the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is known in the early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village (pop. 1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa, Docce Bassi, Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have been known to the Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned in 1284 by Guidone de Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori, R.I.S. vol. xxii.). Fallopius, who gave them credit for the cure of his own deafness, sounded their praises in 1569; and they have been more or less in fashion since. The temperature of the water varies from 98° to 130° Fahr.; in all cases it gives off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and sodium products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital constructed largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in 1826. In the valley of the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is the medieval Ponte del Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lucena

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​LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 37 m. S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 21,179. Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor tributary of the Genil. The parish church dates from the beginning of the 16th century. The chief industries are the manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and pottery, especially the large earthenware jars (tinajas) used throughout Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold more than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia. Lucena was taken from the Moors early in the 14th century; it was in the attempt to recapture it that King Boabdil of Granada was taken prisoner in 1483.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ernesti, Johann Christian Gottlieb

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​ERNESTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756–1802), German classical scholar, was born at Arnstadt, Thuringia, and studied under his uncle, J. A. Ernesti, at the university of Leipzig. On the 5th of June, 1782, he was made supplementary professor of philosophy at his own university; and on the death of his cousin August Wilhelm in 1801 he was for five months professor of rhetoric. He died on the 5th of June of the following year.
His principal works are:—Editions of Aesop’s Fabulae (1781); of the Glossae sacrae of Hesychius (1785) and Suidas and Phavorinus (1786); and of Silius Italicus Punica (1791–1792); Lexicon Technologiae Graecorum rhetoricae (1795); Lexicon technologiae Latinorum rhetoricae (1797), and Cicero’s Geist und Kunst (1799–1802).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eros (god)

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​EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of love. He is not mentioned in Homer; in Hesiod (Theog. 120) he is one of the oldest and the most beautiful of the gods, whose power neither gods nor men can resist. He also evolves order and harmony out of Chaos by uniting the separated elements. This cosmic Eros, who in Orphic cosmogony sprang from the world-egg which Chronos, or Time, laid in the bosom of Chaos, and which is the origin of all created beings, degenerated in later mythology into the capricious god of sexual passion, the son of Aphrodite and Zeus, Ares or Hermes. He is commonly represented as a mischievous boy, the tormentor of gods and men, even his own mother not being proof against his attacks. His brother is Anteros, the god of mutual love, who punishes those who do not return the love of others, without which Eros could not thrive; he is sometimes described as the opponent of Eros. The chief associates of Eros are Pothos and Himeros (Longing and Desire), Peitho (Persuasion), the Muses and the Graces; he himself is in constant attendance on Aphrodite. Later writers (Euripides being the first) assumed the existence of a number of Erotes (like the Roman Amores and Cupidines) with similar attributes. According to the philosophers, Eros was not only the god of sexual love, but also of the loyal and devoted friendship of men; hence the Theban “Sacred Band” was devoted to him, and the Cretans and Spartans offered sacrifice to him before going into battle (Athenaeus xiii. p. 561). In Alexandrian poetry Eros is at one time the powerful god who conquers all, at another the elfish god of love. For the Roman adaptation of Eros see Cupid, and for the later legend of Cupid and Psyche see Psyche.
In art Eros is represented as a beautiful youth or a winged child. His attributes are the bow and arrows and a burning torch. The rose, the hare, the cock and the goat are frequently associated with him. The most celebrated statue of him was at Thespiae, the work of Praxiteles. Other famous representations are the Vatican torso and Eros trying his bow (in the Capitoline museum).
See J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903); G. F. Schömann, De Cupidine Cosmogonico (1852); E. Gerhard, Über den Gott Eros (1850); articles in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités, and Pauly-Wissowa’s Realencyclopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Erode

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​ERODE, a town of British India, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, situated on the right bank of the river Cauvery, which is here crossed by an iron railway girder bridge of 22 spans. Pop. (1901) 15,529. Here the South Indian railway joins the South-Western line of the Madras railway, 243 m. from Madras. There are exports of cotton and saltpetre; and the town has a steam cotton press.