# Primary Lessons in Swatow Grammar/Lesson XXIV

There is a total absence of inflection. One and the same form of the verb is used under all circumstances of time past, present, or future, as well as of mode of action. The relations of time and mode are indicated,—
I. By the connection simply. Thus, when one is speaking of something which from the general sense must be inferred to have already taken place, then the tenses are all past tenses, though there may not be a single word or termination to indicate it. In other words, the tense is determined by “circumstantial evidence.” Thus, uá hàm i lâi, means literally, I call him come. If it is evident that I am talking of something which occurred a month ago, then, from this circumstance alone, is it known that I am intending the tense, and the translation should be, I told him to come. But if it is obvious that I am speaking of something that will take place next month, then the translation of the same words should be, I will tell him to come. Since ordinary conversation among the Chinese is marked by such an amount of indefiniteness, it is not strange that the foreign student, at the outset, is much perplexed. The latter has the grim consolation of knowing that the Chinese themselves are often puzzled, and are frequently heard interposing an inquiry to a speaker in order to get the proper tense significance.
II. By some one word, or clause, or sentence indicative of time when, and used by the speaker at the beginning of his remarks. This one word may determine the tense of verbs that follow to the number of a dozen or more. Its effect may be compared to that of a flat or a sharp in music, which flats or sharps all the notes on that space or line. It will convert a past into a future tense, or a future into a past tense.
For example, uá khṳ̀ Suàⁿ-thâu bói-mue̍h, bói-hó--liáu tńg--lâi chiũ pa lói-chia̍h, chia̍h-liáu khṳ̀-gu̍t. Here are a half dozen verbs, but there is nothing in any of them to determine clearly whether they are past tense or future tense, whether the speaker is telling of something he did yesterday, or something he is going to do to-morrow. The translation literally is, I go Swatow, buy something, bought finished, come back home, then make ready eat, eat finished, go sleep. ​But, now, if I begin by saying chá-ji̍t uá khṳ̀-Suàⁿ-thâu &c. then the words chá-ji̍t show that I am speaking of what has already taken place, and therefore, the tenses are all past tenses, and the translation should be, Yesterday, I went to Swatow and bought some things, —when I had bought them I came back home and made ready to eat, and having eaten I went to sleep.
On the other hand, if I begin by saying, mùaⁿ-chá úa khṳ̀ Sùaⁿ-thâu &c, then the verbs are all to be understood as having a future tense signification. The translation of the words should be varied accordingly, and should be, To-morrow I will go to Swatow and buy some things. When I shall have bought them, I will come back home and make ready to eat, and when I have eaten I will go to sleep.
III. By the aid of auxiliary particles. Their use is similar to that of the English auxiliaries may, can, shall, will, must, ought, &c. Some of these find their proper place before the verb; others follow it, and some may be used, though with varied meaning, either before or after. Some indicate future tense only, actual or relative, such as àiⁿ, chiang àiⁿ; others past tense only, actual or relative, as keng, íⁿ-keng, &c. Others may still be indefinite so as to require additional helps to clearness.
And here, attention must be called to a striking peculiarity of this great family of auxiliaries. Instead of contemplating primarily the time of an action, as we do in English, the Chinese are prone to consider the process of it. We state the time when, and from that we infer the action is either complete or incomplete. The Chinese consider the action as either complete or incomplete, and from that they infer the time when.
Thus, in the expression, I have eaten the orange, we first note the word “have,” and seeing that used, we infer that the eating process is completed. The Chinese note the fact of the eating being completed, and from that infer past tense. Practically, this amounts to the same thing in the end, only we approach the subject from different sides.
This peculiarity will account for the form of many of these auxiliaries. They indicate not so much, relations of time, as stages of a process. That process may be already past, or it may be in the future, and so the same auxiliaries are found doing service in ​other directions. Kùe, to go through with, and liáu, completely finished, are examples in point. Sṳ̄ chò-kùe, the business gone through with. Here is a completed action, and, on that account, presumably a past tense. But it is not necessarily so, any more than the same expression would be in English. The addition of another particle might convert it into an unmistakable future tense.
IV. But, since the last method is found to be inconclusive, therefore, II. and III. are combined, and requisite precision is obtained. That is, there may he used at the outset, or along in the discourse, as occasion may require, a chronological finger board, such as chá-ji̍t, yesterday; kū-nîⁿ, last year; i būe lâi kâi sî-hāu, before he came; tō puān-huán kâi sî-hāu, at the time of the rebellion; mùa-chá, to-morrow; Hiang-káng chûn kàu liáu, when the Hong kong steamer arrives. And, then, in addition thereto, auxiliary past or future tense particles may be introduced, in connection with the verbs. The meaning is then sufficiently obvious.
Che̍k kâi ui-pēⁿ kâi Sin-seⁿ lo̍h hieⁿ-lí chèng-chu a nôuⁿ kiáⁿ, a physician go down village, vaccinate children. There is nothing whatever in this sentence to indicate tense.
Tng-hṳ́-sî—ũ-che̍k-kâi ui-pēⁿ kâi-sin-seⁿ íⁿ-keng lo̍h-hieⁿ-lí--liáu chèng-chu a-nôuⁿ-kiáⁿ, at that time, there was a physician who had already gone down to the villages, and vaccinated the children. In this version, past tense is indicated to some extent, by, tng-sî-hāu, at that time, and ũ, there was, but, definitely by, íⁿ-keng, had.
Mêⁿ-nîⁿ chiaⁿ-gue̍h—ũ che̍k-kâi ui-pēⁿ kâi-sin-seⁿ chiang àiⁿ lo̍h-hieⁿ-lí chèng-chu a-nôuⁿ-kiáⁿ, in the first month of next year, there will be a physician go down to the villages, and vaccinate the children.
Tng hṳ́-nîⁿ—uâng-ke íⁿ-keng thiaⁿ liáu chí-kâi-sṳ̄, i sûi-sî huat-piaⁿ khṳ̀ mi̍t-tiāu i kâi-siâⁿ-ip, in that year, when the king had heard of this affair, he at once sent out soldiers who went and destroyed their city.
Chiang-lâi—uâng-ke thiaⁿ chí-kâi-sṳ̄ i chiũ pit-àiⁿ huat-piaⁿ khṳ̀-mi̍h-tiāu i kâi-siâi-ip, hereafter, when the king hears of this matter, he will certainly send out soldiers and destroy their city.
​V. There is another class of particles having in themselves no auxiliary force, but which render service in showing a tense relationship between different verbs, the action of one following that of the other, both being in the past or both in the future. These coupling expressions may consist of one word only, as, ãu,, afterwards, or of several, as, chí-kâi-sṳ̄ ãu, after this matter was past. They may be complete standing alone, as, sûi-sî, thereupon, or they may involve a correlative, as, kàu chièⁿ-seⁿ liáu—jiên-ãu, when this was so,—then, &c.

## chiũ,

    and then; thereupon; forthwith.

## chiàⁿ,

    and then.

## che̍k-ē,

    when; then; in immediate connection.

## liáu,

    and; moreover; this being done.

## aũ,

    afterwards; after that.

## aũ-lâi,

    subsequently; thereafter.

## sṳ̄-ãu,

    after this affair; afterwards.

## jiên-aũ,

    then; next.

## sûi-sî,

    thereupon.

## íⁿ-aũ,

    afterwards; following the occurrence.

## chiet-sî,

    at that time; continuous.

## chiet-khek,

    immediately; thereupon.

## kàu-aũ,

    later; afterwards.

## kàu chièⁿ-seⁿ liáu,

    when things were thus and so.

## õ! hièⁿ-seⁿ liáu,

    well! and being the way of it.

## kàu thóiⁿ-kìⁿ sṳ̄ sĩ chièⁿ-seⁿ—uá sûi-sî chiũ-hiah,

    when I saw that it was so, — I immediately desisted.

## sih che̍k siap-sî—chiũ bô khṳ̀,

    flashed an instant and then was gone.

## che̍k mẽng—chiũ sêng,

    as soon as commanded, — then it was done.

## che̍k-ē-tàⁿ—chiũ-seⁿ-khì,

    when he said it, — thereupon he was angry. ​If had — would have.

## chá-ji̍t i chai chí kâi sṳ̄ — i chiũ màiⁿ khṳ̀,

    yesterday, if he had this, — he then would not have gone.

## màiⁿ-tõ chí-hiah — chí-tsûn chiũ-kàu,

    if we had not stopped here, — by this time we would have been there.

## lṳ́ thâu-chá màiⁿ-chó-uá — chí-chûn chiũ chò-hó--liáu,

    you, if you had not hindered me a while ago — it would have been done.

## i lâi tiâng-sî — uá tõ chia̍h,

    when he came — I was eating.

## uá ji̍p khṳ̀ — i tõ chõ,

    when I entered — he was sitting.

## Hi-lu̍t chò uâng kâi sî-hāu — Iâ-sou chhut-sì tõ Pek-lī-hêng,

    when Herod was king — Jesus was born in Bethlehem.

## uân-in i tàⁿ-màiⁿ — kù-chhṳ́ uá bōi khṳt pa̍t-nâng,

    because he said he did not want it — therefore I sold it to another man.

## uân-in lṳ́ bô-lâi — kù-chhṳ́ uá bô-tán,

    because you did not come — therefore I did not wait.

## uân-in bô-hīn-chîⁿ — uá khṳ̀-chhia,

    because I had not ready cash — I bought on credit.

## uân-in bô-ngṳ̂n — uá chiũ m̄-káⁿ-àiⁿ,

    because I had not any money — I dare not wish for it.

## uân-in hù m̄-tie̍h-chûn — kù-chhṳ́ uá kiâⁿ-lōu--lâi,

    because I did not catch the boat — therefore I walked.

## m̄-sĩ ngóu-ngõ siẽⁿ tie̍h — chiũ-khṳ̀-chò,

    he did not think of it by chance — and then go and do it.

## i thâu-soiⁿ ṳ̃-pĩ hó liáu — ãu chhut khṳ̀ sie-thâi,

    he first made all ready — and then went out to fight.

## i soiⁿ pa-lói hó liáu — ãu chõ lo̍h khṳ̀-chia̍h,

    he first made ready — and then sat down to eat.

## put-to̍k i lah ka-kī kâi-saⁿ — iā-lah pa̍t-nâng--kâi,

    he not only gathered up his own clothes — but also gathered up other people’s.

## put-to̍k sĩ chí-tie̍h chí-kâi-nâng — iā chí-tie̍h hṳ́-hieⁿ-lí lóng-chóng nâng,

    he referred not only to this one man — but he referred to every one in the village. ​As — so.

## jû-lṳ́ só-ieh—hó chièⁿ-seⁿ khṳ̀-chò,

    as you have promised—so go and do.

## jû-uá só-pān—kúaⁿ-jiên seⁿ-chhut-lâi,

    as I conjectured—so it has turned out.

## uá sui-jiên sĩ-lṳ́ kâi-chú—huân-liáu sói-lṳ́ kâi-kha,

    although I am your Master — yet I wash your feet.

## pńg sui-jiên uá mién—jûi-sĩ uá kam-ngũan,

    in itself although I do not need to do this — yet I am willing to do it.

## thiⁿ-sî sui lo̍h-hõu—i huân-liáu káⁿ-khṳ̀,

    although it is raining — yet, nevertheless, he dares to go.

## pńg m̄-hó—chóng-sĩ chhìn-chhái,

    of itself it is not proper — nevertheless, no matter.
The above are full forms, but they are constantly abbreviated. Indeed, the abbreviated forms are more frequently used than the full ones, e.g.—

## Uân-in i tàⁿ-màiⁿ—kù-chhṳ́ uá bōi-khṳt pa̍t-nâng,

    may be abbreviated, i tàⁿ-màiⁿ—uá bōi-khṳt pa̍t-nâng, he said didn’t want — I sold to another manj.

## Uân-in lṳ́ bô-lâi—kù-chhṳ́ uá bô-tán,

    may become, lṳ́ bô-lâi—uá bô-tán, you not come — I not wait.

## Uân-in bô-hiēn-chîⁿ—uá khṳ̀-chhia,

    may be, bô-hiēn-chîⁿ—chhia, no cash — buy on credit.

## Uân-in bô-ngṳ̂n—uá chiũ m̄-káⁿ-àiⁿ,

    may be, bô-ngṳ̂n—m̄-ká-àiⁿ, no money — dare not wish for.

## Uân-in hù-m̄-tie̍h chûn—kù-chhṳ́ uá kiâⁿ-lōu lâi,

    may be, hù m̄-tie̍h-chûn—kiâⁿ-lōu, did not hit the boat — walked the road.

## Thiⁿ-sî sui-sĩ lo̍h-hõu—i huân-liáu káⁿ-khṳ̀,

    may be, thiⁿ-sî lo̍h-hõu—huân-káⁿ-khṳ̀, it rains — still he dares to go.

## I soiⁿ pa-lói hó liáu—ãu lo̍h-khṳ̀-chia̍h,

    may be, soiⁿ pa-lói—ãu lo̍h-chia̍h, first get ready — afterwards down eat.