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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milo, Titus Annius

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MILO, TITUS ANNIUS, Roman political agitator, was the son of C. Papius Celsus, but was adopted by his mother’s father, T. Annius Luscus. He joined the Pompeian party, and organized bands of mercenaries and gladiators to support the cause by public violence in opposition to P. Clodius, who gave similar support to the democratic cause. Milo was tribune of the plebs in 57 BC. He took a prominent part in bringing about the recall of Cicero from exile, in spite of the opposition of Clodius. In 53, when Milo was candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the praetorship, the two leaders met by accident on the Appian Way at Bovillae and Clodius was murdered (January 52). Milo was impeached; his guilt was clear, and his enemies took every means of intimidating his supporters and his judges. Cicero was aftaid to speak, and the extant Pro Milone is an expanded form of the unspoken defence. Milo went into exile at Massilia, and his property was sold by auction. He joined M. Caelius Rufus in 48 in his rising against Caesar, but was slain near Thurii in Lucania. His wife was Fausta, daughter of the dictator Sulla.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milo of Gloucester

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​MILO OF GLOUCESTER, lord of Brecknock and earl of Hereford (d. 1143), was the son of Walter of Gloucester, who appears as sheriff of that county between 1104 and 1121. Milo succeeded his father about the latter year. He was high in the service of Henry I. between 1130 and 1135, and combined the office of sheriff with that of local justiciar for Gloucestershire. After the death of Henry I. he declared for Stephen, at Whose court he appears as constable in 1136. But in 1139, when the empress Matilda appeared in England, he declared for her, and placed the city of Gloucester at her disposal; he was further distinguished by sacking the royalist city of Worcester and reducing the county of Hereford. In 1141, at Matilda’s Coronation, he was rewarded with the earldom of ​Hereford. He remained loyal to the empress after her defeat at Winchester. John of Salisbury classes him with Geoffrey de Mandeville and others who were non tam comites regni quam hostes publici. The charge is justified by his public policy; but the materials for appraising his personal character do not exist.
See the Continuation of Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848–1849); the Cartulary of Gloucester Abbey (Rolls series); and J. H. Round’s Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milne-Edwards, Henry

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​MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRY (1800–1885), French zoologist, the son of an Englishman, was born in Bruges on the 23rd of October 1800, but spent most of his life in France. At first he turned his attention to medicine, in which he graduated at Paris in 1823; but his passion for natural history soon prevailed, and he gave himself up to the study of the lower forms of animal life. One of his earliest papers (Recherches anatomiques sur les crustacés), which was presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1829, formed the theme of an elaborate and eulogistic report by G. Cuvier in the following year. It embodied the results of two dredging expeditions undertaken by him and his friend J. V. Audouin during 1826 and 1828 in the neighbourhood of Granville, and was remarkable for clearly distinguishing the marine fauna of that portion of the French coast into four zones. Much of his original work was published in the Annales des sciences naturelles, with the editorship of which he was associated from 1834. Of his books may be mentioned the Histoire naturelle de crustacés (3 vols., 1837–1841), which long remained a standard work; Histoire naturelle des coralliaires, published in 1858–1860, but begun many years before; Leçons sur la physiologie et l’anatomie comparée de l’homme et des animaux (1857–1881), in 14 volumes; and a little work on the elements of zoology, originally published in 1834, but subsequently remodelled, which enjoyed an enormous circulation. He was appointed in 1841 professor of entomology at the muséum d’histoire naturelle, where twenty-one years later he succeeded Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in the chair of zoology. The Royal Society in 1856 awarded him the Copley medal in recognition of his zoological investigations. He died in Paris on the 29th of July 1885. His son, Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835–1900), who became professor of ornithology at the museum in 1876, devoted himself especially to fossil birds and deep-sea exploration.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milner, Joseph

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​MILNER, JOSEPH (1744–1797), English evangelical divine, was born at Leeds and educated at Leeds grammar-school and Cambridge. After taking his degree he went to Thorparch, Yorkshire, as curate and assistant schoolmaster. Subsequently he became head master of Hull grammar-school, and in 1768 he was chosen afternoon lecturer at Holy Trinity church, Hull. He became a strong supporter of the evangelical movement of the period, and greatly contributed to its success in Hull. In addition to his work as head master, he took charge of North Ferriby parish, about 9 m. from Hull. His published works include essays and numerous sermons, but his best known work is the History of the Church of Christ (London, 1794–1809). He lived to complete the first three volumes, and two more were added by his brother, Isaac Milner (1750–1820), dean of Carlisle, who re-edited the whole work in 1810.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milo

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​MILO, or Milon, of Crotona, Greek athlete, lived about the end of the 6th century B.C. He was six times crowned at the Olympic games and six times at the Pythian for wrestling, and was famous throughout the civilized world for his feats of strength—such as carrying an ox on his shoulders through the stadium at Olympia. In his native city he was much honoured, and he commanded the army which defeated the people of Sybaris in 511. The traditional account of his death is often used to point a moral: he found a tree which some woodcutters had partially split with a wedge, and attempted to rend it asunder; but the wedge fell out, and the tree closed on his hand, imprisoning him till wolves came and devoured him. His name became proverbial for personal strength (Diod. Sic. xii. 9; Pausanias vi. 14; Strabo vi. 263; Herodotus iii. 137).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Miloradovich, Michael Andrijevich

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​MILORADOVICH, MICHAEL ANDRIJEVICH, Count (1770–1825), Russian general, saw service under Suvarov in the wars against Turkey and Poland, and in the campaign of Italy and Switzerland (1799) earned much distinction as a commander of advanced troops. In 1805, having attained the rank of lieutenant-general, he served under Kutusov in the campaign of Austerlitz, taking part in the actions of Enns and Krems and in the decisive battle of the 2nd of December, in which his column held the Pratzen heights. In the Turkish War he distinguished himself at Giurgevo (1807). Promoted general of infantry in 1810, he commanded a corps at Borodino, and subsequently inflicted the defeat of Tarutino (or Winkovo) on Murat, king of Naples (October 18, 1812). His corps was one of those most active in the pursuit of Napoleon’s Grande Armée, and in 1813 he led the rear-guard of the Allies after their earlier defeats. At the victory of Kulm he was present in command of a Russian-Prussian corps, which he led at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. From 1818 to the time of his death he was military governor of St Petersburg. He perished in the popular outbreak in the capital, on the 26th (14th o.s.) of December 1825.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Milngavie

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​MILNGAVIE (locally pronounced Millguy), a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3481. It lies 6 m. N.N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. The chief industries include bleach-fields, dye-works, a distillery and a paper mill; but the town is largely a residential quarter for Glasgow business men. Close to the town are two reservoirs, Mugdock (62 acres) and Craigmaddie (88 acres), in which is stored the water from Loch Katrine. Mugdock Castle, 13/4 m. N. of Milngavie, is an old stronghold of the Grahams; in Baldernock parish, about 2 m. E., stands a cromlech, called “the Auld Wives’ Lift” (400 ft. high), commanding a fine view of the lands between the Forth and Clyde. Dougalston Loch, 3/4 m. S.E., contains several rare aquatic plants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Licinius Macer Calvus, Gaius

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​LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82–47 B.C.), Roman poet and orator, was the son of the annalist Licinius Macer. As a poet he is associated with his friend Catullus, whom he followed in style and choice of subjects. As an orator he was the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic school, who took the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked even Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence on questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be correct) the commentarii alluded to by Tacitus (Dialogus, 23; compare also Cicero, Ad Fam. xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches by him are mentioned, amongst which the most famous were those delivered against Publius Vatinius. Calvus was very short of stature, and is alluded to by Catullus (Ode 53) as Salaputium disertum (eloquent Lilliputian).
For Cicero’s opinion see Brutus, 82; Quintilian x. I. 115; Tacitus, Dialogus, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris, 1896) contains a collection of the fragments (verse and prose).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Licodia Eubea

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​LICODIA EUBEA, a town of Sicily in the province of Catania, 4 m. W. of Vizzini, which is 39 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop. (1901) 7033. The name Eubea was given to the place in 1872 owing to a false identification with the Greek city of Euboea, a colony of Leontini, founded probably early in the 6th century B.C. and taken by Gelon. The town occupies the site of an unknown Sicel city, the cemeteries of which have been explored. A few vases of the first period were found, but practically all the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period (700–500 B.C.) and show the gradual process of Hellenization among the Sicels.
See Römische Mitteilungen, 1898, 305 seq.; Notizie degli scavi, 1902, 219. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liddell, Henry George

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​LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811–1898), English scholar and divine, eldest son of the Rev. Henry George Liddell, younger brother of the first Baron Ravensworth, was born at Binchester, near Bishop Auckland, on the 6th of February 1811. He was educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford. Gaining a double first in 1833, Liddell became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed him Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he was appointed to the headmastership of Westminster School. Meanwhile his life work, the great Lexicon (based on the German work of F. Passow), which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first edition appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard Greek-English dictionary and still maintains this rank, although, notwithstanding the great additions made of late to our Greek vocabulary from inscriptions, papyri and other sources, scarcely any enlargement has been made since about 1880. The 8th edition was published in 1897. As headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, then vacant by the death of Gaisford. In the same year he brought out a History of Ancient Rome (much used in an abridged form as the Student’s History of Rome) and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were for many years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford life. Coming just at the transition period when the “old Christ Church,” which Pusey strove so hard to preserve, was inevitably becoming broader and more liberal, it was chiefly due to Liddell that necessary changes were effected with the minimum of friction. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, being the first holder of that title who had matriculated since Henry V. In conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the study of art at Oxford, and his taste and judgment gained him the admiration and friendship of Ruskin. In 1891, owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on the 18th of January 1898. Dean Liddell married in July 1846 Miss Lorina Reeve (d. 1910), by whom he had a numerous family.
See memoir by H. L. Thompson, Henry George Liddell (1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lichtenberg

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​LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The principality was constructed of parts of the electorate of Trier, of Nassau-Saarbrücken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of £12,000 sterling. The area is about 210 sq. m.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Licinianus, Granius

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​LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in the age of the Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a brief epitome of Roman history based upon Livy, which he utilized as a means of displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts of omens, portents, prodigies and other remarkable things apparently took up a considerable portion of the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163–178 B.C. are preserved in a British Museum MS.
Editions.—C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch (1904); see also J. N. Madvig, Kleine philologische Schriften (1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch’s edition (p. iv.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Licinius Calvus Stolo, Gaius

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​LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the chief representative of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune in 377 B.C., consul in 361. His name is associated with the Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws (proposed 377, passed 367), which practically ended the struggle between patricians and plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger share of the public land than his own law allowed.
See Rome: History, II. “The Republic.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Licinius

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​LICINIUS [Flavius Galerius Valerius Licinianus], Roman emperor, A.D. 307–324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on the 11th of November 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established himself master of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice severely defeated—first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8th, 314), and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation, which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine, tempted by the “advanced age and unpopular vices” of his colleague, again declared war against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July 323), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius Crispus, Constantine’s eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18th of September), finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the barbarians.
See Zosimus ii. 7-28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, Caes. 40, 41; Eutropius x. 3; Orosius vii. 28.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lictors

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​LICTORS (lictores), in Roman antiquities, a class of the attendants (apparitores) upon certain Roman and provincial magistrates. As an institution (supposed by some to have been borrowed from Etruria) they went back to the regal period and continued to exist till imperial times. The majority of the city lictors were freedmen; they formed a corporation divided into decuries, from which the lictors of the magistrates in office were drawn; provincial officials had the nomination of their own. In Rome they wore the toga, perhaps girded up; on a campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military cloak (sagulum); at funerals, black. As representatives of magistrates who possessed the imperium, they carried the fasces and axes in front of them (see Fasces). They were exempt from military service; received a fixed salary; theoretically they were nominated for a year, but really for life. They were the constant attendants, both in and out of the house, of the magistrate to whom they were attached. They walked before him in Indian file, cleared a passage for him (summovere) through the crowd, and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to his rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the tribunal; mounted guard before his house, against the wall of which they stood the fasces; summoned offenders before him, seized, bound and scourged them, and (in earlier times) carried out the death sentence. It should be noted that directly a magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was obliged to dispense with his lictors. The king had twelve lictors; each of the consuls (immediately after their institution) twelve, subsequently limited to the monthly officiating consul, although Caesar appears to have restored the original arrangement; the dictator, as representing both consuls, twenty-four; the emperors twelve, until the time of Domitian, who had twenty-four. The Flamen Dialis, each of the Vestals, the magister-vicorum (overseer of the sections into which the city was divided) were also accompanied by lictors. These lictors were probably supplied from the lictores curiatii, thirty in number, whose functions were specially religious, one of them being in attendance on the pontifex maximus. They originally summoned the comitia curiata, and when its meetings became merely a formality, acted as the representatives of that assembly. Lictors were also assigned to private individuals at the celebration of funeral games, and to the aediles at the games provided by them and the theatrical representations under their supervision.
For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gaza, Theodorus

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​GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400–1475), one of the Greek scholars who were the leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During a three years’ residence in Mantua he rapidly acquired a competent knowledge of Latin under the teaching of Vittorino da Feltre, supporting himself meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and by copying manuscripts of the ancient classics. In 1447 he became professor of Greek in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which students in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted by his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence (1439), with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between ​the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years employed by his patron in making Latin translations from Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas (1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the Magnanimous for two years (1456–1458). Shortly afterwards he was appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, where the later years of his life were spent, and where he died about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion of most of his learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the scholars of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although in many respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a long time the leading text-book. His translations into Latin were very numerous, including the Problemata, De partibus animalium and De generatione animalium of Aristotle; the Historia plantarum of Theophrastus; the Problemata of Alexander Aphrodisias; the De instruendis aciebus of Aelian; the De compositione verborum of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; and some of the Homilies of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek Cicero’s De senectute and Somnium Scipionis—with much success, in the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude, according to the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was the author also of two small treatises entitled De mensibus and De origine Turcarum.
See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (1893), and article by C. F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopädie. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), x.