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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Martin Van Buren

See also Martin Van Buren on Wikipedia; Martin Van Buren in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
VAN BUREN, Martin (1782–1862), eighth president of the United States, was the son of a small farmer, and was born 5th December 1782 at Kinderhook, Columbia, New York State, on the banks of the Hudson. He was educated at the village school, and, entering on the study of law at the age of fourteen, was called to the bar in 1803. Possessing in addition to his other abilities a peculiar power of winning personal trust and influence, his rise both in his profession and political reputation was rapid. In 1808 he was chosen surrogate of Columbia county, and in 1812 a member of the State legislature. From 1815 to 1819 he was attorney-general of the State, and during this period came to be recognized as the ruling spirit of the new Democratic school known as the Albany regency. In 1821 he was chosen to the United States senate and the same year was elected a member of the convention for revising the State constitution, in which, though advocating an extension of the franchise, he opposed universal suffrage. In 1828 he was appointed governor of New York State. From March 1829 to April 1831 he was secretary of state in the administration of President Jackson, of whom he was the chief political adviser. During the recess he was appointed minister to England; but, on the ground that he had previously shown a too submissive attitude towards that country, and also a tendency to be influenced in his foreign predilections by home politics, the senate refused to ratify the appointment. In the following year he was, however, chosen vice-president of the United States, and in 1837 he succeeded Jackson as president. He entered upon office at the time of a severe commercial crisis (see United States), and, although the methods he adopted to deal with it were in themselves admirable, the financial strain which existed during his term of office weakened for a time the influence of his party. Besides the establishment of the independent treasury system, Van Buren's name is associated with the pre-emption law giving settlers on public lands the preference in their purchase. On the expiry of his term of office he was again, in 1840, nominated for the presidency, but lost by a large majority. In 1844 a majority of the delegates to the Democratic convention were pledged to support him, but on account of his opposition to the annexation of Texas they allowed a motion to be introduced making a two-thirds vote necessary for nomination. This he failed to obtain and his name was withdrawn. In 1848 he was nominated by the anti-slavery section of his party, but the split caused the defeat of both Democratic candidates. The remainder of his life was spent chiefly in retirement on his estate at Kinderhook. In 1853-55 he went on a European tour. He died at Kinderhook, 24th July 1862. His Inquiry into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States was published by his sons in 1867.
See W. Allen Butler, Martin Van Buren, Lawyer, Statesman, and Man, New York, 1862.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Maurice Quentin de la Tour

See also Maurice Quentin de la Tour on Wikipedia; Maurice Quentin de La Tour in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
See, in addition to the general works on French art, Desmaze, three works, of which the most important is Le Reliquaire de la Tour; Guiffrey and Tourneux, Correspondance Inedite de M. Q de la Tour; Champfleury, De la Tour, and Peintres de Loon et de St Quentin; and Dreolle de Nodon, Eloge Biographique de M. Q. de la Tour.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Maurice Greene

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GREENE, Maurice, an English composer, was born in London towards the close of the 17th century (about 1696, it is generally stated). He was the son of a clergyman in the city of London, and soon became a chorister of St Paul s Cathedral, where lie studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard Brind, organist of the cathedral from 1707 to 1718, whom, on his death in the last-named year, he suceeded. Nine years later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal, on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair of music in the uni versity of Cambridge, and had the degree of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of Forty Select Anthems is a stand ird work of its kind. He also wrote a Te Deum, several oratorios, a masque, The Judgment of Hercules, and a pastoral opera, Phoibn (1748). He is also among the writers of glees and catches, a form of music peculiar to English composers (see GLEE) ; and a collection of Catches and Canons for Three and Four Voices is amongst his com positions. In addition to this lie wrote many occasional pieces for the king s birthday, having been appointed master of the king s band in 1735. But it is as a composer of church music that Greene will be chiefly remembered. It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical scholarship are chiefly shown The influence of Handel is, however, discernible in his compositions. With that great master Greene was originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for Buononcini, Handel s rival, estranged the German master s feelings from him, and all personal intercourse between them ceased. Greene, in conjunction with Testing and others, originated that excellent institution, the Society of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families. He died September 1, 1755.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/John Anderson

See also John Anderson (natural philosopher) on Wikipedia; John Anderson at Wikipedia, John Anderson in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
ANDERSON, John, natural philosopher, was born at Roseneath in Dumbartonshire in 1726. In 1756 he became professor of Oriental languages in the University of Glasgow, where he had finished his education; but in 1760 he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy, a subject more suited to his tastes and acquirements. In this department he laboured assiduously to apply scientific knowledge to the improvement of the mechanical arts, studying industrial processes in the various workshops of the city, and thus qualifying himself to be the scientific instructor of the artizan. He opened a class for the instruction of mechanics in the principles of their arts, in which his familiar extempore discourses were illustrated by appropriate experiments. He is thus to be regarded as the father of those Mechanics Institutions which have since become so common. His anxiety for the improvement of artizans was not confined to his personal exertions. Shortly before his death in 1796, he bequeathed the whole of his property to 81 trustees, for the purpose of founding an institution for educational purposes in Glasgow. He had seemingly intended it as a sort of rival to the university in which he was himself a professor; for his will mentions the founding of four halls or colleges with nine professors in each, for the faculties of arts, medicine, law, and theology. But the trustees found the funds entrusted to them utterly inadequate to so gigantic a scheme; and they contented themselves with founding what is now called, in its official calendar, Anderson's University. This institution was opened in 1797, by the appointment of Dr Thomas Garnett as professor of natural philosophy, who commenced with a popular course of lectures, which was attended by a considerable audience of both sexes. In 1798 a professor of mathematics and geography was appointed; and the institution has since had the aid of many able teachers. In 1799 Dr Garnett was succeeded by Dr Birkbeck, who had the merit of introducing in the institution a system of gratuitous scientific instruction, given annually to 500 operative mechanics. On the removal of Dr Birkbeck to the London Royal Institution, he was succeeded by Dr Andrew Ure in 1804; and Dr Ure by Dr William Gregory. In recent years the institution has received several munificent endowments from private persons, and its staff of teachers has been consequently greatly strengthened. It now possesses a complete medical school, whose certificates are recognised by the various examining bodies both in England and Scotland. In 1872-3 there were 460 medical students, and 2508 persons in all attended the various classes of the institution.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/John Austin

See also John Austin (legal philosopher) on Wikipedia; John Austin on Wikipedia, Austin in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
​AUSTIN, John, one of the ablest English writers on jurisprudence, was born on the 3d March 1790. At an early age he entered the army, and passed five years in military service. He then retired, applied himself to the study of law, and was called to the bar in 1814. His powers, though admirably adapted for grasping the fundamental principles of law, were not of a nature to render him successful in legal practice. His health, too, was delicate, and in 1825 he resigned active employment at the bar. In the following year, however, he was appointed to the chair of jurisprudence in the newly-founded London university. He immediately crossed over to Germany to prepare himself for his new duties, and at Bonn became acquainted with some of the most eminent German jurists. His lectures were at first attended by a number and a class of students quite beyond his anticipations. Among his hearers were such men as Lord Romilly, Sir G. C. Lewis, and J. S. Mill. From Mill s notes some of the lectures were afterwards published, and he has given an admirable account of Austin in his Dissertations (vol. iii.) But it soon became apparent that there would be no steady demand for training in the science of law, which, though useful, was not of immediate utility in practice. Under these circumstances Austin, who was almost too conscientious in regard to his own work, thought it right to resign the chair in 1832. An attempt to institute lectures at the Inner Temple also failed, and, as his health was delicate, he retired to Boulogne, where he remained for nearly two years. In 1837 he acted as royal commissioner in Malta, and discharged the duties of that office most efficiently. The next ten years were spent in travelling on the Continent, as the state of his health hardly permitted him to reside in England. The Revolution of 1848 drove him from Paris, and on his return to England he settled at "Weybridge, in Surrey, where he remained till his death in December 1859. Austin wrote one or two pamphlets, but the chief work he published was his Province of Jurisprudence Determined (1832), a treatise on the relation between ethics and law, which gives a clear analysis of the notion of obligation, and an admirable statement of utilitarianism, the ethical theory adopted by the author. After his death, his widow, Mrs Sarah Austin, published his Lectures on Jurisprudence; or, The Philosophy of Positive Law. These, combined with the Province, have been edited, under the same title, by Mr R. Campbell, and reached in 1875 a fifth edition.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Johanna Jakob Engel

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ENGEL, Johanna Jakob (1741–1802), a German writer, chiefly distinguished as a dramatist, was born at Parchim, in Mecklenburg, on the 11th September 1741. His father was a clergyman, and he himself studied for the church, though he did not enter upon the clerical profession. He studied at Rostock and Bützow, and afterwards at Leipsic, where he took his doctor’s degree in 1769. In the same year he produced his first drama, Der dankbare Sohn, which was received with marked approval. In 1776 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy and belles-lettres in the Joachimsthal gymnasium at Berlin, and a few years later he became tutor to the Prussian crown-prince, afterwards Frederick William III. The lessons which he gave his royal pupil in ethics and politics were published in 1798, with the title Fürstenspiegel, and furnish a favourable specimen of his powers as a popular philosophical writer. In 1787 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in the same year he became director of the royal theatre. In the latter situation he was not successful, owing chiefly to an infirmity of temper, and he resigned it in 1794. For some time he resided at Schwerin, but on the accession of his former pupil Frederick William III. to the throne he was invited to return to Berlin, and received a pension. He died while on a visit to his native place on the 28th June, 1802.
Besides numerous dramas, some of which had a considerable success, Engel was the author of several valuable works on æsthetical subjects. His Anfangsgründe einer Theorie der Dichtungsarten (Leipsic, 1783) was one of the earliest works on the theory of poetry produced in Germany, and showed fine taste and acute critical faculty, if it lacked the loftier qualities of imagination and true poetic insight. The same excellences and the same defects were apparent in his Ideen zu einer Mimik (2 vols. Leipsic, 1785) written in the form of letters. His Philosoph für die Welt (Leipsic, 1788) consists chiefly of dialogues on men and morals, written in an attractive style, and containing much just reflection and criticism. His last work, a romance entitled Lorenz Stark (Leipsic, 1795), though its plot was weak, achieved a great success, in virtue of the purity of its style, the marked individuality of its characters, and the interest of its dialogues. Engel’s Sämmtliche Schriften were published in 12 volumes at Berlin in 1801–6, and a new edition of them appeared at Frankfort in 1857.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/John Alasco

See also Jan Łaski on Wikipedia; Laski in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
ALASCO, John (in Polish, Lascki), a Polish nobleman, born in 1499, who travelled extensively in his youth, and during a residence in Zurich imbibed the doctrines of the Reformation from Zwingli. At Basel in 1525 he had frequent intercourse with Erasmus, who held him in great esteem, and bequeathed his library to him. On his return to his native country he was offered more than once ecclesiastical preferment, which the change in his religious opinions prevented him from accepting. With the view of securing more freedom, he quitted Poland, and after travelling for a time, became pastor of a Protestant congregation at Embden, in East Friesland, in 1542. Foreseeing persecution there, he went to London in 1551, on the invitation of Cranmer, and became superintendent of the congregation of foreign Protestants, most of whom were driven into exile like himself in consequence of the Interim. The revenues of the church of Augustin Friars were assigned to support him and four assistant ministers, who had to be approved by the king. On the accession of Mary in 1553, Alasco and all his congregation were banished. In 1556 he returned to Poland, where he died on the 13th January 1560. Alasco wrote a number of theological treatises, chiefly in defence of the doctrine of the sacraments as held by the Swiss Reformers, and he was one of the eighteen divines who prepared the Polish version of the Bible, which was published in 1563.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thomas, first Baron Denman

See also Thomas Denman, 1st Baron Denman on Wikipedia; Thomas Denman, first Baron Denman, on Wikipedia, Denman in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
See Memoir of Thomas, first Lord Denman, by Sir Joseph Arnould, 2 vols. 1873.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thirsk

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THIRSK, a market-town in the North Riding of Yorkshire, is situated on the North Eastern Railway, and on the Codbeck, a branch of the Swale, 21 miles south of Darlington, 11 north-east of Ripon, and 210 north of London. The Codbeck is crossed by two stone bridges connecting the old and the new town. The church of St Mary, in the Perpendicular style, with parvise, chancel, nave, aisles, porch, and tower 80 feet in height, is the noblest church in the Riding. The chancel was repaired in 1844, and the whole building restored in 1877. The moat of the ancient castle built by the Mowbrays about 980 still remains. The principal modern buildings are the assembly rooms (1849), the mechanics' institute (1852), and the new court-house (1886). Standing in the fertile district of the Vale of Mowbray, the town has an extensive home and foreign agricultural implement trade. Iron-founding, engineering, tanning, and brickmaking are carried on, and there are large flour-mills. The population of the parliamentary borough, now disfranchised (area 11,828 acres), in 1871 was 5734, and in 1881 it was 6312. The population of the township in 1881 was 3337.
Thirsk owes its origin to the castle of the Mowbrays, and here Roger de Mowbray erected his standard, in conjunction with the king of Scotland, against Henry II. Upon the suppression of the revolt the castle was destroyed. In the reign of Henry VII., Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, is said to have been put to death beneath an elm tree which formerly grew on St James's Green. Thirsk was a borough by prescription, but was never incorporated. It first returned members to parliament in the reign of Edward I., but not again till the last parliament of Edward VI. In 1832 the number of representatives was reduced to one, and in 1885 it ceased to be separately represented.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thistle

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# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thistlewood Conspiracy

See also August Tholuck on Wikipedia; Thistlewood Conspiracy in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
THISTLEWOOD CONSPIRACY, or Cato Street Conspiracy, a plot formed in 1820 to murder Lord Castlereagh and other ministers of the British crown, and to seize the Bank and Mansion-House and proclaim a provisional government. Its chief instigator was Arthur Thistlewood, or properly Thistlewaite, born in 1770, the son of a civil engineer in Lincolnshire, who had held a commission in the militia and afterwards in the line in the West Indies. In America and in France he had imbibed revolutionary views, and, having lost his wife's fortune in speculation and on the turf, had planned the desperate scheme probably for his own benefit as well as the good of the nation. The intention was to murder the ministers in the house of the earl of Harrowby in Mansfield Street on the evening of the 23d February. For this purpose between twenty and thirty men assembled in a stable in Cato Street, Edgeware Road, but while they were arming themselves they were pounced upon by the police, and a large number captured, though the majority, including Thistlewood, escaped. A reward of £1000 having been offered for Thistlewood, he was arrested next day at 10 White Street. After a trial Thistlewood and four others were executed on the 1st May, while five were transported. On being asked on the scaffold if he repented, Thistlewood replied, "No, not at all; I shall soon know the last grand secret."
See the Trials of Arthur Thistlewood, James Ings, John Thomas Brunt, Richard Tidd, William Davidson, and others at the Session of the Old Bailey 17–28 April 1820, 2 vols., 1820; and the Gentleman's Magazine for the same year.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thiers

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THIERS, a town of France, chef-lieu of an arrondissement in the department of Puy-de-Dome, on the railway between Clermont and St Etienne, 24 miles east-north east of the former town. It is most picturesquely situated on the side of a hill, at the foot of which the Durolle rapidly descends through a narrow valley into the Dore, in its turn a tributary of the Allier. The streets, rising in steep rows, contain many wooden and gabled houses, some of which are as old as the 15th century, and a fine view of the Plain of Limagne and the Dome Hills is obtainable from the terraces. All the processes of making cutlery maybe seen at Thiers, giving employment to 12,000 work men in the town and the villages within a radius of 6 to 7 miles. Sheath-making, tanning, and paper-making (chiefly stamps and playing cards) employ 8000 hands, and the business done reaches 1,200,000 per annum. The church of Le Moutier, so named from a Benedictine monastery of which it formed part, contains building of the 7th, 8th, and 11th centuries; the tower is more modern. There were 12,005 inhabitants in 1886 (commune 16,754).
Thiers was sacked in 523 by the soldiers of Thierry, the son of Clovis; and Gregory of Tours speaks of a wooden chapel which then existed here (on the site of the present church of Le Moutier). The church of St Genez was built in 573 by Avitus, bishop of Clermont, on the site of the ancient Tigernum Castrum, was rebuilt in 1016 by Wido, lord of Thiers, and again in the 12th century. There is some curious mosaic work of the 12th century, and a fine tomb of the 13th. The commercial importance of Thiers was greatly increased three centuries ago, when the manufacture of the larger kinds of cutlery was introduced from Chateldon, between Vichy and Thiers.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thistle, Order of the

See also Order of the Thistle on Wikipedia; Thistle, Order of the in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
THISTLE, Order of the. See Knighthood, vol. xiv. p. 123.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Thomas

See also Thomas (disambiguation) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Thomas may refer to:
* Thomas, St, apostle;
* Thomas, prince of Savoy;
* Thomas of Celano;
* Thomas of Erceldoune, Scottish legendary poet;
* Thomas of Harkel, Syriac writer;
* Thomas of Marga, Syriac writer;
* Thomas of Stitny, Bohemian writer;
* Thomas, Antoine Léonard, French writer;
* Thomas, George, military adventurer, India;
* Thomas, George H., American general;
* Thomas a Kempis, mediæval writer;
* Thomas Aquinas, scholastic philosopher; or
* Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury;
as well as to many other figures who bear the given name Thomas.
# Executive Order 1593

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Covers certain employees who were no longer exempt after the changes in Executive Order 1592, August 26, 1912.
Signed by President William H. Taft Monday, August 26, 1912
1912 CSR 140
Not exceeding 115 persons appointed as experts and agents without examination under Subdivision IX, section 1 of Schedule A, of the civil-service rules, and who now are engaged upon work similar to that of competitive employees, and who are especially recommended by the Secretary of Agriculture because of their proved capacity for efficient service may be transferred to appropriate competitive positions in the Department of Agriculture.
The White House,
    August 26, 1912.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Executive Order 16

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Signed by President Ulysses Grant Friday, May 29, 1874
The Civil Service Commission, at its sessions at Washington, having recommended certain rules to be prescribed by the President for the government of the Light-House Service of the United States, these rules as herewith published are approved, and their provisions will be enforced by the proper officers.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# Executive Order 1601

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Signed by President William H. Taft Saturday, September 7, 1912
1912 CSR 150
Mr. James B. Brunemer may be appointed a watchman in the Government Printing Office.
The White House,
    September 7, 1912.
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse