OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Möhler, Johann Adam

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​MÖHLER, JOHANN ADAM (1796–1838), German theologian, was born at Igersheim in Württemberg on the 6th of May 1796, and after studying philosophy and theology in the lyceum at Ellwangen, entered the university of Tübingen in 1817. Ordained to the priesthood in 1819, he was appointed to a curacy at Riedlingen, but speedily returned as “repetent” to Tübingen, ​where he became privatdozent in 1822, extraordinary professor of theology in 1826 and ordinary professor in 1828. His lectures drew large audiences, including many Protestants. The controversies excited by his Symbolik (1832) proved so unpleasant that in 1835 he accepted a call to the university of Munich. In 1838 he was appointed to the deanery of Würzburg, but died shortly afterwards (April 12, 1838).
Möhler wrote Die Einheit in der Kirche oder das Prinzip des Katholicismus (Tübingen, 1825); Athanasius der Grosse u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit (2 vols., Mainz, 1827); Symbolik, oder Darstellung der dogmatischen Gegensätze der Katholiken u. Protestanten nach ihren öffentlichen Bekenntnissschriften (Mainz, 1832; 8th ed., 1871-1872; Eng. trans. by J. B. Robertson, 1843); and Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgegensätze zwischen den Katholiken u. Protestanten (1834). His Gesammelte Schriften u. Aufsätze were edited by Döllinger in 1839; his Patrologie by Reithmayr, also in 1839; and a Biographie by B. Wörner was published at Regensburg in 1866. It is with the Symbolik that his name is chiefly associated; the interest excited by it in Protestant circles is shown by the fact that within two years of its appearance it had elicited three replies of considerable importance, those namely of F. C. Baur, P. K. Marheineke and C. J. Nitzsch. But, although characterized by learning and acuteness, as well as by considerable breadth of spiritual sympathy, it cannot be said to have been accepted by Catholics themselves as embodying an accurate objective view of the actual doctrine of their church. The liberal school of thought of which Möhler was a prominent exponent was discouraged in official circles, while Protestants, on the other hand, complain that the author failed to grasp thoroughly the significance of the Reformation as a great movement in the spiritual history of mankind, while needlessly dwelling on the doctrinal shortcomings, inconsistencies and contradictions of its leaders.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Möser, Justus

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​MOSER, JUSTUS (1720–1794), German publicist and statesman, was born at Osnabrück on the 14th of December, 1720. Having studied jurisprudence at the universities of Jena and Göttingen, he settled in his native town as a lawyer. The confidence he inspired among his fellow citizens soon led to his being appointed advocatus patriae (state attorney). On the appointment of the duke of York (son of George III. of England) to the lay Protestant bishopric of Osnabrück, he was attached to the person of the new ruler as legal adviser, and continued in this office of trust for twenty years. From 1762 to 1768 he was justiciarius (chief justice) of the criminal court in Osnabrück; and in 1768 was made Geheimer Referendar (privy councillor of justice). He died at Osnabrück on the 8th of January 1794. Not only as a statesman and administrator, but also as a publicist, Moser occupied a leading position among the men of his time. His history of Osnabrück (1768; 2nd ed. 1780; 3rd ed. 1819) is a masterly work. In his Patriotische Phantasien (1775–1786; and ed. by his daughter, I. W. J. von Voigts, 1804; new ed. by R. Zöllner, 1871) he shows himself in advance of his times, pleading as he does for a national organic development of a state in the place of arbitrary laws imposed by the sovereign. His Vermischte Schriften (published by F. Nicolai with a biography, 1797–1798) also display a deep insight into human nature and sparkle with humour and witty sallies. Moser was also a poet of some repute and wrote a tragedy, Arminius (1749). A statue of him by Drake was unveiled in Osnabrück in 1836.
His collected works, Sämtliche Werke, were published by B. R. Abeken (10 vols., 1842–1844). See J. Kreyssig, Justus Möser (1857); L. Rupprecht, Justus Mösers soziale und volkswirtschaftliche Anschauungen (1892); K. Mollenhauer, Mösers Anteil an der Wiederbelebung des deutschen Geistes (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mühlberg

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​MÜHLBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 8 m. below Riesa. Pop. (1905), 3380. It carries on a considerable trade by water in timber and corn. Mühlberg is famous for the victory gained here, on the 24th of April 1547, by the emperor Charles V. over the elector of Saxony, John Frederick.
See Lenz, Die Schlacht bei Mühlberg (Gotha, 1879); and Bertram, Chronik der Stadt Mühlberg (Torgau, 1864).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parricide

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​PARRICIDE (probably for Lat. patricidia, from pater, father, and cacdere, to slay), strictly the murder of a parent; the term however has been extended to include the murder of any relative or of an ascendant by a descendant. The first Roman law against parricide was that of the Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis (c. 81 B.C.), which enacted that the murderer of a parent should be sewed up in a sack and thrown into the sea, and provided other punishments for the killing of near relatives. The Lex Pompeia de parricidiis (52 B.C.) re-enacted the principal provisions of the Lex Cornelia and defined parricide as the deliberate and wrongful slaying of ascendants, husbands, wives, cousins, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, stepfathers and mothers, fathers and mothers-in-law, patrons and descendants. For the murder of a father, mother, grandfather or grandmother, the Lex Pompeia ordained that the guilty person should be whipped till he bled, sewn up in a sack with a dog, a cock, a viper and an ape, and thrown into the sea. Failing water, he was either to be torn in pieces by wild beasts or burned.
English law has never made any legal distinction between killing a parent or other relative and simple murder, and the Netherlands and Germany follow in the same direction. French law has been exceptionally severe in its treatment of parricide. Before the Revolution, the parricide if a male, had to make a recantation of his crime, and then suffered the loss of his right hand; his body was afterwards burned and the ashes scattered to the winds. If the parricide was a female she was burned or hanged. After the Revolution the penalty became simply one of death, but the compilers of the penal code adjudged this insufficient and reintroduced some of the previous provisions: the parricide was brought to the place of execution clad in a shirt, bare-footed, and the head enveloped in a black veil. While he was exposed on the scaffold, an officer read aloud the decree of condemnation; the culprit then had his right hand cut off, and was immediately afterwards executed. On the revision of the penal code in 1832 the cutting off of the right hand was omitted, but the other details remained. Other continental European countries, following the example of France, treat the crime of parricide with exceptional severity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parquetry

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​PARQUETRY (Fr. parqueterie, from parquet, flooring, originally a small compartment), a term applied to a kind of mosaic of wood used for ornamental flooring. Materials contrasting in colour and grain, such as oak, walnut, cherry, lime, pine, &c. are employed; and in the more expensive kinds the richly coloured tropical woods are also used. The patterns of parquet flooring are entirely geometrical and angular (squares, triangles, lozenges, &c.), curved and irregular forms being avoided on account of the expense and difficulty of fitting. There are two classes of parquetry in use—veneers and solid parquet. The veneers are usually about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and are laid over already existing floors. Solid parquet of an inch or more in thickness consists of single pieces of wood grooved and tongued together, having consequently the pattern alike on both sides.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parr

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​PARR, a name originally applied to the small Salmonoids abundant in British rivers, which were for a long time considered to constitute a distinct species of fish (Salmo salmulus). They possess the broad head, short snout and large eye characteristic of young Salmonoids, and are ornamented on the sides of the body and tail with about eleven or more broad dark cross-bars, the so-called parr-marks. However, John Shaw proved, by experiment, that these fishes represent merely the first stage of growth of the salmon, before it assumes, at an age of one or two years, and when about six inches long, the silvery smolt-dress preparatory to its first migration to the sea. The parr-marks are produced by a deposit of black pigment in the skin, and appear very soon after the exclusion of the fish from the egg; they are still visible for some time below the new coat of scales of the smolt-stage, but have entirely disappeared on the first return of the young salmon from the sea. Although the juvenile condition of the parr is now universally admitted, it is a remarkable fact that many male parr, from 7 to 8 inches long, have their sexual organs fully developed, and that their milt has all the fertilizing properties of the seminal fluid of a full-grown and sexually matured salmon. On the other hand, no female parr has ever been obtained with mature ova. Not only the salmon, but also the other species of Salmo, the grayling, and probably also the Coregoni, pass through a parr-stage of growth. The young of all these fishes are barred, the salmon having generally eleven or more bars, and the parr of the migratory trout from nine to ten, or two or three more than the river-trout. In some of the small races or species of river-trout the parr-marks are retained throughout life, but subject to changes in intensity of colour.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parr, Catherine

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​PARR, CATHERINE (1512–1548), the sixth queen of Henry VIII., was a daughter of Sir Thomas Parr (d. 1517), of Kendal, an official of the royal household. When only a girl she was married to Edward Borough, and after his death in or before 1529 to John Neville, Lord Latimer, who died in 1542 or 1543. Latimer had only been dead a few months when, on the 12th of July 1543, Catherine was married to Henry VIII. at Hampton Court. The new queen, who was regent of England during the king’s absence in 1544, acted in a very kindly fashion towards her stepchildren; but her patience with the king did not prevent ​a charge of heresy from being brought against her. Henry, however, would not permit her arrest, and she became a widow for the third time on his death in January 1547. In the same year she married a former lover, Sir Thomas Seymour, now Lord Seymour of Sudeley. Soon after this event, on the 7th of September 1548, she died at Sudeley castle. Catherine was a pious and charitable woman and a friend of learning; she wrote The Lamentation or Complaint of a Sinner, which was published after her death.
See A. Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, vol. iii. (1877).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paroxysm

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PAROXYSM (Med. Lat. paroxysm, from the Gr. παροξύνειν, to make sharp, ὄξύς), a violent outbreak or display of emotion or feeling. The term is used of a fit of laughter, pain, anger or fear, and particularly an acute stage in a disease is the earliest sense of the word.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parr, Samuel

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​PARR, SAMUEL (1747–1825), English schoolmaster, son of Samuel Parr, surgeon at Harrow-on-the-Hill, was born there on the 26th of January 1747. At Easter 1752 he was sent to Harrow School as a free scholar, and when he left in 1761 he began to help his father in his practice, but the old surgeon realized that his son’s talents lay elsewhere, and Samuel was sent (1765) to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. From February 1767 to the close of 1771 he served under Robert Sumner as head assistant at Harrow, where he had Sheridan among his pupils. When the head master died in September 1771 Parr, after vainly applying for the position, started a school at Stanmore, which he conducted for five years. Then he became head master of Colchester Grammar School (1776–1778) and subsequently of Norwich School (1778–1786). He had taken priest’s orders at Colchester, and in 1780 was presented to the small rectory of Asterby in Lincolnshire, and three years later to the vicarage of Hatton near Warwick. He exchanged this latter benefice for Wadenhoe, Northamptonshire, in 1789, stipulating to be allowed to reside, as assistant curate, in the parsonage of Hatton, where he took a limited number of pupils. Here he spent the rest of his days, enjoying his excellent library, described by H. G. Bohn in Bibliotheca Parriana (1827), and here his friends, Porson and E. H. Barker, passed many months in his company. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by the university of Cambridge in 1781. Parr died at Hatton vicarage on the 6th of March 1825.
Dr Parr’s writings fill several volumes, but they are all beneath the reputation which he acquired through the variety of his knowledge and dogmatism of his conversation. The chief of them are his Characters of Charles James Fox (1809); and his unjustifiable reprint of the Tracts of Warburton and a Warburtonian, not admitted into their works, a scathing exposure of Warburton and Hurd. Even amid the terrors of the French Revolution he adhered to Whiggism, and his correspondence included every man of eminence, either literary or political, who adopted the same creed. In private life his model was Johnson. He succeeded in copying his uncouthness and pompous manner, but had neither his humour nor his real authority. He was famous as a writer of epitaphs and wrote inscriptions for the tombs of Burke, Charles Burney, Johnson, Fox and Gibbon.
There are two memoirs of his life, one by the Rev. William Field (7828), the other, with his works and his letters, by John Johnstone (1828); and E. H. Barker published in 1828–1829 two volumes of Parriana, a confused mass of information on Parr and his friends. An essay on his life is included in De Quincey’s works, vol. v., and a little volume of the Aphorisms, Opinions and Reflections of the late Dr Parr appeared in 1826.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parramatta

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​PARRAMATTA, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, Australia, 14 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 12,568. It is situated on the Parramatta River, an arm of Port Jackson, and was one of the earliest inland settlements (1788), the seat of many of the public establishments connected with the working of the convict system. Many of these still remain in another form (the district hospital, the lunatic asylum, the gaol, two asylums for the infirm and destitute, the Protestant and Catholic orphan schools), involving a government expenditure which partly sustains the business of the town. Parramatta was one of the earliest seats of the tweed manufacture, but its principal industrial dependence has been on the fruit trade. With the exception of Prospect and Pennant Hills, where there is an outburst of trap rock, the surface soil is the disintegration of the Wainamatta shale, which is well suited for orangeries and orchards. The first grain grown in the colony was harvested at Parramatta, then called Rosehill. The earlier governors had their country residence near the town, but the domain is now a public park in the hands of the municipality. An early observatory, where in 1822 were made the observations for the Parramatta Catalogue, numbering 7385 stars, has long been abandoned. Parramatta was incorporated in 1861. It has one of the finest race-courses in Australia, and in the King’s School, founded in 1832, the oldest grammar school in the colony.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parr, Thomas

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​PARR, THOMAS (c. 1483–1635), English centenarian, known as “Old Parr,” is reputed to have been born in 1483, at Winnington, Shropshire, the son of a farmer. In 1500 he is said to have left his home and entered domestic service, and in 1518 to have returned to Winnington to occupy the small holding he then inherited on the death of his father. In 1563, at the age of eighty, he married his first wife, by whom he had a son and a daughter, both of whom died in infancy. At the age of 122, his first wife having died, he married again. His vigour seems to have been unimpaired, and when 130 years old he is said to have threshed corn. In 1635 his fame reached the ears of Thomas Howard, 2nd earl of Arundel, who resolved to exhibit him at court, and had him conveyed to London in a specially constructed litter. Here he was presented to King Charles I., but the change of air and diet soon affected him, and the old man died at Lord Arundel’s house in London, on the 14th of November 1635. He was buried in the south transept of Westminster Abbey where the inscription over his grave reads: “Tho: Parr of ye county of Salopp Born in Ao 1483. He lived in ye reignes of Ten Princes viz. K. Edw. 4, K. Ed. V. K. Rich. 3. K. Hen. 7. K. Hen. 8. K. Edw. 6. Q. Ma. Q. Eliz. K. Ja. and K. Charles, aged 152 yeares and was buried here Nov. 15. 1635.” A post-mortem examination made by the king’s orders by Dr William Harvey, revealed the fact that his internal organs were in an unusually perfect state, and his cartilages unossified.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parrhasius

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​PARRHASIUS, of Ephesus, one of the greatest painters of Greece. He settled in Athens, and may be ranked among the Attic artists. The period of his activity is fixed by the anecdote which Xenophon records of the conversation between him and Socrates on the subject of art; he was therefore distinguished ​as a painter before 399 B.C. Seneca relates a tale that Parrhasius bought one of the Olynthians whom Philip sold into slavery, 346 B.C., and tortured him in order to have a model for his picture of Prometheus; but the story, which is similar to one told of Michelangelo, is chronologically impossible. Another tale recorded of him describes his contest with Zeuxis. The latter painted some grapes so perfectly that birds came to peck at them. He then called on Parrhasius to draw aside the curtain and show his picture, but, finding that his rival’s picture was the curtain itself, he acknowledged himself to be surpassed, for Zeuxis had deceived birds, but Parrhasius had deceived Zeuxis. He was universally placed in the very first rank among painters. His skilful drawing of outlines is especially praised, and many of his drawings on wood and parchment were preserved and highly valued by later painters for purposes of study. He first attained skill in making his figures appear to stand out from the background. His picture of Theseus adorned the Capitol in Rome. His other works, besides the obscene subjects with which he is said to have amused his leisure, are chiefly mythological groups. A picture of the Demos, the personified People of Athens, is famous; according to the story, which is probably based upon epigrams, the twelve prominent characteristics of the people, though apparently quite inconsistent with each other, were distinctly expressed in this figure.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hayward, Sir John

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​HAYWARD, SIR JOHN (c. 1560–1627), English historian, was born at or near Felixstowe, Suffolk, where he was educated, and afterwards proceeded to Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he took the degrees of B.A., M.A. and LL.D. In 1599 he published The First Part of the Life and Raigne of King Henrie IV. dedicated to Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. This was reprinted in 1642. Queen Elizabeth and her advisers disliked the tone of the book and its dedication, and the queen ordered Francis Bacon to search it for “places in it that might be drawn within case of treason.” Bacon reported “for treason surely I find none, but for felony very many,” explaining that many of the sentences were stolen from Tacitus; but nevertheless Hayward was put in prison, where he remained until about 1601. On the accession of James I. in 1603 he courted the new king’s favour by publishing two pamphlets—“An Answer to the first part of a certaine conference concerning succession,” and “A Treatise of Union of England and Scotland.” The former pamphlet, an argument in favour of the divine right of kings, was reprinted in 1683 as “The Right of Succession” by the friends of the duke of York during the struggle over the Exclusion Bill. In 1610 Hayward was appointed one of the historiographers of the college which James founded at Chelsea; in 1613 he published his Lives of the Three Norman Kings of England, written at the request of James’s son, Prince Henry; in 1616 he became a member of the College of Advocates; and in 1619 he was knighted. He died in London on the 27th of June 1627. Among his manuscripts was found The Life and Raigne of King Edward VI., first published in 1630, and Certain Yeres of Queen Elizabeth’s Raigne, the beginning of which was printed in an edition of his Edward VI., published in 1636, but which was first published in a complete form in 1840 for the Camden Society under the editorship of John Bruce, who prefixed an introduction on the life and writings of the author. Hayward was conscientious and diligent in obtaining information, and although his reasoning on questions of morality is often childish, his descriptions are generally graphic and vigorous. Notwithstanding his imprisonment under Elizabeth, his portrait of the qualities of the queen’s mind and person is flattering rather than detractive. He also wrote several works of a devotional character.