OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pamiers

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​PAMIERS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ariège, 40 m. S. by E. of Toulouse on the railway to Foix. Pop. (1906), town, 7728; commune, 10,449. Pamiers is the seat of a bishopric dating from the end of the 13th century. The cathedral (chiefly of the 17th century) with an octagonal Gothic tower, is a bizarre mixture of the Graeco-Roman and Gothic styles; the church of Notre-Dame du Camp (17th and 18th centuries) is noticeable for its crenelated and machicolated façade of the 14th century. Pamiers has a subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and a school of commerce and industry. Iron and steel of excellent quality, chains and carriage-springs are among its products. It has also tanneries and wool, flour, paper and saw mills, brickworks and lime-kilns, and commerce in grain, flour, fodder, fruit and vegetables. There are stone quarries and nursery gardens in the vicinity, and the white wine of the district is well known.
Pamiers was originally a castle built in the beginning of the 12th century by Roger II., count of Foix, on lands belonging to the abbey of St Antonin de Frédelas. The abbots of St Antonin, and afterwards the bishops, shared the authority over the town with the counts. This gave rise to numerous disputes between monks, counts, sovereigns, bishops and the consuls of the town. Pamiers was sacked by Jean de Foix in 1486, again during the religious wars, when the abbey of St Antonin was destroyed, and finally, in 1628, by Henry II. of Bourbon prince of Condé.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paten

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​PATEN (through the Fr. from Lat. patina or patena, Gr. πατάνη, a flat dish), the name of the shallow plate or dish used in the celebration of the Eucharist for the consecrated bread or wafer. The paten has from the first been almost always of a circular shape. There is a rare example of a rectangular one, dating from the 7th century, in the Cabinet des Medailles in Paris. The central portion of the paten is sometimes decorated with the engraved head of the Saviour, or commonly with a group of lobes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Patera

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​PATERA, the Latin name for a shallow circular vessel used for drinking or for pouring libations. The Greek name for such a vessel was φιάλη. It has no foot or stem underneath, but occasionally a boss rising in the centre inside. The term is sometimes given incorrectly in architecture to a circular disk carved with a conventional rose, which is found in many early styles, the proper term being rosette.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paternò

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​PATERNÒ, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 11 m. W.N.W. of Catania by rail, at the southern foot of Mt Etna. Pop. (1881), 15,230; (1901), 20,098 (town), 22,857 (commune). The castle, originally erected in 1073, upon the acropolis of the ancient Hybla Minor or Galeatis, has a square tower and a chapel with frescoes belonging to the 14th century. Some mosaic pavements still exist under the houses in the Strada dell’ Ospedale, and remains of baths and of an ancient bridge over the Simeto on the road to Centuripa are to be seen in the neighbourhood. The place was unsuccessfully besieged by the Athenian forces in the summer of 415 B.C.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paterson, Robert

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​PATERSON, ROBERT (1715–1801), Scottish stone-mason, who suggested to Sir Walter Scott the character of “Old Mortality,” was born near Hawick in 1715. Through the patronage of Sir Thomas Kirkpatrick, whose cook he had married, he obtained the lease of a quarry at Gatelawbrig, but in 1745 his house was plundered by the retreating Jacobites, and Paterson himself, a pronounced Cameronian, was carried off a prisoner. He subsequently devoted his life to cutting and erecting stones for the graves of the Covenanters, for 40 years wandering from place to place in the lowlands. He died in poverty in 1801, and a stone to to his memory was erected by Scott’s publishers in 1869 in Caerlaverock churchyard.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Patents of Precedence

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​PATENTS OF PRECEDENCE. A patent of precedence is a grant to an individual by letters patent (q.v.) of a higher social or professional position than the precedence to which his ordinary rank entitles him. The principal instance in modern times of patents of grants of this description has been the grant of precedence to members of the English bar. In the days when acceptance of the rank of king’s counsel not only precluded a barrister from appearing against the Crown, but, if he was a member of parliament, vacated his seat, a patent of precedence was resorted to as a means of conferring similar marks of honour on distinguished counsel without any such disability attached to it. The patents obtained by Mansfield, Erskine, Scott and Brougham were granted on this ground. After the order of the coif lost its exclusive right of audience in the court of common pleas, it became customary to grant patents of precedence to a number of the serjeants-at-law, giving them rank immediately after counsel of the Crown already created and before those of subsequent creation. Mr Justice Phillimore was, on his appointment as a judge of the queen’s bench division (in 1897) the only holder of a patent of precedence at the bar, except Serjeant Simon, who died in that year, and who was the last of the Serjeants who held such a patent. See also Precedence.
In Canada patents of precedence are granted both by the governor-general and by the lieutenant-governor of the provinces under provincial legislation which has been declared intra vires. (Att. Gen. for Canada v. Att. Gen. for Ontario, 1898, A.C. p. 247; Todd, Parliamentary Govt. in Canada, 2nd ed. p. 333).
See Pulling’s Order of the Coif.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jefferson City

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​JEFFERSON CITY (legally and officially the City of Jefferson), the capital of Missouri, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cole county, on the Missouri river, near the geographical centre of the state, about 125 m. W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 6742; (1900), 9664, of whom 786 were foreign-born and 1822 were negroes; (1910 census), 11,850. It is served by the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. Its site is partly in the bottom-lands of the river and partly on the steep banks at an elevation of about 600 ft. above the sea. A steel bridge spans the river. The state capitol, an imposing structure built on a bluff above the river, was built in 1838–1842 and enlarged in 1887–1888; it was first occupied in 1840 by the legislature, which previously had met (after 1837) in the county court house. Other prominent buildings are the United States court house and post office, the state supreme court house, the county court house, the state penitentiary, the state armoury and the executive mansion. The penitentiary is to a large extent self-supporting; in 1903–1904 the earnings were $3493.80 in excess of the costs, but in 1904–1906 the costs exceeded the earnings by $9044. Employment is furnished for the convicts on the penitentiary premises by incorporated companies. The state law library here is one of the best of the kind in the country, and the city has a public library. In the city is Lincoln Institute, a school for negroes, founded in 1866 by two regiments of negro infantry upon their discharge from the United States army, opened in 1868, taken over by the state in 1879, and having sub-normal, normal, college, industrial and agricultural courses. Coal and limestone are found near the city. In 1905 the total value of the factory product was $3,926,632, an increase of 28.2% since 1900. The original constitution of Missouri prescribed that the capital should be on the Missouri river within 40 m. of the mouth of the Osage, and a commission selected in 1821 the site of Jefferson City, on which a town was laid out in 1822, the name being adopted in honour of Thomas Jefferson. The legislature first met here in 1826; Jefferson City became the county-seat in 1828, and in 1839 was first chartered as a city. The constitutional conventions of 1845 and 1875, and the state convention which issued the call for the National Liberal Republican convention at Cincinnati in 1872, met here, and so for some of its sessions did the state convention of 1861–1863. In June 1861 Jefferson City was occupied by Union forces, and in September–October 1864 it was threatened by Confederate troops under General Sterling Price.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jeffersonville

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​JEFFERSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Clark county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Ohio river, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, with which it is connected by several bridges. Pop. (1890), 10,666; (1900), 10,774, of whom 1818 were of negro descent and 615 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,412. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by three inter-urban electric lines. It is attractively situated on bluffs above the river, which at this point has a descent (known as the falls of the Ohio) of 26 ft. in 2 m. This furnishes good water power for manufacturing purposes both at Jeffersonville and at Louisville. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,526,443, an increase of 20% since 1900. The Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern Indiana penitentiary) and a large supply dépôt of the United States army are at Jeffersonville. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24, 1778) on his expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from Corn Island (now completely washed away) opposite what is now Jeffersonville. In 1786 the United States government established Fort Finney (built by Captain Walter Finney), afterwards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of the present city; but the fort was abandoned in 1791, and the actual beginning of Jeffersonville was in 1802, when a part of the Clark grant (the site of the present city) was transferred by its original owner, Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose direction a town was laid out. Jeffersonville was incorporated as a town in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1839.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jehoiachin

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​JEHOIACHIN (Heb. “Yah[weh] establisheth”), in the Bible, son of Jehoiakim and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 8 sqq.; 2 Chron, xxxvi. 9 seq.). He came to the throne at the age of eighteen in the midst of the Chaldean invasion of Judah, and is said to have reigned three months. He was compelled to surrender to Nebuchadrezzar and was carried off to Babylon (597 B.C.). This was the First Captivity, and from it Ezekiel (one of the exiles) dates his prophecies. Eight thousand people of the better class (including artisans, &c.) were removed, the Temple was partially despoiled (see Jer. xxvii. 18-20; xxiii.v. 3 seq.), and Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah (son of Josiah) was appointed king. Jehoiachin’s fate is outlined in Jer. xxii. 20–30 (cf. xxvii. 20). Nearly forty years later, Nebuchadrezzar II. died (562 B.C.) and Evil-Merodach (Amil-Marduk) his successor released the unfortunate captive and gave him precedence over the other subjugated kings who were kept prisoners in Babylon. With this gleam of hope for the unhappy Judaeans both the book of Kings and the prophecies of Jeremiah conclude (2 Kings xxv. 27-30; Jer. lii. 31-34).
See, further, Jeremiah (especially chaps. xxiv., xxvii. seq.), and Jews, § 17.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jehoshaphat

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​JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. “Yahweh judges”), in the Bible, son of Asa, and king of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During his period close relations subsisted between Israel and Judah; the two royal houses were connected by marriage (see Athaliah; Jehoram, 2), and undertook joint enterprise in war and commerce. Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against Benhadad at Ramoth-Gilead in which Ahab was slain (1 Kings xxii.; 2 Chron. xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii. 25–29), and trading journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction no doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron. xx. 35 sqq.; 1 Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler’s account of his war against Moab, Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron. xx.), must rest ultimately upon a tradition which is presupposed in the earlier source (1 Kings xxii. 47), and the disaster to the ships at Ezion-Geber at the head of the Gulf of Aḳaba preceded, if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, where, again, the details in 2 Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source. Apart from what is said of Jehoshaphat’s legislative measures (2 Chron. xix. 4 sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an account is preserved of his alliance with Jehoram of Israel against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which see Jehoram; Moab. The “valley of Jehoshaphat” (Joel iii. 12) has been identified by tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between Jerusalem and the mount of Olives. (S. A. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jehoiakim

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​JEHOIAKIM (Heb. “Yah[weh] raiseth up”), in the Bible, son of Josiah (q.v.) and king of Judah (2 Kings xxiii. 34-xxiv. 6). On the defeat of Josiah at Megiddo his younger brother Jehoahaz (or Shallum) was chosen by the Judaeans, but the Egyptian conquerer Necho summoned him to his headquarters at Riblah (south of Hamath on the Orontes) and removed him to Egypt, appointing in his stead Eliakim, whose name (“El [God] raiseth up”) was changed to its better-known synonym, Jehoiakim. For a time Jehoiakim remained under the protection of Necho and paid heavy tribute; but with the rise of the new Chaldean Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II., and the overthrow of Egypt at the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.) a vital change occurred. After three years of allegiance the king revolted. Invasions followed by Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites and Ammonites, perhaps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian king; the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into the hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jehoiakim’s reign, apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared at the gates of Jerusalem, and although he himself “slept with his fathers” his young son was destined to see the first captivity of the land of Judah (597 B.C.). (See Jehoiachin.)
Which “three years” (2 Kings xxiv. 1) are intended is disputed; it is uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 B.C. (Berossus in Jos. c. Ap. i. 19) or was left unharmed (Jos. Ant. x. 6. 1); perhaps Nebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah in 602 B.C. because of its intrigue with Egypt (H. Winckler, Keilinschrift. u. d. alte Test., pp. 107 seq.), and the three years of allegiance extends to 599. The chronicler’s tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks of Jehoiakim’s captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The Septuagint, however, still preserves there the record of his peaceful death, in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against the prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30), which is accepted by Jos. Ant. x. 6. 3. The different traditions can scarcely be reconciled. Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent against Jehoiakim; for Syrians (Aram) one would expect Edomites (Edom), but see Jer. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint even include the “Samaritans”! (For further references to this reign see especially Jeremiah; see also Jews: History, § 17.) (S. A. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jehol

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​JEHOL (“hot stream”), or Ch’ēng–tē–fu, a city of China, formerly the seat of the emperor’s summer palace, near 118° E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it is connected by an excellent road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It is a flourishing town, and consists of one great street, about 2 m. long, with smaller streets radiating in all directions. The people are well-to-do and there are some fine shops. The palace, called Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or “mountain lodge for avoiding heat,” was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses several well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries, pavilions, temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney on his celebrated mission to the emperor K’ienlung in 1793; and it was to Jehol that the emperor Hienfēng retired when the allied armies of England and France occupied Peking in 1860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama monasteries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su, built on the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet at Potala.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pierre de Castelnau

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​ PIERRE DE CASTELNAU (d. 1208), French ecclesiastic, was born in the diocese of Montpellier. In 1199 he was archdeacon of Maguelonne, and was appointed by Pope Innocent III. as one of the legates for the suppression of heresy in Languedoc. In 1202, when a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, Narbonne, he was designated to similar work, first in Toulouse, and afterwards at Viviers and Montpellier. In 1207 he was in the Rhone valley and in Provence, where he became involved in the strife between the count of Baux and Raymond, count of Toulouse, by one of whose agents he was assassinated on the 15th of January 1208. He was beatified in the year of his death by Pope Innocent III.
See De la Bouillerie, Le Bienheureux Pierre de Castelnau et les Albigeois au XIII. siècle (Paris, 1866).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pietas

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​Pietas, in Roman mythology, the personification of the sense of duty towards God and man and the fatherland. According to a well known story, a young woman in humble circumstances, whose father (or mother) was lying in prison under sentence of death, without food, managed to gain admittance, and fed her parent with milk from her breast. To commemorate her filial affection a temple was dedicated (181 b.c.) by Manius Acilius Glabrio to Pietas in the Forum Holitorium at Rome, on the spot where the young woman had formerly lived. The temple was probably originally vowed by the elder Glabrio out of gratitude for the pietas shown during the engagement by his son, who may have saved his life, as the elder Africanus that of his father at the battle of Ticinus (Livy xxi. 46), the legend of the young woman (borrowed from the Greek story of Mycon and Pero, Val. Max. v. 4, ext. 1) was then connected with the temple by the identification of its site with that of the prison. There was another temple of Pietas near the Circus Flaminius, which is connected by Amatucci (Rivista di storia antica, 1903) with the story of the pietas of C. Flaminius (Val. Max. v. 4, 5), and regarded by him as the real seat of the cult of the goddess, the Pietas of the sanctuary dedicated by Glabrio being a Greek goddess. Pietas is represented on coins as a matron throwing incense on an altar, her attribute being a stork. Typical examples of “piety” are Aeneas and Antoninus Pius, who founded games called Eusebeia at Puteoli in honour of Hadrian.
See Val. Max. v. 4, 7; Pliny, Nat. hist. vii. 121; Livy xl. 34, Festus, sv.; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902), F. Kuntze, “Die Legende von der guten Tochter,” in Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum (1904), xiii. 280.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pietermaritzburg

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​Pietermaritzburg, the capital of Natal, situated in 29° 46′ S., 30° 13′ E., 45 m. in a direct line (71 by rail) W.N.W. of Durban. It lies, 2200 ft. above the sea, north of the river Umsunduzi, and is surrounded by wooded hills. Of these the Town Hill, flat-topped, rises 1600 ft. above the town. Pop. (1904), 31,119, of whom 15,087 were whites, 10,752 Kaffirs, and 5280 Indians. The town is laid out on the usual Dutch South African plan—in rectangular blocks with a central market square. The public buildings include the legislative council chambers and the legislative assembly buildings, government house, the government offices, college, post office and market buildings. The town-hall, a fine building in a modified Renaissance style (characteristic of the majority of the other public buildings), has a lofty tower. It was completed in 1901, and replaces a building destroyed by fire in 1898. St Saviour’s is the cathedral church of the Anglican community. The headquarters of the Dutch Reformed Church are also in the town. There are monuments of Queen Victoria and Sir Theophilus Shepstone, and various war memorials—one commemorating those who fell in Zululand in 1879, and another those who lost their lives in the Boer War 1899–1902. A large park and botanical gardens add to the attractions of the town. A favourite mode of conveyance is by rickshaw. The climate is healthy and agreeable, the mean annual temperature being 65° F. (55° in June, 71° in February). The rainfall is about 38 in. a year, chiefly in the summer months (Oct.–Mar.), when the heat is tempered by violent thunderstorms.
Pietermaritzburg was founded early in 1839 by the newly arrived Dutch settlers in Natal, and its name commemorates two of their leaders—Piet Retief and Gerrit Maritz. From the time of its establishment it was the seat of the Volksraad of the Natal Boers, and on the submission of the Boers to the British in 1842 Maritzburg (as it is usually called) became the capital of the country. It was given a municipal board in 1848, and in 1854 was incorporated as a borough. Railway connexion with Durban was made in 1880, and in 1895 the line was extended to Johannesburg. The borough covers 44 sq. m. and includes numerous attractive suburbs. The rateable value is about £4,000,000. Various industries are carried on, including brick-making, tanning, brewing, and cart and wagon building.
See J. F. Ingram, The Story of an African City (Maritzburg, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pietersburg

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​Pietersburg, a town of the Transvaal, capital of the Zoutpansberg district, and 177 m. N N E. of Pretoria by rail. Pop. (1904), 3276, of whom 1620 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated, at an elevation of 4200 ft., on a small tributary of the Zand river affluent of the Limpopo, and is the place of most importance in the province north of Pretoria. From it roads run to Klein Letaba and other gold-mining centres in the neighbourhood, and through it passes the old route to Mashonaland, which crosses the Limpopo at Rhodes Drift. The Zoutpansberg district contains a comparatively dense Kaffir population, and a native newspaper is published at Pietersburg.