OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Danby, Robert

​DANBY, Sir ROBERT (d. 1471?), chief justice of the common pleas, was the fifth son of Thomas Danby of Danby, Yorkshire, by his wife Mary, daughter of Sir Robert Tanfield. He adopted the legal profession, and occurs in the year-books as early as 1431; in 1441 he appeared in a case before the privy council, and in 1443 was made serjeant-at-law, being promoted king's serjeant soon afterwards. He seems never to have sat in parliament, but on 28 June 1452 he was raised to the bench of common pleas. Being apparently of Yorkist sympathies (Paston Letters, i. 34), he was on 11 May 1461, immediately after the accession of Edward IV, appointed chief justice of common pleas (Cal. Pat. Rolls, 1461–7, p. 7); he was knighted soon afterwards. When Henry VI regained his throne Danby was, by patent dated 9 Oct. 1470, continued as chief justice (ib. 1467–77, p. 229), but when Edward IV returned in the following year Danby ceased to be chief justice. As he disappears from the list of judges three weeks before the others were removed, the circumstance may be due to his death, and not to his disgrace; possibly the story which Holinshed erroneously relates of Sir William Hankford, of a chief justice who in this year deliberately got himself shot by his gamekeeper, refers to Danby (ib. p. 253; Foss; English Hist. Rev. Jan. 1901, p. 143). The frequency with which Danby's opinion was quoted suggests that he was a judge of considerable weight. He married, first, in 1444, Catherine, daughter of Ralph Fitzrandal, by whom he had no issue, and secondly Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of William Aslaby; by her he had a son, Sir James Danby, who succeeded to Thorp Perrow, Yorkshire, an estate his father had purchased, and died in 1496, and a daughter, Margaret, who married Christopher Barton. His great-grandson, Sir Christopher Danby, was, according to Paget, designed for a ​peerage by Henry VIII, but the intention was never carried out.
[Cal. Patent Rolls, 1461-77, passim; Dugdale's Chronica Series and Origines Juridiciales; Visit. of Yorkshire (Harl. Soc.), pp. 14, 88; Glover's Visit. Yorks, ed. Foster, pp. 262-3; Tonge's Visit. Yorks. (Surtees Soc.), pp. 87-8; Plumpton Corresp. (Camden Soc.); Thoresby's Ducatus Leodiensis, pp. 201-2; Whitaker's Eichmondshire, i. 258, ii. 98; Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner; Ramsay's Lancaster and York; Foss's Lives of the Judges.]
A. F. P.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Davies, Thomas (1837-1891)

​DAVIES, THOMAS (1837–1891), mineralogist, the only son of William Davies [q. v.], was born in the parish of St. Pancras on 29 Dec. 1837. At the age of fourteen he went to sea, and for the next four years was in ships sailing to the East Indies, China, and South America. Then he began to study science, and in 1858 was appointed an assistant to the mineral department of the British Museum, working under Professor Story Maskelyne. Thus he became an excellent mineralogist, acquiring a remarkable knowledge of characters distinctive of localities, as well as doing admirable work in the microscopic investigation of rocks. He resided during the later part of his life at East Acton. Here he died after some months of failing health on 21 Dec. 1891; his wife, Jane Mary Sabey of St. Pancras, whom he married in 1859, four sons, and five daughters surviving him.
He was editor of the 'Mineralogical Magazine,' but, though an indefatigable worker, his published papers were not numerous. Three were printed in the 'Quarterly Journal ' of the Geological Society, others in the 'Geological' and the 'Mineralogical Magazine.' He was elected F.G.S. in 1870, and was awarded the Wollaston fund in 1880.
[Obituary notices in Geological Magazine, 1893, p. 96; Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc. vol. xlix., Proc. p. 54; private information.]
T. G. B.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement/Clarence and Avondale, Duke of

​CLARENCE and AVONDALE, Duke of. [See Albert Victor, 1864–1892.]
# Economic Development in Denmark Before and During the World War/Care of Widows and Orphans

Layout 2
Care of Widows and Orphans
The train of ideas which led to the passage of the old-age pension act was bound to extend to another case, namely, to the care of widows. In Germany the great Imperial Act of 1911, by which all the various insurance acts were consolidated, took widows into consideration, but was chiefly concerned with invalid widows. At the same time an annuity was introduced for the support of legitimate children whose fathers were dead, independently of the invalidity of the father.
In Denmark the lines already laid down were closely followed, and an arrangement was thus elaborated which was simple and yet much more comprehensive. The act of April 29, 1913, gives indigent widows the right to a government allowance for the support and education of their legitimate children, the maximum of which is fixed at 100 kroner ($27) annually for children under two years, 80 kroner ($21 ) from two to twelve years, 60 kroner ($16) from twelve to fourteen years (with exceptional prolongation to the eighteenth year), with a deduction applicable to widows in such circumstances that they do not require the whole sum. One-half of the expense is borne by the state and the other half by the municipality. By an act of March 4, 1918, the rates were increased 50 per cent. This system is much less burdensome upon the public than that of the old-age pensions. There are in all about 8,000 widows with about 20,000 children, and the expense in 1917−1918 was 1,300,000 kroner. Thus the new measure entered easily into the old system.
But there next arose a closely allied question. During the last generation there has been a remarkable change of feeling in regard to the position of illegitimate children. The old attitude made it difficult for them to get on in the world, for instance, in obtaining apprenticeship to an artisan. ​In the course of time, however, the matter came to be considered from a much more humane point of view, and in 1908 the legislature came to the aid of unmarried mothers by passing an act entitling them to get the alimony which the father owes, paid in advance by the public. But if illegitimate children are thus helped, there is much to be said in the support of the argument that legitimate children should not be put in a less favourable position. The Widow's Act becomes in reality an act of justice to the woman who has married.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Evaporation

Edition of 1802.
​EVAPORATION, is the conversion of fluids, chiefly of water, into vapour which is specifically lighter than the atmosphere.
There is no subject that has occasioned a greater variety of opinions than the theory of evaporation; but, consistently with our plan, we shall recite only a few established facts.
Evaporation is one of the great chemical processes by means of which Nature supplies the whole vegetable kingdom with the dew and rain necessary for its support. Hence, it takes place at all times, not only from the surface of the ocean, but also from that of the earth. Nor is it confined to these: it is even carried on from the leaves of trees, grass, &c. with which the earth is covered. Great part of the water which is thus raised, descends again during the night, in the form of dew, being absorbed by those vegetables which yielded it before.
One of the most beneficial effects of evaporation is, to cool the earth, and prevent it from being too much heated by the sun. This property of producing cold, by evaporation, has but lately been observed by chemists, who have accordingly availed themselves of it in its fullest extent; though their mode of procuring cold, by means of those expensive fluids, ether and spirit of wine, can only be employed by way of experiment. The most simple method, however, of producing cold by the evaporation of water, may be applied to various useful purposes, especially in warm countries: thus sailors are accustomed to cool their casks of liquors, by sprinkling them with sea-water.—See also Ice.
Dr. Darwin justly observes, that the evaporation of moisture from the surface of the earth, produces so much cold as to injure those terrestrial plants which are too long covered with it. Hence such parts of wall-trees as are sheltered from the descending dews, by a coping stone on the wall, are not so liable to be injured by frosty nights; because they are not made colder by the evaporation of the dew, and also have less water to be congealed in their vessels, and to burst them by its consequent expansion.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Evergreens

Edition of 1802.
​EVERGREENS, in gardening, are those perennial plants which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. throughout the year, such as bays, hollies, pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
In the evergreen shrubs and trees of this climate, such as heath, rue, box, laurel, &c. the leaf does not die in the autumn, but continues to supply nourishment to the bud in its bosom during the fine days of winter, and in the spring, and survives till near Midsummer, or till the new bud has expanded a leaf of its own. Hence Dr. Darwin supposes, that these evergreens lay up in summer no store of nutriment in their roots, or alburnum, for the sustenance of their ensuing vernal buds; and thus leave probably no bleeding season, like deciduous trees.
Mr. Milne, in his Botanical Dictionary, under the article Defoliatio, observes, that "an evergreen tree, grafted on a deciduous one, determines the latter to retain its leaves. This observation is confirmed by repeated experiments, particularly by grafting the laurel (Laurocerasus) an evergreen, on the common cherry (Cerasus); or the Hex, an ever-green oak, on the common oak."—All these, adds Dr. Darwin, want farther experiments, to authenticate the facts so delivered on the authority of ingenious men.
Evergreens are not only very great ornaments to a garden, at all seasons, but they also contribute to the purity of the air, when planted at a proper distance from dwelling-houses. Although their verdure, especially that of the pine and fir-trees, when scattered in rooms, exhales a narcotic and intoxicating effluvium, not unlike that of hops, yet the boughs of all evergreens may be usefully employed, particularly in winter, for correcting the stagnant air in a room: with this intention the branches are plunged with their root-ends into vessels filled with fresh water, and exposed to the rays of the sun; but not suffered to remain in the apartment during the night, or in the shade.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Ewe

Edition of 1802.
​Ewe. See Sheep.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Evacuation

Edition of 1802.
​EVACUATION, in animal economy, is the act of diminishing, attenuating, or discharging the humours.
The due evacuations of the body, and its proper nourishment, are equally necessary; and it is an object of the utmost importance, that nothing remain in the constitution ​which should be discharged; and that whatever is conducive to its preservation, may not be uselessly wasted. If the evacuations be disordered, the most rigid adherence to dietetic rules will not contribute to the continuance, or restoration of health; these rules, however, may often be dispensed with, provided the evacuations be regular.
It is not only the noxious, or corrupt matter, which is removed by this process, but also the useful fluids, if they abound, such as the milk, blood, &c. to which subjects we refer, and likewise to the articles Ear, Nose, Urine, &c.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Evening

Edition of 1802.
​EVENING, is that part of the night which commences with sunset, and properly terminates when the prudent and industrious repair to their couch—long before midnight.
In countries surrounded by the ocean, the evenings are generally damp and chilly, so that the temperature of the air is many degrees colder than in the preceding day. Hence the necessity of adopting a warmer dress than usually worn, if we are obliged to expose ourselves to the evening-air: invalids and convalescents ought not to leave their apartments after ​sunset, even though the sky be ever so serene, and the weather uncommonly mild.
Nor is it proper for the healthy to pursue those occupations in the evening, which are attended with proportionally greater fatigue of mind or body: such pursuits ought to bo followed in the morning, and the easiest purposely deferred to the latter part of the day; an arrangement by which a more composed and refreshing night's rest will be ensured. Beside this inconvenience, the eyes necessarily suffer from candle-light.—See also Bed-time.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Everlasting

Edition of 1802.
​Everlasting. See Cudweed.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Excess

Edition of 1802.
​Excess. See Drunkenness.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Essence

Edition of 1802.
​ESSENCE, or Essential Oil, as it is variously termed, in medicine, denotes the purest, most subtle, and balsamic part of a body, extracted by distillation.
There are a variety of essences drawn from flowers, fruits, &c. which are used on account of their agreeable flavour by apothecaries, perfumers, and others: the principal of these are the essence of rosemary, of turpentine, of anise, of cloves, of cinnamon, and of lemons.
The essences sold by perfumers, chiefly consist of the oil of bitter-almonds, to which they impart the odour of jassamine, roses, cinnamon, and other flowers and spices. When essential oils have been distilled, they should be suffered to subside for some days, in vessels loosely covered with paper, till they have lost their disagreeable, ardent odour, and have become limpid; they should be put into small bottles, which ought to be completely filled, closely stopped, and kept in a cool place: by observing these precautions, they will retain their virtue for several years. But, if essential oils be carelessly managed, they gradually lose their flavour, and become thick: in this case, they should be put into a still, with fresh ingredients for distilling the same oil; by which means they will saturate themselves with the odoriferous particles, and regain their former strength and purity.
Essential oils, medicinally considered, agree in the general qualities of pungency and heat: with respect to their particular virtues, vary as much as the vegetables from which they are extracted. Thus, the carminative properties of aromatic seeds, the diuretic effects of juniper-berries, the stomachic virtues of mint, and the antiscorbutic powers of scurvy-grass, are in a great measure concentrated in their oils.
These oils are never given in a pure state, on account of their extreme pungency, which in some is so great, that if a single drop be deposited on the tongue, it will occasion a gangrenous eschar, or scab. They are readily imbibed by pure, dry sugar, being the most convenient form in which they can be administered. The more mild and grateful oils are frequently used as ​ingredients with other medicines, to render them less nauseous. The more pungent ones are externally employed in paralytic complaints, numbness, colds, aches, and in other cases, where particular parts require to be heated or stimulated.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Euphorbium

Edition of 1802.
​EUPHORBIUM, a gummy-resinous substance, which exudes from a tree of the same name, growing in Africa; whence it is imported in drops of an irregular form. These are externally of a pale yellowish colour; but, when broken, appear to be white internally. If applied to the tongue, they affect it with a very pungent taste; and, if held for some time in the mouth, they become exceedingly acrimonious, inflaming and exulcerating the jaws to a violent degree. Hence this substance is unfit for internal use, though it is sometimes employed as a sternutatory.—See Hellebore.
Externally, this gum is the principal ingredient in various resolvent plasters, and has been found serviceable in cleansing foul ulcers, and also in exfoliating carious or rotten bones. At present, it is employed chiefly by farriers, for curing the farcin, or the scab in horses. Formerly, the tincture of euphofbium, mixed with the oil of myrrh, was much used for discussing scrophulous tumors, as well as for effacing spots and smoothening inequalities of the skin, proceeding from the small-pox.
# Domestic Encyclopædia (1802)/Ether

Edition of 1802.
​ETHER, or dulcified spirit of vitriol, is a very subtle penetrating fluid, prepared by distilling equal proportions of rectified spirit of wine, and vitriolic acid.
This spirit is the lightest, most volatile, and most inflammable yet known; it floats on the surface of the most highly rectified spirit of wine, as oil floats on water: and, if it be dropped on a warm hand, it exhales immediately, diffusing a penetrating fragrance, and leaving no trace of any moisture.
Ether is often successfully employed in medicine. It sometimes affords immediate relief in violent head-achs, by being externally applied to the painful part; and suppresses the tooth-ach, when laid on the affected jaw. It has also been given internally, with considerable success, in hooping-coughs; in hysterical cases; in asthmas; and, indeed, in almost every spasmodic affection, from a few drops, to the quantity of half an ounce, taken in a glass of cold water, which should be expeditiously swallowed, to prevent the exhalation of this volatile liquor.
There is another preparation of a similar nature, but more powerful in its effects, called naphtha aceti, or acetous ether, which is seldom kept in the shops of this country. Its flavour is more pleasant than that of the former, being prepared by mixing 6 ounces of concentrated vitriolic acid with 10 ounces of rectified spirit of wine, and pouring this mixture gradually on 16 ounces of regenerated tartar, in a glass retort; and then drawing off about ten ounces, over a very moderate fire. This affords an excellent, but expensive, remedy in all the cases where the vitriolic ether is generally used.
# Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)/Judge

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Judge (Heb. shophet, pl. shophetim), properly a magistrate or ruler, rather than one who judges in the sense of trying a cause. This is the name given to those rulers who presided over the affairs of the Israelites during the interval between the death of Joshua and the accession of Saul (Judg. 2:18), a period of general anarchy and confusion. "The office of judges or regents was held during life, but it was not hereditary, neither could they appoint their successors. Their authority was limited by the law alone, and in doubtful cases they were directed to consult the divine King through the priest by Urim and Thummim (Num. 27:21). Their authority extended only over those tribes by whom they had been elected or acknowledged. There was no income attached to their office, and they bore no external marks of dignity. The only cases of direct divine appointment are those of Gideon and Samson, and the latter stood in the peculiar position of having been from before his birth ordained `to begin to deliver Israel.' Deborah was called to deliver Israel, but was already a judge. Samuel was called by the Lord to be a prophet but not a judge, which ensued from the high gifts the people recognized as dwelling in him; and as to Eli, the office of judge seems to have devolved naturally or rather ex officio upon him." Of five of the judges, Tola (Judg. 10:1), Jair (3), Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon (12:8-15), we have no record at all beyond the bare fact that they were judges. Sacred history is not the history of individuals but of the kingdom of God in its onward progress.
In Ex. 2:14 Moses is so styled. This fact may indicate that while for revenue purposes the "taskmasters" were over the people, they were yet, just as at a later time when under the Romans, governed by their own rulers.
# Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)/Jubilee

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Jubilee A joyful shout or clangour of trumpets, the name of the great semi-centennial festival of the Hebrews. It lasted for a year. During this year the land was to be fallow, and the Israelites were only permitted to gather the spontaneous produce of the fields (Lev. 25:11, 12). All landed property during that year reverted to its original owner (13-34; 27:16-24), and all who were slaves were set free (25:39-54), and all debts were remitted.
The return of the jubilee year was proclaimed by a blast of trumpets which sounded throughout the land. There is no record in Scripture of the actual observance of this festival, but there are numerous allusions (Isa. 5:7, 8, 9, 10; 61:1, 2; Ezek. 7:12, 13; Neh. 5:1-19; 2 Chr. 36:21) which place it beyond a doubt that it was observed.
The advantages of this institution were manifold. "1. It would prevent the accumulation of land on the part of a few to the detriment of the community at large. 2. It would render it impossible for any one to be born to absolute poverty, since every one had his hereditary land. 3. It would preclude those inequalities which are produced by extremes of riches and poverty, and which make one man domineer over another. 4. It would utterly do away with slavery. 5. It would afford a fresh opportunity to those who were reduced by adverse circumstances to begin again their career of industry in the patrimony which they had temporarily forfeited. 6. It would periodically rectify the disorders which crept into the state in the course of time, preclude the division of the people into nobles and plebeians, and preserve the theocracy inviolate."
# Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)/Judah

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Judah Praise, the fourth son of Jacob by Leah. The name originated in Leah's words of praise to the Lord on account of his birth: "Now will I praise Heb. odeh Jehovah, and she called his name Yehudah" Ge 29:35
It was Judah that interposed in behalf of Joseph, so that his life was spared Ge 37:26,27 He took a lead in the affairs of the family, and "prevailed above his brethren" Ge 43:3-10 44:14,16-34 46:28 1Ch 5:2
Soon after the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelites, Judah went to reside at Adullam, where he married a woman of Canaan. See ONAN See TAMAR After the death of his wife Shuah, he returned to his father's house, and there exercised much influence over the patriarch, taking a principal part in the events which led to the whole family at length going down into Egypt. We hear nothing more of him till he received his father's blessing Ge 49:8-12