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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Novara

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​NOVARA, a town and episcopal see, of Piedmont, Italy, capital of the province of Novara, 31 m. by rail W. of Milan, 538 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 37,962 (town), 48,694 (commune). Railways diverge hence to Varallo Sesia, Orta, Arona (for Domodossola), Busto Arsizio, Milan, Vigevano and Vercelli. Previous to 1839 Novara was still surrounded by its old Spanish ramparts, but it is now an open, modern-looking town. Part of the old citadel is used as a prison. The cathedral dates from the 4th century (?), but (with the exception of the octagonal dome-roofed baptistery belonging to the first part of the 10th century, and separated from the west end by an atrium) was rebuilt between 1860 and 1870 after designs by Antonelli; the church of S Gaudenzio, dedicated to Bishop Gaudentius (d. 417), who is buried under the high altar, rebuilt by Pellegrino Tibaldi about 1570, has a baroque campanile and a dome 396 ft. high, the latter added by Antonelli in 1875–1878; and San Pietro del Rosario is the church in which the papal anathema was pronounced against the followers of Fra Dolcino. The two first contain pictures by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The city also contains handsome market-buildings erected in 1817–1842, a large hospital dating from the 9th century and a courthouse constructed in 1346. The town has also a museum of Roman antiquities. The principal industry is the carding and spinning of silk; there are also iron-works and foundries, cotton mills, rice-husking mills, organ factories, dye-works and printing works.
Novara, the ancient Novaria, according to Pliny a place of Celtic origin, according to Cato (but wrongly) of Ligurian origin, was a municipal city, and lay on the road between Vercellae and Mediolanum. Its rectangular plan may well be a survival of Roman days. Dismantled in 386 by Maximus for siding with his rival Valentinian, it was restored by Theodosius; but it was afterwards ravaged by Radagaisus (405) and Attila (452). A dukedom of Novara was constituted by the Lombards, a countship by Charlemagne. In 1110 the city was taken and burned by the emperor Henry V. Before the close of the 12th century it accepted the protection of Milan, and thus passed into the hands, first, of the Visconti, and, secondly, of the Sforzas. In 1706 the city, which had long before been ceded by Maria Visconti to Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, was occupied by the Savoy troops. At the peace of Utrecht it passed to the house of Austria with the duchy of Milan; but, having been occupied by Charles Emmanuel in 1734, it was granted to him in the following year. Under the French it was the chief town of the department of Agogna. Restored to Savoy in 1814, it was in 1821 the scene of the defeat of the Piedmontese by the Austrians, and in 1849 of the more disastrous battle which led to the abdication of ​Charles Albert and an Austrian occupation of the city. The painter Gaudenzio Ferrari was a native of Novara; and so was Peter Lombard. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Novaliches, Manuel Pavia y Lacy

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​NOVALICHES, MANUEL PAVIA Y LACY, 1st Marquis de (1814–1896), Spanish marshal, was born at Granada on the 6th of July 1814. He was the son of Colonel Pavia, and after a few years at the Jesuit school of Valencia he entered the Royal Artillery Academy at Segovia. In 1833 he became a lieutenant in the guards of Queen Isabella II., and during the Carlist War from 1833 to 1840 he became general of division in the latter year at the early age of twenty-six. The Moderate party made him war minister in 1847, and sent him to Catalonia, where his efforts to put down a Carlist rising were not attended with success. He had been made a senator in 1845, and marquis in 1848. He was sent out to Manila in 1852 as captain-general of the Philippine Islands. In April 1854 he crushed with much sternness a formidable insurrection and carried out many useful reforms. On his return to Spain he married the countess of Santa Isabel, and commanded the reserves in the Peninsula during the war with Morocco. He refused the war portfolio twice offered him by Marshals O'Donnell and Narvaez and undertook to form a cabinet of Moderates in 1864 that lived but a few days. He volunteered to crush the insurrection in Madrid on the 22nd of June 1866, and when the revolution broke out in September 1868 accepted the command of Queen Isabella’s troops. He was defeated by Marshal Serrano at the bridge of Alcolea on the 28th of September 1868, and was so badly Wounded in the face that he was disfigured for life He kept apart during the revolution and went to meet King Alfonso when he landed at Valencia in January 1875. The Restoration made the marquis de Novaliches a senator, and the new king gave him the Golden Fleece. He died in Madrid on the 22nd of October 1896.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Novation

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​NOVATION, a legal term derived from the Roman law, in which novatio was of three kinds—substitution of a new debtor (expromissio, or delegatio), of a new creditor (cessio nominum vel actionum), or of a new contract. In English law the term (though it occurs as early as Bracton) is scarcely naturalized, the substitution of a new debtor or creditor being generally called an assignment, and of a new contract a merger. It is doubtful, however, whether merger applies except where the substituted contract is one of a higher nature, as where a contract under seal supersedes a simple contract. Where one contract is replaced by another, it is of course necessary that the new contract should be a valid contract, founded upon sufficient consideration (see Contract). The extinction of the previous contract is sufficient consideration. The question whether there is a novation most frequently arises in the course of dealing between a customer and a new partnership, and on the assignment of the business of a life assurance company with reference to the assent of the policyholders to the transfer of their policies. The points on which novation turns are whether the new firm or company has assumed the liability of the old, and whether, the creditor has consented to accept the liability of the new debtors and discharge the old. The question is one of fact in each case. See especially the Life Assurance Companies Act 1872, s. 7, where the word “novations” occurs in the marginal note to the section, and so has quasi-statutory sanction. Scots law seems to be more stringent than English law in the application of the doctrine of novation, and to need stronger evidence of the creditor's consent to the transfer of liability. In American law, as in English, the term is something of a novelty, except in Louisiana, where much of the civil law is retained.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Novatianus

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​NOVATIANUS, Roman presbyter, and one of the earliest antipopes, founder of the sect of the Novatiani or Novatians, was born about the beginning of the 3rd century. On the authority of Philostorgius (H.E. viii. 15) he has been called a native of Phrygia, but perhaps the historian merely intended to indicate the persistence of Novatianism in Phrygia at the time when he wrote. Little is known of his life, and that only from his opponents. His conversion is said to have taken place after an intense mental struggle; he was baptized by sprinkling, and without episcopal confirmation, when in hourly expectation of death; and on his recovery his Christianity retained all the gloomy character of its earliest stages. He was ordained at Rome by Fabian, or perhaps by an earlier bishop; and during the Decian persecution he maintained the view which excluded from ecclesiastical communion all those (lapsi) who after baptism had sacrificed to idols—a view which had frequently found expression, and had caused the schism of Hippolytus. Bishop Fabian suffered martyrdom in January 250, and, when Cornelius was elected his successor in March or April 251, Novatian objected on account of his known laxity on the above-mentioned point of discipline, and allowed himself to be consecrated bishop by the minority who shared his views. He and his followers were excommunicated by the synod held at Rome in October of the same year. He is said by Socrates (H.E. iv. 28) to have suffered martyrdom under Valerian. After his death the Novatians spread rapidly over the empire; they called themselves καθαροί, or Puritans, and rebaptized their converts from the Catholic view. The eighth canon of the council of Nice provides in a liberal spirit for the readmission of the clergy of the καθαροί to the Catholic Church, and the sect finally disappeared some two centuries after its origin. Novatian has sometimes been confounded with his contemporary Novatus, a Carthaginian presbyter, who held similar views.
Novatian was the first Roman Christian who wrote to any considerable extent in Latin. Of his numerous writings three are extant: (1) a letter written in the name of the Roman clergy to Cyprian in 250; (2) a treatise in thirty-one chapters, De trinitate; (3) at letter written at the request of the Roman laity, De cibis judaicis. They are well-arranged compositions, written in an elegant and vigorous style. The best editions are by Welchman (Oxford, 1724) and by Jackson (London. 1728); they are translated in vol. ii. of Cyprian’s works in the Ante-Nicene Theol. Libr. (Edinburgh, 1869). The Novatian controversy can be advantageously studied in the Epistles of Cyprian.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheepshanks, John

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​SHEEPSHANKS, JOHN (1787–1863), British manufacturer and art collector, was born in Leeds, and became a partner in his father's business as a cloth manufacturer. His brother Richard.(1794–1855) was a distinguished astronomer and man of science, whose collection of instruments eventually passed to the Royal Astronomical Society. John Sheepshanks collected pictures, mainly by British artists, and in 1857 presented his magnificent collection to the nation. He retired from business in 1833 and died a bachelor in 1863.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shedd, William Greenough Thayer

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​SHEDD, WILLIAM GREENOUGH THAYER (1820-1894), American, Presbyterian, was born in Acton, Massachusetts, on the 21st of June 1820. In 1839 he graduated at the University of Vermont, and in 1843 at Andover Theological Seminary. After a short pastorate at Brandon, Vermont, he was successively professor of English literature in the University of Vermont (1845-1852), professor of sacred rhetoric in Auburn Theological Seminary (1852-1854), professor of church history in Andover Theological Seminary (1854-1862), and, after one year (1862-1863) as associate pastor of the Brick Church of New York City, of sacred literature (1863-1374) and of systematic theology (1874-1890) in Union Theological Seminary. He died in New York City on the 17th of November 1894.
Dr Shedd was a high Calvinist and was one of the greatest systematic theologians of the American Presbyterian church. His great work was Dogmatic Theology (3 vols., 1888-1894). He also wrote Lectures on the Philosophy of History (1856), in which he applied to history the doctrine of organic evolution; Discourses and Essays (1856); A Manual of Church History (2 vols., 1857), a translation of Guericke; A History of Christian Doctrine (2 vols., 1863); Theological Essays (1877); Literary Essays (1878); Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1879); The Doctrine of Endless Punishment (1885); and he edited Coleridge's Complete Works (7 vols., New York, 1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shee, Sir Martin Archer

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​SHEE, SIR MARTIN ARCHER (1770-1850), English portrait-painter and president of the Royal Academy, was born in Dublin on the 23rd of December 1770. He was sprung from an old Irish family, and his father, a merchant, regarded the profession of a painter as no fit occupation for a descendant of the Shees. Young Shee became, nevertheless, a student of art in the Dublin Society, and came early to London, where he was, in 1788, introduced by Burke to Reynolds, by whose advice he studied in the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1789 he exhibited his first two pictures, the Head of an Old Man and Portrait of a Gentleman. During the next ten years he steadily increased in practice. He was chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1798, shortly after Flaxman, and in 1800 he was made a Royal Academician. In the former year he had married, removed to Romney's house in Cavendish Square, and set up as his successor. Shee continued to paint with great readiness of hand and fertility of invention, although his portraits were eclipsed by more than one of his contemporaries, and especially by Lawrence, Hoppner, Phillips, Jackson and Raeburn. The earlier portraits of the artist are carefully finished, easy in action, with good drawing and excellent discrimination of character. They show an undue tendency to redness in the flesh painting—a defect which is still more apparent in his later works, in which the handling is less “square,” crisp and forcible. In addition to his portraits he executed various subjects and historical works, such as Lavinia, Belisarius, his diploma picture Prospero and Miranda, and the daughter of Jephthah. In 1805 he published a poem consisting of Rhymes on Art, and it was succeeded by a second part in 1809. Byron spoke well of it in his English Bards and Scotch Reviewers, and invoked a place for "Shee and genius" in the temple of fame. Shee published another small volume of verses in 1814, entitled The Commemoration of Sir Joshua Reynolds, and other Poems, but this effort did not greatly increase his fame. He now produced a tragedy called Alasco, of which the scene was laid in Poland. The play was accepted at Covent Garden, but Colman, the licenser, refused it his sanction, on the plea of its containing certain treasonable allusions, and Shee, in great wrath, resolved to make his appeal to the public. This violent threat he carried out in 1824, but Alasco is still on the list of unacted dramas. On the death of Lawrence in 1830, Shee was chosen president of the Royal Academy, and shortly afterwards he received the honour of knighthood. In the dispute regarding the use of rooms to be provided by the government, and in his examination before the parliamentary committee of 1836, he ably defended the rights of the Academy. He continued to paint till 1845, and died on the 13th of August 1850.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shed

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​SHED, (1) A small hut, shelter or outhouse, especially one with a “shed roof” or “lean-to,” a roof with only one set of rafters, falling from a higher to a lower wall, like an aisle roof. “Shed” is also the term applied to a large roofed shelter open at the sides for the storage of goods, rolling-stock, locomotives, &c., on a railway or dock-wharf. According to Skeat, the word is a Kentish form of “shade,” “shadow,” in O. Eng. scæd, sceadu, cf. Ger. Schatten; the ultimate origin is the root ska-, to cover, seen in Gr. σκιά, shadow, σκηνή, tent, shelter, stage, whence Eng. “scene”; the Eng. “sky” comes from a closely allied root sku, also to cover, cf. Lat. obscurus. (2) To spill, to scatter, to cast off; originally the word seems to have meant to part, to divide, a use only surviving in “watershed.” The O. Eng. verb was sceádan, in Mid. Eng. shæden, to divide, separate. “Shed” in the sense of to spill has, however, by some etymologists been taken to be a separate word from that meaning to part; it would in that case appear to be connected with O. Fris. schedda, to shake, the root of which is found in “shudder.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheboygan

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​SHEBOYGAN, a city and the county seat of Sheboygan county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Sheboygan river, about 52 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1910 census) 26,398. The population is largely of German descent, and two German newspapers are published; many Greeks settled here after 1895. Sheboygan is served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, by interurban electric lines and by a steam-boat line (the Goodrich Transportation Co.). The city N. of the river and the southern half of the part S. of the river are built on a plateau 20–40 ft. above the lake level. Along the river is the factory district. The principal public buildings are a fine Federal building in which are housed the post office and the office of the internal revenue; a Carnegie library, the Sheboygan County Court House, an opera house, St Nicholas Hospital and a county insane asylum. Included in the public school system is a school for deaf children, partly supported by the state. The city has a good harbour and is an important distributing point for coal and salt. A rich agricultural region, devoted largely to dairying, extends to the N., S. and W., and large quantities of cheese are exported. Among the city's other manufactures are furniture, particularly chairs (for which the city is noted), toys, machinery, bee hives, gloves, knit goods, brick, carriages, wagons, excelsior, tanned leather, shoes, enamel ware, canned vegetables (especially peas), beer, flour, pianos and plumbing supplies. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $10,086,648, 38.1% representing furniture; and 56.7% of the whole number of factory wage-earners were employed in the furniture factories. A trading post at the mouth of the Sheboygan river was established about 1820 and was maintained for about fourteen years; in 1834 a saw-mill was built at the first rapids of the river, about 2 m. from its mouth, and during the next three years many settlers came and a great city was platted on paper. Sheboygan was incorporated as a village in 1846, and was first chartered as a city in 1853. Several miles from Sheboygan Falls (pop. in 1905, 1411), a village about 5 m. W. of Sheboygan and S.W. of Plymouth (pop. in 1905, 2764), the Spring Farms Association, a Fourierite community of ten families, farmed successfully thirty acres of land from 1845 until 1848, when lack of interest in the experiment brought about a dissolution by mutual agreement.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sheepshead

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​SHEEPSHEAD, the name of one of the largest species of the genus Sargus, marine fishes known on the coasts of S. Europe as “sargo” or “saragu.” These fishes possess two kinds of teeth:—one, broad and flat, like incisors, occupying in a single series the front of the jaws; the other, semi globular and molar-like, arranged in several series on the sides of the jaws. The genus belongs to the Acanthopterygian family Sparidae which includes the Sea-breams. The sheepshead, Sargus ovis, occurs in abundance on the Atlantic coasts of the United States, from Cape Cod to Florida, and is one of the most valued food-fishes of
Sheepshead.
North America. It is said to attain to a length of 30 in. and a weight of 15 ℔. Its food consists of shellfish, which it detaches with its incisors from the base to which they are fixed, crushing them with its powerful molars. It may be distinguished from other allied species by seven or eight dark cross-bands traversing the body, by a recumbent spine in front of the dorsal tin, by twelve spines and as many rays of the dorsal and ten rays of the anal fin, and by forty-six scales along the lateral line. The term “sheepshead” is also given in some parts of North America to a freshwater Sciaenoid, Corvina ascula, which is much less esteemed for the table.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shrewsbury, Earls of

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​SHREWSBURY, EARLS OF. The earldom of Shrewsbury, one of the most ancient in the English peerage, dates from the time of William the Conqueror. Roger de Montgomery (c. 1030–1094), son of another Roger de Montgomery, known as “the Great,” was a councillor of William, duke of Normandy, before his invasion of England, and was probably entrusted by William with the government of Normandy during the expedition of 1066. Roger came to England in the following year and received extensive grants of land in different parts of the kingdom. Obtaining thus a large territory in Sussex, including the city of Chichester and the castle of Arundel, he became earl of Arundel, or probably and more correctly earl of Sussex. In 1071 the greater part of the county of Shropshire was granted to him, carrying with it the title of earl of Shropshire, though, from his principal residence at the castle of Shrewsbury, he like his successors was generally styled earl of Shrewsbury. He probably exercised palatine authority. He was the founder of Shrewsbury Abbey in 1083. His first wife was Mabel, daughter of the seigneur of Belesme and Alençon; hence his son Robert, who, after the death of another son, Hugh, succeeded to the earldoms of Shrewsbury and Arundel, was generally known as Robert de Belesme (q.v.), one of the most celebrated of the feudal nobles in the time of Henry I. Robert having been deprived of all his English estates and honours in 1102, the earldom of Shrewsbury was next conferred in 1442 on John, 5th baron Talbot, whose descendants have borne the title to the present day. (See Talbot; and Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of, below.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shrine

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​SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. écrin, Ital. scrigno), the term given to the repository or chest to hold sacred relics. Sometimes shrines are merely small boxes, generally with raised tops like roofs; sometimes actual models of churches; sometimes large constructions like that at St Albans, that of Edward the Confessor at Westminster, of Ste Geneviève at Paris, &c. Many are covered with jewels in the richest way, such as the example at St Taurin, at Evreux in Normandy, and that of San Carlo Borromeo, at Milan, of beaten silver; the largest series are those which were enriched with enamels. Sometimes the term is given to the chapel in which the shrine is deposited.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shrub

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​SHRUB. (1) A bushy plant whose stem is woody and branches out thickly from the ground, not attaining sufficient height to be called a tree; this smallness of vertical growth is natural or is effected by cutting and lopping at an early stage or at stated seasons. The term is loose in application and the line between shrubs, trees and certain woody herbaceous plants is not easy to draw. The holly, the yew, the laurel, if allowed to grow from a single stem, become trees, other plants such as rhododendron, syringa, the eponymous are properly shrubs. The word is the same as “scrub,” low, stunted undergrowth, in O. Eng. scrob; the root, which is also seen in “shrimp” and “shrivel,” means to contract. Many English place-names contain the word, the most familiar being Shrewsbury (Scrobbesbyrig) and Wormwood Scrubs. (2) The name of a drink or cordial, now rarely found except in country districts. It is made of currant juice boiled with water and sugar to which some spirit, usually rum, is added. Another form of the drink is made of rum, orange and lemon juice, peel, sugar and water. The word is an adaptation of the Arabic sharb or sharab, beverage, drink, shariba, he drank, and is thus directly related to “sherbet” and “syrup” (q.v.).