OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Clingman's Dome

Edition of 1905. See also Clingmans Dome on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CLINGMAN'S DOME. One of the two highest peaks of the Smoky Mountains, situated in Tennessee, just across the border from North Carolina (Map: North Carolina, A 4). It is 6619 feet above the sea-level. It was named after Thomas L. Clingman.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coal-Gas

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ COAL-GAS. See Gas, Illuminating.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Clinedinst, Benjamin West

Edition of 1905. See also Benjamin West Clinedinst on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ CLINEDINST, Benjamin West (1860—). An American illustrator, born at Woodstock, Va. He studied at the Virginia Military Institute (Lexington), and became known as an artist for periodicals and books. In oils and water-colors he has executed several portraits and genre pictures. He was awarded the Evans Prize of the American Water-Color Society in 1900.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coal-Measures

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ COAL-MEASURES. See Coal; Carboniferous System.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coimbra

Edition of 1905. See also Coimbra on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIMBRA, kō̇-ēm′brȧ. A city of Portugal, capital of a district of the same name, in Beira, picturesquely situated, partly on a steep rock and partly in a plain, amid vineyards and orange orchards, on the right bank of the river Mondego, 110 miles north-northeast of Lisbon (Map: Portugal, A 2). The upper town is badly built, its streets being steep, narrow, and dirty. Of the public buildings, the most noteworthy are the cathedral, the churches of São Francisco and São Salvador, and the convents of Santa Cruz and Santa Clara. There is here a fine aqueduct of twenty-one arches, which dates from the sixteenth century. The famous University of Coimbra (q.v.) is the only university in Portugal. Coimbra has manufactures of linen, woolen, earthenware, and combs. Population, in 1890, 17,329. Coimbra was the Conimbrica of the Romans. In 1064 it was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand I., and for two hundred and fifty years (1129-1383) was the capital of Portugal. It was the scene of prolonged fighting between Masséna and Wellington in the campaigns of 1810 and 1811.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coir

Edition of 1905. See also Coir on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIR (Tamil kayiru, cord), or Cocoanut Fibre. The fibre of the husk of the cocoanut palm. Coir is a corruption of a word meaning rope. Its manufacture has become an important industry, both in England and America. The fibre of the husk is divided into two classes—the ordinary fibre converted directly into mats, and the so-called brush fibre, which lies just under the skin. The latter is packed under great pressure, and then shipped to the manufacturer. It is spun by special machinery, and produces a perfectly cabled yarn, which is woven into doormats or ordinary yard-matting. In 1901 the coir imported into the United States amounted to 3,901,384 pounds, valued at $141,830. The refuse from coir is used for stuffing mattresses, and also in horticulture as a protection against insects for vines and young trees.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coif

Edition of 1905. See also Coif on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIF (from OF. coife, Fr. coiffe, It. cuffia, from ML. cofia, coif, from OHG. chuppa, cap under the helmet, from chuph, Ger. Kopf; connected with AS. cuppe, Engl. cup). (1) A covering for the head in general, but more especially for the circular portion on the crown, which certain of the Roman Catholic clergy in monastic orders are in the habit of shaving. (See Tonsure.) A special signification refers to the distinguishing mark of sergeants-at-law, which, though nothing but an insignificant black patch on top of the legal wig, is now the only reminiscence of the tonsure among English lawyers. On attaining the degrees of the coif, or becoming a sergeant, a barrister retires from the Inn of Court by which he was called to the bar and becomes a member of Sergeants' Inn.
(2) In the armor of the Middle Ages, a defensive hood, usually surmounted by a helmet, sometimes continuous with the hauberk, and sometimes separate.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coimbra, University of

Edition of 1905. See also University of Coimbra on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIMBRA, University of. The State University of Portugal, and the only university in that kingdom. With some 1600 students in theology, law, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy, its library, hospitals, observatory, museums, and laboratories, it is an institution of great national importance. Its history is long and checkered. Founded in 1290 by the poet-king, Diniz, at Lisbon, a supplementary charter was issued in 1308, transferring it, because of dissensions between town and gown, to Coimbra, the first of a long series of migrations which make it unique among universities. From 1308 to 1380 it vibrated between Coimbra and Lisbon, in the latter year being settled at Lisbon. In 1537 it migrated again to Coimbra, where it has since remained. It was at the beginning of this last period that it reckoned Camoëns (see Camões) among its members. Alone among Continental universities to-day, it preserves the mediæval academic dress; and in this, as in its architecture, traditions, and customs, it finds its only rivals in picturesque interest in Oxford and Cambridge. Consult Braga, Historia da Universidade de Coimbra (Lisbon, 1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coire

Edition of 1905. See also Coire on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIRE, kwär. See Chur.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coimbatore

Edition of 1905. See also Coimbatore on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIMBATORE, kō̇-ĭm′bȧ-tōr′, or KOIMBATUR, kō̇-ĭm′bȧ-to͞or′ (Telugu, also Koiampadi, Koibmutur, Koiamuturn) . A city in Madras, British India, capital of the district of the same name, situated near the left bank of the Noyel, a tributary of the Kavery, in latitude 11° N., longitude 77° 1′ E. (Map: India, C 6). It lies 304 miles southwest of Madras, with which it is connected by rail. It occupies the south declivity of the Nilgiri, 1483 feet above the sea, and has a cool and healthful climate. The adjacent low-lying plains, however, are malarious and dangerous to health. The suburban Pagoda of Perur is an important archæological structure. Population, in 1891, 46,400; in 1901, 53,000.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coit, James Milnor

Edition of 1905. See also James Milnor Coit on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COIT, James Milnor (1845—). An American teacher, born at Harrisburg, Pa. He received his education at Hobart College, was connected for some time with the Cleveland Tube Works, and has for many years taught natural science at Saint Paul's School, Concord, N. H. He is a member of several learned and patriotic societies, and his publications include the following interesting works: A Manual of Chemical Arithmetic (1886); Treatise on the X-Rays and Their Relation to Medical and Surgical Sciences (1897); and Liquid Air (1899).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Coiter, Volcher

Edition of 1905. See also Volcher Coiter on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​COI′TER, Volcher (1534-90). A Dutch anatomist, born at Groningen. He studied in France and in Italy, where he heard the lectures of Fallopius at Pisa, was city physician of Nuremberg, and later was attached as surgeon to the army of Johann Kasimir, Count Palatine of the Rhine. He is considered one of the founders of the science of pathological anatomy. Numerous anatomical discoveries are credited to him, including that of the superior muscles of the nose. His studies in osteology and myology are partially set forth in the volumes Tabulæ Externarum et Internarum Humani Corporis Partium (1573) and Lectiones Gabrielis Fallopii (1575), which are also interesting as revealing one of the earliest attempts at an examination of the internal structure of birds. Indeed, his table, De Differentiis Avium, included in the latter, is among the first ornithological classifications.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Cohosh

Edition of 1905. See also Actaea racemosa on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CO′HOSH. The American Indian name of black snakeroot (Cimicifuga racemosa). It occurs in the United States from Maine to Wisconsin and south to Florida. The rhizomes, which are employed in medicine, contain resin, wax, tannin, and a crystalline principle. Alterative, sedative, and emmenagogue properties are attributed to it. See Plate with article Sanguinaria.
# The New Dressmaker/Chapter 33

CHAPTER 33
THE CARE OF THE CLOTHES
Wash Clothes—Woolen Clothes—Brushing—Use of Hangers—Bag Covers—Winter Clothes—White Clothes
CARE OF THE CLOTHES. All clothes should be taken care of as systematically as possible, as their period of usefulness depends entirely on the way they are treated.
LINGERIE AND WASHABLE WAISTS AND DRESSES should be mended before they go to the laundry. A small hole will become a large one in washing, and not only is the work of mending doubled, but the injury to the garment is frequently irreparable.
WOOLEN CLOTHES. Dresses, suits, coats, skirts, etc., should be brushed regularly and watched closely for such small matters as loose buttons, frayed skirt edges, missing hooks and eyes, and soiled collars or necks.
HANGERS. Dresses and waists should be kept on hangers. Coats should never be left lying carelessly over chairs, and should never be hung up by the collar or armhole. They should be kept on hangers when they are not in use so that their necks and shoulders will not lose their shape.
BAG COVERS. Dresses and waists if made of light, perishable materials should be slipped into great bags of silkoline to keep them from the dust. The bag should be as long as the waist or dress. If one has plenty of closet room, it is much better to keep one's evening dresses hanging up in bags than to lay them in chests or drawers where they can not fail to become badly wrinkled.
SKIRTS should not be kept on wooden hangers, as they are likely to become stretched at the hips. Small strips of tape should be sewed inside the waistband of each skirt—one on each side, and an equal distance apart. The skirt should be hung by these hangers on two hooks placed just far enough apart to keep the belt taut.
WINTER CLOTHES should be brushed and cleaned and then put away during the Summer months with plenty of gum camphor, moth-balls or some other safe moth preventive.
SUMMER CLOTHES should be put away clean and packed as carefully as possible, so that they will not need pressing when they are wanted again. Sheets of blue tissue-paper can be put between the folds of white dresses to prevent them from turning yellow.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forester, Frank

Edition of 1906. See also the disclaimer.
FOR'ESTER, Frank. A nom-de-plume of Henry William Herbert (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Foreshortening

Edition of 1906. See also Perspective on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FORESHORTENING. That view of a figure or portion of a figure which, obeying the laws of perspective, diminishes in actual extent according to the angle at which it is seen. For example, a figure looked at from below becomes condensed, as it were, in length, and in portraying such an abrupt view there would be less space demanded than if the figure stood upright on the same level as the observer. In the same sense an arm extended and pointing directly out of the picture would require less actual space on the canvas than an arm laterally extended. The representation, then, of this effect of reduced space suggesting at the same time the actual length of the object, is termed foreshortening. It is practiced more or less by all painters as occasion demands, and it is always called for in the painted ceiling where figures are represented as above one's head. Some of the chief masters of foreshortening among the Italians were Melozzo da Forli, Luca Signevelli, Michelangelo, Tintoretto, and, especially, Correggio, who, in his frescoes of
the cupola of Parma went further than had any before him. His example was followed by painters of the Baroque and Rococo period, who introduced foreshortening into their works merely for the purpose of parading their technical skill. In modern times greater care prevails, and foreshortening is practiced only with reference to the laws of perspective.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forest Preservation

Edition of 1906. See also the disclaimer.
FOREST PRESERVATION. See Forestry; Lumber Industry.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forest Fly

Edition of 1906. See also Hippobosca equina on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOREST FLY. The British name of a small, widely distributed fly (Hippobosca equina), representing that aberrant division of Diptera styled Eproboscidea (see Fly) and the family Hippoboscidæ. These minute insects are flea-like in appearance and habits, dwelling altogether as parasites among the hairs of animals and feathers of birds, and are sometimes called ‘bird-ticks.’ A common species on large birds in America is Olfersia Americana. Species of another genus, Lipoptera, have wings when young and live upon birds, but after a time they migrate to some mammal, and there, having no further use for their wings, wrench or bite them off. Another genus, Melophagus, includes the wingless sheep-ticks; a whole family, the spider-like bat-ticks (Nycteribiidæ), inhabit the fur of bats alone; and another includes the bee-louse (Braulidæ). All obtain their living by piercing the skin and sucking the blood with an extensile tube thrust
out from the mouth. It is in this manner that the forest fly torments horses, especially the short-haired, thin-skinned animals of high breeding. An extraordinary feature in the economy of all these flies is that they do not lay their eggs, but retain them until they hatch into larvæ, and the larvæ are almost ready to pupate; not until then are they extruded by the parent, and only one is produced at a time. Hence the group has been named Pupipara by some systemists.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forest Oak

Edition of 1906. See also Allocasuarina torulosa on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOREST OAK. A name sometimes given in commerce to the timber of Casuarina torulosa, and other species of the same genus, all Australian trees. In Queensland the wood is considered as one of the most valuable for fuel, and is also split into shingles. It is light yellowish-brown and prettily marked with short red veins. It is exported for use in cabinet-work, for which purpose it is employed as veneer.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forestalling

Edition of 1906. See also Engrossing (law) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FORESTALLING. The buying of provisions with a view to enhancing the price thereof in open market. This was a common-law offense, and was the subject of early and repeated legislation. It was described by statute of 5 and 6 Edw. VI., ch. 14, as the buying or contracting for any merchandise or victual coming in the way to market; or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or provisions there; or persuading them to enhance the price when there. It was analogous to engrossing (q.v.) and regrating (q.v.). Modern conditions of trade have rendered these practices legitimate and the laws intended to regulate them obsolete; while at the same time the abuses referred to have, under the name of ‘corners’ and monopolies, become more flagrant and oppressive. The laws against forestalling, etc., were formally repealed in England by statute 7 and 8 Vict., ch. 24. In the United States they have remained unenforced. Consult the authorities referred to under Criminal Law.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forest City, The

Edition of 1906. See also The Forest City on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOREST CITY, The. A name given to Cleveland, Ohio, famous for its shade-trees.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Forest Cantons, The Four

Edition of 1906. See also Waldstätte on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FOREST CANTONS, The Four. The four cantons of Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Lucerne, in Switzerland.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Nearchus

See also Nearchus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEARCHUS, nē̇-är′kŭs ( Lat., from Gk. Νέαρχος, Nearchos) . The commander of the fleet of Alexander the Great in his Indian expedition (B.C. 327-326). He was the son of Androtimus, and was born in Crete, but settled in Amphipolis in Macedonia, near the Thracian boundary. He was high in favor with Philip, but was banished on account of his adherence to Alexander. When, however, Alexander succeeded to the throne of Macedon, Nearchus was recalled, and when the conquest of the Persian Empire was begun, he was appointed Governor of Lycia and other districts in the south of Asia Minor. In B.C. 329 he accompanied Alexander to Bactria, with a body of Greek mercenaries. When his patron ordered a fleet to be built on the Hydaspes, Nearchus received the command of it. He sailed down the Indus, and then to the Persian Gulf, and arrived at Susa, in Persia, February 24, 324, shortly after Alexander himself, who had marched overland. After the death of Alexander Nearchus accepted the decision of the other generals with regard to the position of the kingdom, and retained his own provinces under Antigonus, whom he accompanied against Eumenes. In 314 Antigonus appointed him a councilor of his son, Demetrius. Fragments of his narrative of his voyage have been preserved in the Indica of Arrian. Consult McCrindle, Invasion of India by Alexander the Great (Westminster, 1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Nearctic Region

See also Nearctic ecozone on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEARCTIC REGION (from Gk. νέος, neos, new + ἀρκτικός, arktikos, arctic, northern). A region in zoögeography including the entire continent of North America, except the hot coast-lands of Mexico. It is a part of Arctogæa, or the Holarctic Region, in the view of those who regard the Northern Hemisphere as a unit in zoögeography; but in the scheme of Sclater and Wallace it is one of the six primary regions, coördinate with the Palearctic Province. (See Distribution of Animals, Zoögeographical Map.) Of further interest here are the subdivisions or local faunal areas that have been distinguished. ​The earliest attempt at this set apart three regions—an ‘Eastern,’ from the Atlantic to the plains; a ‘Central,’ including the dry interior plains; and a ‘Western,’ the Pacific Slope. As early as 1854 Louis Agassiz stated that the eastern half of the continent contained three faunas: a northern, which he called ‘Canadian;’ a middle (Great Lakes to the latitude of Kentucky), which he called ‘Alleghanian;’ and a southern or ‘Louisianian.’ Later writers, especially Allen, dealing mainly with birds, made eight zones in succession from north to south—Arctic, Hudsonian, Canadian, Alleghanian, Carolinian, Louisianian, Floridian, and Antillean. Ornithologists still use this classification east of the Mississippi River. Subsequently Merriam announced the opinion that there was no reason for recognizing a ‘Central Province,’ and that too much stress had been laid upon the dissimilarities between Eastern and Western animals. He asserted the view that only two primary subdivisions of the Nearctic Region should be made—a ‘Boreal’ province and a ‘Sonoran’ province. The former stretches from New England and the Great Lakes northwest across Canada to Alaska, and sends down long arms along the heights of the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains, and along the Pacific Coast, whose fauna is a mingled one. Everything south of this is ‘Sonoran,’ embracing nearly all the United States, a great area of the plains of Northwestern Canada, and all of Mexico except the low tropical coast-lands. These generalizations, however, have not been universally accepted, most critics objecting that too high rank has been accorded to the ‘Sonoran’ region, whose boundaries are regarded as too indefinite to entitle it to be differentiated and outlined as Merriam proposed in his “Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region,” in North American Fauna, No. 3 (Washington, 1890). The question of the subdivision of the Nearctic Region therefore remains open.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Nebenius, Karl Friedrich

See also Karl Friedrich Nebenius on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEBENIUS, nā̇-bā′nē̇-ụs, Karl Friedrich (1785-1857). A German statesman and economist, born at Rhodt, near Landau. In 1819 he took a prominent part in working out the Baden Constitution, and for many years was the principal statesman of the Grand Duchy. In 1833 he was made Privy Councilor of State, and soon afterwards became Minister of the Interior and president of the Cabinet Council. Owing, however, to reactionary influences, he did not keep this position very long. In 1845 he again joined the Cabinet, but the Revolution of 1849 compelled him to resign, and thereafter he devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits. He published, among many treatises on political economy: Bemerkungen über den Zustand Grossbritannicus in staatswirtschaftlicher Hinsicht (1818); Ueber technische Lehranstalten (1833); and wrote a Geschichte der Pfalz, which appeared posthumously (1874).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Neapolis (Naples)

See also the disclaimer.
​ NEAP′OLIS. The ancient name of Naples (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Neapolis (Macedonia)

See also Neapolis (Thrace) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEAP′OLIS (Lat., from Gk. Νεάπολις, ‘new town’). An ancient town, the seaport of Philippi in Macedonia. The modern town of Kavalla (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 4), with about 5000 inhabitants, is on or near its site. Paul landed here when he sailed from Troas to begin his missionary labors in Europe (Acts xvi. 9-11). The town lay on a bay, which afforded excellent anchorage, nearly opposite the island of Thasos, and was distant about nine miles from Philippi.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Neath

See also Neath on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEATH, nēth. A municipal borough and river port in Glamorganshire, South Wales, on the Neath, seven miles northeast of Swansea (Map: England, C 5). It has extensive copper and iron works. Copper, spelter, iron, tin-plates, and fine bricks are extensively exported; stone is quarried, and coal and culm are produced. The town, built on the site of the Roman station Nidum, contains the remains of an ancient castle, burned in 1231. The town received its first charter from Edward II. It owns its gas, water, slaughter-houses, markets, tramways, library, cemetery, the Victoria Gardens pleasure ground, a fair-field, and real estate worth $1,000,000. Population, in 1891, 11,157; in 1901, 13,700.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Neanderthal Man

See also Neanderthal on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ NEANDERTHAL (nā̇-än′der-täl) MAN. The name applied to a dolichocephalic early Quaternary type in Western Europe, based on the upper portion of a human skull found 60 feet beneath the surface by quarrymen in a ravine called Neanderthal, near the village of Hochdal, between Düsseldorf and Elberfeld, in Rhenish Prussia. Anthropologists have varied greatly in their judgment of this relic. The preponderance of opinion is toward the view that the Neanderthal skull represents the oldest known dolichocephalic folk of Europe. Crania of the Neanderthal type were subsequently found at Brux (Bohemia), Podbaba (near Prague, Bohemia), Eguisheim (near Kolmar, Alsace), Denise (near Le Puy, Haute-Loire), Marcilly (Eure, France), Bréchamps (Eure-et-Loir), Tilbury (England, near London), Bury-Saint-Edmunds (Suffolk, England), and Victoria Cave Galley Hill, Hamilton (England). This type, in addition to its low cranial index (70-75.3), was characterized by a low forehead, prominent brow ridges, and low stature (about 1.59 meters, or 62.5 inches).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Neap-Tides

See also the disclaimer.
​ NEAP-TIDES. See Tides.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Near-Sightedness

See also the disclaimer.
​ NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS. See Sight, Defects of.