OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manes

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​MANES, in Roman mythology, the disembodied and immortal spirits of the dead. The word is an old adjective—manis, manus, meaning “good,” the opposite of which is immanis; hence the Manes, clearly a euphemistic term, are the “good people.” They were looked upon as gods; hence the dedication, of great antiquity and frequent occurrence, Divis or Dis Manibus in sepulchral inscriptions, used even in Christian times. When a body was consumed on the funeral pyre, relations and friends invoked the deceased as a divinity, and the law of the Twelve Tables prescribed that the rights of the divine Manes should be respected, and that each man should regard the dead members of his family as gods. Their home was in the bowels of the earth, from which they only emerged at certain times. It was an old Italian custom—especially at the foundation of cities—to dig a pit in the form of an inverted sky (hence called mundus), the lower part of which was supposed to be sacred to the gods of the underworld, including the Manes. Such a pit existed on the Palatine at Rome. It was covered by a stone called lapis manalis, representing the entrance to the lower world, which was removed three times in the year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov. 8). The Manes were then believed to issue forth, and these days were regarded as religiosi—that is, all important business in public and private life was suspended. Offerings were made to propitiate the dead: libations of water, wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood of sacrificial victims—black sheep, pigs and oxen (suovetaurilia)—was poured upon the graves; ointment and incense were offered, lamps were lighted, and the grave was adorned with garlands of flowers, especially roses and violets. Beans, eggs, lentils, salt, bread and wine, placed on the grave, formed the chief part of a meal partaken of by the mourners. There was also a public state festival in honour of the dead, called Parentalia, held from the 13th to the 21st of February, the last month of the old Roman year, the last day of the festival being called Feralia. During its continuance all the temples were shut, marriages were forbidden, and the magistrates had to appear without the insignia of their office.
There was considerable analogy between the Manes and the received idea of “souls”—and there was a corresponding idea that they could be conjured up and appear as ghosts. They were also supposed to have the power of sending dreams. It is to be noticed that, unlike the Lares, the Manes are never spoken of singly.
For authorities, see Lares and Penates.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manfredonia

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​MANFREDONIA, a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti) of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 221/2 m. N.E. by rail, situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft. above sea-level, to the south of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of it. Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was founded by Manfred in 1263, and destroyed by the Turks in 1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins and parts of the town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. Domenico, the chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the 14th century. Two miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome and crypt. S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia, belonging to the Teutonic order, is of the same date. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 194 B.C., and was not deserted in favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century, having become unhealthy owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons.
See A. Beltramelli, Il Gargano (Bergamo, 1907). (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mandvi

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​MANDVI, a seaport of India, in the native state of Cutch, within the Gujarat province of Bombay, 36 m. from Bhuj, and 182 m. by sea from Karachi. Pop. (1901), 24,683. It is a weekly port of call for steamers of the British India line, vessels ​of 70 tons cannot come nearer than 500 yards. The pilots and sailors of Mandvi have a high reputation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manetho

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​MANETHO (Μανέθων in an inscription of Carthage; Μανεθὼς in a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a good Egyptian appearance, and has been found on a contemporary papyrus probably referring to the man himself. The evidence of Plutarch and other indications connect him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most important work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated the native records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative in Josephus’s treatise Against Apion, and by tables of dynasties and kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in the works of Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and ​some falsifying apologists offer the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in the Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus. It is difficult to judge the value of the original from these extracts: it is clear from the different versions of the lists that they have been corrupted. Manetho’s work was probably based on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus of Kings: even his division into dynasties may have been derived from such. The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty. The royal lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both in the names and order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed to the reigns. The brief notes attached to some of the names may be derived from Manetho’s narrative, but they are chiefly references to kings mentioned by Herodotus or to marvels that were supposed to have occurred: they certainly possess little historical value. A puzzling annotation to the name of Bocchoris, “in whose time a lamb spake 990 years,” has been well explained by Krall’s reading of a demotic story written in the twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb prophesied that after Bocchoris’s reign Egypt should be in the hands of the oppressor 900 years; in Africanus’s day it was necessary to lengthen the period in order to keep up the spirits of the patriots after the stated term had expired. This is evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have provided the accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of great service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion’s decipherment.
See C. Müller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, ii. 511–616; A. Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq.; J. Krall in Festgaben für Büdinger (Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell and Hunt, El Hibeh Papyri, i. 223; also the section on chronology in Egypt, and generally books on Egyptian history and chronology. (F. Ll. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Manduria

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​MANDURIA, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which it is 27 m. W. by road (22 m. E. of Taranto), 270 ft. above sea-level, and 8 m. N. of the coast. Pop. (1901), 12,199 (town); 13,190 (commune). It is close to the site of the ancient Manduria, considerable remains of the defences of which can still be seen; they consisted of a double line of wall built of rectangular blocks of stone, without mortar, and with a broad ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found in 1886 (L. Viola in Notizie degli Scavi, 1886, 100). It was an important stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and Archidamus III., king of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.C., while leading the army of the latter (Plut., Agis, 3, calls the place Mandonion: see s.v. Archidamus). It revolted to Hannibal, but was stormed by the Romans in 209 B.C. Pliny mentions a spring here which never changed its level, and may still be seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the present town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old name in 1700. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mang Lön

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​MANG LÖN, a state in the northern Shan states of Burma. It is the chief state of the Wa or Vü tribes, some of whom are head-hunters, and Mang Lön is the only one which as yet has direct relations with the British government. Estimated area, 3000 sq. m.; estimated population, 40,000. The state extends from about 21° 30′ to 23° N., or for 100 m. along the river ​Salween. Its width varies greatly, from a mile or even less on either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its broadest part near Taküt, the capital. It is divided into East and West Mang Lön, the boundary being the Salween. There are no Wa in West Mang Lön. Shans form the chief population, but there are Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, besides Lahu. The bulk of the population in East Mang Lön is Wa, but there are many Shans and Lahu. Both portions are very hilly; the only flat land is along the banks of streams in the valleys, and here the Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and bazaars at Nawng Hkam and Möng Kao in West Mang Lön. The Wa of Mang Lön have given up head-hunting, and many profess Buddhism. The capital, Taküt, is perched on a hill-top 6000 ft. above sea-level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has control over two sub-states, Mōt Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the south.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostervald, Jean Frédéric

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​OSTERVALD, JEAN FRÉDÉRIC (1663–1747), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Neuchâtel on the 25th of November 1663. He was educated at Zürich and at Saumur (where he graduated), studied theology at Orleans under Claude Pajon, at Paris under Jean Claude and at Geneva under Louis Tronchin, and was ordained to the ministry in his native place in 1683. As preacher, pastor, lecturer and author, he attained a position of great influence in his day, he and his friends, J. A. Turretin of Geneva and S. Werenfels (1657–1740) of Basel, forming what was once called the “Swiss triumvirate.” He was thought to show a leaning towards Socinianism and Arminianism. He died on the 14th of April 1747.
His principal works are Traité des sources de la corruption qui règne aujourd’hui parmi les Chrétiens (1700), translated into English, Dutch and German, practically a plea for a more ethical and less doctrinal type of Christianity; Catéchisme ou instruction dans la religion chrétienne (1702), also translated into English, Dutch and German; Traité contre l’impureté (1707); Sermons sur divers textes (1722–1724); Theologiae compendium (1739); and Traduction de la Bible (1724). All his writings attained great popularity among French Protestants; many were translated into various languages; and “Ostervald’s Bible,” a revision of the French translation, in particular, was long well known and much valued in Britain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Osterode (Hanover)

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​OSTERODE, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, at the south foot of the Harz Mountains, 34 m. N.W. of Nordhausen by rail. Pop. (1905) 7467. The church of St Aegidius (Evangelical), founded in 724 and rebuilt after a fire in 1578, contains some fine tombs of the dukes of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, who made Osterode their residence from 1361 to 1452. Other buildings are the fine town-hall and the hospital. There are ​manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, cigars and leather, and tanneries, dyeworks and gypsum quarries. In recent years Osterode has become celebrated as a health resort.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostra

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​OSTRA, an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, near the modern Montenovo, S.E. of Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia). It is hardly mentioned by ancient authors, but excavations have brought to light remains of various buildings and some inscriptions exist. Pliny mentions with it another ancient town, Suasa, 5 m. W., which also did not survive the classical period.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostrau

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​OSTRAU, the name of two Austrian towns in the Ostrau-Karwin coal-mining district, (1) Mährisch-Ostrau (Moravian Ostrau), a town in Moravia, 95 m. N.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 30,125. It is situated on the right bank of the Ostrawitza, near its confluence with the Oder, and it derives its importance from the neighbouring coal mines, and the blast furnaces and iron-works which they have called into existence. The manufactures comprise sheet-iron, boilers, zinc, brick and tiles, paraffin, petroleum, soap and candles. The Rothschild iron-works at Witkowitz are in the vicinity. (2) Polnisch-Ostrau (Polish Ostrau), a mining town in Austrian Silesia, opposite Mährisch-Ostrau. Pop. (1900) 18,761, mostly Czech. It has large coal mines, which form the south-western portion of the extensive Upper Silesian coal fields, the largest Austrian deposit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ostrog

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​OSTROG, a town of Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 95 m. W. of Zhitomir, at the confluence of the Vilya with the Goryn. Pop. (1897) 14,530. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and in the 16th century had a classical academy, converted later into a Jesuit college. Here was made and printed in 1581 the first translation of the Bible into old Slav. In the town is a brotherhood of Cyril and Methodius, which maintains schools of its own. The tanning of light leather is an active domestic trade; other industries are potteries, oil-works, soap, candle and tobacco factories. After being plundered by the Cossack chieftain Khmelnitski in 1648, and conquered by the Russians seven years later, the town fell into decay.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liberius

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​LIBERIUS, pope from 352 to 366, the successor of Julius I., was consecrated according to the Catalogus Liberianus on the 22nd of May. His first recorded act was, after a synod had been held at Rome, to write to Constantius, then in quarters at Arles (353–354), asking that a council might be called at Aquileia with reference to the affairs of Athanasius; but his messenger Vincentius of Capua was compelled by the emperor at a conciliabulum held in Arles to subscribe against his will a condemnation of the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria. In 355 Liberius was one of the few who, along with Eusebius of Vercelli, Dionysius of Milan and Lucifer of Cagliari, refused to sign the condemnation of Athanasius, which had anew been imposed at Milan by imperial command upon all the Western bishops; the consequence was his relegation to Beroea in Thrace, Felix II. (antipope) being consecrated his successor by three “catascopi haud episcopi,” as Athanasius called them. At the end of an exile of more than two years he yielded so far as to subscribe a formula giving up the “homoousios,” to abandon Athanasius, and to accept the communion of his adversaries—a serious mistake, with which he has justly been reproached. This submission led the emperor to recall him from exile; but, as the Roman see was officially occupied by Felix, a year passed before Liberius was sent to Rome. It was the emperor’s intention that Liberius should govern the Church jointly with Felix, but on the arrival of Liberius, Felix was expelled by the Roman people. Neither Liberius nor Felix took part in the council of Rimini (359). After the death of the emperor Constantius in 361, Liberius annulled the decrees of that assembly, but, with the concurrence of SS. Athanasius and Hilarius, retained the bishops who had signed and then withdrawn their adherence. In 366 Liberius gave a favourable reception to a deputation of the Eastern episcopate, and admitted into his communion the more moderate of the old Arian party. He died on the 24th of September 366.
His biographers used to be perplexed by a letter purporting to be from Liberius, in the works of Hilary, in which he seems to write, in 352, that he had excommunicated Athanasius at the instance of the Oriental bishops; but the document is now held to be spurious. See Hefele, Conciliengesch. i. 648 seq. Three other letters, though contested by Hefele, seem to have been written by Liberius at the time of his submission to the emperor. (L. D.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liber Diurnus Romanorum Pontificum

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​LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM, or “Journal of the Roman Pontiffs,” the name given to a collection of formulae used in the papal chancellery in preparing official documents, such as the installation of a pope, the bestowal of the pallium and the grant of papal privileges. It was compiled between 685 and 751, and was constantly employed until the 11th century, when, owing to the changed circumstances of the Church, it fell into disuse, and was soon forgotten and lost. During the 17th century a manuscript of the Liber was discovered in Rome by the humanist, Lucas Holstenius, who prepared an edition for publication; for politic reasons, however, the papal authorities would not allow this to appear, as the book asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope. It was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Garnier, in 1680, and other editions quickly followed.
The best modern editions are one by Eugène de Rozière (Paris, 1869) and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which contain critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the Liber are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St Ambrose at Milan.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Liber

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​LIBER and LIBERA, in Roman mythology, deities, male and female, identified with the Greek Dionysus and Persephone. In honour of Liber (also called Liber Pater and Bacchus) two festivals were celebrated. In the country feast of the vintage, held at the time of the gathering of the grapes, and the city festival of March 17th called Liberalia (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 711) we find purely Italian ceremonial unaffected by Greek religion. The country festival was a great merry-making, where the first-fruits of the new must were offered to the gods. It was characterized by the grossest symbolism, in honour of the fertility of nature. In the city festival, growing civilization had impressed a new character on the primitive religion, and connected it with the framework of society. At this time the youths laid aside the boy’s toga praetexta and assumed the man’s toga libera or virilis (Fasti, iii. 771). Cakes of meal, honey and oil were offered to the two deities at this festival. Liber was originally an old Italian god of the productivity of nature, especially of the vine. His name indicated the free, unrestrained character of his worship. When, at an early period, the Hellenic religion of Demeter spread to Rome, Liber and Libera were identified with Dionysus and Persephone, and associated with another Italian goddess Ceres, who was identified with Demeter. By order of the Sibylline books, a temple was built to these three deities near the Circus Flaminius; the whole cultus was borrowed from the Greeks, down even to the terminology, and priestesses were brought from the Greek cities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Libau

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​LIBAU (Lettish, Leepaya), a seaport of Russia, in the government of Courland, 145 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, at the northern extremity of a narrow sandy peninsula which separates Lake Libau (12 m. long and 2 m. wide) from the Baltic Sea. Its population has more than doubled since 1881 (30,000), being 64,505 in 1897. The town is well built of stone, with good gardens, and has a naval cathedral (1903). The harbour was ​2 m. S. of the town until a canal was dug through the peninsula in 1697; it is now deepened to 23 ft., and is mostly free from ice throughout the year. Since being brought, in 1872, into railway connexion with Moscow, Orel and Kharkov, Libau has become an important port. New Libau possesses large factories for colours, explosives, machinery belts, sails and ropes, tobacco, furniture, matches, as well as iron works, agricultural machinery works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills, breweries, oil-mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The exports reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits, flax, linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The imports average £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, including steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase. North of the commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian government made (1893–1906) a very extensive fortified naval port, protected by moles and breakwaters. Libau is visited for sea-bathing in summer.
The port of Libau, Lyra portus, is mentioned as early as 1263; it then belonged to the Livonian Order or Brothers of the Sword. In 1418 it was burnt by the Lithuanians, and in 1560 it was mortgaged by the grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, to which it had passed, to the Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, and was annexed to Russia in 1795.
See Wegner, Geschichte der Stadt Libau (Libau, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Libation

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​LIBATION (Lat. libatio, from libare, to take a portion of something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. λείβειν), a drink offering, the pouring out of a small quantity of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act. Such an act was performed in honour of the dead (Gr. χοαί, Lat. profusiones), in making of treaties (Gr. σπονδή, σπένδειν = libare, whence σπονδαί, treaty), and particularly in honour of the gods (Gr. λοιβή, Lat. libatio, libamentum, libamen). Such libations to the gods were made as part of the daily ritual of domestic worship, or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to special deities, as by the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when going to rest.