OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Visitation

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​VISITATION (Lat. from visitare, frequentative form of visere, to look at, go to see, visit, videre, to see), an act of visiting, or going to see, a formal visit. The use of the word for an act of divine retributive justice, or generally of an occurrence of grave import, such as a plague or famine, is due mainly to Biblical phraseology, as in “the day of visitation” (Isa. x. 3). For the duty of bishops of the Roman Church to visit periodically the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul at Rome, the Visitatio Liminium Apostolorum, see Bishop. The specific application of the term is to a formal periodical visit paid by a superior authority to an institution or to a district for the purpose of investigation, examination or the like. There are three classes of such visitations: ecclesiastical, charitable and heraldic. Ecclesiastical visitations, originally the periodical journeys of personal inspection to ascertain the temporal and spiritual condition of each parish, form part of the functions of an archbishop, a bishop and an archdeacon. All charitable corporations are at law subject to visitation; the functions of the “visitors” have been largely taken over by the Board of Charity Commissioners. Colleges at a university are regarded in law as charitable institutions, and each college has a “visitor” whose duty it is to represent the founder and see that his wishes are carried out. Heraldic visitations were perambulations made by a king-at-arms or other high heraldic officer with a commission under the Great Seal to examine into pedigrees and claims to bear arms. The results of these visitations were entered in “Visitation Books,” which are in the nature of official records; their admissibility as evidence, though claimed, is judicially questioned as containing merely experts' statements from the families to whom they refer (D'Arcy de Knayth Peerage Case, 1901). These heraldic visitations ceased about 1686.
In addition to these specific meanings may be mentioned the festival of the “Visitation of Mary,” in commemoration of the visit of the Virgin to Elizabeth, mother of St John the Baptist, celebrated in the Roman, Greek and other churches on the 2nd of July, and the office of the English Church, the “Visitation of the Sick,” ordered for the spiritual comfort and benefit of sick persons.
For the international law relating to the right of belligerent vessels to “visit and search” neutral vessels in time of war, see Search, Right of.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Visoko

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​VISOKO (or Visoki), a town of Bosnia, on the river Bosna, 15 m. N.W. of Serajevo by rail. Pop. (1895), about 5000. Visoko has a brisk trade in leather, carpets and tobacco.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries Visoko was only second to Jajce as a stronghold of the Bosnian rulers. There were fortified palaces at Sutječka, and Bobovac, among the mountains on the north. Bohovac, which had withstood many previous assaults, was betrayed to the Turks in 1463; at Sutječka there is a Franciscan monastery, founded in 1391, often razed by the Turks, and finally rebuilt in 1821. Just below Visoko lay the town of Podvisoko, called Solto Visochi by the Ragusans, which was the chief mart of the country from 1348 to 1430.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlagintweit

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​SCHLAGINTWEIT, the name of five German scientific explorers or students of foreign countries. They were brothers, and were named Hermann (1826–1882, who became known as Hermann von Schlagintweit Sakünlünski), Adolf (1829–1857), Eduard (1831–1866), Robert (1833–1885), and Emil (1835–1904). Hermann was born at Munich on the 13th of May 1826. His first scientific labours were studies in the Alps, carried on between 1846 and 1848 in association with his brother Adolf (born at Munich on the 9th of January 1829). The publication of the Untersuchungen über die physikalische Geographie der Alpen in 1850 (Leipzig) founded the scientific reputation of the two brothers, and their reputation was increased by subsequent investigations in the same field, in which Robert (born at Munich on the 27th of October 1837) also took part. Soon after the publication of the Neue Untersuchungen über die phys. Geog. u. Geol. der Alpen (Leipzig, 1854), the three brothers received, on the recommendation of Alexander von Humboldt, a commission from the East India Company to travel for scientific purposes in their territory, and more particularly to make observations on terrestrial magnetism. During 1854–1857 they travelled, sometimes in company, sometimes separately, in the Deccan and in the region of the Himalayas, prosecuting their investigations beyond the frontiers of the company's territory into the region of the Karakorum and Kuen-lun mountains. Hermann and Robert were the first Europeans who crossed the Kuen-lun, and in honour of that achievement the former had the title or surname of Sakünlünski bestowed upon him (in 1864). Robert returned to Europe early in 1857; Hermann, after a visit to Nepal, joined him on his homeward journey; but Adolf, who remained to prosecute his explorations in Central Asia, was put to death by the amir of Kashgar on the 26th of August. Hermann and Robert published in four volumes the Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia (Leipzig, 1860–1866). They had, moreover, made extensive ethnographical and natural history collections. Hermann spent the last years of his life chiefly in literary and scientific activity, partly at Munich, partly at the castle of Jägernburg near Forchheim. He died at Munich on the 19th of January 1882. Robert was appointed professor of geography at Giessen in 1863. He paid several visits to America, which furnished him with material for such works as Die Pacific-Eisenbahn (1870), Die Mormonen (1874), Die Prärien (1876), &c., all published at Cologne. He died at Giessen on the 6th of June 1885. Eduard, born on the 23rd of March 1831, killed in battle at Kissingen in 1866, made himself known by an account of the Spanish expedition to Morocco in 1859–1860. Emil, born on the 7th of July 1835, wrote several learned works relating to India and Tibet. He died on the 29th of October 1904.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schirmer, Johann Wilhelm

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​SCHIRMER, JOHANN WILHELM (1807–1863), German landscape painter, was born at Jülich in Rhenish Prussia. This artist, a namesake of F. W. Schirmer, had a similar aim and career. He first was a student, and subsequently became a professor in the academy of Düsseldorf. In 1854 he was made director of the art school at Carlsruhe, where he died. He travelled and sketched in Italy, and aimed at historic landscape after the manner of the Poussins. His Biblical landscapes with figures are held in good esteem.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schinkel, Karl Friedrich

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​SCHINKEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1781–1841), German architect and painter, and professor in the academy of fine arts at Berlin from 1820, was born at Neuruppin, in Brandenburg, on the 13th of March 1781. He was a pupil of Friedrich Gilly, the continuation of whose work he undertook when his master died in 1800. In 1803 Schinkel went to Italy, returning to Berlin in 1805. The Napoleonic wars interfered seriously with his work as architect, so that he took up landscape painting, displaying a talent for the romantic delineation of natural scenery. In 1810 he drew a plan for the mausoleum of Queen Louise and in 1819 a a brilliant sketch for the Berlin cathedral in Gothic style. From 1808 to 1814 he painted a number of dioramas for Gropins. From 1815 he devoted much time to scene painting, examples of his work being still in use in the royal theatres of Germany. Schinkel's principal buildings are in Berlin and its neighbourhood. His merits are, however, best shown in his unexecuted plans for the transformation of the Acropolis into a royal palace, for the erection of the Orianda Palace in the Crimea and for a monument to Frederick the Great. These and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe (1820–1837, 3rd ed. 1857–1858) and his Werke der höheren Baukunst (1845–1846, new ed. 1874).
See the biographies by Kugler, Böttischer, Quast, H. Grimm, Waagen, Woetmann, Pecht, Dohme, and vol. xxviii. of the Künstlermonographie, by Ziller (Leipzig, 1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schism

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​SCHISM, a division, especially used of a formal separation from a church or religious body, a sect, or church formed by such separation. The Greek σχίσμα, a cleft, split, from σχίζειν, to cleave, is used in the New Testament of an actual rent in a garment (Matt. ix. 16) and also several times of divisions or differences of opinion as to the teaching and message of Christ (John vii. 43) or of dissension in the church (1 Cor. xi. 18). In the early Christian Church, as defined by the Fathers, and later, the offence of “schism” is distinguished from that of “heresy”; it refers not to differences of belief or doctrine, but to the promotion, or the state, of divisions of organisation, and to the formation of bodies separate from the true church, or to dissensions and separations due to disputes over matters of discipline or authority (see Heresy). The dispute which led to the separation of the Latin and Greek Churches is known as the “Great Schism,” and the division over the election to the Papacy of Urban VI. and Clement VII. as the “Great Schism of the West” (1378–1417) (see Papacy and Church History).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlan

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​SCHLAN (Czech, Slané), a town of Bohemia, 37 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9491, mostly Czech. The most notable churches are St Gotthard (14th century, remodelled in 1782) St Mary, attached to the Piarist college (1655–1658), the chapel of St Lawrence (13th century) and the church of the Holy Trinity belonging to the Franciscan friary (1655). There are extensive coal-fields and important iron, metal and machine industries, together with the manufacture of chemicals and corn-milling.
Schlan—probably the name of a castle—occurs in documents of the 10th century. The town was probably founded in the 13th century by Ottakar II. In the Hussite wars it took the utraquist side, was occupied in 1420 by King Sigismund, but retaken the next year by the troops of Prague. These were expelled, in 1425, after a desperate resistance by the Taborites and Orphans. The town now remained faithful to the Taborite cause till its collapse in 1434. The place was re-fortified between 1460 and 1472. After the battle of the White Hill (1620), Schlan was granted to Jaroslaus Bořita of Martinic, lord of Smečno, whose descendants still own the lordship.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlangenbad

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​SCHLANGENBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, pleasantly situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Taunus range, 6 m. N.W. of Wiesbaden, 4½ m. S. of Langenschwalbach, and 5 m. E. of Eltville on the Rhine, with which it is connected by a steam tramway. Its eight thermal springs are mostly used for bathing, and are efficacious in nervous complaints and feminine disorders. There is a handsome kursaal connected with the principal bathing establishment. Permanent population (1905) 400, while the number of visitors numbers about 2500 annually.
See Baumann, Schlangenbad, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Kur- und Bade-Anstalten (new ed., Wiesbaden, 1894); and Bertrand, Schlangenbad und seine Warmquellen (Heidelberg, 1878).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schirmer, Friedrich Wilhelm

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SCHIRMER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1802-1866), German landscape artist, was born in Berlin. As a youth he painted flowers in the royal porcelain factory; afterwards he became a pupil of F. W. Schadow in the Berlin Academy, but his art owed most to Italy. He went to Italy in 1827; his sojourn extended over three years; he became a disciple of his countryman Joseph Koch, who built historic landscape on the Poussins, and is said to have caught inspiration from Turner. In 1831 Schirmer established himself in Berlin in a studio with scholars from 1839 to 1865 he was professor of landscape in the academy.
Schirmer's place in the history of art is distinctive: his sketches in Italy were more than transcripts of the spots; he studied nature with the purpose of composing historic and poetic landscapes. On the completion of the Berlin Museum of Antiquities came his opportunity: upon the walls he painted classic sites and temples, and elucidated the collections by the landscape scenery with which they were historically associated. His supreme aim was to make his art the poetic interpretation of nature and he deemed technique secondary to conception. His pictures appeal to the mind by the ideas they embody, by beauty of form, harmony of line, significance of light and colour. In this constructional landscape German critics discover “motive,” “inner meaning,” “the subjective,” “the ideal.” And Schirmer thus formed a school.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlegel, Johann Elias

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​SCHLEGEL, JOHANN ELIAS (1719–1749), German critic and dramatic poet, was born at Meissen on the 28th of January 1719. He was educated at Schulpforta and at the university of Leipzig, where he studied law. In 1743 he became private secretary to his relative, von Spener, the Saxon ambassador at the Danish court. Afterwards he was made professor extraordinary at the academy of Seröe, where he died on the 13th of August 1749. Schlegel was a contributor to the Bremer Beiträge and for some time, while he was living in Denmark, edited a weekly periodical, Der Fremde. With his dramas as well as with his critical writings he did much to prepare the way for Lessing, by whom his genius was warmly appreciated. He wrote two lively and well-constructed comedies, Der Triumph der guten Frauen and Die stumme Schönheit, the former in prose, the latter in alexandrines. Hermann and Canut (in alexandrines) are generally considered his best tragedies.
His works were edited (in 5 vols., 1761–1770) by his brother, J. H. Schlegel (1724–1780), who had a considerable reputation as a writer on Danish history. Another brother, J. Adolf Schlegel (1721–1793), an eminent preacher, and author of some volumes of verse, was the father of August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel. J. E. Schlegel's Ästhetische und dramaturgische Schriften have been edited by J. von Antoniewicz (1887), and a selection of his plays by F. Muncker in Bremer Beiträge, vol. ii. (Kürschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. xliv., 1899). See, besides the biography by his brother in the edition of his works, E. Wolff, Johann Elias Schlegel (1889); and J. Rentsch, Johann Elias Schlegel als Trauerspieldichter (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Åbo

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​ÅBO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the province of Åbo-Björneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; (1904) 42,639. It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden. When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the Diet of Borgå in 1809, Åbo became the capital of the new state, and so remained till 1819 when the seat of government was transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable library being entirely destroyed. Before this calamity Åbo contained 1110 houses and 13,000 inhabitants; and its university had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of upwards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an ​observatory and a chemical laboratory. The university has since been removed to Helsingfors. Åbo remains the ecclesiastical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry, the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who introduced Christianity into the country in the 12th century. Åbo is the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland. It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade; sail-cloth, cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy. Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Bornholm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from 700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/À Beckett, Gilbert Abbott

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​À BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811–1856), English writer, was born in north London on the 9th of January 1811. He belonged to a family claiming descent from the father of St Thomas Becket. His elder brother, Sir William à Beckett (1806–1869), became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gilbert Abbott à Beckett was educated at Westminster school, and was called to the bar at Gray’s Inn in 1841. He edited Figaro in London, and was one of the original staff of Punch and a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series of light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted in 1846 The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce some fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of Dickens’s shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon. As poor-law commissioner he presented a valuable report to the home secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan police magistrate. He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August 1856 of typhus fever.
His eldest son Gilbert Arthur à Beckett (1837–1891) was born at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up to Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855, graduating in 1860. He was entered at Lincoln’s Inn, but gave his attention chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and Hearts at the Haymarket in 1867, which was followed by other light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and of The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert’s Wicked World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline. For the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of Punch. His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the death of his only son, and he died on the 15th of October 1891.
A younger son, Arthur William à Beckett (1844–1909), a well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in The À Becketts of Punch (1903). He died in London on the 14th of January 1909.
See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Álava, Don Miguel Ricardo de

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​ÁLAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770–1841), Spanish general and statesman, was born at Vittoria in 1770. He served first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. He was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the flagship of his uncle Admiral Álava. In politics he followed a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne in 1808 he was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the new constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. After the national rising against French aggression, and the defeat of General Dupont at Bailen in 1808, Álava joined the national independent party, who were fighting in alliance with the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at the English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides-decamp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank of brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand, Álava was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard, the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy release. He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who appointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. It was therefore his remarkable fortune to be present at the battle of Waterloo with Wellington’s staff. He is supposed to have been the only man who was present at both Waterloo and Trafalgar. Four years later he was recalled owing, it is said, to the marked kindness he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. On the breaking out of the revolution of 1820 he was chosen by the province of Álava to represent it in the Cortes, where he became conspicuous in the party of the Exaltados, and in 1822 was made president. In the latter year he fought with the militia under Francisco Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority of the Cortes against the rebels. When the French invested Cadiz, Álava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the duc d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal policy. No sooner had he regained power, however, than he ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and Álava found it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and then to England. On the death of Ferdinand he returned to Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria Christina against Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to London in 1834 and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La Granja he refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declaring himself tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently obliged to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843.
Frequent and honourable mention of Álava is made in Napier’s History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met both in lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence.