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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shagreen

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​SHAGREEN, a species of untanned leather with a roughened, granular surface. The word is the English form; cf. Ger. Schagrin, of Fr. chagrin, Ital. zagrin, zigrino; these are usually referred to Turkish and Persian saghri, lit. the back of a horse, and so applied to leather made from this part. The skin of the wild ass was especially used. The method of preparing the skins to secure the rough, granular surface is as follows. The seeds of a plant, usually some species of Chinopodium, are embedded in the skin while soft, the surface is then shaved down and soaked in water, when the edges of the indentations swell up. The leather is then dyed, green being a favourite colour. Shagreen is now commonly made of the skins of sharks and rays; the placoid scales of the shark skin giving the necessary roughened surface. Shagreen is used as an ornamental leather for making pocket-books, small cases and the like, and for the handles of swords, daggers, &c. The figurative use in French of “chagrin,” for anxiety, annoyance, was adopted in English in the 17th century. This application of the word is due to the rasping surface of the leather.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shagīa

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​SHAGĪA (Shaigia, Shaikīyeh), a tribe of Africans of Semitic origin living on both banks of the Nile from Korti to the Third Cataract, and in portions of the Bayuda Desert. The Shagīa are partly a nomad, partly an agricultural people. They claim descent from one Shayig Ibn Hamaidan of the Beni Abbas, and declare that they came from Arabia at the time of the conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. They must have dispossessed and largely intermarried with a people of Nuba origin. They appear (from a statement by James Bruce) to have been settled originally south of their present country and to have moved northward since 1772. Formerly subject to the Funj kings of Sennar, they became independent on the decline of that state in the 18th century. They were overcome c. 1811 at Dongola by the Mamelukes, but continued to dominate a considerable part of Nubia. To the Egyptians in 1820 they offered a stout resistance, but finally submitted and served in the Egyptian ranks during the suppression of the Jā‛alin revolt (1822). For their services they obtained lands of these latter between Shendi and Khartum. At that time they were far more civilized than the neighbouring tribes. Freedom-loving, brave, enlightened and hospitable, they had schools in which all Moslem science was taught, and were rich in corn and cattle. Their fighting men, mounted on horses of the famous Dongola breed, were feared throughout the eastern Sudan. Their chiefs wore coats of mail and carried shields of hippopotamus or crocodile skin. Their arms were lance, sword or javelin. The Shagīa are divided into twelve clans. Their country is the most fertile along the Nile between Egypt and Khartum. Many of their villages are well built; some of the houses are fortified. They speak Arabic and generally preserve the Semitic type, though they are obviously of very mixed blood. The typical Shagīa has a sloping forehead, aquiline nose and receding chin. They have adopted the African custom of gashing the chests of their children. In the wars of 1884–85 General Gordon’s first fight was to rescue a few Shagīa besieged in a fort at Halfaya. In April 1884 Saleh Bey (Saleh Wad el Mek), head of the tribe, and 1400 men surrendered to the mahdi’s forces. Numbers of Shagīa continued in the service of General Gordon and this led to the outlawry of the tribe by the mahdi. When Khartum fell Saleh’s sons were sought out and executed by the dervishes. On the reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army (1896–98) it was found that the Shagīa were reduced to a few hundred families.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of

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​SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, 7th Earl of (1801–1885), son of Cropley, 6th earl (a younger brother of the 5th earl; succeeded 1811), and Anne, daughter of the 3rd duke of Marlborough, was born on the 28th of April 1801. He was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first class in classics in 1822, and graduated M.A. in 1832. In 1841 he received from his university the degree of D.C.L. He entered parliament as member for the pocket borough of Woodstock in 1826; in 1830 he was returned for Dorchester; from 1831 till February 1846 he represented the county of Dorset; and he was member for Bath from 1847 till (having previously borne the courtesy title Lord Ashley) he succeeded his father as earl in 1851. Although giving a general support to the Conservatives, his parliamentary conduct was greatly modified by his intense interest in the improvement of the social condition of the working classes, his efforts in behalf of whom have made his name a household word. He opposed the Reform Bill of 1832, but was a supporter of Catholic emancipation, and his objection to the continuance of resistance to the abolition of the Corn Laws led him to resign his seat for Dorset in 1846. In parliament his name, more than any other, is associated with the new factory legislation. He was a lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel (1834–1835), but on being invited to join Peel’s administration in 1841 refused, having been unable to obtain Peel’s support for the Ten Hours’ Bill. Chiefly by his persistent efforts a Ten Hours’ Bill was carried in 1847, but its operation was impeded by legal difficulties, which were only removed by successive Acts, instigated chiefly by him, until legislation reached a final stage in the Factory Act of 1874. The part which he took in the legislation bearing on coal mines was equally prominent. His efforts in behalf of the welfare of the working classes were guided by personal knowledge. Thus in 1846, after the resignation of his seat for Dorset, he explored the slums of the metropolis, and not only gave a new ​impulse to the movement for the establishment of ragged schools, but was able to make it more widely beneficial. For forty years he was president of the Ragged School Union. He was also one of the principal founders of reformatory and refuge unions, young men's Christian associations and working men's institutes. He took an active interest in foreign missions, and was president of several of the most important philanthropic and religious societies of London. He died on the 1st of October 1885. By his marriage (1830) to Lady Emily (d. 1872), daughter of the 5th earl Cowper, he left a large family, and was succeeded by his eldest son Anthony, who committed suicide in 1886, his son (b. 1869) becoming 9th earl.
See also Hodder's Life (1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raigarh

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​RAIGARH, a feudatory state of India, in the Chattisgarh division of the Central Provinces. Area, 1486 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 174,029, showing an increase of 4% in the decade. Estimated revenue, £10,000; tribute, £260. The chief belongs to the old Gond royal family. The state is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, with a station at Raigarh town, 363 m. from Calcutta. Rice is the chief crop; iron ore is worked by indigenous methods, and coal is known to exist. Fine tussore silk is produced at Raigarh town (pop. 6764). Raigarh is also the name of a hill fortress in Kolaba district, Bombay, which Sivaji made his chief place of residence. Here he was crowned in 1674.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raichur

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​RAICHUR, a town of India, in the state of Hyderabad, at the junction of the Madras and Great Indian Peninsula railways, 351 m. N.E. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 22,165. It gives its name to the doab, or tract between the rivers Kistna and Tungabhadra, which was the scene of much fighting between Mahommedans and Hindus as debatable land during the 16th century. It contains a well-preserved fort and two old mosques. It is a thriving centre of trade, with several cotton-presses.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raiffeisen, Friedrich Wilhelm

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​RAIFFEISEN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1818–1888), founder of the German system of agricultural co-operative banks, was ​born at Hamm on the Sieg on the 30th of March 1818, being the son of Gottfried Raiffeisen, burgomaster of that place. Educated privately, he entered the artillery in Cologne, but defective eyesight compelled him to leave the army. He then entered the public service at Coblenz, and in 1845 was appointed burgomaster of Weyerbusch. Here he was so successful that in 1848 he was transferred in a like capacity to Flammersfeld, and in 1852 to Heddersdorf. Raiffeisen devoted himself to the improvement of the social condition of the cultivators of the soil, and did good work in the planning of public roads and in other ways. The distress of the years 1846–47, the causes of which he discerned in the slight amount of credit obtainable by the small landed proprietors, led him to seek for a remedy in co-operation, and at Heddersdorf and at Weyerbusch he founded the first agricultural co-operative loan banks (Darlehnskassenverein). These banks were called after him, and their foundation resulted in a widespread system of land banks, supported by the government. In 1865 the state of his health compelled him to retire, but he continued to take an interest in the movement he had originated, and in 1878 he founded at Neuwied a periodical, Das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsblatt. He died on the 11th of March 1888.
Among Raiffeisen’s writings are, Die Darlehnskassenvereine als Mittel zur Abhilfe (Neuwied, 1866; new ed., 1887); Anleitung zur Geschäfts- und Buchführung ländlichen Spar- und Darlehnskassenvereine (new ed., 1896); and Kurze Anleitung zur Gründung von Darlehnskassenvereinen (new ed., 1893). See A. Wattig, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (1890); H. W. Wolff, People’s Banks. A Record of Social and Economic Success (1895); and Fassbender, Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen (Berlin, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raikes, Robert

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​RAIKES, ROBERT (1735–1811), English educationist, the founder of Sunday schools, was the son of Robert Raikes, a printer in Gloucester and proprietor of the Gloucester Journal, and was born on the 14th of September 1735. On the death of his father in 1757 he succeeded him in the business, which he continued to conduct till 1802. Along with some others he started a Sunday school at Gloucester in 1780, and on his giving publicity to the enterprise in the columns of his journal the notice was copied into the London papers and awakened considerable attention. For nearly thirty years he continued actively engaged in the promotion of his undertaking, and he lived to witness its wide extension throughout England. He died on the 5th of April 1811. His statue stands on the Thames Embankment.
Among various accounts of the life and work of Raikes mention may be made of that by P. M. Eastman, 1880.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rahway

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​RAHWAY, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the north-eastern part of the state, on the Rahway river and about 20 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 7105; (1900) 7935, of whom 1345 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 9337. Rahway is served by the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with neighboring cities by electric lines. It has wide streets and attractive parks, and is, to some extent, a residential suburb of New York and other neighbouring cities. It has a public library (1864), with upwards of 17,000 volumes, and about 11/2 distant is the New Jersey Reformatory (1903), to which prisoners between the ages of sixteen and thirty may be sentenced instead of to the State Prison. There are various manufactures. Rahway was first settled in 1720, and was named in honour of the Indian chief Rahwack, whose tribe owned the site and the surrounding territory; it was chartered as a city in 1858. For many years Rahway was popularly known as Spanktown, and in January 1777, during the War of Independence, a skirmish, known as the battle of Spanktown, was fought here.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vejér de la Frontera

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​VEJÉR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, on the right bank of the river Barbate and on the Cadiz-Tarifa railway. Pop. (1900) 11,298. Vejer de la Frontera occupies a low hill overlooking the Straits of Gibraltar and surrounded by orchards and orange groves. It contains several ancient churches and convents, and the architecture of many of its houses recalls the period of Moorish rule, which lasted from 711 until the town was captured by St Ferdinand of Castile in 1248. Agriculture and fruit-farming are the chief industries; fighting bulls are also bred in the neighbourhood.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Velius Longus

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​VELIUS LONGUS (2nd cent, A.D.), Latin grammarian during the reign of Trajan (or Hadrian), author of an extant treatise on Orthography (H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vii.). He is ​mentioned by Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 6, 6) and Servius (on Aen. x. 245) as a commentator on Virgil.
See M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, iv. 1 (1904); Teuffel, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 343, 2.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Veitch, John

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​VEITCH, JOHN (1829–1894), Scottish poet, philosopher, and historian of the Scottish border, son of a Peninsular veteran, was born at Peebles on the 24th of October 1829, and educated at Edinburgh University. He was assistant lecturer successively ​to Sir William Hamilton and A. Campbell Fraser (1856-60). In 1860 he was appointed to the chair of logic, metaphysics and rhetoric at St Andrews, and in 1864 to the corresponding chair at Glasgow. In philosophy an intuitionist, he dismissed the idealist arguments with some abruptness, and thereby lost much of the influence gained by the force of his personal character. He died on the 3rd of September 1894. He will be remembered chiefly for his work on Border literature and antiquities.
He published translations of Descartes' Discours de la méthode (1850) and Miditationes (1852); an edition of Sir W. Hamilton’s lectures with memoir (1869, in collaboration with H. L. Mansel); Tweed, and other Poems (1875); History and Poetry of the Scottish Border (1877; ed. 1893); Institutes of Logic (1885); Knowing and Being (1889); Merlin (1889); Dualism and Monism (1895); Border Essays (1896). See Memoir by his niece, Mary R. L. Bryce (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Veleia

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​VELEIA, an ancient town of Aemilia, Italy, situated about 20 in, S. of Placentia., It is mentioned by Pliny among the towns of the eighth region, though the Veleiates were Ligurians by race. Its inhabitants were in the census of Vespasian found to be remarkable for their longevity. Nothing further was known of it until 1747, when some ploughmen found the famous Tabula alimentaria, now in the museum at Parma. This, the largest inscribed bronze tablet of antiquity (4 ft. 6 in. by 9 ft. 6 in.) contains the list of estates in the territories of Veleia, Libarna, Placentia, Parma and Luca, in which Trajan had assigned before 102 B.C. 72,000 sesterces (£720) and then 1,044,000 sesterces (£10,440), on a mortgage bond to forty-six estates, the total value of which was reckoned at over 13,000,000 sesterces (£130,000), the interest on which at 5% was to serve for the support of 166 boys and 36 girls, the former receiving 16, the latter 12 sesterces a month. See Ligures Baebiani for a similar inscription. Excavations were begun on the site in 1760, and were at first successful; the forum and basilica, the thermae and the amphitheatre, private houses, &c., with many statues (twelve of marble from the basilica, and a fine bronze head of Hadrian) and inscriptions were discovered. Pre-Roman cremation tombs have also been found, with objects of bronze and iron of no great value. But later excavations which were carried on at intervals up to 1876 have given less fruitful results. The oldest dated monument is a bronze tablet with a portion of the text of the Lex Rubria of 49 B.C. which dealt with the administration of justice in Cisalpine Gaul in connexion with the extension to it of the privileges of the Roman franchise, the latest an inscription of A.D. 276. How and when it was abandoned is uncertain: the previously, prevalent view that it was destroyed by a landslip was proved to be mistaken by the excavations of 1876. Most of the objects found are in the museum at Parma.
See G. Antolini, Le Ravine di Veleia (Milan, 1831); G. Mariotti in Notizie degli Scavi (1877), 157; E. Bormann in Corpus Inscript. Latin (Berlin, 1888), xi. 204 sqq.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Veit, Philipp

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​VEIT, PHILIPP (1793–1877), German painter, one of the leaders of the German romantic school, was born in Berlin. Having received his first art education in Dresden and Vienna, he was strongly influenced by, and joined the group of, the Nazarenes in Rome, where he worked for some years before taking up his abode in Frankfort. In this city, where his most important works are preserved at the Staedel Institute, he was active front 1830 to 1843, as director of the art collections and as professor of painting. From 1853 to his death in 1877 he held the post of director of the municipal gallery at Mayence. Like his fellow-Nazarenes he was more draughtsman than painter, and though his sense of colour was stronger than that of Overbeck or Cornelius, his works are generally more of the nature of coloured cartoons than of paintings in the modern sense. His principal work is the large fresco of "The Introduction of Christianity into Germany by St Boniface," at the Staedel Institute in Frankfort. In the cathedral of that city is his "Assumption," whilst the Berlin National Gallery has his painting of "The Two Marys at the Sepulchre." To Veit is due the credit of having been the first to revive the almost forgotten technique of fresco painting.
See Kunst, Künstler und Kunstwerke, by Valentin Veit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Velarium

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​VELARIUM, the curtain or awning extended above the auditorium of the Reman theatres and amphitheatres to protect the spectators from sun and rain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Velia

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​VELIA (Gr. Ὑέλη, later Ἐλέα), an ancient town of Lucania, Italy, on the hill now crowned by the medieval castle of Castellammare della Bruca, 440 ft. above sea-level, on the S.W. coast, 13/4 m. N.W. of the modern railway station of Ascea, 25 m. S.E. of Paestum. Remains of the city walls, with traces of one gate and several towers, of a total length of over 3 m., still exist, and belong to three different periods, in all of which the crystalline limestone of the locality is used. Bricks were also employed in later times; their form is peculiar to this place, each having two rectangular channels on one side, and being about 15 in. square, with a thickness of nearly 4 in. They all bear Greek brick-stamps. There are some remains of cisterns on the site, and various other traces of buildings. The town was mainly celebrated for the philosophers who bore its name (see Eleatic School). About 530 B.C. the Phocaeans, driven from Corsica, seized it from the Oenotrians. Its coins were widely diffused in S. Italy, and it kept its independence even in Roman times, and only became a municipium after the Social War.
W. Schlenning in Jahrbuch des K. Deutschen Arch. Instituts (1889), iv. 169 sqq.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcellus (popes)

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​MARCELLUS, the name of two popes.
Marcellus I. succeeded Marcellinus, after a considerable interval, most probably in May 308, under Maxentius. He was banished from Rome in 309 on account of the tumult caused by the severity of the penances he had imposed on Christians who had lapsed under the recent persecution. He died the same year, being succeeded by Eusebius. He is commemorated on the 16th of January.
Marcellus II. (Marcello Cervini), the successor of Julius III., was born on the 6th of May 1501, and was elected pope on the 9th of April 1555. He had long been identified with the rigorist party in the church, and as president of the Council of Trent had incurred the anger of the emperor by his jealous defence of papal prerogative. His motives were lofty, his life blameless, his plans for reform nobly conceived. But death removed him (April 30, 1555) before he could do more than give an earnest of his intentions. He was followed by Paul IV.
Contemporary lives are to be found in Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom.; and Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. rom. (Rome, 1601–1602). P. Polidoro, De gestis, vita et moribus Marcelli II. (Rome, 1744), makes use of an unpublished biography of the pope by his brother, Alessandro Cervini. See also Brilli, Intorno alla vita e alle azioni di Marcello II. (Montepulciano, 1846); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 284 seq.; A. von Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, 512, seq. (T. F. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/March, Auzias

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​MARCH, AUZIAS (c. 1395–1458), Catalan poet, was born at Valencia towards the end of the 14th century. Little is known of his career except that he was twice married—first to Na Ysabel Martorell, and second to Na Johanna Scorna—that he died on the 4th of November 1458, and that he left several natural children. Inheriting an easy fortune from his father, the treasurer to the duke of Gandia, and enjoying the powerful patronage of Prince Carlos de Viana of Aragon, March was enabled to devote himself to poetical composition. He is an undisguised follower of Petrarch, carrying the imitation to such a point that he addresses his Cants d’amor to a lady whom he professes to have seen first in church on Good Friday; so far as the difference of language allows, he reproduces the rhythmical cadences of his model, and in the Cants de mort touches a note of brooding sentiment peculiar to himself. Though his poems are disfigured by obscurity and a monotonous morbidity, he was fully entitled to the supremacy which he enjoyed among his contemporaries, and the success of his innovation no doubt encouraged Boscán to introduce the Italian metres into Castilian.
His verses were first printed in Catalan in 1543, but they had already become known through the Castilian translation published by Baltasar de Romani in 1539.