OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcellinus, St

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​MARCELLINUS, ST, according to the Liberian catalogue, became bishop of Rome on the 30th of June, 296; his predecessor was Caius or Gaius. He is not mentioned in the Martyrologium hieronymianum, or in the Depositio episcoporum, or in the Depositio martyrum. The Liber pontificalis, basing itself on the Acts of St Marcellinus, the text of which is lost, relates that during Diocletian’s persecution Marcellinus was called upon to sacrifice, and offered incense to idols, but that, repenting shortly afterwards, he confessed the faith of Christ and suffered martyrdom with several companions. Other documents speak of his defection, and it is probably this lapse that explains the silence of the ancient liturgical calendars. In the beginning of the 5th century Petilianus, the Donatist bishop of Constantine, affirmed that Marcellinus and his priests had given up the holy books to the pagans during the persecution and offered incense to false gods. St Augustine contents himself with denying the affair (Contra litt. Petiliani, ii. 202; De unico baptismo, 27). The records of the pseudo-council of Sinuessa, which were fabricated at the beginning of the 6th century, state that Marcellinus after his fall presented himself before a council, which refused to try him on the ground that prima sedes a nemine iudicatur. According to the Liber pontificalis, Marcellinus was buried, on the 26th of April 304, in the cemetery of Priscilla, on the Via Salaria, 25 days after his martyrdom; the Liberian catalogue gives as the date the 25th of October. The fact of the martyrdom, too, is not established with certainty. After a considerable interregnum he was succeeded by Marcellus, with whom he has sometimes been confounded.
See L. Duchesne, Liber pontificalis, I. lxxiii.–lxxiv. 162–163, and II. 563.  (H. De.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcescent

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​MARCESCENT (Lat. marcescens, withering), a botanical term for withering without falling off.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcel, Étienne

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​MARCEL, ÉTIENNE (d. 1358), provost of the merchants of Paris under King John II., belonged by birth to the wealthy Parisian bourgeoisie, being the son of a clothier named Simon Marcel and of Isabelle Barbou. He is mentioned as provost of the Grande-Confrérie of Notre Dame in 1350, and in 1354 he succeeded Jean de Pacy as provost of the Parisian merchants. His political career began in 1356, when John was made prisoner after the battle of Poitiers. In conjunction with Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, he played a leading part in the states-general called together by the dauphin Charles on the 17th of October. A committee of eighty members, constituted on their initiative, pressed their demands with such insistence that the dauphin prorogued the states-general; but financial straits obliged him to summon them once more on the 3rd of February 1357, and the promulgation of a great edict of reform was the consequence. John the Good forbade its being put into effect, whereupon a conflict began between Marcel and the dauphin, Marcel endeavouring to set up Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in opposition to him. The states-general assembled again on the 13th of January 1358, and on the 22nd of February the populace of Paris, led by Marcel, invaded the palace and murdered the marshals of Champagne and Normandy before the prince’s eyes. Thenceforward Marcel was in open hostility to the throne. After vainly hoping that the insurrection of the Jacquerie might turn to his advantage, he next supported the king of Navarre, whose armed bands infested the neighbourhood of Paris. On the night of the 31st of July Marcel was about to open the gates of the capital to them, but Jean Maillart prevented the execution of this design, and killed him before the Porte Saint-Antoine. During the following days his adherents were likewise put to death, and the dauphin was enabled to re-enter Paris. Étienne Marcel married first Jeanne de Dammartin, and secondly Marguerite des Essars, who survived him.
See F. T. Perrens, Étienne Marcel et le gouvernement de la bourgeoisie au xiv $^e$ siècle (Paris, 1860); P. Frémaux, La Famille d’Étienne Marcel, in the Mémoires of the Société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Île de France (1903), vol. xxx.; and Hon. R. D. Denman, Étienne Marcel (1898).  (J. V.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marcello, Benedetto

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​MARCELLO, BENEDETTO (1686–1739), Italian musical composer, was born in 1686, either on the 31st of July or on the 1st of August. He was of noble family (in his compositions he is frequently described as “Patrizio Veneto”), and although a pupil of Lotti and Gasparini, was intended by his father to devote himself to the law. In 1711 he was a member of the Council of Forty, and in 1730 went to Pola as Provveditore. His health having been impaired by the climate of Istria, he retired after eight years to Brescia in the capacity of Camerlengo, and died there on the 24th of July 1739.
Marcello is best remembered by his Estro poetico-armonico (Venice, 1724–1727), a musical setting for voices and strings ​of the first fifty Psalms, as paraphrased in Italian by G. Giustiniani. They were much admired by Charles Avison, who with John Garth brought out an edition with English words (London, 1757). Some extracts are to be found in Hawkins’s History of Music. His other works are chiefly cantatas, either for one voice or several; the library of the Brussels conservatoire possesses some interesting volumes of chamber-cantatas composed for his mistress. Although he produced an opera, La Fede riconosciuta, at Vicenza in 1702, he had little sympathy with this form of composition, and vented his opinions on the state of musical drama at the time in the satirical pamphlet Il Teatro alla moda, published anonymously in Venice in 1720. This little work, which was frequently reprinted, is not only extremely amusing, but is also most valuable as a contribution to the history of opera.
A catalogue of his works is given in Monatshefte für Musikgeschichte, vol. xxiii. (1891).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Lyons, Sir Joseph

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LYONS, SIR JOSEPH (1848-1917), British caterer, was born in London Sept. 29 1848 and educated at the Borough Jewish school. In early life he studied painting and exhibited at the Royal Institute, but by 1886 he had turned to business enterprises, in conjunction with the brothers Isidore (d. 1920) and Montagu Gluckstein. He began by catering at public exhibitions. He next opened tea-shops in London, the first in 1894; 20 years later these numbered over 200 and provided cheap food for the large class of clerical workers and junior members of professions. Later he opened several restaurants of a more ambitious nature, as well as hotels on the “no-tipping” principle. He initiated the athletic side of the Territorial Army scheme, and, for his services in this direction, was knighted in 1911. He died in London June 22 1917.
See Mrs. Stuart Menzies, Modern Men of Mark (1920).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Löffler, Friedrich

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LÖFFLER, FRIEDRICH (1852-1915), German biologist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder June 24 1852 and educated at the universities of Würzburg and Berlin. He early began the study of parasitic diseases, and his description of the bacillus of diphtheria, published in 1884, was the originating cause of the modern anti-toxin treatment. He died in Berlin April 8 1915.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macbeth, Robert Walker

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MACBETH, ROBERT WALKER (1848-1910), British painter, was born at Glasgow Sept. 30 1848. He studied art in the schools of the Royal Scottish Academy, and in 1871 came to London, where he was for some time on the staff of the Graphic. In 1874 he became an associate of the Royal Water Colour Society. Both as painter and as etcher he was very popular. He died at Golders Green Nov. 1 1910. Among his best-known works are “Dunster Castle” (1895), “The End of a Good Day” (1897) and “Naval Manœuvres” (1899).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mackaye, Percy

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MACKAYE, PERCY (1875-), American poet and playwright, was born in New York City March 16 1875. He graduated from Harvard in 1897 and later was a student in the university of Leipzig. From 1900 to 1904 he was a teacher in private schools in New York, and in the latter year became a member of the Cornish (N.H.) colony of artists and writers. He was made a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1914.
His numerous works include The Canterbury Pilgrims (1903); Fenris the Wolf (1905); Jeanne d'Arc (1906, played by E. H. Sothern and Julia Marlowe); Sappho and Phaon (1907); The Scarecrow (1908); The Playhouse and the Play (1908, essays); The Civic Theatre (1912); Sanctuary (1913, a bird masque); A New Citizenship (1915, a civic ritual); Caliban by the Yellow Sands (1916, a community masque to commemorate the Shakespeare Tercentenary); Community Drama (1917, essay); Rip Van Winkle (1919, folk opera); The Pilgrim and the Book (1920, a dramatic “Service” for celebrating the Pilgrim Centenary). In 1912 he edited with J. S. P. Tatlock The Modern Reader's Chaucer.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mackensen, August von

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MACKENSEN, AUGUST VON (1849-), Prussian field-marshal, was born Dec. 6 1849 at Hausleipnitz in the Prussian province of Saxony. His career was in the cavalry, and he at one time commanded at Danzig the well-known regiment of Hussars who wore a silver skull and crossbones on their busbies. As the commander of the XVII. Army Corps he was brought into close touch with the German Crown Prince at a time when the heir to the imperial dignity had been sent to Danzig in order to withdraw him from the temptation of meddling with politics. In 1914, at the outbreak of the World War, Mackensen was appointed to the command of the IX. Army on the eastern front, and won victories over the Russians at Kutno, Lodz and Lowitz. After April 1915 he led the German troops in western Galicia and helped to break through the Russian line at Gorlice. On June 20 of the same year he was made a field-marshal. In the advance into Russia Mackensen took Litovsk on Aug. 26 and Pinsk on Sept. 15 1915. Later in the autumn of the same year he was in command of the army sent against Serbia, and in 1916 he commanded the expedition against Rumania. In Nov. 1918, after the conclusion of the Armistice, when the German troops
were being brought home from the Balkans, he was detained by the French and interned at Neusatz, where, in spite of many protests from the German Government, he remained until he was set at liberty at the beginning of Dec. 1919.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macnaughtan, Sarah Broom

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​MACNAUGHTAN, SARAH BROOM (1864-1916), British novelist, was born at Particle, near Glasgow, Oct. 26 1864, the sixth child of Peter Macnaughtan, secretary to the British Steam Navigation Co. She was educated at home in Glasgow, and on the death of her parents came to England, living first in Kent, and then in London. Her first novel, Selah Harrison, appeared in 1898, and it was followed by several others, the best known being The Fortune of Christina M'Nab (1901); A Lame Dog's Diary (1905) and The Expensive Miss Du Cane (1907). She travelled a good deal, and had considerable experience in army nursing, gained partly in South Africa. At the beginning of the World War she joined Mrs. St. Clair Stobart's ambulance unit, and was head orderly through the siege of Antwerp, afterwards working under fire on the Belgian front. For this she received the Order of Leopold. In 1915 she went to Russia, penetrating as far as Persia, where illness overtook her. She returned to England in May 1916 and died in London July 24.
She had published A Woman's Diary of the War (1915), and a further account of her work, edited by her niece, Mrs. Lionel Salmon, My War Experiences in Two Continents, appeared in 1919.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madero, Francisco Indalegio

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MADERO, FRANCISCO INDALEGIO (1873-1913), Mexican president, was the son of Evaristo Madero, governor of Coahuila under Díaz and a large property owner of Jewish extraction. He was born on the family estate, Rosario, at Parras, Coahuila, Oct. 18 1873. His youth was employed in managing the family properties. During part of 1893 he attended the university of California. By 1903 he was known for independent political views, and in 1905 opposed the Díaz candidate for state governor. In 1908 he began his opposition to the reëlection of Díaz in 1910, writing La sucesión presidential en 1910, which went to three editions. In 1909 he headed the anti-reëlectionist party as candidate for the presidency. His vigorous campaign was ignored by Díaz until June 1910, when he was arrested at Monterrey for seditious utterances at San Luís Potosí and incarcerated until after the election of Díaz. Being released on bail July 20, he escaped Oct. 7 to San Antonio, Texas, where he issued the Plan de San Luís Potosí, dated Oct. 5. It was then evident that the Díaz election had been legally affirmed. The revolutionists in San Antonio voted Nov. 6 to begin armed revolts simultaneously throughout Mexico. Disturbances began prematurely, and Madero, threatened with arrest for violation of neutrality, crossed into Chihuahua and headed the movement begun by Pascual Orozco and others. The revolutionists took Ciudad Juárez early in May, ending the prestige of Díaz, who resigned under pressure May 25. Madero entered Mexico City in triumph June 7. During the ad-interim presidency of Francisco de la Barra he was elected President in Oct. and inaugurated Nov. 6 for a term to end Nov. 30 1916. His rule was marked by visionary schemes which provoked party dissensions. Revolts caused strained relations with the United States. The revolutionary programme did not become law. Felix Díaz, nephew of Porfirio Díaz, revolted, but was captured in Oct. 1912. General Bernardo Reyes, ex-governor of Nuevo León, had previously been captured in the United States and given over to Mexico. Both were confined in the capital, but they were released Feb. 9 1913 by a rising of military cadets. Government troops joined them, besieging the national palace for 10 days. Then Huerta, commanding Madero's troops, deserted him, and forced the President and vice-president, José Pino Suárez, to resign Feb. 18. Although promised personal safety, they were killed on the night of Feb. 22 while being removed from the national palace to the Penitenciaría. In Nov. 1920 Francisco Cárdenas, the alleged assassin, committed suicide in Guatemala while under arrest for extradition demanded by the Mexican Government for the crime.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macarthur, Mary

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MACARTHUR, MARY (1880-1921), British labour organizer, was born at Ayr Aug. 13 1880, her father being the proprietor of a drapery establishment. She was educated in Glasgow, and afterwards studied for some time in Germany. About 1901 she became interested in the Shop Assistants' Union, and her interest in this union led to her work for the improvement of women's labour conditions. She was active in furthering various strikes of women against insufficient wages, and her work for the sweated women chain-makers of Cradley Heath made her name very well known. To her the foundation of the Women's Trade Union League was chiefly due, and she was a prominent member of the National Anti-Sweating League. One of her main objects was the establishment of a minimum wage for women, and it was largely through her efforts that this principle was carried out in the Trade Boards Act of 1909. She herself became a member of the chain-making trade board. She was secretary to the Women's Trade Union League and to the National Federation of Women Workers, and was a member of the National Insurance
advisory committee, while on the formation of the Central Committee on Women's Employment (1914) she became its hon. secretary. Miss Macarthur married in 1911 William C. Anderson (d. 1919), chairman of the executive committee of the Labour party, who was from 1914 to 1918 member for the Attercliffe division of Sheffield. She died at Golders Green Jan. 1 1921.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maclagan, William Dalrymple

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​MACLAGAN, WILLIAM DALRYMPLE (1826–1910), Archbishop of York, was born in Edinburgh June 18 1826. He began life in the army, retiring as lieutenant in 1852 in order to go to Cambridge to study for the Church. He became a London rector, first at Newington and then at St. Mary Abbott's, Kensington, and in 1878 was nominated by the Crown to the bishopric of Lichfield. In 1891 he was made Archbishop of York. In 1899 he sat as assessor with Dr. Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury, when the decision was given against the use of incense and other ritualistic practices, and though himself a strong High Churchman he loyally upheld the primate's “opinion.” He resigned his archbishopric in 1908, and died in London Sept. 19 1910.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phosphorite

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​PHOSPHORITE, in mineralogy, the name given to impure massive apatite (q.v.; see also Phosphates).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phororhacos

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​PHORORHACOS, the best-known genus of the extinct Patagonian Stereornithes (see Bird: Fossil). Among the bones found in the strata of the Santa Cruz formation (now considered as mainly of mid-Miocene date) was the piece of a mandible which F. Ameghino described in 1887 as that of an edentate mammal, under the name of Phorysrhacos longissimus (Bolet. Mus. de la Plata, i. 24). In 1891 (Rev. Argent. Hist. Nat. i. 225) he amended the name and recognized the bone as that of a bird, Phororhacos, which with Brontornis and others constituted the family Phororhacidae. About six species of the type genus are now known, the most complete being Ph. inflatus, with skull, mandible, pelvis, limbs and some of the vertebrae. These birds were at first considered as either belonging to the Ratitae, or at least related to them, until C. W. Andrews, after much of the interesting material had been acquired by the British Museum, showed the gruiform affinities of Phororhacos (Ibis, 1896, pp. 1–12), a conclusion which he was able to further corroborate after the clearing of the adherent stony matrix from the skulls (Tr. Z. S. 1901, xv. pp. 55–86, pls. 14–17). The skull of Ph. longissimus is about 2 ft. long and 10 in. high; that of Ph. inflatus is 13 in. long, and this creature is supposed to have stood only 3 ft. high at the middle of the back. The under jaw is slightly curved upwards and it contains a large foramen as for instance in Psophia and in Mycteria. The strongly hooked upper beak is very high, and very much compressed laterally. The palate is imperfectly desmognathous, as in Dicholophus, with an inconspicuous vomer. The quadrate has a double knob for its articulation with the skull, and basipterygoid processes are absent. What l1ttle is known of the shoulder-girdle (breastbone still unknown) points to a flightless bird, and so do the short wing bones, although these are stout. The pelvis has an ischiadic foramen. The hind limbs are distinctly slender, the tibia of Ph. inflatus being between 15 and 16 in. in length.
* (From life-size model in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.)
* Skull of Phororhacos, longissimus.
For further detail see F. Ameghino, “Sur les oiseaux fossiles de la Patagonie,” Bolet. inst. geogr. argentino, xv., chs. 11 and 12 (1895); F. P. Moreno and A. Mercerat, Catálogo de los pájaros fósiles de la República Argentina, An. Mus. La Plata (1891; with 21 plates).  (H. F. G.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phosgenite

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​PHOSGENITE, a rare mineral consisting of lead chlorocarbonate, (PbCl)$_2$CO$_3$. The tetragonal (holosymmetric) crystals are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooth, bright faces: they are usually colourless and transparent, and have a brilliant adamantine lustre. Sometimes the crystals have a curious helical twist about the tetrad or principal axis. The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6.3. The mineral is rather sectile, and consequently was early known as “corneous lead” (Ger. Hornblei). The fanciful name phosgenite was given by A. Breithaupt in 1820, from phosgene, the old name of carbon oxychloride, because the mineral contains the elements carbon, oxygen and chlorine. At Cromford, near Matlock, it was long ago found in an old lead mine, being associated with anglesite and matlockite (Pb$_2$OCl$_2$) in cavities in decomposed galena: hence its common name cronfortite. Fine crystals are also found in galena at Monteponi near Iglesias in Sardinia, but the largest are those recently found near Dundas in Tasmania. Crystals of phosgenite, and also of the corresponding bromine compound [PbBr]$_2$CO$_3$, have been prepared artificially.  (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Phorcys

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​PHORCYS (Phorcus, Phorcyn), in Greek mythology, son of Pontus (Sea) and Gaea (Earth), father of the Graeae, the Gorgons, Scylla, and Ladon (the dragon that guarded the golden apples of the Hesperides). In Homer (Odyssey, xiii. 96) he is an aged sea-deity, after whom a harbour in Ithaca was named. According to Varro (quoted by Servius in Aeneid, v. 824) Phorcys was a king of Corsica and Sardinia, who, having been defeated by King Atlas in a naval engagement in the course of which he was drowned, was subsequently worshipped as a marine divinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sarasate y Navascues, Pablo Martin Meliton de

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​SARASATE Y NAVASCUES, PABLO MARTIN MELITON DE (1844–1908), Spanish violinist, was born at Pamplona on the 10th of March 1844. From his early years he displayed his aptitude for the violin, and at the age of 12 he began to study under Alard at the Paris Conservatoire. His first public appearance as a concert violinist was in 1860. He played in London in 1861, and in the course of his career he visited all parts of Europe and also both North and South America. His artistic pre-eminence was due principally to the purity of his tone, which was free from any tendency towards sentimentality and rhapsodic mannerism, and to the astonishing facility of execution which made him in the best sense of the word a virtuoso. Although in the Beethoven and Mendelssohn Concertos, and in modern French and Belgian works, his playing was unrivalled, his qualities were most clearly revealed in the solos which he himself composed, which were “the spirit of Spanish dance translated into terms of the violin virtuoso.” Sarasate died at Biarritz on the 20th of September 1908.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saraghari

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SARAGHARI, a small signalling post on the Samana Range in the North-West Frontier Province of India between Forts Lockhart and Gulistan. It is memorable for the stout defence made by its garrison of 21 sepoys of the 36th Sikhs in 1897. Saraghari, a mere mud block-house with a wooden door and a dead-angle, was held for six and a half hours against seven or eight thousand Orakzais, till the 21 Sikhs were finally overwhelmed and killed to a man. A memorial in commemoration was unveiled at Ferozepore in 1904.