OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mehta, Sir Pherozeshah Merwanji

See also Pherozeshah Mehta on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
MEHTA, SIR PHEROZESHAH MERWANJI (1845-1915), Indian Moderate leader and municipal reformer, was the son of a Bombay merchant. Educated at the Elphinstone College, he
was the first Parsi M.A. of Bombay University, and coming to London to read at Lincoln's Inn was also the first Parsi to be called (1868) to the bar. With Dadabhai Naoroji he founded the organization which grew into the present East India Association. Returning to Bombay he rapidly made a name as an advocate and built up a fortune at the bar. Appointed in 1869 as Justice of the Peace, to participate in municipal affairs, he eagerly promoted the reform of civic administration begun in 1872, from which date he served on the new Bombay Corporation till his death. Through these 43 years he exercised wisely an extraordinary personal ascendency in that body and was four times president. He was also the dominant non-official figure in the Bombay Legislature, where he served for over 30 years. He represented its non-official members on the Supreme Legislature for three triennial terms to 1902, when he made way for G. K. Gokhale. One of the founders of the Indian National Congress, he presided at the Calcutta session of 1890. A stout opponent of violent methods, he did perhaps more than anyone else to stave off the complete triumph the extreme section in the Congress secured soon after his death. Most influential in the affairs of the Bombay University, he was in the last few months of his life vice-chancellor. A great orator, with remarkable gifts for managing men, his steadfast devotion to local and provincial reform and progress, while not irresponsive to wider calls, had a most valuable influence in moulding nascent Indian public life. Created a C.I.E. in 1894, he was advanced to the knighthood of the Order 10 years later. In the last year of his life, in spite of declining health, he threw his great influence strongly on the side of full Indian coöperation with the rest of the Empire in the World War. He died in Bombay Nov. 5 1915.
See the political biography by H. P. Mody (2 vols. 1921). Much light is thrown on Mehta's services to his native city in Rise and Growth of Bombay Municipal Government (1913), by his most intimate friend and co-worker, Sir Dinshaw Wacha.
(F. H. Br.)
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Marshall, Thomas Riley

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MARSHALL, THOMAS RILEY (1854- ), American politician, was born at North Manchester, Ind., March 14 1854. He was educated at Wabash College (A.B. 1873; A.M. 1876) and was admitted to the bar in 1875. From 1876 to 1909 he practised law in Columbia City, Ind., and from 1909 to 1913 was governor of Indiana. He was nominated for vice-president on the ticket with Woodrow Wilson at the Democratic National Convention in 1912 and was elected. He was again nominated with President Wilson in 1916 and elected for the term 1917-21. For almost two years after the outbreak of the World War he urged strict neutrality, but in 1918 publicly expressed regret for this attitude. In 1919 he welcomed the King and Queen of Belgium on their visit to Washington during the illness of President Wilson. He was a strong advocate of the League of Nations, but did not favour woman suffrage.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Masters, Edgar Lee

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MASTERS, EDGAR LEE (1868-), American writer, was born at Garnett, Kan., Aug. 23 1868. At the age of 21 he entered Knox College, Ill., but left after one year to read law in his father's office. He was admitted to the bar in 1891 and practised thereafter in Chicago. For several years he was associated with Clarence S. Darrow, known as counsel for labour leaders. He was a member of the National Institute of Art and Letters. The book that first brought him public notice was Spoon River Anthology, published in 1915, an extraordinary collection of epitaphs on members, in all walks of life, of a mid-western town. Within three years 50,000 copies were sold. Like much of the modern “realistic” literature it over-emphasizes pathological accidents and ignores the sane and permanent essence of life.
His other works include: The New Star Chamber, and Other Essays (1904); Blood of the Prophets (1905); Songs and Satires (1916); The Great Valley (1916); Toward the Gulf (1918); Starved Rock (1919); Domesday Book (1920) and Mitch Miller (1920); The Open Sea (1921); besides several plays, Maximilian (1902); Althea (1907); The Trifler (1908); The Locket (1910); and The Bread of Idleness (1911).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/McAdoo, William Gibbs

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McADOO, WILLIAM GIBBS (1863-), American public official, was born near Marietta, Ga., Oct. 31 1863. He entered the university of Tennessee but did not finish his course. In 1882 he became a clerk in the U.S. Circuit Court of Chattanooga, read law, and three years later was admitted to the bar. He at once began practice in Chattanooga but in 1892 removed to New York City. There he became interested in the problem of passenger transportation. As early as 1874 a tunnel under the Hudson river from Hoboken to New York had been started but abandoned because of seemingly insuperable difficulties of construction. In 1902 he formed a company which took over the abandoned tunnel and in March 1904 this tunnel was completed. Later the system was extended to connect with the Erie and Pennsylvania terminals in Jersey City, and in 1909 the tunnel under the Hudson river to downtown New York was finished. In 1912 he was vice-chairman of the Democratic National Committee and during most of the campaign was acting chairman because of the illness of Chairman McCombs. He was a strong supporter of Woodrow Wilson for president; and on the latter's election he was appointed, in 1913, Secretary of the Treasury. In this position he contributed largely to the working-out of the new Federal Reserve Banks system. He was chairman of the committee which divided the country into 12 Federal Reserve districts and selected the centres for the 12 banks; and was likewise chairman of the Federal Reserve Board which had supervision over the system inaugurated in Nov. 1914. He was also chairman ex officio of the Federal Farm Loan Board. In 1915 he brought about the meeting of the Pan-American Financial Congress in Washington and the organization of the International High Commission, of which he was chairman, for improving trade relations of the United States with Central and S. America. At the outbreak of the World War in Europe he favoured strict neutrality. After America's entrance into the war he was called upon to raise unprecedented sums of money. He was successful in floating four Liberty Loans between May 1917 and Oct. 1918, amounting in all to more than $16,000,000,000. He also secured the creation of a Bureau of War Risk Insurance for shipping, later extended to include life insurance for soldiers and sailors in the World War. He was the first Secretary of the Treasury to require national banks to pay interest on all Government deposits. When the railways were taken over by the Federal Government in 1917 he was appointed director-general. He favoured the League of Nations and woman suffrage, and likewise the prohibition amendment. He resigned the secretaryship of the Treasury in Dec. 1918 and the directorship of railways the following January. He then resumed the practice of law in New York City. In 1885 he was married to Miss Sarah Fleming of Chattanooga, who died in 1912. In 1914 he married Miss Eleanor Wilson, a daughter of the President.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schultze, Max Johann Sigismund

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​SCHULTZE, MAX JOHANN SIGISMUND (1825–1874), German microscopic anatomist, was born at Freiburg in Breisgau (Baden) on the 25th of March 1825. He studied medicine at Greifswald and Berlin, and was appointed extraordinary professor at Halle in 1854 and five years later ordinary professor of anatomy and histology and director of the Anatomical Institute at Bonn. He died at Bonn on the 16th of January 1874. He founded, in 1865, and edited the important Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, to which he contributed many papers, and he advanced the subject generally, by refining on its technical methods. His works included Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der Turbellarien (1851), Über den Organismus der Polythalamien (1854), Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Landplanarien (1857), Zur Kenntnis der elektrischen Organe der Fische (1858) and Zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Retina (1866). His name is especially known for his work on the cell theory. Uniting F. Dujardin's conception of animal sarcode with H. von Mom's of vegetable protoplasma, he pointed out their identity, and included them under the common name of protoplasm, defining the cell as “a nucleated mass of protoplasm with or without a cell-wall” (Das Protoplasma der Rhizopoden und der Pflanzenzellen; ein Beitrag zur Theorie der Zelle, 1863).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schurman, Jacob Gould

See also Jacob Gould Schurman on Wikipedia; the 1922 update; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854-), American educationist, was born at Freetown, Prince Edward Island, on the 22nd of May 1854, of Dutch descent, his Loyalist ancestors having left New York in 1784. While a student at Acadia College, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, in 1875, he won the Canadian Gilchrist scholarship in the University of London, from which he received the degree of B.A. in 1877 and that of M.A. in 1878, and in 1877-1880 studied in Paris, Edinburgh and (as Hibbert Fellow) in Heidelberg, Berlin and Göttingen. He was professor of English literature, political economy and psychology at Acadia College in 1880-1882, of metaphysics and English literature at Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S., in 1882-1886, and of philosophy (Sage professor) at Cornell University in 1886-1892, being Dean of the Sage School of Philosophy in 1891-1892. In 1892 he became president of Cornell University. He was chairman of the First United States Philippine Commission in 1899, and wrote (besides a part of the official report to Congress) Philippine Affairs—A Retrospect and an Outlook (1902). With J. E. Creighton and James Seth he founded in 1892 The Philosophical Review. He also wrote Kantian Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution (1881); The Ethical Import of Darwinism (1888); Belief in God (1890), and Agnosticism and Religion (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schwabach

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​SCHWABACH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, 9 m. by rail S. of Nuremberg. Pop. (1905) 10,342. It has the interesting Evangelical church of St John, built in the 15th century, with carvings by Veit Stoss, paintings by Wohlgemut, Martin Schön and others, and a ciborium by Adam Kraft; a fountain, the Schöne Brunnen, and several schools. Schwabach is the chief seat of the needle manufacture in Bavaria; its other industries include gold and silver wire work, brewing and the making of soap and earthenware. Schwabach was purchased in 1364 by the burgrave of Nuremberg.
See Petzoldt, Chronik der Stadt Schwabach (Schwabach, 1854).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schumacher, Heinrich Christian

See also Heinrich Christian Schumacher on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SCHUMACHER, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1780–1850), German astronomer, was born at Bramstedt in Holstein on the 3rd of September 1780. He was director of the Mannheim observatory from 1813 to 1815, and then became professor of astronomy in Copenhagen. From 1817 he directed the triangulation of Holstein, to which a few years later was added a complete geodetic survey of Denmark (finished after his death). For the sake of the survey an observatory was established at Altona, and Schumacher resided there permanently, chiefly occupied with the publication of Ephemerides (11 parts, 1822–1832) and of the journal Astronomische Nachrichten, of which he edited thirty-one volumes. He died at Altona on the 28th of December 1850.
His son, Richard Schumacher (1827–1902), was his assistant from 1844 to 1850 at the conservatory at Altona. Having become assistant to Carlos Guillelmo Moesta (1825–1884), director of the observatory at Santiago, in 1859, he was associated with the Chilean geodetic survey in 1864. Returning in 1869, he was appointed assistant astronomer at Altona in 1873, and afterwards at Kiel.
H. C. Schumacher's nephew, Christian Andreas Schumacher (1810–1854), was associated with the geodetic survey of Denmark from 1833 to 1838, and afterwards (1844–1845) improved the observatory at Pulkowa.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schwabe, Samuel Heinrich

See also Heinrich Schwabe on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SCHWABE, SAMUEL HEINRICH (1789–1875), German astronomer, was born on the 25th of October 1789 at Dessau, where he died on the 11th of April 1875. At first an apothecary, he turned his attention to astronomy, and in 1826 commenced his observations on sun-spots. In 1843 he made the suggestion of a probable ten year period (i.e. that at every tenth year the number of spots reached a maximum), but it met with scant approval, and he continued his observations, which were ​afterwards utilized in 1851 by Humboldt in the third volume of his Kosmos. The periodicity of sun-spots is now fully recognized (see SUN); and to Schwabe is thus due the credit of one of the most important discoveries in astronomy. See H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schultz, Hermann

See also Hermann Schultz on Wikipedia; the 1922 update; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836–), German Protestant theologian, was born at Lüchow in Hanover on the 30th of December 1836. He studied at Göttingen and Erlangen, became professor at Basel in 1864, and eventually (1876) professor ordinarius at Göttingen. Here he has also held the appointments of chief university preacher, councillor to the consistory (from 1881) and abbot of Bursfelde (1890). Professor Schultz’s theological standpoint was that of a moderate liberal. “It is thought by many that he has succeeded in discovering the via media between the positions of Biblical scholars like Delitzsch on the one hand and Stade on the other” (Prof. J. A. Paterson). He is well known to British and American students as the author of an excellent work on Old Testament Theology (2 vols., 1869, 5th ed., 1896; Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1895). ​In his work on the doctrine of the Divinity of Christ (Die Lehre von der Gottheit Christi, 1881) he follows the method of Ritschl, and contends that the deity of Christ ought to be understood as the expression of the experience of the Christian community. In his own person and work Christ represents to the community a personal revelation of God. Faith in the divinity of Christ does not rest upon a miracle in nature, but upon a miracle in the moral world.
Schultz’s other works include: Die Stellung des christl. Glaubens zur heiligen Schrift (1876; 2nd ed., 1877), Lehre vom heiligen Abendmahl (1886); Grundriss der evang. Dogmatik (1890; 2nd ed., 1892), Grundriss der evang. Ethik (2nd ed., 1897), and Grundriss der christl. Apologetik (2nd ed., 1902).
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang T'ing-yü

​115Chang T'ing-yü 張廷玉 (T. 衡臣 and 硯齋). A.D. 1670-1756. The first Chinese who under the present dynasty was honoured with a place in the Imperial Temple. Graduating in 1700, his ​learning and ability soon brought him to the front; and by 1726 he had risen to be a Grand Secretary. He was one of the first Ministers of the Grand Council, instituted in 1729. He was tutor to the Imperial princes under the Emperors Yung Chêng and Ch'ien Lung, and enjoyed extraordinary favour. In 1734 he was ennobled as Viscount, and in 1738 as Earl; but he lost his title for not presenting his thanks in person on his retirement. From 1706 to 1737 he was virtually Prime Minister of China, in addition to which he was entrusted with the preparation of the History of the Mings, a work which he and his colleagues laid before the Emperor in 1742. His 傳經堂集 was destroyed by fire, but his 潑懷園文 survives. He was canonised as 文和 .
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Tsao

​118 Chang Tsao 張璪 or 張藻 (T. 文通) A famous artist of the T'ang dynasty, especially good at trees, rocks, and landscape. He used the worn-out stump of a brush, or his finger, to rub on the ink; and he is said to have been able to handle two of these at the same time, with one depicting the living, with the other the dead branches and leaves. Author of the 繪境言畫要訣.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Tsu (張祖)

​119 Chang Tsu 張祖. (T. 太伯). Died A.D. 355. Son of Chang Chün. He deposed and put to death his nephew 張曜靈 Chang Yao-ling, the son and legal successor to Chang Ch'ung-hua, and usurped the Imperial title. His outrageous cruelty led to his murder by one of his kinsmen.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang T'ien-hsi

​114Chang T'ien-hsi 張天錫 (T. 純嘏). Died A.D. 376. A younger son of Chang Chün. He poisoned his nephew Chang Hsüan-ching, and usurped his titles. After a life of riot and debauchery, he surrendered in 376 to Fu Chien and his allies at the city of 金昌 Chin-ch'ang in Honan. With him ended the dynasty of the Former Liang$^a$.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Tsai (張載, 11th c.)

​117 Chang Tsai 張載 (T. 子厚 H. 橫渠). A.D. 1020-1076. Son of Chang Ti, who died when he was quite young, and a native of 大梁 Ta-liang in Honan. As a boy he was devoted to military studies; but at the age of twenty he came under the notice of Fan Chung-yen, who urged him to study the Doctrine of the Mean. He then became a public teacher, and used to lecture, sitting upon a tiger's skin. Confucianism failing to satisfy his ​spiritual needs, he turned towards Buddhism and Taoism; however, in 1056 his mind was so much influenced by the discourses of his nephews, Ch'êng Hao and Ch'êng I, that he returned home to continue his more legitimate studies, and in the following year graduated as chin shih. After holding various appointments, he retired in ill-health, and lived quietly in the country, dividing his time between study and instruction. About 1068 he was recalled to the capital; but his tenure of office was of short duration. He retired in disgust that his advice was not taken by Wang An-shih, and died on his way home. His chief work was the 正蒙, containing his theories as to the origin of the universe, and notes on Buddhist and Taoist doctrines. He also wrote the inscriptions on moral sentiment known as 東銘 and 西銘, from the positions they occupied in his study. He was ennobled as Earl, and canonised as 明; and in 1241 his tablet was placed in the Confucian Temple.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Tao-ling

​112Chang Tao-ling 張道陵 (T. 輔漢). A.D. 84-156. A native of the 天目 T'ien-mu hill in Chehkiang. A precocious child, he is said to have mastered the philosophy of Lao Tzŭ by the time he was seven years old. Declining to take office, he retired to the mountains, and devoted himself to the study of alchemy. On one occasion he went to Ssŭch'uan to drive out troublesome demons. He spent much of his time at the 上清宮 Perfectly Pure Palace on Mt. 龍處 Lung-hu in Kiangsi; and at length, having discovered the elixir of life, he solemnly swallowed a dose, and ascended as an Immortal to the skies. He was ennobled as Marquis by the Emperor Chang Ti, and is said to have been the first Taoist "Pope" (see K'ou Chien-chih).
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Ts'ung

​122Chang Ts'ung 𡩩璁 (T. 秉用). A.D. 1475-1539. A native of Yung-chia in Chehkiang, who after failing seven times to obtain the chü jen degree, graduated as chin shih in 1521. By supporting the desire of the Emperor Shih Tsung to have his father canonised as 本生父興獻帝, while the general body of officials urged that the Emperor must recognise his predecessor alone as his (adopted) father, Chang obtained rapid promotion, along with Kuei O. By backing his master's views on all points of music and ceremony — the Emperor's hobbies — he gained such further favour that in 1527 he became a Grand Secretary. He was now able to wreak his vengeance on the Han-lin doctors who had at first ignored him. In 1529 he was denounced for arrogance and dismissed, only to be immediately reinstated as Prime Minister. He then came into conflict with Hsia Yen, and after a stormy term of office he retired in ill-health in 1535. The Emperor never wavered in his affection for Chang, who was able to effect some reforms, such as the abolition of eunuch Commandants. He was himself clean-handed, and put down bribery to a great extent; ​but he was vindictive, and persecuted his opponents. In 1581 he was allowed to change his personal name, which resembled that of the Emperor, to 孚敬 (T. 茂恭). Canonised as 文忠.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Ti

​113Chang Ti 張迪. 11th cent. A.D. Father of the famous Chang Tsai, and an official under the reign of the Emperor Jen Tsung of the Sung dynasty, A.D. 1023-1064. Admitted to the Confucian Temple in 1724.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Ti (Liu Ta)

​Chang Ti. See Liu Ta.
# A Chinese Biographical Dictionary/Chang Tsai (張載, 3rd c.)

​116 Chang Tsai 張載 (T. 孟陽). 3rd cent. A.D. A native of 安平 An-p'ing, famous for an inscription he wrote in A.D. 280 at 劍閣 Chien-ko, on the top of the pass into modern Ssŭch'uan, calling on the people of that province to trust more to virtue than to their mountain walls. This inscription was brought to the notice of the Emperor Wu Ti, who caused it to be engraved on the face of the mountain at the pass. Chang received a government appointment, and rose to be secretary in the establishment of the Heir Apparent. But political disturbances caused him to weary of office, and he retired into private life. He was also noted for his ugliness, which was so exaggerated that whenever he went out of doors the children used to pelt him with stones.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Tⁿie
### Tⁿie.
#### 塲$^{-1}$

    An arena or open space for sacrifices, military and literary contests, &c.

#### 張$^1$

    To draw the string of a bow; to spread out; a numberal of things which spread out. ​

#### 長$^1$

    Long; aged; elevated; to grow; increase.

#### 丈$^{-3}$

    Father-in-law; uncle; an aged person.

#### 帳$^{3-}$

    Curtain; to spread out; a tent.

#### 脹$^{3-}$

    Swelling of the abdomen.

#### 賬$^{3-}$

    To draw out accounts; reckon up; an account book.

#### 漲$^{3-}$

    Water extending and rising; higher; an inundation.

#### 釣$^{3-}$

    To catch fish with a hook.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Tⁿoa
### Tⁿoa.
#### 壇$^{-1}$

    An altar; an arena; a platform.

#### 單$^1$

    Single; alone; only; entirely; sincerely; credible.

#### 憚$^{-3}$

    Distress; afraid; wearied; difficulty.

#### 惰$^{-3}$

    Remiss; lazy; lounging; disrespectful.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Ue
### Ue.
#### 鍋$^1$

    An earthen rice pot; a pot for boiling food.

#### 劃$^1$

    A style or pointed instrument; to mark; split open.

#### 衛$^{-3}$

    To escort; protect; a military station.

#### 話$^3$

    Words; speech; conversation; to talk; to tell.

#### 尉$^{3-}$

    Name of an office; to settle tranquilize.

#### 慰$^{3-}$

    To soothe; console; comfort.

#### 蔚$^{3-}$

    Name of a plant; luxuriant foliage; thick and gloomy.

#### 噦$^{3-}$

    The breath rising; to belch; voice of a bird; wide; light.

#### 穢$^{3-}$

    Vice; filth; unclean; indecent; lewd; to defile.

#### 畫$^{3-}$畵$^{3-}$

    To mark; draw a line; to paint; draw pictures; to draw plants; device. Jip tone; a line; a mark.
# A Chinese and English vocabulary, in the Tie-chiu dialect/Tⁿi
### Tⁿi.
#### 縝$^{-1}$

    Silk prepared but not woven; close; thick; black.