OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse

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​KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE (1808–1890), French critic and novelist, was born in Paris, on the 24th of November 1808, and after being educated at the Collège Bourbon, became a teacher there. In 1832 he published a novel, Sous les tilleuls, characterized by an attractive originality and a delightful freshness of personal sentiment. A second novel, Une heure trop tard, followed next year, and was succeeded by many other popular works. His Vendredi soir (1835) and Le Chemin le plus court (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance with which he had made his first success. Géneviève (1838) is one of his best stories, and his Voyage autour de mon jardin (1845) was deservedly popular. Others were Feu Bressier (1848), and Fort en thème (1853), which had some influence in stimulating educational reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who was essentially a brilliant journalist, became editor of Le Figaro, to which he had been a constant contributor; and he also started a monthly journal, Les Guêpes, of a keenly satirical tone, a publication which brought him the reputation of a somewhat bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently quoted; e.g. “plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose,” and, on the proposal to abolish capital punishment, “je veux bien que messieurs les assassins commencent.” In 1848 he founded Le Journal. In 1855 he went to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections for floriculture, and gave his name to more than one new variety. Indeed he practically founded the trade in cut flowers on the Riviera. He was also devoted to fishing, and in Les Soirées de Sainte-Adresse (1853) and Au bord de la mer (1860) he made use of his experiences. His reminiscences, Livre de bord, were published in 1879–1880. He died at St Raphaël (Var), on the 29th of September 1890.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kars (town)

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​KARS, a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the province of Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzerum. It is situated in 40° 37′ N. and 43° 6′ E., 185 m. by rail S.W. of Tiflis, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli-dagh, above the deep ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary of the Aras. Pop. (1878), 8672; (1897), 20,891. There are three considerable suburbs—Orta-kapi to the S., Bairam Pasha to the E., and Timur Pasha on the western side of the river. At the N.W. corner of the town, overhanging the river, is the ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong military post, but completely commanded by the surrounding eminences. The place is, however, still defended by a fort and batteries. There is a 10th century cathedral, Kars being the see of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church. Coarse woollens, carpets and felt are manufactured.
During the 9th and 10th centuries the seat of an independent Armenian principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century, by the Mongols in the 13th, and by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1387. The citadel, it would appear, was built by Sultan Murad III. during the war with Persia, at the close of the 16th century. It was strong enough to withstand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and in 1807 it successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it surrendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count I. F. Paskevich, 11,000 men becoming prisoners of war. During the Crimean War the Turkish garrison, guided by General Williams (Sir W. Fenwick Williams of Kars) and other foreign officers, kept the Russians at bay during a protracted siege; but, after the garrison had been devastated by cholera, and food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to capitulate (Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians in the war of 1877–78, and on its conclusion was transferred to Russia.
See Kmety, The Defence of Kars (1856), translated from the German; H. A. Lake, Kars and our Captivity in Russia (London, 1856); and Narrative of the Defence of Kars (London, 1857); Dr Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856); C. B. Norman, Armenia and the Campaign of 1877 (London, 1878); Greene, Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kartikeya

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​KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his birth there are various legends. One relates that he had no mother but was produced by Siva alone, and was suckled by six nymphs of the Ganges, being miraculously endowed with six faces that he might simultaneously obtain nourishment from each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously conceived, were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of Siva, in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet, eyes, &c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader of the armies of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock. In southern India he is known as Subramanya.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hecato of Rhodes

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​HECATO OF RHODES, Greek Stoic philosopher and disciple of Panaetius (Cicero, De officiis, iii. 15). Nothing else is known of his life, but it is clear that he was eminent amongst the Stoics of the period. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains. A list is preserved by Diogenes, who mentions works on Duty, Good, Virtues, Ends. The first, dedicated to Tubero, is eulogized by Cicero in the De officiis, and Seneca refers to him frequently in the De beneficiis. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he divided the virtues into two kinds, those founded on scientific intellectual principles (i.e. wisdom and justice), and those which have no such basis (e.g. temperance and the resultant health and vigour). Cicero shows that he was much interested in casuistical questions, as, for example, whether a good man who had received a coin which he knew to be bad was justified in passing it on to another. On the whole, his moral attitude is cynical, and he is inclined to regard self-interest as the best criterion. This he modifies by explaining that self-interest is based on the relationships of life; a man needs money for the sake of his children, his friends and the state whose general prosperity depends on the wealth of its citizens. Like the earlier Stoics, Cleanthes and Chrysippus, he held that virtue may be taught. (See Stoics and Panaetius.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hebron

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​HEBRON (mod. Khulīl er-Rahmān, i.e. “the friend of the Merciful One”—an allusion to Abraham), a city of Palestine some 20 m. S. by S.W. of Jerusalem. The city, which lies 3040 ft. above the sea, is of extreme antiquity (see Num. xiii. 22, and Josephus, War, iv. 9, 7) and until taken by the Calebites (Josh. xv. 13) bore the name Kirjath-Arba. Biblical traditions connect it closely with the patriarch Abraham and make it a “city of refuge.” The town figures prominently under David as the headquarters of his early rule, the scene of Abner’s murder ​and the centre of Absalom’s rebellion. In later days the Edomites held it for a time, but Judas Maccabaeus recovered it. It was destroyed in the great war under Vespasian. In A.D. 1167 Hebron became the see of a Latin bishop, and it was taken in 1187 by Saladin. In 1834 it joined the rebellion against Ibrahim Pasha, who took the town and pillaged it. Modern Hebron rises on the east slope of a shallow valley—a long narrow town of stone houses, the flat roofs having small stone domes. The main quarter is about 700 yds. long, and two smaller groups of houses exist north and south of this. The hill behind is terraced, and luxuriant vineyards and fruit plantations surround the place, which is well watered on the north by three principal springs, including the Well Sirah, now ʽAin Sāra (2 Sam. iii. 26). Three conspicuous minarets rise, two from the Haram, the other in the north quarter. The population (10,000) includes Moslems and about 500 Jews. The Bedouins bring wool and camel’s hair to the market; and glass bracelets, lamps and leather water-skins are manufactured in the town. The most conspicuous building is the Haram built over the supposed site of the cave of Machpelah. It is an enclosure measuring 112 ft. east and west by 198 north and south, surrounded with high rampart walls of masonry similar in size and dressing to that of the Jerusalem Haram walls. These ramparts are ascribed by architectural authorities to the Herodian period. The interior area is partly occupied by a 12th-century Gothic church, and contains six modern cenotaphs of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca and Leah. The cave beneath the platform has probably not been entered for at least 600 years. The numerous traditional sites now shown round Hebron are traceable generally to medieval legendary topography; they include the Oak of Mamre (Gen. xiii. 18 R.V.) which has at various times been shown in different positions from 3/4 to 2 m. from the town.
There are a British medical mission, a German Protestant mission with church and schools, and, near Abraham’s Oak, a Russian mission. Since 1880 several notices of the Haram, within which are the tombs of the Patriarchs, have appeared.
See C. R. Conder, Pal. Exp. Fund, Memoirs, iii. 333, &c.; Riant, Archives de l’orient latin, ii. 411, &c.; Dalton and Chaplin, P. E. F. Quarterly Statement (1897); Goldziher, “Das Patriarchengrab in Hebron,” in Zeitschrift d. Dn. Pal. Vereins, xvii. (R. A. S. M.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hecataeus of Miletus

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​HECATAEUS OF MILETUS (6th-5th century B.C.), Greek historian, son of Hegesander, flourished during the time of the Persian invasion. After having travelled extensively, he settled in his native city, where he occupied a high position, and devoted his time to the composition of geographical and historical works. When Aristagoras held a council of the leading Ionians at Miletus, to organize a revolt against the Persian rule, Hecataeus in vain tried to dissuade his countrymen from the undertaking (Herodotus v. 36, 125). In 494, when the defeated Ionians were obliged to sue for terms, he was one of the ambassadors to the Persian satrap Artaphernes, whom he persuaded to restore the constitution of the Ionic cities (Diod. Sic. x. 25). He is by some credited with a work entitled Γῆς περίοδος (“Travels round the Earth”), in two books, one on Europe, the other on Asia, in which were described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being especially comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander’s map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The authenticity of the work is, however, strongly attacked by J. Wells in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxix. pt. i. 1909. The only certainly genuine work of Hecataeus was the Γενεηλογίαι or Ἱστορίαι, a systematic account of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks. He was probably the first to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and the other poets as trustworthy authority. Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus not only for facts, but also in regard of method and general scheme, but the extent of the debt depends on the genuineness of the Γῆς περίοδος.
See fragments in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, i.; H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen (1903); E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i.; W. Mure, History of Greek Literature, iv.; especially J. V. Prašek, Hekataios als Herodots Quelle zur Geschichte Vorderasiens. Beiträge zur alten Geschichte (Klio), iv. 193 seq. (1904), and J. Wells in Journ. Hell. Stud., as above.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hecataeus of Abdera

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​HECATAEUS OF ABDERA (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic philosopher, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He accompanied Ptolemy I. Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sailed up the Nile with him as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laërtius ix. 61). The result of his travels was set down by him in two works—Αἰγυπτιακά and Περὶ Ὑπερβορέων, which were used by Diodorus Siculus. According to Suidas, he also wrote a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his authorship of a work on the Jews (utilized by Josephus in Contra Apionem), it is conjectured that portions of the Αἰγυπτιακά were revised by a Hellenistic Jew from his point of view and published as a special work.
Fragments in C. W. Müller’s Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Middletown (Ohio)

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​MIDDLETOWN, a city of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami river, 34 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 7681; (1900), 9215, of whom 769 were foreign-born and 314 were negroes; (1910) 13,152. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern (New York Central system), and a branch of the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system) railways. It is the trade centre of a rich and beautiful agricultural region in which tobacco, wheat and Indian corn are the principal crops. The river furnishes considerable water-power and the total factory product in 1905 was valued at $8,357,993, an increase of 47·2 % over that in 1900. The Waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. Middletown was laid out in 1802 and was named from its location between Cincinnati and Dayton; it was incorporated in 1833.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Middletown (New York)

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​MIDDLETOWN, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., on the Wallkill river, 67 m. N.N.W. of New York City. Pop. (1890) 11,977; (1900) 14,522, including 1700 foreign-born and 480 negroes; (1905, state census) 14,516; (1910) 15,313. It is served by the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New York, Ontario & Western railways, and is connected by an electric line with Goshen (pop. in 1910, 3081), the county-seat. It is situated in an attractive dairy and agricultural country; and in the city and vicinity there are many summer residences. Here are the state homoeopathic hospital for the insane, a state armoury, Thrall hospital, and Thrall library. Middletown is primarily a manufacturing city, and has the car shops of the New York, Ontario & Western railway. The value of its factory products increased from $2,154,742 in 1900 to $3,356,330 in 1905, or 55·8 %. The municipality owns and operates its Waterworks. Middletown was settled about 1796 and owed its early commercial importance to its being a “half-way house” (whence its name) for travellers on the Minisink Road to western New York, and it was for a time a terminus of the Erie railroad. It was incorporated as a village in 1848, and first chartered as a city in 1888.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Middlesex, Lionel Cranfield

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​MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, 1st Earl of (1575–1645), was a successful London merchant, who was introduced to King James I. by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and entered the royal service in 1605. In 1613 he was knighted and was appointed surveyor-general of customs; in 1616 he became one of the masters of requests, and in 1619 master of the court of wards and liveries and chief commissioner of the navy. He was returned to parliament as member for Hythe in 1614 and for Arundel in 1621. Cranfield, who was also master of the wardrobe, was responsible for many economies in the public service, and his business acumen was very useful to the king. He took part in the attack on Bacon in 1621, and although, contrary to general expectation, he did not succeed Bacon as lord chancellor, he was created Baron Cranfield in July of this year. In 1621 also he became lord high treasurer, and in September 1622 was created earl of Middlesex, losing his positions and influence shortly afterwards because he opposed the projected war with Spain, and had incurred the hostility of Prince Charles and George Villiers, duke of Buckingham. Impeached by the House of Commons for corruption, he was found guilty by the House of Lords in May 1624 and was sentenced to lose all his offices, to pay a heavy fine and to be imprisoned during the king’s pleasure. However, he was released from prison in a few days, was pardoned in the following year, and was restored to his seat in the House of Lords in 1640. The earl’s second wife was Anne Brett (d. 1670). a cousin of Buckingham’s mother, whom he married somewhat reluctantly in 1621 in order to ensure Buckingham’s support. Middlesex died on the 6th of August 1645, leaving with other issue a son James (1621–1651), 2nd earl of Middlesex, who was a partisan of the parliamentary party during the Civil War. James was succeeded by his brother, Lionel, and when this earl died in October 1674 his titles became extinct. The first earl’s daughter Frances married Richard Sackville, 5th earl of Dorset, and their son Charles was created earl of Middlesex in 1675. Two years later he became earl of Dorset, and the title of earl of Middlesex was borne by the earls and dukes of Dorset until 1843.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Middleton

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​MIDDLETON, a market town and municipal borough in the Middleton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Irk, near the Rochdale Canal, and on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, 6 m. N.N.E. from Manchester. Pop. (1901), 25,178. The church of St Leonards is of mixed architecture, with a low square tower. The oldest portion of the building (the tower arch) dates from the 12th century, but the main portion from 1412, and the south aisle from 1524. Two chapels in it contain memorials of, and are named after, two ancient Lancashire families, the Asshetons and the Hopwoods. The Queen Elizabeth grammar-school, a building in the Tudor style, was founded in 1572 by Nowell, dean of St Paul’s, London. There are a handsome town-hall and municipal technical schools. An extensive system of tramways and electric light railways connects the town with its suburbs and adjacent industrial centres. The prosperity of the town dates from the introduction of manufactures at the close of the 18th century. The staple trade is the spinning and weaving of cotton, and the other industries include silk weaving, calico-printing, bleaching, dyeing, iron-founding and the manufacture of soap and chemicals. There are collieries in the neighbourhood. The town was incorporated in 1886, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4775 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Middleton, Arthur

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​MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (1742–1787), American politician and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Middleton Place on the Ashley river, South Carolina, on the 26th of June 1742. His family was one of the most prominent in the colony. The grandfather, Arthur Middleton (1681–1737), was president of the Council in 1721–1730 and as such was acting governor in 1725–1730, and the father, Henry Middleton (1717–1784), was speaker of the Assembly in 1745–1747 and again in 1754–1755, a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774–1776, and its president from October 1774 to May 1775, a member of the South Carolina Committee of Safety, and in 1775 president of the South Carolina Provincial Congress. Like most Wealthy South Carolinians of the 18th century, Arthur Middleton was educated in England—at Hackney, at Westminster School, and at St John’s College, Cambridge. He then returned to South Carolina, but soon afterwards went back to England to live, and travelled on the Continent. In 1773 he again returned to South Carolina, and in the controversies between the colonists and the home government became a leader of the Whigs. He was a member of the provincial Council of Safety in 1775–1776, and a. delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776–1777. In 1778 he was elected governor of South Carolina, but owing to his dissatisfaction with the new state constitution he declined to serve. He was captured by the British at Charleston in May 1780, was exchanged in July 1781, was again a delegate to Congress in 1781–1783, and later served in the state legislature. He died on the 1st of January 1787 at Middleton Place, near Charleston.
His eldest son, Henry Middleton (1770–1846), was an orator of ability, was governor of South Carolina in 1810–1812, a representative in Congress in 1815–1819, and the United States minister to Russia from 1820 to 1830, negotiating in 1824 a convention “relative to navigation, fishing and trading in the Pacific Ocean, and to establishments on the North-West Coast.” This was the first treaty between the United States and Russia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Connor, Feargus Edward

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​O’CONNOR, FEARGUS EDWARD (1794–1855), Chartist leader, was a son of the Irish Nationalist politician Roger O’Connor (1762–1834), and nephew of Arthur O’Connor (1763–1852), who was the agent in France for Emmet’s rebellion; both belonged to the “United Irishmen.” He entered parliament as member for the county of Cork in 1832. Though a zealous supporter of repeal, he endeavoured to supplant O’Connell as the leader of the party, an attempt which aroused against him the popular antipathy of the Irish. In 1835 he was unseated on petition, and after standing unsuccessfully for Oldham he took to stumping England in favour of the new Radical doctrines of the day, and the use of physical force for their adoption. In 1837 he established the Northern Star newspaper at Leeds, and became a vehement advocate of the Chartist movement. He was imprisoned for seditious libel in 1840, and after his release became prominent for his attack on John Bright, and the anti-corn-law league. In 1847 he was returned for Nottingham, and in 1848 he presided at a Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, which caused great alarm (see Chartism). But the projected march on Westminster fizzled out when the preparations made to receive it became known. The eccentricity which had characterized his opinions from the beginning of his career gradually became more marked until they developed into insanity. He began to conduct himself in a disorderly manner in the House of Commons, and in 1852 he was found to be of unsound mind by a commission of lunacy. He died at London on the 30th of August 1855, and was buried in Kensal Green cemetery.