OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pound

See also Sovereign (British coin) and Pound (mass) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pound, the English form of the Latin word, pondus, meaning weight, is now used in two distinct senses, first, a gold coin having the value of 20 shillings and, second, a standard of mass, equivalent to 7000. grains or 0.45359265 kilograms. The standard pound is not a “weight,” but a “mass,” and is kept at the Standard's office in London. The pound described above is the avoirdupois pound; the troy pound used only rarely by dealers in precious stones and metals has 5760. grains. The old English pound, which is said to have been the standard of weight from William the Conqueror to Henry VII, was derived from the weight of 7,680 grains of wheat all taken from the middle of the ear and well-dried. The pound weight of silver, the common money standard among the ancient Romans, was introduced by them into the countries which they conquered, and thus the term “pound” became the designation of a certain amount of coined money. The English pound is now considered as the simple equivalent in value of 20 shillings; but it originally denoted the actual pound of silver that was coined into 20 shillings. From the time of Edward II the coins were more and more diminished in size until the reign of George I, when the pound (in weight) of silver was coined into 66 shillings; and this rate still continues, the term “pound” meaning 20 of these shillings.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pottsville, Pa.

See also Pottsville, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Potts′ville, Pa., a borough, the capital of Schuylkill County, on the river of the same name, in the rich anthracite regions, 35 miles northwest of Reading and 92 northwest of Philadelphia. It was at Pottsville furnaces that hard coal was first successfully used for smelting purposes in 1839; it continues to be notable not only as a shipping-point for anthracite but as an industrial center; there are rolling, spike and planing mills, stove foundries, nut and bolt factories, machine and engine shops, silk, skirt and stocking factories and breweries. Buildings of prominence are the county court-house, the jail, a public hospital and Pottsville Athenæum. There are a school library and a county law-library, an admirable public and parochial school-system and a commercial college. Pottsville has the service of three railroads. Population 20,236.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Pottstown, Pa.

See also Pottstown, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Potts′town, Pa., a borough in Montgomery County, on Schuylkill River and Canal and on the Reading and Pennsylvania railroads, 18 miles southeast of Reading and 40 northwest of Philadelphia. Here are the plants of the McClintock and Marshall Bridge Company and of the Pottstown Iron Company, together with many industrial establishments for the manufacture of nails, pig-iron, boilers, carriages, agricultural implements and cigars. It has some schools, including Hill School, churches, libraries, banks and other civic institutions. Population 15,599.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Poughkeepsie, N. Y.

See also Poughkeepsie, New York on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Poughkeepsie (pō̇-kĭp′sĭ), N. Y., a city, county-seat of Dutchess County, is on the east bank of the Hudson, 65 miles by rail from New York City. The Hudson is crossed by a steam-ferry and spanned by a railroad-bridge of masonry, steel and iron. Poughkeepsie is the largest town between New York and Albany; its manufactures include machinery, ironware, boots, shoes, clothing, chairs, glass, wheels, boxes, horseshoes, underwear, knit-goods, agricultural machines and automobiles. It also has a rolling-mill and a blast-furnace. Two miles north is the state's hospital for the insane, which cost $750,000; but Poughkeepsie has chief reason to be proud of its educational facilities. Famous Vassar College is just beyond the eastern limits, and the town contains Riverview Military Academy, Eastman National Business College and a number of academies and seminaries, besides the public schools. Poughkeepsie is quite noted for its homes for aged people, among which are the Old Ladies' Home, Vassar Brothers' Home for Old Men, Pringle Home for Aged Literary Men, Gallaudet Home for Deaf-Mutes and St. Andrew's Novitiate. Poughkeepsie has the service of four railroads. Population 27,936.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Potato-Bug

See also Colorado potato beetle on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Potato-Bug or Bee′tle, a widely known beetle infesting potato-vines. In 25 years it spread from the Colorado region to the Atlantic coast and from Virginia to Maine. Up to 1859 this insect fed upon the sand-bur, a wild plant related to the potato, but about that year it began to appear upon the potato vine. It multiplied rapidly and migrated eastward, causing extensive destruction. The second word in its Latin name (Doryphora decemlineata) refers to the ten dark lines on the wing-covers.
The orange-colored eggs are laid on the underside of a leaf in a cluster of about 50. The dark-red larvæ hatch within a week, feed for two or three weeks, then crawl under rubbish or burrow into the soil and there pass the pupa state and remain about ten days. About a month after hatching the adult beetle appears. There are two or three broods a year, the last brood in the beetle state lying dormant in the ground during the winter. When warm weather arrives, the beetles come forth in great numbers and fall greedily on the young potato-plants. The pest is successfully combatted by sprinkling plants with paris green mixed with water; or by dusting with this poison mixed with flour or pulverized plaster in the proportion of one pound to 20, used after a shower or a heavy dew.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Potato

See also Potato on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Pota′to, the tubers of Solanum tuberosum, a genus of the nightshade family, which contains about 900 species, distributed almost everywhere, but most abundant in tropical America. Only about 25 species are found in North America. The potato, from which numerous cultivated varieties have originated, came from Chile, and is native in the mountains as far north as southern Colorado. The importance of these tubers as an article of food is well-known. It is sometimes called Irish or white potato, to distinguish it from the sweet potato, which belongs to a totally different plant. The cultivated varieties of potatoes are exceedingly numerous, and additions to the list are being made yearly. That this tuber is a modified stem is apparent from the so-called “eyes,” which are buds appearing in the axils of minute scales. As is well-known, these buds are able to develop into new plants, so that in planting the tubers care is taken in cutting them to include one or more eyes. In 1910 the acreage of potato-raising in the United States was 3,591,000 acres, and the value of the year's crop was estimated at $187,985,000. The total number of bushels in the gross yield was 338,811,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnston, Albert Sidney

See also Albert Sidney Johnston on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
John′ston, Albert Sidney, was born in Kentucky, Feb. 3, 1803, and was educated at West Point, where he graduated in 1826. He fought in the Black Hawk War, and later emigrated to Texas, where he was made commander of its forces. In 1838 he was appointed secretary of war in Texas. During the Mexican War Johnston was inspector-general on the staff of Gen. W. O. Butler. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was brigadier-general in the department of the Pacific, but in May, 1861, entered the Confederate service as general, with a command in the west. With 50,000 men he attacked General Grant on April 6, 1862, at Shiloh, where was fought a notable battle. General Johnston was killed by a rifle-ball on the first day of the engagement. He was one of the bravest and ablest of the Confederate generals. See the Life by his son.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnstown, Penn.

See also Johnstown, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnstown, Penn., a city on Conemaugh River, by rail fifty-eight miles southeast of Pittsburg. Manufacturing of various kinds is extensively carried on, steel-making being the most important industry. The plant of the Cambria Steel Company is one of the best equipped establishments of the kind in America. There also are the Lorain Steel Company, an iron and steel works, furniture factories, potteries, a wireworks and woolen and leather factories. Public buildings of note are Cambria Free Library, Conemaugh Valley Memorial Hospital, the city-hall, high school, Franciscan monastery and several churches.
Johnstown is famous as the scene of one of the greatest catastrophes of recent years. By the bursting of a reservoir on May 31, 1889, the city was overwhelmed with a flood. The water descended through a narrow valley and destroyed everything in its path. The loss of life is estimated at 2,500 or 3,000. An appeal for aid was generously responded to both at home and abroad, the cash contributions amounting to more than $4,000,000. Johnstown to-day is a much larger and finer city than before her misfortune, of which but few traces remain. The city occupies the hundredth place in America’s large cities, its population being 55,482.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnson, Dr. Samuel

See also Samuel Johnson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
John′son, Dr. Samuel, was born at Lichfield, England, on Sept. 18, 1709. He received his early education in his native town and from his father’s library. In 1729 he went to Pembroke College, Oxford. Here Johnson spent the unhappiest period of his life. He was oppressed by debt and other difficulties, which prevented him from taking his degree. After teaching school, which he greatly disliked and in which he was a failure, he began to translate for the press; and when his affairs were at their worst he married. In 1737, with a tragedy and twopence half-penny in his pocket, he came to London. His struggle for a living is touching. Sometimes dinnerless and bedless, always ill-fed and shabbily dressed, he never whined about his hardships, and there is no braver figure in English literature. Meanwhile he was slowly becoming the foremost writer of the day. In 1738 appeared his poem of London. From 1747 to 1755 he worked on his famous Dictionary. When the huge undertaking was nearly done, a nobleman whose help at an earlier time had been refused to Johnson wished to patronize the writer and his work. To this Johnson replied in the famous letter of Feb. 7, 1755, which perhaps is the finest piece of indignant writing on record. About this time came out his Vanity of Human Wishes and The Rambler. In 1759 was published Rasselas. A pension of $1,500 a year enabled him to spend his last twenty-two years in comfort. He gathered at his house a queer company of homeless friends, besides providing a night’s lodging to many waifs and strays and often putting pennies into the hands of street Arabs asleep on the pavement, that they might wake up and find that they had wherewith to buy a breakfast. In 1781 appeared his Lives of the Poets, perhaps his most enduring work. He died at London on Dec. 13, 1784. See Boswell’s Life of Johnson. See the Essay by Macaulay, that by Carlyle and Leslie Stephens’ Johnson in the English Men of Letters Series.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnstown, N. Y.

See also Johnstown (city), New York on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnstown, N. Y., county-seat of Fulton County, is on the Fonda, Johnstown, Gloversville and Northville Railroad and on Cayadutta Creek, 40 miles northwest of Albany. It was founded in 1764 by Sir William Johnson, who erected Fort Johnson, a courthouse, a jail and an Episcopal church. To-day it possesses electric tramways and the other adjuncts of a modern town. Its chief industry is that of the manufacture of gloves and knitted goods, but the gelatin, lumber, gristmill and machineshop products are noteworthy. Population 10,447.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnston, Joseph Eggleston

See also Joseph E. Johnston on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnston, Joseph Eggleston, an American general, was born in Virginia, Feb. 3, 1807. His mother was a niece of Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point in 1829, fought in the Seminole War and served with great bravery in the war with Mexico. In 1861 he entered the Confederate service, and was appointed brigadier-general, with command of the army of the Shenandoah. He came to the help of Beauregard at the first battle of Bull Run. In 1862 he was disabled for months by a wound received at Seven Pines, while opposing McClellan. In 1863 he tried to relieve Vicksburg, but failed, as his command was too weak. He commanded the force sent to oppose Sherman’s march on Atlanta in 1864, and stubbornly resisted the latter’s progress, but was steadily driven back, and was relieved of his command. In February, 1865, Lee placed him again in command, with orders to “drive back Sherman.” But Sherman’s force was four times as great, and, after hearing of Lee’s surrender, he surrendered his own force on April 26. He was elected to Congress in 1877. He received, the appointment of United States commissioner of railroads from President Cleveland, and retained this office until his death at Washington, D. C., on March 21, 1891. He was an able general and a man of wide culture and ability. See his Narrative of Military Operations.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnson, Sir William

See also Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnson, Sir William, was born at Warrentown, Ireland, in 1715. At 23 he was sent to America to manage the estates of his uncle. His business brought him into contact with the Mohawk Indians, whose language he learned, and who made him an honorary chieftain of their tribe. Johnson received his baronetcy during the French and Indian Wars. His services to the British cause were so highly esteemed that the king presented him with 100,000 acres in New York. Here was planted a settlement, named Johnstown for him, in Tyrone County; and here he died on July 11, 1774. See his Life by W. L. Stone.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnson, Reverdy

See also Reverdy Johnson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnson, Reverdy, was born at Annapolis, Md., May 21, 1796. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1815. He gained high reputation as a profound lawyer, and frequently argued cases before the supreme court of the United States. He was elected to the senate in 1845, where he served four years. He was attorney-general in President Taylor's cabinet. He again became senator in 1862, and in 1868 was appointed minister to England. He died in Maryland in 1876.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnson, Richard Mentor

See also Richard Mentor Johnson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnson, Richard Mentor, vice-president of the United States, was born in Kentucky in 1780. He was a state legislator; then a member of Congress from 1807 to 1837, ten years out of the thirty being a senator. In the War of 1812 he did good service on the Canadian frontier. In the battle of the Thames he was badly wounded, but is said to have killed the celebrated Tecumseh. In 1836 he was elected vice-president. He died at Frankfort, Ky., Nov, 19, 1850. He was distinguished for gentleness of manners and kindness of nature.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnston, Richard Malcolm

See also Richard Malcolm Johnston on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnston, Richard Malcolm, an American writer, was born at Powellton, Ga., on March 8, 1822, and was educated at Mercer University. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar. Later he was called to the chair of literature at the University of Georgia, which he held until the outbreak of the Civil War. He then opened a boys’ school, near Sparta, Ga., which he removed to Baltimore, Md., in 1867. It was not until after this date that he appeared as a writer of short stories and novels, which gave him wide popularity. In 1871 he published Dukesborough Tales, a series of southern stories and character sketches then new and charming in style and humor. Among other works are a History of English Literature, written in collaboration with W. H. Brown; Life of Alex. H. Stephens; Studies, Literary and Social; Old Times in Middle Georgia; and Pearse Amerson’s Will. Judge Johnston died at Baltimore, Sept. 23, 1898.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Johnson, Eastman

See also Eastman Johnson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Johnson, Eastman was born at Lowell, Me., July 29, 1824. At an early age he developed talent as an artist, and soon earned enough to pay for a course of study in Europe. He remained abroad six years, and settled in New York in 1856. His most famous paintings are Old Kentucky Home, The Boyhood of Abraham Lincoln and The Wounded Drummer Boy. His work has been among the best known and most popular of any American artist. He died on April 6, 1906.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaver Falls

Edition of 1905. See also Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BEAVER FALLS. A borough in Beaver County, Penn., 31 miles northwest of Pittsburg; on the Beaver River, near its confluence with the Ohio, and on railroads of the Pennsylvania and Erie systems (Map: Pennsylvania, A 3). It is in a region which abounds in natural gas and coal, and has manufactures of steel, iron, wire, axes, shovels, glassware, tubing, files, pottery, etc. The borough is the seat of Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian), organized in 1848, and contains fine post-office and municipal buildings, and Riverview Park. Beaver Falls was originally called Brighton, and was chartered as a borough in 1868. It is governed by a mayor, elected for three years, and a city council, which elects administrative officials. Population, in 1890, 9735; in 1900, 10,054.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bebeerine

Edition of 1905. See also Chlorocardium rodiei on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BEBEE′RINE (from bebeery, the native name of the tree). A bitter alkaloid occasionally used in medicine, in the form of its sulphate, as a substitute for quinine, and, on account of its stimulating action on the stomach, as a stomachic. It is obtained from the bark of the Greenheart-tree (Nectandra rodiœi of the order Laurineæ), indigenous to British Guiana.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bebel, Ferdinand August

Edition of 1905. See also August Bebel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BEBEL, bā′bel, Ferdinand August (1840—). A leader of the Social-Democratic Party in Germany. He was born at Cologne, set up as a master-turner at Leipzig in 1864, identified himself with the Socialistic movement among the working classes, and in 1867 became chairman of the permanent committee of the German workingmen's unions. In 1869 he assisted at Eisenach in founding the Social-Democratic Party, which was closely affiliated with the International Workingmen's Association, established at London by Karl Marx. He was accused in 1872 of projected high treason against the Kingdom of Saxony and the German Empire, and of lèse-majesté against the German Emperor. On the combined charges he was sentenced to imprisonment for two years and nine months. His incarceration on these and subsequent charges has, however, served only to increase his prestige among his party associates. In 1867 he was elected deputy to the North German Diet, and since 1871 he has been almost continuously in the Reichstag, representing successively the districts of Glauchau-Meerane, Dresden, Strassburg, and Hamburg. In 1868 he became connected with the staff of the Volksstaat at Leipzig, and in 1891 with that of the Vorwärts at Berlin. Bebel is recognized as an effective orator. His publications include Der deutsche Bauernkrieg (1876); Die parlamentarische Thätigkeit des deutschen Reichstags und der Landtage (1876); Die Frau in der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, und Zukunft (1883; later as Die Frau und der Socialismus, 27th ed., 1896); Die Sonntagsarbeit (1888); and Die Socialdemokratie und das allgemeine Wahlrecht (1895).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaver Dam

Edition of 1905. See also Beaver Dam, Wisconsin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BEAVER DAM. A city in Dodge County, Wis., 65 miles northwest of Milwaukee; at the outlet of Beaver Lake, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railroad (Map: Wisconsin, E 5). It is the market for a fertile district, and has good water-power, flour, cotton and woolen mills, malleable-iron works, cold-storage plant, and manufactures of machinery, lumber, staves, etc. The city contains parks, a public library of 10,000 volumes, and Wayland Academy. Settled in 1841, Beaver Dam was incorporated in 1856. It is governed, under a revised charter of 1889, by a mayor, elected biennially, and a city council. Population, in 1890, 4222; in 1900, 5128.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaver State

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BEAVER STATE. Popular name of Oregon. See States, Popular Names of.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaver Islands

Edition of 1905. See also Beaver Island (Lake Michigan) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ BEAVER IS′LANDS. A group of islands in Lake Michigan, about 40 miles west of the Straits of Mackinac, and forming part of Charlevoix County, Mich. (Map: Michigan, H 3). They derive their name from the largest of the group, Beaver Island. The township of Saint James, on Beaver Island, has a population, according to the census of 1900, of 420; Peaine township having 372 inhabitants. Several lighthouses are maintained on these islands. The Mormons made an unsuccessful attempt to found a settlement there in 1846.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bebeeru

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BEBEE′RU. See Greenheart.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaver Dam Creek, Battle of

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BEAVER DAM CREEK, Battle of. See Mechanicsville, Battle of.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Beaverwood

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ BEA′VERWOOD. See Magnolia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Bebel, Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Heinrich Bebel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BEBEL, Heinrich (1472-1518?). A German humanist. He was born at Ingstetten (Württemberg). He studied at Cracow and Basel, and in 1497 was appointed professor of eloquence and poetry at the University of Tübingen. In 1501 he was crowned poet laureate by the Emperor Maximilian. His best-known two works are his Proverbia Germanica (1508; new ed., Leyden, 1879), and his Facetiæ (1508), a collection of jests and anecdotes directed against the Roman Catholic clergy. He was a friend of Erasmus. For his biography, consult Zapf (Augsburg, 1802).