OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mold

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​MOLD (formerly Mould, Welsh Y Wyddgrug, a conspicuous barrow, Lat. Mons altus, the translation of the Welsh name), a market town, contributory parliamentary borough of Flintshire, N. Wales; on the London & North-Western railway (Chester and Denbigh branch), 182 m. from London and 11 m. from Chester. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4263. The locality is populous owing to the collieries and lead-smelting works in the vicinity. At the north end of the town there is a height, Bailey Hill (perhaps from ballia, the architectural term applied to fortified castle courts). This hill, partly natural and partly artificial, was once the site of a Roman fortification, and in old records is known as Moaldes, Monhault, or Monthault (de monte alto). Mold Castle was probably built by Robert Monthault (temp. William Rufus), was taken and destroyed by Owen Gwynedd in 1144–1145, its site lost to the English and retaken by Llewelyn ap Iowerth in 1201, and by Gruffydd Llwyd in 1322. On this site, too, where there are now no remains of any fortress, were found, in 1849, some 15 skeletons, supposed to be of the 13th or 14th centuries. Maes Garmon (the battlefield of Germanus) is about a mile west of Mold. Here, as is supposed, the “Alleluia Victory” was gained over the Picts and Scots by Lupus and Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, according to some about A.D. 430, but others give A.D. 448, the date of the saint’s death. A commemorative obelisk was erected on the Maes by N. Griffith of Rhual (1736). Over a mile south of Mold, on the right of the road to Nerquis, is the “Tower” (15th century, but perhaps restored in the 18th), where, in 1465 or 1475, the royal chieftain, Rheinallt ab Gruffyd ad Bleddyn, hanged Robert Byrne, mayor of Chester, and subsequently burned alive some 200 Chester folk who tried to arrest him. Many tumuli are visible round Mold.
Mold county gaol, bought in 1880 by Jesuits expelled from France, was by them named St Germanus’s House. St Mary’s church, a Gothic building, is mentioned as early as the time of Henry VII. Its important collieries and lead mines; fire-brick, tile, earthenware, mineral oil, tinplate and nail manufactures, tanneries, breweries and malt-houses, have made 'Mold the business centre of the county. About 4 m. distant is Cilcain village, of which the church has a carved oak roof, stolen from Basingwerk Abbey at the dissolution of the monasteries. Among the neighbouring Clwyd hills Moel Fammau and Moel Arthur are specially noticeable. On the summit of the former is George III.’s jubilee pyramid. The Ordovices and the Romans fortified Moel Arthur. The sites of seven posts established against Rome may be traced along the hills bounding Flintshire and Denbighshire.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mole-Shrew

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​MOLE-SHREW, any individual of the genera Urotrichus and Uropsilus (see Insectivora). These animals, which are sometimes called shrew-moles, are not moles with shrew-like habits, but shrews with the burrowing habits of moles and resembling them in appearance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Molasses

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​MOLASSES, the syrup obtained from the drainings of raw sugar or from sugar during the process of refining. In American usage the word usually applies to both forms of the syrup, but in English usage the second form is more usually known as “treacle” (see Sugar). The word, which in early forms appears as melasses, molassos, &c., is from the Port. melaço, or Fr. mélasse, cf. the Late Lat. mellaceum, syrup made from honey (mel ). The geological term “molasse” must be distinguished; this word, applied to the soft greenish sandstone of the district between the Jura and the Alps, is French, meaning “soft,” Lat. mollis.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayan Mountains

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​SAYAN MOUNTAINS, a range of Asia, forming the eastern continuation of the Sailughem or Altai range, stretching from 89° E. to 106° E. Orographically they are the N. border-ridge of the plateau of N .W. Mongolia, and separate that region from Siberia. The geology is imperfectly known. While the general elevation is 7000 to 9000 ft., the individual peaks, consisting largely of granites and metamorphic slates, reach altitudes of 10,000 ft. and 11,450 ft., e.g. in Munko Sardyk; while the principal passes lie 6000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, e.g. Muztagh 7480 ft., Mongol 6500 ft., Tenghyz 7480 ft. and Obo-sarym 6100 ft. In 92° E. the system is pierced by the Bel-kem or upper Yenisei, and in 106°, at its eastern extremity, it terminates above the depression of the Selenga-Orkhon valley. From the Mongolian plateau the ascent is on the whole gentle, but from the plains of Siberia it is much steeper, despite the fact that the range is masked by a broad belt of subsidiary ranges of an Alpine character, e.g. the Usinsk, Oya, Tunka, Kitoi and Byelaya ranges. Between the breach of the Yenisei and the Kosso-gol (lake) in 100° 30′ E. the system bears also the name of Yerghik-taiga. The flora is on the whole poor, although the higher regions carry good forests of larch, pitch pine, cedar, birch and alder, with rhododendrons and species of Berberis and Ribes. Lichens and mosses clothe many of the boulders that are scattered over the upper slopes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayers, Tom

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​SAYERS, TOM (1826–1865), English pugilist, was born at Brighton on the 25th of May 1826. By trade a bricklayer, he began his career as a prize fighter in 1849 and won battle after battle, his single defeat being at the hands of Nat Langham in October 1853. In 1857 he gained the championship. His fight with the American, John C. Heenan, the Benicia Boy, a much heavier man than himself, is perhaps the most famous in the history of the English prize ring. It took place at Farnborough on the 17th of April 1860 and lasted two hours and six minutes, thirty-seven rounds being fought. After Sayers’s right arm had been injured the crowd pressed into the ring and the fight was declared a draw. £3000 was raised by public subscription for Sayers, who withdrew from the ring and died on the 8th of November 1865. The champion was 5 ft. 81/2 in. in height and his fighting weight was under 11 stone. An account of the fight between Sayers and Heenan is given by Frederick Locker-Lampson in My Confidences (1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayad

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​SAYAD, a descendant of Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, by Fatima, Mahomet’s daughter. Many of the Pathan tribes in the North-West Frontier Province of India, such as the Bangash of Kohat and the Mishwanis of the Hazara border, claim Sayad origin. The apostles who completed the conversion of the Pathans to Islam were called Sayads if they came from the west, and Sheikhs if they came from the east; hence doubtless many false claims to Sayad origin. In Afghanistan the Sayads have much of the commerce in their hands, as their holy character allows them to pass unharmed where other Pathans would be murdered.
The Sayads gave a short-lived dynasty to India, which reigned at Delhi during the first half of the 15th century. Their name again figures in Indian history at the break up of the Mogul empire, when two Sayad brothers created and dethroned emperors at their will (1714–1720). In 1901 the total number of Sayads in all India was returned at 1,339,734. They include many well-known and influential families. The first Mahommedan appointed to the Council of India and the first appointed to the Privy Council were both Sayads. .
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saye and Sele, William Fiennes, 1st Viscount

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​SAYE AND SELE, WILLIAM FIENNES, 1st Viscount (1582–1662), was the only son of Richard Fiennes, 7th Baron Saye and Sele, and was descended from James Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele, who was lord Chamberlain and lord treasurer under Henry VI. and was beheaded by the rebels under Tack Cade on the 4th of July 1450. Born on the 28th of May 1582 Fiennes, like many of his family, was educated at New College, Oxford; he succeeded to his father’s barony in 1613, and in parliament opposed the policy of James I., undergoing a brief imprisonment for objecting to a benevolence in 1662; and he showed great animus towards Lord Bacon. In 1624, owing probably to his temporary friendship with the duke of Buckingham, he was advanced to the rank of a viscount, but notwithstanding this he remained during the early parliaments of Charles I. champion of the popular cause, and was in Clarendon’s words “the oracle of those who were called Puritans in the worst sense, and steered all their counsels and designs.” Afterwards his energies found a new outlet in helping to colonize Providence Island, and in interesting himself in other and similar enterprises in America. Although Saye resisted the levy of ship-money, he accompanied Charles on his march against the Scots in 1639; but, with only one other peer, he refused to take the oath binding him to fight for the king to “the utmost of my power and hazard of my life.” Then Charles I. sought to win his favour by making him a privy councillor and master of the court of wards. When the Civil War broke out, however, Saye was on the committee of safety, was made lord lieutenant of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Cheshire, and raising a regiment occupied Oxford. He was a member of the committee of both kingdoms; was mainly responsible for passing the self-denying ordinance through the House of Lords; and in 1647 stood up for the army in its struggle with the parliament. In 1648, both at the treaty of Newport and elsewhere, Saye was anxious that Charles should come to terms, and he retired into private life after the execution of the king, becoming a privy councillor again upon the restoration of Charles II. He died at his residence, Broughton Castle near Banbury, on the 14th of April 1662. On several occasions Saye outwitted the advisers of Charles I. by his strict compliance with legal forms. He was a thorough aristocrat, and his ideas for the government of colonies in America included the establishment of an hereditary aristocracy. His eldest son James (c. 1603–1674) succeeded him as 2nd Viscount; other sons were the parliamentarians Nathaniel Fiennes (q.v.) and John Fiennes. The viscount of Saye and Sele became extinct in 1781, and the barony is now held by the descendants of John Twisleton (d. 1682) and his wife Elizabeth (d. 1674), a daughter of the 2nd viscount. Saybrook (q.v.) in Connecticut is named after Viscount Saye and Lord Brooke.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayre

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​SAYRE, a borough of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U. S. A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, about 95 m. (by rail) N.N.W. of Wilkes-Barré, and just S. of the New York state boundary. Pop. (1900) 5243 (357 foreign-born); (1910) 6426. Sayre is served by the main line and by a branch of the Lehigh Valley railway, and is connected by electric railway with Waverly, New York, and with the adjacent borough of Athens, Pennsylvania (pop. in 1916, 3796), which manufactures furniture, carriages and wagons. Sayre, Athens, South Waverly and Waverly form virtually one industrial community. The borough of Sayre is the seat of the Robert Packer Hospital (1885) and has two parks. It is the trade centre of an agricultural and dairying region, and has metal works and other factories; but its industrial importance is due primarily to the locomotive and car shops of the Lehigh Valley railway. It was named in honour of Robert Heysham Sayre (1824–1907), long chief engineer of this railway. Sayre was settled in 1880 and was incorporated as a borough in 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayer, James

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​SAYER (or Sayers), JAMES (1748–1823), English caricaturist, was a native of Yarmouth, and son of a merchant captain. He began as clerk in an attorney’s office, and was for a time a member of the borough council. In 1780 the death of his father put him in possession of a small fortune, and he came to London. As a political caricaturist he was a supporter of William Pitt. His plate of “Carlo Khan’s triumphal entry into Leadenhall Street” was allowed by C. J. Fox, against whom it was directed, to have damaged him severely in public opinion. Indeed Sayer was always at his best when attacking Fox, whose strongly marked features he rendered with remarkable power, and always so as to make them convey expressions of defiant impudence or of anger. Pitt, who showed no wish to help literature or art in any other case, provided Sayer with a place as marshal of the Exchequer court. He died in Curzon Street, Mayfair, on the 20th of April 1823.
Sayer’s “Carlo Khan” has been frequently reproduced. But he can only be judged with confidence after examining the collection in the British Museum, or other public libraries. His drawings, made originally with pencil on oil paper, were etched for him by the Brethertons. They were then sold in collections of the size of a large octavo copybook, under such titles as Illustrious Heads (1794) or Outlines of the Opposition (1795). Sayer left a complete gallery of small full-length pictures of the public men of his time, slightly caricatured. In his great plates he is inferior to Gillray, and he never has the grace of Rowlandson, but he is less exaggerated than either, and nearer the truth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saône

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​SAÔNE, a river of eastern France, rising in the Faucilles mountains (department of Vosges), 15 m. W.S.W. of Épinal at a height of 1300 ft. and uniting with the Rhone at Lyons. Length, 301 m.; drainage area, 11,400 sq. m. The oldest Celtic name of the river was Arar. In the 4th century another name appears, Sauconna, from which the modern name is derived. The Saône, moving slowly in a sinuous channel, has its course in the wide depression between the Plateau of Langres, the Côte d'Or and the mountains of Charolais and Beaujolais on the west and the western slopes of the Vosges and Jura and the plain of Bresse and the plateau of Dombes on the east. In the department of Saône-et-Loire, the Saône unites with the Doubs, an affluent rivalling the Saône in volume and exceeding it in length at this point. At the important town of Chalon-sur-Saône the river turns south, and passes Mâcon. Below Tréveux its valley, now narrower, winds past the Mont d'Or group and joins the Rhone just below the Perrache quarter of Lyons. The Saône is canalized from Corre to Lyons, a distance of 233 m., the normal depth of water being 6 ft. 6 in. At Corre (confluence with the Coney) it connects with the southern branch of the Eastern Canal, at Heuilley (below Gray) with the Saône-Marne Canal, at St Symphorien (above St Jean-de-Losne) with the Rhone-Rhine Canal, and at St Jean-de-Losne with the Canal de Bourgogne and at Chalon with the Canal du Centre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayce, Archibald Henry

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​SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846–), British Orientalist, was born at Shirehampton on the 25th of September 1846, son of the Rev. H. S. Sayce, vicar of Caldicot. He was educated at Bath, and at Queen’s College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1869. In 1891 he was elected professor of Assyriology at Oxford. He threw his whole energies into the study of biblical and other Oriental subjects, and though his conclusions have in a number of cases been considerably modified (e.g. in chronology and transliteration) by the work of other scholars (see, e.g. Babylonia and Assyria) it is impossible to overestimate his services to Oriental scholarship. He travelled widely in the East and continued in later life annual trips up the Nile. An interesting example of the importance of his pioneer work is the fact that there has been a strong tendency to revert to the views which he advanced on the question of the Hittites in his early Oxford lectures. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Company in 1874–1884; deputy professor of comparative philology in Oxford 1876–1890; Hibbert Lecturer 1887; Gifford Lecturer 1900–1902.
Of his numerous publications the following are of special importance:—Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes (1872); Principles of Comparative Philology (1874); Babylonian Literature (1877); Introduction to the Science of Language (1879); Monuments of the Hittites (1881); Herodotus i.-iii. (1883); Ancient Empires of the East (1884); Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885); Assyria (1885); Hibbert Lectures on Babylonian Religion (1887); The Hittites (1889); Races of the Old Testament (1891); Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); Patriarchal Palestine (1895); The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus (1895); Early History of the Hebrews (1897); Israel and the Surrounding Nations (1898); Babylonians and Assyrians (1900); Egyptian and Babylonian Religion (1903); Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscr. (1907). He also contributed important articles to the 9th, 10th and 11th editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and edited a number of Oriental works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Sir

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​SAYYID AHMAD KHAN, SIR (1817–1898), Mahommedan educationist and reformer, was born at Delhi, India, in, 1817. He belonged to a family which had come to India with the Mahommedan conquest, and had held important office sunder the Mogul emperors. Although his imperfect acquaintance with English prevented his attainment of higher office than that of a judge of a small cause court, he earned the title of the recognized leader of the Mahommedan community. To the British he rendered loyal service, and when the mutiny reached Bijnor in Rohilkand in May 1857 the British residents owed their lives to his courage and tact. His faithfulness to his religion was pronounced, and in 1876 he defended the cause of Islam in A Series of Essays on Mahommed, written in London. He used these advantages to act as interpreter between the Mahommedans and their rulers, and to rouse his co-religionists to a sense of the benefits of modern education. The task was no light one; for during the first half of the 19th century the Mahommedans had kept themselves aloof 'from English education, and therefore from taking their proper part in the British administration, being content to study Persian and Arabic in their own mosques. Sayyid Ahmad set himself to alter their resolution. He established a translation society, which became the Scientific Society of Aligarh. He wrote letters from England to draw the hearts of the East to the West. In 1873 he founded ​the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, and raised funds for the buildings of which Lord Lytton laid the foundation stone. He stimulated asimilar movement elsewhere, and among other cities Karachi, Bombay and Hyderabad caught the infection of his spirit. Thus he effected a revolution in the attitude of Mahommedans towards modern education. He was made K.C.S.I., and became a member of the legislative councils of India and Allahabad, and of the education commission. He died at Aligarh on the 2nd of March 1898.
See Lieut.-Colonel G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Work of Sir Saiyad Ahmed Khan (1885).  (W. L.-W.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reinaud, Joseph Toussaint

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​REINAUD, JOSEPH TOUSSAINT (1795–1867), French orientalist, was born on the 4th of December 1795 at Lambesc, Bouches du Rhône. He came to Paris in 1815, and became a pupil of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1818–19 he was at Rome as an attaché to the French minister, and studied under the Maronites of the Propaganda, but gave special attention to Mahommedan coins. In 1824 he entered the department of oriental MSS. in the Royal Library at Paris, and in 1838, on the death of De Sacy, he succeeded to his chair in the school of living oriental languages. In 1847 he became president of the Société Asiatique, and in 1858 conservator of oriental MSS. in the Imperial Library. His first important work was his classical description of the collections of the duc de Blacas (1828). To history he contributed an essay on the Arab invasions of France, Savoy, Piedmont and Switzerland (1836), and various collections for the period of the Crusades; he edited (1840) and in part translated (1848) the geography of Abulfeda; to him too is due a useful edition of the very curious records of early Arab intercourse with China of which Eusèbe Renaudot had given but an imperfect translation (Relation des voyages, &c., 1845), and various other essays illustrating the ancient and medieval geography of the East. Reinaud died in Paris on the 14th of May 1867.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rein

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​REIN, a guiding or controlling leather strap or thong, attached to the bit of a ridden or driven horse (see Saddlery). The word is taken from the O. Fr. rene, modern rêne, and is usually traced to a supposed Late Latin substantive retina formed from retinere, to hold back, restrain, cf. classical Latin retinaculum, halter. The word, usually in the plural, has been often used figuratively, as a type of that which guides, restrains or controls, e.g. in such phrases as the “reins of government,” &c. The “reins,” i.e. the kidneys (Lat. renes, cf. Gr. φρήν, the midriff), or the place where the kidneys are situated, hence the loins, also, figuratively, the seat of the emotions or affections, must be distinguished.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reinecke, Carl Heinrich Carsten

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REINECKE, CARL HEINRICH CARSTEN (1824-1910), German composer and pianist, was born at Altona on the 23rd of June 1824; his father, Peter Reinecke (who was also his teacher), being an accomplished musician. At the age of eleven he made his first appearance as a pianist, and when scarcely eighteen he went on a successful tour through Denmark and Sweden. After a stay in Leipzig, where he studied under Mendelssohn and under Schumann, Reinecke went on tour with Königslöw and Wasielewski, Schumann's biographer, in North Germany and Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 Reinecke was court pianist to Christian VIII. of Denmark. After resigning this post he went first to Paris, and next to Cologne, as professor in the Conservatorium. From 1854 to 1859 he was music director at Barmen, in the latter year filling this post at Breslau University;
in 1860 he became conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus, a post which (together with that of professor at the Conservatorium) he held with honour and distinction for thirty-five years. He finally retired into private life in 1902 and died in March 1910. During this time Reinecke continually made concert tours to England and elsewhere. His pianoforte playing belonged to a school now almost extinct. Grace and neatness were its characteristics, and at one time Reinecke was probably unrivalled as a Mozart player and an accompanist. His grand opera König Manfred, and the comic opera Auf hohen Befehl, were at one time frequently played in Germany; and his cantata Hakon Jarl is melodiously beautiful, as are many of his songs; while his Friedensfeier overture was once quite hackneyed. By far his most valuable works are those written for educational purposes. His sonatinas, his “Kindergarten” and much that he has ably edited will keep his name alive.