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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shapira, M. W.

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​SHAPIRA, M. W. (c. 1830–1884), Polish vendor of spurious antiquities, was of Jewish birth, but appears to have become a Christian early in life. He opened a shop for the sale of antiquities in Palestine, and after the discovery of the Moabite Stone in 1872 was successful in selling to the Prussian government for 20,000 thaler a number of alleged pieces of Moabite pottery. These were shown by Clermont-Ganneau and others (cf. Kautzsch and A. Socin, Ächtheit der moabitischen Altertümer, 1876) to be forgeries produced by Shapira's client Selim al-Kari. Undeterred by this exposure, Shapira continued to do a considerable trade especially in Hebrew MSS. from Yemen, but ​ultimately ruined himself by a fraud perpetrated upon the British Museum. In 1883 he offered, for the price, it is said, of £1,000,000, a number of leather strips containing speeches of Moses varying in many particulars from, though similar in matter to, those in Deuteronomy, and written in archaic Hebrew characters. He pretended that he had obtained them from a Bedouin who had discovered them in a Moabite cave. The fragments were submitted to C. D. Ginsburg, who published translations in The Times of Aug. 4, 17, 22, 1883. The French government, however, sent over Clermont-Ganneau to investigate, and, though the British Museum authorities declined to give him permission to make a complete study, he satisfied himself from a few strips which were publicly exhibited that the whole collection must be a forgery (The Times, Aug. 15). This view was confirmed by Ginsburg's report to the Museum. Shapira, who was never shown to have been the actual forger, committed suicide in Rotterdam on the 11th of March 1884.
For the fragments see Guthe, Fragmenta einer Lederhandschrift (Leipzig, 1884); see also Clermont-Ganneau, Les Fraudes archéologiques (Paris, 1885), iii., iv.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sharon

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SHARON, a borough of Mercer county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Shenango river, about 70 m. by rail N.N.W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 8916, of whom 1805 were foreign-born and 113 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 15,270. Sharon is served by the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the Pennsylvania (Erie and Pittsburg division) railways. Sharon has an excellent public school system, and the F. H. Buhl Club (1903) is a social and educational institution, named in honour of its founder, an iron manufacturer of the borough. The borough has blast furnaces and rolling-mills; and iron and steel products, tin-plate and terne-plate are its principal manufactures. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $4,776,914, being 26.9% more than in 1900. Sharon and South Sharon (pop. by U.S. census in 1910, 10,190), which was separately incorporated as a borough in 1901, form what is virtually a single industrial community. Sharon was first settled in 1795, but was only a small village when a movement for developing the coal-mines in the vicinity was begun in 1836. It was incorporated as a borough in 1841.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shans

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​SHANS, a collective name, probably from Chinese Shan-tse, Shan-yen (Shan= “mountain”), “highlanders,” given by the Burmese to all the tribes of Thai stock subject to the former kingdom of Burma (see Shan States below). The Shans call themselves Tai or Punong; while the Chinese call them Pai or Pai-yi. Among them exist the purest types of the Thai race. They are found all over the province of Yunnan and in the borderland between China and Burma. Politically, where not under the direct control of Chinese magistrates, the tribes are organized under their own chiefs, who are recognized by the Chinese government and endowed with official rank and title. In Burmese such native chiefs are termed Sawbwa.
For the history of the Thai race see Thais. See also Laos, Miaotze, Lolos. Also A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the Shans (1885); E. Aymonier, “Les Tchaines,” in Revue de l’histoire des religions for 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shannon, Charles Hazelwood

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​SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865–), English artist, was born at Sleaford in Lincolnshire, the son of the Rev. Frederic Shannon. He attended the Lambeth school of art, and was subsequently considerably influenced by his friend Charles Ricketts and by the example of the great Venetians. In his early work he was addicted to a heavy low tone, which he abandoned subsequently for clearer and more transparent colour. He achieved great success with his portraits and his Giorgionesque figure compositions, which are marked by a classic sense of style, and with his etchings and lithographic designs. The Dublin Municipal Gallery owns his circular composition “ The Bunch of Grapes ” and “ The Lady with the Green Fan ” (portrait of Mrs Hacon). His “ Study in Grey ” is at the Munich Gallery, a “ Portrait of Mr Staats Forbes ” at Bremen, and a “ Souvenir of Van Dyck ” at Melbourne. One of his most remarkable pictures is “The Toilet of Venus ” in the collection of Lord Northcliffe. Complete sets of his lithographs and etchings have been acquired by the British Museum and the Berlin and Dresden print rooms. He was awarded a first-class gold medal at Munich in 1895 and a first-class silver medal in Paris in 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Share

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​SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. “shear”), something cut off, a portion, a definite part of anything distributed among a ​number of persons. The word is particularly applied to the fixed and equal amounts into which the capital of a limited company is divided (see Stocks and Shares; Company; and Debentures). From the same O. Eng. verb sceran is derived “ share ” (O. Eng. scear), the cutting blade of a plough (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sharp, Granville

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SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813), English philanthropist, was the ninth of the fourteen children of Thomas Sharp (1693-1758), a prolific theological writer and biographer of his father, John Sharp, archbishop of York. Granville, who was born at Durham in 1735, was educated at the grammar school there, and apprenticed to a London draper, but obtained employment in the government ordnance department in 1758. Sharp's tastes were scholarly; he managed to acquire knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, and before 1779 he had published more than one treatise on biblical criticism. His fame rests, however, on his untiring efforts for the abolition of slavery. In 1767 he had become involved in litigation with the owner of a slave called Jonathan Strong, in which it was decided that a slave remained in law the chattel of his master even on English soil. Sharp devoted himself to fighting this judgment both with his pen and in the courts of law; and finally it was laid down in the case of James Sommersett that a slave becomes free the moment he sets foot on English territory. Sharp was an ardent sympathizer with the revolted American colonists, and at home advocated parliamentary reform and the legislative independence of Ireland, and agitated against the impressment of sailors for the navy. It was through his efforts that bishops for the United States of America were consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury in 1787. In the same year he was the means of founding a society for the abolition of slavery, and a settlement for
emancipated slaves at Sierra Leone. Granville Sharp was also one of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and of the Society for the Conversion of the Jews. One of his tracts, entitled Remarks on the Uses of the definitive article in the Greek text of the New Testament, published in 1798, propounded the rule known as “Granville Sharp's canon,” which on account of its important bearing on Unitarian doctrine led to a celebrated controversy, in which many leading divines took part, including Christopher Wordsworth. This rule was to the effect that “when two personal nouns of the same case are connected by the copulate καί, if the former has the definite article and the latter has not, they both belong to the same person.” Sharp died on the 6th of July 1813, and a memorial of him was erected in Westminster Abbey.
See Prince Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (London, 1820), which contains observations by Bishop Burgess on Sharp's biblical criticisms; Sir James Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography (London, 1860); Thomas Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (London, 1839).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Umañ

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​Umañ, a town of Russia, in the government of Kiev, 120 m. S. of the city of Kiev. Pop. 28,628, many of whom are Jews, and carry on the export of corn, spirits, &c. It has a park (290 acres), planted in 1793 by Count Potocki, and now containing a gardening school. Umañ was founded early in the 17th century as a fort against the Tatar raiders. The Cossacks of the Ukraine, who kept it, revolted against their Polish rulers about 1665, and sustained a fierce siege. In 1674 it was plundered and most of its inhabitants murdered by the Ukrainians and Turks. In 1712 its last occupants were transferred by Peter the Great to the left bank of the Dnieper. But by the end of the 18th century, when it again became the property of the Potockis, it was repeopled and became one of the busiest trading towns of Little Russia. In 1768, when the Cossacks revolted anew against the Poles, they took Umañ and murdered most of its inhabitants.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Umber

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​UMBER, a brown mineral pigment consisting of hydrated iron and manganese oxides. The finely-powdered mineral is known as raw umber; when calcined the beauty of the colour increases and the pigment is known as burnt amber. It was probably first obtained from Umbria in Italy, but it occurs in many localities, notably in Cyprus (Turkey umber); large quantities of English amber are mined in Devonshire and Cornwall. (See Pigments.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulundi

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​ULUNDI (Zulu for “high place” ), the royal kraal of Cetywayo, situated in the Mahlabatini district of Zululand, about 3 m. north of the White Umfolosi River, and 115 m. N.N.E. of Durban. The valley of the White Umfolosi here forms an extensive basin called the Emhlabatini, and from the time of Chaka to the overthrow of Cetywayo in 1883 was the exclusive place of residence of the Zulu kings. The basin on the south side of the river is regarded as the cradle of the Zulu race; here all their early chiefs are buried, hence the term Emakosini (i.e. at the grave of the chiefs) applied to the district (see Blue Book C. 5143). During Cetywayo's reign a garrison of 3000 was kept at Ulundi. About a mile from the kraal on the 4th of July 1879 a Zulu army some 20,000 strong was totally defeated by Lord Chelmsford. The British force, consisting of the second division and Wood's column, numbered in all 4200 Europeans and some 1000 natives. On the morning of the battle they formed a square, with the mounted troops (about 300) inside. The Zulus attacked with great gallantry but were received with so deadly a fire that they could not come within thirty yards of the rifles. After twenty minutes they broke and fled, and the cavalry followed them till broken ground rendered further pursuit impossible. The British loss was about 100, that of the Zulus 1500. After the fight the royal kraal was burned. On the 1st of September following, at the site of the ruined kraal, Sir Garnet (after wards Lord) Wolseley announced the partition of Zululand into thirteen petty chieftainships. But on the 29th of January 1883 Cetywayo was reinstalled by the British at Ulundi as chief over two-thirds of his old dominions. Attacked at Ulundi in July 1883 by the rival chief Usibepu, Cetywayo and his 5000 followers fled to the Nkandhla bush. The royal kraal was again destroyed and Ulundi ceased to be a rallying point. The magistracy for the district is situated 5 m. north of the site of Ulundi. (See Zululand.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulverston

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​Ulverston, a market town in the North Lonsdale parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, in the Furness district, 9½ m. N.E. from Barrow-in-Furness and 256 m. N.W. by N. from London, on the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,064. The church of St Mary, founded in 1111, retains the south door of the original building in the Transition style, but the greater portion of the structure is Perpendicular, of the time of Henry VIII. It contains an altar-tomb with recumbent figure of Walter Sandys of Conishead, dated 1588. After the destruction of Furness Abbey, Ulverston succeeded Dalton as the most important town in Furness, but the rapid rise of Barrow surpassed it in modern times. A monument on Hoad Hill commemorates Sir John Barrow, secretary of the admiralty and a native of the town. Conishead Priory, 2 m. south-east, a mansion on the site of a priory founded in the reign of Henry II., is used as a hydropathic establishment. Formerly Ulverston had a considerable trade in linens, checks and ginghams, but it is now dependent on large iron and steel works, chemical works, breweries, tan-yards, and hardware, paper, and wooden hoop manufactories. Through its connexion with Morecambe Bay by a ship canal of 1 m. in length, owned by the Furness railway, it has a shipping trade in iron and slates.
Ulverston, otherwise Vlureston, Olvestonum, occurs in Domesday Book, where Vlurestun is named as a manor in possession of Turulf, who was probably the original Saxon owner. Early in the 12th century the manor passed to Stephen, count of Boulogne, and was given by him to Furness Abbey. In 1196 the abbot granted the vill of Ulverstone with the inhabitants to Gilbert Fitz-Reinfred, who granted it a charter by which he raised it to the rank of a free borough. The lordship became divided, and one-half passed to the Harringtons and finally to Henry Grey, duke of Suffolk, on whose attainder in 1553 it was forfeited to the Crown. The other moiety returned to the abbey about the end of the 14th century, and at the dissolution was surrendered to the Crown. Early in the 17th century the Crown alienated the manor, which is now in the family of Buccleuch. The yearly court-leet and court-baron are still held in October. In 128O Roger de Lancaster obtained a charter from Edward I. for a weekly market on Thursday and an annual fair of three days beginning on-the eve of the nativity (Sept. 7).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ulugh Beg

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This catalogue, the first original one since Ptolemy, was edited by Th. Hyde at Oxford in 1665 (Tabulae longitudinis et latitudinis stellarum fixarum ex observatione Ulugbeighi), by G. Sharpe in 1767, and in 1843 by F. Daily in vol. xiii. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society.
See Delambre, Histoire de l'astronomie du moyen âge; Poggendorff, Biographisch-litterarisches.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Umarkot

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​Umarkot, a town in Sind, India, 7 m. from a station on the North-Western railway; pop. (1901), 4924. It is the headquarters of the Thar and Parkar district. The Mogul emperor Akbar was born here in 1542, when his father, Hurnayun, was fleeing to Afghanistan.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sobraon

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​ SOBRAON, a decisive battle in the first Sikh War (see Sikh Wars). It was fought on the 16th of February 1846, between the British (15,000) under Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs (20,000) under Tej Singh and Lai Singh. The Sikhs had fortified themselves in a bend on the left bank of the Sutlej, with the river in their rear. The battle began with a two hours' artillery duel, in which the Sikh guns were the more powerful, and the British heavy guns expended their ammunition. Then the infantry advanced with the bayonet, and after a fierce struggle took the Sikh entrenchments. The Sikh losses were estimated at from 5000 to 8000. This battle ended the first Sikh War.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Socage

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​ SOCAGE, a free tenement held in fee simple by services of an economic kind, such as the payment of rent or the performance of some agricultural work, was termed in medieval English law a socage tenement. In a borough a similar holding was called a burgage tenement. Medieval law books derived the term from socus, ploughshare, and took it to denote primarily agricultural work. This is clearly a misconception. The term is derived from O. Eng. soc, which means primarily suit, but can also signify jurisdiction and a franchise district. Historically two principal periods may be distinguished in the evolution of the tenure. At the close of the Anglo-Saxon epoch we find a group of freemen differentiated from the ordinary ceorls because of their greater independence and better personal standing. They are classified as sokemen in opposition to the villani in Domesday Book, and are chiefly to be found in the Danelaw and in East Anglia. There can hardly be a doubt that previously most of the Saxon ceorls in other parts of England enjoyed a similar condition. In consequence of the Norman Conquest and of the formation of the common law the tenure was developed into the lowest form of freehold. Legal protection in the public courts for the tenure and services deemed certain, appear as its characteristic feature in contrast to villainage. Certainty and legal protection were so essential that even villain holdings were treated as villain socage when legal protection was obtainable for it, as was actually the case with the peasants on Ancient demesne who could sue their lords by the little writ of right and the Monstraverunt. The Old English origins of the tenure are still apparent even at this time in the shape of some of its incidents, especially in the absence of feudal wardship and marriage. Minors inheriting socage come under the guardianship not of the lord but of the nearest male relative not entitled to succession. An heiress in socage was free to contract marriage without the interference of the lord. Customs of succession were also peculiar in many cases of socage tenure, and the feudal rule of primogeniture was not generally enforced. Commutation, the enfranchisement of copyholds, and the abolition of military tenures in the reign of Charles II. led to a gradual absorption of socage in the general class of freehold tenures.
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. 271 ff.; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, 66 ff.; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England, 113 ff., 196ff.; English Society in the 11th Century, 431 ff.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sobriquet

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​ SOBRIQUET, a nickname or a fancy name, usually a familiar name given by others as distinct from a “pseudonym” assumed as a disguise. Two early variants are found, sotbriquet and soubriquet; the latter form is still often used, though it is not the correct modern French spelling. The first form suggests a derivation from sot, foolish, and briquet, a French adaptation of Ital. brichetto, diminutive of bricco, ass, knave, possibly connected with briccone, rogue, which is supposed to be a derivative of Ger. brechen, to break; but Skeat considers this spelling to be due to popular etymology, and the real origin is to be sought in the form soubriquet. Littré gives an early 14th century soubsbriquet as meaning a “chuck under the chin,” and this would be derived from soubs, mod. sous (Lat. sub), under, and briquet or bruchel, the brisket, or lower part of the throat.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Social Contract

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​ SOCIAL CONTRACT, in political philosophy, a term applied to the theory of the origin of society associated chiefly with the names of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, though it can be traced back to the Greek Sophists. According to Hobbes (Leviathan), men lived originally in a state of nature in which there were no recognized criteria of right and wrong, no distinction of meum and tuum. Each person took for himself all that he could; man's life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” The state of nature was therefore a state of war, which was ended by men agreeing to give their liberty into the hands of a sovereign, who thenceforward was absolute. Locke (Treatise on Government) differed from Hobbes in so far as he described the pre-social state as one of freedom, and held that private property must have been recognized, though there was no security. Rousseau (Contrat social) held that in the pre-social state man was unwarlike and even timid. Laws resulted from the combination of men who agreed for mutual protection to surrender individual freedom of action. Government must therefore rest on the consent of the governed, the volonte générale. Though it is quite obvious that the theory of a social contract (or compact, ​as it is also called) contains a considerable element of truth—that loose associations for mutual protection preceded any elaborate idea or structure of law, and that government cannot be based exclusively on force—yet it is open to the equally obvious objection that the very idea of contract belongs to a more advanced stage in human development than the hypothesis itself demands. Thus the doctrine, yielding as a definite theory of the origin of society to the evidence of history and anthropology, becomes interesting primarily as revolt against medieval and theocratic theories of the state.