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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Karl Kreil

From volume 8 of the work.
Austrian meteorologist and astronomer, b. at Ried, Upper Austria, 4 Nov., 1798; d. at Vienna, 21 Dec., 1862. He received his early education at the Benedictine Abbey of Kremsmünster, under the noted astronomer P. Boniface Schwarzenbrunner. There he joined in the work at the observatory. He studied law for financial reasons, but, in 1823, decided to give it up and to devote himself exclusively to the mathematical and physical sciences. In 1827 he became assistant at the observatory of the Vienna University, then, 1831, adjunct at the observatory de La Brera of Milan. In 1838 he was transferred to the Prague Observatory, of which he became director in 1845. He found this observatory in a very poor condition and was therefore obliged to confine his work more and more to terrestrial observations. He introduced into Austria the study of a new science, that of terrestrial physics. The necessary instruments he obtained by personal privations and persistent efforts. He organized a rational system of magnetic and meteorological observations, which soon placed Prague in the same class with such observatories as that of Göttingen, which was richly endowed and which was directed by the great Gauss.
The emperor conferred upon him the cross of Knight of the Order of Francis Joseph. A member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna since its foundation in 1847, he submitted to it his plans for the establishment of a central station for magnetic and meteorological observations in Austria. This was realized at Vienna in 1851. He was made the first director and at the same time became professor of physics at the University of Vienna. His systematic observations, begun at Milan and Prague, soon extended first over Bohemia and later over the entire empire to the shores of the Adriatic, as well as to Turkey and the Black sea. His religious convictions were very pronounced, and, far from clashing with his scientific occupations, they added a new force to them. He contributed a number of papers and reports to the Academy, improved magnetic apparatus, and constructed some self-registering meteorological instruments. The work at Prague was published in eleven volumes, 1839-1850, under the title of "Magnet. und Meteorolg. Beob. zu Prag."
Other publications are: "Cenni storici e teoretici sulle comete" (Milan, 1832); "Beob. über den grossen Kometen von 1843" (Prague, 1843); "Natur und Bewegung der Kometen" (Prague, 1843); "Magn. und geogr. Ortsbestimmungen in Oesterr. Kaiserthum" (5 vols., Vienna, 1846-1851); "Anleitung zu magn. Beobachtungen" (2nd ed., Vienna, 1858); "Horizontale Komponente der magnetischen Erdkraft" (Vienna, 1853). He edited "Astronomisch-meteorologisches Jahrbuch für Prag" (Prague, 1842-1845) and also "Jahrbücher der Zentral-anstalt für Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus" (1849-1862).
KNELLER, Das Christentum (Freiburg, 1904), 104; GÜNTHER, Allgemeine Deutsche Biogr., XVII (Leipzig, 1883); MARSHALL, Les Mondes, I (Paris, 1863), 401; GRUNERT, Archiv der Math. und Phys.; Litter. Bericht, CLVII (Greifswald, 1864).
WILLIAM FOX
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Caperolo

From volume 3 of the work.
Friar Minor, date of birth unknown; d. at Velletri in 1480; he was a man of much energy and great learning, and was held in high esteem as a preacher by the people of Brescia, Velletri, and other cities of Northern Italy. Caperolo played an important part in the religious disturbances, which arose about the year 1475, between the Franciscan provinces of Milan and Venice, and which were occasioned in great measure by the war then going on between Milan and the Venetian Republic. After considerable difficulty Caperolo succeeded in obtaining permission from Pope Sixtus IV to separate several convents of the Venetian provice from the obedience of the Observants, and to form a vicariate, which was placed under the obedience of the Conventuals, but retained the right to elect its own provincial superior. The members of the new congregation were known as Caperolani, from Caperolo their founder. The death of Caperolo, however, put an end to the Caperolani as a distinct branch within the order, and all the members of the new vicariate without exception returned to the obedience of the Observants.
Wadding, Annales Minorum (Rome, 1732), XIII, 402; XIV, 242; Kobler in Kirchenlex., s.v.
STEPHEN M. DONOVAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Castelli

From volume 3 of the work.
Italian physician and botanist, b. at Rome in 1574; d. at Messina in 1662. He was graduated in 1617, studied under the botanist Andrea Cesalpino, and was professor at Rome from 1597 to 1634 when he went to Messina. He laid out the botanical gardens at Messina (1635), where he cultivated many exotic medicinal plants. He was equally distinguished as a botanist, chemist, and surgeon. He stoutly maintained the necessity for all physicians of studying anatomy, and declared in 1648 that he had dissected more than one hundred corpses. The learned Dane, Thomas Bartolinus, was led by Castelli's fame to visit him in Messina, in 1644, and speaks of his activity as a publicist. He wrote no less than one hundred and fifty pamphlets. Among these there is one written in 1653 in answer to inquiries by Hieronymus Bardi of Genoa, wherein Castelli speaks of the cinchona plant and its curative properties in cases of malaria. He seems to have had but little knowledge of the plant, and no experience in its medicinal application. Still, the pamphlet is noteworthy as being the first Italian publication that mentions the Peruvian febrifuge.
Charles G. Herbermann.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Alagona

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alagona, Pietro, theologian, b. at Syracuse, 1549; d. in Rome, 19 October, 1624. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1564, taught philosophy and theology, and was Rector of Trapani. His first works were published under the family name of his mother, Givarra. Later on he used his own name, Alagona, and is best known for his Compendium of the works of Martin Aspilcueta, who was a doctor of theology in Navarre. This Martin Aspilcueta was the uncle of St. Francis Xavier. The "Enchiridion, seu Manuale Confessariorum," which was compiled by Alagona, went through at least twenty-three editions. A translation of it into French by Legard, was condemned by the Parliament of Rouen, 12 February, 1762. He also published a compendium of the "Summa," which ran through twenty-five editions, and a compendium of the whole of Canon Law in two volumes, quarto. In the Jesuit College of Palermo there is also found a treatise by Alagona on Logic and Physics.
Southwell; Mongitone; Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la c. de J., I, 108 and in Dict. de théol. cath.; Hunter, Nomenclator, I, 360.
T. J. Campbell.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pierre du Jarric

From volume 8 of the work.
Missionary writer, born at Toulouse in 1566; d. at Saintes, 2 March, 1617. He entered the Society of Jesus, 8 December, 1582. For many years he was professor of philosophy and moral theology at Bordeaux. As his desire to belong to the missionaries of the order was not fulfilled, he wished at least to use his pen for the good of the missions. The result was a very important production for that time, "Histoire des choses plus memorables advenues tant ez Indes orientales, que autres païs de la descouverte des Portugois", etc. The second part appeared about 1610, the third in 1614. The work is still a useful one, gives a comprehensive picture of the missionary enterprises of the Jesuits up to 1610, chiefly within the sphere of Portuguese interests, and contains numerous valuable data on colonial history, geography, and ethnography, gathering from Spanish and Portuguese reports, and from the works of Father Luis de Guzman ("Hist. de las Missiones que han hecho los religiosos de la Compañia de Jesús", Alcalá, 1601, reprinted at Bilboa, 1892), and of Father Ferdinand Guerreiro (Relação Annal das cousas que fizeram os Padres da companhia de Jesus na India e Japão, Brazil, Angola, Cabo Verde, Guiné", Evora, 1603, and Lisbon, 1605-07). By the dedication of the second part to Louis XIII Jarric wished to call royal attention to the colonizing and Apostolic achievements of Spain and Portugal, and thus incite the French king to similar efforts. This work was frequently reprinted and widely circulated, particularly in a Latin translation by Martino Martinez III (Cologne, 1615-16).
Sommervogel, Biblioth. de la C. de J.; Hurter, Nomenclator.
A. HUONDER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Colonna Galatino

From volume 6 of the work.
Friar Minor, philosopher, theologian, Orientalist; b. at Galatia (now Cajazzo) in Apulia; d. at Rome, soon after 1539; received the habit as early as 1480, studied Oriental languages in Rome and was appointed lector at the convent of Ara Coeli; he also held the office of provincial in the province of Bari, and that of penitentiary under Leo X. Galatino wrote his chief work "De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis", at the request of the pope, the emperor, and other dignitaries, in 1516, at which time, owing mainly to John Reuchlin's "Augenspiegel", the famous controversy on the authority of the Jewish writings was assuming a very menacing aspect. Galatino took up Reuchlin's defence. Resolved to combat the Jews on their own ground, he turned the Cabbala against them, and sought to convince them that their own books yielded ample proof of the truth of the Christian religion, hence their opposition to it should be branded as obstinacy. He gave his work the form of a dialogue. The two conflicting Christian parties were represented by Capnio (Reuchlin) and the Inquisitor Hochstraten, O.P. In conciliatory terms, Galatino responded to the queries and suggestions of the former, and refuted the objections of the latter. He had borrowed largely from the "Pugio Fidei" of the Dominican Raymond Martini, remodelling, however, the material and supplementing it with copious quotations from the "Zohar" and the "Gale Razayya".
In a long letter to Paul III (MS. Vat. Libr., cod. Ottob. Lat. 2366, fol. 300-308) he vehemently defended himself and his party against the charge of having forged the last-named book, which he firmly held to be the work of "Rabbenu ha-Kadosh". Galatino was aware, no less than his critics, that his "De Arcanis Cath. Ver." had many shortcomings, both in matter and form, and he begged his readers to consider that he was compelled to finish it within the space of a year and a half. The work became very popular and ran through several editions. For the rest, Galatino's extensive knowledge and his thorough acquaintance with Greek, Hebrew, and Jewish Aramaic is fully borne out by his numerous other unpublished writings. In bold language he inveighs against the corruption among the clergy and discusses the question of reform. While engaged on his remarkable work "De Vera Theologia" his strength threatened to fail him by reason of his great age and infirmity, but, having taken a vow to defend in the course of this work the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, he instantly, so he tells us, recovered his strength and health (MSS. 52, 54, 60, St. Isidore's Coll.). In 1539, Paul III, in a special Bull, bequeathed Galatino's works, about thirty in number, to the convent of Ara Coeli and enjoined that special care be taken of them. The MSS. are now preserved in various Roman archives.
Thomas Plassmann.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Alfieri

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alfieri, Pietro, a priest and at one time a Camaldolese monk, b. at Rome, June, 1801; d. there ​12 June, 1863. For many years the professor of singing at the English College in Rome, he is remembered chiefly for his scientific writings and his collections of music of the old masters. Perhaps his most valuable work is his "Raccolta di Musica Sacra" in seven large volumes, a reprint of the sixteenth-century church music, mostly by Palestrina, which was supplemented by later and smaller collections, such as "Excerpta ex celebrioribus de musicâ viris" (Rome, 1840), and "Raccolta di Motetti" (Rome, 1841). On plain chant he published "Accompagnamento coll' organo" (Rome, 1840); "Ristabilmento del canto e della musica ecclesiastica" (Rome, 1843); "Saggio storico del canto Gregoriano" (Rome 1845); "Prodromo sulla restaurazione de' libri di canto Gregoriano" (Rome, 1857). He also translated into Italian Catel's "Traité d'harmonie" and contributed to the "Gazzetta musicale di Milano" and other periodicals many articles on church music of great value to the student.
Grove, Dict. of Music and Musicians; Baker, Biog. Dict. of Musicians.
J. A. Völker.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Berrettini

From volume 2 of the work.
(Called Pietro da Cortona)
A distinguished Italian painter, architect, and writer, b. at Cortona, in Tuscany, 1 November, 1596; d. at Rome, 16 May, 1669. He studied first under his uncle, Filippo Berrettini, and then at Florence under Andrea Commodi. At the age of fifteen he left that city for Rome, and entered the studio of Baccio Ciarpi, a Florentine painter. There he applied himself to the study of the works of Raphael, Michelangelo, and Polidoro, to that of the antique sculptures and notably of the bas-reliefs of the column of Trajan. While still very young he attracted the attention of Cardinal Sacchetti, who became his protector, and for whom were painted the first two of his works, "The Battles of Alexander" and "The Rape of the Sabines". Thereupon, Pope Urban VIII gave him the order to decorate a chapel of the church of Santa Bibiana. Such was his success there that he received the commission to paint what proved to be his most celebrated work, the ceiling of the great salon of the Barberini Palace, representing, in allegory, the history of that family. He then designed some mosaics for the dome of St. Peter's. After a trip through Lombardy and a sojourn at Venice, he went to Florence, where the Grand Duke Ferdinand II employed him to decorate the Pitti Palace. There he painted several important frescoes, but left without completing the series, angered by the actions of jealous rivals. The compositions included "Clemency of Alexander to the Family of Darius", "The History of Masinissa", "The Continence of Cyrus", and "The Firmness of Porsenna". The work was completed by his pupil Ciro Ferri. On his return to Rome Berrettini received many important commissions, acquiring a great reputation. He executed a number of frescoes in churches, as well as easel pictures. He became wealthy, and Pope Alexander VII created him a Chevalier of the Order of the Golden Spur. His principal pupils were Francesco Romanelli, Ferri, Testa, Giordano, and Borgognone. He is buried in the church of San Martino, of which he was architect, and to which he left a large sum of money.
Bryan, Dictionary of Painters and Engravers (London and New York, 1903-05).
AUGUSTUS VAN CLEEF
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pietro Delfino

From volume 4 of the work.
A theologian, born at Venice in 1444; died 16 Jan., 1525. He entered the Camaldolese Monastery of San Michele at Murano, and in 1479 was elected abbot of the same community. The following year he was made general of the order and held that office until the year 1513 when he resigned in favour of his fellow-countryman Blessed Paul Giustiniani, whom he had invested with the Camaldolese habit in 1510. Delfino was the forty-sixth general from St. Romuald, the founder of the Camaldolese and the last elected for life, the office after him being held for three years only. In 1488 he received the votes of his countrymen in Venice for the cardinalate, but refused to accept this dignity from Innocent VIII. The letters of Delfino, which number more than four thousand, addressed to different religious of his own and other orders and to various secular dignitaries, are valuable not only on account of the trustworthiness of their author, but more especially because of the accounts they contain of contemporary events in his own order and the Church in general. A collection of his Latin letters was published at Venice in 1524. Several others that had been omitted in the Venetian editions were included later in Martène's "Veterum Scriptorum amplissima collectio". The "Apothegmata Patrum" and the "Dialogues" on Savonarola are still unedited.
MARTENE, Veterum Scriptorum et monumentorum ecclesiasticorum et dogmaticorum amplissima collectio, III, 915.
STEPHEN M. DONOVAN
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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Altamura and Acquaviva

From volume 1 of the work.
​Altamura and Acquaviva, an exempt archipresbyterate in the province of Bari, in southern Italy. Altamura was declared exempt from episcopal jurisdiction by Innocent IV in 1248, and again ​by Innocent VIII (1484–92). Acquaxava, a town of the Campagna, was declared similarly exempt by Pius IX and united with Altamura, 17 August, 1848. Altaiuura has 4 parishes and a Catholic population of 19,333; Acquaviva has one parish and a Catholic population of 8,527; the clergy number 80.
BATTANDIER, Ann. Pont. (1905), 338.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Alumnus

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alumnus (from Lat. alo, "to nurse", or "feed") signifies in ecclesiastical usage, a student preparing for the sacred ministry in a seminary. Originally the word meant a child adopted with certain restricted privileges, or a foster-child. Since the Council of Trent, however, the word has become equivalent to a seminarian, and as such is often applied to the students of the ecclesiastical colleges in Rome. The Council of Trent (sess. xxiii, ch. 18, de Ref.) required bishops to establish institutions for the education of students for the priesthood. Formerly, church candidates had been educated in the houses of priests, in monasteries, or in the public universities. According to the Council, such alumni, among other qualifications, should be a least twelve years of age and able to read and write, and their disposition should be such as to give hope that they would adorn perpetually the sacred ministry. Children of the poor were to be especially favoured. Besides philosophy, theology, scripture, and canon law, they were to study rites and ceremonies, sacred eloquence and plain chant. The bishop was to see that the students heard Mass daily, confessed monthly, and communicated as often as advisable. On festival days they were to take part in the cathedral services. The bishop was also exhorted to visit these students frequently, to watch over their progress in learning and piety, and to remove hindrances to their advancement. In 1896, the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars laid down rules for the guidance of bishops in regard to alumni who attend public universities, requiring especially that they do not associate too familiarly with the other students, and that they be gathered frequently for spiritual conferences and for philosophical, theological, and historical discussions. (See Seminary, Ecclesiastical.)
Lucidi, De Visit. Sac. Lim., I, III (Rome, 1889); Laurentius, Inst. Jur. Eccl. (Freiburg, 1903), 471; Bouix, De Episcopo, II (Paris, 1889).
William H. W. Fanning.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Altar of Repose

From volume 12 of the work.
(Sometimes called less properly sepulchre or tomb, more frequently repository).
The altar where the Sacred Host, consecrated in the Mass on Holy Thursday, is reserved until the Mass of the Presanctified (see GOOD FRIDAY) on the following day. It is prescribed that the altar of repose be in the church and other than the one where Mass is celebrated. In the Mass on Holy Thursday two hosts are consecrated; after the consumption of the first, the second Host is placed in a chalice, which is covered with a pall and inverted paten; over the whole is placed a white veil, tied with a ribbon. This remains on the corporal in the centre of the altar till the end of Mass, when it is carried in solemn procession to the altar of repose, there to remain in the tabernacle or in an urn placed in a prominent position above the altar. Individual churches vie with one another in rendering these altars of repose with their respective chapels ornate in the extreme, with rich hangings, beautiful flowers, and numerous lights. Catholic piety has made Holy Thursday a day of exceptional devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, and the repository is the centre of the love and aspirations of the faithful. Mention of the altar of repose and the procession thereto is not found before the close of the fifteenth century. The reservation of the Consecrated Species in the Mass of Holy Thursday, spoken of in earlier liturgical works, was for the distribution of Holy Communion, not for the service on the following day.
ANDREW B. MEEHAN