OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Downcast

Edition of 1905. See also Glossary of coal mining terminology#D on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOWNCAST. The name of a shaft used for ventilating mines. The foul air is made to ascend through a line, or in old-fashioned workings by a fire burning at the bottom or by a fan blower, while fresh air descends through the downcast.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dow, Lorenzo

Edition of 1905. See also Lorenzo Dow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DOW, Lorenzo (1777-1834). An American preacher, noted for his eccentricities and zeal. He was born at Coventry, Conn., October 6, 1777. His education was limited. In youth he joined the Methodists (1799), but left them under a conviction that he was called to be a missionary to the Roman Catholics of Ireland. His preaching in that country attracted crowds of people, and brought him some persecution. He also visited England, introducing there the Methodist system of camp-meetings. He returned to the United States, and repeated his visits to Ireland and England in 1805. He afterwards preached for many years in the United States, traveling all over the country, and sometimes making appointments a year in advance, which he filled at the exact day and hour. His natural eloquence and his eccentricities of dress and speech attracted large audiences everywhere. He preached much against the Jesuits, whom he regarded as conspirators against civil and religious liberty. His Polemical Works appeared in 1814. Among his other writings are The Stranger in Charleston: or, the Trial and Confession of Lorenzo Dow (1822); A Short Account of a Long Travel (1823); and the History of a Cosmopolite (1851)—the cosmopolite being himself. He died at Georgetown, D. C., February 2, 1834. Consult his Life and Writings (New York, 1854).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dowager

Edition of 1905. See also Dowager on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DOWAGER (OF. douagiere, from douage, dower, from douer, doer, Fr. douer, It., Lat. dotare, to endow, from Lat. dos, dower). A widow with a dower (q.v.). A title commonly applied only to the widows of persons of high rank. The Queen dowager in Great Britain, as the widow of the King, enjoys most of the privileges which belonged to her as Queen consort; but it is not high treason to conspire her death, because the succession to the crown is not thereby endangered.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dowitcher

Edition of 1905. See also Dowitcher on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DO′WITCHER (corruption of Ger. deutsch, German, or Dutch duitsch, Dutch). A popular name for certain shore-birds, great favorites with gunners. They constitute the genus Macrorhamphus, are closely related to the snipes (q.v.), and are often called ‘gray snipe’ or ‘red-breasted’ or ‘red-bellied snipe.’ The bill is distinctly snipe-like, but the tail and feet are like those of sandpipers. Tvo species are recognized: both breed in high latitudes and winter in Mexico and South America, but during the migrations one species (Macrorhamphus griscus) is found along the Atlantic coast of the United States, while the other (Macrorhamphus scolopaceus) migrates through the Mississippi Valley and Western States. The dowitchers are about ten or twelve inches in length, with a bill two to two and a half inches long. The upper parts are chiefly black or blackish (in winter, brownish-gray), and the under parts dull pale rufous, more or less marked with black. These birds migrate in compact flocks which are easily attracted by decoys, to which the hunter calls them by imitating their notes. See Plate of Beach-Birds.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dowlas

Edition of 1905. See also Dowlas on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOW′LAS (probably from Doullens, a town of France). A kind of coarse, strong unbleached linen, much used in the sixteenth century, and said to have been made at Doullens, France. It was largely manufactured in southern Scotland and in Yorkshire in the eighteenth century, and used by working people for shirts and aprons. Since the introduction of calico, the demand for dowlas has very much diminished, the article being little used.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Down

Edition of 1905. See also County Down on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOWN. A maritime county in the southeast of Ulster Province, Ireland (Map: Ireland, F 2). Area, 957 square miles. It has a low, rocky coast-line of 67 miles, or 125 by the inlets, skirted by many islets. The Mourne Mountains cover 90 square miles in the south, and rise 2796 feet in Slieve Donard. The other parts of Down are mostly undulating and hilly, with plains and fine meadows along the rivers. The chief crops are oats, potatoes, turnips, wheat, flax, and barley. Many hogs are raised. The chief manufacture is linen, especially the finer fabrics, such as muslin, woven in the houses of the small farmers. Flax and cotton mills are common. Hosiery, leather, salt, thread, and woolens are also made. These, with corn, butter, pork, and hides, are the chief exports. Down is among the best cultivated of the Irish counties. Capital, Downpatrick. Population, in 1841, 368,200; in 1891, 269,734; in 1901, 289,330.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dow, Neal

Edition of 1905. See also Neal Dow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DOW, Neal (1804-97). An American temperance reformer. He was born in Portland, Maine, of Quaker parentage, and was educated at the Friends' Academy in New Bedford, Mass. He was twice Mayor of Portland, and in 1858-59 was a member of the State Legislature. In 1861 he was appointed colonel of the Thirteenth Maine Volunteers, which he commanded in General Butler's expedition to New Orleans. Promoted to the rank of brigadier-general in 1862, he commanded the fortifications at the mouth of the Mississippi, and later the Department of Florida. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the Confederates at Port Hudson in May, 1863, and was confined for eight months thereafter in Libby Prison. It was as a temperance reformer and orator, however, that he was best known. He was the author of the famous prohibition law enacted by the Maine Legislature in 1851, and traveled widely in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, speaking on temperance questions and helping in the organization of societies for the furtherance of the reform. In 1880 he was the Prohibition candidate for President of the United States.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Boiling-Point

See also Boiling point on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Boiling-Point, the temperature at which a liquid is transformed into vapor. The boiling-point varies with different liquids, while it changes with the amount of atmospheric pressure to which it may be exposed. When the boiling-point is normal at the sea-level, in high altitudes, where the air-pressure is light, liquids boil more slowly. So well-known is this that the heights of mountains are approximately measured by ascertaining the degree of temperature at which water boils. In highly elevated regions many substances cannot be cooked by boiling. A further fact is that when water contains foreign substances in solution the boiling-point is raised; in other words, the greater the amount of these substances a liquid contains, the higher within certain limits is the boiling-point of the liquid. Under normal atmospheric pressure, ether boils at 35° C., pure alcohol at 78°, while aniline boils at 183° C. Water boils at 100° Centigrade or 212° Fahrenheit.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bois de Boulogne

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​Bois de Boulogne. See Boulogne.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Boise, Idaho

See also Boise, Idaho on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Boise (boi'zắ), Idaho, the capital of the state, and the county seat of Ada County, on the Boise River, about 48 miles east of its junction with the Snake River. It is reached by the Oregon Short Line Railroad (now part of the Union Pacific system.) It lies in an important mining district and besides a military post it has a federal assay office, U. S. Court and land offices, together with a soldier's home, a penitentiary and the state capitol. Its civic institutions, besides the city hall, include a public library, several schools and academies, a business college and a natatorium. The Boise River is utilized considerably in the region for irrigation purposes, as well as for water power for the city's manufactures. The latter embrace saw mills, wood-working factories, foundries and machine shops. In the vicinity there is much farming carried on, as well as stock-raising, while Boise has become noted as a wool market. Population (1910), 17,358.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Boileau, Nicholas

See also Nicholas Boileau on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Boileau (bwä'lō), Nicholas, a French poet and critic, was born at Paris in 1636, and after a thorough education took up writing as a profession. His first work was a satire, Adieu of a Poet to the City of Paris. He became a friend of Moliére, La Fontaine and Racine, and was pensioned by the king. His Art of Poetry is considered very fine. He did much as a critic to purify and refine the French language, and has had a great influence on French literature. He was made a member of the French Academy. He died at Paris in 1711.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bokhara

See also Bukhara on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Bokhara (bṓ-kä′rȧ), meaning “treasury of sciences,” a city of central Asia, the capital of the khanate or province of Bokhara, a vassal state of Russia, is situated on a plain near the river Zerafshan. It is more than eight miles in circumference, and is surrounded by mud walls twenty-four feet high, pierced by eleven gates. The palace of the khan, built on a hill at an elevation of 300 feet in the center of the city, is surrounded by a brick wall nearly seventy feet high. Bokhara is the center of religious life in central Asia, and is said to have 365 mosques. The finest occupies a square of 300 feet, and has a cupola 100 feet in height. Joined to it is a tower of about twice the height, from which criminals are hurled. The city has long been noted as a seat of learning, and besides a vast number of schools has about eighty colleges. The River Zerafshan is utilized for irrigating, and the drain of water is said to have lessened the population by one half, but there are still about 75,000 people. Silks, woolens and swords are manufactured, slave markets are held, and the bazaars are rich with the wares of Europe and Asia. The Transcaspian railroad opens communication with the ports of the Caspian Sea, but the trade is almost wholly in Russian hands. The area of the state of Bokhara is about 80,000 square miles, with a population of about 1,250,000.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Boldrewood, Rolf

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​Boldrewood, Rolf. See Brown, Thomas Alexander.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Bonaparte, Charles Joseph

See also Charles Joseph Bonaparte on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Bonaparte, Charles Joseph, lawyer and reformer, was born in Baltimore, June 9, 1861. He is the grandson of Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, whose romantic marriage to Elizabeth Patterson was practically annulled by Napoleon, Mr. Bonaparte was admitted to the bar in 1874, and soon became prominent as a political reformer. He is chairman of the council of the National Civil Reform League and president of the National Municipal League. He was a member of the Board of Indian Commissioners, 1902-04; Secretary of the Navy, July, 1905-December, 1906; and since December 17, 1906, has been attorney-general of the United States.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Boker, George Henry

See also George Henry Boker on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Bo′ker, George Henry, an American poet, was born at Philadelphia in 1823, and died there in 1890. He wrote several plays, which were successful on the stage, among them Calaynos, a Tragedy, and Francesca da Rimini. His war poems, written during the Civil War, were published in a volume entitled Poems of the War. He was appointed minister to Constantinople, and after four years was transferred to St. Petersburg. In 1882 he published a volume of verse, The Book of the Dead.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alps

See also Alps on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Alps, the largest and highest mountains in Europe. The average height of the central chain is 7,700 feet, a region where snow never melts, while several hundred peaks rise still higher. From these snow-capped mountains the avalanches rush down, sweeping along snow, rocks, forests and even villages. Here, also, in the valleys between the peaks, gather the huge masses of snow which form the long streams of ice called glaciers (see Glaciers). The most beautiful of these glaciers is the Mer de Glace. The highest peak is Mt. Blanc, 15,732 feet in height; though Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn and several others are almost as high. There are some sixteen great passes over the Alps. Famous marches have been made over them by large armies: Hannibal's march was through the Little St. Bernard Pass and Napoleon's through the Great St. Bernard. Bridges, terraces and long galleries have been built of stone to give protection against avalanches and whirlwinds. Places of shelter from storms, called hospices, have also been erected, where huge St. Bernard dogs are kept to help in searching for unfortunate wanderers who may be lost in the snow. The Alps are now pierced by four railroad tunnels, the Arlberg, Mt. Cenis, Mt. St. Gothard and Simplon. The scenery of the Alps is famous for its grandeur, and every season the mountains are so crowded with tourists that the Alps have been called "the play-ground of Europe." Of the many objects of grandeur or beauty, the most famous are Mt. Blanc and the Valley of the Chamouni. Austria, Switzerland, Italy, France and Bavaria share in the possession of the Alps.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Almond

See also Almond on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Almond (ä' mŭnd), A species of Prunus, a genus of the rose family. The almond is very old in cultivation, and is probably a native of the Mediterranean region. The two races of almonds are known as the "bitter" and the "sweet," the kernel of the former being used in the manufacture of flavoring extracts and of prussic acid. The sweet almonds, with their edible kernels, are grouped under two heads: those with hard shells and those with soft shells. The almond of commerce belongs to the soft-shelled group, and those with the thinnest shells are known as "paper shells." The commercial cultivation of the almond in the United States is confined to the west, chiefly California. A large part of the almonds used in this country comes from Italy, France and Spain. A native almond is found in southern California, a low bushy shrub with a small, smooth nut. Both the almond and the dwarf almond of southern Russia are used as ornamental trees, planted in places not favorable for the production of the nut.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alternation of Generations

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Alterna'tion of Genera'tions. In all plant groups above the Thallophytes, the life history of every plant is made up of two phases. One phase bears the sex organs, and is called the gametophyte; the other bears no sex organs, but produces asexual spores, and is called the sporophyte. These two phases or generations regularly alternate with each other, the gametophyte by means of its sex organs producing the sporophyte, and the sporophyte by means of its asexual spores producing the gametophyte. For example, in the mosses the ordinary leafy plant is the gametophyte, and the so-called fruit is the sporophyte. In the ferns the leafy plant is the sporophyte, while the gametophyte is a very small but independent body, which is never observed except by those who know of its presence. In the flowering plants the whole visible body is the sporophyte; while the gametophyte is so minute that it is effectually concealed from ordinary observation. For a further account see Gametophyte and Sporophyte.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alton

See also Alton, Illinois on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Alton,' a thriving city, railroad center and port of entry in Madison County, Illinois. It is situated on the Mississippi, 25 miles above St. Louis and about 14 miles above the mouth of the Missouri. It is built on high limestone bluffs. The Mississippi is here bridged by the Burlington railroad. An electric railway connects Alton with St. Louis and with Upper Alton, the seat of the Baptist Shurtleff College. The town has a Roman Catholic cathedral, many other churches and schools and a number of important manufactories, the most important being the Illinois Glass Works. Population, 17,528.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Altoona

See also Altoona, Pennsylvania on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Altoo'na is in Blair County, Pennsylvania, and is situated at the eastern base of the Allegheny Mountains, 1,168 feet above the level of the sea. The surrounding country is rioted for its scenic beauty. A few miles west is the famous Horseshoe Bend; several miles north is Wopsononoc Mountain, from whose summit there is spread before the eye a panoramic view of the Blue Juniata; and to the east is Sinking Valley, with its interesting natural curiosities.
In the year 1849, the time at which it may be said Altoona was founded, the officers of the Pennsylvania Railroad company selected the site of the city for the location of their principal workshops. Later the testing department, laboratories and offices were removed to the city, and at present the car and engine manufactories are the most extensive of the kind in the world. Other prominent industries are silk mills and glass works. Altoona is the terminus of a division of the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, and passengers have the convenience of 50 daily trains. Branch roads extend south and southeast.
In the summer of 1858, the Altoona Mechanics' Library and Reading Room Association was organized. It has now about 40,000 volumes on its shelves. The public schools have 221 teachers with an enrollment of 8,000 pupils. The high school has 24 teachers and a four years' course of study, divided into five departments, namely, literary, scientific, commercial, general and industrial. The Pennsylvania Railroad company has donated to this school one of the most complete equipments for wood working, forge, foundry and metal machinery to be found in the country, and the High School building was erected at a cost of half a million dollars. The parochial schools have an enrollment of about 2,000 pupils. The estimated value of public school property is $500,000. Population, 52,127.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Almanacs

See also Almanac on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Almanacs (al′ mā́-năks), or books in which information is given about the seasons, the sun and moon, eclipses and other phenomena of astronomy, are at least as old as the fifth century after Christ, when they were in use in Alexandria. They may be much older, and of Asiatic origin. With the invention of printing they became common in Europe. They generally contained predictions, the most famous of which was one that happened to be correct, in which Nostradamus foretold the death of Henry II of France. In America the best known almanac was that of Franklin, called Poor Richard’s, and begun in 1732. Until 1828, when the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge issued a valuable English almanac, most of those which were sold were either useless for practical purposes or else full of coarse and superstitious remarks. Since that date, however, almanacs have either been published for their practical utility or else for advertisement. In the former class may be mentioned firstly the Nautical Almanac, published by the British Government since 1767, which is quite necessary to navigators; secondly, the French Connaissance des Temps; thirdly, the German Astronomisches Jahrbuch; and finally the United States American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. Very good almanacs are published yearly by some of the great American newspapers; such as the World and the Tribune; and in these may often be found the exact date of events which are remote enough to be forgotten, but too recent to be readily found in books of reference.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alpaca

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Alpaca (al-pak' a), an animal native to the lofty tablelands and mountains of the Andes in Peru. It is related to the camels of the old world, and is kept as a beast of burden by the Peruvian Indians. The wool is of fine quality, usually pale brown in color; but gray and even black varieties are common. The wool grows about eight inches long, when shorn regularly every year, but grows longer when not clipped. As soon as the animal is shorn its resemblance to a small camel without a hump is evident.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alpena, Mich.

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Alpena, Mich., capital of Alpena County, situated at the head of Thunder Bay, Lake Huron, about halfway between Saginaw Bay and the Straits of Mackinac. It has a commodious harbor, and ships in the season large quantities of shingles, lath, and sawn lumber. It has a number of factories and, a variety of industries, chiefly connected with the timber trade, such as paper from wood-pulp, two large excelsior mills, two stave and heading factories, two veneer mills, etc. The city has admirable public schools, a public library, churches, a water works system, and is lighted at night both by gas and by electricity. The number of inhabitants has not increased much in the past decade. Its present population is 19,945.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Alsace-Lorraine

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Al'sace-Lorraine' (äl-säs' lor-rān'), an imperial territory of the German empire, composed of Alsace and those parts of Lorraine conquered from France in the war of 1870. It does not belong to any state of Germany, but is subject to the emperor directly, who appoints the governor or statthalter. The language spoken is generally German in Alsace and French in Lorraine. The country is a great wine-producing one, and is also engaged in the mining of ores and the manufacture of cotton. The principal city is Strassburg (population 167,678). Area 5,604 square miles; population of Alsace-Lorraine 1,871,702. In 1911 there were in the Reichsland 1303 miles of railway.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Altai Mountains

See also Altay Mountains on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Altai (äl' tī) Mountains, a group of mountains in Central Asia separating the tablelands of Mongolia from Siberia. The great Siberian rivers, the Obi, the Irtish and Yenisei, have their sources in these mountains. The highest peaks are over 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Friedrich, Woldemar

Edition of 1906. See also Woldemar Friedrich on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIEDRICH, Woldemar (1846—). A German historical painter and illustrator, born at Gnadau. Province of Saxony. He studied in Berlin under Steffeck, and in Weimar under Plockhorst, Ramberg, and Verlat; took part in the Franco-German War of 1870-71, and after a visit to Italy, in 1873, returned to Weimar, where he was made professor at the School of Art in 1881. Called to Berlin in 1885 as instructor at the Academy, he was awarded the gold medal in 1886 for his allegorical ceiling-painting in the Exhibition Building. Among several other decorative works on a large scale are to be especially noticed “The Diet of Worms” (1892), in the Aula of the Gymnasium at Wittenberg, and the two mural paintings “Art and Science,” and “Book-Trade and Printing,” in the Booksellers' Exchange at Leipzig. A series of landscapes and genre pictures in water-colors and the illustrations to his work Sechs Monate in Indien (1893) were the fruits of a journey to India. In 1889 he became a member of and professor at the Berlin Academy.