OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abraham

See also Abraham on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Abraham, the head of the Hebrew nation, was born at Ur, in Chaldæa, about 2000 B. C. He left his people, who were idolaters, to worship the one God, and dwelt in Palestine, leading the life of an Arab chief. His original name, Abram, was changed to Abraham, meaning “father of a great nation.” He died near Hebron, aged 175 years, and is noted for his faith in God, being called the “Father of the Faithful.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Absalom

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​Ab′salom, the third son of King David, was noted for his personal beauty and winning manners. By these qualities he seduced the people into rebellion against his father. He was defeated in battle, caught by his beautiful hair in the branches of an oak as he fled, and slain by Joab against the orders of his father, who mourned his death in a most touching lament.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Absinthe

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​Absinthe (ăb-sinth′), a popular French liquor, agreeable to the taste, but one of the most dangerous stimulants ever manufactured. It is made from oil of wormwood and alcohol, with the addition of several volatile oils.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Absorption

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​Absorp′tion (in plants), the method by which almost all plants take materials from the outside into their bodies. Plants absorb water and a great variety of substances soluble in water. Because the protoplasm of plant cells forms about each a continuous covering, the cell wall having no visible openings, and because both cell wall and protoplasm hold among their particles large amounts (50–98 per cent) of water, all substances, whether solid or gaseous, must be dissolved in water before they can enter the plant. When so dissolved the particles are free to move through the water, and tend to distribute themselves uniformly. As the water outside is continuous with that forming part of the body, the particles may migrate into the plant almost as readily as in other directions. They will enter it if of suitable size, and if the water inside contains less of that substance than the water outside. The movement of each sort of material is independent, and a substance will continue to enter until it becomes equally distributed. If it is being used or stored, it may be absorbed in large amounts. Similarly water moves from the places where there are fewest particles of all the dissolved substances, i.e., where there is most water, toward the places where there is relatively less water. As water is constantly evaporating from land plants large quantities of water must be absorbed to balance this loss. The absorption of all substances is subject to regulation by the living protoplasm. Not all substances soluble in water are permitted to enter, nor at all times.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abolition of Slavery

See also Abolitionism on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Abolition of Slavery. See Slavery.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aborigines

See also Indigenous peoples on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Aborigines. See Indians.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aboukir

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​Aboukir. See Nile, Battle of.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abraham, Plains of

See also Plains of Abraham on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Abraham, Plains of. A level tract of land about one mile in width immediately west of the city of Quebec, named after Abraham Martin, who at one time owned it. The scene of the memorable battle, which wrested from the French their supremacy in North America.
The British troops had been besieging the city for some time without success. Autumn was approaching and the admiral in command of the fleet refused to remain longer. Wolfe, the young general in command of the army, resolved on one last desperate venture. Embarking all his available troops on the vessels of the fleet he moved up the St. Lawrence some miles beyond the city. The French were bewildered by the ever-changing tactics of their opponents, and when, on the night of the 12th of September (1759), the British army dropped down the river in boats and scaled its precipitous bank, there was only a small guard at the top to offer ineffectual opposition. Daybreak found Wolfe’s army drawn up in battle array on the plains. The gallant French general, Montcalm, immediately marched from the city with all his available troops and impetuously attacked the British forces. The thin red line of British troops held their fire until the French were within 40 paces and then shattered their ranks with two accurately delivered volleys. The French ranks broke and fled, and Wolfe lived long enough to know that his desperate attempt had been entirely successful. Montcalm died a few hours later. The British loss was some fifty killed and five hundred and ninety-seven wounded, while that of the French was about one thousand five hundred, including two hundred and fifty prisoners.
On the 17th of the same month the city surrendered and (save Montreal) Canada was in the hands of the British. The following spring the French force marched from Montreal over well-nigh impassable roads, and a second and bloodier battle was fought on the plains, resulting in the British force being repulsed and driven within the walls. The timely arrival of some British frigates, however, caused the siege to be raised, and Quebec and all Canada then became part of the British possessions.
The celebration of the coming of the great voyager Champlain to Quebec was ​held in 1908, and in this connection there was consummated a movement to make the Plains of Abraham a National Park, and erect in its center a monument to Peace.
The federal government of Canada and the governments of the various provinces as well joined in aid of this celebration which proved to be one of the most imposing ever held in Canada. The presence of the Prince of Wales, who came to Canada specially to take part in it, added to the enthusiasm of the occasion.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abruzzi, Duke of

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​Abruzzi (ȧ-brōōt′sē) Duke of, known also as Prince Amadeo of Savoy, a member of the royal house of Italy and a distinguished explorer, aeronaut, sportsman and scientist, son of ex-King Amadeus of Spain, was born in 1873 in Madrid and educated in part at the Naval College in Leghorn. As a youth he travelled round the world, and in 1896 successfully ascended Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, whose ice-covered peak is over 18,000 feet in height. In 1899 the Duke set out from Christiania on an Arctic voyage in the Stella Polare, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, 81° 47′ N. There he organized a sledge party, to proceed toward the North Pole, but an accident to his ship prevented the Duke from accompanying it. It was, however, manned under the command of his chief officer, Captain Cagni, the expedition reaching the most northerly point attained up to that date, viz.: 86° 34′ N., or within 236 statute miles of the Pole. The narrative of the expedition is told in the Duke of Abruzzi’s book, On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea, published in 1903. The Duke’s achievement beat that of Nansen in The Fram, in years 1893–94, the Norwegian explorer having in his sledge journey only reached 86° 4′ N., 96° E.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Abstinence

See also Abstinence on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Abstinence. See Total Abstinence.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Toronto, Can.

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Toron′to, Can., capital of Ontario is on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. The harbor at its front is formed by an island lying south of it. We first hear of it as a trading-fort built by the French in 1749 and named Fort Rouille. Later it was known as York. It was incorporated as a city in 1834 with the name of Toronto. It is the legal, educational and legislative center of the province. Osgoode Hall with its court-rooms and law-library, named after Chief Justice Osgoode and centrally located in spacious grounds, is a center of attraction for visitors. The parliament-buildings, stately and handsome brown-stone structures in the park, and the group of buildings near by, devoted to the growing work of the University of Toronto, deservedly are objects of local pride. The main building of the university is, architecturally, one of the most imposing on the continent. Near these are Wycliffe, McMaster, Victoria and St. Michael’s Colleges and, at no great distance, Knox and Trinity Colleges. The educational institutions attract 10,000 students. Only a few universities in the world have a larger roll-call than Toronto University. The city rises gradually from the lake northwards, and a number of streets in its northern portion, the residential part, are noticeably beautiful. Industrially Toronto is making great progress. The value of the annual output is near $100,000,000. One department-store alone (T. Eaton Company) employs 4,000 hands. In 1906 electric power was brought to the city from Niagara Falls, and cheap power unlimited in quantity so easily obtained will attract capital and further build up industries. The city is well-provided with hospitals, libraries, churches and parks. Its electric railway has nearly 100 miles of track, and each year carries nearly as many millions of passengers. The leading railways, the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk and Canadian Northern, contribute to its growth. Steamers, passengers and freight cross to Niagara (Lake Erie) and to Kingston and points east, including Montreal and Quebec, across Lake Ontario. Americans in great numbers visit Toronto each summer. The island, stretching along the front of the city, dotted with summer residences and hotels and overlooking the great lake, is attractive to citizens and visitors alike. Its ready accessibility (within a few minutes of the heart of the city) makes it a most valuable asset. Population (1910), 342,000. See Canada and Ontario.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Top

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* MAXWELL'S DYNAMICAL TOP
Top. The ordinary spinning-top is a rapidly rotating solid supported on a single point below the center of gravity. Suspended in this way the weight of the top acting through its center of gravity exerts a moment of force which tends to tilt the top. The result is that the top “precesses,” instead of falling over, thus exhibiting those phenomena so well-known to every boy of ten. For a detailed explanation of the dynamics of the top consult Worthington's Dynamics of Rotation, chap, xiii, or Perry's Spinning-Tops. Clerk-Maxwell devised a top having more or less the shape of a bell, so that the point of support could be placed at, above or below the center of gravity. It is provided also with adjusting screws as shown in the accompanying figure, so that its mass can be distributed in various ways about the axis of rotation. The chief interest attracting this particular form of top, besides the fact that it most beautifully illustrates the general principles of rotation, lies in the fact that it accurately simulates the motion of our earth on its axis, demonstrating on a small scale the phenomena of precession, nutation, variation of latitude dynamic and static instability etc. Consult Maxwell's original account in his Scientific Papers, Vol. I., pp. 248-68, and a detailed and popular account in The Physical Review, Vol. VI., March, 1898. See Gyroscope.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Topaz

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​To′paz, a mineral and a gem, the finer varieties of which are much valued for their luster and the beauty of their colors. It is made up chiefly of alumina, silica and fluorine. It is usually found in very old rocks and in most parts of the world. Fine topazes are found in Ceylon, but those most prized come from Brazil. Topaz either is colorless or in many shades of red, blue, green or yellow; it is translucent or almost transparent on the edges; and it is harder than quartz. When cut or set, topazes are easily mistaken for diamonds or rubies, but they are not so hard as either of these gems.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Topeka, Kas.

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​Tope′ka, Kas., capital of the state and county-seat of Shawnee County, is built on both sides of Kansas River, 67 miles west from Kansas City and 300 from St. Louis. The surrounding country is a rich, rolling prairie. It is a large milling-center, and has manufactures with a yearly output of $10,000,000. It also is an important railroad and distributing point, being served by the Santa Fé, Rock Island and Union Pacific main lines and a branch of the Missouri Pacific. It has electric street-railroads, broad streets and handsome churches and buildings. Among the public buildings are the capitol, United States government building and the state asylum for the insane. Besides these Topeka has two handsome buildings belonging to the Y. M. C. A., and the railroad Y. M. C. A., a splendid auditorium and 71 churches. The free public library has 10,000 volumes, the Kansas Historical Society library 40,000 volumes, and the state library 28,000 volumes. The public-school system is excellent and includes high and manual-training schools, while among its schools of higher learning are Washburn College (Cong.), founded in 1865, having 720 students; an Episcopal college for women; and a Roman Catholic seminary. Topeka was settled in 1854, and became the capital in 1861. The city owns the electric street-lighting plant and its water-works, while the Topeka Edison Company furnishes light, power and heat for commercial and domestic uses. Topeka is also supplied with natural gas, which is distributed for domestic and manufacturing uses. Population 43,684.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Torpedo (fish)

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Torpe'do, the popular name for electrical fishes closely related to the skates and rays. They are capable of giving electrical shocks, and are also called cramp-fishes. There are 15 or 20 species inhabiting mainly, the warmer seas, but one species is found on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod south. It has a broad, disk-shaped body with a stout tail and reaches a length of three to five feet. It is black above and whitish below. The electrical organs in all these fishes consist of two clusters of six-sided prisms, one on each side between the head and the broadly expanded pectoral fin. There are about 500 prisms in a single organ. The latter is richly provided with nerve-fibers, and the discharge is under the control of the fish.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Torpedo-Boat

See also Torpedo boat on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Torpedo-Boat. See Torpedo (weapon).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tower, Charlemagne

See also Charlemagne Tower Jr. on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tow′er, Charlemagne, an American diplomat, was born at Philadelphia on April 17, 1848. He graduated from Harvard University (1872), spent four years in Europe, and in 1878 was admitted to the bar. He became active in business affairs, including railroad interests and mining, for some years; but in 1891 he began to devote himself exclusively to history and archæology, and became a professor in the University of Pennsylvania. He was appointed United States minister to Austria-Hungary in 1897, ambassador to Russia in 1899, and ambassador to Germany in 1902, retiring in 1908. He has published The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution and A Catalog of a Collection of American Colonial Laws.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Toplady, Augustus Montague

See also Augustus Montague Toplady on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Top′lady, Augustus Montague, was born at Farnham, Surrey, England, Nov. 4, 1740. He went to Westminster School and Trinity College, Dublin, became a clergyman, and preached in Devonshire and in London. For a time he was editor of a religious magazine, and he published religious books. He is remembered as a hymn-writer, especially as the author of Rock of Ages. Toplady died at London, Aug. 11, 1778.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tornado

See also Tornado on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Tornado. See Storm
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wislicenus, Johannes

Edition of 1905. See also Johannes Wislicenus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WISLICENUS, Johannes (1835-1902). A German chemist, born at Kleineichstädt, near Querfurt, Prussian Saxony, a son of Gustav Adolf Wislicenus. He studied at Halle, then went with his father to the United States, and for a time was an assistant at Harvard. In 1861 he became professor in the canton school of Zurich; in 1864 was called to the tiniversity there, and in 1870 became professor in the Polytechnic Institute at Zurich, of which in the following year he was made director. A year later he accepted a chair in Würzburg, and in 1885 in Leipzig. He did important work upon the alcohols, upon the salts, upon lactic acid, and upon acetic ether. Among his published works are Theorie der gemischten Typen, (1859) and Lehrbuch der Chemie (9th ed. 1876-81).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wissmann, Hermann von

Edition of 1905. See also Hermann Wissmann on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WISSMANN, vĭs'män, Hermann von (1853—). A German-African explorer, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He entered the army and became lieutenant in 1874. In 1880 he accompanied Dr. Pogge, in the service of the German African Society, on an expedition into Central Africa. Setting out from Saint Paul de Loanda on the west coast, they readied Nyangwe in April, 1882. Thence Pogge returned to the west coast, but Wissmann kept on eastward and reached Zanzibar. In 1883-85 he explored the region of the Kassai River and other parts of the Congo Basin for the Belgian Government, and in 1886-87 traveled from Lubuku on the Congo to Mozambique, by way of Nyangwe and lakes Tanganyika and Nyassa. In 1889-90, as Imperial commissioner, he suppressed the Arab uprising under Bushiri in German East Africa. In 1892 he failed in an attempt to take two steamers to the Victoria Nyanza by way of lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika. In 1895-96 he was Governor of German East Africa. Among his published works are: Im Innern Afrikas (3d ed. 1891); Unter deutscher Flagge quer durch Afrika, 1880-83 (7th ed. 1890); Meine zweite Durchquerung Aequatorial-Afrikas vom Kongo zum Zambesi während der Jahre 1886 u. 1887 (1890); Schilderungen und Ratschläge zur Vorbereitung für den Aufenthalt und den Dienst in den deutschen Schutzgebieten (1895). Consult Ruhle, Hermann von Wissmann (Münster, 1892).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wister, Owen

Edition of 1905. See also Owen Wister on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WISTER, Owen (1860—). An American writer, born in Philadelphia, Pa. He graduated at Harvard in 1882 and at the Harvard Law School in 1888, and was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1889, but after 1891 devoted himself almost wholly to literature. His stories, which deal largely with Western life and character, are widely popular. Besides contributing a number of short stories and some verse to the magazines, he published: The Modern Swiss Family Robinson (1883); The Dragon of Wantley: His Tail (1892, new ed. 1902); Red Man and White (1896); Lin McLean (1898); The
Jimmy John Boss and other Stories (1900); U. S. Grant, a Biography (1900); The Virginian (1902), which was exceedingly popular; Oliver Wendell Holmes (1902), in the “American Men of Letters Series;” Benjamin Franklin (1904), in the “English Men of Letters Series;” and Philosophy Four (1903), a short sketch. In co-operation with G. B. Grinnell and Caspar Whitney, he also published The Bison, Musk-Ox, Sheep, and Goat Family (1903), in the “American Sportsman's Library.”
# The New International Encyclopædia/Woodruff, Wilford

Edition of 1905. See also Wilford Woodruff on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WOOD′RUFF, Wilford (1807-98). A president of the Mormon Church. (See Mormons.) He was born on March 1, 1807, in Avon, Hartford County, Conn. He joined the Mormon Church in 1833 in Oswego County, N. Y. He met the Prophet Joseph Smith, Jr. (q.v.), at Kirtland, Ohio, and then removed to Clay County, Mo., whence he made missionary trips to the Southwestern States. In 1837 he became a member of the first quorum of Seventies and in 1839 of the quorum of Twelve. In 1839, 1840, and 1844 he was a missionary in England, and in 1848 in the Eastern States. He was one of the pioneers to Salt Lake. While at Nauvoo he asserted that he was opposed to the plural marriage system. However, as one of the Twelve Apostles, he refused to take the test oath against polygamy. In 1890, as newly elected president of the Church, Woodruff issued a proclamation in which he said, in order to anticipate the provisions of the Cullom bill, “I publicly declare that my advice to the Latter-Day Saints is to refrain from any marriage forbidden by the law of the land.” He died September 2, 1898.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wissowa, Georg

Edition of 1905. See also Georg Wissowa on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WISSOWA, vĭs-sō'vȧ, Georg (1859—). A German classical philologist, born at Breslau, and professor in the University of Halle. He is distinguished for his studies in the field of Roman religion, and was editor of Pauly's Real-Encyklopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (1892 et seq.). His more important works are: De Veneris Simulacris Romanis (1882); Die Religion der Römer (1901); and Tertulliani Opera, vol. i. (1890). He also edited the second edition of Marquardt's Römische Staatsverwaltung, vol. iii. (1885).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wistar, Caspar

Edition of 1905. See also Caspar Wistar (physician) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WISTAR, Caspar (1761-1818). An American physician, born in Philadelphia. He graduated in medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1786, and in 1789-92 was professor of chemistry and physiology at the College of Philadelphia. This institution in the latter year united with the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania, and Wistar was made adjunct professor of anatomy and surgery. In 1808 he became full professor and remained such till his death. In 1815 he succeeded Thomas Jefferson as president of the American Philosophical Society, and held the position until his death. He published, among other works, A System of Anatomy (1811).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Wister, Annis Lee (Furness)

Edition of 1905. See also Annis Lee Wister on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WIS'TER, Annis Lee (Furness) (1830—). An American translator, born in Philadelphia. She was the daughter of the Rev. William H. Furness, by whom she was educated. In 1854 she married Dr. Caspar Wister. She early began the study of German, busying herself with translation. During her literary career she translated and adapted the novels of many leading contemporary German writers, and these were assembled in 1888 in a uniform edition of thirty volumes. Some of the titles are: Old Mamselle's Secret (1868); Gold Elsie (1868); The Second Wife (1874); Violetta (1886); and The Owl's Nest (1888). She published in collaboration with Dr. F. H. Hedge Metrical Translations and Poems (1888).