OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stockton

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​STOCKTON, a city and the county seat of San Joaquin county in central California, U.S.A., at the head of the Stockton channel of the San Joaquin river, about 48 m. S.E. of Sacramento. Pop. (1900), 17,506, of whom 4057 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 23,253. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Western Pacific and the Southern Pacific railways, and has also a considerable river trade with San Francisco. It is at the head of regular navigation on the river; at high water boats occasionally go to Hills Ferry, 150 m. beyond Stockton. The channel has been much improved by the Federal government since 1877. Stockton has a perfectly level site, broad streets and a regular plan. In the city are a good public library, the San Joaquin county law library, St Agnes academy, St Mary’s college, a children’s home (1896; under the Ladies' Aid Society), St Joseph’s home (1899) for the aged, and St Joseph's hospital (1899), both under the Sisters of St Dominic, the Pacific hospital, a county hospital and a state hospital for the insane (1851). Situated in the great valley of the San Joaquin, in the midst of a ​rich agricultural region, it is one of the largest grain, vegetable and fruit markets of the West. It manufactures flour, lumber, agricultural machinery and implements, &c. Its factory product in 1905 was valued at $8,029,490, or 45.3% more than in 1900. Stockton rose into prominence in the early mining days. A settlement named Tuleberg, later called New Albany, stood on the city site in 1847; its future was precarious when the discovery of gold insured its prosperity. In the spring of 1849 a town was laid out and the present name adopted in honour of Commander Robert Field Stockton (1795–1866), who with Colonel John C. Fremont and General Stephen W. Kearny had gained possession of California for the United States during the war with Mexico. In 1850 Stockton became the county-seat and was chartered as a city.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stockbridge

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​STOCKBRIDGE, a township of Berkshire county, in western Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900), 2081; (1910, U.S. census) 1933. It comprises an area of 24 sq. m. Lake Mahkeenac, or Stockbridge Bowl, is about 2 m. north of Stockbridge village. Immediately south of the village, in a cleft in the north-western part of Bear Mountain, is Ice Glen, with caverns ice-lined even in midsummer. In the southern part of the township, on the boundary of Great Barrington, is Monument Mountain (1710 ft.). Stockbridge village is on the Housatonic river, about 13 m. south by east of Pittsfield, and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by an interurban electric line. It is well known as a summer resort, with a casino and golf links, a war monument, a bell tower erected by David Dudley Field to commemorate the Indian mission, a monument in the old burial ground of the Stockbridge Indians, a public library, and the Stockbridge Academy. Jonathan Edwards (commemorated by a monument, 1871) was the pastor (1750–1758), and wrote his Freedom of the Will here; the Sedgwick mansion, the home of Theodore Sedgwick (1746–1813), is at Stockbridge; his daughter, the author, Catherine M. Sedgwick, was born (and buried) here; and Stockbridge was the birthplace of Mark Hopkins and of Cyrus W. Field, who presented a park to the village. The “village improvement society” movement seems to have originated at Stockbridge in 1853. The Stockbridge (or Muh-he-kan-ne-ok) Indians, survivors of the Mohican tribe, removed to the Housatonic Valley from the west bank of the Hudson river soon after the first white settlements were made in New York; and in 1734 a mission was established among them in what is now the township of Great Barrington by John Sergeant (1710–1749), who translated part of the Bible into their language. In 1736 a town 6 m. square (including the present Stockbridge) was laid out for them. Lands were held in severally, the Indians were guaranteed the civil rights of whites; they had a church (under the charge of Jonathan Edwards in 1750–1758), and a school. In 1739 their township was incorporated under the name of Stockbridge, possibly adopted because of a resemblance to the country about Stockbridge, England. Many of the Indians fought on the American side in the War of Independence. In 1783–1788 nearly all of them removed to the Brotherton settlement (established 1775), 14 m. south of what is now Utica, New York; there they built New Stockbridge. By 1829 nearly all had left New York for Wisconsin, settling near what is now South Kaukauna. By 1859 they had removed to ​the reservation in Shawano county, Wisconsin, where they now live.
See E. F. Jones, Stockbridge Past and Present (Springfield, 1854); and J. N. Davidson, Muhhekaneok: a History of the Stockbridge Indians (Milwaukee, 1863).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roaring Forties

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​Roaring Forties, the name given to the zone in the southern hemisphere, near the 40th parallel of latitude, in which the north-westerly “anti-trade” winds attain their greatest development. Since the belt lies in the Great Southern Ocean (q.v.), and is little interrupted by land, the “planetary circulation” undergoes little modification and barometric gradients are steep. The “brave west winds” are accordingly of great strength, and, as in the corresponding belt of the northern hemisphere, the movement is largely broken up into the low and high pressure vortices known as cyclones and anticyclones.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robben Island

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​Robben Island, an island at the entrance of Table Bay, 7 m. N.N.W. of Cape Town. It is some 4 m. long by 2 broad. At its southern end is a lighthouse with a fixed light visible for 20 m. It got its name (robben, Dutch for seal) from the seals which formerly frequented it, now only occasional visitants. The island when discovered was uninhabited. It is first mentioned by an English seaman named Raymond, who states that in 1591 seals and penguins were there in large numbers. In 1614 ten criminals from London were landed on the island to form a settlement and supply fresh provisions to passing ships. The attempt, which ended in failure, is interesting as the first recorded settlement of English in South Africa. In the 18th century the slate quarries of Robben Island were extensively worked by the Dutch of Cape Town. The island is now noted for its leper asylum and its convict establishment. For many years an asylum for lunatics was also maintained, but in 1904 the lunatics were removed to the mainland. The common rabbit, brought from England, abounds, but its introduction to the mainland is prohibited. As early as 1657 criminals were banished to the island by the Dutch authorities at Cape Town; it has also served as the place of detention of several noted Kaffir chiefs.
See G. F. Gresley, “The Early History of Robben Island,” in The Cape Illustrated Magazine (Oct. 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roanoke (city)

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​ROANOKE, a city in (but administratively independent of) Roanoke county, Virginia, on the Roanoke river, about 55 m. W.S.W. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1890) 16,159; (1900) 21,495, of whom 5834 were negroes; (1910 census) 34,874. Roanoke is served by the Virginian railway, by the main line and the Shenandoah and the Winston-Salem divisions of the Norfolk & Western railway, and by electric railway to Vinton and to Salem. The city is about 900 ft. above sea-level and is surrounded by high hills; its picturesque situation and its nearness to famous mineral springs make it a health resort. On a mountain slope, about ½ m. from the city limits, is the Virginia College for Young Ladies; 7 m. north of the city, at what was ​formerly called Botetourt Springs (there is a sulphur spring), is Hollins Institute (1842) for girls; and in the city are the National Business College, the City Hospital (1899), private hospitals, and St Vincent’s Orphan Asylum (1893) for boys, under the Sisters of Charity. Stock-raising, tobacco-growing, and coal and iron-mining are the industries of the district. Roanoke’s factory product in 1905 was valued at $5,544,907 (2.7% more than in 1900). Its railway car repair and construction shops, belonging to the Norfolk & Western railway, employed in that year 66.9% of the total number of factory wage-earners; pig-iron, structural iron, canned goods, bottles, tobacco, planing-mill products and cotton are among the manufactures. The municipal water supply comes from a reservoir at Crystal Springs at the foot of Mill Mountain near the city limits. Roanoke was the town of Big Lick (founded about 1852; incorporated in 1874; pop. in 1880, 669) until 1882, when it received its present name; in 1884 it was chartered as a city.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robber Synod

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​Robber Synod, the name given to an irregular ecclesiastical council held at Ephesus in A.D. 449. See Ephesus, Council of.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert, Hubert

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​ROBERT, HUBERT (1753–1808), French artist, born at Paris in 1753, deserves to be remembered not so much for his skill as a painter as for the liveliness and point with which he treated the subjects he painted. The contrast between the ruins of ancient, Rome and the life of his time excited his keenest interest; and, although he had started for Italy on his own responsibility, the credit he there acquired procured him the protection of the minister Marigny and an 'official allowance. His incessant activity as an artist, his daring character, his many adventures, attracted general sympathy and admiration. In the fourth canto of his L’Imagination Delille celebrated Robert’s miraculous escape when lost in the Catacombs; later in life, when imprisoned during the Terror and marked for the guillotine, by a fatal accident another died in his place and Robert lived. The quantity of his work is immense; the Louvre alone contains nine paintings by his hand and specimens are frequently to be met with in provincial museums and private collections. Robert’s work has more or less of that scenic character which justified his selection by Voltaire to paint the decorations of his theatre at Ferney. Robert died of apoplexy on the 15th of April 1808. His work was much engraved by the abbé Le Non, with whom he had visited Naples in the company of Fragonard during his early days; in Italy his work has also been frequently reproduced by Chatelain, Liénard, Le Veau, and others.
See C. Blanc, Hist. des peintres; Villot, Notice des tableaux du Louvre; Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod. fr. Malerei.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roanoke (river)

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​ROANOKE, a river of the South Atlantic Slope, U.S.A. With the Staunton, which rises in the Appalachian Valley in south-western Virginia, it constitutes one river, and, flowing in a general south-easterly direction, crosses the boundary between Virginia and North Carolina just above the Fall Line and discharges into Albemarle Sound. It is nearly 400 m. long, with a drainage area of 9237 sq. m. The United States government adopted a project in 1871 for clearing a channel with a minimum depth of 5 ft. at low water from its mouth to Weldon, a distance of 129 m., and in 1909, when the project was 80% completed, vessels drawing 4 ft. of water could ascend at low stages nearly to Weldon. The main river and its principal tributary, the Dan, are also navigable, for many miles above the Fall Line, by pole boats. In 1829 the Weldon Canal, 12 m. long, was opened to afford a passage around the falls, but it was abandoned in 1850.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roanne

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​ROANNE, a town of east-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 54 m. N.W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway to Moulins. Pop. (1906) 33,981. The chief buildings are a modern town hall and the church of St Étienne (1835–1843), built in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The lycée occupies the buildings of the old college dating from the early 17th century. A line bridge of seven arches connects Roanne with the industrial suburb of Le Côteau on the right bank of the river. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, of a chamber of commerce and a board of trade-arbitration, and has lycées for both sexes. Cotton goods form the staple manufacture, and cotton-spinning is also important. The making of knitted woollen articles gives employment to large numbers of women in the town and district. There are besides extensive engineering works, foundries, dye-works, tanneries, pottery and tile-works and other industrial establishments. As the centre of the Roannais coalfield, Roanne has trade in coal and coke. It is also the terminus of the Roanne-Digoin Canal and the real starting point of the Loire navigation.
Roanne (Rodomna, or Roidomna) was an ancient city of the Segusiani and a station on the great Roman road from Lyons to the ocean. In 1447 the lordship of Roannais became the property of the celebrated banker Jacques Cœur, from whom it passed as the result of a law-suit to the family of Gouffier. In their favour the title was raised to the rank of marquis ate and in 1566 to the rank of duchy; it became extinct in the first half of the 18th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Robert, Louis Léopold

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See Villot, Notice des tableaux du Louvre; C. Blanc, Hist. des peintres; Feuillet de Conches, Correspondance de L. L. Robert; Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod. fr. Malerei.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stryetensk

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​STRYETENSK, or Sryetensk, a Cossack village of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Transbaikalia, 231 m. by rail E. of Chita, and a terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway. It is situated on both banks of the river Shilka, and its population of 8500 rises to over 10,000 during the season of navigation. Stryetensk has steam flour-mills and soap works.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stuart, Gilbert

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​STUART, GILBERT (1755-1828), American artist, was born at North Kingstown, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of December 1755. He studied at Newport, Rhode Island, with Cosmo Alexander, and went with him to Scotland, but returned to America after Alexander's death and obtained many portrait ​commissions. In 1775 he went to England, and became a pupil of Benjamin West in 1778. His work, however, shows none of the influence of West, and after four years Stuart set up a studio for himself in London, meeting with much success. Living beyond his means, he got into financial difficulties, and in 1788 escaped to Dublin. In London he had painted George III. and the future George IV., and in Paris had painted Louis XVI., and his success was no less great in Ireland. After five years he left Ireland for his native land in order to paint General Washington, who was said to 'be the only 'person in whose presence Stuart found himself embarrassed, and his first portrait Stuart felt was a failure; but Washington sat to him again, the result being the “Athenaeum” head on an unfinished canvas, showing the left side of the face. This remains the accepted likeness of Washington, of whom he also painted a full-length for Lord Lansdowne; of each of these portraits he executed many replicas. Among his portraits are those of Presidents Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe and John Quincy Adams, and John Jay, Governor Winthrop, Generals Gates and Knox, Bishop White, Chief Justice Shippen, John Singleton Copley, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Lords Clinton, Lyndhurst, and Inchiquin, Sir Edward Thornton, Mme Patterson-Bonaparte and Horace Binney. Stuart's original colouring and technique, and his insight into character, make him not only one of the few great American artists, but one of the greatest portrait painters of his time. He settled at Boston in 1805, and died there on the 27th of July 1828.
See George C. Mason, Life and Works of Gilbert Stuart (New York, 1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stubbs, John

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​STUBBS [Stubbe], JOHN (c. 1543–1591), English pamphleteer, was born in Norfolk about 1543. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and after studying law at Lincoln's Inn, took up his residence at Thelveton, Norfolk. His views were Puritan, and he regarded with disgust the negotiations for a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou. In 1579 he put his opinions into a pamphlet entitled The Discoverie of a Gaping Gulf whereinto England is like to be Swallowed by another French Marriage. The circulation of this pamphlet was prohibited, and Stubbs,' his printer, and publisher were tried at Westminster, found guilty, and sentenced to have their right hands cut off. The printer was subsequently pardoned, but in the case of Stubbs and his publisher the sentence was duly carried out. Stubbs protested his loyalty from the first. His right hand having been cut off, he removed his hat with his left, and cried "God Save the Queen!" before fainting away. He was subsequently imprisoned for eighteen months. On being released he continued to write, publishing, among other pamphlets, a reply to Cardinal Allen's Defence of the English Catholics. He died in 1591 at Havre, France, where he seems to have gone to volunteer for military service under Henry of Navarre.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stubbs, Philip

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​STUBBS [Stubbes], PHILIP (c. 1555–c. 1610), English pamphleteer, was born about 1555. He is reputed to have been a brother or near relation of John Stubbs (q.v.). He was educated at Cambridge arid subsequently at Oxford, but did not take a degree, spending the greater portion of his time travelling about the country. He started writing about 1581, and in 1583 published The Anatomie of Abuses. This consisted of a virulent attack on the manners, customs, amusements and fashions of the period, and is still valuable for its copious information on those matters. In 1591 Stubbs published A Christal Glass for Christian Women, of which at least seven editions were called for, and he followed this with other semi-devotional works. He died, probably, about 1610.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stuart, John M'Douall

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​STUART, JOHN M‘DOUALL (1818–1866), South Australian explorer, was born at Dysart in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1818, and arrived in the colony about 1839. He accompanied Captain Sturt's 1844–1845 expedition as draughtsman, and between 1858 and 1862 he made six expeditions into the interior, the last of which brought him on the 25th of July to the shores of the Indian Ocean at Van Diemen's Gulf, at the mouth of the Adelaide River. Stuart was not the first to cross the island continent from south to north; that honour belongs to the Burke and Wills expedition, which reached the Gulf of Carpentaria on the 6th of February 1861. Stuart returned to Adelaide exhausted and broken, and never recovered from the effects of the great privations which he suffered. He returned to England, where he died on the 5th of June 1866. Stuart was rewarded with £3000 and a grant of 1000 sq. m. of grazing country in the interior rent free for seven years. His name is perpetuated by Central Mount Stuart.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stuart, Moses

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​STUART, MOSES (1780–1852), American biblical scholar, was born in Wilton, Connecticut, on the 26th of March 1780. He was reared on a farm; graduated with highest honours at Yale in 1799; in 1802 was admitted to the Connecticut bar, and was appointed a tutor at Yale, where he remained for two years; and in 1806 became pastor of the Centre (Congregational) Church of New Haven. In 1810 he was appointed professor of sacred literature in the Andover Theological Seminary, organized in 1808. Here he succeeded Eliphalet Pearson (1752–1826), the first preceptor of the Phillips (Andover) Academy and in 1786–1806 professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages at Harvard. Stuart himself then knew hardly more than the elements of Hebrew and not very much more Greek than Hebrew; in 1810–1812 he prepared for the use of his students a Hebrew grammar which they copied day by day from his manuscript; in 1813 he printed his Grammar, which appeared in an enlarged form, "with a copious syntax and praxis," in 1821, and was republished in England by Dr Pusey in 1831. He gradually made the acquaintance of German works in hermeneutics, first Schleusner, Seiler and Gesenius, and taught himself German, arousing much suspicion and distrust among his colleagues by his unusual studies. But his recognition soon came, partly as a result of his Letter to Dr Charming on the Subject of Religious Liberty (1830), but more largely through the growing favour shown to German philology and critical methods. In 1848 he resigned his chair at Andover. He died in Andover on the 4th of January 1852. He has been called the " father of exegetical studies in America." He contributed largely by his teaching to the renewal of foreign missionary zeal—of his 1500 students more than 100 became foreign missionaries, among them such skilled translators as Adoniram Judson, Elias Riggs and William G. Schauffler.
Among his more important publications were: Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament (1825), with Edward Robinson; Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1827–1828); Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1832); Commentary on the Apocalypse (1845); Miscellanies (1846); Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar (1846), a version which involved Stuart in a long controversy with T. J. Conant, the earlier, and possibly more scholarly, translator of Gesenius; Commentary on Ecclesiastes (1851), and Commentary on the Book of Proverbs (1852).
See the memorial sermons by Edwards A. Park (Boston, 1852) and William Adams (New York, 1852).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jauer

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​JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. Pop. (1900), 13,024. St Martin’s (Roman Catholic) church dates from 1267–1290, and the Evangelical church from 1655. A new town-hall was erected in 1895–1898. Jauer manufactures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned in 1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality embracing about 1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, Hirschberg and Schönau. From 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, but the troubles of the Thirty Years’ War, in the course of which it was burned down three times, permanently injured this.
See Schönaich, Die alte Fürstentumshauptstadt Jauer (Jauer, 1903).