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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Espinel, Vicente Martinez

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​ESPINEL, VICENTE MARTINEZ (1551–1624), Spanish poet and novelist, was baptized on the 28th of December 1551, and educated at Salamanca. He was expelled from the university in 1572, and served as a soldier in Flanders, returning to Spain in 1584 or thereabouts. He took orders in 1587, and four years later became chaplain at Ronda, absented himself from his living, and was deprived of his cure; but his musical skill obtained for him the post of choirmaster at Plasencia. His Diversas Rimas (1591) are undeniably good examples of technical accomplishment and caustic wit. Espinel, however, survives as the author of a clever picaresque novel entitled Relaciones de la vida del Escudero Marcos de Obregón (1618). It is, in many passages, an autobiography of Espinel with picturesque embellishments. Marcos is not a chivalresque “esquire,” but an adventurer who seeks his fortune by attaching himself to great men; and the object of the author is to warn young men against such a life. Apart from the unedifying confessions of the hero, the book contains curious anecdotes concerning prominent contemporaries, and the episodical stories are told with great spirit; the style is extremely correct, though somewhat diffuse. Le Sage has not scrupled to borrow from Marcos de Obregón many of the incidents and characters in Gil Blas—a circumstance which induced Isla to give to his Spanish translation of Le Sage’s work the jesting title, Gil Blas restored to his Country and his Native Tongue. In the 1775 edition of the Siècle de Louis XIV. Voltaire grossly exaggerates in saying that Gil Blas is taken entirely from Marcos de Obregón. Espinel was a clever musician and added a fifth string to the guitar. He revived the measure known as décimas or espinelas, consisting of a stanza of ten octosyllabic lines. Most of the poems which he left in manuscript remain unpublished owing to their licentious character.
Bibliography.—J. Perez de Guzmán’s edition of Marcos de Obregón (Barcelona, 1881) includes a valuable introduction; Léo Claretie, Le Sage romancier (Paris, 1890), discusses exhaustively the question of Le Sage’s indebtedness to Espinel. For some previously unpublished poems see Pedro Salvá y Mallén, Catálogo de la biblioteca de Salvá (Valencia, 1872).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Horizon

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​HORIZON (Gr. ὁρίζων, dividing), the apparent circle around which the sky and earth seem to meet. At sea this circle is well defined, the line being called the sea horizon, which divides the visible surface of the ocean from the sky. In astronomy the horizon is that great circle of the sphere the plane of which is at right angles to the direction of the plumb line. Sometimes a distinction is made between the rational and the apparent horizon, the former being the horizon as determined by a plane through the centre of the earth, parallel to that through the station of an observer. But on the celestial sphere the great circles of these two planes are coincident, so that this distinction is not necessary (see Astronomy: Spherical). The Dip of the horizon at sea is the angular depression of the apparent sea ​horizon, or circle bounding the visible ocean, below the apparent celestial horizon as above defined. It is due to the rotundity of the earth, and the height of the observer’s eye above the water. The dip of the horizon and its distance in sea-miles when the height of the observer’s eye above the sea-level is h feet, are approximately given by the formulae: Dip = 0′.97 √h; Distance = 1$^m$.17 √h. The difference between the coefficients 0.97 and 1.17 arises from the refraction of the ray, but for which they would be equal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hormisdas

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​HORMISDAS, pope from 514 to 523 in succession to Symmachus, was a native of Campania. He is known as having succeeded in obtaining the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches, which had been separated since the excommunication of Acacius in 484. After two unsuccessful attempts under the emperor Anastasius I., Hormisdas had no difficulty in coming to an understanding in 518 with his successor Justin. Legates were despatched to Constantinople; the memorial of the schismatic patriarchs was condemned; and union was resumed with the Holy See.
Details of this transaction have come down to us in the Collectio Avellana (Corpus script. eccl. Vindobon., vol. xxv., Nos. 105-203; cf. Andreas Thiel, Epp. Rom. Pont. i. 741 seq.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaestra

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​PALAESTRA (Gr. παλαίστρα), the name apparently applied by the Greeks to two kinds of places used for gymnastic and athletic exercises. In the one case it seems confined to the places where boys and youths received a general gymnastic training, in the other to a part of a gymnasium where the athletae, the competitors in the public games, were trained in wrestling (παλαίειν), to wrestle) and boxing. The boys’ palaestrae were private institutions and generally bore the name of the manager or of the founder; thus at Athens there was a palaestra of Taureas (Plato, Charmides). The Romans used the terms gymnasium and palaestra indiscriminately for any place where gymnastic exercises were carried on.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palanpur

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​PALANPUR, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay, on the southern border of Rajputana. Area, 1766 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 222,627, showing a decrease of 19 % in the decade. The country is mountainous, with much forest towards the north, but undulating and open in the south and east. The principal rivers are the Saraswati and Banas. The estimated gross revenue is £50,000; tribute to the gaekwar of Baroda, £2564. The chief, whose title is diwan, is an Afghan by descent. The state is traversed by the main line of the Rajputana-Malwa railway, and contains the British cantonment of Deesa. Wheat, rice and sugar-cane are the chief products. The state has suffered severely of recent years from plague. The town of Palanpur is a railway junction for Deesa, 18 m. distant. Pop. (1901), 17,799.
Palanpur also gives its name to a political agency, or collection of native states; total area, 6393 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 467,271, showing a decrease of 28% in the decade, due to the effects of famine.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palamcottah

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​PALAMCOTTAH, a town of British India, in the Tinnevelly district of Madras, on the opposite bank of the Tambraparni river to Tinnevelly town, with which it shares a station on the South Indian railway, 444 m. south of Madras. Pop. (1901), 39,545. It is the administrative headquarters of the district, and also the chief centre of Christian missions in south India. Among many educational institutions may be mentioned the Sarah Tucker College for Women, founded in 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palamas, Gregorius

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​PALAMAS, GREGORIUS (c. 1296–1359), Greek mystic and chief apologist of the Hesychasts (q.v.), belonged to a distinguished Anatolian family, and his father held an important position at Constantinople. Palamas at an early age retired to Mt Athos, where he became acquainted with the mystical theories of the Hesychasts. In 1326 he went to Skete near Beroea, where he spent some years in isolation in a cell specially built for him. His health having broken down, he returned to Mt Athos, but, finding little relief, removed to Thessalonica. About this time Barlaam, the Calabrian monk, began his attacks upon the monks of Athos, and Palamas came forward as their champion. In 1341 and 1351 he took part in the two synods at Constantinople, which definitively secured the victory of the Palamites. During the civil war between John Cantacuzene and the Palaeologi, Palamas was imprisoned. After Cantacuzene’s victory in 1347, Palamas was released and appointed archbishop of Thessalonica; being refused admittance by the inhabitants, he retired to the island of Lemnos, but subsequently obtained his see. Palamas endeavoured to justify the mysticism of the Hesychasts on dogmatic grounds. The chief objects of his attack were Barlaam, Gregorius Acindynus and Nicephorus Gregoras.
Palamas was a prolific writer, but only a few of his works have been published, most of which will be found in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca (cl., cli.). They consist of polemics against the Latins and their doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Ghost; Hesychastic writings; homilies; a life of St Peter (a monk of Athos); a rhetorical essay Prosopopeia (ed. A. Jahn, 1884), containing the accusations brought against the body by the soul, the defence made by the body, and the final pronouncement of the judges in favour of the body, on the ground that its sins are the result of inadequate teaching.
See the historical works of John Cantacuzene and Nicephorus Gregoras, the Vita Palamae by Philotheus, and the encomium by Nilus (both patriarchs of Constantinople); also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palamedes

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​PALAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Nauplius king of Euboea, one of the heroes of the Trojan War, belonging to the post-Homeric cycle of legends. During the siege of Troy, Agamemnon, Diomedes and Odysseus (who had been detected by Palamedes in an attempt to escape going to Troy by shamming madness) caused a letter containing money and purporting to come from Priam to be concealed in his tent. They then accused Palamedes of treasonable correspondence with the enemy, and he was ordered to be stoned to death. His father exacted a fearful vengeance from the Greeks on their way home, by placing false lights on the promontory of Caphareus. The story of Palamedes was first handled in the Cypria of Stasinus, and formed the subject of lost plays by Aeschylus (Palamedes), Sophocles (Nauplius), Euripides (Palamedes), of which some fragments remain. Sophists and rhetoricians, such as Gorgias and Alcidamas, amused themselves by writing declamations in favour of or against him. Palamedes was regarded as the inventor of the alphabet, lighthouses, weights and measures, dice, backgammon and the discus.
See Euripides, Orestes, 432 and schol.; Ovid, Metam. xiii. 56; Servius on Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 82, and Nettleship’s note in Conington’s edition; Philostratus, Heroica, 11; Euripides, Frag. 581; for different versions of his death see Dictys Cretensis ii. 15; Pausanias ii. 20, 3; x. 31, 2; Dares Phrygius, 28; monograph by O. Jahn (Hamburg, 1836).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palaephatus

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​PALAEPHATUS, the author of a small extant treatise, entitled Περὶ Ἀπίστων (On “Incredible Things”). It consists of a series of rationalizing explanations of Greek legends, without any attempt at arrangement or plan, and is probably an epitome, composed in the Byzantine age, of some larger work, perhaps the Λύσεις τῶν μυθικῶς εἰρημένων, mentioned by Suïdas as the work of a grammarian of Egypt or Athens. Suïdas himself ascribes a Περὶ Ἀπίστων, in five books, to Palaephatus of Paros or Priene. The author was perhaps a contemporary of Euhemerus (3rd century B.C.). Suïdas mentions two other writers of the name: (1) an epic poet of Athens, who lived before the time of ​Homer; (2) an historian of Abydus, an intimate friend of Aristotle.
See edition by N. Festa, in Mythographi graeci (1902), in the Teubner series, with valuable prolegomena supplementary to Intorno all’ opuscolo di Palefato de incredibilibus (1890), by the same writer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palafox de Mendoza, Juan de

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​PALAFOX DE MENDOZA, JUAN DE (1600–1659), Spanish bishop, was born in Aragon. He was appointed in 1839 bishop of Angelopolis (Puebla de los Angeles) in Mexico, and there honourably distinguished himself by his efforts to protect the natives from Spanish cruelty, forbidding any methods of conversion other than persuasion. In this he met with the uncompromising hostility of the Jesuits, whom in 1647 he laid under an interdict. He twice, in 1647 and 1649, laid a formal complaint against them at Rome. The pope, however, refused to approve his censures, and all he could obtain was a brief from Innocent X. (May 14, 1648), commanding the Jesuits to respect the episcopal jurisdiction. In 1653 the Jesuits succeeded in securing his translation to the little see of Osma in Old Castile. In 1694 Charles II. of Spain petitioned for his canonization; but though this passed through the preliminary stages, securing for Palafox the title of “Venerable,” it was ultimately defeated, under Pius VI., by the intervention of the Jesuits.
See Antonio Gonzalez de Resende, Vie de Palafox (French trans., Paris, 1690).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palamau

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​PALAMAU, a district of British India, in the Chota-Nagpur division of Bengal. It was formed out of Lohardaga, in 1894, and takes its name from a former state or chiefship. The administrative headquarters are at Daltonganj: pop. (1901), 5837. It consists of the lower spurs of the Chota-Nagpur plateau, sloping north to the valley of the Son. Area 4914 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 619,600, showing an increase of 3·8% in the decade; average density, 126 persons per sq. m., being the lowest in all Bengal. Palamau suffered severely from drought in 1897. A branch of the East Indian railway from the Son valley to the valuable coalfield near Daltonganj was opened in 1902. The only articles of export are jungle produce, such as lac and tussur silk. The forests are unprofitable.
See Palamau District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nayagarh

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​NAYAGARH, a native state in India, in the Orissa division of Bengal. Area, 588 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 140,779; revenue, £8000. It contains hills rising to 5000 ft.; and exports much agricultural produce. In 1894 a revolt of the hill tribe of Khonds against the raja required the intervention of British military police. Nayagarh village (pop. 3340) is connected by road with Khurda in Puri district.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nayar

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​NAYAR, or Nair, a caste or tribe on the W. coast of S. India, who form the dominant race in Malabar. Traditionally they are soldiers, but many have taken to professions, and one was in 1910 a judge of the high court at Madras. Their total number in all India in 1901 was just over one million. Their most peculiar customs are: (1) marumakkattayam＝“descent through sister’s children,” or inheritance in the female line; and (2) sambandham, a loose form of union, taking the place of marriage, without any responsibility of the husband towards either Wife or children. In 1896 an act of the Madras legislature enabled a sambandham to be registered, and have the force of a legal marriage. Little advantage has been taken of this act, while it is alleged that the sambandham now usually lasts for a lifetime.
See Malabar District Gazetteer (Madras, 1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nawāwī

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​NAWĀWĪ [Abū Zakarīyya ibn Sharaf un-Nawāwī ] (1233–1278), Arabian writer, was born at Nawā near Damascus. In the latter city he studied from his eighteenth year, and there, after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled as a private scholar until 1267, when he succeeded Abu Shāma as professor of tradition at the Ashrafīyya school. He died at Nawā from overwork.
His manual of Moslem law according to the Shāfi‛ite school has been edited with French translation by van den Bergh, 2 vols., Batavia (1882–1884), and published at Cairo (1888). The Tahdhīb ul-Asma‛i has been edited as the Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men chiefly at the Beginning of Islam by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1842–1847). The Taqrīb wa Taisīr, an introduction to the study of tradition, was published at Cairo, 1890, with Suyūṭī’s commentary. It has been in part translated into French by M. Marcais in the Journal asiatique, series ix., vols. 16-18 (1900–1901). Nawāwī’s collection of the forty (actually forty-two) chief traditions has been frequently published with commentaries in Cairo. For other works see C. Brockelmann’s Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898). pp. 395-397. (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nayler, James

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​NAYLER (or Naylor), JAMES (1618–1660), English Puritan, was born at Andersloe or Ardsley, in Yorkshire, in 1618. In 1642 he joined the parliamentary army, and served as quartermaster in John Lambert’s horse. In 1651 he adopted Quakerism, and gradually arrived at the conviction that he was a new incarnation of Christ. He gathered round him a small band of disciples, who followed him from place to place. At Appleby in 1653 and again at Exeter in 1655 he suffered terms of imprisonment. In October 1655, in imitation of Christ’s procession into Jerusalem, he entered Bristol on horseback riding single—“a rawboned nude figure, with lank hair reaching below his cheeks”—attended by seven followers, some on horseback, some on foot, he in silence and they singing “Hosanna! Holy, holy! Lord God of Sabaoth!” At the High Cross he and his followers were arrested. His trial occupied the second parliament of Cromwell for several days, and on the 16th of December 1656 he was convicted of blasphemy and sentenced to be whipped from the Palace Yard to the Old Exchange, to be branded in the forehead with “B” (for blasphemer), to have his tongue bored with a red-hot iron, to be whipped through the streets of Bristol, and to suffer imprisonment with hard labour for two years. On his release he was readmitted into the communion of the Quakers, and spent some time in Westmorland with George Whitehead (1636?–1723). In October 1660 Nayler set out to visit his long-forsaken family in Yorkshire, but died on the journey in Huntingdonshire.
A collected edition of the Tracts of Nayler appeared in 1716. See A Relation of the Life, Conversion, Examination, Confession, and Sentence of James Nayler (1657); a Memoir of the Life, Ministry, Trial, and Sufferings of James Nayler (1719); and a Refutation of some of the more Modern Misrepresentations of the Society of Friends commonly called Quakers, with a Life of James Nayler, by Joseph Gurney Bevan (1800).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nazarenes

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​NAZARENES (Ναζωραῖοι), an obscure Jewish-Christian sect, existing at the time of Epiphanius (fl. A.D. 370) in Coele-Syria, Decapolis (Pella) and Basanitis (Cocabe). According to that authority (Panarion, xxix. 7) they dated their settlement in Pella from the time of the flight of the Jewish Christians from Jerusalem, immediately before the siege in A.D. 70; he characterizes them as neither more nor less than Jews pure and simple, but adds that they recognized the new covenant as well as the old, and believed in the resurrection, and in the one God and His Son Jesus Christ. He cannot say whether their christological views were identical with those of Cerinthus and his school, or whether they differed at all from his own. But Jerome (Ep. 79, to Augustine) says that they believed in Christ the Son of God, born of the Virgin Mary, who suffered under Pontius Pilate, and rose again, but adds that, “desiring to be both Jews and Christians, they are neither the one nor the other.” They used the Aramaic recension of the Gospel according to Matthew, which they called the Gospel to the Hebrews, but, while adhering as far as possible to the Mosaic economy as regarded circumcision, sabbaths, foods and the like, they did not refuse to recognize the apostolicity of Paul or the rights of heathen Christians (Jer., Comm. in Isa., ix. 1). These facts, taken along with the name (cf. Acts xxiv. 5) and geographical position of the sect, lead to the conclusion that the Nazarenes of the 4th century are, in spite of Epiphanius’s distinction, to be identified with the Ebionites (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nay

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​NAY, or Ney, the long flute of the ancient Egyptians, held obliquely and played by directing the breath, as in the pipes of the syrinx, across the open end, which had no embouchure of any kind. Performers on the nay are represented on many of the frescoes which decorated the tombs at Thebes, their flutes reaching nearly to the ground while they are in the familiar half-kneeling posture. The acoustic principles involved in the production of sound are the same as for the flute. The narrowness of the bore in proportion to the length would facilitate the production of harmonics and so give the nay an extended compass. Victor Loret has compiled a list of all the real pipes of ancient Egypt which have survived, having for the most part been preserved in mummy cases. The nay was not restricted to ancient Egypt, but has remained in general use in various parts of the East until the present day. (K. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Naxos (Cyclades)

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​NAXOS, the largest of the Cyclades (about 22 m. by 16 m.), a fertile island in the Aegean Sea, east of Paros, with which, and adjacent smaller islands, it forms an eparchia. In ancient times it was also called Dia or Strongyle. It was rich in vines and famous for its wine, and a centre of the worship of Bacchus. The god found Ariadne asleep on its shore, when she was deserted by Theseus. The sculptors of Naxos formed an important school of early Greek art; several unfinished colossal statues are still to be seen in the quarries, notably one in Apollona Bay, to the N.E. of the island. A tyrant Lygdamis ruled Naxos in alliance with Peisistratus of Athens during the 6th century B.C. In 501 a Persian fleet unsuccessfully attacked it, but in 490 it was captured and treated with great severity. Four Naxian ships took part in the expedition of Xerxes, but deserted and fought on the Greek side at Salamis in 480. Naxos was a member of the Delian League (q.v.); it revolted in 471, was captured by Athens, and remained in her possession till her empire was destroyed. In later times the most remarkable event was its capture, in A.D. 1207, by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, who founded the duchy of Naxos, which flourished till the Turks took the island in 1566. Since the War of Independence it has belonged to the Greek kingdom. The only ancient remains of any importance are those of a temple (Palati), supposed to be that of Dionysus, on an island just off the town. Naxos is still rich in fruit trees, and also exports corn, wine and oil, as well as emery, its richest and most important mineral product. Pop. (1907) 25,185 (province), 2064 (commune).