OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madelenian

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​MADELENIAN, a term derived from La Madeleine, a cave in the Vézère, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies, France, and given by the French anthropologist Gabriel de Mortillet to the third stage of his system of cave-chronology, synchronous with the fourth or most recent division of the Quaternary Age. The Madelenian epoch was a long one, represented by numerous stations, whose contents show progress in the arts and general culture. It was characterized by a cold and dry climate, the existence of man in association with the reindeer, and the extinction of the mammoth. The use of bone and ivory for various implements, already begun in the preceding Solutrian epoch, was much increased, and the period is essentially a Bone age. The bone instruments are very varied: spear-points, harpoon-heads, borers, hooks and needles. Most remarkable is the evidence La Madeleine affords of prehistoric art. Numbers of bones, reindeer antlers and animals’ teeth were found, with rude pictures, carved or etched on them, of seals, fishes, reindeer, mammoths and other creatures. The best of these are a mammoth engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer antler, with handle in form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat piece of schist; a seal on a bear’s tooth; a fish well drawn on a reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler, showing horses, an aurochs, trees, and a snake biting a man’s leg. The man is naked, and this and the snake suggest a warm ​climate, in spite of the presence of the reindeer. The fauna of the Madelenian epoch seems, indeed, to have included tigers and other tropical species side by side with reindeer, blue foxes, Arctic hares and other polar creatures. Madelenian man appears to have been of low stature, dolichocephalic, with low retreating forehead and prominent brow ridges. Besides La Madeleine the chief stations of the epoch are Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse, and Gorge d’Enfer in Dordogne; Grotte du Placard in Charente and others in south-west France.
See G. de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique (1900); Edouard Lartet and Henry Christy, Reliquiae Aquitanicae (1865–1875); Edouard Dupont, Le Temps préhistorique en Belgique (1872); Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Madec, René-Marie

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​MADEC, RENÉ-MARIE (1736–1784)—called Medoc in Anglo-Indian writings—French adventurer in India, was born at Quimper in Brittany on the 7th of February 1736, of poor parents. He went out to India and served under Dupleix and Lally, but being taken prisoner by the British he enlisted in the Bengal army. Deserting with some of his companions shortly before the battle of Buxar (1764), he became military instructor to various native princes, organizing successively the forces of Shuja-ud-Dowlah, nawab of Oudh, and of the Jats and Rohillas. He took service under the emperor Shah Alam in 1772, and when that prince was defeated at Delhi by the Mahrattas, Madec rejoined his own countrymen in Pondicherry, where he took an active part in the defence of the town (1778). After the capitulation of Pondicherry he returned to France with a considerable fortune, and died there in 1784. At one time he formed a scheme for a French alliance with the Mogul emperor against the British, but the project came to nothing.
See Émile Barbé, Le Nabab René Madec (1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macías

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​MACÍAS [O NAMORODO] (fl. 1360–1390), Galician trovador, held some position in the household of Enrique de Villena. He is represented by five poems in the Cancianero de Baena, and is the reputed author of sixteen others. Macías lives by virtue of the romantic legends which have accumulated round his name. The most popular version of his story is related by Hernán Nuñez. According to this tradition, Macías was enamoured of a great lady, was imprisoned at Arjonilla, and was murdered by the jealous husband while singing the lady’s praises. There may be some basis of fact for this narrative, which became a favourite subject with contemporary Spanish poets and later writers. Macías is mentioned in Rocaberti’s Gloria de amor as the Castilian equivalent of Cabestanh; he afforded a theme to Lope de Vega in Porfiar hasta morir; in the 19th century, at the outset of the romantic movement ​in Spain, he inspired Larra (q.v.) in the play Macías and in the historical novel entitled El doncel de Don Enrique el doliente.
See H. A. Rennert, Macias, o namorado; a Galician trobador (Philadelphia, 1900); Théodore J. de Puymaigre, Les vieux auteurs castillans (1889–1890), i. 54-74; Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano (New York and London, 1902), ed. H. R. Lang; Christian F. Bellermann, Die alten Liederbücher der Portugiesen (Berlin, 1840).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuncomar

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​NUNCOMAR or Nanda Kumar (d. 1775), Indian official, best known for his connexion with Warren Hastings (q.v.), was governor of Hugli in 1756, and in 1764 he was appointed collector of Burdwan in place of Hastings, which resulted in a long-standing enmity. In 1775, when Hastings was governor-general, Nuncomar brought accusations of peculation against him, which were entertained by Francis and the other members of council inimical to Hastings. While the matter was still pending Nuncomar was indicted for forgery, condemned and executed. Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, were both impeached, and were accused by Burke and afterwards by Macaulay of committing a judicial murder; but Sir James Stephen, who examined the trial in detail, states that the indictment for forgery arose in the ordinary course, was not brought forward by Hastings, and that Impey conducted the trial with fairness and impartiality.
See Sir James Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar (2 vols., 1885); and, for another treatment of the case, H. Beveridge, The Trial of Nanda Kumar (Calcutta, 1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuneaton

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​NUNEATON, a market town and municipal borough in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, on the river Anker, a tributary of the Tame, and on the Coventry canal. It is an important junction of the London and North ​Western railway, by which it is 97 m. N.W. from London, and it is served by the Leicester-Birmingham branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 24,996, rapidly increasing. The situation is low and almost encircled by rising ground. The church of St Nicholas is a large and handsome structure in various styles of architecture, and consists of nave, chancel and aisles, with a square embattled tower having pinnacles at the angles. It contains several interesting monuments. A free grammar school was founded in the reign of Edward VI., and an English free school for the instruction of forty boys and thirty girls by Richard Smith in 1712. The ribbon industry is of less importance than formerly, but there are ironworks, cotton, hat, elastic and worsted factories, and tanneries; the making of drain-pipes, tiles and blue and red bricks is a considerable industry. In the neighbourhood there are also coal and ironstone mines. The prefix of the name of the town is derived from a priory of nuns founded here in 1150. In the reign of Henry III. a weekly market was granted to the prioress. Nuneaton was incorporated in 1907, and the corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen and twelve councillors. Area 10,597 acres.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nunez, Pedro

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​NUNEZ, PEDRO (Petrus Nonius) (1492–1577), Portuguese mathematician and geographer, was born at Alcacer do Sal, and died at Coimbra, where he was professor of mathematics. He published several works, including a copiously-annotated translation of portions of Ptolemy (1537), and a treatise in two books, De arte atque ratione navigandi (1546). His clear statement of the scientific equipment of the early Portuguese explorers has become famous. A complete edition of all his writings appeared at Basel in 1592.
See F. de B. Garcão-Stockler, Ensaio historico sobre a origem e progressos das mathematicas em Portugal (Paris, 1819); R. H. Major, Prince Henry the Navigator (London. 1868, p. 55).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuoro

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​NUORO, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, Italy, in the province of Sassari, 381/2 m. E. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 6739. It is situated 1905 ft. above sea-level in the east central portion of the island, amid fine scenery. Nuoro was the capital of a province from 1848 to 1860. It is connected by road with Fonni, Bitti and Orosei. An inscription discovered in situ about 13 m. W. of Nuoro in 1889, near Orotelli, has the letters FIN NVRR (fin(es) Nurr. . .), which are explained as referring to the boundaries of the territory of Nuoro in Roman times, showing (what was not known before) that the name and the place are of Roman origin (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli scavi, 1889, 202). (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nurse

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​NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier “nourice,” adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nutrire, to nourish), primarily a woman who suckles and takes care of an infant, and more generally one who has the general charge of children; also a person, male or female, who attends to the sick, and particularly one who has been trained professionally for that purpose (see Nursing).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nushki

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​NUSHKI, a town and district of Baluchistan. The town lies 70 m. south-west of Quetta, and is situated in a plain at the base of the Quetta plateau, 2900 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) 644. From this point the flat Baluchistan desert stretches away northwards and westwards to the Helmund river. The administration of the Nushki district was taken over from the khan of Kalat by the Indian government in 1896, and was leased from him on a perpetual quit rent in 1899. In 1902 a railway of 91 m. was sanctioned from Quetta to Nushki, which was completed in 1905. This railway makes Nushki the starting-point of the caravan route to Seistan. From the strategic point of view a force operating from Nushki would flank any advance from the north on Kandahar, and would also guard the south-west approach to the fortress of Quetta.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nuncio

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​NUNCIO, or Nuntius Apostolicus, a representative of the pope sent on diplomatic mission. The nuncios are of lower rank than the legati a latere, but have practically superseded them as ambassadors of the papacy. Nuncios were permanently established at various courts and ecclesiastical centres during the 16th century. According to the decision of the congress of Vienna the diplomatic rank of a papal nuncio corresponds to that of an ambassador. The powers of a nuncio are limited by his instructions. If a cardinal, as rarely is the case, he uses the title pro-nuntius. The pro-nuntius at Vienna has practically the position of a legatus a latere.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nupe

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​NUPE, formerly an independent state of W. Africa, now a province in the British protectorate of Nigeria. Under Fula rule, Nupe occupied both banks of the Niger for a distance of some 150 m. above the Benue confluence. Only the part of Nupe north of the Niger now constitutes the province; area 6400 sq. m.; estimated pop. about 150,000. It is in many portions highly cultivated, and owing to its admirable water supply is likely to prove particularly valuable as a field for the extensive cultivation of cotton. Bida (q.v.), the capital, is connected by railway (built 1907–1908) with Baro, a port on the Niger 70 m. above Lokoja.
Nupe had an ancient and very interesting. constitution of which the leading features were adopted by the Fula when their rule was established about the year 1859. Bida was founded in that year. Nupe was conquered by the troops of the Niger Company in 1897, and the legal status of slavery was then nominally abolished. The company was, however, unable to occupy the country, and on the withdrawal of its troops the deposed emir returned. In 1901 it became necessary to subdue Nupe a second time. British troops marched to Bida. The emir fled without fighting and was deposed. Another emir was appointed in his place, took the oath of allegiance to the British crown, and worked cordially with the British resident ​who was stationed at Bida. The province is divided into three administrative districts—Bida, Lapai and Agaie. These are again divided into nine native districts, five to the west and four to the east of the Kaduna river. Provincial courts of justice have been established.
See Nigeria, Bida. For an interesting account of the ancient constitution of Nupe see “The Fulani Emirates of Northern Nigeria,” by Major J. A. Burdon in the Geo Journ., vol. xxiv (London, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hexateuch

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​HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Old Testament (the Pentateuch and Joshua), to mark the fact that these form one literary whole, describing the early traditional history of the Israelites from the creation of the world to the conquest of Palestine and the origin of their national institutions. These books are the result of an intricate literary process, on which see Bible (Old Testament: Canon), and the articles on the separate books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy and Joshua).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heyse, Paul Johann Ludwig

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​HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN LUDWIG (1830– ), German novelist, dramatist and poet, was born at Berlin on the 15th of March 1830, the son of the distinguished philologist Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (1797–1855). After attending the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Berlin, he went, in 1849, to Bonn University as a student of the Romance languages, and in 1852 took his doctor’s degree. He had already given proof of great literary ability in the production in 1850 of Der Jungbrunnen, Märchen eines fahrenden Schülers and of the tragedy Francesca von Rimini, when after a year’s stay in Italy, he was summoned, early in 1854, by King Maximilian II. to Munich, where he subsequently lived. Here he turned his attention to novel-writing. He published at Munich in 1855 four short stories in one volume, one of which, at least, L’Arrabbiata, was a masterpiece of its kind. These were the precursors of a series of similar volumes, necessarily unequal at times, but on the whole constituting such a mass of highly complex miniature fiction as seldom before had proceeded from the pen of a single writer. Heyse works in the spirit of a sculptor; he seizes upon some picturesque incident or situation, and chisels and polishes until all the effect which it is capable of producing has been extracted from it. The success of the story usually depends upon the theme, for the artist’s skill is generally much the same, and the situation usually leaves a deeper impression than the characters. Heyse is also the author of several novels on a larger scale, all of which have gained success and provoked abundant discussion. The more important are Kinder der Welt (1873), Im Paradiese (1875)—the one dealing with the religious and social problems of its time, the other with artist-life in Munich—Der Roman der Stiftsdame (1888), and Merlin (1892), a novel directed against the modern realistic movement of which Heyse had been the leading opponent in Germany. He has also been a prolific dramatist, but his plays are deficient in theatrical qualities and are rarely seen on the stage. Among the best of them are Die Sabinerinnen (1859); Hans Lange (1866), Kolberg (1868), Die Weisheit Salomos (1886), and Maria von Magdala (1903). There are masterly translations by him of Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian poets (Italienische Dichter seit der Mitte des 18ten Jahrhundert) (4 vols., 1889–1890).
Heyse’s Gesammelte Werke appeared in 29 vols. (1897–1899); there is also a popular edition of his Romane (8 vols., 1902–1904) and Novellen (10 vols., 1904–1906). See his autobiography, Jugenderinnerungen und Bekenntnisse (1901); also O. Kraus, Paul Heyses Novellen und Romane (1888); E. Petzet, Paul Heyse als Dramatiker (1904), and the essays by T. Ziegler (in Studien und Studienköpfe, 1877), and G. Brandes (in Moderne Geister, 1887).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hexapla

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​HEXAPLA (Gr. for “sixfold”), the term for an edition of the Bible in six versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. See Bible: Old Testament, Texts and Versions.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heyn, Pieter Pieterzoon

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​HEYN, PIETER PIETERZOON [commonly abbreviated to Piet] (1578–1629), Dutch admiral, was born at Delfshaven in 1578, the son of Pieter Hein, who was engaged in the herring fishery. The son went early to sea. In his youth he was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and was forced to row in the galleys during four years. Having recovered his freedom by an exchange of prisoners, he worked for several years as a merchant skipper with success. The then dangerous state of the seas at all times, and the continuous war with Spain, gave him ample opportunity to gain a reputation as a resolute fighting man. Wills which he made before 1623 show that he had been able to acquire considerable property. When the Dutch West India Company was formed he was Director on the Rotterdam Board, and in 1624 he served as second in command of the fleet which took San Salvador in Bahia de Todos os Santos in Brazil. Till 1628 he continued to serve the Company, both on the coast of Brazil, and in the West Indies. In the month of September of that year he made himself famous, gained immense advantage for the Company, and inflicted ruinous loss on the Spaniards, by the capture of the fleet which was bringing the bullion from the American mines home to Spain. The Spanish ships were outnumbered chiefly because the convoy had become scattered by bad management and bad seamanship. The more valuable part of it, consisting of the four galleons, and eleven trading ships in which the king’s share of the treasure was being carried, became separated from the rest, and on being chased by the superior force of Heyn endeavoured to take refuge at Matanzas in the island of Cuba, hoping to be able to land the bullion in the bush before the Dutchman could come up with them. But Juan de Benavides, the Spanish commander, failed to act with decision, was overtaken, and his ships captured in the harbour before the silver could be discharged. The total loss was estimated by the Spaniards at four millions of ducats. Piet Heyn now returned home, and bought himself a house at Delft with the intention of retiring from the sea. In the following year, however, he was chosen at a crisis to take command of the naval force of the Republic, with the rank of Lieutenant-Admiral of Holland, in order to clear the North Sea and Channel of the Dunkirkers, who acted for the king of Spain in his possessions in the Netherlands. In June of 1629 he brought the Dunkirkers to action, and they were severely beaten, but Piet Heyn did not live to enjoy his victory. He was struck early in the battle by a cannon shot on the shoulder and fell dead on the spot. His memory has been preserved by his capture of the Treasure ​Galleons, which had never been taken so far, but he is also the traditional representative of the Dutch “sea dogs” of the 17th century.
See de Jonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; I. Duro, Armada espanola, iv.; der Aa, Biograph. Woordenboek der Nederlanden. (D. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hexastyle

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​HEXASTYLE (Gr. ἕξ, six, and στῦλος, column), an architectural term given to a temple in the portico of which there are six columns in front.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Heyden, Jan van Der

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​HEYDEN, JAN VAN DER (1637–1712), Dutch painter, was born at Gorcum in 1637, and died at Amsterdam on the 12th of September 1712. He was an architectural landscape painter, a contemporary of Hobbema and Jacob Ruysdael, with the advantage, which they lacked, of a certain professional versatility; for, whilst they painted admirable pictures and starved, he varied the practice of art with the study of mechanics, improved the fire engine, and died superintendent of the lighting and director of the firemen’s company at Amsterdam. Till 1672 he painted in partnership with Adrian van der Velde. After Adrian’s death, and probably because of the loss which that event entailed upon him, he accepted the offices to which allusion has just been made. At no period of artistic activity had the system of division of labour been more fully or more constantly applied to art than it was in Holland towards the close of the 17th century. Van der Heyden, who was perfect as an architectural draughtsman in so far as he painted the outside of buildings and thoroughly mastered linear perspective, seldom turned his hand to the delineation of anything but brick houses and churches in streets and squares, or rows along canals, or “moated granges,” common in his native country. He was a travelled man, had seen The Hague, Ghent and Brussels, and had ascended the Rhine past Xanten to ​Cologne, where he copied over and over again the tower and crane of the great cathedral. But he cared nothing for hill or vale, or stream or wood. He could reproduce the rows of bricks in a square of Dutch houses sparkling in the sun, or stunted trees and lines of dwellings varied by steeples, all in light or thrown into passing shadow by moving cloud. He had the art of painting microscopically without loss of breadth or keeping. But he could draw neither man nor beast, nor ships nor carts; and this was his disadvantage. His good genius under these circumstances was Adrian van der Velde, who enlivened his compositions with spirited figures; and the joint labour of both is a delicate, minute, transparent work, radiant with glow and atmosphere.