OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perthes, Johan Georg Justus

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​PERTHES, JOHAN GEORG JUSTUS (1749–1816), German publisher, was born at Rudolstadt on the 11th of September 1749. In 1785 he founded at Gotha the business which bears his name (Justus Perthes). In this he was joined in 1814 by his son Wilhelm (1793–1853), who had been in the establishment of Justus’ nephew, Friedrich Christoph Perthes, at Hamburg. On the death of Justus at Gotha on the 2nd of May 1816, Wilhelm took entire control of the firm. He laid the foundation of the geographical branch of the business, for which it is chiefly famous, by publishing the Hand-atlas (1817–1823) of Adolf Stieler (1775–1836). Wilhelm Perthes engaged the collaboration of the most eminent German geographers of the time, including Heinrich Berghaus, Christian Gottlieb Reichard (1758–1837), who was associated with Stieler in the compilation of the atlas, Karl Spruner (1803–1892) and Emil von Sydow (1812–1873). The business passed to his son Bernard Wilhelm Perthes (1821–1857), who was associated with August Petermann (under whose direction the well-known periodical Petermanns Mitteilungen was founded) and Bruno Hassenstein (1839–1902); and subsequently to his son Bernard (1857–). In 1863 the firm first issued the Almanach de Gotha, a statistical, historical and genealogical annual (in French) of the various countries of the ​world; and in 1866 the elaborate Geographisches Jahrbuch was produced under the editorship of Ernst Behm (1830—1884), on whose death it was continued under that of Professor Hermann Wagner.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Perspiration

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​PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe), the excretion of sweat from the sweat-glands of the skin. Sweat is a clear colourless neutral or slightly alkaline fluid containing 2% of solids. Under pathological conditions, sugar urea and other substances are found. The secretion of sweat is constantly going on, the activity of the sweat-glands being under control of the central nervous system. The only function of sweat is the regulation of the heat discharge from the body. The chief morbid conditions of the sweat-glands are excessive sweating (Hyperidrosis) and foetid sweating (Bromidrosis). Excessive sweating is a symptom observed in various diseases, such as tuberculosis and rheumatic fever, but it may exist apart from such conditions, and either be general, affecting the whole body, or confined to a part, such as the axillae, head, hands, feet, or, as in some rare instances, the one half of the body. Excessive perspiration may often be prevented by the cold bath, and by tonics, such as iron, quinine, strychnia, &c. Locally, the use of astringent lotions of vinegar or a weak solution of lead will also be of service. Foetid sweating most frequently affects the feet, specially in those who have much fatigue, and is apparently due to rapid decomposition in the perspiration which has saturated the stockings; these should be frequently changed and the feet washed several times a day, dried carefully, and dusted with some antiseptic powder.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pertab Singh

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​PERTAB (or Partab) SINGH, Sir, maharaja of Idar (1844–), native Indian soldier and statesman, belonging to the Rahtor Rajputs of the Jodha class, was born in 1844, being the son of Maharaja Takht Singh, ruler of Marwar (or Jodhpur). In 1878 and again in 1879 he was chief minister of Jodhpur. In the following year he accompanied the British mission to Afghanistan, and on his return he carried out many judicious reforms and administered Jodhpur with remarkable success. He visited England to take part in the celebration of the 1887 Jubilee of Queen Victoria’s reign He served on the staffs of Sir William Lockhart and General Elles in the Tirah and Momand expeditions in 1897–98, was slightly wounded, was mentioned in dispatches, and promoted to the rank of full colonel. He won the reputation of being one of the keenest sportsmen and the best riders that even Rajputana has produced. When it was decided to send a force from India to China in 1900 to relieve the foreign embassies besieged in Peking, Sir Pertab Singh at once offered the services of the Jodhpur Lancers, and himself accompanied them. His father rendered good services to the British government in the Mutiny, and Pertab Singh always cherished the memory of the protection given to Jodhpur by the East India Company in 1818. His services to the empire in India were universally recognized. From Queen Victoria he received the honour of knighthood and the Bath and the Star of India; from King Edward VII. the distinction of “aide-de-camp”; and the university of Cambridge gave him the degree of LL.D. From his own state of Jodhpur he obtained the title of Maharaja-Dhiraj In 1901 he succeeded to the rulership of the state of Idar.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sherbrooke

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​SHERBROOKE, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of Sherbrooke county, 101 m. E. of Montreal, at the confluence of the rivers Magog and St Francis, and on the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, Quebec Central and Boston & Maine railways. Pop. (1901) 11,765. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric and of the district courts, and contains manufactories of woollen and cotton goods and machinery, also saw and grist mills. It derives its name from Sir John Coape Sherbrooke (1764–1830), who from 1816 to 1818 was governor-general of Canada.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shepton Mallet

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​SHEPTON MALLET, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bath, on the Somerset & Dorset and the Great Western railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 5238. The old town extends in a narrow line along the river Sheppey, while the newer town has for its main street a viaduct across the river valley. The church of St Peter and St Paul is especially noteworthy. Consisting of a chancel, clerestories nave, and aisles, it is Early English and Perpendicular in style, and contains a beautiful 13th-century oak roof of 350 panels, each with a different design; a 15th-century pulpit of carved stone; and some interesting old monuments of the Strode, Mallet and Gournay families. The market cross, over 50 ft. high, and one of the finest in Somerset, was erected by Walter and Agnes Buckland in 1500. Shepton possesses a grammar school of the 17th century, and a science and art school. The once flourishing cloth and woollen trades have declined, but there are large breweries, roperies, potteries, and, in the neighbourhood, marble, granite, asphalt and lime works.
Shepton, before the conquest called Sepeton, was in the possession of the abbots of Glastonbury for four hundred years, and then passed to a Norman, Roger de Courcelle. Afterwards it came into the possession of the Norman barons Malet or Mallet, one of whom was fined for rebellion in the reign of King John. From the Mallets it went to the Gournays, but in 1536 it reverted to the crown, and it is now included in the duchy of Cornwall. The town received the grant of a market from Edward II. Monmouth and the rebel army passed through Shepton twice in 1685, and twelve of the rebels were hanged here by Judge Jeffreys.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sherbet

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​SHERBET (the Turkish form of the Arabic sharbat, drink, shariba, he drank, cf. “ shrub,” an English derivative), properly the name of an Oriental beverage, consisting of the juice of such fruits as the lemon, citron, &c., dropped upon a cake of sugar and partially frozen with snow or otherwise cooled. The word, and also the French form sorbet, are applied in Western usage to a water-ice not frozen as hard as the ordinary ice, and flavoured with fruit juice, spirit, &c. A cheap sweetened effervescing drink is also so styled.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sherani

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​SHERANI, or Shirani, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-west Frontier Province of India. The Sherani Agency occupies an area of 1500 sq. m. and had a population in 1901 of 12,371. The Sheranis occupy the principal portion of the mountain known as the Takht-i-Suliman and the country thence eastward down to the border of Dera Ismail Khan district. They are bounded on the north by the Gomal Pass, and beyond that by the Mahsud Waziris; on the south by the Ustaranas and Zmarais; and on the west by the Haripals, Kakars and Mandu Khels. Between the Sherani country and the British border lie several small mountain ridges, across which the three chief passes are the Zarakni or Sheikh Haidar, ​the Draband and the Chandwan. The Sheranis are generally of middling stature, thin, but hardy and active. They have bold features, high cheek-bones, and their general appearance is wild and manly. Their dress consists of a coarse black blanket tied round the waist, and another thrown over the shoulders. Their chief occupation is agriculture, but they carry on an extensive trade in the autumn months in Dera Ismail Khan district. The Sherani tribe and country are divided into two well-defined branches called Bargha and Largha, or the Highlands and the Lowlands, the inhabitants being called respectively Barghawals and Larghawals. The Highlands are on the side of Zhob, the Lowlands on the side of the Derajat, the dividing line being generally the watershed and higher peaks of the Takht-i-Suliman range of mountains. The physical configuration of the country makes the separation so complete that the two tribal divisions act independently of each other. After the Zhob expedition of 1890 the question of boundaries between the Punjab and Baluchistan came up for settlement, and the government decided that Bargha should remain with Baluchistan and Largha with the Punjab. The Gomal river from Kundar-Domandi to Kajuri-Kach is the boundary between Baluchistan and Waziristan, as well as between the respective provinces. In 1901 these frontier districts were transferred from the Punjab to the North-west Frontier Province.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Shere Ali Khan

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​SHERE ALI KHAN (1825–1879), Amir of Afghanistan, was born in 1825, one of the younger sons of the amir Dost Mahommed, whom he succeeded in 1863. For some time after his succession Afghanistan was in a state of anarchy, and his rebellious half-brothers overran the country while he remained at Kandahar mourning the loss of a favourite son. At length, however, the capture of Kabul in 1866 roused him to action; but in spite of his own bravery he suffered general defeat until 1868, when he regained Kabul. Supported by the viceroys of India, Lord Lawrence and Lord Mayo, Shere Ali remained on good terms with the British government for some years; but after the rebellion of his son Yakub Khan, 1870–74, he leaned towards Russia, and welcomed a Russian agent at Kabul in 1878, and at the same time refused to receive a British mission. This led to long negotiations, and ultimately to war, when the British forced the Khyber Pass in November 1878, and defeated the amir’s forces on every occasion. Shere Ali fled from his capital and, taking refuge in Turkestan, died at Mazar-i-Sharif on the 21st of February 1879.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poppy Oil

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​POPPY OIL (Oleum papaveris), a vegetable oil obtained by pressure from the minute seeds of the garden, or opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The white-seeded and black-seeded varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both varieties and the proportion they contain (from 50 to 60%) are the same. By cold pressing seeds of fine quality yield from 30 to 40% of virgin or white oil (huile blanche), a transparent limpid fluid with a slight yellowish tinge, bland and pleasant to taste, and with almost no perceptible smell. On second pressure with the aid of heat an additional 20 to 25% of inferior oil (huile de fabrique or huile russe) is obtained, reddish in colour, possessed ​of a biting taste, and a linseed-like smell. The oil belongs to the linoleic or drying series, having as its principal constituent linolein; and it possesses greater drying power than raw linseed oil. Its specific gravity at 15° C. is 0.925. Poppy oil is a valuable and much used medium for artistic oil painting. The fine qualities are largely used in the north of France (huile d' œillette) and in Germany as a salad oil, and are less liable than olive oil to rancidity. The absence of taste and characteristic smell in poppy oil also leads to its being much used for adulterating olive oil. The inferior qualities are principally consumed in soap making and varnish-making, and for burning in lamps. The oil is very extensively used in the valley of the Ganges and other opium regions for food and domestic purposes. By native methods in India about 30% of oil is extracted, and the remaining oleaginous cake is used as food by the poor. Ordinary poppy-oil cake is a valuable feeding material, rich in nitrogenous constituents, with an ash showing an unusually large proportion of phosphoric acid. The seed of the yellow horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, yields from 30 to 35% of an oil having the same drying and other properties as poppy oil; and from the Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana, is obtained a non-drying oil used as a lubricant and for burning.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Porbandar

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​PORBANDAR, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency, Bombay, extending along the S.W. coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 636 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,640, showing a decrease of 4 % in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £65,000; tribute, £3,233. The chief, whose title is rana, is a Jethwa Rajput. Limestone is largely exported to Bombay. This limestone is used for buildings in Porbandar without mortar, and is said to coalesce into a solid block under the influence of moisture. The town of Porbandar is the maritime terminus of the Kathiawar railway system. Pop. (1901), 24,620. A large trade is conducted in native boats as far as the east coast of Africa.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poppo, Ernst Friedrich

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​POPPO, ERNST FRIEDRICH (1794–1866), German classical scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Guben in Brandenburg on the 13th of August, 1794. In 1818 he was appointed director of the gymnasium at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he died on the 6th of November 1866, having resigned his post three years before. Poppo was an extremely successful teacher and organizer, and in a few years doubled the number of pupils at the gymnasium. He is chiefly known, however, for his exhaustive and complete edition of Thucydides in four parts (11 vols., 1821-1840), containing (i.) prolegomena on Thucydides as an historian and on his language and style (Eng. trans. by G. Burges, 1837), accompanied by historical and geographical essays; (ii.) text with scholia and critical notes; (iii.) commentary on the text and scholia; (iv.) indices and appendices. For the ordinary student a smaller edition (1843–1851) was prepared, revised after the author's death by J. M. Stahl (1875–1889).
See R. Schwarze in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie and authorities there referred to.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Populonium

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​POPULONIUM (Etruscan Pupluna), an ancient seaport town of Etruria, Italy, at the north end of the peninsular of Monte Massoncello, at the south end of which is situated the town of Piombino (q.v.). The place, almost the only Etruscan town built directly on the sea, was situated on a lofty hill now crowned by a conspicuous medieval castle and a poor modern village (Populonia). Considerable remains of its town walls, of large irregular, roughly rectangular blocks (the form is that of the natural splitting of the schistose sandstone), still exist, enclosing a circuit of about 11/2 m. The remains existing within them are entirely Roman—a row of vaulted substructions, a water reservoir and a mosaic with representations of fishes. Strabo mentions the existence here of a look-out tower for the shoals of tunny-fish. There are some tombs outside the town, some of which, ranging from the Villanova period (9th century B.C.) to the middle of the 3rd century B.C., were explored in 1908. In one, a large circular tomb, were found three sepulchral couches in stone, carved in imitation of wood, and a fine statuette in bronze of Ajax committing suicide. Close by was found a horse collar with 14 bronze bells. The remains of a temple, devastated in ancient times (possibly by Dionysius of Syracuse in 384 B.C.), were also discovered, with fragments of Attic vases of the 5th century B.C., which had served as ex uotos in it. Coins of the town have also been found in silver and copper. The iron mines of Elba, and the tin and copper of the mainland, were owned and smelted by the people of Populonia; hot springs too lay some 6 m. to the E. (Aquae Populaniae) on the high road—Via Aurelia—along the coast. At this point a road branched off to Saena (Siena). According to Virgil the town sent a contingent to the help of Aeneas, and it furnished Scipio with iron in 205 B.C. It offered considerable resistance to Sulla, who took it by siege; and from this dates its decline, which Strabo, who describes it well (v. 2, 6, p. 223), already notes as beginning, while four centuries later Rutilius describes it as in ruins. The harbour, however continued to be of some importance, and the place was still an episcopal see in the time of Gregory the Great.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, ii. 212 sqq.); I. Falchi in Notizie degli Scavi (1903–1904); L. A. Milani ibid. (1908), 199 sqq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Porcelain

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​PORCELAIN, the name of that kind of ceramic ware which is characterized by a translucent body, also loosely used for the finer kinds of ware generally, popularly known as “china” (see Ceramics). The French porcelaine, from which the word comes into English, is an adaptation of the Italian porcellana, a cowrie-shell, the beautifully polished surface of which caused the name to be applied to the ware. The Italian word is generally taken to be from porcella, diminutive of porco, pig, from a supposed resemblance of the shell to a pig's back.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Popper, David

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​POPPER, DAVID (1846–), Bohemian violoncellist, was born at Prague, and educated musically at the conservatorium there, adopting the cello as his professional instrument. He was soon recognized, largely through von Bülow, as one of the finest soloists of the time, and played on tours throughout the European capitals. In 1872 he married the pianist Sophi Menter, from whom he was separated in 1886. In 1896 he became professor at the Royal Conservatoire at Budapest. He published various works, mainly compositions for the 'cello, together with four volumes of studies arranged as a violoncello school.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Poppy Heads

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​POPPY HEADS, a term, in architecture, given to the finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliages or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cutout of the thickness of the bench end and chambered. The term is probably derived from the French poupée, doll, puppet, used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philippi

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​PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik), a city of ancient Macedonia, on a steep hill near the river Gangites (mod. Angista), overlooking an extensive plain and at no great distance from the coast of the Aegean, on the highway between Neapolis (Kavalla) and Thessalonica. Originally called Crenides (Fountains), it took its later name from Philip II. of Macedon, who made himself master of the neighbouring gold mines of the Hill of Dionysus, and fortified the city as one of his frontier-towns. In 42 B.C., after the victory gained over the senatorial party by Octavius and Antony, it became a Roman colony, Colonia Julia Philippensis, which was probably increased after the battle of Actium (Col. Aug. Julia Phil.). The inhabitants received the Jus Italicum, and Philippi was one of the specially designated “first cities” (Acts xvi. 12, see Marquardt, Röm. Staatsverwaltung i. 187). The city was twice visited by St Paul, whose Epistle to the Philippians was addressed to his converts here. The site, now uninhabited, is marked by ruins—the substructions of an amphitheatre, parts of a great temple—which have furnished interesting inscriptions. A little to the east is the huge stone monument of C. Vibius, known to the Turks as Dikelitashlar and to the Greeks as the Manger of Bucephalus.
See Heuzey and Daumet, Mission arch. en Macédoine, Paris (1865), and other authorities in bibliography of Macedonia; Corp. Inscr. Lat. iii. 1. (J. D. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philippeville

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​PHILIPPEVILLE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Constantine, and 54 m. N. by E. of that city, on the Bay of Stora, in 36° 53′ N. 6° 54′ E. It is connected by railway with Constantine, Batna and Biskra. The town derives its importance from being the port of Constantine. The harbour works, with every vessel in port, having been destroyed by a storm in 1878, a more commodious harbour was built, at a cost of about £1,200,000. From Cape Skikda, on the east a mole or breakwater projects 4592 ft. to the W.N.W., while from Château Vert on the west another mole runs out 1312 ft. to the north, leaving an entrance to the port about 656 ft. wide. The protected area comprises an outer and an inner basin. The depth of water at the entrance is about 33 ft., alongside the quays about 20 ft. The quays are faced with blocks of white marble brought from the quarries at Filfila, 16 m. distant. Pop. (1906), of the town 16,539, of the commune 26,050, of the arrondissement, which includes 12 communes, 147,607.
Philippeville occupies the site of successive Phoenician and Roman cities. By the Romans, under whom it attained a high state of prosperity, it was named Rusicada. In the middle ages the town ceased to be inhabited. The site was purchased from the Arabs by Marshal Valée in 1838 for £6. Some parts of the Roman theatre remain, but the stones of the amphitheatre, which stood without the walls of the modern town, and which the French found in an almost perfect state of preservation, were used by them for building purposes, and the railway was cut through the site. On a hill above the town are the Roman reservoirs, which have been restored and still supply the town with water. They are fed by a canal from the Wadi Beni Meleh. The Roman baths, in the centre of the modern town, serve as cellars for military stores.