OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treviso

See also Treviso and Province of Treviso on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREVISO (anc. Tarvisium), a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of Treviso, 49 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 16,933 (town); 36,433 (commune). It is situated on the plain between the Gulf of Venice and the Alps, 18 m. by rail N. of Venice, at the confluence of the Sile with the Botteniga. The former flows partly round its walls, the latter through the town; and it has canal communication with the lagoons. It is an old town, with narrow irregular colonnaded streets and some interesting old frescoed houses. The cathedral of San Pietro, dating from 1141 and restored and enlarged in the 15th century by Pietro Lombardo, with a classical façade of 1836, has five domes. It contains a fine “Annunciation” by Titian (1519), an important “Adoration of the Shepherds” by Paris Bordone (born at Treviso in 1500), and frescoes by Pordenone. There are also sculptures by Lorenzo and Battista Bregno and others. The Gothic church of San Niccolo (1310–1352) contains a fine tomb by Tullio Lombardo, and a large altarpiece by Fra Marco Pensabene and others; in the church and adjoining chapter-house are frescoes by Tommaso da Modena (1352), some frescoes by whom (life of S. Ursula) are also in the Museo Civico. The Monte de Pietà contains an “Entombment” by an artist of the school of Pordenone (wrongly attributed to Giorgione). The churches of S. Leonardo, S. Andrea, S. Maria Maggiore, and S. Maria Maddalena also contain art treasures. The Piazza dei Signori contains picturesque brick battlemented palaces—the Salone del Gran Consiglio (1184) and the Palazzo del Commune (1268). Treviso is the seat of various manufactures—ironworks and pottery, macaroni, cotton-spinning and rice-husking, paper, printing, brushes, brickyards, flour mills—and is the centre of a fertile district.
The ancient Tarvisium was a municipium. It lay off the main roads, and is hardly mentioned by ancient writers, though Pliny speaks of the Silis as flowing “ex montibus Tarvisanis.” In the 6th century it appears as an important place and was the seat of a Lombard duke. Charlemagne made it the capital of a marquisate. It joined the Lombard league, and was independent after the peace of Constance (1183) until in 1339 it came under the Venetian sway. From 1318 it was for a short time the seat of a university. In the 15th century its walls and ramparts (still extant) were renewed under the direction of Fra Giocondo, two of the gates being built by the Lombardi. Treviso was taken in 1797 by the French under Mortier (duke of Treviso). In March 1848 the Austrian garrison was driven from the town by the revolutionary party, but in the following June the town was bombarded and compelled to capitulate.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trevi

See also Trevi, Umbria on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREVI (anc. Trebiae), a town of the province of Perugia, Italy, 30 m. S.E. of Perugia and 5 m. S. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), 5708. The town stands on a steep hill 1355 ft. above sea-level. Several of its churches are architecturally interesting, especially the Madonna delle Lacrime (1487) outside the town, the elegant early Renaissance architecture of which resembles that of the Madonna del Calcinaio at Cortona, and most of them (and also the municipal picture gallery) contain paintings by artists of the Umbrian school—notably Lo Spagna, a pupil of Perugino. S. Emiliano has a group of three altars decorated with fine sculptures by Rocco da Vicenza (1521). The ancient town is believed to have been situated 13 m. to the north-west, but little is known of it, and no remains save inscriptions exist.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold

See also Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREVIRANUS, GOTTFRIED REINHOLD (1776–1837), German naturalist, was born at Bremen on the 4th of February 1776. He studied medicine at Göttingen, where he took his doctor’s degree in 1796, and a year later he was appointed professor of medicine and mathematics in the Bremen lyceum. He died at Bremen on the 16th of February 1837.
In the first of his larger works, Biologie; oder die Philosophie der lebenden Natur, which appeared from 1802–1805, Treviranus gave clear expression to the theory of “descent with modification.” He believed that simple forms (Protists), which he termed “zoophytes, ​were “the primitive types from which all the organisms of the higher classes had arisen by gradual development,” and he laid down as a fundamental proposition “that all living forms are the results of physical influences which are still in operation, and vary only in degree and direction.” Like many after him, he directed attention to the influence of the male elements in fertilization as a source of variation, but laid emphasis only on the intra-organismal power of adaptation to surroundings. Whatever opinion be entertained in regard to the priority and the importance of the contribution made by Treviranus to the theory of evolution, it is at least certain that he was a learned naturalist and an acute thinker. His most important later work of a synthetic nature was entitled Erscheinungen und Gesetze des organischen Lebens (1831).
His younger brother, Ludolph Christian Treviranus (1779–1864), studied medicine at Jena, and was successively professor of medicine at Bremen lyceum (1807), professor of natural history at Rostock (1812), professor of botany and director of the botanical garden at Breslau (1816), and professor of botany at Bonn (1830).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Treviglio

See also Treviglio on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TREVIGLIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Bergamo, 14 m. by rail S. by W. of that town, 410 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 5899 (town); 14,897 (commune). It has a fine church (S. Martino) containing pictures by Butinone, and Zenale (1436–1526), both natives of the town, and having a lofty campanile of the 13th and 14th centuries. It has important silk works, wool-spinning, and other manufactories. It is a junction for Verona, Cremona and Bergamo, and steam tramways run to Monza, Lodi, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slum

See also Slum on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLUM, a squalid, dirty street or quarter in a city, town or village, inhabited by the very poor, destitute or criminal classes; over-crowding is frequently another characteristic (see Housing). The word is a comparatively recent one and is of uncertain origin. It has been doubtfully connected with a dialectal use of " slump " in the sense of a marshy, swampy place; cf. Ger. Schlamm, mud, and Eng. dialect slammock, slattern (Skeat, Etym. Dict., 1910).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slogan

See also Slogan on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLOGAN, the war-cry of the Highland clans. It was the gathering call of the clan, often the name of the clan, the place of meeting, and the like, and was uttered when charging in battle. The Gaelic word, of which " slogan " is the English adaptation, is sluagh-ghairm, from sluagh, army, host, and gairm, call, cry. A variant form of "slogan" is "slogorne," which has given rise to an invented word "slughorn," used by Chatterton (Battle of Hastings, ii. 10) and by Browning (Childe Roland) as if the term meant some kind of war-trumpet or horn. Skeat (Etym. Dict. 1898, Errata and Addenda) has shown that Chatterton used an edition of Gavin Douglas's translation of Virgil, where "slogorne" is spelled "slughorne," and the context, "The deaucht trumpet blawis the brag of were; the slughorne, enseule or the wache cry went for the battall all suld be reddy," misled him.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slonim

See also Slonim on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLONIM, a town of Russia, in the government of Grodno, 155 m. by rail S.E. of the city of Grodno and 20 m. from the railway from Moscow to Warsaw, on the high craggy banks of the Shchara. Pop. (1883), 21,110; (1897) 15,893, including many Jews. It derives its importance from the river, which is navigable and joins the Oginsky canal, connecting the Niemen with the Dnieper. Corn, tar, and especially timber are exported. Slonim is mentioned in 1040, when Yaroslav, prince of Kiev, defeated the Lithuanians in its neighbourhood. In 1241 the Mongols pillaged it and burned its wooden fort. Owing to its position between Galician Russia and Lithuania it often changed hands, until it was conquered by the Lithuanians in the 14th century. From 1631 to 1685 it was the seat of the Lithuanian diet and became a flourishing city. In the 18th century, under the hetman Oginsky, a canal was dug to connect the Shchara with the Dnieper. Oginsky embellished the city and founded there a printing-office. Russia annexed the town in 1795.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sloop

See also Sloop on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLOOP, a type of small sailing-vessels which have one mast rigged " fore and aft," carrying a mainsail, gaff-topsail, jib and fore staysail. There is little in rig to distinguish a sloop from a " cutter," and the terms are used indiscriminately; sometimes a distinction is drawn by a sloop having a fixed and a cutter a running bowsprit. In the sailing and early steam days of naval warfare, a " sloop " was a small corvette, ship-rigged, with all the guns mounted on the upper deck. Like so many nautical terms the word was borrowed from the Dutch, viz. sloep, boat. This is generally taken to be an adaptation of the Fr. chaloupe, Span, and Port, chalupa, cf. Ital. scialuppa, Eng. " shallop," a light boat. These probably represent some native word borrowed by Spanish or Portuguese sailors in the East or American Indies. Other etymologists distinguish the Dutch and French words and refer sloep to the common Teutonic root, meaning to glide, to creep, seen in " slip," Ger. schleifen, schliefen, &c.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sloth

See also Sloth on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLOTH, the name for the various representatives of a group of arboreal tropical American mammals belonging to the order Edentata (q.v.). Sloths are some of the most completely arboreal of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of trees; and usually hanging beneath them, back downwards, and clinging with the hook-line organs to which the terminations of their limbs are reduced. When obliged to descend to the ground, which they rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, sloths—owing to the unequal length of their limbs and the peculiar conformation of their feet, which allow the animals to rest only on the outer edge—crawl along a level surface with considerable difficulty. Though generally slow and inactive, even when in their natural haunts, they can on occasions travel with considerable rapidity along the branches, and as they do not leap, like most other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of the swaying of the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree. They feed on leaves and young shoots and fruits, which they gather in their mouth, the fore-limbs aiding in dragging boughs within reach, but not being used as hands. When sleeping, sloths roll themselves up in a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character of their hair, are inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens with which the trees of their native forests abound. The concealment thus afforded is heightened in some species by the peculiar greenish tint of the hair, due not to the colour of the hair itself, but to the presence upon its surface of an alga, the lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted or rough surface of the exterior, and its growth is promoted by the dampness of the atmosphere in the gloomy tropical forests. Sloths are
The Unau or Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni).
nocturnal, silent, inoffensive and solitary animals, and produce usually but one young at birth. They appear to show an almost reptilian tenacity of life, surviving the most severe injuries and large doses of poisons, and exhibiting longer persistence of irritability of muscular tissue after death than other mammals. Several other animals, such as the African potto-lemurs, and the Asiatic lorises, are popularly called sloths.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slough

See also Slough on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLOUGH, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 18 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,453. It lies in the flat valley of the Thames, nearly 2 m. from the river at Eton and Windsor, and is wholly modern in appearance. The chief public building is the Leopold Institute and Public Hall (1887), a memorial of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany. The British Orphan Asylum is also in the town. The parish church of Upton-cum-Chalvey, St Laurence, has a Norman doorway and other portions of the same period. It is the burial-place of Sir William Herschel, who lived in the vicinity, set up his great telescope here, and made many of his astronomical discoveries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Slype

See also Slype on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SLYPE, a variant of " slip " in the sense of a narrow passage; in architecture, the name for the covered passage usually found in monasteries between the transept and the chapter-house, as at Winchester, Gloucester, Exeter and St Albans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tashkent

See also Tashkent on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TASHKENT, or Tashkend, one of the largest and most important cities of Russian Central Asia, and capital of Russian Turkestan, situated in the valley of the Chirchik, some 50 m. above its confluence with the Syr-darya, in 40° 20′ N., 69° 18′ E. It is connected by rail with Krasnovodsk (1085 m.) on the Caspian, and since 1905 with Orenburg (1150 m.). The city, formerly enclosed by walls (now ruinous), is surrounded by luxuriant gardens, and its houses are buried among the fruit and other trees which grow alongside of the irrigation canals. The buildings, which are of stone and sun-dried bricks, are mostly low, on account of the earthquakes which frequently disturb the region. The native city in 1871 had 78,130 inhabitants, and in 1897 156,414, mostly arts, with Uzbegs, Kirghiz, Jews, Russians and Germans. The Russian city, to the south-east, dating from 1865, has clean, broad streets lined with poplars, and canals, the low pleasant-looking houses being surrounded by gardens. In 1875 its population, exclusive of the military, was 4860, mostly Russians, and in 1900 about 25,000. Tashkent has a public library containing a valuable collection of works on Central Asia, an astronomical observatory and a museum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tartarus

See also Tartarus on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TARTARUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Aether and Gaea, father of Typhoeus and the giants. In the Iliad the word denotes an underground prison, as far below Hades as earth is below heaven, in which those who rebelled against the will of Zeus were confined. In later writers Tartarus is the place of punishment of the wicked after death, and is used for the underworld generally. Cf. Abyss.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tas-de-Charge

See also Tas-de-charge on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TAS-DE-CHARGE, a French term in architecture, for which there is no equivalent in English, given to the lower courses of a Gothic vault, which are laid in horizontal courses and bonded into the wall, forming a solid mass; they generally rise about one-third of the height of the vault, and as they project forwards they lessen the span to be vaulted over.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tashkurghan

See also Tashkurghan on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TASHKURGHAN, or Khulm, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The khanate lies between Kunduz and Balkh. The ancient town of Khulm stood in the Oxus plain, surrounded by orchards of famous productiveness; but it was destroyed by Ahmad Shah Abdali, who founded Tashkurghan in the middle of the 18th century, and took all the inhabitants away from Khulm to populate it. Ancient Khulm is now only a mass of ruins; but Tashkurghan, lying two or three miles to the south of it, has become the great trade-mart of Afghan Turkestan and second only in importance to Mazar-i-Sharif, the military centre of the province; while it is much larger and more, prosperous than the latter place. At Tashkurghan the caravans from India and Bokhara meet, and from here the merchandise is distributed all over the country. A hill fortress dominates the town and overlooks the debouchment of the road from Haibak and Kabul into the plains of the Oxus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trophy

See also Tropaion on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TROPHY (Gr. τρόπαιον, from τρέπω, put to flight; Lat. tropaeum), in classical antiquities, in the strict sense a memorial of victory set up on the field of battle at the spot where the enemy had been routed. It consisted of captured arms and standards hung upon a tree (preferably an olive or an oak) and booty heaped up at its foot, dedicated to the god to whom the victory was attributed, especially Zeus Tropaeus. If no suitable tree was at hand, a lopped trunk was fixed in the ground on an eminence. The tree or trunk bore an inscription containing the names of the god and the combatants, a list of the booty and of the chief incidents of the battle or the entire war. In the case of a naval victory the trophy, composed of the beaks of ships (sometimes an entire ship), was generally set up on the nearest beach and consecrated to Poseidon. It was regarded as a sacrilege to destroy a trophy, since it was dedicated to a god; but, on the other hand, one that had fallen to pieces through lapse of time was not restored, to prevent feelings of resentment being kept alive. For the same reason trophies of stone or metal were forbidden by law, although this rule was not always observed. To facilitate reconciliation with their conquered foes, neither the Macedonians nor the Romans in early times erected such trophies. The usual custom was to take home the spoils, and to use them for decorating public buildings and private houses. The first example of a trophy set up after the Greek fashion occurs in 121 B.C., when Domitius Ahenobarbus celebrated his victory over the Allobroges in this manner. Although instances are not uncommon in later times, the Romans still showed a preference for setting up the memorials of victory in Rome rather than on the field of battle. These were decorated with the spoils, and were themselves called trophies; such were the trophies of Marius recording his victories over Jugurtha and the Cimbri and Teutones. In later republican and imperial times enormous columns, on which the chief incidents of a battle or war were represented in bas-relief, were frequently erected, the most famous and most perfect example being the column of Trajan (see Rome: Archaeology, “The Imperial Forums”).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Troop

See also Troop on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TROOP (an adaptation of Fr. troupe, O. Fr. trope; cf. Ital. troppa, truppa; Med. Lat. truppus; the origin is doubtful; suggestions have been made that it represents a German conception of Latin turbo, crowd, or is an adaptation of Norw. torp, flock), a company or assemblage of persons, the term being usually applied in the plural to a body of soldiers of varying strength and of different arms. Specifically, a “troop” is one of the smaller units into which a regiment of horse-soldiers is divided, forming a subdivision of a squadron. Roughly speaking, it consists of sixteen files, and does not exceed from 30 to 40 sabres; in some armies, however, a maximum limit of 60 sabres are found (see Cavalry). For the military ceremony known as “trooping of the colours,” see Colours, Military.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Troon

See also our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TROON, a police burgh, seaport and watering-place of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4764. It is situated 6 m. N. by W. of Ayr, and 35 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It has the best natural harbour in the county, with over a mile of quay e, a breakwater 5000 ft. long, and two graving docks. Shipbuilding is the leading industry, and there is a rope and sail factory. The town contains a public hall and library and reading-room. The municipality controls the Waterworks and gasworks. Fullarton House, 1 m. south-east, is a seat of the duke of Portland; and at Auchans, about 3 m. west, Susannah, Countess of Eglinton, in 1773 entertained Dr Johnson. Adjoining this estate stands the ruined castle of the Dundonalds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Trotzendorff, Valentin Friedland

See also Valentin Friedland on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​TROTZENDORFF (or Trocedorfius), VALENTIN FRIEDLAND (1490–1556), German educationist, called Trotzendorff from his birthplace, near Görlitz, in Prussian Silesia, was born on the 14th of February 1490, of parents so poor that they could not keep him at school. The boy taught himself to read and write while herding cattle; he made paper from birch bark and ink from soot. When difficulties were overcome and he was sent for education to Görlitz, his mother's last words were “Stick to the school, dear son.” The words determined his career: he refused all ecclesiastical promotion, and lived and died a schoolmaster. He became a distinguished student, learned Ciceronian Latin from Peter Mossellanus and Greek from Richard Croke, and after graduation was appointed assistant master in the school at Görlitz. There he also taught the rector and other teachers. When Luther began his attack on indulgences, Trotzendorff resigned his position and went to study under Luther and Melanchthon, supporting himself by private tuition. Thence he was called to be a master in the school at Goldberg in Silesia, and in 1524 became rector. There he remained three years, when he was sent to Liegnitz. He returned to Goldberg in 1531 and began that career which has made him the typical German schoolmaster of the Reformation period. His system of education and discipline speedily attracted attention. He made his best elder scholars the teachers of the younger classes, and insisted that the way to learn was to teach. He organized the school in such a way that the whole ordinary discipline was in the hands of the boys themselves. Every month a “consul,” twelve “senators” and two “censors” were chosen from the pupils, and over all Trotzendorff ruled as “dictator perpetuus.” One hour a day was spent in going over the lessons of the previous day. The lessons were repeatedly recalled by examinations, which were conducted on the plan of academical disputations. Every week each pupil had to write two “exercitia styli,” one in prose and the other in verse, and Trotzendorff took pains to see that the subject of each exercise was something interesting. The fame of the Goldberg School extended over all Protestant Germany, and a large number of the more famous men of the following generation were taught by Trotzendorff. He died on the 20th of April 1556.
See Herrmann, Merkwürdige Lebensgeschichte eines berühmten Schulmanns, V. F. Trotzendorffs (1727); Frosch, V. F. Trotzendorff, Rektor zu Goldberg (1818); Pinzger, V. F. Trotzendorff (with the Goldberg portrait, and a complete list of his writings, 1825); Koehler, V. F. Trotzendorff, ein biographischer Versuch (1848). The biographical facts appear to be derived from a funeral or memorial oration delivered by Balthasar Rhau in the university of Wittenberg on the 15th of August 1564, and published in an edition of Trotzendorffs Rosarium (1565).