OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Balanced Ration

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Balanced Ration, the daily food of farm animals containing the proportion of tissue-producing and heat-producing food-elements calculated to give the best results under different conditions of development and requirements of work. The first sort of foods are the nitrogenous (protein) foods, of which egg-albumen and wheat gluten are familiar types drawn from human foods. The second includes the carbonaceous foods, as starches and sugars (carbohydrates) and fat, or, more strictly speaking, materials soluble in ether (ether extract). Protein can also furnish heat, but, being so much more expensive, the feeder's problem is to add as much carbonaceous food as will supply the necessary heat and also, if the animal if intended for food, as can be converted into fat. The proportion of protein to heat-producing elements is called the nutritive ratio. When the proportion of heat-producing elements is large, the ratio is said to be wide; when small, it is narrow. Thus timothy hay and oat-straw, with proportions of 1:16.7 and 1:34, are examples of wide ratios. Soy beans, 1:1.9, have a narrow ratio. Corn, 1:10, has a medium ratio. For growing cattle a balanced ration is about 1:4.5; for fattening cattle, 1:6; for heavily worked horses, 1:6; for light-worked horses, 1:7, It is no more important to know the amount of these materials in a ration than to know the percentage of their digestibility. The results of the many analyses and experiments in feeding have been embodied in the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, which form the basis of all calculations of the feeding value of different food compounds used by stockmen. See Henry's Feeds and Feeding.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baku

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Baku (bȧ-kōō'), a province of Russia, in Transcaucasia, situated on the western shores of the Caspian Sea, southeast of Tiflis and north of the rivers Kur and Aras, the latter separating Russia in Asia from Persia. Area, 15,061 square miles; population of province (1910), 1,013,900, and of the city (in 1909), the seat of administration for the Transcaucasian region, 177,777. The province in 1806 passed from Persian to Russian control, though the population largely remains Tartar and Armenian rather than Russian. There is a good harbor at the port of Baku, of importance to Russia as a naval station on the Caspian Sea and utilized as shipbuilding yards, as well as a port for the shipment of petroleum, the chief product of this region, and the yield of which is estimated at about nine million tons annually. Just north of the port is the great oil-well emporium and refineries, known as the Black Town, where, besides the crude oil works, are a number of chemical works, mills and tobacco factories. Much of the trade of Persia passes into Russia and western Europe through the port of Baku. Here spouting wells of petroleum may be seen all about, many destructive fires frequently occurring from the easily igniting gases as well as from the large areas of oil-saturated land.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baireuth

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Baireuth' or Bayreuth (bī' roit'), famous as the home of Wagner and Jean Paul Richter, is a city of Bavaria, on the Red Main. Its population is about 30,000. The most interesting sight in Bayreuth is the national festival theater, designed by Richard Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a performance of his Ring of the Nibelungen. This theater is devoted to music; and the audience is expected to be silent and refrain from applause during the performances.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baker, Sir Samuel White

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Baker, Sir Samuel White, an African traveler, was born in London in 1821, and educated there and in Germany. He superintended the building of the railroad which connects the Danube with the Black Sea. In 1860, with his wife, a Hungarian lady of great talent, he entered upon an exploring journey to discover the sources of the Nile. Starting from Khartum, with an escort of 90 men, 29 camels, horses and asses and three large boats, he ascended the White Nile. He met the explorers Speke and Grant, who reported their own discovery of the Lake Victoria, and told him of another large lake called by the natives Luta Nzige. He resolved to reach this lake, and after many adventures, on March 4, 1864, from the top of lofty cliffs, he saw the vast inland sea, to which he gave the name of Albert Nyanza. During 1869–73 he commanded an expedition organized by the khedive of Egypt to suppress slavery and to annex the equatorial regions of the Nile Basin. He published The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon, The Albert Nyanza as I Saw It, Ismaila and Cast up by the Sea. He died at Newton Abbott England, December 30, 1893.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Balaklava

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Balaklava (bȧ' lȧ-klä' vȧ), a small Russian fishing village in the Crimea, near Sebastopol. In the Crimean War the British made it their headquarters and began building a railroad to Sebastopol. It was attacked by the Russians, October 25, 1854; but they were repulsed. During this attack the famous charge of the light brigade was made. Upon a probably mistaken order, Lord Cardigan led his light brigade of 600 men against a large force of Russians. With great bravery they cut their way to the Russian guns, but finding that they could do nothing there, turned and cut their way back again. Only 150 men survived the brilliant but fruitless charge. Tennyson's ode in commemoration of it is well known. The English left the town in June, 1856.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baird, Spencer Fullerton

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Baird, Spencer Fullerton, a noted naturalist, was born at Reading, Pennsylvania, February 3, 1823. He was educated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, and was afterward professor of natural science in the institution. He was secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, and afterward commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote many papers on birds, reptiles, fishes, etc., and under his direction the National Museum was begun in 1850. In connection with other editors he published The Birds of North America, The Mammals of North America and a History of the Birds of North America in five volumes. He died at Wood's Holl, Mass., August 19, 1887.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Baking Powder

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Baking Powder, a combination chemically prepared of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda, mixed with flour for the making of bread, biscuits, cakes, etc. The powder, when water is added, causes the bread to rise, as in the olden method of making bread by the fermenting of yeast. Some bakers substitute the bicarbonate of ammonia for that of soda, which is unobjectionable; though the use of alum in lieu of tartaric acid is objectionable if one desires to have wholesome bread.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Balaam

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Ba'laam, a Midianite, the son of Peor, who was hired by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the children of Israel while the latter were encamped in the land of Moab on their way to the Promised Land. Although Balaam made three attempts to pronounce the curse desired by Balak, he was each time constrained by the Lord to bless instead of curse. Balaam was afterward killed by the Israelites in a war with the Midianites. See Numbers xxii-xxiv, also xxxi.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Cecchi - Filosofia della storia

R. I. d. Fil. = Rivista Italiana di Filosofia
Both in the history of individual peoples and in that of civilization at large we find every new outgrowth of thought and activity to be the result of the emergence of some new social order. The dynamic principle on which advance in culture depends is found in new men, who, free from the cramping influence of the old schools, throw themselves, fresh and untrammelled, into the work to be done. The traditions which had become to the men of the old ways of thinking ends in themselves are to the new men of value only as means. In the history of Greece we find each city bringing in turn some new element to enrich the Greek ideal. In Rome progress was always owing to new self-made men. Christianity grew up as a new society formed out of elements despised by both Jew and Gentile. The struggle of old with new and the triumph of the latter are shown in mediæval history and especially in the rise of Florence to greatness and influence. In England successive conquering races mixed with the conquered, the old order is not superseded but modified by the new. The national tendency is ​exhibited in the character of English speculative thought, as shown in the philosophy of Bacon, of Hartley, and of Spencer. The formation of the French nation was very different. The tendency here is to absorb all the old elements and form from them something wholly new. In Paris, which is ever rejuvenated by rural blood, the whole life of France is taken up and reconstituted. In philosophy Descartes pulls to pieces all old beliefs to build them up again on the basis of his Cogito, ergo sum. Voltaire tears down all religion with a laugh; all has to be made over again. The Gallic genius is a protest against continuity; it destroys and creates with equal facility. In ancient countries the political life was restricted to small cities and limited castes. Each city and each dominant caste regarded itself as born to rule all others. Christianity brought in more universal notions, yet even here the limit is that of the Church. As the Greek could not conceive of the slave having rights, neither could the churchman grant them to the heretic. At the time of the Renaissance, the force of the Church being exhausted in political intrigues, a new spirit of inquiry was manifested. The artists and scientists were new men, who studied in their own way in defiance of the rules of the schools. Great men are always markedly individual, while yet they exhibit the peculiar character of the nation from which they spring.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Cambarien - La musique d'apràs Herbert Spencer

Rev. Ph. = Revue Philosophique
In the language of an impassioned man Spencer finds all the elements of melody: burst of sound, quality or timbre, pitch, intervals, relative quickness of variations. All these phenomena, the physiological effects of psychological states (pleasure and pain), are in vocal music carried to their highest degree. This Spencerian theory is by no means new; we find its essential idea in many works of the eighteenth century. In spite of the many facts and examples offered by Spencer in support of his view, it needs but little musical sense to recognize its many weaknesses. Music has for its base the scale, which does not exist in speech. It is a system which rests partially on objective laws of sound, partially on convention. The scale is a work of art, a creation of the æsthetical sense. Spencer ignores this element. Further, he regards song as the exaggeration of instinctive speech. To exaggerate means to falsify. Melodies produced on this principle would be to true music what caricatures are to sculpture. We also demand of music that it be beautiful. Spencer fails to tell us whence we get this element. Besides, passion has some ugly physiological effects. Why does the musician relieve these by means of the beautiful? If Spencer were right anybody could be a musician. Finally, the most important element of music, that which no empirical theory can explain, is the musical thought. The most expressive timbres are meaningless without a unifying idea. This faculty of thinking in sounds is the result of a long cultivation of the æsthetical sense. The musical mind has grown from the language of sensation to that of abstraction. "Every musical thought is, at the same time, an imitation of the external world or at least an expression of feeling; every imitation of the external world or every expression of feeling is, at the same time, a musical thought."
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Carus - Are there Things-in-Themselves?

The term "thing- in-itself" in the sense of a thing as it is independent of sensibility, would better be called "the objective thing," and we shall so call it, to distinguish it from Kant's thing-in-itself. The idea of a thing-in-itself has found support in a mistaken conception of the unity of certain things, especially of organisms. The mind is a product of the world; it is a system of symbols representing the things of the world and their relations, including such possible relations as are worthy of aspiring for. The idea of a thing-in-itself, and the unknowableness of the thing-in-itself are the basis of all agnosticism. Neither nominalism or realism are right, but if properly interpreted they are complementary: "universals are real," says the realists, i.e. the forms and relations of things are actualities; "universals are laws," says the nominalists, i.e. the relations and forms in which we describe the world are mental symbols. Positivism, i.e. the representation of facts without any admixture of theory or mythology, is an ideal which in its purity perhaps will never be realized. Science cannot dispense with hypotheses, with theories, with mythology. The world is not rigid being but activity, not absolute existence but a system of changing relations, not an abstract Sein but a concrete Wirklichkeit — constant working of ​cause and effect. There is no dualism in this, for the Wirklichkeit is one and undivided. These are not separated things, in the sense of isolated, absolute, or abstract beings, although we may speak of them as such for our ephemeral purposes.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Diels - Neue Fragmente des Xenophanes und Hippon

Ar. f. G. Ph. = Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie
Scholia of the Geneva Ilias, formerly in possession of H. Stephanas, and this year for the first time published, contain a quotation from Xenophanes' work περὶ φύσεως. It is quoted by Krates of Mallos as a parallel to Homer Il. Φ. 195, and is as follows:
πηγὴ δ' ἐστι θάλασσ' ὕδατος, πηγὴ δ' ἀνέμοιο οὔτε γὰρ ἐν νέφεσι (πνοιαί κ' ἀνέμοιο φύοιντο ἐκπνείοντος) ἔσωθεν ἄνευ πόντου μεγάλοιο οὔτε ῥοαὶ ποταμῶν οὔτ' αἰθέρος ὄμβριον ἵδωρ ἀλλὰ μέγας πόντος γενέτωρ νεφέων ἀνέμων τε καὶ ποταμῶν. (Schol. Genev. I, 199, 2 ff.)
The lacuna in lines 2 and 3 is filled out by Diels.
The fragment of Hippon quoted by Krates as a parallel to the same passage of the Ilias is valuable chiefly as a justification of the "φορτικόν" of Aristotle.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Donovan - The Festal Origin of Human Speech

Every event of life and nature that has awakened the reflection which distinguishes man from brute, is dwelt on by the savage through festal excitement. Of what use are measured sounds amid the wild excitement of the festal players? Musical sounds will, above all else, attract and absorb attention. Without implying anything of the nature of conscious choice, we may fairly assume that savages would be driven, at each revival of festal excitement, to feel out a way of making the sounds more and more absorbing. They could do this by bringing the sounds, however produced, into a more or less regular succession. At this very low stage of development musical instruments could not have existed ; hence the vocal organs would be brought most prominently into use. Here the impulse to produce successive sounds would naturally result in articulation. The rudest music, too, would imply the modification of some sound in the continuous succession, e.g. by increase of stress in the blow struck. Hence, beyond a succession of mere units of sound, there would now be a succession of groups. To provide a similar modification in the vocal utterance required only a jerk of the breath. Articulate sounds could impose no particular order upon the confused feelings and perceptions of festal play; they could only wait while they entered into the order imposed upon them by the players' wild imitation of actions, and then preserve them in that order. When particular syllables got fixed upon particular actions, they would be brought up with them; and here two chief interests of the festal excitement would begin to clash, the interest of significance and that of merely pleasing sound. In later stages of development, the simply ear-attracting syllables are driven out of the significant phrases altogether, and left to refrains. D. does not attempt to show how impulses of festal excitement came to blend with conscious endeavors to make distinctions of meaning, or what the results of the blending would be.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Conybeare - Professor Clifford on the Soul in Nature

Clifford's theory is summed up as follows: (1) Matter is a mere picture in which mind-stuff is the thing represented. (2) Reason, Intelligence, and Volition are the properties of a complex which is made up of elements, themselves not rational, not intelligent, not conscious. After divesting feelings of the character which they have as gathered up into the unity of a self it is hard to see what is left. If they are to constitute the cosmos, they must have certain definite relations to each other; but relations are constituted by, and exist only for, a self. Nor is it intelligible how the mind is made up of mind stuff. Even if the molecules of my brain were each in possession of a consciousness as ample as my own, their mere juxtaposition could not give rise to my self-consciousness. Their soul-states would always remain theirs, and mine remain mine. Again C. tells us that the laws which govern the sequence and coexistence of feelings are counterparts of those which govern physical phenomena. He does not see that with the reduction of the real to feeling, physical facts disappear, and with them the laws to which the laws of feeling shall correspond. We must not allow to C. any more than to Hume the postulate of a real world, which shall give the cue to feelings when to follow and coexist.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Special Verdict

See also Verdict#Special verdict on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​SPECIAL VERDICT. A verdict in which the jury find merely the facts as proved by the evidence and do not apply the law to the facts, but leave it to the discretion of the court as to whether in its opinion the plaintiff or defendant shall succeed. The matter is now regulated by statute in most jurisdictions. In some States such a verdict is said to be ‘subject to opinion.’ See Jury; Verdict.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Specification

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​SPECIFICATION. In the law of patents, a technical description of the invention mentioned in an application for a patent, and when used without the word ‘claim’ it includes the claims or arguments of the inventor as to the novelty, usefulness, etc., of his invention. See Patent, and the authorities there referred to.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Spiegel, Friedrich von

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich von Spiegel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SPIEGEL, spē′gel, Friedrich von (1820—). A German Orientalist, one of the pioneers in the field of Iranian philology. He was born in Kitzingen, studied at Erlangen, Leipzig, and Bonn, then spent five years in the libraries of Copenhagen, Paris, London, and Oxford, and from 1849 to 1890 was professor of Oriental languages in the University of Erlangen. His early studies on Pali and the publication of the Kammavâkya
(1841) and the Ancedota Palica (1845) did much for the knowledge of southern Buddhism. They were quickly followed by his researches on Zoroastrianism and the Avesta. The edition of the greater part of the extant Avesta, together with the Pahlavi translation (1853-58), was followed by a German version (1852-63), and supplemented by a commentary (1865-69). He published a number of Persian works, as well as grammars of the Old Persian and Old Bactrian languages. Then came the valuable linguistic and archæological works, Die altpersischen Keilinschriften (1862), Erân (1863), Erânische Altertumskunde (1871-78), Vergleichende Grammatik der alterânischen Sprachen (1882), and Die arische Periode und ihre Zustände (1887). Mention should be made of a Chrestomathia Persica (1845), of the Grammatik der Parsisprache (1851), and of the Einleitung in die traditionellen Schriften der Parsen (1856-60).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Spinnaker

Edition of 1905. See also Spinnaker on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SPINNAKER. A triangular racing sail carried by yachts. It hoists to the foremast or foretopmast head and is spread by a boom which is, at other times, carried up and down the foremast. The spinnaker is only set when the wind is free or behind the yacht. See Yacht.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Special Sessions

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​SPECIAL SESSIONS. Under the English judicial system, where two or more justices of the peace sit together for the trial of some important cause, or to transact other urgent judicial business, the sitting is known as Special Sessions. In New York a criminal court for the trial of misdemeanors and petty criminal cases is called the Court of Special Sessions. See Court; Petty Sessions.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Species

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​SPECIES. See Classification of Animals; Evolution.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Spielhagen, Friedrich

Edition of 1905. See also Friedrich von Spielhagen on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SPIELHAGEN, spēl'hä-gen, Friedrich (1829—). A German novelist, born at Magdeburg, and educated at Berlin, Bonn, and Greifswald. He taught for a while at Leipzig, and in 1859 became editor of the Zeitung für Norddeutschland, in Hanover. Thence he moved in 1862 to Berlin, and edited (1878-84) Westermann's Illustrirte Monatschefte. Spielhagen began novel-writing with Problematische Naturen (1860), and then for a while dealt with social problems, arising from the irrepressible conflict between the stolid landed nobility and the intelligence of the nation. In several books (Durch Nacht zum Licht, 1861; Die von Hohenstein, 1803; In Reih und Glied, 1866; Hammer und Amboss, 1869) he treated the subject with an aggressive optimism that won him a popularity which he afterwards maintained by sensational novels of a lower type. Of these Sturmflut (1877), Der neue Pharao (1899), and Freigeboren (1900) are sufficient exemplars. Excellent are his critical Beiträge zur Theorie und Technik des Romans (1883). His own ideal for the novel is to present an artistically composed picture of the times, and for this he makes constant hardly veiled allusions to persons of contemporary prominence, so that his novels lose with time something of their significance and actuality. As a translator Spielhagen rendered into German Curtis's Howadji, Emerson's English Traits, a selection of American poems (1859; 2d ed. 1865), and Roscoe's Lorenzo de' Medici. He also translated from the French minor works of Michelet, L'amour, La femme, La mer. His collected novels appeared in 22 vols, in 1895. Consult his autobiographical Finder und Erfinder (1890), and Karpeles, Friedrich Spielhagen (Leipzig, 1889).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Spinet

Edition of 1905. See also Spinet on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SPINET (OF. espinette, Fr. épinette, from It. spinetta, spinet, point, diminutive of spina, from Lat. spina, thorn, spine). A stringed musical instrument with a keyboard, smaller and weaker than the harpsichord, and, like it, one of the precursors of the pianoforte. The general outline of the instrument nearly resembled that of a harp laid in a horizontal position, with the keys occupying the position of the sounding-board. The oldest extant specimen is dated 1490.
SPINET.