OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tuckerman, Henry Theodore

See also Henry Theodore Tuckerman on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tuck′erman, Henry Theodore, an American writer, was born at Boston, April 20, 1813. He spent several years in Italy in the study of art and literature. His works appeared mostly as contributions to periodicals. They include The Italian Sketchbook, Sicily; Thoughts on the Poets, translated into German; Artist-Life or Sketches of American Painters; Book of American Artists; poems; and essays. He died at New York, where he had resided for many years, on Dec. 17, 1871.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tudor

See also Tudor dynasty on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Tu′dor, the name of one of the royal families of England, reigning from 1485 to 1603. The family came from Owen Tudor, at one time a brewer in Anglesey, who fought at Agincourt and so pleased Catherine, widow of Henry V, by his dancing at a court pageant that she married him privately. The queen took refuge in a convent and Tudor was sent to prison to escape the popular fury, when their marriage became known. Tudor escaped, and was protected by Henry VI, the young king. The oldest son of this marriage was made Earl of Richmond, and married Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of John of Gaunt. Their son became Henry VII of England, and by marrying the daughter of Edward IV united the houses of York and Lancaster and ended the Wars of the Roses (1455-85). There were five Tudor sovereigns: Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth. Consult Early Tudors by Moberly and History of England (1529-88) by Froude.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Trenton, N. J.

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​Tren′ton, N. J., capital of New Jersey and county-seat of Mercer County, on Delaware River, 33 miles from Philadelphia and 59 miles from New York City. It is served by the Delaware and Raritan Canal and Pennsylvania and Reading railways, and has trolley-connections with Philadelphia, New York and the principal cities of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania. It was settled in 1680, named in 1714 after William Trent who owned the site, and became the capital in 1790. Trenton was the scene of a battle, by some authorities considered the turning-point in the Revolutionary War, on Dec. 26th, 1776, when Washington crossed the Delaware, surprised the Hessians, and took over one thousand prisoners. The state-buildings include the capitol, asylum for the insane, reform-school for girls, prison, arsenal, armory, library and museum, normal-school and school for the deaf. Other prominent public buildings are the public library with 40,000 volumes, Federal court and post-office, city-hall, court-house, three hospitals, 48 churches and 30 public schools. There also are seven parochial schools, three business colleges, St. Francis College and a number of private schools. Among the most interesting historical buildings is the old French-and-Indian barracks, built in 1758. Battle Monument, 150 feet high, marks the position of the artillery under Col. Knox and Captain Alexander Hamilton at the opening of the Battle of Trenton. The leading industry is the manufacture of pottery. There are 36 potteries in the city. They manufacture all classes and grades of ware, from the commonest to the finest porcelain and china. More than half of all the pottery made in the United States is made in Trenton. The principal industrial plant is the iron-works and wire-mills of the J. A. Roebling Sons Co. (builders of the first bridge connecting Brooklyn and New York.) John A. Roebling, the founder of the company, was the engineer who designed the first important suspension-bridge in America, that over Niagara River. There are numerous other manufactories of iron and steel, structural iron, cables, chains, wire-cloth and netting, anvils, vises, iron and brass castings, engines and machinery. There are many brick and tile works, rubber-works, oil-cloth and linoleum factories, furniture-factories, rpring-bed and mattress factories, woolen mills, breweries and cigar-factories. The various industries employ about 19,000 men. Population. 96,815.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Tsad

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Tsad or Tchad (chäd), a lake in central Africa, about 150 miles long and 120 wide. Two large rivers flow into it, but it seems to have no outlet, though there are signs of an ancient river-bed, bordered by trees, in which the Arabs say water flowed for 100 miles during a flood in 1870. There are populous villages on the shores, and the many islands in the lake are densely peopled by pagan tribes, dark brown or black, with regular features, wearing cotton-garments and cultivating cotton and corn.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galley

See also Galley on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Galley, a long, narrow rowboat, carrying a sail or two, but depending for safety and movement upon oars. When small, galleys were called galleots and brigantines. An old-time galley was about 150 feet long, and its greatest beam was 20 feet wide. It carried two masts, a mainmast and a foremast, each with a great lateen-sail. There were a short deck at the prow and one at the stern. Between the two were sometimes 54 banks or benches, 27 on a side, occupied on either side by four or five slaves, whose duty was to propel the vessel by means of oars. If a Christian vessel, the rowers were either Turkish or Moorish captives or Christian convicts; if a Barbary corsair, the rowers were Christian prisoners. Sometimes a galley-slave worked as long as twenty years, sometimes all his life, at this onerous calling. Slaves were chained so close together on their narrow bench that they could not sleep at full length. Biscuit was made to last six or eight months, each slave getting 28 ounces three times a week and a spoonful of some mess of bones, rice or green stuff. Between the two lines of rowers ran the bridge, and on it stood two boatswains, armed with long whips with which they scourged the slaves. On a large galley, besides 270 rowers, there was a mixed crew of about 75 men, together with 50 or 60 soldiers; so that the whole equipment of a fighting-galley must have reached about 400 men. A galleas originally was a large, heavy galley, but later it became a sailing ship, as was the galleon of the Spaniards. See S. Lane-Poole’s The Barbary Corsairs.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galileo

See also Galileo Galilei on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Galile′o (găl′ĭ-lē̇′ō̇) (usual designation of Galileo Galilei), the founder of modern physics, was born at Pisa, Feb. 18, 1564, and died at Arcetri, near Florence, Jan. 8, 1642. In 1581, at the age of seventeen, he entered the University of Pisa where a brilliant career awaited him, not only in mathematics and mechanics but in literature, eloquence, music and art. From 1592 to 1610 he held a chair of mathematics in the University of Padua. The remainder of his life was mostly spent at Florence. It is easy to recall Galileo’s position in time, if we remember that he was born on the day of Michelangelo’s death and that he died in the year of Newton’s birth.
In popular estimation Galileo has ranked as a great astronomical discoverer, and rightly so; but it is now clear that his chief service to science is the establishment of modern dynamics.
To him we owe a clear statement of the fundamental assumption of physical science, namely, that nature always behaves in the same way in the same circumstances.
To him we owe also the ideas which underlie the first two of Newton’s laws of motion. See Dynamics.
He first enunciated the correct laws of falling bodies, showing that, if we neglect the resistance of the air, the path of a projectile must be an ellipse. In astronomy he did not invent the telescope, as is so often asserted; but he used this instrument with great skill to discover spots on the sun, measure its rotation-period, discover four of the satellites of Jupiter, observe the phases of Mercury and Venus and find the elongated form of Saturn which Huygens later showed to be due to the planet’s rings.
But no astronomical service of Galileo can outrank that which he did in establishing the Copernican system by showing the mechanical principles upon which the solar system is constructed. In 1616 he was warned by the Inquisition not to “hold, teach or defend” the Copernican system, and agreed to act upon their advice. Nevertheless, in 1632, he published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Great Systems of the Universe, which proved to be a somewhat disguised yet powerful argument for the Copernican view. As a result he was summoned to Rome in Oct., 1632, where he disavowed his adherence to the heliocentric system. The story which is often told of his recanting and then remarking concerning the earth, as he rose from his knees: “It does move, however!” is a pure fiction of later times.
An English translation of the more important of Galileo’s writings is sadly needed.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galena, Ill.

See also Galena, Illinois on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Galena, Ill., is the county seat of Jo Daviess County. It was named from the galena, the most important of the lead-ores, found in its vicinity; settled in 1827; and incorporated as a city in 1839. About 1850 it became the western terminal of the first-built section of the present Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. It is also served by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railway. The city, which owns its electric-light plant, has a large trade and is a center of great interests in lead and zinc. Among the other industries are shoemaking and smelting. Galena is famous for having been the home from which Grant entered service in the Civil War. The homestead still is one of Galena's attractions. Others comprise Grant Park, the statue of Grant, the federal customhouse, the government-building and the public library. Population 4,875.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galilee

See also Galesburg, Illinois on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gal′ilee, one of the four Roman divisions of Palestine. In the time of Christ it included the whole northern portion of Palestine from the Mediterranean to the Jordan. The district was divided into Upper and Lower Galilee, the former being hilly and wooded and the latter level and fertile. At that time it was mainly inhabited by Syrians, Phoenicians, Arabs and Greeks, with a few Jews. It had, therefore, long been known as Galilee of the Gentiles, i. e., of the nations. The principal towns were Tiberias and Sepphons. Those that figure in the gospels are Cana, Capernaum, Nazareth and Nam. There are still in this region the ruins of many fine synagogues. Galilee now forms part of the division called the pashalic of Damascus, in the Turkish province of Syria. It still has a number of Jewish inhabitants. See Dr. S. Merrill’s Galilee in the Time of Christ.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galls

See also Gall on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Galls, deformities produced on plants by insects, fungi and slime-moulds. One species of insect attacks the root, another leaf, flower or stem. Of insects that cause galls may be mentioned gall-flies, certain caterpillars, a few beetles, certain mites and scale-insects. Eggs are laid in the tissues of the growing plant, and generally the galls appear to form after the egg hatches.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galen, Claudius

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​Galen (gä′len), Claudius, a celebrated Greek physician, was born at Pergamus, Mysia, in 130 A. D. He studied medicine at various places, and was physician to the school of gladiators in his native city for six years. He then went to Rome, where he gained a great reputation, attended the emperor Marcus Aurelieus and his two sons and, later, the emperor Severus. Of his works, eighty-three genuine treatises still exist. He gathered all the medical knowledge of his time, and fixed it on such a firm basis of truth that his work continued to be the authority in that science for centuries. He died, probably in Sicily, about 201 A. D.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galesburg, Ill.

See also Galesburg, Illinois on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Galesburg, Ill., the capital of Knox County, on four branches of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, also has the service of the Santa Fe, and is 162 miles southwest of Chicago. It is in a rich agricultural region, and near by are also some remunerative coal-mines. It possesses some notable educational institutions, among them Knox College (Congregational), Lombard University (Universalist), etc. It has considerable industries, including machine-shops, foundries, carriage and wagon-works, stockyards and the largest paving-brick manufacturing plant in the world. Population 22,089.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galilee, Sea of

See also Sea of Galilee on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Galilee, Sea of, called also Lake of Gennesaret, Sea of Tiberias and Sea of Chin-nereth. It is a lake in the northern part of Palestine, lying 626 feet below the sea, and is thirteen miles long by six broad and 820 feet deep. It occupies the bottom of a great basin, and is of volcanic origin. Its waters are cool, clear and sweet, although the red and turbid Jordan and many warm springs find their way into it. Its shores on the east and north are bare and rocky; on the west they slope gradually and are covered with vegetation. It has many sacred associations. On its banks are Bethsaida, Capernaum, Magdala and Tiberias. In the time of Christ the surrounding region was the most densely populated in Galilee; now even its fisheries are almost entirely neglected.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gallatin, Albert

See also Albert Gallatin on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gallatin (găl′lȧ-tĭn), Albert, an American statesman, was born at Geneva, Switzerland, Jan. 29, 1761. He studied in its university, and in 1780 emigrated to America. He served a short time in the Continental army, and taught French for a year at Harvard College. He settled in Pennsylvania, and was naturalized in 1786. He soon entered politics. When the “whiskey insurrection” broke out, Gallatin, at considerable personal risk, helped to bring it to a peaceful close. From 1795 to 1801 he was a member of the house of representatives, and was a recognized leader in his party. He directed his attention especially to financial questions, and under Jefferson and Madison was secretary of the treasury, where his successful management and his writings made him recognized as one of the first financiers of the age. He also took an important part in the negotiations for peace with England in 1814, and signed the treaty of Ghent. He served as minister to France and to England together with other important posts. The latter part of his life was devoted to literature. He made a study of the American Indians, and wrote several works on the subject. He died at Astoria, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1849. See Life by Henry Adams.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Galena, Kan.

See also Galena, Kansas on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gale′na, Kan., a thriving city of Cherokee County, southeastern Kansas, on the Kansas City, Fort Scott and Memphis Railroad. It is also reached by the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, and is seven miles west of Joplin, Mo. Mining is the chief industry of the region, which is rich in deposits of lead and zinc. The city added some eight thousand to its population in the previous decade, the number of its inhabitants now being 6,096, employment being given to many of them in the town's stamping and smelting works and other industrial activities.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Delaware Bay

Edition of 1905. See also Delaware Bay on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DELAWARE BAY. A bay on the Atlantic Coast of the United States, between the States of Delaware and New Jersey (Map: New Jersey, B 5). It receives the Delaware River, whose estuary gradually emerges into the bay. It is about 40 miles long to where it contracts to a width of 4 miles. Its greatest width is 25 miles, and the width at the entrance, between Cape May, in New Jersey, and Cape Henlopen, in Delaware, is about 15 miles. The depth of the channel varies from 30 to 60 feet, but much of the bay has less than 30 feet of water. A breakwater at Cape Henlopen, constructed by the United States Government, forms a large and safe harbor from 24 to 35 feet deep. Government lighthouses are maintained at the entrance to the bay and also at a number of places within the bay, not only to mark points on the shore, but also shoal places in the channel. A large tonnage of coast and foreign shipping passes through the bay to and from Wilmington, Chester, and Philadelphia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Delavigne, Jean François Casimir

Edition of 1905. See also Casimir Delavigne on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DELAVIGNE, de-lȧ′vē̇′ny’, Jean François Casimir (1793-1843). A French lyric poet and dramatist, born in Havre, April 4, 1793. He won distinction from the French Academy in 1811, and was elected a member of it in 1825. His first important writings were dithyrambic poems, Les messéniennes (1818), antique in form, but present and direct in their allusions to the disasters of the last Napoleonic years. These gave stirring expression to popular emotions, especially to the rancor and fears of the Liberals at the reactionary rule of the restored Bourbons. They achieved sensational success. In 1819 he turned the same talent to celebrate Joan of Arc, thus appealing to a universal patriotic sentiment before either Hugo or Lamartine had begun to touch the French heart with their Napoleonic verses. The forerunner should not be forgotten in the greatness of his successors, and in drama Delavigne is as important as either to the continuity of historic development. He stands between Beaumarchais and Emile Augier, almost the sole talented representative of dignified comedy, and while his dramatic work, taken chronologically, represents almost every phase of the conversion of a strict Classicist into a moderate Romanticist, his merits of prudent eclecticism are in danger of being obscured by the glories of his successors. His L'école des vieillards (1823) still holds the boards by its lively dialogue, graceful style, and ingenious invention. Marino Falieri (1829) anticipates the Hugoesque mingling of tragic and comic elements, preserving an academic correctness of form without following the classic rules. Other plays still occasionally acted and often read are: Les vêpres siciliennes (1819); Louis XI. (1832); Les enfants d'Edouard (1833); and La fille du Cid (1839). Delavigne was elected to the Academy in 1825, and in 1830 rose to the political occasion, as he had done after Waterloo. His song, “La Parisienne,” set to music by Auber, rivaled for a time the “Marseillaise” itself, and “La Varsovienne” was sung as a battle march by the rebelling Poles. Indeed, it is as a poet of politics, a man of the hour, that Delavigne is at his best. At times very popular, he needed striking occasions to evoke his genius. When he became contemplative he was commonplace, but in direct appeal he wrote with terse vigor. His private life was above reproach. He died in Lyons, December 11, 1843. There are several editions of his works (Paris, 1845, 1855, 1863), and a convenient one of the Poems and Plays (ib., 1863).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Delaware (river)

Edition of 1905. See also Delaware River on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DELAWARE. A river of the Eastern United States, which rises on the western slopes of the Catskill Mountains (q.v.) in southeastern New York (Map: New Jersey, C 1). It flows in a southwest course to Deposit, a distance of about 100 miles. Here it turns sharply to the southeast and soon forms the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York, receiving at Hancock the waters of the eastern branch, which also rises in the Catskills. At Port Jervis, N. Y., where it becomes the boundary between Pennsylvania and New Jersey, it turns to the southwest and flows in that course to Delaware Water Gap (q.v.), thence generally southward to Easton, Pa., thence southeast to a point just below Trenton, thence southwest again past Philadelphia and Chester, Pa., where it begins to broaden into an estuary, which gradually widens into Delaware Bay. In its lower course it separates New Jersey from Delaware. Its length is 410 miles and it drains an area of 12,012 square miles, of which one-fourth is in New York, over one-half in Pennsylvania, and about one-fifth in New Jersey. Its mean discharge at Lambertville has been estimated at 18,000 cubic feet per second. It has a ​considerable fall and furnishes extensive power at Trenton, where it crosses the Fall Line (10 to 15 feet fall), at Lambertville (Welles's Falls, 14 feet), at Belvidere (Foul Rift, 23 feet), and at Port Jervis (30 feet). Its chief tributaries are the Schuylkill (q.v.) and the Lehigh (q.v.), both from the west. It is navigable for large ships to Philadelphia and for steamboats to the head of tidewater at Trenton. It is seldom that navigation is closed by ice below Philadelphia. A canal parallels the left bank of the river from Easton, Pa., to Morrisville (opposite Trenton), and then cuts across a bend to Bristol. A canal also connects Trenton with New Brunswick (on the Raritan River), and another crosses New Jersey from near Phillipsburg to Jersey City on the Hudson River. A fourth canal parallels the Lehigh River and connects Mauch Chunk with Easton, while a fifth parallels the Lackawaxen River from Honesdale, Pa., to Lackawaxen on the Delaware, and parallels the Delaware to Port Jervis.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Delaunay, Jules Elie

Edition of 1905. See also Jules-Élie Delaunay on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DELAUNAY, Jules Elie (1828-91). A French figure and portrait painter, born in Nantes. He was the pupil of Lamothe and Flandrin, and gained the prix de Rome in 1856. His notable decorative paintings are to be found in the foyer of the Opera House, the Hotel de Ville, the Church of the Trinity, and the Panthéon, in Paris. The paintings in the Panthéon, representing scenes from the life of Saint Genevieve, he did not live to complete. Among his best works are: “The Plague at Rome” (1869), a water-color called his masterpiece; “Diana,” a fine nude; and “The Death of the Centaur Nessus”—all in the Luxembourg. He also painted portraits, among which that of his “Mother” and that of “Mademoiselle Toulmouche” are among his best canvases. His work is characterized by great attention to form, firm modeling, and a noble, rather severe style of composition. He was awarded a first-class medal at the Paris Exposition of 1878, and the medal of honor in 1889. In 1878 he became an officer of the Legion of Honor, and the following year was made a member of the Institute.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Delaware (Ohio)

Edition of 1905. See also Delaware, Ohio on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ DELAWARE. A city and the county-seat of Delaware County, Ohio, 24 miles north of Columbus, on the Whetstone (Olentangy) River, and on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, the Columbus, Sandusky and Hocking, and the Columbus, Hocking Valley and Toledo railroads (Map: Ohio, E 5). It is the seat of the Ohio Wesleyan University (Methodist-Episcopal), opened in 1844, and has a public and other libraries. There are mineral springs noted for medicinal properties. The city carries on a considerable trade, and has foundries, railroad repair shops, clay-works, and manufactures of chairs, carriages, building material, gloves, flour, woolens, lumber, etc. Delaware, incorporated in 1827, is governed by a mayor, elected every two years, and a municipal council. Population, in 1890, 8224; in 1900, 7940.