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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Acacia

From volume 1 of the work.
​Acacia (in Hebrew shíṭṭah, plural shíṭṭîm; Theod. πύξος; Vulgate, spina, thorn). The Hebrew shíṭṭah is probably a contraction of Shintṭāh, and thus identical with the Egyptian shent; the Coptic shonte, thorn; the Arabic sunṭ. Hence the Greek name ἄκανθα, thorn, the Latin, acanthus for the Egyptian acacia. Acacia wood is designated, ξύλον ἄσεππον "incorruptible wood", in the Septuagint, and lignum setim, "setim-wood" in the Vulgate. The Biblical Acacia belongs to the genus Mimosa, and is no doubt identical with the Acacia seyal (Del.) or the Acacia tortilis (Hayne); both are called seyyal, or torrent trees, sayl meaning torrent. They grow in the desert wadis, or torrent valleys, of Sinai. The wood is light, hard, and durable, and grows almost as black as ebony with age. The ark of the covenant, the table of the loaves of proposition, the altar of holocausts, the altar of incense, the wooden parts of the tabernacle, were made of setim-wood (Ex. xxv, 5). (See Plants of the Bible.)
Vigouroux, in Dict. de la Bible (Paris, 1895); Chapman in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, art. Shittah Tree (New York, 1902).
A.J. Maas.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ecclesiastical Use of Basin

From volume 2 of the work.
Basins were extensively used in the Jewish Ritual and were in early use in Christian churches for ablutions and to receive lamp-drippings etc. The Missal prescribes its used at the "Lavabo" of the Mass; the "Cæremoniale Episcoporum" provides a basin for bearing the cruets and for the preparatory ablutions of bishops. They are ordinarily of ornamented metal.
JOHN B. PETERSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Echinus

From volume 5 of the work.
Echinus, a titular see of Thessaly, Greece. Echinus (Echinos, also Echinous) was situated on the northern shore of the Gulf of Lamia (Maliacus Sinus). Today it is a small village, Akhinos (Achinos), of 500 inhabitants, in the demos of Phalara and the eparchy of Phthiotis. On the conical hill which rises above the village are remains of the old walls. The city has been destroyed by earthquakes and rebuilt many times, particularly in 426 B.C. and A.D. 551. Philip II of Macedon left it to the Malians, and Philip V took it from the «ºtolians. It was fortified by Justinian. The see, mentioned in "Notitiae episcopatuum" as late as the twelfth or thirteenth century, was a suffragan of Larissa. Three bishops are known: Theodore in 431, Peter in 451, and Aristotle in 459 (Lequien, Oriens christianus, II, 115).
S. PÉTRIDÉS
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Eckebert

From volume 5 of the work.
Eckebert (Ekbert, Egbert), Abbot of Schönau, b. in the early part of the twelfth century of a distinguished family along the Middle Rhine; d. March 28, 1184, in the Abbey of Schönau. He was for a time canon in the collegiate church of Sts. Cassius and Florentius at Bonn. In 1155 he became a Benedictine at Schönau in the Diocese of Trier, and in 1166, after the death of the first abbot, Hildelin, he was placed at the head of the monastery. A man of great zeal, he preached and wrote much for the salvation of souls and the conversion of heretics. The Cathari, then numerous in the Rhineland, gave him especial concern. While a canon at Bonn he often had occasion to debate with heretics, and after his monastic profession, was invited by Archbishop Rainald of Cologne to debate publicly with the leaders of the sect in Cologne itself. His chief works are: "Sermones contra Catharos" with extracts on the Manichaeans, from St. Augustine (P.L., CXCV); "De Laude Crucis" (ibid.); "Soliloquium seu Meditationes" (ibid.); "Ad Beatam Virginem Deiparam sermo panegyricus" (ibid., CLXXXIV); "De sanctae Elizabethae virgine", a biography of his sister, a Benedictine nun and a famous visionary and mystic (see Elizabeth of Schoenau), a portion of which is in P.L., CXCV, also in "Acta SS.", June, IV, 501 sqq. (ed. Palmé, 1867). A complete edition of his works is found in Roth, "Die Visionen der hl. Elisabeth and die Schriften der Aebte Ekbert and Emecho von Schönau" (Brünn, 1884).
FRANCIS J. SCHAEFER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gaudiosus

From volume 6 of the work.
Bishop of Tarazona (Turiasso), Spain; died about 540. Our information concerning the life of this holy bishop is scant, and rests on comparatively late sources. On the occasion of the translation of his remains in 1573, a sketch of his life was discovered in the grave, written on parchment; apart from the Breviary lessons of the Church of Tarazona, this document contains the only written details we possess concerning the life of Gaudiosus. His father, Guntha, was a military official (spatharius) at the court of the Visigothic King Theodoric (510-25). The education of the boy was entrusted to St. Victorianus, abbot of a monastery near Burgos (Oca), who trained him for the service of the Church. Later (c. 530) he was apoointed Bishop of Tarazona. Nothing more is known of his activities. Even the year of his death has not been exactly determined. After his death he was venerated as a saint. According to the manuscript life found in his grave he died on 29 October, but the Church of Tarazona celebrates his feast on 3 November. He was first entombed in the church of St. Martin (dedicated later to St. Victorianus), attached to the monastery where he had spent his youthful years. In 1573 his remains were disinterred and translated to the cathedral of Tarazona.
Acta SS., I, Nov., 664-65; DE LA FUENTE, La Santa Iglesia de Tarazona en sus Estados Antiguos y Modernos (Madrid, 1865).
J.P. KIRSCH
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gavin Douglas

From volume 5 of the work.
Scottish prelate and poet, born about 1474; died 1522; he was the third son of Archibald, Fifth Earl of Angus, known as "Bell-the-Cat". Educated for the Church at the universities of St. Andrews and Paris, he held for some years a benefice in East Lothian, and during this period composed most of the poetical works which have made his name famous. In 1501 he became provost of the collegiate church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, and subsequently,through the influence of Queen Margaret, who had married his nephew, theyoung Earl of Angus, he obtained the abbacy of Arbroath and later the Bishopric of Dunkeld. The queen's efforts to have him promoted to the primacy were unsuccessful; and when the popular indignation at her marriage with Angus resulted in her being deprived of the regency, Douglas was brought to trial by the new regent, the Duke of Albany, for intriguing with the queen to obtain ecclesiastical promotion without the consent of Parliament. He was imprisoned for a year in Edinburgh Castle, and after his release continued for a time in the administration of his diocese. When, however, Margaret separated from her husband and sided with Albany against the Douglasses, Gavin was deprived of his see. He fled to England in 1521 and was kindly received by Henry VIII, but he died of plague in the following year. He was buried in the Savoy Church in London.
It was unfortunate for Douglas's future reputation that his high birth and family connections plunged him into the political turmoil of his time, and thus prematurely closed his career as a poet and scholar of the first order. His participation in the internal divisions by which Scotland was torn during most of his life ended, as far as he was concerned, in failure, exile, and death; it is as a literary genius, rather than a churchman or a statesman, that he lives in Scottish history. It was during his quiet life as a country parson that he wrote the gorgeous allegory called the "Palice of Honour", whose wealth of illustration and poetical embellishments at once won renown for its author; and a little later he produced the translation of Virgil's "Æneid", which gives him his chief claim to literary immortality. The translation is a rather free adaptation of the Roman poet, written in the "Scottis" language then current, while to each book is prefixed an original prologue in verse. It was printed (for the third time) by the Bannatyne Club in 1839. Douglas wrote two other poems, "King Hart" and "Conscience", and translated also Ovid's "De Remedio Amoris". His complete works were first collected and published in Edinburgh (ed. Small), in 1874.
D.O. HUNTER-BLAIR
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gebhard (III) of Constance

From volume 6 of the work.
Bishop of that city and strenuous defender of papal rights against imperial encroachments during the Investitures conflict; b. about 1040; d. 12 November, 1110. He was a son of Duke Bertold I, and a brother of Bertold II, of Zahringen. For some time he was provost at Kanten, then entered the Benedictine monastery at Hirschau and on 22 December, 1084, as consecrated Bishop of Constance by the cardinal-legate, Otto of Ostia, the future Urban II. The see of Constance was then occupied by the imperial anti-Bishop Otto I, who, though excommunicated and deposed by Gregory VII in 1080, retained his see by force of arms. At an imperial synod held at Mainz, in April, 1085, Gebhard and fourteen other German bishops who remained faithful to Gregory VII were deposed, and Otto I was declared the lawful Bishop of Constance. Luckily, Otto I died in the beginning of 1086, and Gebhard was able to take possession of his see. One of his first acts as bishop was the reform of the Benedictine monastery of Petershausen near Constance, which he recruited with monks from Hirschau. In 1089 he consecrated the new cathedral of Constance, to replace the old one which had fallen into ruins in 1052.
On 18 April, 1089, Pope Urban II appointed him and Bishop Altmann of Passau, Apostolic-vicars for Germany. Arnold, a monk of St. Gall, whom Henry IV appointed anti-Bishop of Constance on 28 March, 1092, tried in vain to eject Gebhard from the See of Constance. The latter had powerful friends in his brother Bertold II, Duke Welf IV, the monks of Hirschau and Petershausen, and the citizens of Constance. In 1094 Gebhard held a synod of reform at Constance, and in 1095 he attended the Synod of Piacenza. Soon, however, the influence of Henry IV began to increase in Germany. In 1103 Gebhard was driven from his see, and the imperial anti-bishop, Arnold, usurped the bishopric. With the assistance of Henry V, Gebhard regained his see in 1105, freed the king from the ban by order of Paschal II, and accompanied him on his journey to Saxony. Gebhard attended the Synod of Nordhausen on 27 May, 1105, the diet at Mainz on Christmas, 1105, was sent as imperial legate to Rome in the spring of 1106, and was present at the Council of Guastalla in October of the same year. In the fresh dispute that arose between Paschal II and Henry V, Gebhard seemed to side with the emperor, but, after being severely reprimanded by the pope, withdrew from public life and devoted his whole attention to the welfare of his diocese.
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gelasius O'Cullenan

From volume 11 of the work.
Contributor not stated; attributed to McNeill in Catholic Encyclopedia and Its Makers.
O'Cullenan, Gelasius (Glaisne), Cistercian, Abbot of Boyle, Ireland, b. probably near Assaroe Abbey, Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal; martyred, 21 Nov., 1580. Three of his brothers were Cistercian abbots, and a fourth Bishop of Raphoe. Gelasius, the eldest, studied at Salamanca University, went thence to Paris where he took his doctorate at the Sorbonne, made his monastic profession, and was created Abbot of Boyle, Co. Roscommon. This abbey had been confiscated and granted to Cusack, Sheriff of Meath; but the Irish regulars continued to appoint superiors to the suppressed houses. The young abbot went immediately to Ireland and is said to have obtained restoration of his abbey. He was, however, seized at Dublin by the Government and imprisoned with Eugene O'Mulkeeran, Abbot of Holy Trinity at Lough Key. Refusing to conform, they were tortured and finally hanged outside Dublin, 21 November, 1580. O'Cullenan's body was spared mutilation through his friends' intercession. His clothes were divided as a martyr's relics among the Catholics.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gelasius of Cyzicus

From volume 6 of the work.
Ecclesiastical writer. He was the son of a priest of Cyzicus, and wrote in Bithynia, about 475, to prove against the Eutychians, that the Nicene Fathers did not teach Monophysitism. These details he gives us in his preface (Labbe, II, 117). Beyond that nothing is known about his personality. His "Syntagma" or collection of Acts of the Nicene Council has hitherto been looked upon as the work of a sorry compiler; recent investigations, however, point to its being of some importance. It is divided into three books (Labbe, II, 117-296): bk. I treats of the Life of Constantine down to 323; bk. II of History of the Council in thirty-six chapters; of bk. III only fragments have been published. The whole of book III was discovered by Cardinal Mai in the Ambrosian Library, and its contents are fully described by Oehler. The serious study of the sources of Gelasius may be said to have begun with Turner's identification of the long passages taken from Rufinus (X, 1-5) in bk. II. A complete analysis of the sources [the Hist. Eccl. of Eusebius, Rufinus (in the Greek version of Gelasius of Caesarea d. 395), Socrates, Theodoret, "John", and Dalmatius], will be found in Löscheke, whose efforts it would appear, have restored to Gelasius a place among serious Church historians, of which he has been wrongly deprived and have also lent weight to the hitherto generally rejected idea that there was an official record of the Acts of the Council of Nicaea; and further that it was from this record that Dalmatius derived the opening discourse of Constantine, the confession of Hosius, the dialogue with Phaedo, and the nine dogmatic constitutions, which Hefele had pronounced "most certainly spurious". The "John" to whom Gelasius refers as a forerunner of Theodoret, is still unidentified; from him were derived the published portions of bk. III, the letters of Constantine to Arius, to the Church of Nicomedia, and to Theodotus, all of which Löschcke contends are authentic. He also proves that a comparison of Constantine's letter to the Synod of Tyre (335), as given by Gelasius and Athanasius (Apolg., n. 86), shows Gelasius to give the original, Athanasius an abbreviated version.
Text of Gelasius in Labbe-Coleti, conc., II, 117-296; Oehler in Zeitschr. f. wissenschafliche Theol. (1861), IV, 439-442; Turner, On Gelasius of Cyzicus in Journal of Theological Studies (1899), I, 126-7; Löschcke, Das Syntagma des Gelasius Cyzicensus (Bonn, 1906); Lejay in Revue d'Hist. et de Litt. Relig. (1906), XI, 279; Hefele, Histoire des Conciles, new Fr. tr., Leclercq (Parish, 1907), I, 391 sqq.
EDWARD MYERS
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Agostino Bernal

From volume 2 of the work.
Spanish theologian, born at Magallon in Aragon in 1587; died at Saragossa, 13 September, 1642. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1603 when sixteen years old. Being a finished classical scholar he taught humanities and rhetoric with success. The greater part of his life, however, he spent as professor of philosophy and theology at Saragossa, where he died. He was a man of rare innocence and candor of soul; so great was his love of prayer that it would be hard to say to which he devoted more time, to meditation or to study. He was looked upon by many as one of the most learned men of his age. His published works are: "Desputationes de Divini Verbi Incarnatione" (Saragossa, 1639); "Disputationes de Sacramentis in genere, Eucharistia et Ordine" (Lyons, 1651) a posthumous work.
Southwell, Bibliotheca, 93; Hunter, Nomenclator, 380.
Timothy B. Barrett.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Agnoetae

From volume 1 of the work.
​Agnoetæ (ἀγνοηταί from ἀγνοέω to be ignorant of), the name given to those who denied the omniscience either of God or of Christ. The Theophronians, so named from their leader, Theophronius of Cappadocia (370), denied that God knew the past by memory or the future with certainty; and taught that even for a knowledge of the past He required study and reflection. The Arians, regarding the nature of Christ as inferior to that of His Father, claimed that He was ignorant of many things, as appears from His own statements about the day of judgment and by the fact that He frequently asked questions of His companions and of the Jews. The Apollinarists, denying that Christ had a human soul, or, at least, that He had an intellect, necessarily regarded Him as devoid of knowledge. The Nestorians generally, and the Adoptionists who renewed their error, believed that the knowledge of Christ was limited; that He grew in learning as He grew in age. The Monophysites logically believed that Christ knew all things, since, according to them, He had but one nature and that divine. But some of them, known as the Severian Monophysites, set limits to the knowledge of Christ. Luther attributed extraordinary knowledge, if not omniscience, to Christ, but many of the reformers, like Bucer, Calvin, Zwinglius, and others, denied His omniscience. Some Catholics during the last century have also questioned the omniscience of the human intellect of Christ, e.g. Klee, Gunther, Bougaud, and the controversy has again aroused some interest owing to the speculations of Abbé Loisy. See Knowledge of Christ; Monophysitism.
Petavius, De Incarnatione, I, XL, c. I–IV; Stentrup, Christologia (Innsbruck, 1882), XI. theses lxviii–lxxiii; Vacant, in Dict. théol. cath., s. v.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Agnolo, Giovanni, and Taddeo Gaddi

From volume 6 of the work.
Florentine artists, Taddeo being the father of Agnolo and Giovanni. The dates of their birth are very uncertain. Taddeo was probably born about 1300; Agnolo and Giovanni after 1333. The father died in 1366, Giovanni in 1383, Agnolo in 1396, and all three are buried in Santa Croce in Florence. Taddeo was the godson of Giotto, lived with him twenty-four years, and became the most eminent of his numerous scholars. Vasari says that he "surpassed his master in colour", and, in some of his works, "even in expression". Two paintings signed by him are in existence - one in Berlin, dated 1333, and another in the church of Mogognano, dated 1355. The best of his extant frescoes are those in the Giugni Chapel, formerly belonging to the Baroncelli family, in the church of Santa Croce, but his most extensive works, in the churches of San Spirito and the Serviti, have all disappeared. Many of his frescoes and several of his most celebrated altar-pieces have entirely disappeared. His principal work was in Florence, but he also executed several examples in Arezzo and in the Casentino. Perhaps he is best known for the fact that he was a distinguished architect, and designed the present Ponte Vecchio in Florence, and also lower down the river a still finer bridge (Ponte Trinita), which was destroyed in the sixteenth century. He was very successful, and amassed great wealth.
His son Agnolo entered the studios of Giovanni da Milano and Jacopo del Casentino; his best work is in the cathedral at Prato, where there are thirteen frescoes illustrating the story of the Holy Girdle, and in the church of Santa Croce at Florence, where there are eight panels by him, commemorating the legend of the Cross. His earliest work, according to Vasari, illustrated the story of Christ raising Lazarus, and was regarded as the most wonderful painting of a dead body that had ever been seen. He was the master of an even more celebrated man, Cennino Cennini, the author of an important treatise on painting in fresco, distemper, and other media, which is the chief source of our information respecting the technic of the early Florentine artists, and also of a book, the importance of which, especially with regard to tempera painting and the application of gold, can hardly be over-estimated. Giovanni Gaddi, the brother and pupil of Agnolo, was a man of much less importance, and hardly any works now remain which can be attributed to him with certainty, as in the rebuilding of San Spirito at Florence most of his work was destroyed.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Agostini Agazzari

From volume 1 of the work.
​Agazzari, Agostini, a musical composer, b. 2 December 1578, of a noble family of Sienna; d. probably 10 April, 1640. He is said to have passed the first years of his professional life in the service of the Emperor Matthias. He went to Rome about 1600, succeeding Anerio as maestro di cappella at the German College, going later in a similar capacity to St. Apollinaris and the Roman Seminary. Viadana of Mantua gave him the final touches of his musical education, and both men are entitled to the distinction of having developed thoroughbass and of having taught the correct method of figuring a bass. Agazzari, in his "Sacræ Cantiones", gives hints as to its use. In 1630 he returned to Sienna, where he became maestro of the cathedral, and died while holding that post. He was a member of the Academy of Armonici Intronati, and one of the most fruitful composers of the Roman school. His numerous publications comprise masses (1596–1608), motets, Magnificats, litanies, etc., republished frequently. They are mentioned with eulogies in Proske's "Musica divina". Besides two volumes of madrigals, he also wrote a dramatic composition for a nuptial celebration, entitled "Eumelio, drama pastorale" (Ronciglione, 1614), and a pamphlet (Sienna) containing only sixteen pages, entitled "La Musica ecclesiastica, dove si contiene la vera diffinizione della musica come scienza, non più veduta e sua nobiltà", showing how church music should conform to the resolutions of the Council of Trent.
Kornmüller, Lex. der kirchl. Tonkunst; Grove, Dict. of Music and Musicians; Naumann, Geschicter der Musik.
J. A. Völker.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Agony of Christ

From volume 1 of the work.
​Agony of Christ (from ἀγωνία, a struggle; particularly, in profane literature, the physical struggle of athletes in the arena, or the mental excitement previous to the conflict).—The word is used only once in Sacred Scripture (Luke xxii, 43) to designate the anguish of Our Lord in the Garden of Gethsemani. The incident is narrated also in St. Matthew (xxvi, 36–46) and St. Mark (xiv, 32–42); but it is remarkable that only St. Luke mentions the details of the sweat of blood and the visitation of the angel. The authenticity of the verses narrating these details (43–44) has been called in question, because of their absence, not only from the text of the other synoptists, but even from that of St. Luke in several of the ancient codices (notably 1/1$^a$—the revised Sinaiticus—A., B., et al.). The presence of the verses, however, in the majority of the manuscripts, both uncial and cursive, has sufficed to warrant their being retained in the critical editions of the New Testament. Their acceptance by such scholars as Tischendorf, Hammond, and Scrivener, seems to place the question of their authenticity beyond controversy. The "sweat of blood" is understood literally by almost all Catholic exegetes; and medical testimony has been alleged in evidence of the fact that such a phenomenon (haematodrosis), though rare and abnormal, is neither impossible nor preternatural.
Durand, Vacant, Baraban, composite article in Vacant, Dict. de théol. cath., s.v. Agonie du Christ.
James M. Gillis.