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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kayasth

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​KAYASTH, the writer caste of Northern India, especially numerous and influential in Bengal. In 1901 their total number in all India was more than two millions. Their claim to be Kshattriyas who have taken to clerical work is not admitted by the Brahmans. Under Mahommedan rule they learnt Persian, and filled many important offices. They are now eager students of English, and have supplied not only several judges to the high court but also the first Hindu to be a member of the governor-general’s council. In Bombay their place is taken by the Prabhus, and in Assam by the Kalitas (Kolitas); in Southern India there is no distinct clerical caste.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kazinczy, Ferencz

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​KAZINCZY, FERENCZ (1750–1831), Hungarian author, the most indefatigable agent in the regeneration of the Magyar ​language and literature at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, was born on the 27th of October 1759, at Ér-Semlyén, in the county of Bihar, Hungary. He studied law at Kassa and Eperies, and in Pest, where he also obtained a thorough knowledge of French and German literature, and made the acquaintance of Gideon Ráday, who allowed him the use of his library. In 1784 Kazinczy became subnotary for the county of Abaúj; and in 1786 he was nominated inspector of schools at Kassa. There he began to devote himself to the restoration of the Magyar language and literature by translations from classical foreign works, and by the augmentation of the native vocabulary from ancient Magyar sources. In 1788, with the assistance of Baróti Szabó and John Bacsányi, he started at Kassa the first Magyar literary magazine, Magyar Muzeum; the Orpheus, which succeeded it in 1790, was his own creation. Although, upon the accession of Leopold II, Kazinczy, as a non-Catholic, was obliged to resign his post at Kassa, his literary activity in no way decreased. He not only assisted Gideon Ráday in the establishment and direction of the first Magyar dramatic society, but enriched the repertoire with several translations from foreign authors. His Hamlet, which first appeared at Kassa in 1790, is a rendering from the German version of Schröder. Implicated in the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovics, Kazinczy was arrested on the 14th of December 1794, and condemned to death; but the sentence was commuted to imprisonment. He was released in 1801, and shortly afterwards married Sophia Török, daughter of his former patron, and retired to his small estate at Széphalom or “Fairhill,” near Sátor-Ujhely, in the county of Zemplén. In 1828 he took an active part in the conferences held for the establishment of the Hungarian academy in the historical section of which he became the first corresponding member. He died of Asiatic cholera, at Széphalom, on the 22nd of August 1831.
Kazinczy, although possessing great beauty of style, cannot be regarded as a powerful and original thinker; his fame is chiefly due to the felicity of his translations from the masterpieces of Lessing, Goethe, Wieland, Klopstock, Ossian, La Rochefoucauld, Marmontel, Molière, Metastasio, Shakespeare, Sterne, Cicero, Sallust, Anacreon, and many others. He also edited the works of Baróczy (Pest, 1812, 8 vols.) and of the poet Zrinyi (1817, 2 vols.), and the poems of Dayka (1813, 3 vols.) and of John Kis, (1815, 3 vols.). A collective edition of his works (Szép Literatura), consisting for the most part of translations, was published at Pest, 1814–1816, in 9 vols. His original productions (Eredeti Mukái), largely made up of letters, were edited by Joseph Bajza and Francis Toldy at Pest, 1836–1845, in 5 vols. Editions of his poems appeared in 1858 and in 1863.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kayser, Friedrich Heinrich Emanuel

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​KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845– ), German geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Königsberg, on the 26th of March 1845. He was educated at Berlin where he took his degree of Ph.D. in 1870. In 1882 he became professor of geology in the university at Marburg. He investigated fossils of various ages and from all parts of the world, but more especially from the Palaeozoic formations, including those of South Africa, the Polar regions, and notably the Devonian fossils of Germany, Bohemia and other parts of Europe.
Among his separate works are Lehrbuch der Geologie (2 vols., ii.), Geologische Formationskunde 1891 (2nd ed., 1902), and i. Allgemeine Geologie (1893), vol. ii. (the volume first issued) was translated and edited by P. Lake, 1893, under the title Textbook of Comparative Geology. Another work is Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fauna der Siegenschen Grauwacke (1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip "the Evangelist"

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​PHILIP, “the evangelist,” is first mentioned in the Acts (vi. 5) as one of “the seven” who were chosen to attend to certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusalem in consequence of the murmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebrews. After the martyrdom of Stephen he went to “the city of Samaria,” where he preached with much success, Simon Magus being one of his converts. He afterwards instructed and baptized the Ethiopian eunuch on the road between Jerusalem and Gaza; next he was “caught away” by the Spirit and “found at Azotus” (Ashdod), whence “passing through he preached in all the cities till he came to Caesarea” (Acts viii). Here some years afterwards, according to Acts xxi 8, 9, where he is described as “the evangelist” (a term found again in the New Testament only in Eph. iv. 11; 2 Tim. iv. 5), he entertained Paul and his companion on their way to Jerusalem; at that time “he had four daughters which did prophesy.” At a very early period he came to be confounded with the apostle Philip (see above); the confusion was all the more easy because, as an esteemed member of the apostolic company, he may readily have been described as an apostle in the wider sense of that word (see further Salmon, Introd. to the New Testament, 7th ed, p. 313 sqq). A late tradition describes him as settling at Tralles in Asia Minor, where he became the overseer or ruler of the church. “Philip the deacon” is commemorated on the 6th of June.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip I., king of Macedonia

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​PHILIP I., king of Macedonia, a semi-legendary prince, son of Argaeus, was, according to Herodotus (viii. 137–139) and Thucydides (ii. 100), the third of the Macedonian kings. In the texts of Dexippus and Eusebius he ranks sixth, Caranus, Coenus and Thurimas (or Turimmas) being there regarded as the predecessors of Perdiccas I., whom Herodotus and Thucydides regard as the first king of Macedonia. Eusebius and Dexippus assign to Philip I. a reign of 38 and 35 years respectively. There is, however, no real evidence for his existence. (E. R. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philip I., king of Spain

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​PHILIP I., the Handsome (1478–1506), king of Spain, son of the emperor Maximilian I., and husband of Joanna the Mad, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the founder of the Habsburg dynasty in Spain, and was born at Bruges on the 22nd of July 1478. In 1482 he succeeded to the Burgundian possessions of his mother Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, under the guardianship of his father. In 1496 he married Joanna. The marriage was one of a set of family alliances with Austria and Portugal designed to strengthen Spain against France. The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, opened the succession to the Spanish Crown to Joanna. In 1502 she and her husband received the homage of the cortes of Castile and of Aragon as heirs. Philip returned to Flanders before the close of the year. His life with Joanna was rendered extremely unhappy by his infidelity and by her jealousy, which, working on a neurotic temperament, precipitated her insanity. The princess gave way to paroxysms of rage, in which she was guilty of acts of atrocious violence. Before her mother’s death, in 1504, she was unquestionably quite insane, and husband and wife lived apart. When Isabella died, Ferdinand endeavoured to lay hands on the regency of Castile, but the nobles, who disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip was summoned to Spain, where he was recognized as king. He landed, with his wife, at Corunna on the 28th of April 1506, accompanied by a body of German mercenaries. Father and son-in-law had interviews at Remesal, near Pueblo de Senabria, and at Renedo, the only result of which was an indecent family quarrel, in which Ferdinand professed to defend the interests of his daughter, who he said was imprisoned by her husband. A civil war would probably have broken out between them; but Philip, who had only been in Spain long enough to prove his incapacity, died suddenly at Burgos, apparently of typhoid fever, on the 25th of September 1506. His wife refused for long to allow his body to be buried or to part from it. Philip was the father of the emperors Charles V. and Ferdinand I.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simon, Abraham

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​SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622–1692), English medallist and modeller, was born in Yorkshire in 1622. He was originally intended for the church, but turned his attention to art, and, after studying in Holland, proceeded to Sweden, where he was employed by Queen Christina, in whose train he travelled to Paris. He returned to England before the outbreak of the Civil War, and attained celebrity by his medals and portraits modelled in wax. During the Commonwealth he executed many medals of leading parliamentarians, and at the Restoration he was patronized by Charles II., from whom he received a hundred guineas for his portrait designed as a medal for the proposed order of the Royal Oak. Having incurred the displeasure of the duke of York, he lost the favour of the court, and died in obscurity in 1692. Among the more interesting of his medals are those of the 2nd earl of Dunfermline, the 2nd earl of Lauderdale and the 1st earl of Loudon; that of the duke of Albemarle, and many other fine medals, were modelled by Abraham Simon and chased by his brother Thomas Simon (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simon Ben Yoḥai

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​Simon Ben Yoḥai (2nd century A.D.), a Galilean Rabbi, one of the most eminent disciples of Aqiba (q.v.). His master was executed by Hadrian, and Simon’s anti-Roman sentiments led to his own condemnation by Varus c. 161 A.D. (according to Graetz). He escaped this doom and dwelt for some years in a cavern. Emerging from concealment, Simon settled in Tiberias and in other Galilean cities. He acquired a reputation as a worker of miracles, and on this ground was sent to Rome as an envoy, where (legend tells) he exercised from the emperor’s daughter a demon who had obligingly entered the lady to enable Simon to effect his miracle. This Rabbi bore a large part in the fixation of law, and his decisions are frequently quoted. To him were attributed the important legal homilies called Sifre and Mekhilta (see Midrash), and above all the Zohar, the Bible of the Kabbalah (q.v.). This latter ascription is altogether unfounded, the real author of this mystical commentary on the Pentateuch being Moses of Leon (q.v.).
The fullest account of Simon’s teachings is to be found in W. Bacher’s Agada der Tannaiten, ii. pp. 70-149. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simon, Thomas

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​SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623–1665), English medallist, was born, according to Vertue, in Yorkshire about 1623. He studied engraving under Nicholas Briot, and about 1635 received a post in connexion with the Mint. In 1645 he was appointed by the parliament joint chief engraver along with Edward Wade, and, having executed the great seal of the Commonwealth and dies for the coinage, he was promoted to be chief engraver to the mint and seals. He produced several fine portrait medals of Cromwell, one of which is copied from a miniature by Cooper. After the Restoration he was appointed engraver of the king’s seals. On the occasion of his contest with the brothers Roettiers, who were employed by the mint in 1662, Simon produced his celebrated crown of Charles II., on the margin of which he engraved a petition to the king. This is usually considered his masterpiece. He is believed to have died of the plague in London in 1665.
A volume of The Medals, Coins, Great Seals and other Works of Thomas Simon, engraved and described by George Vertue, was published in 1753.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Simocatta, Theophylact

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​SIMOCATTA, THEOPHYLACT, Byzantine historian, a native of Egypt, flourished at Constantinople during the reign of Heraclius (510–640), under whom he held the office of imperial secretary. He is best known as the author of a history, in eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice (582–602), for which period he is the best and oldest authority. The work describes the wars with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs, and the emperor's tragic end. " His want of judgment renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts " (Gibbon), but his general trustworthiness is admitted. The history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy. Photius (cod. 65) while admitting a certain amount of gracefulness in the language, blames the author's excessive use of figurative and allegorical expressions and moral sentiments. While the vocabulary contains many strange and affected words, the grammar and syntax are on the whole correct (ed. pr. by J. Pontanus, 1609; best edition by C. de Boor, 1887, with a valuable Index Graecitatis).
Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems^' k-xopiai. <f>wucaf) in dialogue form, dealing with the nature of animals and especially of man (ed. J. Ideler in Physici et medici Graeci minores, i. 1841); and of a collection of 85 letters (moral, rustic, erotic), the supposed writers of which are either fictitious or well-known personages (Antisthenes to Pericles, Socrates to Plato, Socrates to Alcibiades). The best edition is by R. Hercher in Epistolographi Graeci (1873). The letters were translated into Latin (1509) by Copernicus (reprinted 1873 by F. Hipler in Spicilegium Copernicanum).
See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moldavite

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​MOLDAVITE, an olive-green or dull greenish vitreous substance, named by Dufrénoy from Moldauthein in Bohemia, where it occurs. It is sometimes cut and polished as an ornamental stone under the name of pseudo-chrysolite, Its bottle-glass colour led to its being commonly called Bouteillenstein, and at one time it was regarded as an artificial product, but this view is opposed to the fact that no remains of glass-works are found in the neighbourhood of its occurrence: moreover pieces of the substance are widely distributed in Tertiary and early Pleistocene deposits in Bohemia and Moravia. For a long time it was generally believed to be a variety of obsidian, but its difficult fusibility and its chemical composition are rather against its volcanic origin. Dr F. E. Suess pointed out that the nodules or small masses of moldavite presented curious pittings and wrinkles on the surface, which could not be due to the action of water, but resembled the characteristic markings on many meteorites. Boldly attributing the material to a cosmic origin, he regarded moldavite as a special type of meteorite for which he proposed the name of tectite (Gr. τηκτός, melted). To this type are also referred the so-called obsidian bombs and buttons from Australia and Tasmania, known sometimes as australite, and called by R. H. Walcott obsidianites. Similar bodies have been found in Malaysia and have been termed billitonite, from the isle of Billiton where they occur in tin-bearing gravels. Usually they are flat, rounded or ellipsoidal bodies, sometimes surrounded by an equatorial girdle or rim, and often with a brilliant black superficial lustre, as though varnished. Moldavite has been reported also from Scania in Sweden.
See Franz E. Suess, Jahrbuch der k.-k. geolog. Reichsanstalt (Vienna), 1901, p. 193; E. Weinschenk, Centralblatt f. Mineralogie (Stuttgart), 1908, p. 737. (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Moldavia

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​MOLDAVIA, a former principality of south-eastern Europe, constituting, after its union with Wallachia on the 9th of November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Molde

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​MOLDE, a small seaside town of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 204 m. by sea N.N.E. of Bergen, in 62° 45′ N. (that ​of the Faroe Islands). It has little trade, but is the principal tourist centre on this part of the coast, and the steamers from Hull and Newcastle, the Norwegian ports, Hamburg, Antwerp, &c., call here. The town fronts the broad Molde Fjord, with its long low islands, and to the east and south a splendid panorama of jagged mountains is seen, reaching 6010 ft. in Store Troldtinder of the Romsdal group. Molde is the port for the tourist route through the Romsdal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mole-Rat

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​MOLE-RAT, the name of a group of blind burrowing rodents, typified by the large grey Spalax typhlus of eastern Europe and Egypt, which represents the Old World family Spalacidae. All the mole-rats of the genus Spalax are characterized by the want of distinct necks, small or rudimentary ears and eyes, and short limbs provided with powerful digging claws. There are three pairs of cheek-teeth which are rooted, and show folds of enamel on the crown. Mole-rats are easily recognized by the peculiarly flattened head, in which the minute eyes are covered with skin, the wart-like ears, and rudimentary tail; they make burrows in sandy soil, and feed on bulbs and roots. Bamboo-rats, of which one genus (Rhizomys) is Indian and Burmese, and the other (Tachyoryctes) East African, differ by the absence of skin over the eyes, the presence of short ears, and a short, sparsely-haired tail. They burrow either among tall grass, or at the roots of trees (see Rodentia).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mokshany

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​MOKSHANY, a town of Russia, in the government of Penza, 24 m. N.W. of the city of Penza. Pop. (1900), 10,710. The ​inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, or work in flour-mills, oilworks, tanneries and potash-works. Mokshany, which was built in 1535 as a fort to protect the country from the raids of the Tatars and the Kalmucks, is supposed to occupy the site of the Meshcheryak town of Murunza, mentioned as early as the 9th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Molay, Jacques de

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​MOLAY, JACQUES DE (d. 1314), last grand master of the Knights Templars, was born of a noble but impoverished family, at a village of the same name in the old province of Franche-Comté (mod. department of Haute-Saône), about the middle of the 13th century. The family property being the inheritance of an elder brother, Jacques was thrown upon his own resources. Having been brought up in the neighbourhood of a commandery of the Temple, he entered the order in 1265 at Beaune in the diocese of Autun. It is probable that he at once set out for the East to take part in the defence of the Holy Land against the Saracens. About 1295 he was elected grand master of the order. After the Templars had been driven out of Palestine by the Saracens, De Molay took refuge with the remnant of his followers in the island of Cyprus. Here, while attempting to get together a force to retrieve the disasters to the Christian arms, he received a summons (in 1306) from Pope Clement V. to repair to Paris. The pope’s pretext for the summons was his desire to put an end to the quarrels between the Templars and the Knights of St John, and to concert plans for a new crusade; in reality he had entered into a secret agreement with the king of France for the suppression of the Templars. Molay left Cyprus with a retinue of 60 followers, and made a triumphal entry into Paris. On the 13th of October 1307 every Templar in France was arrested, and a prolonged examination of the members of the order was held. De Molay, probably under torture, confessed that some of the charges brought against the order were true. He was kept in prison for several years, and in 1314 he was brought up with three other dignitaries of the Temple before a commission of cardinals and others to hear the sentence (imprisonment for life) pronounced. Then, to the surprise of the commission, De Molay withdrew his confession. Immediately the king heard of it he gave orders that De Molay and another of the four, who had also recanted, should be burnt as lapsed heretics. The sentence was carried out on the 11th (or 19th) of March 1314. De Molay’s ashes were gathered up by the people, and it is said that with his last breath he summoned the king and the pope to appear with him before the throne of God.
For the charges brought against the Templars and the famous process in connexion with them, see Templars; J. Michelet, Procès des Templiers (1841–1851) and Lavocat, Procès des frères et de l’ordre du Temple d’après des pièces inédites publiées par M. Michelet (1888); E. Besson, “Étude sur Jacques de Molay” in Mémoires de la soc. d’émulation du Doubs (Besançon, 1876); H. H. Milman; Hist. of Latin Christianity, bk. xii., chs. 1 and 2; H. Prutz, Entwickelung und Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (Berlin, 1888).