OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jath

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​JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With the small state of Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district. Area, including Daphlapur, 980 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, showing a decline of 14% in the decade. Estimated revenue £24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. The town of Jath is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jason of Cyrene

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​JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about 100 B.C. and wrote a history of the times of the Maccabees down to the victory over Nicanor (175–161 B.C.). This work is said to have been in five books and formed the basis of the present 2 Macc. (see ch. ii. 19–32).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jaucourt, Arnail François, Marquis de

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​JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS, Marquis de (1757–1852), French politician, was born on the 14th of November 1757 at Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by the prince de Condé, whose regiment he entered. He adopted revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the department of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, and his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues he resigned in 1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of being a reactionary. Mme de Staël procured his release from P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accompanied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered the tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he entered the senate, and next year became attached to the household of Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views cooled, and at the Restoration he became minister of state and a peer of France. At the second Restoration he was for a brief period minister of marine, but held no further office. He devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establishment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the Coup d’état and to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris on the 5th of February 1852.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jasper

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​JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously coloured and often containing argillaceous matter. The colours are usually red, brown, yellow or green, and are due to admixture with compounds of iron, either oxides or silicates. Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quartz it is certain that the ancient jaspis or ἰάσπις was a stone of considerable translucency. The jasper of antiquity was in many cases distinctly green, for it is often compared with the emerald and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the Niebelungenlied as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the ancients included stones which would now be classed as chalcedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our chrysoprase. The Hebrew word yashefeh may have designated a green jasper (cf. Assyrian yashpu). Professor Flinders Petrie has suggested that the odem, the first stone on the High Priest’s breastplate, translated “sard,” was a red jasper, whilst tarshish, the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper (Hastings’s Dict. Bible, 1902).
Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form in which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation of dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper, occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper and chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-black flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of precious metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated by natural calcination. (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jaubert, Pierre Amédée Émilien Probe

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​JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE (1779–1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the most distinguished pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral Discours he pronounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in Egypt in 1798–1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts under government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his Eastern mission; and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next year he was despatched to Persia to arrange an alliance with the shah; but on the way he was seized and imprisoned in a dry cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha’s death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of Napoleon’s downfall he was appointed chargé d’affaires at Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400 Kashmir goats. The rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in writing and in teaching. He became professor of Persian in the collège de France, and director of the école des langues orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, 1847.
Besides articles in the Journal asiatique, he published Voyage en Arménie et en Perse (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of Jaubert, by M. Sédillot) and Éléments de la grammaire turque (1823–1834). See notices in the Journal asiatique, Jan. 1847, and the Journal des débats, Jan. 30, 1847.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jauharī

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​JAUHARĪ (Abu Nasr Isma$^e$il ibn Ḥammad ul-Jauhari) (d. 1002 or 1010), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Fārāb on the borders of Turkestan. He studied language in Fārāb and Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the desert. He then settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nīshapūr, where he died by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the Kitāb us-Ṣaḥāḥ fil-Lugha, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words are arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the root. He himself had only partially finished the last recension, but the work was completed by his pupil, Abū Isḥaq Ibrāhīm ibn Ṣāliḥ ul-Warrāq.
An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation, but one part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has been published at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many abridgments and Persian translations have appeared; cf. C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq.  (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/South Shields

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​SOUTH SHIELDS, a seaport and municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Durham, England; at the mouth of the Tyne on its right bank, opposite North Shields, on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 97,263. It is connected with North Shields and Tynemouth by steam ferries. The principal buildings are the church of St Hilda, with a picturesque old tower; the town hall in the market-place, exchange, custom- house, mercantile marine offices, public library and museum, grammar school, marine school, master-mariners' asylum and seamen's institute. There is a pleasant marine park. The principal industries are now the manufacture of glass and chemicals, and ship-building and ship refitting and repairing, for which there are docks capable of receiving the largest vessels. The Tyne dock has a water-area of 50 acres, the tidal basin of 10 acres, and the quays and yards about 300 acres. Coal from the collieries of the vicinity is largely exported. The trade returns of South Shields are included in the aggregate of the Tyne ports (see Newcastle-upon-Tyne). The South Pier at the mouth of the river is a massive structure about 1 m. in length, and the North Pier protects the river mouth from the Northumberland bank at North Shields. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area of municipal borough, 2044 acres.
On elevated ground near the harbour are the remains of a Roman fort guarding the entrance to the Tyne, where numerous coins, portions of an altar, and several sculptured memorial stones have been dug up, and testify to its occupation for a considerable ​period. The site of the old station was afterwards occupied by a fort of considerable strength, which was captured by the Scots under Colonel Stewart on the 20th of March 1644. The town was founded by the convent of Durham about the middle of the 13th century, but on account of the complaints of the burgesses of Newcastle an order was made in 1258, stipulating that no ships should be laden or unladen at Shields, and that no "shoars" or quays should be built there. Until the 19th century it was little more than a fishing station. In 1832 it received the privilege of returning a member to parliament, and in 1850 a charter of incorporation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/South Shetland

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​SOUTH SHETLAND, a chain of islands on the border of the Antarctic region, lying about 500 m. S.E. of Cape Horn, between 61° and 63 10' S. and between 53° and 63° W., and separated by Bransfield Strait from the region composed of Danco Land, Palmer Land, Louis Philippe Land, &c. The more considerable islands from west to east are Smith (or James), Low (or Jameson), Snow, Deception, Livingstone, Greenwich, Robert, Nelson, King George I., Elephant, and Clarence. Deception Island is remarkable as of purely volcanic origin. On the south-east side an opening 600 ft. wide gives entrance to an internal crater-lake (Port Forster) nearly circular, with a diameter of about 5 m. and a depth of 97 fathoms. Voyagers in 1828 and 1842 reported that steam still issued from numerous vents, but Otto Nordenskjöld (Antarctica, London, 1905) found no exterior evidence of volcanic activity. Most of the islands are rocky and mountainous, and some of their peaks are between 6000 and 7000 ft. in height. Covered with snow for the greater part of the year, and growing nothing but lichens, mosses and some scanty grass, the South Shetlands are of interest almost solely as a haunt of seals, albatrosses, penguins and other sea-fowl. It has been supposed by many that the Dutch navigator Dirk Gerrits discovered the South Shetlands in 1598, but it appears probable that this story originated through confusion with another voyage in which Gerrits was not concerned (cf. H. R. Mill, Siege of the South Pole, p. 34 seq.). In 1819 William Smith of the English brig " Williams " observed the South Shetland coast on the 19th of February. Revisiting it in October, he landed on King George I. Island, taking possession for England; he also gave the whole chain the name it bears. In 1820 the naval lieutenant Edward Bransfield was sent in the " Williams " to survey the islands, which attracted the attention of American and British sealers, and became fairly well known through the visits of Antarctic explorers. A smaller group—Coronation Island, Laurie Island, &c.—lying 200 m. east of the South Shetlands, bears the name of South Orkney. It was discovered by the English captain, Powell, in 1821.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/South Portland

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​SOUTH PORTLAND, a city of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A., on Casco Bay, an arm of which separates it from Portland, with which it is connected by a ferry and four bridges. Pop. (1900) 6287 (763 foreign-born); (1910) 7471. South Portland is served by the Boston & Maine railway. It is the seat of the State (Reform) School for Boys. At Spring Point is Fort Preble, established in 1808 and now a coast artillery station; and at Portland Head is Fort Williams. The city has steel-rolling mills, car shops of the Boston & Maine railway, and ship-building interests, and manufactures marine hardware and varnish. South Portland was part of the old town of Cape Elizabeth (pop. in 1900, 887) until March 1895; the legislature granted it a city charter in 1895, which was not accepted by the town until December 1898.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southampton (New York)

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​SOUTHAMPTON, a township of Suffolk county, New York, occupying the western part (W. of Easthampton) of the south-eastern peninsula of Long Island, S. of the Peconic Bay and N. of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900), 10,371; (1910), 11,240. Separated from the ocean by a narrow beach only, in the south-western part of the township are the nearly landlocked East Bay and Shinnecock Bay, and farther east are Mecox Bay (landlocked) and other ponds near the ocean. At Canoe Place, an old portage, Shinnecock Bay and Peconic Bay are less than 3 m. apart. On the northern shore of the township are the small settlements called Flanders, Southport, Sebonac, North Haven and North Sea. Nearer the south shore and served by the Long Island railway are Speonk, Westhampton, Quogue, Good Ground, Shinnecock Hills, Southampton (pop. in 1910, 2509), Water Mill and Bridgehampton, from which there is a branch line of the Long Island railway to Sag Harbor. Good sailing and sea-bathing are obtained at several places; and the golf links of the Shinnecock Golf Club, at Shinnecock Hills, is one of the best in the country. The first " summer cottages " were built near the village of Southampton in the latter part of the decade 1870–1880, and the summer colony was long called the "New York Annex" or the "Annex." The village of Southampton has been called the Newport of Long Island; in it is the Rogers Memorial Library (1893). The whale fishery was formerly important; it began here about 1660. The Shinnecock Indians long took part in it and many of the men of the tribe were lost in the wreck of the " Circassian " here on the 31st of December 1876. The Indians now on the reservation are mostly mixed bloods with a large proportion of negro blood. Southampton was settled in 1640, probably before Southold, by a " company of undertakers " formed in March 1639 at Lynn, Massachusetts, who received from James Forrett, agent of the proprietor, William Alexander, Lord Stirling, a patent dated the 17th of April 1640 for 8 m. square of land and whose deed from the Indians is dated the 13th of December 1640. Their first attempt to settle was broken up by the Dutch. The name may have been taken in honour of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. The settlement was a commercial scheme, and in spite of the rigid Puritanism of Abraham Pierson, their first pastor and a sympathizer with New Haven, the people voted to attach themselves to Connecticut (1645). The Mosaic law was adopted for the government of the township. In 1678 Governor Edmund Andros, in a note to the home government, said: " Our principall places of trade are New York and Southampton, except Albany for the Indyans." The village of Southampton was incorporated in 1894.
See Geo. R. Howell, Early History of Southampton, L.I. (2nd ed., Albany, 1887), and the Town Records (4 vols., Sag Harbor, 1874–1879), with notes by W. S. Pelletreau.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southall Norwood

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​Southall Norwood, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 12 m. W. of St Paul’s Cathedral, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891), 7896; (1901), 13,200. Brickfields, flour-mills and chemical works are established in the district, which is also largely residential. The Grand Junction Canal serves Southall. Cattle markets are held weekly under a grant of William III. The Elizabethan manor-house of Southall remains, and the parish church of Norwood, though greatly restored, has Early English and Decorated portions, a canopied tomb dated 1547 and brasses of the 17th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Southbridge

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​SOUTHBRIDGE, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Quinabaug river (which here falls 165 ft.), about 20 m. S.S.W. of Worcester. Pop. (1900), 10,025, of whom 3468 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 12,592. Area, about 20 sq. m. The township is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by inter-urban (electric) lines to Worcester and Springfield. The Southbridge public library (1870) contained 22,000 volumes in 1910. Optical goods, cotton, woollen and print goods, cutlery and shuttles are the principal manufactures; in 1905 the value of the total factory product was $4,201,853. The factory of the American Optical Company here is probably the largest of its kind in the world.
In 1801 a poll parish, named the Second Religious Society of Charlton, and popularly called Honest Town, was formed from the west part of Dudley, the south-west part of Charlton and the south-east part of Sturbridge; and in 1816 this parish became the township of Southbridge.
See the Leaflets published (1901 sqq.) by the Quinabaug Historical Society of Southbridge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Second

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​SECOND (through Fr. from Lat. secundus, following, sequi, to follow), next after the first in order, time rank &c., more particularly the ordinal number corresponding to two. It is the only French ordinal in English; the older word was “other,” Ger. ander Goth. anthar, Skt. antara. The use of the word for the sixtieth part of a minute of time and of degree is from Med. Lat. secunda, abbreviation of minuta secunda, the second small division of the hour, minuta prima or minuta being the first division. Another particular meaning is for one who supports or assists another, especially the friend at a duel, who arranges for his principal the terms of the encounter and sees that all rules of the duel are carried out. In the British army an officer is said to be “seconded” (with the accent on the second syllable) when he is employed on special service outside his regiment, his name being retained on the regimental list, but his place being filled by promotion of other officers. He may rejoin his regiment when his special employment is at an end.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Section

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​SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut), the act of cutting or a part cut off, thus used of any division of a subject, as the paragraph of a book, article, statute, &c., of a division of land, of a town, &c., or a separate class of a community or race; the term is more particularly applied to a thin slice of any substance prepared for examination by the microscope (see Microtomy) or to a diagram of any structure showing the internal plan as if exposed by the cutting off of an external surface; thus, in architecture, a section is a drawing of a building cut in half, so as to show the relative height of the floors, the depth of the foundation and its footings, the framing of the roof, if in timber or iron, or the construction of the vault or dome, if in masonry. The term is also applied to the details of the structure, such as the cornice and the various mouldings showing their profile.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Secretary of State

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​SECRETARY OF STATE, in England, the designation of certain important members of the administration. The ancient English monarchs were always attended by a learned ecclesiastic, known at first as their clerk, and afterwards as secretary, who conducted the royal correspondence; but it was not until the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth that these functionaries were called secretaries of state. Upon the direction of public affairs passing from the privy council to the cabinet after 1688 the secretaries of state began to assume those high duties which now render their office one of the most influential of an administration.
Until the reign of Henry VIII. there was generally only one secretary of state, but at the end of his reign a second principal secretary was appointed. Owing to the increase of business consequent upon the union of Scotland, a third secretary, in 1708, was created, but a vacancy occurring in this office in 1746 the third secretaryship was dispensed with until 1768, when it was again instituted to take charge of the increasing colonial business. However, in 1782 the office was again abolished, and the charge of the colonies transferred to the home secretary; but owing to the war with France in 1794 a third secretary was once more appointed to superintend the business of the war department, and seven years later the colonial business was attached to his department. In 1854 a fourth secretary of state for the exclusive charge of the war department and in 1858 a fifth secretaryship for India were created. here are therefore now five principal secretaries of state, four of whom, with their political under-secretaries, occupy seats in the House of Commons. One of these secretaries of state is always a member of the House of Lords. The secretaries of state are the only authorized channels through which the royal pleasure is signified to any part of the body politic, and the counter-signature of one of them is necessary to give validity to the sign manual. The secretaries of state constitute but one office, and are coordinate in rank and equal in authority. Each is competent in general to execute any part of the duties of the secretary of state, the division of duties being a mere matter of arrangement. For the existing division of duties, see under separate headings, Colonial Office, Foreign Office, &c.
In the United States the “secretary of state” is a member of the executive, who deals with foreign aliairs, and who, in the event of a vacancy in the office of president, is next in succession after the vice-president. The title of “secretary”—“of the treasury,” “of war,” &c.—is used for some other members of the executive. In various states there is an executive officer called “secretary of state.”