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# The New International Encyclopædia/Fries, Jakob Friedrich

Edition of 1906. See also Jakob Friedrich Fries on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIES, Jakob Friedrich (1773-1843). A German philosopher, born at Barby, Saxony. He studied there and in the universities of Leipzig and Jena, and became a lecturer in philosophy at the latter in 1801. From 1805 to 1816 he was professor of philosophy and elementary mathematics at Heidelberg, and from 1816 until his death professor of theoretical philosophy at Jena. His chief work is the Neue Kritik der Vernunft (3 vols., 1807), an attempt to find a new basis for the critical philosophy of Kant. His method is psychological. He holds that a knowledge of the a priori cognition of Kant is to be attained only by the a posteriori process of subjective experience. Hence, the a priori element, inasmuch as it is discoverable only by subjective experience, is not, as Kant contends, transcendental to all experience. Therefore, philosophy finds its ultimate foundation in subjective knowledge, and its true exposition through psychological analysis. Other differences from the Kantian teaching are also encountered in Fries, whose work, though ingenious, may be said to contribute little to the progress of speculation.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fries, John

Edition of 1906. See also John Fries on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIES, John (c.1764-1825). The leader of the so-called ‘Fries Rebellion’ in Pennsylvania in 1799. He was the son of a Pennsylvania farmer, and was successively a cooper's apprentice, a soldier (during the Whisky Insurrection), and an auctioneer. In July, 1798, Congress voted a direct tax of $2,000,000, $237,000 of which was fixed upon, in January, 1799, as Pennsylvania's quota. Soon afterwards Federal officers began to make the assessments. In Pennsylvania the tax fell chiefly on houses and lands, the value of the former being determined by the number and size of the windows. Among the Germans in the counties of Montgomery, Lehigh, Bucks, and Berks, a regular opposition, under the leadership of Fries, was organized to the assessment of this ‘window tax.’ This led to open conflict with the Federal officers, and at Bethlehem, on March 7th, a considerable force of disaffected farmers under Fries compelled the United States marshal to liberate thirty prisoners who had been arrested for opposing the law. Finally the militia was called out by President Adams, and many of the rioters, including Fries, were captured and taken to Philadelphia. Here Fries was twice tried for treason, and was each time found guilty and sentenced to death, but was eventually (April, 1800) pardoned by President Adams, who, at about the same time, issued a general amnesty
to all who had been concerned in the uprising. Afterwards Fries settled in Philadelphia, and acquired a considerable fortune in the tinware trade. Consult Davis, The Fries Rebellion (Doylestown, Pa., 1899); and, for an account of the trial, Das erste und zweite Verhör von John Fries (Allentown, Pa., 1839).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Friedrich, John

Edition of 1906. See also John Friedrich (luthier) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIEDRICH, John (1858—). An American violin-maker, born at Cassel, Germany. He was a pupil of Oswald Möckel, a prominent German violin-maker and repairer, came to the United States in 1883, and in a short time ranked among the American leaders in his profession. In addition to violins he has made also bows, violas, and violoncellos of high quality. He received the highest award bestowed for violins, violas, and violoncellos at the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. He has also become known among collectors as an expert in the identification and valuation of rare instruments. Four of the choicest specimens of his violins are in the possession of Dr. Frank Waldo, of Cambridge, Mass.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Friedrichsruh

Edition of 1906. See also Friedrichsruh on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIEDRICHSRUH, frē'drĭKs-rōō. A village and railway station of Lauenburg;, Prussia, 16 miles southeast of Hamburg by rail. Population, in 1900, 279. Its celebrity is derived from the proximity of the castle and estate of the Bismarck family, where Prince Bismarck (q.v.) died and is buried.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fries, Elias Magnus

Edition of 1906. See also Elias Magnus Fries on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIES, Elias Magnus (1794-1878). An eminent Swedish botanist. He was born in the parish of Femsjö, and studied at the University of Lund, where he became demonstrator in botany in 1828. In 1834 he went to the University of Upsala as professor of economic science, to which chair, after the death of Professor Wahlenberg, in 1851, was united the chair of botany. In the latter year he was also appointed director of the Upsala Botanic Garden, and in 1859 he retired from active work. Fries made important
contributions to all departments of systematic botany, but especially to the knowledge of lichens, fungi, and mosses, upon which groups of plants he wrote many important works. Some of his publications are: Systema Mycologicum (3 vols., 1820-32); Elenchus Fungorum (2 vols., 1825); Lichenographia Europæa Reformata (1831); Flora Scanica (1835); Sind die Naturwissenschaften ein Bildungsmittel? (1844); Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ (2 vols., 1846-49); Novæ Symbolæ Mycologicæ (1851); Monographia Hymenomyoetum Sueciæ (2 vols., 1857-63); Epicrisis Generum Hieraciorum (1862); Sveriges ätliga och giftiga svampar, Fungi Esculenti et venenati Scandinaviæ (1862-69), with 93 colored plates; Botaniska utflygter, three volumes of collected short papers (1843-64).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fries, Bernhard

Edition of 1906. See also Bernhard Fries and Ernst Fries on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIES, Bernhard (1820-79). A German landscape painter, born at Heidelberg. He studied at Karlsruhe, and at Munich under Cornelius; traveled in France and Austria, and remained eight years in Italy. His best works are the forty Italian views now at Munich. They are well conceived and carefully painted. His brother Ernst (1801-33) was born at Heidelberg. He was a pupil of K. Kuntz at Karlsruhe, and afterwards studied in Munich and in Italy. Despite his short life, Fries left some excellent pictures, such as “A View of Tivoli,” “Sorrento and the House of Tasso,” “The Waterfall of Liris at Isola di Sora,” “The Castle of Massa,” and “A View of Heidelberg.” The works show a sincere feeling for nature.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Friedrich, Johannes

Edition of 1906. See also Johann Friedrich (theologian) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIEDRICH, frē'drĭK, Johannes (1836—). A German theologian and historian, prominent as a leader of the Old Catholics. He was born at Poxdorf, studied at the universities of Bamberg and Munich, was ordained a Catholic priest in 1859, and in 1865 became professor of theology in the University of Munich, and in 1867 a member of the Academy of Sciences. The most noticeable of his works is the Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (1867-69). He was a pupil of Döllinger, and in 1869 was called to the Vatican Council at Rome. His Tagebuch während des Vatikanischen Konzils geführt (1871) and Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum (1871) are important sources of information concerning the proceedings. This council indorsed the Papal infallibility dogma, which Friedrich with Döllinger strongly opposed. Friedrich was consequently excommunicated in 1871, and in 1882 the Minister of Public Worship, yielding to Ultramontane pressure in the Chamber, transferred Friedrich from the chair of theology to that of history. He opened in 1874 the Old-Catholic theological faculty at the University of Bern, and lectured
there for a year. Among his works may be mentioned: Der Mechanismus der vatikanischen Religion (1876); Geschichte des Vatikanischen Konzils (1877-87); Beiträge zur Geschichte des Jesuitenordens (1881); Johann Adam Möller, der Symboliker (1894); and Jacob Frohschammer (1896).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Friedrich, Kaspar David

Edition of 1906. See also Caspar David Friedrich on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FRIEDRICH, Kaspar David (1774-1840). A German landscape painter, born at Greifswald. First instructed there by Quisdorf, he studied afterwards at the academies of Copenhagen and Dresden, and fed his fancy in the course of his wanderings on the Baltic coast, in the island of Rügen, and later among the Harz Mountains and the Riesengebirge, became one of the principal exponents of the then dawning romanticism in art. In 1817 he was made a member of and professor at the Dresden Academy. A masterly series of drawings in sepia, depicting scenery in Rügen and other regions near the Baltic coast, are among his most highly prized works. Prominent among his oil paintings are “View in the Harz,” and “Moonrise by the Sea” (1823), in the National Gallery, Berlin; and “Repose During Hay Harvest” (1835), in the Dresden Museum.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Camden

See also Camden, New Jersey on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cam′den, county-seat of Camden County, New Jersey, lies on the Delaware River opposite Philadelphia, with which it is connected by several steam ferries. It is the terminus of a number of railroads, has extensive shipyards and immense market gardens. It also has foundries, cotton and woolen mills and manufactures of machinery, iron works, paints, oil-cloths, boots, shoes, etc. There are many public-school buildings, a private and a public high school, hospitals, churches, etc. Camden has three national banks and all the adjuncts of a modern city. The rapid growth of the city in recent years is shown by the increase of population from 58,813 in 1890 to 75,935 in 1900. Population, now, 94,538.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambodia

See also Cambodia on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cambo′dia, a state in Indo-China under French control, on the lower course of the Mekong River, south of Siam. It is 220 miles long and 150 miles broad, with an area of 37,400 square miles, not including the region ceded to France in 1907 by Siam. Along the coast are several islands, one bay and but one port, Kampot. Its external trade is carried on mostly through Saigon in Cochin China. The mountains in the north and west contain iron, limestone, sandstone and some copper. The greater part of the country consists of plains of rich loam, which yield abundantly with almost no cultivation. The main river, the Mekong, flows through the country in a generally southwesterly direction. Great Lake has an area of 100 miles by 25, and its greatest depth is 65 feet. Rice, cotton, indigo, betel, tobacco, maize, cinnamon, pepper, sugar-cane, etc. are raised; and among the animals are the elephant, tiger, panther and rhinoceros. Crocodiles are found in most of the rivers. The people are tall and robust, copper-colored, with long skull, flat nose and eyes slightly oblique. They are, however, indolent and passive from long oppression and because of the little work required for subsistence. Fishing in Great Lake is the main industry. Lines of steamers ply on the Mekong. Pnom-Penh, the capital, has a population of 50,000. Here is a large school, with two French professors and a native teacher. The religion is developed from Buddhism, the worship of ancestors forming an important part. The language is much like those of Siam and Anam. The ancient kingdom of Cambodia or Khmer extended over a large part of Indo-China. In the 17th century it was dismembered, and Anam and, later, Siam acquired large portions of it. The Portuguese in the 16th century were the first Europeans to enter the country, and were followed by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1858 France first appeared in Indo-China, and in 1863 made a treaty with Norodom, king of Cambodia, by which Cambodia was placed under a French protectorate. Cambodia has now placed over it a resident-general under the governor-general of Indo-China. The most remarkable thing in Cambodia is the splendid ruins of the architecture of the Khmer kingdom. The temples, palaces and monuments scattered everywhere are wonderful for their size and artistic grandeur. In a single temple there are 1,532 columns. Among the ruins are also massive stone bridges, one measuring 470 feet in length, with 34 arches. The present inhabitants look upon these structures of their ancestors as the work of angels or giants. Population about 1,500,000. See Cochin China.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambridge, University of

​ Cam′bridge, University of, an English seat of learning in the city of Cambridge, on the river Cam, 58 miles north of London. Tradition places the beginnings of the university as far back as the 7th century; but its definite history begins in the 12th century. Like Oxford, it differs in many ways from the universities of the European continent and of the United States, but especially in what is called its college-system. It is at present made up of 18 colleges, each of which has its special students, teachers and governing body, but is at the same time subject to the general laws of the university. The governing body of the university is the senate, which is made up of graduates who possess the degree of Master of Arts, which is had without examination about four years after graduation. The relation between the colleges and the university is much like that between the individual states of this country and the Union as a whole. The course in any college covers three years, during which the students are called freshmen, junior sophomores and senior sophomores. The students are also divided into four classes, each class paying a different tuition; noblemen, fellow commoners, who receive their name from the privilege of dining or “having their commons” at the table of the fellows of the university; the pensioners; and the sizars. The sizars formerly had to do all sorts of menial tasks; but this practice has ceased. While there is a rivalry between the different colleges, all unite and act as a university, and are known not as members of the different colleges, but as “Cambridge men.” There are now about 126 of a teaching staff, including readers, assistants, etc., and the students number a little over 3,200. There are over 400 fellowships, the fellows being elected from those who have distinguished themselves in examinations. The university sends two members to Parliament, who are elected by the senate. Women are admitted to the examinations for honor students, and reside mostly in Newnham and Girton Colleges. There are a number of fine buildings, the chief being the senate house, the university library with over 400,000 volumes, the Pitt press, the observatory, besides the gardens and the museums. The old Gothic chapel in King's College is of remarkable beauty. Among the eminent men who have studied at Cambridge are Chaucer, Bacon, Spenser, Ben Jonson, Milton, Dryden, Newton, Pitt and Byron.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambyses

​ Cambyses (kăm-bī′sēz), king of the Medes and Persians, the son of Cyrus the Great, who became king in 529 B. C. He added Egypt to the Persian territory, but an army which he sent to take possession of the temple of Jupiter Ammon perished in the desert, and another army which he led against the Ethiopians was depleted by hunger and disease. These disasters seem to have made him a madman. He killed his brother Smerdis and one of his sisters, and treated the Egyptians with great cruelty. But a revolution arose, and one of the Magians assumed the character of the murdered Smerdis and seized the Persian throne. Cambyses marched against him from Egypt, but died on the way, in Syria, from an accidental wound in the thigh, in 522 B. C.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambium

See also Vascular cambium on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Camb′ium (in plants), the layer of living cells between the wood and bark, which has the power of making additions to both. Such cells have the power of dividing and thus forming new cells, on the inside adding new wood cells, thus adding each year to the rings of wood, and on the outside new bark cells. Cells with this power of division are generally knows as meristematic cells, and cambium is merely a meristem which occurs between wood and bark. These delicate cells are exposed when bark is peeled from a tree, forming the glairy, mucilaginous substance which makes the line of easy cleavage.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambon, Jules Martin

See also Jules Cambon on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cambon (kän′bôn′), Jules Martin, French diplomat, and plenipotentiary to Washington in the interest of peace with Spain at the close of the Spanish-American war, was born in Paris in 1845. He served with distinction in the French army during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and later served his government as confidential adviser in Algeria, where he became (1891-97) governor-general. In August, 1898, he signed at Washington the peace protocol on behalf of Spain, and was rewarded by being made a commander of the Legion of Honor. His elder brother, Pierre Paul Cambon, is French ambassador in London.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambridge, Ada

See also the disclaimer.
​ Cam′bridge, Ada. See Cross, Mrs. George Frederick.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambridge, Ohio

See also Cambridge, Ohio on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cam′bridge, Ohio, a city and county-seat of Guernsey County, 55 miles north of Marietta. In the surrounding region are coal, pottery-clay and iron deposits and also natural gas. Cambridge manufactures glass and pottery, iron and steel products. The city is served by two railroads, was settled in 1804, and incorporated in 1887. Population, 11,327.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Calyx

See also Sepal on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* FORMS OF CALYX
Ca′lyx (in plants), the outer set of floral leaves, each leaf being called a sepal. See Flower.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cambridge

See also Cambridge, Massachusetts on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cam′bridge, a city of Massachusetts and a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by Charles River. Harvard University, for which the city is largely noted, is in Cambridge, and its fine buildings and its campus filled with beautiful old elm trees are among the most interesting sights in the city. Cambridge is also the seat of Radcliffe College. Many points of present or historic interest are scattered through the city, such as the old elm tree under which Washington took command of the American army; the house in which the poet Longfellow lived and which once was Washington's headquarters; the home of James Russell Lowell; the church in which Lord Cornwallis is said to have stabled his horses; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, one of the most beautiful burial-places in America. Cambridge has large manufacturing interests. Among these is one of the finest telescope manufactories in the country. There also are manufactories of steam ​engines, boilers, carriages, soap, glass, furniture and pianos. Cambridge has several printing houses, book binderies and iron foundries. The first book published in the United States was published in Cambridge. The public schools are among the best in the country, and the city has an excellent free public library well-stocked with books. Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and other prominent men. The first ministers of the place, as well as most of the educated men, were graduates of Cambridge University, England. The American army was encamped here during the Revolution, while the British had possession of Boston. Population, 104,839.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arizona, University of

Edition of 1905. See also University of Arizona on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARIZONA, University of. An American university situated at Tucson, Ariz. It was established by act of the Legislature in 1885, opened 1891, and had in 1901 buildings and grounds valued at $160,000; a library of 6000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets; a faculty of 20; and 47 collegiate and 178 sub-collegiate students. It receives $40,000 annually from the United States Government and $15,000 (approximately) from the Territory. There is a full academic course, and a manual training and mining school equipment. President, M. M. Parker, A.M.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arjish (town)

Edition of 1905. See also Erciş on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARJISH, or Akhlat. A small town of Turkish Armenia, vilayet of Erzerum, on the northern shore of Lake Van (Map: Turkey in Asia, K 3). Population about 2000. The old city of Arjish, at a little distance from the present town, in a ravine, was the residence of the kings of Armenia, and was the scene of many conflicts between the Greeks, Armenians, and Persians. It was taken and devastated in 1228 by Jelal-ed-Din, and completely destroyed by an earthquake in 1246. Arjish is the seat of an Armenian bishop.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arkadelphia

Edition of 1905. See also Arkadelphia, Arkansas on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR′KADEL′PHIA. A city, the county-seat of Clark County, Ark., 65 miles southwest of Little Rock, on the Ouachita River, and Saint Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railroad (Map: Arkansas, C 3). Arkadelphia, 300 feet above sea-level, has good natural drainage and water power. Its manufactures comprise the products of lumber and cotton mills, and foundry and machine shops. It is the site of Ouachita Baptist College and Arkadelphia Methodist College, founded 1886 and 1890, respectively, and has Baptist and Presbyterian schools for colored pupils. The charter of Arkadelphia, in effect since 1873, provides for a biennially elected mayor and a city council. Population, in 1890, 2455; in 1900, 2739.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arkansas, University of

Edition of 1905. See also University of Arkansas on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ ARKANSAS, University of. A State institution, situated at Fayetteville, Ark. It was founded in 1872, and has a medical and a law school at Little Rock, Ark., and a branch normal college at Pine Bluff. It is supported by the aid of the Federal and State endowments and appropriations, and has an income of about $70,000, grounds and buildings valued at $300,000, and a library of about 10,000 volumes. In 1901 there were 37 professors and instructors and 1150 students, distributed in the several departments as follows: Collegiate, 302; medical, 240; preparatory, 340; law, 21; normal training, 247. President, John L. Buchanan, A.M., LL.D.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arjish (volcano)

Edition of 1905. See also Mount Erciyes on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARJISH, är-jēsh′, or Erjish Dagh (anciently, Lat. Argæus) . An extinct volcano in Asia Minor, situated in the vilayet of Angora, south of Kaisarieh. It has an altitude of over 13,000 feet, and its latest eruption took place in the Fourth Century.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Arjuna

Edition of 1905. See also Arjuna on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​AR′JUNA, Hind. pron. ûr′jōō-nä. The grandson of Indra, and the hero of episodes in the Māhabhārata.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ark

Edition of 1905. See also Noah's Ark, Ark of bulrushes, and Ark of the Covenant on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ARK. In the English Version of the Bible the word is applied to three different objects: (1) To the craft which Noah built and in which he preserved himself, his family, and numerous animals alive during the flood. It is described in Gen. vi. It was of “gopher wood,” which is perhaps conifer cypress, of which the Phœnicians built ships, and the “pitch" used was asphalt. Its dimensions were, in English measure: Length, 525 feet; breadth, 87½ feet; height, 52½ feet. It was not built for speed, and merely floated about until the waters subsided. (2) To the basket of bulrushes (papyrus reed) daubed with slime, prepared by the mother of Moses, in which Moses floated on the Nile until Pharaoh's daughter rescued him ​(Exod. ii. 3 seq.). A similar story is told of Sargon I., a king in the Valley of the Euphrates about B.C. 3800. (3) To the Ark of the Covenant (q.v.).