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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Diodorus Cronus

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​DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life. Diogenes Laërtius (ii. 111) tells a story that, while staying at the court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the moment, he was nicknamed ὁ Κρόνος (the God, equivalent to “slowcoach”) by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838) that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous sophism known as the Κυριεύων. The impossible cannot result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from this possible would result something impossible; therefore the original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned the title ὁ διαλεκτικός, or διαλεκτικώτατος, a title which was borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.
See Cicero, De Fato, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, Metaphysica, θ 3; Sext. Empiric., adv. Math. x. 85; Ritter and Preller, Hist. philos. Gr. et Rom. chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended to article Megarian School.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haggard, Henry Rider

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​HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856–), English novelist, was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published Cetywayo and his White Neighbours (1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone’s policy. This was followed by the novels Dawn (1884), The Witch’s Head (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana; and in 1886 King Solomon’s Mines, suggested by the Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. She (1887), another fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, Ayesha, or the Return of She, being published in 1905. The scene of Jess (1887) and of Allan Quatermain (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his Rural England (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an enlarged form, as The Poor and the Land (1905), with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.
His other books include Maiwa’s Revenge (1888), Mr Meeson’s Will (1888), Colonel Quaritch, V.C. (1888), Cleopatra (1889), Eric Brighteyes (1891), The World’s Desire (1890), a romance of Helen of Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; Nada the Lily (1892), Montezuma’s Daughter (1894), The People of the Mist (1894), Joan Haste (1895), Heart of the World (1896), Dr Therne (1898), A Farmer’s Year (1899), The New South Africa (1900), Lysbeth, A Tale of the Dutch (1901), Stella Fregelius (1903), A Gardener’s Year (1905), A Farmer’s Year (1899, revised ed., 1906), The Way of the Spirit (1906).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haggis

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​HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf’s, sheep’s or other animal’s heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. hachis, English “hash,” is of later appearance than “haggis.” It may be connected with a verb “to hag,” meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate ultimately with “hash.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hahn, August

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​HAHN, AUGUST (1792–1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated professor extraordinarius of theology and pastor of Altstadt in Königsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became professor ordinarius. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bardesanes, Marcion (Marcion’s Evangelium in seiner ursprünglichen Gestalt, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a Syrische Chrestomathie (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a treatise, De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione (1827), and also of an Offene Erklärung an die Evangelische Kirche zunächst in Sachsen u. Preussen (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833 Hahn’s pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (Über die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit, 1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became “general superintendent” of ​the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his “supra-naturalism,” he did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own doctrinal system. The first edition of his Lehrbuch des christlichen Glaubens (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and Predigten (1852).
His eldest son, Heinrich August Hahn (1821–1861), after studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively Privatdozent at Breslau (1845), professor ad interim (1846) at Königsberg on the death of Heinrich Hävernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagonoy

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​HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy was founded in 1581.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hagioscope

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​HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. ἅγιος, holy, and σκοπεῖν, to see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or “squints” as they are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hahn-Hahn, Ida, Countess von

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​HAHN-HAHN, IDA, Countess von (1805–1880), German author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782–1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her husband’s irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with Aus der Gesellschaft, a title which, proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed Ida Schönholm. For several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with aristocratic society. The author’s patrician affectations at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style entitled Diogena (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled Von Babylon nach Jerusalem (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed with passionate eloquence. Ulrich and Gräfin Faustine, both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but Sigismund Forster (1843), Cecil (1844), Sibylle (1846) and Maria Regina (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.
Her collected works, Gesammelte Werke, with an introduction by O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all (Regensburg, 1903–1904). See H. Keiter, Gräfin Hahn-Hahn (Würzburg, undated); P. Haffner, Gräfin Ida Hahn-Hahn, eine psychologische Studie (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, Ida Gräfin Hahn-Hahn (Mainz, 1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich

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​HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755–1843), German physician and founder of “homoeopathy,” was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was educated at the “elector’s school” of Meissen, and studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following year, while translating W. Cullen’s Materia medica into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the “law of similars,” similia similibus curantur or curentur—i.e. diseases are cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland’s Journal, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work, Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, containing an exposition of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following years appeared the six volumes of his Reine Arzneimittellehre, which detailed the symptoms produced by “proving” a large number of drugs, i.e. by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cöthen he went to live at Cöthen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cöthen in 1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned, Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis (1805) and Die chronischen Krankheiten (1828–1830).
See the article Homoeopathy; also Albrecht, Hahnemann’s Leben und Werken (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, Hahnemann’s Life and Letters (Philadelphia, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hai

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​HAI (939–1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira’s death Hai was appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law and the Mishnah; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful authority. In his responsa he laid stress on custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of other beliefs.
See Steinschneider, Hebr. Übersetz. p. 910, and article in Jewish Encyclopedia, vi. 153.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fauchet, Claude (bishop)

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​FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1744–1793), French revolutionary bishop, was born at Dornes (Nièvre) on the 22nd of September 1744. He was a curate of the church of St Roch, Paris, when he was engaged as tutor to the children of the marquis of Choiseul, brother of Louis XV.’s minister, an appointment which proved to be the first step to fortune. He was successively grand vicar to the archbishop of Bourges, preacher to the king, and abbot of Montfort-Lacarre. The “philosophic” tone of his sermons caused his dismissal from court in 1788 before he became a popular speaker in the Parisian sections. He was one of the leaders of the attack on the Bastille, and on the 5th of August 1789 he delivered an eloquent discourse by way of funeral sermon for the citizens slain on the 14th of July, taking as his text the words of St Paul, “Ye have been called to liberty.” He blessed the tricolour flag for the National Guard, and in September was elected to the Commune, from which he retired in October 1790. During the next winter he organized within the Palais Royal the “Social Club of the Society of the Friends of Truth,” presiding over crowded meetings under the self-assumed title of procureur général de la vérité. Nevertheless, events were marching faster than his opinions, and the last occasion on which he carried his public with him was in a sermon preached at Notre Dame on the 14th of February 1791. In May he became constitutional bishop of Calvados, and was presently returned by the department to the Legislative Assembly, and afterwards to the Convention. At the king’s trial he voted for the appeal to the people and for the penalty of imprisonment. He protested against the execution of Louis XVI. in the Journal des amis (January 26, 1793), and next month was denounced to the Convention for prohibiting married priests from the exercise of the priesthood in his diocese. He remained secretary to the Convention until the accusation of the Girondists in May 1793. In July he was imprisoned on the charge of supporting the federalist movement at Caen, and of complicity with Charlotte Corday, whom he had taken to see a sitting of the Convention on her arrival in Paris. Of the second of these charges he was certainly innocent. With the Girondist deputies he was brought before the revolutionary tribunal on the 30th of October, and was guillotined on the following day.
See Mémoires . . . ou Lettres de Claude Fauchet (5th ed., 1793); Notes sur Claude Fauchet (Caen, 1842).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fauchet, Claude (historian)

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​FAUCHET, CLAUDE (1530–1601), French historian and antiquary, was born at Paris on the 3rd of July 1530. Of his early life few particulars are known. He applied himself to the study of the early French chroniclers, and proposed to publish extracts which would throw light on the first periods of the monarchy. During the civil wars he lost a large part of his books and manuscripts in a riot, and was compelled to leave Paris. He then settled at Marseilles. Attaching himself afterwards to Cardinal de Tournon, he accompanied him in 1554 to Italy, whence he was several times sent on embassies to the king, with reports on the siege of Siena. His services at length procured him the post of president of the chambre des monnaies, and thus enabled him to resume his literary studies. Having become embarrassed with debt, he found it necessary, at the age of seventy, to sell his office; but the king, amused with an epigram, gave him a pension, with the title of historiographer of France. Fauchet has the reputation of an impartial and scrupulously accurate writer; and in his works are to be found important facts not easily accessible elsewhere. He was, however, entirely uncritical, and his style is singularly inelegant. His principal works (1579, 1599) treat of Gaulish and French antiquities, of the dignities and magistrates of France, of the origin of the French language and poetry, of the liberties of the Gallican church, &c. A collected edition was published in 1610. Fauchet took part in a translation of the Annals of Tacitus (1582). He died at Paris about the close of 1601.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fauna

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​FAUNA, the name, in Roman mythology, of a country goddess of the fields and cattle, known sometimes as the sister, sometimes as the wife of the god Faunus; hence the term is used collectively for all the animals in any given geographical area or geological period, or for an enumeration of the same. It thus corresponds to the term “flora” in respect to plant life.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Faucit, Helena Saville

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​FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLE (1817–1898), English actress, the daughter of John Saville Faucit, an actor, was born in London. Her first London appearance was made on the 5th of January 1836 at Covent Garden as Julia in The Hunchback. Her success in this was so definitely confirmed by her subsequent acting of Juliet, Lady Teazle, Beatrice, Imogen and Hermione, that within eighteen months she was engaged by Macready as leading lady at Covent Garden. There, besides appearing in several Shakespearian characters, she created the heroine’s part in Lytton’s Duchess de la Vallière (1836), Lady of Lyons (1838), Richelieu (1839), The Sea Captain (1839), Money (1840), and Browning’s Strafford (1837). After a visit to Paris and a short season at the Haymarket, she joined the Drury Lane company under Macready early in 1842. There she played Lady Macbeth, Constance in King John, Desdemona and Imogen, and took part in the first production of Westland Marston’s Patrician’s Daughter (1842) and Browning’s Blot on the Scutcheon (1843). Among her successful tours was included a visit to Paris in 1844–1845, where she acted with Macready in several Shakespearian plays. In 1851 she was married to Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore Martin, but still acted occasionally for charity. One of her last appearances was as Beatrice, on the opening of the Shakespeare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon on the 23rd of April 1879. In 1881 there appeared in Blackwood’s Magazine the first of her Letters on some of Shakespeare’s Heroines, which were published in book form as On Some of Shakespeare’s Female Characters (1885). Lady Martin died at her home near Llangollen in Wales on the 31st of October 1898. There is a tablet to her in the Shakespeare Memorial with a portrait figure, and the marble pulpit in the Shakespeare church—with her portrait as Saint Helena—was given in her memory by her husband.
See Sir Theodore Martin’s Helena Faucit (1900).