OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Donnell, Henry Joseph

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​O’DONNELL, HENRY JOSEPH (1769–1834), count of La Bisbal, Spanish soldier, was descended from the O’Donnells who left Ireland after the battle of the Boyne. Born in Spain, he early entered the Spanish army, and in 1810 became general, receiving a command in Catalonia, where in that year he earned his title and the rank of field-marshal. He afterwards held posts of great responsibility under Ferdinand VII., whom he served on the whole with constancy; the events of 1823 compelled his flight into France, where he was interned at Limoges, and where he died in 1834. His second son Leopold O’Donnell (1809–1867), duke of Tetuan, Spanish general and statesman, was born at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe, on the 12th of January 1809. He fought in the army of Queen Christina, where he attained the rank of general of division; and in 1840 he accompanied the queen into exile. He failed in an attempt to effect a rising in her favour at Pamplona in 1841, but took a more successful part in the movement which led to the overthrow and exile of ​Espartero in 1843. From 1844 to 1848 he served the new government in Cuba; after his return he entered the senate. In 1854 he became war minister under Espartero, and in 1856 he plotted successfully against his chief, becoming head of the cabinet from the July revolution until October. This rank he again reached in July 1858; and in December 1859 he took command of the expedition to Morocco, and received the title of duke after the surrender of Tetuan. Quitting office in 1863, he again resumed it in June 1865, but was compelled to resign in favour of Narvaez in 1866. He died at Bayonne on the 5th of November 1867.
There is a Life of Leopold O’Donnell in La Corona de laurel, by Manuel Ibo Alfaro (Madrid, 1860).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Clery, Michael

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​O’CLERY, MICHAEL (1575–1643), Irish chronicler, grandson of a chief of the sept of O’Clery in Donegal, was born at Kilbarrow on Donegal Bay, and was baptized Tadhg (or “poet”), but took the name of Michael when he became a Franciscan friar. He was a cousin of Lughaidh O’Clery (fl. 1595–1630), who, with his son Cacrigcriche O’Clery (d. 1664)—one of Michael’s co-workers—is also famous as an Irish historian. He had already gained a reputation as an antiquary and student of Irish history and literature, when he entered the Irish College of St Anthony at Louvain. In 1620, through the initiative of Hugh Boy Macanward (1580–1635), warden of the college, and himself a famous Irish historian and poet, and one of an old family of hereditary bards in Tyrconnell, he began to collect Irish manuscripts and to transcribe everything he could find of historical importance; he was assisted by other Irish scholars, and the results were his Reim Rioghroidhe (Royal List) in 1630, Leabhar Gabhala (Book of Invasions) in 1631, and his most famous work, called by John Colgan (d. 1659), the Irish biographer, the “Annals of the Four Masters” (1636). Subsequently he produced his Martyrologium of Irish saints, based on various ancient manuscripts, an Irish glossary and other works. He lived in poverty, and died at Louvain.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Curry, Eugene

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​O’CURRY, EUGENE (1796–1862), Irish scholar, was born at Dunaha, county Clare, in 1796, the son of a farmer who was a man of unusual intelligence. After being employed for some time in the topographical and historical section of the Irish ordnance survey, O’Curry earned his living by translating and copying Irish manuscripts. The catalogue of Irish manuscripts in the British Museum was compiled by him. On the founding of the Roman Catholic University of Ireland (1854) he was appointed professor of Irish history and archaeology. His lectures were published by the university in 1860, and give a better knowledge of Irish medieval literature than can be obtained from any other one source. Three other volumes of lectures were published posthumously, under the title On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish (1873). His voluminous transcripts, notably eight huge volumes of ancient Irish law, testify to his unremitting industry. The Celtic Society, of the council of which he was a member, published two of his translations of medieval tales. He died in Dublin in 1862.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Brien, William Smith

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​O’BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH (1803–1864), Irish revolutionary politician, son of Sir Edward O’Brien, a descendant of Brian Boroimhe (d. 1014), king of Ireland (see Clare), was born in Co. Clare on the 17th of October 1803, and received his education at Harrow and at Cambridge. He took the additional name of Smith on inheriting his maternal grandfather’s estates in Limerick. He entered parliament in 1828 as member for Ennis, and from 1835 to 1848 represented the county of Limerick. Although he spoke in 1828 in favour of Catholic emancipation, he for many years continued to differ on other points from the general policy of O’Connell. But he opposed the Irish Arms Act of 1843, and became an active member of the Repeal Association. Though he was destitute of oratorical gifts, his arraignment of the English government of Ireland secured him enthusiastic attachment as a popular leader. In July 1846 the “Young Ireland” party, with Smith O’Brien and Gavan Duffy at their head, left the Repeal Association, and in the beginning of 1847 established the Irish Confederation. In May 1848 he was tried at Dublin for sedition, but the jury disagreed. In the following July he established a war directory, and attempted to make a rising among the peasantry of Ballingarry, but although he was at first joined by a large following the movement wanted cohesion, and the vacillating crowd dispersed as soon as news reached them of the approach of the dragoons. O’Brien was arrested at Thurles, tried and sentenced to death. The sentence was, however, commuted to transportation to Tasmania for life. In February 1854 he received his liberty on condition of never revisiting the United Kingdom; and in May 1856 he obtained a full pardon, and returned to Ireland. In 1856 he published Principles of Government, or Meditations in Exile. He died at Bangor, north Wales, on the 18th of June, 1864. He had five sons and two daughters. His eldest brother, Lucius, became 13th Baron Inchiquin in 1855, as heir male to the 3rd marquis of Thomond, at whose death in 1855 the marquisate of Thomond and the earldom of Inchiquin became extinct. (See Inchiquin, 1st Earl of.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Carolan, Turlogh

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​O’CAROLAN (or Carolan), TURLOGH (1670–1738), Irish bard, son of John O’Carolan, a farmer, was born at Newtown, near Nobber, in the county of Meath. The family is said to have belonged to the sept of MacBradaigh, and the bard's great-grandfather was a chieftain. The O’Carolans forfeited their estates during the civil wars, and Turlogh’s father settled at Alderford, Co. Roscommon, on the invitation of the family of M'Dermott Roe. In his eighteenth year he became blind from smallpox. He received special instruction in music, and used to wander with his harp round the houses of the surrounding gentry, mainly in Connaught. The famous song Receipt for Drinking may be responsible for the allegation that he was addicted to intemperate drinking, but Charles O’Conor (1710–1791), the antiquary, who had personal knowledge of him, gives him a good character in private life. The number of Carolan’s musical pieces, to nearly all of which he composed verses, is said to exceed two hundred. He died on the 25th March 1738, and was buried at Kilronan.
His poetical Remains in the original Irish, with English metrical translations by Thomas Furlong, were printed in Hardiman’s Irish Minstrelsy (1831). Many of his songs were preserved among the Irish MSS. in the British Museum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/O'Conor, Charles

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​O’CONOR, CHARLES (1804–1884), American lawyer, was born in the city of New York on the 22nd of January 1804, and was the son of Thomas O’Conor (1770–1855), who in 1801 emigrated from Roscommon county, Ireland, to New York, where he devoted himself chiefly to journalism. The son studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1824, and soon won high reputation in his profession. He was United States district attorney for New York in 1853–1854. In politics an extreme States’-Rights Democrat, he opposed the coercion of the South, and after the Civil War became senior counsel for Jefferson Davis on his indictment for treason, and was one of his bondsmen; these facts and O’Conor’s connexion with the Roman Catholic Church affected unfavourably his political fortunes. In 1872 he was nominated for the presidency by the “Bourbon” Democrats, who refused to support Horace Greeley, and by the “Labour Reformers”; he declined the nomination but received 21,559 votes. He took a prominent part in the prosecution of William M. Tweed and members of the “Tweed Ring,” and published Peculation Triumphant, Being the Record of a Five Years’ Campaign against Official Malversation, A.D. 1871–1875 (1875). He removed to Nantucket, Massachusetts, in 1881, and died there on the 12th of May 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hira

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​HIRA, the capital of an Arabian kingdom, founded in the 2nd century A.D., on the western edge of Irak, was situated at 32° N., 44° 20′ E., about 4 m. S.E. of modern Nejef, by the Sa’ade canal, on the shore of the Bahr Nejef or Assyrium Stagnum. Its kings governed the western shore of the lower Euphrates and of the Persian Gulf, their kingdom extending inland to the confines of the Nejd. This Lakhmid kingdom was more or less dependent, during the four centuries of its existence, on the Sassanian empire, to which it formed a sort of buffer state towards Arabia. After the battle of Kadesiya and the founding of Kufa by the Arabs, Hira lost its importance and fell into decay. The ruin mounds covering the ancient site, while extensive, are insignificant in appearance and give no indications of the existence of important buildings.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hipponax

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​HIPPONAX, of Ephesus, Greek iambic poet. Expelled from Ephesus in 540 B.C. by the tyrant Athenagoras, he took refuge in Clazomenae, where he spent the rest of his life in poverty. His deformed figure and malicious disposition exposed him to the caricature of the Chian sculptors Bupalus and Athenis, upon whom he revenged himself by issuing against them a series of satires. They are said to have hanged themselves like Lycambes and his daughters when assailed by Archilochus, the model and predecessor of Hipponax. His coarseness of thought and feeling, his rude vocabulary, his want of grace and taste, and his numerous allusions to matters of merely local interest prevented his becoming a favourite in Attica. He was considered the inventor of parody and of a peculiar metre, the scazon or choliambus, which substitutes a spondee for the final iambus of an iambic senarius, and is an appropriate form for the burlesque character of his poems.
Fragments in Bergk, Poëtae lyrici Graeci; see also B. J. Peltzer, De parodica Graecorum poèsi (1855), containing an account of Hipponax and the fragments.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hippodamus

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​HIPPODAMUS, of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 5th century B.C. It was he who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, in place of the previous intricacy and confusion. For Pericles he planned the arrangement of the harbour-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians founded Thurii in Italy he accompanied the colony as architect, and afterwards, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of series of broad, straight streets, cutting one another at right angles.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hipurnias

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​HIPURNIAS, a tribe of South American Indians, 2000 or 3000 in number, living on the river Purus, western Brazil. Their houses are long, low and narrow: the side walls and roof are one, poles being fixed in the ground and then bent together so as to meet and form a pointed arch for the cross-sections. They use small bark canoes. Their chief weapons are poisoned arrows. They have a native god called Guintiniri.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hippodrome

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​HIPPODROME (Gr. ἱππόδρομος, from ἵππος, horse, and δρόμος, racecourse), the course provided by the Greeks for horse and chariot racing; it corresponded to the Roman circus, except that in the latter only four chariots ran at a time, whereas ten or more contended in the Greek games, so that the width was far greater, being about 400 ft., the course being 600 to 700 ft. long. The Greek hippodrome was usually set out on the slope of a hill, and the ground taken from one side served to form the embankment on the other side. One end of the hippodrome was semicircular, and the other end square with an extensive portico, in front of which, at a lower level, were the stalls for the horses and chariots. The modern hippodrome is more for equestrian and other displays than for horse racing. The Hippodrome in Paris somewhat resembles the Roman amphitheatre, being open in the centre to the sky, with seats round on rising levels.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hippuric Acid

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​HIPPURIC ACID (Gr. ἵππος, horse, οὖρον, urine), benzoyl glycocoll or benzoyl amidoacetic acid, C$_9$H$_9$NO$_3$ or C$_6$H$_5$CO·NH·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H, an organic acid found in the urine of horses and other herbivorae. It is excreted when many aromatic compounds, such as benzoic acid and toluene, are taken internally. J. v. Liebig in 1829 showed that it differed from benzoic acid, and in 1839 determined its constitution, while in 1853 V. Dessaignes (Ann. 87, p. 325) synthesized it by acting with benzoyl chloride on zinc glycocollide. It is also formed by heating benzoic anhydride with glycocoll (Th. Curtius, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 1662), and by heating benzamide with monochloracetic acid. It crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble in hot water, melt at 187° C. and decompose at about 240° C. It is readily hydrolysed by hot caustic alkalis to benzoic acid and glycocoll. Nitrous acid converts it into benzoyl glycollic acid, C$_6$H$_5$CO·O·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H. Its ethyl ester reacts with hydrazine to form hippuryl hydrazine, C$_6$H$_5$CO·NH·CH$_2$·CO·NH·NH$_2$, which was used by Curtius for the preparation of azoimide (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nasmyth, Alexander

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​NASMYTH, ALEXANDER (1758–1840), Scottish portrait and landscape painter, was born in Edinburgh on the 9th of September 1758. He studied at the Trustees’ Academy under Runciman, and, having been apprenticed as an heraldic painter to a coach-builder, he, at the age of sixteen, attracted the attention of Allan Ramsay, who took the youth with him to London, and employed him upon the subordinate portions of his works. Nasmyth returned to Edinburgh in 1778, and was soon largely patronized as a portrait painter. He also assisted Mr Miller of Dalswinton, as draughtsman, in his mechanical researches and experiments; and, this gentleman having generously offered the painter a loan to enable him to pursue his studies abroad, he left in 1782 for Italy, where he remained two years. On his return he painted ​the excellent portrait of Burns, now in the Scottish National Gallery, well known through Walker’s engraving. Political feeling at that time ran high in Edinburgh, and Nasmyth’s pronounced Liberal opinions, which he was too outspoken and sincere to disguise, gave offence to many of his aristocratic patrons, and led to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist. In his later years, accordingly, he devoted himself mainly to landscape work, and did not disdain on occasion to set his hand to scene-painting for the theatres. He has been styled, not unjustly, the “father of Scottish landscape art.” His subjects are carefully finished and coloured, but are Wanting in boldness and freedom. Nasmyth was also largely employed by noblemen throughout the country in the improving and beautifying of their estates, in which his fine taste rendered him especially skilful; and he was known as an architect, having designed the Dean Bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering St Bernard’s Well. Nasmyth died in his native city on the 10th of April 1840. His youngest son, James, was the well-known inventor of the steam-hammer. His six daughters all attained a certain local reputation as artists, but it was in his eldest son, Patrick (1787–1831), that the artistic skill of his family was most powerfully developed. Having studied under his father, Patrick went to London at the age of twenty, and soon attracted attention as a clever landscapist. He was a diligent student of the works of Claude and Richard Wilson, and of Ruysdael and Hobbema, upon whom his own practice was mainly founded. His most characteristic paintings are of English domestic scenery, full of quiet tone and colour, and detailed and minute expression of foliage, and with considerable brilliancy of sky effect. They were executed with his left hand, his right having in early life been injured by an accident.
For an account of the Nasmyth family see James Nasmyth’s Autobiography (1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nasi, Joseph

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​NASI, JOSEPH (16th century), Jewish statesman and financier, was born in Portugal of a Jewish (Marano) family. Emigrating from his native land, he founded a banking house in Antwerp. Despite his financial and social prosperity there, he felt it irksome to be compelled to wear the guise of Catholicism, and determined to settle in a Mahommedan land. After two troubled years in Venice, Nasi betook himself to Constantinople. Here he proclaimed his Judaism, and married his beautiful cousin Reyna. He rapidly rose to favour, the sultans Suleiman and Selim promoting him to high office. He founded a Jewish colony at Tiberias which was to be an asylum for the Jews of the Roman Campagna. In 1566 when Selim ascended the throne, Nasi was made duke of Naxos. He had deserved well of Turkey, for he had conquered Cyprus for the sultan. Nasi’s influence was so great that foreign powers often negotiated through him for concessions which they sought from the sultan. Thus the emperor of Germany, Maximilian II., entered into direct correspondence with Nasi; William of Orange, Sigismund August II., king of Poland, also conferred with him on political questions of moment. On the death of Selim in 1574, Nasi receded from his political position, but retained his wealth and offices, and passed the five years of life remaining to him in honoured tranquillity at Belvedere (Constantinople). He died in 1579. His career was not productive of direct results, but it was of great moral importance. It was one of the tokens of the new era that was to dawn for the Jews as trusted public officials and as members of the state.
See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. chs. xvi.-xvii.; Jewish Encyclopedia, ix. 172. (I. A.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nasr-ed-Din

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​NASR-ED-DIN [Náṣiru’d-Din] (1829–1896), shah of Persia, was born on the 4th of April 1829. His mother, a capable princess of the Kajar family, persuaded Shah Mahommed, his father, to appoint him heir apparent, in preference to his elder brothers; and he was accordingly made governor of Azerbaijan. His succession to the throne, 13th October 1848, was vigorously disputed, especially by the followers of the reformer El Bab, upon whom he wreaked terrible vengeance. In 1855 he re-established friendly relations with France, and coming under the influence of Russia, signed a treaty of amity on the 17th of December with that power, but remained neutral during the Crimean war. In 1856 he seized Herat, but a British army under Outram landed in the Persian Gulf, defeated his forces and compelled him to evacuate the territory. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris, on the 4th of March 1857, and to the end of his reign he treated Great Britain and Russia with equal friendship. In 1866 the shah authorized the passage of the telegraph to India through his dominions and reminted his currency in the European fashion. In 1873, and again in 1889, he visited England in the course of his three sumptuous journeys to Europe, 1873, 1878, 1889. The only results of his contact with Western. civilization appear to have been the proclamation of religious toleration, the institution of a postal service, accession to the postal union and the establishment of a bank. He gave the monopoly of tobacco to a private company, but was soon compelled to withdraw it in deference to the resistance of his subjects. Abstemious in habits, and devoted to music and poetry, he was a cultured, able and well-meaning ruler, and his reign, already unusually long for an Eastern potentate, might have lasted still longer had it not been for the unpopular sale of the tobacco monopoly, which was probably a factor in his assassination at Teheran on the 1st of May 1896 by a member of the Babi faction. He was succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-din.