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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philippicus

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​PHILIPPICUS, East Roman emperor, 711–713, was the son of the patrician Nicephorus, and became distinguished as a soldier under Justinian II. His proper name, which indicates his Armenian origin, was Bardanes. Relying on the support of the Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Justinian; these led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and subsequently to his banishment, by order of Justinian, to Cherson. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus, successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt, and on the assassination of Justinian he at once assumed the purple. Among his first acts were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, in favour of John, a member of his own sect, and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which abolished the canons of the sixth general council. Meanwhile Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians, plundered up to the walls of Constantinople, and shortly afterwards the Saracens made similar inroads from the Asiatic side. The reign of Philippicus was brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of his generals, who caused him to be blinded.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, London, 1896), v. 183–184.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philippopolis

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​PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe), the capital of Eastern Rumelia, and of the department of Philippopolis, Bulgaria; situated in the midst of picturesque granite eminences on the right bank of the river Maritza, 96 m. E.S E. of Sofia and 97 m. W.N.W. of Adrianople. Pop. (1906) 45,572, of whom a large majority are Bulgarians, and the remainder chiefly Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians or gipsies. Philippopolis is on the main railway from Vienna to Constantinople, via Belgrade and Sofia. The Maritza is navigable up to this point, and as the city has communication by rail both with the port of Dédéagatch on the Mediterranean and that of Burgas on the Black Sea, and is situated in a remarkably fertile country, it has become the chief commercial centre of southern Bulgaria, and is the seat of both Greek and Bulgarian archbishops. The residences of the richer Greeks and Bulgarians occupy the slopes of the largest eminence, the Jambaz-tépé, in the centre of the city; between it and the Nobtet-tépé, from the summit of which there is a magnificent view of the city, is the Armenian quarter; near the bridge over the Maritza is the poorer Turkish quarter; and south-west of the Jambaz-tépé there is a suburb of villas. On the Bunari-tépé a monument has been erected by the Russians in commemoration of the war of 1877, and near this is the new palace of the king of Bulgaria. The Sahub-tépe is crowned by a clock-tower. Not far from it are the beautiful Exhibition Park laid out in 1892 and the fine Journaia-Jami Mosque. Near the Maritza are the remains of the ancient konak (palace) of the Turkish pashas, the public park formed by the Russians in 1877, the gymnasium, and the new Greek cathedral. The city has a large commerce in rice, attar of roses, and cocoons; other exports being wheat, wine, tobacco, alcohol and hides.
Eumolpia, a Thracian town, was captured by Philip of Macedon and made one of his frontier posts, hence its name of Philippopolis, or “Philip's City.” Under the Romans Philoppopolis or Trimontium became the capital of Thracia; and, even aftei its capture by the Goths, when 100,000 persons are said to have been slain, it continued to be a flourishing city till it was again sacked by the Bulgarians in 1205. It passed under Turkish rule in 1363; in 1818 it was destroyed by an earthquake; and in 1846 it suffered from a severe conflagration. During the war of 1877-78 the city was occupied by the Russians (see also Bulgaria: History).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Philippics

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​PHILIPPICS, in classical literature, a series of orations delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The name was applied to the speeches of Cicero against Mark Antony, and “Philippic” has passed into general use in the sense of an impassioned invective or declamation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scantling

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​SCANTLING, measurement or prescribed size, dimensions, particularly used of timber and stone and also of vessels. In regard to timber the scantling is the thickness and breadth, the sectional dimensions; in the case of stone the dimensions of thickness, breadth and length; in shipbuilding the collective dimensions of the various parts. The word is a variation of “scantillon,” a carpenter's or mason's measuring tool, also used of the measurements taken by it, and of a piece of timber of small size cut as a sample. The O. Fr. escantillon, mod. échantillon, is usually, taken to be related to Ital. scandaglio, sounding-line (Lat. scandere, to climb; cf. scansio, the metrical scansion). It was probably influenced by cantel, cantle, a small piece, a corner piece. The English form “scantling” was no ​doubt partly due to a confusion with “scant,” stinted, of short measure; this is for scamt, cf. “skimpy,” “scamp” (q.v.), and is related to O.N. skammr, short, brief.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scanderbeg

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​SCANDERBEG, or Iskender Bey (1403–1467), known also as “the Dragon of Albania,” the national hero of the Albanians, was the son of John (Giovanni) Castriota, lord of Kroia and of the Mirdite country in northern Albania, and of a Servian princess named Vaisava. His actual name was George (Giorgio) Castriota, and the name of Iskender Bey (Prince Alexander) was given to him by the Turks in complimentary reference to Alexander the Great. In 1423, when Murad II. invaded Epirus, George Castriota, with his three brothers, was handed over as a hostage to the Turks and sent to be trained in the service of the seraglio. His brilliant qualities of mind and body at once gained him the favour of the sultan; he became a Mussulman, was promoted to high military command and, though barely nineteen years of age, to the government of a sanjak. He remained in the Ottoman service for twenty years, dissembling his resentment when, on the death of his father, his principality was annexed and his brothers poisoned. In 1443, however, his opportunity came with Janos Hunyadi's victory at Nish. He seized Kroia by stratagem, proclaimed himself a Christian, and gathered the wild Albanian clansmen about him. In the inaccessible fastnesses of Albania he maintained a guerilla warfare against the Turks during nearly twenty-five years, easily routing the armies sent against him, and is said to have slain three thousand Turks with his own hand. In 1461 Murad's successor Mahommed II. acknowledged him by a temporary truce as lord of Albania and Epirus. He died in 1467 at Alessio, and his tomb was long the object of a superstitious veneration on the part of the Turks. Scanderbeg's resistance to the Turkish advance was invaluable to the cause of Christianity, but the union which he had maintained in Albania did not survive him. He was succeeded in Kroia by his son, Giovanni Castriota, who in 1474 sold the principality to the Venetians, by whom four years later it was re-sold to the Turks.
See Georges T. Petrovitch, Scander-beg (Georges Castriota); Essai de bibliographies raisonnée; Ouvrages sur Scander-beg écrit en langues française, anglaise, allemande, latine, italienne, &c. (Paris, 1881); Pisko, Skanderbeg, historische Studie (Vienna, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scandium

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​SCANDIUM [symbol Sc, atomic weight 44.1 (O=16)], one of the rare earth metals. It was isolated in 1879 by L. F,. Nilson and was shown by Cleve to be identical with the ekaboron predicted by D. Mendeléeff. The separation of scandium from wolframite (which contains 0.14-0.16% of rare earths) is given by R. J. Meyer (Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1908, 60, p. 134), but it seems impossible to obtain a perfectly pure specimen of the oxide. The salts of scandium are all colourless, the chloride and bromide corresponding in composition to Sc$_2$X$_6$⋅12H$_2$O; the fluoride is anhydrous. The sulphate combines with the alkaline sulphates to form double salts of the type Sc$_2$(SO$_4$)$_3$⋅3K$_2$SO$_4$. A large number of salts, both of inorganic and organic acids, have been described by Sir W. Crookes (Phil. Trans. 1908, 209, A. p. 15); those of the fatty acids are in most cases more soluble in cold than in hot water.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Scaramouch

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​SCARAMOUCH, properly a buffoon, used later colloquially for a ne'er-do-well. The name was that of a stock character in 17th-century Italian farce, Scaramuccia (i.e. literally “skirmish”), who, attired usually in a black Spanish dress, burlesquing a “don,” was beaten by Harlequin for his boasting and cowardice. The part was played in London in 1673 by a well-known Italian actor, Tiberic Fiurelli, and became popular. There are many instances of the use of the word in the New English Dictionary.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rambouillet

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​RAMBOUILLET, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 30 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway to Chartres. Pop. (1906) town, 3965; commune, 6165. Rambouillet derives its whole interest from the associations connected with the ancient chateau, dating originally from the 14th century, but often rebuilt. A great machicolated tower is all that remains of the medieval building; some apartments with good woodwork are also of interest. The chateau is surrounded by a beautiful park of 3000 acres and by an extensive forest. The gardens, partly in French, partly in English style, are picturesque, and have an avenue of Louisiana cypress unique in Europe. The park contains the national sheep-farm, where in the 18th century the first flock of merino sheep in France was raised, a school of sheep-farming, and, close to the latter, a small dairy built by Louis XVI. The shooting of the famous coverts of Rambouillet is reserved for the presidents of the Republic. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a preparatory infantry school. Trade is in grain, wool, flour .and wood. Watchsprings are manufactured.
Originally a royal domain, the lands of Rambouillet passed in the 14th century to the D'Angennes family, who held them for three hundred years and built the chateau. Francis I. died there in 1547; and Charles IX. and Catherine de Medicis found a refuge there in the Wars of Religion, as Henry III. did after them. The title became a marquis ate in 1612, at which time it was held by Charles d'Angennes, husband of Catherine de Vivonne (q.v.), the famous marchioness of Rambouillet. Created a duchy and peerage in favour of the duke of Toulouse, son of Louis XIV., Rambouillet was subsequently bought and embellished by Louis XVI., who erected a model farm and other buildings. The place was a hunting-seat of Napoleon I. and Charles X., and it was here that in 1830 the latter signed his abdication.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ramnad

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​RAMNAD, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, at the base of the spit of land that projects towards the island of Pamban in Palk strait. Pop. (1901) 14,546. It is the residence of a raja of old family, head of the Maravar caste, whose title is setupathi, or lord of Adam's Bridge. The estate covers an area of 2104 sq. m., and pays a permanent land revenue of £25,000. It is a desolate and generally unfertile tract, traversed by the South Indian railway.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ramler, Karl Wilhelm

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​RAMLER, KARL WILHELM (1725–1798), German poet, was born at Kolberg on the 25th of February 1725. After completing his studies in Halle, he went to Berlin, where, in 1748, he was appointed professor of logic and literature at the cadet school. In 1786 he became associated with the author, Johann Jakob Engel, in the management of the royal theatre, of which, after resigning his professorship, he became (1790–96) sole director. He died at Berlin on the 11th of April 1798. Ramler was a skilful but cold and uninspired versifier; and the reputation he enjoys as poet and critic is mainly due to his skill in imitating and reproducing in German, classical (mostly Horatian) metrical forms; and he had a reputation, not unfounded, of correcting his friends’ writings out of recognition. His Tod Jesu, a Cantata, is well known owing to its musical setting by Karl Heinrich Graun.
Ramler published Geistliche Cantaten (1760) and Oden (1767). A collection of his works was published by L. F. G. von Göckingk (2 vols., 1800–1801). See also Heinsius, Versuch einer biographischen Skizze Ramler; (1798); and K. Schüddekopf, Karl Wilhelm Ramler, bis zu seiner Verbindung mit Lessing (1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rammelsberg, Karl Friedrich August

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RAMMELSBERG, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1813–1899), German mineralogist, was born at Berlin on the 1st of April 1813. He was educated for the medical profession and graduated in 1837 at Berlin University. In 1841 he became privatdozent in the university, and in 1845 professor extraordinary of chemistry. He relinquished this post in 1851 to take the chair of chemistry and mineralogy at the Royal Industrial Institute. In 1874 he was appointed professor of inorganic chemistry, and director of the second chemical laboratory at Berlin. Distinguished for his research on mineralogy, crystallography and analytical chemistry, he laboured also at metallurgy, and yet found time for a series of important textbooks, in which his learning and sound judgment were combined with a lucid and accurate statement of facts. He was author of Handwörterbuch des chemischen Teils der Mineralogie (2 vols, 1841; supp. 1843–53); Lehrbuch der chemischen Metallurgie (1850); Handbuch der Krystallographischen Chemie (1855); Handbuch der Mineralchemie (1860); Handbuch der Krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie (2 vols, 1881–82), some of the earlier works being incorporated in later and more comprehensive volumes with different titles. He died at Gross Lichterfelde, near Berlin, on the 28th of December 1899.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rameswaram

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​RAMESWARAM, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, on the island of Pambam in Palk Straits. It contains one of the most venerable Hindu shrines, founded, according to tradition, by Rama himself, which for centuries has been the resort of thousands of pilgrims from all parts of India. The great temple, with its pillared corridors 700 ft. long, is perhaps the finest example of Dravidian architecture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santiago del Estero

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​SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, a province of Argentina, bounded N. by Salta and the Chaco territory, E. by the Chaco and Santa Fé, S. by Cordoba, and W. by Catamarca, Tucuman and Salta. Area 39,764 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 161,502; (1904, estimated) 186,205, chiefly Christianized Indians. The surface, of the province is flat and low, chiefly open plains thinly covered with grass. There are forests in the W. and N., extensive swamps along the river courses and large saline areas, especially in the S.W. The Salado (called Pasage, and Juramento in Salta) crosses the province from N.W. to S.E. and empties into the Paraná, and the Dulce, or Saladillo, which has its sources in the Sierra de Aconquija, crosses the province in the same general direction, and is lost in the great saline swamps of Porongos, on the Cordoba frontier. The climate is extremely hot, the maximum temperature being 111° (Mulhall), minimum 32°, and the mean annual 71°, with an annual rainfall of 25 in. Sugar, wheat, alfalfa, Indian corn, tobacco and hides are the principal products, and cotton, which was grown here under the Incas, is still produced. The province is traversed by the Tucuman extension of the Buenos Aires and Rosario railway, by a French line from Santa Fé to Tucuman, and by a branch of the Central Northern (Cordoba section) railway.
The provincial capital, Santiago del Estero, is on the left bank of the Rio Dulce, 745 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1904, estimated) 12,000, chiefly of Indian descent. The city stands on a level open plain, 520 ft. above sea-level, and in the vicinity of large swamps (esteros) bordering the Rio Dulce, from which its name is derived. There are a number of interesting old buildings in the city—a government house, several churches, a Jesuit college, a Franciscan convent and a girls’ orphanage. The city was founded in 1553 by Francisco de Aguirre and was the first capital of the province of Tucuman, the earliest settled of the La Plata provinces. In 1615 the cathedral was accidentally burnt and the bishop removed to Cordoba. The city has suffered much through inundations from the Rio Dulce, and from frequent local revolutions caused by misgovernment and the struggles of rival factions. In 1663 an inundation carried away half the capital, and the population was so reduced that in 1680 the seat of government was removed to San Miguel, now Tucuman. In 1820 Santiago del Estero became a separate province.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santillana, Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, Marquis of

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​SANTILLANA, INIGO LOPEZ DE MENDOZA, Marquis of (1398–1458), Castilian poet, was born at Carrion de los Condes in Old Castile on the 19th of August 1398. His father, Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, grand admiral of Castile, having died in 1405, the boy was educated under the eye of his mother, Dona Leonor de la Vega, a woman of great strength of character. From his eighteenth year onwards he became an increasingly prominent figure at the court of Juan II. of Castile, distinguishing himself in both civil and military service; he was created marqués de Santillana and conde del Real de Manzanares for the part he took in the battle of Olmedo (19th of May 1455). In the struggle of the Castilian nobles against the influence of the constable Alvaro de Luna he showed great moderation, but in 1452 he joined the combination which effected the fall of the favourite in the following year. From the death of Juan II. in 1454 Mendoza took little part in public affairs, devoting himself mainly to the pursuits of literature and to pious meditation. He died at Guadalajara on the 25th of March 1458.
Mendoza shares with Juan de Villalpando the distinction of introducing the sonnet into Castile, but his productions in this class are conventional metrical exercises. He was much more successful in the serranilla and vagueira-highland pastorals after the Provengal manner. His rhymed collection of Proverbios de gloriosa doctrina é fructuosa ensenanza was prepared for the use of Don Enrique, the heir-apparent. To the same didactic category belong the hundred and eighty stanzas entitled Dialogo de Bias contra Fortuna, while the Doctrinal de Privados is a bitter denunciation of Alvaro de Luna. The Comedieta de Ponza is a Dantesque dream-dialogue, in octave stanzas (de arte mayor), founded on the disastrous sea-tight off Ponza in 1425, when the kings of Aragon and Navarre and the Infante Enrique were taken prisoners by the Genoese. The three last-named compositions are the best of Santi1lana's more ambitious poems, but they are deficient in the elegant simplicity of the serranillas. These unpretentious songs are in every Spanish anthology, and are familiar even to uneducated Spaniards.
Bibliography.—Obras, edited by Jose Amador de los Rios (Madrid, 1852); M. Menéndez y Pelayo, Antolagia de poetas liricas caste llanos (Madrid, 1894), vol. v. pp. 78-144; B. Sanvisenti, I Primi Injiussi di Dante, del Petrarca e del Boccaccio sulla letteratura spagnuola (Milan, 1902), pp. 127-186.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santley, Sir Charles

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​SANTLEY, SIR CHARLES (1834–), English vocalist, son of an organist at Liverpool, was born on the 28th of February 1834. He was given a thorough musical education, and having determined to adopt the career of a singer, he went in 1855 to Milan and studied under Gaetano Nava. He had a fine baritone voice, and while in Italy he began singing small parts in opera. In 1857 he returned to London, and on 16th November made his first appearance in the part of Adam in The Creation at St Martin's Hall. In 1858, after appearing in January in The Creation, he sang the title-part in Elijah in March, both at Exeter Hall. In 1859 he sang at Covent Garden as Hoel in the opera Dinorah, and in 1862 he appeared in Italian opera in Il Trovatore. He was then engaged by Mapleson for Her Majesty's, and his regular connexion with the English operatic stage only ceased in 1870, when he sang as Vanderdecken in The Flying Dutchman. His last appearance in opera was in the same part with the Carl Rosa Company at the Lyceum Theatre in 1876. Meanwhile, in 1861 he sang Elijah at the Birmingham Festival, and in 1862 was engaged for the Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace. At the musical festivals and on the concert stage his success was immense. In such songs as “To Anthea,” “Simon the Cellarer” or “Maid of Athens,” he was unapproachable, and his oratorio singing carried on the finest traditions of his art. He was knighted in 1907. In 1858 Santley married Gertrude Kemble, and their daughter, Edith Santley, had a great success as a concert singer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Santo Domingo (capital)

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​SANTO DOMINGO, the capital of the republic of the same name, in the island of Haiti, West Indies. Pop. about 25,000. It is situated on the S. coast, at the mouth of the river Ozama. Founded in 1496, it is the oldest existing settlement of white men in the New World, and perhaps the most perfect example of a Spanish colonial town of the 16th century. It is surrounded by ancient walls with bastions. The streets are straight, narrow, and intersect at right angles. The massive houses are built of stone with coloured walls pierced with huge doors and windows. The cathedral, in the Spanish Renaissance style, dates from 1512, and contains the reputed tomb of Columbus (q.v.). The cell in which he and his brother were confined by order of Bobadilla is still shown in the old fortress. The city is the seat of an archbishop. It has a small and rather poor harbour, but the river is navigable for 4 m. from its mouth. The climate is healthy and cool.