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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hauptmann, Gerhart

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​HAUPTMANN, GERHART (1862–), German dramatist, was born on the 15th of November 1862 at Obersalzbrunn in Silesia, the son of an hotel-keeper. From the village school of his native place he passed to the Realschule in Breslau, and was then sent to learn agriculture on his uncle’s farm at Jauer. Having, however, no taste for country life, he soon returned to Breslau and entered the art school, intending to become a sculptor. He then studied at Jena, and spent the greater part of the years 1883 and 1884 in Italy. In May 1885 Hauptmann married and settled in Berlin, and, devoting himself henceforth entirely to literary work, soon attained a great reputation as one of the chief representatives of the modern drama. In 1891 he retired to Schreiberhau in Silesia. Hauptmann’s first drama, Vor Sonnenaufgang (1889) inaugurated the realistic movement in modern German literature; it was followed by Das Friedensfest (1890), Einsame Menschen (1891) and Die Weber (1892), a powerful drama depicting the rising of the Silesian weavers in 1844. Of Hauptmann’s subsequent work mention may be made of the comedies Kollege Crampton (1892), Der Biberpelz (1893) and Der rote Hahn (1901), a “dream poem,” Hannele (1893), and an historical drama Florian Geyer (1895). He also wrote two tragedies of Silesian peasant life, Fuhrmann Henschel (1898) and Rose Berndt (1903), and the “dramatic fairy-tales” Die versunkene Glocke (1897) and Und Pippa tanzt (1905). Several of his works have been translated into English.
Biographies of Hauptmann and critical studies of his dramas have been published by A. Bartels (1897); P. Schlenther (1898); and U. C. Woerner (2nd ed., 1900). See also L. Benoist-Hanappier, Le Drame naturaliste en Allemagne (1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haugesund

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​HAUGESUND, a seaport of Norway in Stavanger amt (county), on the west coast, 34 m. N. by W. of Stavanger. Pop. (1900), 7935. It is an important fishing centre. Herrings are exported to the annual value of £100,000 to £200,000, also mackerel and lobsters. The principal imports are coal and salt. There are factories for woollen goods and a margarine factory. Haugesund is the reputed death-place of Harald Haarfager, to whom an obelisk of red granite was erected in 1872 on the thousandth anniversary of his victory at the Hafsfjord (near Stavanger) whereby he won the sovereignty of Norway. The memorial stands 11/4 m. north of the town, on the Haraldshaug, where the hero’s supposed tombstone is shown.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haughton, Samuel

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​HAUGHTON, SAMUEL (1821–1897), Irish scientific writer, the son of James Haughton (1795–1873), was born at Carlow on the 21st of December 1821. His father, the son of a Quaker, but himself a Unitarian, was an active philanthropist, a strong supporter of Father Theobald Mathew, a vegetarian, and an anti-slavery worker and writer. After a distinguished career in Trinity College, Dublin, Samuel was elected a fellow in 1844. He was ordained priest in 1847, but seldom preached. In 1851 he was appointed professor of geology in Trinity College, and this post he held for thirty years. He began the study of medicine in 1859, and in 1862 took the degree of M.D. in the university of Dublin. He was then made registrar of the Medical School, the status of which he did much to improve, and he represented the university on the General Medical Council from 1878 to 1896. He was elected F.R.S. in 1858, and in course of time Oxford conferred upon him the hon. degree of D.C.L., and Cambridge and Edinburgh that of LL.D. He was a man of remarkable knowledge and ability, and he communicated papers on widely different subjects to various learned societies and scientific journals in London and Dublin. He wrote on the laws of equilibrium and motion of solid and fluid bodies (1846), on sun-heat, terrestrial radiation, geological climates and on tides. He wrote also on the granites of Leinster and Donegal, and on the cleavage and joint-planes in the Old Red Sandstone of Waterford (1857–1858). He was president of the Royal Irish Academy from 1886 to 1891, and for twenty years he was secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland. He died in Dublin on the 31st of October 1897.
Publications.—Manual of Geology (1865); Principles of Animal Mechanics (1873); Six Lectures on Physical Geography (1880). In conjunction with his friend, Professor J. Galbraith, he issued a series of Manuals of Mathematical and Physical Science.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Haughton, William

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​HAUGHTON, WILLIAM (fl. 1598), English playwright. He collaborated in many plays with Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, John Day and Richard Hathway. The only certain biographical information about him is derived from Philip Henslowe, who on the 10th of March 1600 lent him ten shillings “to release him out of the Clink.” Mr Fleay credits him with a considerable share in The Patient Grissill (1599), and a merry comedy entitled English-Men for my Money, or A Woman will have her Will (1598) is ascribed to his sole authorship. The Devil and his Dame, mentioned as a forthcoming play by Henslowe in March 1600, is identified by Mr Fleay as Grim, the Collier of Croydon, which was printed in 1662. In this play an emissary is sent from the infernal regions to report on the conditions of married life on earth.
Grim is reprinted in vol. viii., and English-Men for my Money in vol. x., of W. C. Hazlitt’s edition of Dodsley’s Old Plays.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hauptmann, Moritz

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​HAUPTMANN, MORITZ (1792–1868), German musical composer and writer, was born at Dresden, on the 13th of October 1792, and studied music under Scholz, Lanska, Grosse and Morlacchi, the rival of Weber. Afterwards he completed his education as a violinist and composer under Spohr, and till 1820 held various appointments in private families, varying his musical occupations with mathematical and other studies bearing chiefly on acoustics and kindred subjects. For a time also Hauptmann was employed as an architect, but all other pursuits gave place to music, and a grand tragic opera, Mathilde, belongs to the period just referred to. In 1822 he entered the orchestra of Cassel, again under Spohr’s direction, and it was then that he first taught composition and musical theory to such men as Ferdinand David, Burgmüller, Kiel and others. His compositions at this time chiefly consisted of motets, masses, cantatas and songs. His opera Mathilde was performed at Cassel ​with great success. In 1842 Hauptmann obtained the position of cantor at the Thomas-school of Leipzig (long previously occupied by the great Johann Sebastian Bach) together with that of professor at the conservatoire, and it was in this capacity that his unique gift as a teacher developed itself and was acknowledged by a crowd of enthusiastic and more or less distinguished pupils. He died on the 3rd of January 1868, and the universal regret felt at his death at Leipzig is said to have been all but equal to that caused by the loss of his friend Medelssohn many years before. Hauptmann’s compositions are marked by symmetry and perfection of workmanship rather than by spontaneous invention.
Amongst his vocal compositions—by far the most important portion of his work—may be mentioned two masses, choral songs for mixed voices (Op. 32, 47), and numerous part songs. The results of his scientific research were embodied in his book Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik (1853), a standard work of its kind, in which a philosophic explanation of the forms of music is attempted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hauge, Hans Nielsen

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​HAUGE, HANS NIELSEN (1771–1824), Norwegian Lutheran divine, was born in the parish of Thunö, Norway, on the 3rd of April 1771, the son of a peasant. With the aid of various religious works which he found in his father’s house, he laboured to supplement his scanty education. In his twenty-sixth year, believing himself to be a divinely-commissioned prophet, he began to preach in his native parish and afterwards throughout Norway, calling people to repentance and attacking rationalism. In 1800 he passed to Denmark, where, as at home, he gained many followers and assistants, chiefly among the lower orders. Proceeding to Christiansand in 1804, Hauge set up a printing-press to disseminate his views more widely, but was almost immediately arrested for holding illegal religious meetings, and for insulting the regular clergy in his books, all of which were confiscated; he was also heavily fined. After being in confinement for some years, he was released in 1814 on payment of a fine, and retiring to an estate at Breddwill, near Christiania, he died there on the 29th of March 1824. His adherents, who did not formally break with the church, were called Haugianer or Leser (i.e. Readers). He unquestionably did much to revive ​the spiritual life of the northern Lutheran Church. His views were of a pietistic nature. Though he cannot be said to have rejected any article of the Lutheran creed, the peculiar emphasis which he laid upon the evangelical doctrines of faith and grace involved considerable antagonism to the rationalistic or sacerdotal views commonly held by the established clergy.
Hauge’s principal writings are Forsög til Afhandeling om Guds Visdom (1796); Anvisning til nogle mörkelige Sprog i Bibelen (1798); Forklaring over Loven og Evangelium (1803). For an account of his life and doctrines see C. Bang’s Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Samtid (Christiania; 2nd ed., 1875); O. Rost, Nogle Bemaerkninger om Hans Nielsen Hauge og hans Retning (1883), and the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ormazd

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​ORMAZD, or Ormuzd (O. Persian Auramazda or Ahuramazda), the supreme deity of Zoroastrianism. He is represented as the god and creator of good, light, intelligence, in perpetual opposition to Ahriman the lord of evil, darkness and ignorance. The dualism of the earlier Zoroastrians, which may be compared with the Christian doctrine of God and Satan, gradually tended in later times towards monotheism. At all times it was believed that Ormazd would ultimately vanquish Ahriman. See further Zoroaster.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orme, Robert

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​ORME, ROBERT (1728–1801), English historian of India, was born at Anjengo on the Malabar coast on the 25th of December 1728, the son of a surgeon in the Company’s service. Educated at Harrow, he was appointed to a writership in Bengal in 1743. He returned to England in 1753 in the same ship with Clive, with whom he formed a close friendship. From 1754 to 1758 he was a member of council at Madras, in which capacity he largely influenced the sending of Clive to Calcutta to avenge the catastrophe of the Black Hole. His great work—A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from 1745—was published in three volumes in 1763 and 1778 (Madras reprint, 1861–1862). This was followed by a volume of Historical Fragments (1781), dealing with an earlier period. In 1769 he was appointed historiographer to the East India Company. He died at Ealing on the 13th of January 1801. His valuable collections of MSS. are in the India Office library. The characteristics of his work, of which the influence is admirably shown in Thackeray’s The Newcomes, are thus described by Macaulay: “Orme, inferior to no English historian in style and power of painting, is minute even to tediousness. In one volume he allots, on an average, a closely printed quarto page to the events of every forty-eight hours. The consequence is that his narrative, though one of the most authentic and one of the most finely written in our language, has never been very popular, and is now scarcely ever read.” Not a few of the most picturesque passages in Macaulay’s own Essay on Clive are borrowed from Orme. (J. S. Co.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orley, Bernard van

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​ORLEY, BERNARD VAN (1401–1542), Flemish painter, the son and pupil of the painter Valentyn van Orley, was born at ​Brussels and completed his art education in Rome in the school of Raphael. He returned to Brussels, where he held an appointment as court painter to Margaret of Austria until 1527, in which year he lost this position and left the city. He only returned to it upon being reinstated by Mary of Hungary in 1532, and died there in 1542. Whilst in his earlier work he continued the tradition of the Van Eycks and their followers, he inaugurated a new era in Flemish art by introducing into his native country the Italian manner of the later Renaissance, the style of which he had acquired during his sojourn in Rome. His art marks the passing from the Gothic to the Renaissance period; he is the chief figure in the period of decline which preceded the advent of Rubens. Meticulously careful execution, brilliant colouring, and an almost Umbrian sense of design are the chief characteristics of his work.
Van Orley, together with Michael Cocxie, superintended the execution of van Aelst’s tapestries for the Vatican, after Raphael’s designs, and is himself responsible for some remarkable tapestry designs, such as the panels at Hampton Court. His also are the designs for some of the stained glass windows in the cathedral of Ste Gudule, in Brussels, at the museum of which city are a number of his principal works, notably the triptych representing “The Patience of Job” (1521). Among his finest paintings are a “Trinity” at Lübeck cathedral, a “Pieta” at Brussels, a Madonna at Munich and another at Liverpool.
The National Gallery owns a “Magdalen, reading,” another version of the same subject being at the Dublin National Gallery. Lord Northbrook possesses a portrait of Charles V. by the master.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orléanais

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​ORLÉANAIS, one of the provinces into which France was divided before the Revolution. It was the country around Orleans, the pagus Aurelianensis; it lay on both banks of the Loire, and for ecclesiastical purposes formed the diocese of Orleans. It was in the possession of the Capet family before the advent of Hugh Capet to the throne of France in 987, and in 1344 Philip VI. gave it with the title of duke to Philip (d. 1375), one of his younger sons. In a geographical sense the region around Orleans is sometimes known as Orleanais, but this is somewhat smaller than the former province.
See A. Thomas, Les États provinciaux de la France centrale (1879).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ormolu

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​ORMOLU (Fr. or moulu, gold ground or pounded), an alloy of copper and zinc, sometimes with an addition of tin. The name is also used to describe gilded brass or copper. The tint of ormolu approximates closely to that of gold; it is heightened by a wash of gold lacquer, by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid, or by burnishing. The principal use of ormolu is for the mountings of furniture. With it the great French ebénistes of the 18th century obtained results which, in the most finished examples, are almost as fine as jewelers’ work. The mounts were usually cast and then chiselled with extraordinary skill and delicacy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ormoc

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​ORMOC, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on the W. coast about 35 m. S.W. of Tacloban. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Albuera, 20,761. There are thirty-three barrios or villages in the town, and the largest of them had a population in 1903 of 5419. The language is Visayan. Ormoc is in a great hemp-producing region and is open to coast trade.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ormerod, Eleanor A.

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​ORMEROD, ELEANOR A. (1828–1901), English entomologist, was the daughter of George Ormerod, F.R.S., author of The History of Cheshire, and was born at Sedbury Park, Gloucestershire, on the 11th of May 1828. From her earliest childhood insects were her delight, and the opportunity afforded for entomological study by the large estate upon which she grew up and the interest she took in agriculture generally soon made her a local authority upon this subject. When, in 1868, the Royal Horticultural Society began forming a collection of insect pests of the farm for practical purposes, Miss Ormerod largely contributed to it, and was awarded the Flora medal of the society. In 1877 she issued a pamphlet, Notes for Observations ​on Injurious Insects, which was distributed among persons interested in this line of inquiry, who readily sent in the results of their researches, and was thus the beginning of the well-known Annual Series of Reports on Injurious Insects and Farm Pests. In 1881 Miss Ormerod published a special report upon the “turnip-fly,” and in 1882 was appointed consulting entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society, a post she held until 1892. For several years she was lecturer on scientific entomology at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Her fame was not confined to England; she received silver and gold medals from the University of Moscow for her models of insects injurious to plants, and her treatise on The Injurious Insects of South Africa showed how wide was her range. In 1899 she received the large silver medal from the Société Nationale d’Acclimatation de France. Among others of her works are the Cobden Journals, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Handbook of Insects injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits. Almost the last honour which fell to her was the honorary degree of LL.D. of Edinburgh University—a unique distinction, for she was the first woman upon whom the university had conferred this degree. The dean of the legal faculty in making the presentation aptly summoned up Miss Ormerod’s services as follows: “The pre-eminent position which Miss Ormerod holds in the world of science is the reward of patient study and unwearying observation. Her investigations have been chiefly directed towards the discovery of methods for the prevention of the ravages of those insects which are injurious to orchard, field and forest. Her labours have been crowned with such success that she is entitled to be hailed the protectress of agriculture and the fruits of the earth—a beneficent Demeter of the 19th century.” She died at St Albans on the 19th of July 1901.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prostyle

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​PROSTYLE (Gr. πρό, before, and στῦλος, a column), in architecture, a portico in which the columns project from the building to which it is attached.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Protector

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​PROTECTOR, a Latin word (formed from protegere, to cover in front) adopted into English. In post-classical Latin the protectores were the body-guards of the emperors, and of the Praetorian prefects until, under Constantine the Great (306–337), they ceased to exercise military functions. The protectores, with the domestic, continued to form the body-guard and household troops of the emperor. They were veterans selected from the legions, and were capable of being appointed to high commands. In the Roman curia the protectores regnorum are cardinals who take charge of the affairs of the “province” to which they are named which come before the Sacred College, and to present them for consideration. In England “protector” was used first for the regent during a minority (e.g. the Protector Somerset, and then by Oliver Cromwell when he assumed the government in 1653). The name thus acquired a revolutionary significance, and has not since been officially used in England. In Spanish America the bishops were officially protectors of the Indians. The title is convenient for a ruler who wishes to exercise control outside the limits of his direct sovereignty. Thus Napoleon called himself protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. The kings of France, and the governments which have arisen out of the Revolution, were protectors of the Latin. Christians in the Turkish Empire, while the tsars of Russia have claimed the same position towards the Orthodox Christians.
See App. B. to vol. ii. of Bury’s edition of the Decline and Fall (London, 1896); Du Cange, Glossarium lat.; Sorel, L’Europe et la révolution française, vol. vii. (Paris, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Protagoras

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​PROTAGORAS (c. 481–411 B.C.), Greek philosopher, was born at Abdera. He is known as the first of the Sophists (q.v.), i.e. he was the first to teach for payment. It is said that he received nearly £400 from a single pupil. He learned philosophy in the Ionian school, and was perhaps a pupil of Democritus, though this is doubtful on chronological grounds. He was an older contemporary of Socrates. He was so highly esteemed by Pericles that he was entrusted with the task of framing laws for the new colony of Thurii (Plut. Pericles, 36). At the age of seventy, having been accused by Pythodorus, and convicted of atheism, Protagoras fled from Athens, and on his way to Sicily was lost at sea. According to Plato (Prot., 318 E), he endeavoured to communicate “prudence” (εὐβουλία) to his pupils, “which should fit them to manage their households, and to take part by word and deed in civic affairs.” The education which he provided consisted of rhetoric, grammar, style and the interpretation of the poets. His formal lectures were supplemented by discussions amongst his pupils. He left behind him several treatises, of which only a few fragments have survived. In Truth, by way of justifying his rejection of philosophy or science, he maintained that “man is the measure of all things—of what is, that it is, and of what is not, that it is not.” Besides Truth, and the book Of the Gods which caused his condemnation at Athens, Diogenes Laërtius attributes to him treatises on political, ethical, educational and rhetorical subjects. Protagoras was the first to systematize grammar, distinguishing the parts of speech, the tenses and the moods.
Authorities. Diog. Laërt., ix. 8, &c.; the very different representations in Plato’s Protagoras and Theaetetus; the fragments in Johannes Frei, Quaestiones Protagoreae (Bonn, 1845), and A. J. Vitringa, Disquisitio de Protagorae vita et Philosophia (Gröningen, 1852); for the Thurian legislation, M. H. E. Meier, Opuscula, i. 222, and Gomperz in Franz Hoffmann’s Beiträge zur Gesch. des griech. und röm. Rechts (1870). On Protagoras’ philosophy see the histories of philosophy, e.g. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans., 1901) i. 438–475 and 586–592, Zeller, Ueberweg, Erdmann, and works quoted under Sophists.