OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aetius (sect founder)

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​AETIUS (fl. 350), surnamed “the Atheist,” founder of an extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria. After working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops, Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) in order to advocate Arianism, but he was banished by Constantius. Julian recalled him from exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364) he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constantinople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians, of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connexion with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. lxxvi. 10). Its main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. the doctrine that the Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-contradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which constitutes the nature of God.
See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Afars

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​AFARS (Danakil), a tribe of African “Arabs” of Hamitic stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich and tree-worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism. They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and small pointed chins; their cheekbones are not prominent. They are more scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla, wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-cloth. Their women, when quite young, are pretty and graceful. Their huts are often tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats, embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in 1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under Egyptian rule. In 1883–1888, however, their most important sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in considerable numbers in French Somaliland. They have a saying “Guns are only useful to frighten cowards.” They were formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red Sea who hunt the dugong.
See Fr. Scazamucci and E. H. Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil (1884); P. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., Berlin, 1893–1896); and Die geographische Erforschung der Adâl-Länder und Harârs in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Afer, Domitius

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​AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nîmes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consulship under Caligula (39); and under Nero he was superintendent of the water supply. He died A.D. 60, according to Jerome, of over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta), collections of which were published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses.
See Quintilian, Instit. vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. 1. 118, &c.; Tac. Ann. iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Affinity, Chemical

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​AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemical combination with each other. (See Chemistry; Chemical Action; Valency.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Affirmation

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​AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declaration that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly, in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscientiously object to taking an oath. (See Oath.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Affinity

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​AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law, as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term applied to the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually described as of three kinds. (1) Direct: that relationship which subsists between the husband and his wife’s relations by blood or between the wife and the husband’s relations by blood. The marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife’s sister has no affinity to her husband’s brother. This is (2) Secondary affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting between the husband and the relations of his wife’s relations.
The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibitions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity. Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be the same bar, and vice versa on the husband’s decease.
Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 all marriages of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a deceased wife’s sister or niece. (See Consanguinity; Marriage.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bathgate

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​BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, Scotland, 19 m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 7549. The district is rich in limestone, coal, ironstone, shale and fireclay, all of which are worked. Silver also was once mined. The manufactures include paraffin, paper, glass, chemicals, flour and whisky, and freestone is quarried. The burgh is a considerable centre for agricultural produce. Bathgate became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a police burgh in 1865. Although it was not until the development of its mineral wealth that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place of some antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce’s daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, in 1315.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bathurst

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​BATHURST, a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, Australia, 144 m. by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223. It is situated on the south bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation of 2153 ft., in a fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue Mountains. Bathurst has broad streets, crossing one another at right angles, with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings, and Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy. Bathurst is the centre of the chief wheat-growing district of New South Wales, while gold, copper and silver are extensively mined in its vicinity. There are railway works, coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and manufactures of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town was founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name from the 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary of state for the colonies, and it has been a municipality since 1862.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bathonian Series

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​BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian is the Great Oolite series of England, and the name was derived from the “Bath Oolite,” so extensively mined and quarried in the vicinity of that city, where the principal strata were first studied by W. Smith. The term was first used by J. d’Omalius d’Halloy in 1843 (Precis Geol.) as a synonym for “Dogger”; but it was limited in 1849 by A. d’Orbigny (Pal. Franc. Jur. i. p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (Tabl. Synchron.) used the word “Bathien”＝Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to English practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations in descending order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford Clay, Great or Bath Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers’ Earth. (The Fullers’ Earth is sometimes regarded as constituting a separate stage, the “Fullonian.”) The “Bathonien” of some French geologists differs from the English Bathonian in that it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite Parkinsonia Parkinsoni, which in England is placed at the summit of the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the upper part of the “Dogger” (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, or to the base of the Upper Brown Jura (substage “E” of Quenstedt).
Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in the N.W. and S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically associated with coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, and with certain beds of clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, &c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous oolites prevail, some of the last being exploited for iron. They occur also in the extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions, Greenland, Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East Africa, Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.
The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and “Hauptrogenstein” of Swabia, as well as the “Eisenkalk” of N.W. Germany, and “Klaus-Schichten” of the Austrian Alps, are of Bathonian age.
For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, Traité de géologie (5th ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article Jurassic. (J. A. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bathos

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​BATHOS (Gr. βάθος), properly depth, the bottom or lowest part of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent “from the sublime to the ridiculous,” from the elevated to the commonplace in literature or speech, is due to Pope’s satire on Bathos (Miscellanies, 1727–1728), “the art of sinking in poetry.” The title was a travesty of Longinus’s essay, On the Sublime, Περὶ ὔψους.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bath-Chair

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​BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used open or closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels and drawn or pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a donkey or small pony it is then mounted on four wheels, with the usual turning arrangement. James Heath, of Bath, who flourished rather before the middle of the 18th century, was the inventor.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bath (Maine)

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​BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc county, Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12 m. from its mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) 8723; (1900) 10,477, of whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 9396. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban electric railway. The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends along the W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is only a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on higher ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for the aged, and a soldiers’ monument. Bath has a good harbour and its principal industry is the building of ships, both of wood and of iron and steel, several vessels of the United States navy ​have been built here. In 1905 three-fourths of the city’s wage-earners were employed in this industry. Bath also manufactures lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a considerable trade in ice, coal, lumber and iron and steel. First settled about 1660, Bath was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it was incorporated as a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of entry, and in 1847 was chartered as a city.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alley

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​ALLEY (from the Fr. allée, a walk), a narrow passageway between two buildings available only for foot passengers or hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known as a “blind-alley,” or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Allier (river)

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​ALLIER (anc. Elaver), a river of central France flowing into the Loire. It rises in the department of Lozère, among the Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende. The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains of the Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most part through deep gorges. The river then traverses the plains of Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon some miles above the town of Issoire. Swelled by torrents from the mountains of Dore and Dôme, it unites with the river Dore at its entrance to the department to which it gives its name. It then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining the Sioule some distance above Moulins, the chief town on its banks. It soon after becomes the boundary line between the departments of Cher and Nièvre, and reaches the Loire 4 m. west of Nevers, after a course of 269 m. Its basin has an area of 6755 sq. m. The Allier is classed as navigable for the last 154 m. of its course, but there is little traffic on it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Allibone, Samuel Austin

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​ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816–1889), American author and bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 17th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry. He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in mercantile business in his native city. He, however, devoted himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research; acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the well-known Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors (3 vols.: vol. i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii. 1871). To this, two supplementary volumes, edited by John Foster Kirk, were added in 1891. From 1867 to 1873, and again in 1877–1879, Allibone was book editor and corresponding secretary of the American Sunday School Union; and from 1879 to 1888 he was librarian of the Lenox Library, New York City. He died at Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September 1889. In addition to his Critical Dictionary he published three large anthologies and several religious tracts.
See the “Memoir” by S. D. M‘Connell, an address delivered before the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Allia

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​ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettinia), a small tributary of the river Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about 11 m. N. of Rome. It gave its name to the terrible defeat which the Romans suffered at the hands of the Gauls on the 18th of July 390 B.C. Livy (v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with regard to the site of the battle, the former putting it on the left, the latter on the right bank of the Tiber. Mommsen and others support Diodorus, but the question still remains open.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 24.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alliaria Officinalis

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​ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisymbrium Alliaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the-hedge, or sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to the natural order Cruciferae. It is a rankly scented herb, 2 to 3 ft. high, with long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small white flowers which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods. It is widely spread through the north temperate region of the Old World.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Alliance (city)

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​ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the Mahoning river, about 57 m. S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080 ft. above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake Erie. Pop. (1890) 7607; (1900) 8974, of whom 1029 were foreign born; (1910, census) 15,083. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways, and by an electric line connecting with Canton and Salem. The city is the seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in 1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907 a library of about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department (opened in 1858), a normal department (1858), a school of music (1855), a commercial school (1868), a faculty of 29 teachers, and an enrolment of 524 students, of whom 274 were women. Among the manufactures of Alliance are structural iron, steel castings, pressed sheet steel, gun carriages, boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs, street-car indicators, sashes and doors, and account registers and other material for file and cabinet-bookkeeping. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Alliance was first settled in 1838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom; it was named Alliance in 1851, was incorporated as a village in 1854, and became a city of the second class in 1888.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amontons, Guillaume

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​AMONTONS, GUILLAUME (1663–1705), French experimental philosopher, the son of an advocate who had left his native province of Normandy and established himself at Paris, was born in that city on the 31st of August 1663. He devoted himself particularly to the improvement of instruments employed in physical experiments. In 1687 he presented to the Academy of Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, and in 1695 he published his only book, Remarques et expériences physiques sur la construction d’une nouvelle clepsydre, sur les baromètres, les thermomètres et les hygromètres. In 1699 he published some investigations on friction, and in 1702–1703 two noteworthy papers on thermometry. He experimented with an air-thermometer, in which the temperature was defined by measurement of the length of a column of mercury; and he pointed out that the extreme cold of such a thermometer would be that which reduced the “spring” of the air to nothing, thus being the first to recognize that the use of air as a thermometric substance led to the inference of the existence of a zero of temperature. In 1704 he noted that barometers are affected by heat as well as by the weight of the atmosphere, and in the following year he described barometers without mercury, for use at sea. Amontons, who through disease was rendered almost completely deaf in early youth, died at Paris on the 11th of October 1705.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amnesty

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​AMNESTY (from the Gr. ἀμνηστία, oblivion), an act of grace by which the supreme power in a state restores those who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the position of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon, inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence. Amnesties, which may be granted by the crown alone, or by act of parliament, were formerly usual on coronations and similar occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though more frequently there are certain specified exceptions. Thus, in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of Thrasybulus at Athens, the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of Charles II. did not extend to those who had taken part in the execution of his father. Other celebrated amnesties are that proclaimed by Napoleon on the 13th of March 1815, from which thirteen eminent persons, including Talleyrand, were excepted; the Prussian amnesty of the 10th of August 1840; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria in 1857; the general amnesty granted by President Johnson after the Civil War in 1868; and the French amnesty of 1905. The last act of amnesty passed in Great Britain was that of 1747, which proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken part in the second Jacobite rebellion.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amorphism

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​AMORPHISM (from α, privative, and μορφἡ, form), a term used in chemistry and mineralogy to denote the absence of regular or crystalline structure in a body; the adjective “amorphous,” formless or of irregular shape, being also used technically in biology, &c.