OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomas, Arthur Goring

See also Arthur Goring Thomas on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850–1892), English musical composer, was the youngest son of Freeman Thomas and Amelia, daughter of Colonel Thomas Frederick. He was born at Ratton Park, Sussex, on the 20th of November 1850, and educated at Haileybury College. He was intended for the Civil Service, but delicate health interfered with his studies, and in 1873 he went to Paris to cultivate the musical talent he had displayed from an early age. Here he studied for two years with Émile Durand. In 1875 he returned to England, and in 1877 entered the Royal Academy of Music, where for three years he studied under Ebenezer Prout and Arthur Sullivan, winning twice the Lucas medal for composition. At a later period he received some instruction in orchestration from Max Bruch. His first published composition was a song, “Le Roi Henri,” which appeared in 1871. An early comic opera, Don Braggadocio (libretto by his brother, C. I. Thomas), was apparently unfinished; some of the music in it was afterwards used for The Golden Web. A selection from his second opera, The Light of the Harem (libretto by Clifford Harrison), was performed at the Royal Academy of Music on the 7th of November 1879, with such success that Carl Rosa commissioned him to write ​Esmeralda (libretto by T. Marzials and A. Randegger), which was produced at Drury Lane on the 26th of March 1883. Two years later it was given (in German) at Cologne and Hamburg, and in 1890 (in French) at Covent Garden. On the 16th of April 1885 Rosa produced at Drury Lane Thomas’s fourth and best opera, Nadeshda (libretto by Julian Sturgis), a German version of which was given at Breslau in 1890. A fifth opera, The Golden Web (libretto by F. Corder and B. C. Stephenson), slighter than its predecessors, was produced (after the composer’s death) at Liverpool, Feb. 15, and at the Lyric Theatre, London, Mar. 11, 1893. Besides these dramatic works Thomas’s chief compositions were a psalm, “Out of the Deep,” for soprano solo and chorus (London, 1878); a choral ode, "The Sun Worshippers" (Norwich, 1881), and a suite de ballet for orchestra (Cambridge, 1887). A cantata, The Swan and the Skylark, was found in pianoforte score among his MSS. after his death: it was orchestrated by C. Villiers Stanford, and produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1894. His minor compositions include over 100 songs and duets. In 1891 Thomas became engaged to be married; shortly afterwards he showed signs of mental disease, and his career came to a tragic end on the 20th of March 1892. He was buried in Finchley cemetery. Goring Thomas occupies a distinct place among English composers of the 19th century. His music, which shows traces of his early French training, reveals a great talent for dramatic composition and a real gift of refined and beautiful melody. Personally the most amiable of men, he was most critical of his own work, never attempting anything for which he felt he was unfitted, and constantly revising and rewriting his compositions. (W. B. S.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thistlewood, Arthur

See also Arthur Thistlewood on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THISTLEWOOD, ARTHUR (1770-1820), the principal instigator of the Cato Street conspiracy, a plot formed to murder many British ministers in 1820. A son of William Thistlewood, and born at Tupholme in Lincolnshire, young Thistlewood passed his early years in a desultory fashion; he became a soldier and visited France and America, imbibing republican opinions abroad and running into debt at home. Then taking up his residence in London he joined the Spencean Society, a revolutionary body; associated himself with James Watson (d. 1838) and other agitators; and in December 1816 helped to arrange a meeting in Spa Fields, London, which was to be followed by the seizure of the Tower of London and the Bank of England, and by a general revolution. The proposed rising was a dismal failure, but the Habeas Corpus Act was suspended and Thistlewood and Watson were seized, although upon being tried they were acquitted. Becoming more violent Thistlewood formed other plots, talked of murdering the prince of Wales, and was sentenced to a year's imprisonment for challenging the home secretary, Lord Sidmouth, to a duel. After his release in May 1819, having broken away from Henry Hunt and the more moderate reformers, he prepared a new and comprehensive plot. On the 23rd of February 1820, at a time of great distress and during the unrest caused by the death of George III., the cabinet ministers had arranged to dine at the earl of Harrowby's house in Grosvenor Square. Thistlewood knew of the dinner. With some associates he hired a room in the neighbouring Cato Street, collected arms and made ready to fall upon Harrowby's guests. However the authorities had been informed of the plot, probably by one of the conspirators named George Edwards; officers appeared upon the scene and arrested some of the conspirators; and although Thistlewood escaped in the confusion he was seized on the following day. Tried for high treason, Thistlewood and four others were sentenced to death, and were hanged on the 1st of May 1820.
See Sir S. Walpole, History of England (1890), vol. i.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tholos

See also Tholos on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOLOS (θόλος}, the term given in Greek architecture to a circular building, with or without peristyle; the earliest examples are those of the beehive tombs at Mycenae and in other parts of Greece, which were covered by domes built in horizontal courses of masonry. The Tholos at Epidaurus, built by Polycleitus (c. 400 B.C.), and the Tholos at Olympia known as the Philippeion, are the most remarkable examples, and in both cases were covered with a sloping roof and not with a dome.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thoma, Hans

See also Hans Thoma on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOMA, HANS (1839-), German painter, was born at Bernau in the Black Forest. Having started life as a painter of clock-faces, he entered in 1859 the Carlsruhe academy, where he studied under Schirmer and Des Coudres. He subsequently studied and worked, with but indifferent success, in Düsseldorf, Paris, Italy, Munich and Frankfort, until his reputation became firmly established as the result of an exhibition of some thirty of his paintings in Munich. In spite of his studies under various masters, his art has little in common with modern ideas, and is formed partly by his early impressions of the simple idyllic life of his native district, partly by his sympathy with the early German masters — particularly with Altdorfer and Cranach. In his love of the details of nature, in his precise (though by no means faultless) drawing of outline, and in his predilection for local colouring, he has distinct affinities with the pre-Raphaelites. Many of his pictures have found their way into two private collections in Liverpool. A portrait of the artist, and two subject pictures, “The Guardian of the Valley” and “Spring Idyll,” are at the Dresden Gallery; “Eve in Paradise ” and “The Open Valley” at the Frankfort Museum. Other important pictures of his are “Paradise,” “Christ and Nicodemus,” “The Flight into Egypt,” “Charon,” “Pietà,” “Adam and Eve,” “Solitude,” “Tritons,” besides many landscapes and portraits. He has also produced numerous lithographs and pen drawings, and some decorative mural paintings, notably in a café at Frankfort, and in the music room of Mr Pringsheimer's house in Munich.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thomas, George

See also George Thomas (soldier) on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802), British military adventurer in India. Thomas was born of poor parentage in Ireland in 1756, deserted from the British Navy in Madras, and made his way north to Delhi, where he took service under the begum Samru of Sardhana. Supplanted in her favour by a Frenchman, he transferred his allegiance to Appa Rao, a Mahratta chieftain, and subsequently set up an independent kingdom of his own in Hariana with his capital at Hansi. Thomas was a man of great personal strength and daring, and considerable military genius. In the turmoil of falling kingdoms in the India of that day his sword was always at the service of the highest bidder; but he had the virtues of his profession—he never betrayed an employer, was kind and generous to his soldiers, and was always ready to succour a woman in distress. He cherished dreams of conquering the Punjab, and fought one of his best campaigns against the Sikh chiefs; but he was finally defeated and captured by Sindhia’s army under General Perron (q.v.). His iron constitution was broken by exposure and excessive drinking, and he died on his way down the Ganges on the 22nd of August 1802.
See Francklin, Military Memoirs of Mr George Thomas (1803); Compton, Military Adventurers of Hindustan (1892).
# A Brief History of South Dakota

A BRIEF HISTORY
OF
SOUTH DAKOTA
BY
DOANE ROBINSON
SECRETARY OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH DAKOTA
Copyright, 1905, by
DOANE ROBINSON.
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
E-P 7
SOUTH DAKOTA'S PRAYER
Make me, O God, a loving mother-state,
Whose sturdy sons and comely daughters leal
With selfless pride shall count maternal weal
The chiefest end—the certain way and straight,
Through which to win the chaplets of the great.
Make me, O God, essentially to feel
My children's loyal love, the perfect, real,
Supremest gift bestowed by Gracious Fate.
Make mine, O God, in truth a commonwealth,
Wherein each heir shall share and share partake,
And none shall fail and none shall take by stealth;
My all for them; and they for Mother's sake
    Shall deem it good both gear and life to give.
    In love and trust, may Heaven let us live.
The New State Capitol of South Dakota
PREFACE
The student who learns the story of his community, the sacrifices and successes of the pioneers, the worthy accomplishments of his relatives of an earlier generation, the history of the soil upon which he lives, will hardly fail to develop pride in his locality, and that pride is an almost certain guaranty of good citizenship. The following stories of South Dakota are written in the belief that they will contribute something to the development of an intelligent and patriotic citizenship in our state.
CONTENTS
This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published before January 1, 1929.
The longest-living author of this work died in 1946, so this work is in the public domain in countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 77 years or less. This work may be in the public domain in countries and areas with longer native copyright terms that apply the rule of the shorter term to foreign works.
Public domainPublic domainfalsefalse
# A Brief History of Modern Philosophy/Preface

Professor Harold Høffding is already well known to the English-speaking world through the translations of his Psychology, Ethics, Philosophy of Religion, Problems of Philosophy and his History of Modern Philosophy (2 vols.), all published by the Macmillan Company. The fact that his works are rapidly finding their way into English and other languages is the best evidence of the esteem in which his work is held and of his importance as a thinker. Born in 1843, professor of philosophy in Copenhagen since 1883, Doctor Høffding has worked over the whole field of philosophy with great thoroughness. The original (German) edition from which this translation is made appeared in 1905. It is therefore the fruit of his ripest scholarship. The book is clear, compact and comprehensive. The various schools are analyzed and criticized, and the thread of continuous development is constantly kept clearly in view. These features constitute the exceptional merit of the book as a text. The student is constantly aware that a familiar spirit is safely guiding him through the bewildering maze of philosophic problems and tentative solutions.
As a psychologist Doctor Høffding is an empirical introspectionist. He is thoroughly modern in his antipathy towards metaphysical speculation. He discovers a native tendency in man, manifesting itself in the impulse towards well-being, the source or further meaning of which is beyond our knowledge, which furnishes the basis of ethics.
Religion is the reaction of the human mind to the sense of value and represents the highest function of the human mind. As a critical empiricist he possesses a peculiar advantage in the interpretation of the trend of philosophic thought. We offer this book to the English student because of its merit, as an efficient guide to the understanding of modern philosophy.
       C. F. SANDERS.
       Gettysburg, Pa.
       July 20, 1912.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/92

[Sidenote: 92. The Hedaya quoted and refuted.]
The Hedaya, or a Commentary of the Mohammadan Common Law by Nuraddin Ali of Murghinan (died in 593, A.H.) has:—
"The destruction of the sword is incurred by the infidels, although they be not the first aggressors, as appears from the various passages in the sacred writings which are generally received to this effect."
This assertion is not borne out by the sacred injunction of the Koran, and, on the contrary, is in direct contradiction to the same. There are several passages in the Koran already quoted in pages 16-25, which expressly forbid the taking of offensive measures, and enjoin only defensive wars. There are some other passages which are not so expressive as the several others referred to above, or in other words, are not conditional. But the law of interpretation, the general scope and tenor of the Koran, and the context of the verses and parallel passages, all show that those few verses which are not conditional should be construed as conditional in conformity with other passages more clear, expressive, and conditional, and with the general laws of scriptural interpretation. Now, the author of the Hedaya and other writers on the Common Law quote only those few passages from the Koran which are absolute or unconditional, and shut their eyes against those many conditional verses, and general scope and tenor of the Koran.

## Footnotes

* ↑ "Arab Kattâl; meaning war in its operation, such as fighting, slaying," &c.
* ↑ The Hedaya, Vol. II, 141.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/94

[Sidenote: 94. The Common Law and its commentators.]
It is not to be wondered that the Mohammadan legists or the compilers of the Common Law are wrong in this point. Because, as a rule, or as a matter of fact, they have compiled the Common Law from different sources irrespective of the Koran, and the commentators of the Common Law take the trouble of vindicating its views, principles and casuistries, and justifying the Moslem conquests under the Khalifs by the authority of the Koran. Then only they commit the unpardonable blunder of citing isolated parts of solitary verses of the Koran, which are neither expressive enough nor are in general terms. In doing so, they avoid the many other conditional and more explicit verses on the same subject.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/95

[Sidenote: 95. Kifaya quoted.]
The author of Kifaya, a commentary on the Hedaya, who flourished in the seventh century of the Hegira, remarks on the words of the text, "The destruction of the sword is incurred by the infidels, although they be not the first aggressors," already quoted in the 92nd para., and says; "Fighting against the infidels who do not become converts to Islam, and do not pay the capitation-tax, is incumbent, though they do not attack first." The author of the Hedaya has mentioned this aggressive measure specially, because apparently the words of God, "if they attack you then slay them," indicate that the fighting against the unbelievers is only incumbent when they fight first, but, however, such is not the case. It is incumbent to fight with them, though they be not the aggressors.

## Footnotes

* ↑ Sura II, 187.
* ↑ The Hedaya, with its commentary called Kifaya, Vol. II, p. 708. Calcutta Medical Press, 1834. As a general rule the Mohammadan authors do not refer to the verses of the Koran by their number. They generally quote the first sentence, or even a portion of it. The No. of verses are mine. I have followed Fluegel and Rodwell's numbers of verses in their editions and translations of the Koran.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/129

[Sidenote: 129. The Rev. Mr. Malcolm MacColl quoted.]
The Rev. Malcolm MacColl writes:—
"The Koran divides the earth into parts: Dar-ul-Islam, or the House of Islam; and Dar-ul-Harb, or the House of the enemy. All who are not of Islam are thus against it, and it is accordingly the duty of the True Believers to fight against the infidels till they accept Islam, or are destroyed. This is called the Djihad or Holy War, which can only end with the conversion or death of the last infidel on earth. It is thus the sacred duty of the Commander of the Faithful to make war on the non-Mussulman world as occasion may offer. But Dar-ul-Harb or the non-Mussulman world, is subdivided into Idolaters and Ketabi, or 'People of the Book,'—i.e., people who possess divinely inspired Scriptures, namely, Jews, Samaritans, and Christians. All the inhabitants of Dar-ul-Harb are infidels, and consequently outside the pale of Salvation. But the Ketabi are entitled to certain privileges in this world, if they submit to the conditions which Islam imposes. Other infidels must make their choice between one of two alternatives—Islam or the sword. The Ketabi are allowed a third alternative, namely, submission and the payment of tribute. But if they refuse to submit, and presume to fight against the True Believers, they lapse at once into the condition of the rest of Dar-ul-Harb and may be summarily put to death or sold as slaves."
I am very sorry the Rev. gentleman is altogether wrong in his assertions against the Koran. There is neither such a division of the world in the Koran, nor such words as "Dar-ul-Islam" and "Dar-ul-Harb" are to be found anywhere in it. There is no injunction in the Koran to the True Believers to fight against the infidels till they accept Islam, failing which they are to be put to death. The words "Dar-ul-Islam" and "Dar-ul-Harb" are only to be found in the Mohammadan Common Law, and are only used in the question of jurisdiction. No Moslem magistrate will pass a sentence in a criminal case against a criminal who had committed an offence in a foreign country. The same is the case in civil courts. All the inhabitants of Dar-ul-Harb are not necessarily infidels. Mohammadans, either permanently or temporarily by obtaining permission from the sovereign of the foreign land, can be the inhabitants of a Dar-ul-Harb, a country out of the Moslem jurisdiction, or at war with it.

## Footnotes

* ↑ The Nineteenth Century; London, December 1877, page 832.
* ↑ This subject has been fully treated in my "The Proposed Political, Legal, and Social Reforms in Moslem States," pp. 22-25: Bombay Education Society Press, 1883.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/90

[Sidenote 90. The Common Law and Jihad.]
All the fighting injunctions in the Koran are, in the first place, only in self-defence, and none of them has any reference to make warfare offensively. In the second place, it is to be particularly noted that they were transitory in their nature, and are not to be considered positive injunctions for future observance or religious precepts for coming generations. They were only temporary measures to meet the emergency of the aggressive circumstances. The Mohammadan Common Law is wrong on this point, where it allows unbelievers to be attacked without provocation. But this it places under the category of a non-positive injunction. A positive injunction is that which is incumbent on every believer. But attacking unbelievers without any provocation, or offensively, is not incumbent on every believer. The Hedaya has:—"The sacred injunction concerning war is sufficiently observed when it is carried on by any one "party" or tribe of Mussulmans; and it is then no longer of any force with respect to the rest."

## Footnotes

* ↑ Ata, a learned legist of Mecca, who flourished at the end of the first century of the Hegira, and held a high rank there as a juris-consult, (vide para. 112) held, that Jihad was only incumbent on the Companions of the Prophet, and was not binding on any one else after them. See para. 112, and Tafsír Majma-ul-Bayán by Tabrasee under Sura II. 212.
* ↑ The Hedaya or Guide; or, A Commentary on the Mussulman Laws, translated by Charles Hamilton; Vol. II, Book IX, Ch. I, page 140 London, MDCCXCI.
# A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihád'/Chapter 12/130

[Sidenote: 130. The untenable theories of the Common Law and conclusion.]
It is only a theory of our Common Law, in its military and political chapters, which allow waging unprovoked war with non-Moslems, exacting tribute from "the people of the Book," and other idolaters, except those of Arabia, for which the Hanafi Code of the Common Law has nothing short of conversion to Islam or destruction by the sword. As a rule, our canonical legists support their theories by quotations from the Mohammadan Revealed Law, i.e., the Koran, as well as from the Sonnah, or the traditions from the Prophet, however absurd and untenable may be their process of reasoning and argumentative deductions. In this theory of waging war with, and exacting tribute or the capitation-tax from, the non-Moslem world, they quote the 9th and other Suras. These verses have been copied and explained elsewhere in this book. The casuistic sophistry of the canonical legists in deducing these war theories from the Koran is altogether futile. These verses relate only to the wars waged by the Prophet and his followers purely in their self-defence. Neither these verses had anything to do with waging unprovoked war and exacting tributes during Mohammad's time, nor could they be made a law for future military conquest. These were only temporary in their operations and purely defensive in their nature. The Mohammadan Common Law is by no means divine or superhuman. It mostly consists of uncertain traditions, Arabian usages and customs, some frivolous and fortuitous analogical deductions from the Koran, and a multitudinous array of casuistical sophistry of the canonical legists. It has not been held sacred or unchangeable by enlightened Mohammadans of any Moslem country and in any age since its compilation in the fourth century of the Hejira. All the Mujtahids, Ahl Hadis, and other non-Mokallids had had no regard for the four schools of Mohammadan religious jurisprudence, or the Common Law.