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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prehnite

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​PREHNITE, a mineral consisting of calcium hydrogen ortho-silicate, H$_2$Ca$_2$Al$_2$(SiO$_4$)$_3$. It crystallizes in the hemimorphic class of the orthorhombic system, but the hemimorphic character is usually obscured by twinning. Crystals are generally platy in habit, but they rarely occur singly and distinctly shaped; almost invariably they are closely aggregated together to form barrel-shaped or globular groups with a crystalline surface. This form, together with the pale oil-green colour, gives the mineral a very characteristic appearance. It is translucent and has a vitreous lustre. The hardness is rather over 6 and the spec. grav. 2.80–2.95. Crystals are pyro-electric. Prehnite is sometimes classed with the zeolites, since it occurs under the same conditions as these minerals and often in association with them: the small amount of water (4.4%) is, however, expelled only at a red heat and is therefore not water of crystallization.
Prehnite occurs as a mineral of secondary origin in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic igneous rocks, such as basalt and diabase, and less often, in veins in granite and gneiss. Fine specimens are found with zeolites in the volcanic rocks of several places in the south of Scotland, e.g. Old Kilpatrick in Dumbartonshire, Bishopton in Renfrewshire, Campsie Hills in Stirlingshire and in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh; also at Paterson and Bergen Hill in New Jersey, and with native copper in the trap-rocks of the Lake Superior region. In the French (at Le Bourg d'Oisans) and Tyrolese Alps it occurs with axinite, epidote, felspar, &c., lining crevices in gneiss. Large masses have been found at Cradock in Cape Colony, from which locality it was brought in the 18th century by Colonel Prehn, the governor of the colony; hence the names “ Cape chrysolite ” and prehnite (of A. G. Werner, 1789). Prebnite is sometimes cut and polished for small ornaments; it then somewhat resembles chrysoprase in appearance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratnagiri

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​RATNAGIRI, a town and district of British India, in the southern division of Bombay. The town is on the Seacoast, 136 m. S. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 16,094. A leading industry is the sardine fishery, which usually takes place in January and February, and engages fleets of canoes.
The District of Ratnagiri has an area of 3998 sq. m. It forms a strip between the western Ghats and the sea, and its general character is rugged; nearly all the fertile land lies on the banks of the streams which intersect the country. The coast, about 150 m. in length, is almost uniformly rocky and dangerous. At intervals of about 10 m. a river or bay opens, sufficiently large to form a secure harbour for native craft, and the promontories at the river mouths are almost invariably crowned with the ruins of an old fort. The rivers and creeks are generally navigable for about 20 m., and afford facilities for a coasting trade. At the beginning of British rule there were no roads, and traffic was confined to places where there was water carriage; but a network of roads has been made, opening communication by hill passes with the Deccan. Ratnagiri formed part of the dominions of the peshwa, and was annexed by the British government in 1818 on the overthrow of Baji Rao. In 1901 the population was 1,167,927, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Ratnagiri is the home of the influential class of Chitpavan Brahmans. It also supplies factory hands to Bombay and sepoys to the native army.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratramnus

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​RATRAMNUS (d. c. 868), a theological controversialist of the second half of the 9th century, was a monk of the Benedictine abbey of Corbie near Amiens, but beyond this fact very little of his history has been preserved. He is best known by his treatise on the Eucharist (De corpore et sangnine Domini liber), in which he controverted the doctrine of transubstantiation as taught in a similar work by his contemporary Radbertus Paschasius. Ratramnus sought in a way to reconcile science and religion, whereas Radbertus emphasized the miraculous. Ratramnus's views failed to find acceptance; their author was soon forgotten, and, when the book was condemned at the synod of Vercelli in 1050, it was described as having been written by Johannes Scotus Erigena at the command of Charlemagne. In the Reformation it again saw the light; it was published in 1532 and immediately translated. In the controversy about election, when appealed to by Charles the Bald, Ratramnus wrote two books De praedestinatione Dei, in which he maintained the doctrine of a twofold predestination; nor did the fate of Gottschalk deter him from supporting his view against Hincmar as to the orthodoxy of the expression “trina Deitas.” Ratramnus perhaps won most glory in his own day by his Contra Graecorum opposita, in four books (868), a valued contribution to the controversy between the Eastern and Western Churches which had been raised by the publication of the encyclical letter of Photius in 867. An edition of De corpore et sanguine Domini was published at Oxford in 1859.
See the article by G. Steitz and Hauck in Hauck's Realencyklopädie für protest. Theologie, Band xvi. (Leipzig, 1905); Naegle, Ratramnus und die heilige Eucharistie (Vienna, 1903); Schnitzer, Berengar von Tours; and A. Harnack, History of Dogma, v., pp. 309-322 (1894-9).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratke, Wolfgang

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RATKE (RATCHIUS), WOLFGANG (1571-1635), German educationist, was born at Wilster, Holstein, on the 18th of October 1571, and educated at the university of Rostock. His system of education was based upon Bacon's philosophy, the principle being that of “proceeding from things to names,”
from the particular to the general, and from the mother tongue to foreign languages. In 1618 he opened schools at Augsburg and elsewhere, but at Köthen difficulties with the clergy led to his imprisonment for eight months, and after starting another school at Magdeburg in 1620 which failed, he became a wanderer and died at Erfurt on the 27th of April 1635. His ideas were far in advance of his time, but he lacked executive ability.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratlam

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​RATLAM (or Rutlam), a native state of central India, in the Malwa agency. Area, 902 sq. m. Its territory is closely interlaced with that of Sailana. It is held as tributary to Sindhia; but in 1819 an arrangement was made by which Sindhia engaged never to send any troops into the country or to interfere with the internal administration, and in 1861 the tribute was assigned to the British government in part payment of the Gwalior contingent. The population in 1901 was 83,773, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade; estimated revenue, £34,000; tribute, £2850. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rahtor Rajput of the Jodhpur family. The chief Sujjan Singh succeeded in 1893, and attained full powers in 1898. The town of Ratlam is 1577 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 36,321. It is a junction on the Rajputana-Malwa railway, and an important centre of trade, especially in opium.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratnapura

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RATNAPURA (i.e. "The City of Gems"), the chief town in the province of Sabaragamuwa, Ceylon. It is the centre of a long established industry in digging for precious stones—rubies, sapphires, cat's-eyes, &c. There is also much rice and fruit cultivation and planting of tea in the district. Pop. of town (1901) 4084; of district 132,964.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raton

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RATON, a city and county seat of Colfax county, New Mexico, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, and about 193 m. N.E. by rail from Santa Fé. Pop. (1890) 1255; (1900) 3540 (337 foreign-born); (1910 census) 4539. Raton is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Saint Louis, Rocky Mountain & Pacific, and the Santa Fé, Raton & Eastern railways. The city lies immediately W. of the Raton Mountains, from which it derives its name, and has an elevation of 6400–6650 ft. above the sea. Among its institutions are a miners' hospital, maintained by the state, and a picturesque public park. The city lies within the Raton coal field, a southern continuation of the field of the same name in Colorado, and the richest coal-producing area in New Mexico. In 1907 70% of the total coal product of New Mexico came from Colfax county, in which this field is situated. Ores of gold, silver and lead have been mined in Colfax county. South and east of the city there is good farming land. Raton is a place of railway origin, and owes its development to its extensive railway shops, as well as to the proximity of mines. It was incorporated in 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rattazzi, Urbano

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​ RATTAZZI, URBANO (1808- 1873), Italian statesman, was born on the 29th of June 1808 at Alessandria, and from 1838 practised at the bar. In 1848 he was sent to the chamber of deputies in Turin as representative of his native town. By his debating powers he contributed to the defeat of the Balbo ministry, and for a short time held the portfolio of public instruction; afterwards, in the Gioberti cabinet, he became minister of the interior, and on the retirement of the last-named in 1849 he became practically the head of the government. The defeat at Novara compelled the resignation of Rattazzi in March 1849. His election as president of the chamber in 1852 was one of the earliest results of the so-called “connubio” with Cavour, i.e. the union of the moderate men of the Right and of the Left; and having become minister of justice in 1853 he carried a number of measures of reform, including that for the suppression of certain of the monastic orders. During a momentary reaction of public opinion he resigned office in 1858, but again entered the cabinet under La Marmora in 1859 as minister of the interior. In consequence of the negotiations for the cession of Nice and Savoy he again retired in January 1860. He was entrusted with the formation of a new ministry in March 1862, but in consequence of his policy of repression towards Garibaldi at Aspromonte he was driven from office in the following December. He was again prime minister in 1867, from April to October. He died at Frosinone on the 5th of June 1873. His wife, whom he married in 1863, was a remarkable woman. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Wyse, British plenipotentiary at Athens, and Laetitia Bonaparte, niece of Napoleon I. Born in Ireland in 1833, she was educated in Paris, and in 1848 married a rich Alsatian named Solms; but the prince president refused to recognize her, and in 1852 she was expelled from Paris. Her husband died soon after; and calling herself the Princesse Marie de Solms, she spent her time in various fashionable places and dabbled in literature, Eugène Sue and François Ponsard being prominent in her court of admirers. She published Les Chants de l'exilée (1859) and some novels. After Rattazzi's death, she married (1877) a Spaniard named Rute; she died in February 1902.
See Madame Rattazzi, Rattazzi et son temps (Paris, 1881); Bolton King, History of Italian Unity (London, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ratisbonne, Louis Gustave Fortuné

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​RATISBONNE, LOUIS GUSTAVE FORTUNÉ (1827-1900), French man of letters, was born at Strassburg on the 29th of July 1827. He studied at the school of his native town and at the College Henry IV. in Paris. He was connected with the Journal des Débats from 1853 to 1876; became librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau in 1871, and three years later to the Senate. Louis Ratisbonne's most important work was a verse translation of the 'Divina Cornrnedia, in which the original is rendered tercet by tercet into French. L'Enfer (1852) was crowned by the Academy; Le Purgatoire (18 57) and Le Paradis 1859) received the prix Bordin. He is also the author of some charming fables and verses for children: La Cornédie en fan line (1860), Les Figures jeunes (1865) and others. He was literary executor of Alfred de Vigny, whose Deslinées (1864) and Journal d'un poele (1867) he published. Ratisbonne died in Paris on the 24th of September 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Valleyfield

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​VALLEYFIELD, town and port of entry, Beauharnois county, Quebec, Canada, 25 m. S.W. of Montreal, at the foot of Lake St Francis-an expansion of the river St Lawrence—and at the head of the Beauharnois canal. Pop. (1891) 5515; (1901) 11,055. It is a station on the Canada Atlantic and New York Central railways, and a port of call for all steamers plying between Montreal and Lake Ontario ports. It is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, and contains a college and a convent. It has extensive cotton, flour, canning and paper mills.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vallès, Jules

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​VALLÈS, JULES (1832–1883), French journalist and author, was born at Puys, France, on the 10th of June 1832. Coming to Paris, he joined the staff of the Figaro, and became a constant contributor to the other leading journals. In 1866 he republished much of his newspaper work in Refractaires, the volume forming a romance of the seamy side of Paris life. He was in Paris during the siege of 1870, and after the capitulation was a member of the Commune and founded Le Cri du Peuple. He took a conspicuous part in the fighting in the Paris streets, but finally made his escape to London, whence he contributed anonymously to the French press. In 1878 he began in the Siècle the serial publication of his principal work, Jacques Vingtras, a long autobiographical romance. He died in Paris on the 14th of February 1885.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Valparaiso (Indiana)

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​VALPARAISO, a city and the county-seat of Porter county, Indiana., U.S.A., about 40 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 5090; (1900) 6280, including 660 foreign-born; (1910) 6987. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways. The city has a public library (1905), and is the seat of an Institute of Telegraphy (founded in 1874; chartered in 1900) and of Valparaiso University (1873; formerly known as the Valparaiso Normal Training School). This university was founded to furnish a practical education at a low cost, and in 1910 had 187 instructors and a total enrolment of 5367 students. Valparaiso was settled about 1835, incorporated in 1856 as a village and chartered as a city in 1865.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Valley Forge

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​VALLEY FORGE, a small village in Chester county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Schuylkill river, about 20 m. N.W. of Philadelphia. It is served by the Philadelphia & Reading railway. The village lies in part of the tract occupied in the winter of 1777–1778 by the American army (under General Washington), whose sufferings from cold, starvation and sickness made the place historic. On the 19th of December (after the battles of Brandywine and Germantown and the occupation of Philadelphia by the British) the army, numbering about 10,000, went into camp here, the site having been selected by Washington partly because the hilly ground was favourable for defence, and partly because the army was thus placed between the British forces and York, Pennsylvania (about 65 m. W. of Valley Forge), where Congress was in session. The camp was almost unapproachable from the west by reason of the precipitous hillsides and Valley Creek, a small stream flowing northward at their base into the Schuylkill river which afforded a barrier on the north; on the east a series of entrenchments and rifle-pits were built. In this vicinity the army remained encamped until the middle of June. As a result of the mismanagement and general incapacity of the Commissary Department, the army received little food or clothing during the winter months; in the latter part of December nearly 2900 men were unfit for duty on account of sickness or the lack of clothing, and by the 1st of Februarythis number had increased by nearly 1000, a state of affairs which Washington said was due to “ an eternal round of the most stupid mismanagement by which] the public treasure is expended to no kind of purpose, while the men have been left to perish by inches with cold and nakedness.” There were many desertions and occasional symptoms of mutiny, but for the most part the soldiers bore their suffering with heroic fortitude. On the 27th of February Baron Steuben (q.v.) reached the camp, where he drilled and reorganized the army. In 1893 the state of Pennsylvania created a commission of ten members, which (with $365,000 appropriated up to 1911) bought about 475 acres (in Chester and Montgomery counties) of the original camp ground, now known as the Valley Forge Park, preserved Washington's headquarters (built in about the year 1758) and other historic buildings, and reproduced several bake-ovens and huts of the kind used by the army. The state has also erected (1908) a fine equestrian statue by Henry K. Bush-Brown to General Anthony Wayne, and a number of granite markers which indicate the situation of the camps of the different brigades. The state of Maine erected in 1907 a granite memorial to the soldiers from Maine who camped here, and in 1910 Massachusetts appropriated $5000 for a memorial to her troops. Valley Forge took its name from an iron forge (also called “ Mountjoy forge ”) built on the east side of Valley Creek, near its mouth, in about 1750, and destroyed by the British in 1777.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Valois, Counts and Dukes of

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​VALOIS, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The French countship of Valois (pagus Vadensis) takes its name from Vez (Latin Vadum), its early capital, a town in the department of the Oise. From the 10th to the 12th century it was owned by the counts of Vermandois and of Vexin; but on the death of Eleanor, sister and heiress of Count Raoul V. (d. 1167), it was united to the crown by King Philip Augustus. Soon detached from the royal domain, Valois was the property of Blanche of Castile, widow of Louis VIII., from 1240 to 1252, and of Jean Tristan, a younger son of Louis IX., from 1268 to 1270. In 1285 Philip III. gave the county to his son Charles (d. 1325), whose son and successor, Philip, count of Valois, became king of France as Philip VI. in 1328. Sixteen years later Valois was granted to Philip's son, Philip, duke of Orleans; then passing with the duchy of Orleans in 1392 to Louis (d. 1407), a son of Charles V., it was erected into a duchy in 1406, and remained the property of the dukes of Orleans until Duke Louis became king of France as Louis XII. in 1498, when it was again united with the royal domain.
After this event the duchy of Valois was granted to several ladies of the royal house. Held by Jeanne, countess of Taille- bourg (d. 1520), from 1516 to 1517, and by Marie, countess of Vendome, from 1530 until her death in 1546, it was given to Catherine de Medici, the widow of Henry II., in 1562, and in 1582 to her daughter, Margaret of Valois, the wife of Henry of Navarre. In 1630 Louis XIII. granted Valois to his brother Gaston, duke of Orleans, and the duchy formed part of the lands and titles of the dukes of Orleans from this time until the Revolution.
The house of Valois, a branch of the great Capetian family, is thus descended from Charles, a son of Philip III., and has been divided into several lines, three of which have reigned in France. These are: (1) the direct line, beginning with Philip VI., which reigned from 1328 to 1498; (2) the Orleans branch, descended from Louis, duke of Orleans, a son of Charles V., from 1498 to 1515; (3) the Angouleme branch, descendants of John, another son of the same duke, from 151 5 to 1589. Excluding the royal house, the most illustrious of the Valois branches are: the dukes of Alençon, descendants of Charles, a younger son of Charles I., count of Valois; the dukes of Anjou, ​descendants of Louis, the second son of King John II.; and the dukes of Burgundy, descendants of Philip, the fourth son of the same king.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Valois, Henri de

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​VALOIS, HENRI DE [Valesius] (1603–1676), French scholar, was born at Paris on the 10th of September 1603. He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the college of Clermont, then studied law at Bourges. He was called to the bar in 1623, but before long devoted himself entirely to literature. He had an extraordinary memory and a thorough knowledge of the classics, and to him we owe editions of several of the Greek historians, with excellent Latin translations, the only fault found with which is that they are too elegant: Polybii, Diodori Siculi, Nicolai Damasceni, Dionysii Halicarnassii, Appiani et Joannis Antiocheni excerpla (1634; Henri de Valois used for this edition a manuscript coming from Cyprus, which had been acquired by Peiresc); Ammiani Marcellini rerum gestarum libri 18 (1636); Euscbii ecclesiastica historia, et vita imperatoris Constantini, graccc et latine (1659); Socratis, Sozomeni, Theodoreti et Evagrii Historia ecclesiastica (1668–1673). When almost sixty years of age, and nearly blind, he married Marguerite Chesneau (1664), and had by her four sons and three daughters He died in Paris on the 7th of May 1676.
His brother, Adrien de Valois (1607–1692), was also a well-known scholar. He made the acquaintance of Father Petau, Father Sirmond and the brothers Dupuy, who turned his attention towards medieval studies. He was appointed historiographer in 1660. He undertook the task of writing a critical history of France, but did not get further than the deposition of Childeric III. (752). He devoted, however, to this period three folio volumes (Gesta Francorum sen rerum francicarum tomi tres, 1646–1658), which form a critical commentary of much value, and in many points new, on the chroniclers of the Merovingian age. His study on the palaces constructed by the Merovingian kings (De basilicis quas primi Francorum reges condiderunt, 1658–1660) is noteworthy in this connexion. In 1675 appeared his Notitia Galliarum ordine llterarum digesta, a work of the highest merit, which laid the foundations of the scientific study of historical geography in France; but, like all the scholars of his age, he had no solid knowledge of philology. His last work was a life of his elder brother (De Vita Henrici Valesii, 1677).
Adrien's son, Charles de Valois (1671–1747), was a distinguished numismatist, and formed a fine collection of medals, chiefly Roman. He entered at an early age the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, where he became first a pupil (1705), then an associate (1714) and finally a pensionnaire (1722). He published little; we know, however, an Histoire des Amphictyons by him. His best work, the Valesiana (1694), was inspired by filial affection; in it he collected a number of historical and critical observations, anecdotes and Latin poems of his father. His Éloge, by Fréret, is in the Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, vol. xxi. p. 234 (1747).