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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nishāpūr (province)

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​NISHĀPŪR, a province of Persia, situated between Meshed and Sabzevar, in northern Khorasan. The older name of the district was Abarshehr. It has a population of from 130,000 to 140,000, is divided into twelve districts, and pays a yearly revenue of about £12,000. It produces much grain and cotton, and is considered one of the most fertile districts of Persia. One of its subdivisions is that of Bār-i-Mādan, with chief place Mādān (situated 32 m. N.W. of the city of Nishāpūr, at an elevation of 5100 ft., in 36° 28′ N., 58° 20′ E.), where the famous mines are which have supplied the world with turquoises for at least 2000 years. The province used to be one of the administrative divisions of Khorasan, but is now a separate province, with a governor appointed by the shah.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nipigon

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​NIPIGON [Neepigon, or Nepigon], a lake and river of Thunder Bay district, Ontario, Canada. The lake is 30 m. N. of the bay of the same name on Lake Superior, at an altitude of 852 ft. above the sea. It is 70 m. long and 50 m. wide; contains over 1000 islands, is very deep, and has a much-indented shore-line measuring upwards of 580 m. The river, which drains the lake, descends several hundred feet in the 40 m. of its course and is the largest stream flowing into Lake Superior. It is widely known for the excellence of its trout fishing.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nipissing

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​NIPISSING, a lake of the district of the same name in Ontario, Canada, situated nearly midway between Lake Huron and the Ottawa river, at an altitude of 64·4 ft. above the sea. It is of irregular shape, with bold shores, and contains many islands; from the north it receives the waters of Sturgeon river. It is 50 m. in length and 20 in breadth; discharges its waters by French river into Lake Huron, and is separated by a low watershed from the Mattawa river, a tributary of the Ottawa. It has been proposed as the summit level of the projected Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal, an important project rendered difficult by the numerous rapids both on French river and on the Ottawa. With the Ottawa, Mattawa and French, it formed the old voyageur route from Montreal to the Great Lakes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nisbett, Louisa Cranstoun

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NISBETT, LOUISA CRANSTOUN (1812–1858), English actress, was the daughter of Frederick Hayes Macnamara, an actor, whose stage name was Mordaunt. As Miss Mordaunt she had considerable experience, especially in Shakespearean leading parts, before her first London appearance in 1829 at Drury Lane as Widow Cheerly in Andrew Cherry's (1762–1812) Soldier's Daughter. Her beauty and high spirits made her at once a popular favourite in a large number of comedy parts, until in 1831 she was married to Captain John Alexander Nisbett and retired. Her husband, however, was killed the same year by a fall from his horse, and she was compelled to reappear on the stage in 1832. She was the original Lady Gay Spanker of London Assurance (1841). In 1844 she withdrew again from the stage to marry Sir William Boothby, Bart., but on his death (1846), returned to play Lady Teazle, Portia, Constantine in the Love Chase, Helen and Julia in the Hunchback. It was in the first of these parts that she made her final appearance in 1851. She died on the 15th of January 1858.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nishāpūr (town)

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​NISHĀPŪR (Old Pers. Nēv-shāpūr-nēv, New Pers. nīv, nīk＝good; Arab. Naisābūr), the capital of the province of Nishāpūr, Persia, situated at an elevation of 3920 ft., in 36° 12′ N., and 58° 40′ E., about 49 m. west of Meshed. The second element of the name is that of the traditional founder Shāpūr, or Sapor of the Western historians. Some accounts name the first (241–272), others the second Shāpūr (309–379). It was once one of the four great cities of Khorasan, rivalling Rai (Rhages), “the mother of cities,” in importance and population, but is now a small and comparatively unimportant place with a population of barely 15,000. It has post and telegraph offices and a lively trade in wool, cotton and dry fruits (almonds, pistachios).
Eastward of the present city, amongst the mounds and ruins of the old town, in a dilapidated chamber adjoining a blue-domed building over the grave of an imamzadeh, is the tomb of the astronomer-poet Omar Khayyām, an unsightly heap of plaster without inscription, and probably fictitious. Near it is the grave of the celebrated poet and mystic Farīd ud dīn Attār, who was killed by the Mongols when they captured the city c. 1229.
Nishāpūr was an important place during the 5th century, for Yazdegerd II. (438–457) mostly resided there. During the latter Sassanids it is seldom mentioned, and when the Arabs came to Khorasan (641–642) it was of so little importance that, as Tabari relates, it did not even have a garrison. Under the Tahirids (820–872) it became a flourishing town and rose to great importance during the Samanids (874–999). Toghrul, the first ruler of the Seljuk dynasty, made Nishāpūr his residence in 1037. In 1153 the Ghuzz Turkomans overran the country and partly destroyed town and suburbs. In 1208 most of the town was destroyed by an earthquake. The town was hardly rebuilt when it was again destroyed, this time by the Mongols (April 1221) and so effectually that, completely levelled to the ground, it was turned into a vast barley field. The city was again rebuilt, suffered again at the hands of the Mongols (1269) and from another great earthquake (1280), and never again rose to its former greatness. (A. H.-S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nisi Prius

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​NISI PRIUS, in English law, a term used to denote generally all actions tried before judges of the king’s bench division. For the history and meaning of this term see Assize. As a rule actions only are tried at nisi prius, and a judge is said to sit at nisi prius when he sits, usually in the king’s bench division, for the trial of actions. By a resolution passed by the judges of the king’s bench division in 1894 it was declared of the utmost importance that there should be at least three courts of nisi prius sitting continuously throughout the legal year—one for special jury causes, one for common jury causes, and one for causes without juries (see the Annual Practice).
Nisi Prius Record was before the Judicature Acts the name of the formal copy of proceedings showing the history of the case up to the time of trial. After the trial it was endorsed with the postea, showing the result of the trial, and delivered by the officer of the court to the successful party, whose possession of the postea was his title to judgment. Since the Judicature Acts there is no nisi prius record in civil actions, the nearest approach to it being the deposit of copies of the pleadings for the use of the judge, and there is no postea, the certificate of the associate or master as to the result of the trial superseding it.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nisard, Jean Marie Napoleon Désiré

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​NISARD, JEAN MARIE NAPOLEON DÉSIRÉ (1806–1888), French author and critic, was born at Châtillon-sur-Seine on the 20th of March 1806. In 1826 he joined the staff of the Journal des Débats, but subsequently transferred his pen to the National. Under the empire he was inspector-general of education (1852) and director of the École normale (1857–1867). His literary reputation was effectually established by his Histoire de la littérature française (1844–1861), which secured his election to the Academy (1850). His other works include Études d’histoire et de littérature (1859–1864), and Les Quatres grands historiens latins (1875). In all his books he vigorously supported the claims of classicism against romanticism. He died at San Remo on the 27th of March 1888.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salus

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​SALUS, in Roman mythology the personification of health and prosperity. In 302 B.C. a temple was dedicated to Salus on the Quirinal (Livy x. 1); and in later times public prayers were offered to her on behalf of the emperor and the Roman people at the beginning of the year, in time of sickness, and on the emperor's birthday. In 180 B.C., on the occasion of a plague, vows were made to Apollo, Aesculapius and Salus (Livy xl. 37). Here the special attribute of the goddess appears to be health; and in later times she was identified with the Greek goddess of health, Hygieia.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saluzzo

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​SALUZZO, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 42 m. S. of Turin by rail, 1296 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,306 (town), 16,208 (commune). The upper town preserves some part of the fortifications which protected it when, previous to the plague of 1630, the city had upwards of 30,000 inhabitants. The old castle of the marquises of Saluzzo now serves as a prison. Besides the Gothic cathedral (1480–1511), with the tombs of the marquises, the churches of San Giovanni (formerly San Domenico), San Bernardo and the Case Cavazza, now the municipal museum, are noteworthy. Railways run to Cuneo and Airasca (the latter on the Turin-Pinerolo line) and steam tramways in various directions. The castle of Manta, in the vicinity, contains interesting 15th-century frescoes by a French artist (see P. d'Ancona in L'Arte for 1905; 94, p. 184)
The line of the marquises of Saluzzo began (1142) with Manfred, son of Boniface, marquis of Savona, and continued till 1548, when the city and territory were seized by the French. The marquises being opponents of the house of Savoy, and taking part in the struggles between France and the empire, the city often suffered severely from the fortunes of war. Henry IV. restored the marquisate to Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy at the peace of Lyons in 1601. Among the celebrities of Saluzzo are Silvio Pellico, Bodoni, the famous printer of Parma of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and Casalis the historian of Sardinia. The history of the marquisate was written by Delfino Muletti (5 vols., 1829–1833).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salvia

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​SALVIA, a large genus belonging to the natural order Labiatae (q.v.), containing about 500 species in the temperate and warmer regions of both hemispheres. The name is derived from the Lat. salvo, from the healing properties of sage, S. officinalis (see figure under Labiatae). S. verbenaea, Clary, is a native of Britain found in dry pastures and waste places.
Some of the Salvias are among the most showy of the soft-wooded winter-flowering plants, the blossoms being of a bright glowing scarlet. The three most useful species are S. splendens, S. Heerii and S. gesneriflora, the first beginning to flower early in the autumn and lasting till Christmas, while the others follow immediately in succession, and continue in full beauty till April. Young plants should be propagated annually about February, and after nursing through the spring should be grown outdoors in a fully exposed situation, where they can be plunged in some non-conducting material, such as half-decomposed leaves. The young shoots should be stopped to secure bushy plants, but not later than the middle of August. The most suitable compost for them is a mixture
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
Pollination of Salvia Pratensis.
1, Flower visited by a bumble-bee, showing the projection of the curved connective from the helmet-shaped upper lip and the deposition of the pollen on the back of the bumble-bee.
2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style.
4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective enclosed within the upper lip.
3, The same when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow.
f, Filament.
c, Connective.
s, The obstructing half of the anther.
of mellow fibry loam enriched with a little mild thoroughly decomposed manure, made sufficiently porous by the addition of sand or grit. In spring, and during the blooming period, the temperature should be intermediate between that of a stove and greenhouse. There are other very ornamental species of easy growth, increased by cuttings in spring, and succeeding well in ordinary rich loamy soil. Of these S. angustifolia bears spikes of fine bright-blue flowers in May or June; S. chamaedryoides, a dwarfish subject, has deep-blue flowers in August; S. fulgens produces scarlet flowers in August; and S. involuerata produces fine red flowers during the autumn. S. patens is a lovely blue free-blooming sort, flowering in August, the colour being unique.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salvandy, Narcisse Achille

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​SALVANDY, NARCISSE ACHILLE (1795–1856), French politician, was born at Condom (Gers) on the 11th of June 1795, of a poor family Irish by extraction. He entered the army in 1813, and next year was admitted to the household troops of Louis XVIII. A patriotic pamphlet on La Coalition et la France (1816) attracted the attention of Decazes, who employed him to disseminate his views in the press, and he waged war against the Villèle ministry of 1822–1828. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party. Minister of education in the Molé cabinet of 1837–1839, and again in 1845, he superintended the reconstitution of the Council of Education, the foundation of the French School at Athens and the restoration of the École des Chartes. For short periods in 1841 and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin, and became a member of the French Academy in 1835. Under the Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron (Eure) on the 16th of December 1856.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Salver

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​SALVER, a flat tray of silver or other metal used for carrying or serving glasses, cups, dishes, &c., at table or for the presenting of a letter or card by a servant. In a royal or noble household the fear of poisoning led to the custom of tasting the food or drink before it was served to the master and his guests; this was known as the "assay" of meat and drink, and in Spanish was called salva (salvar, to preserve from risk, Lat. salvare, to save). The term salva was also applied to the dish or tray on which the food or drink was presented after the tasting process. There seems no doubt that this Spanish word is the source of the English "salver"; a parallel is found in the origin of the term "credence-table," which is from the Ital. credenza, Lat. credere, to believe, trust (see Credence and Credence-Table).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munster (Ireland)

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​MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was divided between two families there was constant friction and it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond and Thomond down to the 16th century. Munster was originally of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O’Carrols and formed a part of the present King’s County. During the 16th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare (q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically new shiring was carried out.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Muntaner, Ramon

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​MUNTANER, RAMON (1265–1336?), Catalan historian, was born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. On the 15th of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he began his Chronica, o descripcio dels fets, e hazanas del inclyt rey Don Iaume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and vivid. He is said to have died in 1336.
His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munro, Hector

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​MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726–1805), British general, son of Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in command of the 89th regiment, and in that year effected the surrender of Mahé from the French. Later, when in command of the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on St Thomas’s Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on the 27th of December 1805.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munro, Thomas

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​MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761–1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was at first intended to enter his father’s business, but in 1789 he was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder Ali (1780–83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo (1790–92). He was then chosen as one of four military officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years (1800–1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts “ceded” by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon matters connected with the renewal of the company’s charter, he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning said in the House of Commons: “He went into the field with not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small proportion were Europeans. . . . Nine forts were surrendered to him or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and scarcely observed progress he emerged . . . leaving everything secure and tranquil behind him.” In 1820 he was appointed governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue assessment and general administration which substantially remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, while on tour in the “ceded” districts, where his name is preserved by more than one memorial An equestrian statue of him, by Chantrey, stands in Madras city.
See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) and J. Bradshaw (1894).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munshi

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​MUNSHI, or Moonshi, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries employed by Europeans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Munkács

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​MUNKÁCS, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bereg, 220 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,640. It is situated on the Latorcza river, and on the outskirts of the East Beskides mountains, where the hills touch the plains. Its most noteworthy buildings are the Greek Catholic cathedral and the beautiful castle of Count Schönborn. In the vicinity, on a steep hill 580 ft. high, stands the old fort of Munkács, which played an important part in Hungarian history, and was especially famous for its heroic defence by Helene Zrinyi, wife of Emeric Tököli and mother of Francis Rákóczy II., for three years against the Austrians (1685–1688). It was afterwards used as a prison. Ypsilanti, the hero of Greek liberty, and Kazinczy, the regenerator of Hungarian letters, were confined in it. According to tradition, it was near Munkács that the Hungarians, towards the end of the 9th century, entered the country. In 1896 in the fort was built one of the “millennial ​monuments” established at seven different points of the kingdom.