OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Schmidt, Oskar

Edition of 1905. See also Oskar Schmidt (zoologist) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SCHMIDT, Oskar (1823-86). A German zoölogist, born at Torgau. After studying at Halle and Berlin, he began to lecture on zoölogy at Jena in 1846, became professor there in 1849, and successively at Cracow (1855), Graz (1857), and Strassburg (1872). His reputation is based upon the handbook of comparative anatomy, the 9th ed. of which, by Lang, was issued under the title Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere (1888-94). He also wrote a Lehrbuch der Zoologie (1853), and for advanced classes Leitfaden der Zoologie (4th ed. 1882). From 1860 he devoted himself more especially to the investigation of Spongiæ, and published on this subject several treatises. His other writings include: Goethes Verhältnis zu den organischen Naturwissenschaften (1853); Das Alter der Menschheit und das Paradies, with Franz Unger
(1866); Descendenzlehre und Darwinismus (1873, 3d ed. 1884); and Die Säugethiere in ihrem Verhältnis zur Vorwelt (1884).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Schnabel, Johann Gottfried

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Gottfried Schnabel on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SCHNABEL, shnä'bel, Johann Gottfried (c.1690). A German author, who was known under the pseudonym of Gisander. During a part of his career he was in the service of Count Stolberg, but very few other facts concerning him are known. He wrote some of the best “Robinsonaden,” or imitations of Robinson Crusoe, that appeared in German, such as Wunderliche Fata einiger Seefahrer (1731-43), Die Inseln im Südmeere (republished 1826), and the famous Die Insel Felsenberg (republished 1827).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Schmidt, Maximilian

Edition of 1905. See also Maximilian Schmidt on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
SCHMIDT, Maximilian (1832—). A German novelist and humorist, born at Eschlkam, Bavaria. He served with distinction in the Bavarian army from 1850 to 1872, when he retired and settled at Munich to devote himself exclusively to his literary work. Among the best of his numerous tales and novels, dealing vividly and realistically with the people and scenery of the Bavarian Mountains, should be mentioned: Volkserzählungen aus dem Bayrischen Wald (1863-69); Der Schutzgeist von Oberammergau (1880); 's Austragsstüberl; Der Georgithaler (1882); Die Fischerrosl von St. Heinrich (1884); Der Musikant von Tegernsee (1886); 's Lisel von Ammersee (1887); Die Künischen Freibauern (1895). Gradually these productions fell off in literary merit, as the author became more and more prolific. Lasting success attended his Humoresken (1892), the collection of dialect poems Altboarisch (1884), and several popular plays, dramatized from his novels. He also published the autobiography Meine Wanderung durch 70 Jahre (1902). His Gesammelte Werke appeared in popular edition of 34 vols. (Reutlingen, 1898-93).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Roon, Albrecht Theodor Emil

Edition of 1905. See also Albrecht von Roon on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROON, rōn, Albrecht Theodor Emil, Count von (1803-79). A Prussian field-marshal and war minister, born at Pleushagen near Kolberg. He was trained at the military school in Berlin, and in 1836 was appointed to the general stuff with the rank of captain. In 1858 he was
commander of the Fourteenth Division, and six months later became lieutenant-general. In 1859 he was made Minister of War, and in 1861 became also Minister of Marine, holding that office for 10 years. The splendid effectiveness of the German army in 1866 and 1870-71 was due in very great measure to Von Roon's talents as an organizer and administrator. On January 1, 1873, he was made President of the Cabinet, and Field-Marshal. He resigned November 9, 1873, the ministry of war and the presidency of the Cabinet, as Bismarck found it necessary to combine his position as Imperial Chancellor with that of President of the Cabinet. Von Roon, who was a pupil of Karl Ritter, wrote a number of authoritative geographical works, the best known of which is the Anfangsgründe der Erd-, Völker- and Staatenkunde (1834). Consult: Waldemar Count Roon, Denkwürdigkeiten aus dem Leben des General-Feldmarschalls Grafen von Roon (2 vols., Breslau, 1892); id., Kriegsminister von Roon als Redner (ib., 1895-96).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Roos, Johann Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Heinrich Roos and Philipp Peter Roos on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROOS, rōs, Johann Heinrich (1631-85). A German animal painter and etcher, born at Otterberg in the Palatinate. Early in life he went to Amsterdam, where he studied under Juliaen du Jardin, Barend Graat, and Adriaen de Brie. In 1650-54 he visited Italy, France, and England, in 1657 settled at Frankfort, and in 1673 was appointed court painter to the Elector-Palatine. At first Roos painted portraits and genre scenes, but soon turned to those animal pieces with landscape surroundings, for which he is famous, excelling particularly in the representation of sheep. His works, notwithstanding their great finish and his comparatively short life, are very numerous and are to be found in the Pinakothek in Munich, in Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, and Frankfort, while two may be seen in the collection of the Historical Society, New York. His forty-four etchings are also held in great esteem. His son and pupil, Philipp Peter (surnamed Rosa di Tivoli) (1655-1705), born at Frankfort, painted landscapes and animals, in his earlier period in the style of his father; but in 1677 he went to Rome, studied under Brandi, whose daughter he married, and after settling at Tivoli, whence his surname, he adopted a peculiar style of his own, painting life-size figures and animals in a broad manner and a heavy brown tone and producing a rather unpleasant effect. Another son and pupil, Johann Melchior (1659-1731), born at Frankfort, was an animal and portrait painter. The Darmstadt and Stuttgart museums contain each a “Stag Hunt” and a “Boar Hunt,” the Dresden Gallery, “Stags Under an Oak” (1714), and the Städel Gallery, Frankfort, a “Lion Family in a Landscape” (1716).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Roosa, Daniel Bennett St. John

Edition of 1905. See also Daniel Bennett St. John Roosa on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROOSA, rōō'sȧ, Daniel Bennett St. John (1838— ). An American physician, born at Bethel, Sullivan County, N. Y. He graduated in 1860 at the medical school of the University of New York, was assistant-surgeon in the Fifth New York Volunteers' three-months' troops, became resident surgeon at the New York Hospital in 1862, and in 1864, after study in Europe, began practice in New York City. From 1863 to 1882 he was professor of diseases of the eye and ear in the medical school of the University of the City of New York (now New York University), and from 1875 to 1880 held a similar chair in the University of Vermont (Burlington). In
1888 he was appointed professor of diseases of the eye in the New York Post-Graduate Medical School, of whose faculty he also became president. He was one of the founders of the Manhattan Eye and Ear Hospital. Among his original works are: A Treatise on the Ear (1866) and On the Necessity of Wearing Glasses (1877).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rondo

Edition of 1905. See also Rondo on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RONDO (It., from Fr. rondeau, roundel). One of the oldest and most generally used of the musical forms, characterised by the constant recurrence of one principal theme. The oldest rondos of the sixteenth century consisted of a plain theme of four bars, which was followed by a few bars of interlude, when the original theme was repeated. Soon the theme itself was lengthened to eight or sixteen bars, and the interlude avoided the principal key. Then the intermediate passage appeared as a fully developed second theme in a related key. The fundamental idea of the rondo as established by Beethoven is (denoting the three themes by A, B, C respectively): A, B (in key of dominant), A, C, A, B (in key of tonic), coda. On its second and third recurrence A appears in different keys. Also, in order to avoid monotony, Beethoven does not repeat literally. When only two themes are employed the following may be given as the fundamental schedule: A, B, A (in key of B), B (in key of A), A. Under later composers (notably Chopin) the rondo form becomes even more elastic.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Ronge, Johannes

Edition of 1905. See also Johannes Ronge on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RONGE, rṓn'ge, Johannes (1813-87). The principal founder of the German Catholics (q.v.). He was born at Bischofswalde, Silesia, was educated at Breslau, entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, and was settled at Grottkau when he published criticisms of the relation between Rome and the Breslau Cathedral chapter, and was suspended in consequence (1843). He then went to Laurahütte in Upper Silesia as a teacher, and while there the exhibition of the Holy Coat (q.v.) at Treves so stirred his ire that he denounced it in print (1844), and was excommunicated. The agitation occasioned by his action led to the founding of the German Catholic Church, and he became pastor of the German Catholic Church at Breslau in 1845. Ronge took part in the political struggles of 1848 and was prominent as a democratic leader. From 1849 to 1861 he was a fugitive in consequence of his political activities. When permitted to return he went to Breslau, and in 1863 to Frankfort, and endeavored to revive the waning German Catholicism. In 1873 he removed to Darmstadt, and there edited a paper in promotion of his plans. He died in Vienna, October 26, 1887. Consult The Autobiography and Justification of J. Ronge, Translated from the Fifth German Edition (London, 1846).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rogers, Henry Darwin

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Darwin Rogers on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROGERS, Henry Darwin (1806-66). An American scientist, born in Philadelphia. He studied at William and Mary College, and in 1830-31 was professor of chemistry and natural philosophy at Dickinson College, and then studied for two years in Europe. After his return he lectured at Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, and in 1835 became professor of geology at the University of Pennsylvania. The same year he made for the Government of New Jersey a geological and mineralogical survey of that State, publishing a full report in 1840. From 1836 to 1842, and again from 1851 to 1854, he was State geologist of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he removed to Edinburgh, Scotland, where the final report of his geological works was published under the title The Geology of Pennsylvania, a Government Survey (2 vols., 1858). From 1857 until his death he was regius professor of natural history in the University of Glasgow. Consult Popular Science Monthly, vol. l. (New York, 1897).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rodbertus, Johann Karl

Edition of 1905. See also Johann Karl Rodbertus on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
RODBERTUS, rṓd-bĕr'tụs, Johann Karl (1805-75). A German economist, founder of the scientific or conservative school of socialism. He was born August 12, 1805, in Greifswald, where his father was a professor of Roman law. He studied law at Göttingen and Berlin, and served from 1827 to 1832 in the Prussian justiciary. By 1837 he had formulated his social platform, and in that year published Die Forderungen der arbeitenden Klassen. Elected to the National Assembly in 1848, he was Minister of Education in the Auerswald-Hansemann Ministry for a fortnight, and in 1849 was a leader of the Left Centre. The last twenty years of his life were spent in retirement. Socialism, as defined by Rodbertus, was to be a gradual evolution, hence his acquiescence in a monarchy, and his break with the Democrats as a political party. He regarded the social question as a purely economic one. His principal doctrines are these: The workman's share of the nation's industrial income tends constantly to decline; land rent and interest are the result of the exploitation of the working classes; the present shares in the distribution of wealth — rent, profits, interest, and wages — are not entirely the result of permanent, universal economic forces, but the result of historical evolution and the prevailing legal system; financial and commercial crises are due to a non-adjustment of production and consumption; the laborer's purchasing power is
small and the capitalist and landlord classes, instead of increasing their consumption of luxuries, invest their savings in new factories, and in otherwise increasing the means of production, with the inevitable result that commodities of common consumption are produced in excess — the great cause of crises. Rodbertus died in 1875. His works include: Zur Erkenntnis unserer staatswirthschaftlichen Zustände (1842); Soziale Briefe, addressed to Julius von Kirchmann (1850-51); Der Normalarbeitstag (1871); and Beleuchtung der socialen Frage (1875). His statement of his theory of crises, contained in his Soziale Briefe, has appeared in an English translation under the title of Overproduction and Crises (New York, 1898). Consult the sketch in Stegmann and Hugo, Handbuch des Sozialismus (1897); Jantsch, Rodbertus (Stuttgart, 1899).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Rogers, William Barton

Edition of 1905. See also William Barton Rogers on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ROGERS, William Barton (1804-82). An American scientist and educator, first president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was born in Philadelphia, a son of Patrick Kerr Rogers (1776-1828), then tutor in the University of Pennsylvania, and from 1819 to his death professor in William and Mary College, where his son graduated in 1822 and in 1828 succeeded him in the chair of natural philosophy and mathematics. During the seven years that he held this post he began with his brother Henry a minute study of the geology of Virginia. From 1835 to 1853 as professor of natural philosophy in the University of Virginia he extended this work
and became head of the State Geological Survey; the Papers on the Geology of Virginia (1884) give the results of this period, in which he was assisted by his three brothers, Robert Empie Rogers having become professor of chemistry and materia medica at the university, in 1842, and Henry Rogers being State geologist of Pennsylvania. As a geologist his work was remarkable for its conscientious foundation on observed facts. Rogers removed to Boston in 1853; as inspector of gas and gas meters reformed the system of inspection (1861); and in 1859 began to urge the establishment of a technical school. For this institution he drew up a scheme in 1860, repeating the outline he had made in 1846, and in 1862 received a charter. In 1865, after a year in Europe to study apparatus, he saw the actual establishment of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (q.v.) and was appointed its president and professor of physics and geology. He introduced laboratory instruction in physics, chemistry, mechanics, and mining. In 1878, after a forced retirement of several years, he returned to his work, and in the following year succeeded Joseph Henry in the presidency of the National Academy of Sciences. From the presidency of the Institute of Technology he resigned in 1881; in the next year he fell dead on the platform while making an address to the graduating class. Rogers wrote Strength of Materials (1838), and Elements of Mechanical Philosophy (1852), as well as many papers for scientific associations. Consult his Life and Letters, edited by his wife and William T. Sidgwick (Boston, 1897).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Transpadane Republic

Edition of 1905. See also Transpadane Republic on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC. A republic formed by Napoleon in 1796 on the south side of the Po, and in 1797 united with the Cispadane Republic, on the north side, to form the Cisalpine Republic (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Traill, Henry Duff

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Duff Traill on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRAILL, Henry Duff (1842–1900). An English journalist and author, born at Blackheath, near London. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, and at Saint John's College, Oxford. In 1869 he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, but he soon gave up law for journalism. He edited the Observer from 1880 to 1891, and was the projector and first editor of Literature (established 1897). Traill did much miscellaneous work of good quality, For the "English Men of letters" series he wrote Sterne (1882) and Coleridge (1884); for "English Worthies," Shaftesbury (I886) ; for "English Statesmen," William III. (1888); and for "English Men of Action," Strafford (1889). Other biographies by him are Lord Salisbury (1891), Sir John Franklin (1896), and Lord Cromer (1897). In politics and history are Central Government (1881) ; the exhaustive Social England (1892-96), of which he was editor; From Cairo to the Soudan Frontier (1896); and England, Egypt, and the Soudan (posthumous, 1900). For prose literature may be cited The New Lucian (1884) and The New Fiction and Other Essays (1897). Political verse contributed to various periodicals was collected under the titles, Recaptured Rhymes (1882) and Saturday Songs (from The Saturday Review, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Trans-Mississippi Exposition

Edition of 1905. See also Trans-Mississippi Exposition on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPOSITION. An exposition held in Omaha, Neb., from June 1 to October 31, 1898. The site covered about 200 acres, a mile to the north of the city. The main buildings, which contained the exhibits devoted to Agriculture, Fine Arts, Machinery and Electricity, Manufactures, Mines and Mining, and the United States Government, were grouped around a grand court which extended through the middle of the grounds and surrounded the lagoon or canal which terminated at its west end into a three-lobed lake 400 feet across, at the extreme west end of which was an electric fountain. The grounds were also skillfully improved by the presence of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants until the arid prairie became so changed as to gain the name of Magic City. The buildings were covered with white staff, adorned with intricate carving and classical statuary, resulting in the production of an artistic effect of remarkable beauty. Of special interest among the amusement features was the ethnological gathering of 500 Indians, representing 25 tribes. The total attendance was 2,613,508, and the total receipts $1,924,077.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Transpiration

Edition of 1905. See also Transpiration on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRANSPIRATION (from Lat. trans, across, through + spirare, to breathe). The evaporation of water from the aerial surfaces of plants. The term is used instead of evaporation, first, because the evaporation is modified by the action of the living organisms; and second, because the development of heat within this organism prevents the complete stoppage of evaporation when the plant is surrounded with a saturated atmosphere. In most land plants, transpiration from the epidermal cells is inconsiderable because such become nearly waterproof by cutinization of the outer walls. The cells bordering the interior air chambers (see Aeration) are saturated with water, and from them it evaporates readily into the air occupying these spaces, whence it finds its way by diffusion through the stomata (q.v.). The rate of transpiration will be determined by the relative humidity of the outer air, temperature, wind, light, etc. Transpiration is unavoidable, because gases must be absorbed from the air (see Absorption); it is necessary, at least to some plants, for cooling; and it is advantageous for the movement of dissolved salts. See Conduction.
Since excessive loss of water is one of the greatest dangers to which plants are subject, plants growing in dry regions show a great variety of adaptations to reduce the rate of transpiration and to conserve the moisture which reaches them. (See Xerophytes.) The amount of water transpired varies greatly on account of variation in external conditions and internal structure. A few examples of transpiration under normal conditions will illustrate. In 12 hours on a hot, dry day a sunflower 3.5 feet high, having a leaf area of 5316 square inches, lost 30 ounces of water. The loss of water from 100 square centimeters of leaf surface in 24 hours for the pea was 2.51 grams, for the hop 4.3 grams, for the hemp 9.3 grams. Estimates as to the loss of water during the growing season by the plants of wheat grown on one hectare (about 2.5 acres) equal 1,179,920 liters; and by oats 2,277,760 liters. If all this water could be caught and condensed on the same area it would reach in the first case a depth of nearly 118 millimeters (4⅝ inches), and in the second 228 millimeters (9 inches). A beech tree having 200,000 leaves was estimated to lose between 300 and 400 liters (about 2 barrels) on a hot day.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Train Bands

Edition of 1905. See also Trained bands on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRAIN BANDS. Early English militia raised by commissions of musters, and organized and drilled as military bodies. On the abolition of the fyrd in 1604, James I. organized in its place the train bands to the number of nearly 200,000 men. As an organization the train bands were neither militia nor volunteers, but partook of the nature of both, and in point of efficiency lacked both discipline and drill. During the Civil War they sided almost to a unit with the Parliamentarians, and rendered very effective service. After the Restoration, the command and control of the army was definitely assigned to the King: before this time the question had been in doubt. See Armies. section on Great Britain; Militia.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Training

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​TRAINING. See Physical Training.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Train, George Francis

Edition of 1905. See also George Francis Train on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​TRAIN, George Francis (1829-1904). An American author, born in Boston, Mass. After engaging in the mercantile business in Boston and Australia, he went to England in 1860, and undertook to form street-railway companies in Birkenhead and London, but his plans were obstructed by legal opposition. His publications include: An American Merchant in Europe, Asia, and Australia (1851); Young America Abroad (1857); Irish Independency (1865): and Championship of Women (1868). He also published an autobiography entitled My Life in Many States and in Foreign Lands (1902).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dow, Gerard

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ DOW, Gerard. See Dou, Gerard.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dowler, Bennet

Edition of 1905. See also Bennet Dowler on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOW′LER, Bennet (1797-1879). An American physician. He was born in Moundsville, Va.; graduated at the medical school of the University of Maryland, and in 1836 settled in New Orleans, where he founded the Academy of Sciences, and for some years edited the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal. His many experiments upon the condition of the human body immediately after death resulted in valuable discoveries in contractibility, calorification, and capillary circulation. He is the author of a Tableau of the Yellow Fever of 1853 (1854).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Dowling, John

Edition of 1905. See also John Dowling (pastor) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​DOW′LING, John (1807-78). An American Baptist clergyman. He was born at Pevensey, Sussex, England; settled in the United States in 1832, and died at Middletown, N. Y., after forty-five years of ministerial service in different places. He is best known by his History of Romanism (1845, revised 1871).