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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rogation Days

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​ROGATION DAYS (Lat. rogatio, from rogare, to beseech; the equivalent of Gr. λιτανεία, litany), in the Calendar of the Christian Church, the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday before Ascension Day, so called because long associated with the chanting of litanies in procession (rogationes). The week in which they occur is sometimes called Rogation Week. In 511 ​the first Council of Orleans ordered that the three days preceding Ascension Day should be celebrated as rogation days with fasting and rogationes. All work was to be suspended that all might join in the processions. Leo III. (pope 795–816) introduced rogation days, but without the fasting, at Rome. St Augustine had earlier introduced the custom into the English Church, learning it on his way through Gaul. The Council of Clovesho in 747 confirmed Augustine’s injunction, and ordered that the rogation days be kept up “according to the way of our fathers.” The place-name “Gospel Oak,” which occurs in London and elsewhere, is a relic of these rogation processions, the gospel of the day being read at the foot of the finest oak the parish boasted. After the Reformation the processions gradually ceased to be ecclesiastical in England, and are now practically secularized into the perambulation of the parish boundaries on or about Ascension Day.
See also Procession and Litany.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roemer, Ole

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​ROEMER, OLE (Latinized Olaus) (1644–1710), Danish astronomer, was born at Aarhuus in Jutland on the 25th of September 1644. He became in 1662 the pupil and amanuensis of Erasmus Bartholinus at Copenhagen, and assisted J. Picard in 1671 to determine the geographical position of Tycho Brahe’s observatory (Uraniborg on the island of Hveen). In 1672 he accompanied Picard to Paris, where he remained nine years, occupied. with observations at the new royal observatory and hydraulic works at Versailles and Marly. On the 22nd of November 1675 he read a paper before the Academy on the successive propagation of light as revealed by a certain inequality in the motion of the first of Jupiter’s satellites. A scientific mission to England in 1679 made him acquainted with Newton, Halley and Flamsteed. In 1681, on the summons of Christian V., king of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen as royal mathematician and professor of astronomy in the university; and from 1688 he discharged, besides, many important administrative functions, including those of mayor (1705), chief of police and privy councillor. He died at Copenhagen on the 23rd of September 1710 Roemer will always be remembered as the discoverer of the finite velocity of light. He showed besides wonderful ingenuity in the improvement of astronomical apparatus. The first transit instrument worthy the name was in 1690 erected in his house. In the same year he set up in the university observatory an instrument with altitude and azimuth circles (for observing equal altitudes on both sides of the meridian) and an equatorial telescope. In 1704 he built, at his own cost, the so-called “Tusculan” observatory at Vridlösemagle, a few miles west of Copenhagen, and equipped it with a meridian circle (the transit instrument and vertical circle combined) and a transit moving in the prime vertical. Roemer-thus effectively realized nearly all our modern instruments of precision, and accumulated with them a large mass of observations, all of which unfortunately perished in the great conflagration of the 21st of October 1728, except the three nights’ work discussed by J. G. Galle (O. Roemeri triduum observations astronomic arum a. 1706 institutarum, Berlin, 1845).
See E. Philipsen, Nordisk Universitets Tidskrift, v. 11 (1860); P. Horrebow, Basis Astronomiae (Copenhagen, 1735); J. B. J. Delambre, Hist. de l’astr. moderne, ii. 632; J. F. Montucla, Hist. des mathématiques, ii. 487, 579; R. Grant, Hist. of Phys. Astronomy, p. 461; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomie, pp. 452, 489, 576; J. F. Weidler, Historia Astronomie, p. 538; W. Doberck, Nature, xvii. 105; C. Huygens, (Œuvres complètes, t. viii. pp. 30–58; L. Ambronn, Handbuch der astr. Instrumentenkunde, ii. 552, 966; T. J. J. See, Pop. Astronomy, No. 105, May 1903.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roger, archbishop of York

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​ROGER (d. 1181), archbishop of York, known as Roger of Pont l'Evéque, was a member of the household of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, where he quarrelled violently with another future archbishop, Thomas Becket. In 1148 he was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury, and soon afterwards chaplain to King Stephen, who sent him on an errand to Rome in 1152; then in October 1154 he was consecrated archbishop of York in Westminster Abbey. When Henry II. entered upon his great struggle with Becket over the immunity of clerks from secular jurisdiction, he managed to secure the support of Roger, and having been appointed papal legate in England, the archbishop visited Pope Alexander III. and the French king, Louis VII., in his master's interests. In June 1170 he crowned the king's son Henry, in spite of prohibitions from the pope and from Becket, and for this act he was suspended. One authority declares that Roger, who was then with Henry II. in Normandy, instigated the murder of the rival archbishop, but he swore he was innocent of this crime. He quarrelled with Richard, the new archbishop of Canterbury, about the respective rights of the two archiepiscopal sees, until 1176, when the king arranged a truce between them; and he was constantly endeavouring to assert his supremacy over the Scottish church. The archbishop died at York on the 21st of November 1181. He was always loyal to Henry II., to whom he was very useful during the great rising of 1174; but he has been accused of avarice, and he was certainly not lacking in ambition.
Another English prelate of this name was ROGER, bishop of Worcester, a younger son of Robert, earl of Gloucester, and thus a grandson of the English king Henry I. In 1163 his cousin Henry II. appointed him bishop of Worcester, but almost, alone of the English bishops he supported Thomas Becket and not the king during the quarrel between them in 1166. In 1167 he left England to share Becket's exile, but he soon returned to court, although he appears to have remained on friendly terms with the archbishop. He died at Tours in 1179.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roger of Wendover

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​ROGER OF WENDOVER (d. 1236), English chronicler, was probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire. At some uncertain date he became a monk of St Albans; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of Belvoir, but he forfeited this dignity in the early years of Henry III., having been found guilty of wasting the endowments. His latter years were passed at St Albans, where he died on the 6th of May 1236. He is the first of the important chroniclers who worked in the scriptorium of this house. His great work, the Flores Historiarum, begins at the creation and extends to 1235. It is of original value from 1202. Some critics have supposed, but on inconclusive evidence, that Wendover copied, up to 1189, an earlier compilation, the work of John de Cella, the twenty-first abbot of St Albans (1195–1214). Wendover’s work is known to us through one 13th-century manuscript in the Bodleian library (Douce MS. 207), a mutilated 14th-century copy in the British Museum (Cotton MS. Otho B. v.), and the edition prepared by Matthew Paris which forms the first part of that writer’s Chronica Majora (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols.). The best edition of Wendover is that of H. O. Coxe (4 vols., London, 1841-42); there is another (from 1154) in the Rolls Series by H. G. Hewlett (3 vols., 1886–89). Wendover is a copious but inaccurate writer, less prejudiced but also less graphic than Matthew Paris. Where he is the sole authority for an event, he is to be used with caution.
See Luard’s prefaces to vols. i., ii., iii. and vii. of the Chronica Majora; and the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Scriptores, Band xxviix. pp. 3–20.  (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roemer, Friedrich Adolph

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​ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1809–1869), German geologist, was born at Hildesheim, in Prussia, on the 14th of April 1809. His father was a lawyer and councillor of the high court of justice. In 1845 he became professor, of mineralogy and geology at Clausthal, and in 1862 director of the School of Mines. He first described the Cretaceous and Jurassic strata of Germany in elaborate works entitled Die Versteinerungen des Norddeutschen Oolithen-gebirges (1836–39), Die Versteinerungen des Norddeutschen Kreidegebirges (1840–1841) and Die Versteinerungen des Harzgebirges (1843). He died at Clausthal on the 25th of November 1869.
His brother, Carl Ferdinand von Roemer (1818–1891), who had been educated for the legal profession at Göttingen, also became interested in geology, and abandoning law in 1840, studied science at the university of Berlin, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1842. Two years later he published his first work, Das Rheinische Übergangsgebirge (1844), in which he dealt with the older rocks and fossils. In 1845 he paid a visit to America, and devoted a year and a half to a careful study of the geology of Texas and other Southern states. He published at Bonn in 1849 a general work entitled Texas, while the results of his investigations of the Cretaceous rocks and fossils were published three years later in a treatise, Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Einschlüsse (1852), which included also a general account of the geology, and gained for him the title “Father of the geology of Texas.” Subsequently he published at Breslau Die Silurische Fauna des westlichen Tennessee (1860). During the preparation of these works he was from 1847 to 1855 “privat-docent” at Bonn, and was then appointed professor of geology, palaeontology and mineralogy in the university of Breslau, a post which he held with signal success as a teacher until his death. As a palaeontologist he made important contributions to our knowledge especially of the invertebrata of the Devonian and older rocks. He assisted H. G. Bronn with the third edition of the Lethaea geognastica (1851–56), and subsequently he laboured on an enlarged and revised edition, of which he published one section, Lethaea palaeozoica (1876–1883). In 1862 he was called on to superintend the preparation of a geological map of Upper Silesia, and the results of his researches were embodied in his Geologie von Oberschlesien (3 vols., 1870). As a mineralogist he was likewise well known, more particularly by his practical teachings and by the collection he formed in the Museum at Breslau. He died at Breslau on the 14th of December 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roermond

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​ROERMOND, a town in the province of Limburg, Holland, on the right bank of the Maas at the confluence of the Roer, and a junction station 28 m. by rail N.N.E. of Maastricht. Pop. (1900) 12,348. The old fortifications have been dismantled and partly converted into fine promenades. At this point the Maas is crossed by a bridge erected in 1866–67, and the Roer by one dating from 1771, replacing an older structure, and connecting Roermond with the suburb of St Jacob. Roermond is the seat of a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The finest building in the town is the Romanesque minster church of the first quarter of the 13th century. In the middle of the nave is the tomb of Gerhard III., count of Gelderland, and his wife Margaret of Brabant. It was formerly the church of a Cistercian nunnery, and in modern times has been elaborately restored. The cathedral of St Christopher is also of note; on the top of the tower (246 ft.) is a copper. statue of the saint, and the interior is adorned with paintings by Rubens, Jacob de Wit (1695–1754) and others. The Reformed church was once the chapel of the monastery of the Minorites. There is also a Redemptorist chapel. The old bishop's palace is now the courthouse, and the old Jesuits' monastery with its fine gardens a higher-burgher school. Woollen, cotton, silk and mixed stuffs, paper, flour and beer are manufactured at Roermond. Close to Roermond on the west is the village of Horn, once the seat of a lordship of the same name, which is first mentioned in a document of 1166. The lordship of Horn was a fief of the counts of Loon, and after 1361 of the bishop of Liége; but in 1450 it was raised to a countship by the Emperor Frederick II. On the extinction of the house of Horn in 1540, the countship passed to the famous Philip of Montmorency, who, with the count of Egmont, was executed in Brussels in 1568 by order of the duke of Alva. In the beginning of the next century the count ship was forcibly retained by the see of Liége, and was incorporated in the French department of the Lower Maas at the end of the 18th century. The ancient castle is in an excellent state of preservation and is sometimes used for the assembly of the states.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roger of Hoveden

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​ROGER OF HOVEDEN, or Howden (fl. 1174-1201), English chronicler, was, to judge from his name and the internal evidence of his work, a native of Howden in the East Riding of Yorkshire. But nothing is known of him before the year 1174. He was then in attendance upon Henry II., by whom ​he was sent from France on a secret mission to the lords of Galloway. In 1175 he again appears as a negotiator between the king and a number of English religious houses. The interest which Hoveden shows in ecclesiastical affairs and miracles may justify the supposition that he was a clerk in orders. This, however, did not prevent him from acting, in 1189, as a justice of the forests in the shires of Yorkshire, Cumberland and Northumberland. After the death of Henry II., it would seem that Hoveden retired from the public service, though not so completely as to prevent him from drawing on the royal archives for the history of contemporary events. About the year 1192 he began to compile his Chronica, a general history of England from 732 to his own time. Up to the year 1192 his narrative adds little to our knowledge. For the period 732–1148 he chiefly drew upon an extant, but unpublished chronicle, the Historia Saxonum sive Anglorum post obitum Bedae (British Museum MS. Reg. 13 A. 6), which was composed about 1150. From 1148 to 1170 he used the Melrose Chronicle (edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835 by Joseph Stevenson) and a collection of letters bearing upon the Becket controversy. From 1170 to 1192 his authority is the chronicle ascribed to Benedictus Abbas (q.v.), the author of which must have been in the royal household at about the same time as Hoveden. Although this period was one in which Hoveden had many opportunities of making independent observations, he adds little to the text which he uses; except that he inserts some additional documents. Either his predecessor had exhausted the royal archives, or the supplementary searches of Hoveden were languidly pursued. From 1192, however, Hoveden is an independent and copious authority. Like “Benedictus,” he is sedulously impersonal, and makes no pretence to literary style, quotes documents in full and adheres to the annalistic method. His chronology is tolerably exact, but there are mistakes enough to prove that he recorded events at a certain' distance of time. Both on foreign affairs and on questions of domestic policy he is unusually well informed. His practical experience as an administrator and his official connexions stood him in good stead. He is particularly useful on points of constitutional history. His work breaks oil abruptly in 1201, though he certainly intended to carry it further. Probably his death should be placed in that year.
See W. Stubbs's edition of the Chronica (Rolls Series) and the introductions to vols. i. and iv. This edition supersedes that of Sir H. Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (1596).  (H. W. C. D.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mucilage

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​MUCILAGE (from Late Lat. mucilago, a mouldy juice, from mucere, to be mouldy), a term which denotes a viscid or glutinous mixture of water and any gummy vegetable substance (see Gum). Mucilages are useful in medicine as vehicles for various insoluble and other drugs, and in the arts as thickeners (in calico-printing, dyeing, &c.). The British pharmacopoeia contains the mucilage’s of acacia and tragacanth.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mucuna

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​MUCUNA, a genus of twining plants, belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of the tropics. M. pruriens is popularly known as cowhage or cowitch, a corruption of the Hindu Kiwach. It is a tall annual climber with large dark purple pea-like flowers, and golden-brown velvety pods recalling those of the sweet pea, the hairs or bristles on which often raise blisters on the skin. It is common in the tropical regions of India, Africa and America, and the hairs on the pod have long been used in medicine as a vermifuge.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mubarrad

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​MUBARRAD, or Mobarrad [Abū-l ‛Abbās Maḥommed ibn Yazīd ul-Azdī] (c. 826–898), Arabian grammarian, was born in Baṣra, and became the leader of the Baṣran grammarians against the Kufan school. His judgment, however, was independent, as is shown by his attack on some points in the grammar of Sibawaihi, the greatest writer of his own school. He died at Bagdad.
His main work is the grammatical one known as the Kāmil (Perfect), which has been edited by W. Wright (Leipzig, 1864 seq.), and published at Constantinople (1869) and Cairo (1891). Two or three other works exist in MS.; cf. C. Brockelmann, Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur, i. 109 (Weimar, 1898). (G. W. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mudhol

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​MUDHOL, a native state of India in the southern division of Bombay. Area, 368 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,001; revenue, £20,000. It was a Mahratta principality dating from Mahommedan rule before the rise of Sivaji. The family name of the chief is Ghorpade. The town of Mudhol stands on the left bank of the Ghatprabha; pop. (1901), 8359.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mudie, Charles Edward

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​MUDIE, CHARLES EDWARD (1818–1890), English publisher and founder of Mudie’s Lending Library, was born at Chelsea on the 18th of October 1818, the son of a secondhand bookseller and newsagent. In 1840 he established a stationery and bookselling business in Bloomsbury, London. He was the first publisher of James Russell Lowell’s poems in England, and of Emerson’s Man Thinking. In 1842 he began to lend books. This department proved so successful that in 1852 he moved his “Select Library” to larger premises in New Oxford Street, London. In 1860 these premises were substantially enlarged, and branches of the business established, and in 1864 “Mudie’s” was converted into a limited company. Mudie himself died on the 28th of October 1890.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Much Wenlock

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​MUCH WENLOCK, a market town in the municipal borough of Wenlock (q.v.), and the Ludlow parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 163 m. N.W. from London on the Great Western railway. It lies at the north end of Wenlock Edge, a range running south-west from the Severn valley. A priory was founded here as a nunnery by St Milburg, granddaughter of Penda, about 680, and after being destroyed by the Danes was refounded by Leofric in 1017. Afterwards it was remodelled by Roger de Montgomery for Cluniac monks. There are beautiful remains of the priory church, chiefly Early English; but there is a chapter-house of ornate Norman work. The prior’s house, still inhabited, is a remarkable specimen of 15th-century work, adjoining and incorporating remains in earlier styles. The parish church of Holy Trinity, close to the ruins, is of mixed styles from Norman onwards. There is a picturesque half-timbered guildhall (1589). Trade is mainly agricultural, but there are limestone quarries in the neighbourhood. Wenlock received the grant of a market from Henry III. in 1224. It was incorporated by Edward IV. in 1448, when it also received the privilege of returning members to parliament, but in 1885 it ceased to have separate representation.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mucianus, Licinius

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​MUCIANUS, LICINIUS, Roman general and statesman, lived during the 1st century A.D. His name shows that he had passed by adoption from the Mucian to the Licinian gens. About A.D. 55 he was sent by Claudius, who had become suspicious of his intimacy with Messallina, to Armenia with Domitius Corbulo. Under Nero he regained the imperial favour. After the death of Galba (69), Mucianus and Vespasian (who was at the time in Judaea) both swore allegiance to Otho, but when the civil war broke out Mucianus persuaded Vespasian to take up arms against Vitellius, who had seized the throne. It was agreed that Vespasian should stay behind to settle affairs in the East, while Mucianus made his way through Asia Minor and Thrace to attack Vitellius. He reached Rome' the day after the death of Vitellius, and found Domitian, Vespasian’s son, at the head of affairs, but until the arrival of Vespasian the real master of Rome was Mucianus. But he never wavered in his allegiance to Vespasian, whose favour he retained in spite of his arrogance. As no mention is made of Mucianus during the reigns of Titus or Domitian, he probably died during the reign of Vespasian. He was a clever writer and historian. He made a collection of the speeches and letters of the Romans of the older republican period, probably including a corpus of proceedings of the senate (Acta senatus), and was the author of a work, chiefly dealing with the natural history and geography of the East, which is often quoted by Pliny as an authority, especially for fabulous statements.
See monograph by L. Brunn (Leipzig, 1870).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mucic Acid

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​MUCIC ACID, C$_6$H$_{10}$O$_8$ or HOOC⋅(CHOH)$_4$·COOH, is obtained by the oxidation of milk, sugar, dulcite, galactose, quercite and most varieties of gum by nitric acid. It forms a crystalline powder which melts at 213° C. It is insoluble in alcohol, and nearly insoluble in cold water. When heated with pyridine to 140° C., it is converted into allomucic acid. When digested with fuming hydrochloric acid for some time it is converted into αα′ furfurane dicarboxylic acid (see Furfurane); while on heating with barium sulphide it is transformed into α—thiophene carboxylic acid (see Thiophene). The ammonium salt yields on dry distillation carbon dioxide, ammonia, pyrrol and other substances. The acid when fused with caustic alkalies yields oxalic acid.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mudania

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​MUDANIA (anc. Apamea Myrlea), a town of Asia Minor, on the south coast of the Sea of Marmora, and the port of Brusa. It is connected with Brusa by a railway and a carriage road, and with Constantinople by steamers. Olive oil is produced. Pop., 5900, of which two-thirds are Greeks.