OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richter, Adrian Ludwig

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​ RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884), German painter and etcher, was born at Dresden in 1803, the son of the engraver Karl August Richter, from whom he received his training; but he was strongly influenced by Erhard and Chodowiecki. He was the most popular, and in many ways the most typical German illustrator of the middle of the 19th century. His work is as typically German and homely as are the fairy-tales of Grimm. Richter visited Italy from 1823-26, and his “Thunderstorm in the Sabine Mountains” at the Staedel Institute in Frankfort is one of the rare Italian subjects from his brush. In 1828 he worked as designer for the Meissen factory, and in 1841 he became professor and head of the landscape atelier at the Dresden Academy. The Dresden Gallery owns one of his best and most characteristic paintings in the “Bridal Procession in a Spring Landscape.” He died at Loschwitz near Dresden in 1884.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richter, Ernst Friedrich Eduard

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​ RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808-1879), German musical theorist, was born at Grosschönau in Saxony, on the 24th of October 1808. He first studied music at Zittau, and afterwards at Leipzig, where he attained so high a reputation that in 1843 he was appointed professor of harmony and counterpoint at the conservatorium of music, then newly founded by Mendelssohn. On the death of Hauptmann on the 3rd of January 1868, he was elected cantor of the Thomasschule, which office he retained until his death on the 9th of April 1879. He is best known by three theoretical works — Lehrbuch der Harmonie, Lehre vom Contrapunct and Lehre von der Fuge — valuable textbooks known to English students through the excellent translation by Franklin Taylor.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richter, Eugen

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RICHTER, EUGEN (1839-1906), German politician, was born on the 30th of July 1839 at Düsseldorf. After attending the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin, he entered the
government service, being stationed in his native town. In 1864 he was chosen burgomaster of Neuwied; but he was already known for his Liberal opinions, and the government refused to confirm the appointment. He was hereupon transferred to Bromberg, in East Prussia, which to an inhabitant of the Rhineland was the worst form of exile, and in consequence he resigned his place in the public service. He now went to Berlin, where he earned his living as a journalist. He was the most consistent advocate of those doctrines of laissez faire and individual liberty which the Germans call Manchestertum. He was also keenly interested in the attempts made at that period to create co-operative societies among the working men, and wrote a work on co-operative stores. It was not long before he came into conflict with the government; an electioneering pamphlet published in 1867 was confiscated; he was put on his trial but acquitted. In 1867 he was elected a member of the newly formed Reichstag, and in 1869 of the Prussian parliament. He soon became one of the most influential politicians in Germany. A member of the Progressive party, in 1880 one of the founders, and eventually the leader, of the Freisinnige, he was always in opposition. Next to Windthorst (q.v.) he was Bismarck's most dangerous opponent. After the great change of policy in 1878, for a time his influence was a great impediment to the government; as a consistent adherent to free trade, he was the leader of the opposition to the introduction of protection, to the new colonial policy, and to State Socialism. It was after 1880 that he raised the cry Bismarck muss fort. He always took a great part in debates on the military and naval establishments, in vain opposing the constant increase of army and navy. It was his refusal to support the government proposals in 1893 for an increase of the army which led to the break up of his party: he was left with only eleven followers; and, except among the middle class of Berlin and some other Prussian cities, the old Radical party, of which he was the chief representative, from that time had little influence in the country. In 1885 he founded the Freisinnige Zeitung, which he edited himself; of his numerous brochures the most successful was his attack on Socialism, entitled Sozialdemokratische Zukunftsbilder (Berlin, 1891), a clever and successful satire on the Socialist state of the future. This has been translated into the English. He also wrote much on Prussian finance, and under the title Das politische A, B, C Buch compiled a very useful political handbook for Radical voters. He also published in 1892 reminiscences of his youth (Jugenderinnerungen) , and two volumes of parliamentary reminiscences (Im alten Reichstag, 1894-1896).
He died at Jena on the 26th of January 1906.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richter, Hans

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​ RICHTER, HANS (1843- ), Hungarian musical conductor, born at Raab on the 4th of April 1843, was the son of the kapellmeister at the cathedral, and of his wife, née Josephine Csazinsky, who was the first to perform Venus in Tannhäuser at Vienna. Young Hans sang either soprano or alto in the cathedral choir, according to requirement, and occasionally played the organ. But his public début was made as a drummer in Haydn's Paukenmesse. In 1853, at the age of ten, he appeared in a concert as pianist in Hummel's E flat quintet; and in 1854, after his father's death, went to the choristers' school, the Convikt (where Schubert was educated) in Vienna, and there became chorister in the Court Chapel. For five years from 1860 Richter studied under Heissler and Sechter in the Vienna Conservatorium, and he learnt the horn under Kleinecke. A year and a half after his first lesson he became hornist in the old Kärnthnerthor Theatre at £3 a month. Meanwhile he had devoted time to conducting. It was not till August 1868 that Richter made his first appearance as a conductor, at the Hof Theater, Munich (where he had just been appointed), in William Tell; but in the next year he resigned this post, went first to Paris, then to Brussels, and finally to Triebschen, where he copied Der Ring des Nibelungen for Wagner. In April 1871 Richter took up his new duties as conductor of the Hungarian National Opera at Budapest, where he remained four years, until he began in May 1875 his long connexion with the Vienna Opera, which terminated only with the century. In 1876 Richter ​ directed the rehearsals and performances of Der Ring at Bayreuth, and in 1877 paid his first visit to England to conduct the Wagner Festival at the Albert Hall. There in 1879 he founded the Richter Concerts, which were a revelation to London musical circles of the masterly personality of the conductor, and his influence upon the orchestra; in 1885 he became conductor of the Birmingham Triennial Festival, and was created Mus. Doc. Oxon. honoris causa. In 1882 Richter also conducted a famous series of performances of Wagner's works (including the first in England of Die Meistersinger and Tristan) at Drury Lane, and in 1900 became conductor of the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester. He had established his position as one of the most richly gifted and the most experienced of modern conductors, supreme in the interpretation of Beethoven, Wagner and Brahms.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Richter, Jeremias Benjamin

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​ RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762-1807), German chemist, was born at Hirschberg in Silesia on the 10th of March 1762, became a mining official at Breslau in 1794, and in 1800 was appointed assessor to the department of mines and chemist to the royal porcelain factory at Berlin, where he died on the 4th of April 1807. To him belongs the merit of carrying out some of the earliest determinations of the quantities by weight in which acids saturate bases and bases acids, and of arriving at the conception that those amounts of different bases which can saturate the same quantity of a particular acid are equivalent to each other. He was thus led to conclude that chemistry is a branch of applied mathematics and to endeavour to trace a law according to which the quantities of different bases required to saturate a given acid formed an arithmetical, and the quantities of acids saturating a given base a geometrical, progression. His results were published in his Anfangsgründen der Stöchiometrie oder Messkunst chemischer Elemente (1792-94), and Über die neueren Gegenstände in der Chemie (1792-1802), but it was long before they were properly appreciated, or he himself was accorded due credit for them. This was partly because some of his work was wrongly ascribed to C. F. Wenzel by Berzelius through a mistake which was only corrected in 1841 by Germain Henri Hess (1802-1850), professor of chemistry at St Petersburg, and author of “the laws of constant heat-sums and of thermoneutrality” (see Thermochemistry).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Premonstratensians

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​PREMONSTRATENSIANS, also called Norbertines, and in England White Canons, from the colour of the habit: an order of Augustinian Canons founded in 1120 by St Norbert, afterwards archbishop of Magdeburg. He had made various efforts to introduce a strict form of canonical life in various communities of canons in Germany; in 1120 he was working in the diocese of Laon, and there in a desert place, called Prémontré, in Aisne, he and thirteen companions established a monastery to be the cradle of a new order. They were canons regular and followed the so-called Rule of St Augustine (see Augustinians), but with supplementary statutes that made the life one of great austerity. St Norbert was a friend of St Bernard of Clairvaux—and he was largely influenced by the Cistercian ideals as to both the manner of life and the government of his order. But as the Premonstratensians were not monks but canons regular, their work was preaching and the exercise of the pastoral office, and they served a large number of parishes incorporated in their monasteries. The order was founded in 1120; in 1126, when it received papal approbation, there were nine houses; and others were established in quick succession throughout western Europe, so that at the middle of the 14th century there are said to have been over 1300 monasteries of men and 400 of women. The Premonstratensians played a predominant part in the conversion of the Wends and the Christianizing and civilizing of the territories about the Elbe and the Oder. In time mitigations and relaxations crept in, and these gave rise to reforms and semi-independent congregations within the order. The Premonstratensians came into England (c. 1143) first at Newhouse in Lincoln, and before the dissolution under Henry VIII. there were 35 houses. At the beginning of the 19th century the order had been almost exterminated, only eight houses surviving, all in the Austrian dominions. There are now some 20 monasteries and 1000 canons, who serve numerous parishes; and there are two or three small houses in England. The strength of the order now lies in Belgium, where at Tongerloo is a great Premonstratensian abbey that still maintains a semblance of its medieval state.
Helyot, Histoire des ordres réligieux (1714), ii. chs. 23-26; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii. § 56; articles in Wetzer u. Welte Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) and Herzog Realencyklopädie (3rd ed.). The best special study is F. Winter, Die Prämonstratenser des 12. Jahrh. und ihre Bedeutung für das nordöstliche Deutschland (1865).
    (E. C. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prerau

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​PRERAU (Czech, Přerov), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 56 m. E.N.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 16,738, chiefly ​Czech. It is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, and possesses a Gothic town-hall and an old castle, once occupied by Matthias Corvinus. It has an important cloth industry, and manufactures of sugar, ropes, machinery and agricultural implements. Prerau was at one time the chief seat of the Moravian Brethren.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Presbytery

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​PRESBYTERY, in architecture, that portion of the choir of a church in which the high altar is placed, and which is generally raised by a few steps above the rest of the church. It is reserved for the priests, and in that respect differs from the choir, the stalls in which are occasionally occupied by the laity. In Westminster Abbey the space east of the transept is the presbytery, and the same arrangement is found in Canterbury Cathedral. In San Clemente at Rome the presbytery is enclosed with a marble balustrade or screen. For the use of the word in Church government see Presbyter and Presbyterianism.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Premium

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​PREMIUM (Lat. praemium, profit, reward, prae + emere, to buy), in general, a reward or prize; a consideration. In the law of insurance, the sum of money or consideration (either annual or in a lump sum) which the insured pays the insurers in order to gain a certain amount in the event of some specific loss happening is termed a premium. The word is applied to the fee paid in consideration of being taught a trade or profession. It is also used in the sense of “bonus,” as something beyond or additional, as in the phrases, “premium bonus system,” “premium system,” where a bonus or sum is given in addition to wages in proportion to the value of the work done. On the stock exchange, when a security has not yet been fully paidup, it is customary to quote its price at par, or so much premium or discount. Par represents the amount actually paid up on it, while if it is above the level it is said to be at a premium of so much, or if below at a discount.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prenzlau

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​PRENZLAU, or Prenzlow, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg. It lies on the lower Ucker See, 30 m. W. by S. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1905), 20,929. The Gothic church of St Mary (Evangelical), dating from 1340, is one of the finest churches in the district, and the remains of the town gates, walls and towers are also interesting. The industries include wool spinning, iron-founding, brewing and sugar-refining. Tobacco is grown in the neighbourhood, and cigars are manufactured in the town.
Prenzlau is first mentioned in a document of the close of the 12th century, and received its municipal charter in 1235. As the capital of the old Uckermark it was a frequent object of dispute between Pomerania and Brandenburg until incorporated with the latter about 1480. At Prenzlau Prince Hohenlohe, with his corps of 12,000 men, surrendered to Murat on the retreat after the battle of Jena in October 1806.
See I. Ziegler, Prenzlau, die ehemalige Hauptstadt der Uckermark (Prenzlau, 1886).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Prerogative Courts

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​PREROGATIVE COURTS, the name given to the English provincial courts of Canterbury and York, as far as regarded their jurisdiction over the estates of deceased persons.
They had jurisdiction to grant probate or administration where the diocesan courts could not entertain the case owing to the deceased having died possessed of goods above the value of £5 (bona notabilia) in each of two or more dioceses. The jurisdiction of the prerogative courts was transferred to the Court of Probate in 1857 by the Probate Court Act, and is now vested in the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice by the Judicature Act 1875. In the state of New Jersey, United States, the court having jurisdiction over probate matters is called the Prerogative Court.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Houssaye, Arsène

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​HOUSSAYE, ARSÈNE (1815–1896), French novelist, poet and man of letters, was born at Bruyères (Aisne), near Laon, on the 28th of March 1815. His real surname was Housset. In 1832 he found his way to Paris, and in 1836 he published two novels, La Couronne de bluets and La Pécheresse. He had many friends in Paris, among them Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier, and he wrote in collaboration with Jules Sandeau. He produced art criticism in L’Histoire de la peinture flamande et hollandaise (1846); semi-historical sketches in Mlle de la Vallière et Mme de Montespan (1860) and Galerie de portraits du XVII $^e$ siècle (1844); literary criticism in Le Roi Voltaire (1858) and his famous satirical Histoire du quarante et unième fauteuil de l’académie française (1855); drama in his Comédiennes (1857); poetry in his Symphonie des vingt ans (1867), Cent et un sonnets ​(1873), &c.; and novels, Les Filles d’Ève (1852) and many others. In 1849, through the influence of Rachel, he was entrusted with the administration of the Théâtre Français, a position he filled with unfailing tact and success until 1859, when he was made inspector-general of works of art. He died on the 26th of February 1896.
His Confessions, souvenirs d’un démi-siècle appeared in 1885–1891. See also J. Lemaître, Arsène Houssaye (1897), with a bibliography.
His son, Henry Houssaye (1848– ), the historian, was born in Paris. His early writings were devoted to classical antiquity, studied not only in books but on the actual Greek sites which he visited in 1868. He published successively Histoire d’Apelles (1867), a study on Greek art; L’Armée dans la Grèce antique (1867); Histoire d’Alcibiade et de la république athénienne depuis la mort de Périclès jusqu’à l’avènement des trente tyrans (1873); Papers on Le Nombre des citoyens d’Athènes au V $^{ème}$ siècle avant l’ère chrétienne (1882); La Loi agraire à Sparte (1884); Le Premier Siège de Paris en 52 av. J.-C. (1876); and two volumes of miscellanies, Athènes, Rome, Paris, l’histoire et les mœurs (1879), and Aspasie, Cléopatre, Théodora (6th ed. 1889). The military history of Napoleon I. then attracted him. His first volume on this subject, called 1814 (1888), went through no fewer than forty-six editions. It was followed by 1815, the first part of which comprises the first Restoration, the return from Elba and the Hundred Days (1893); the second part, Waterloo (1899); and the third part, the second abdication and the White Terror (1905). He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Houseleek

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​HOUSELEEK, Sempervivum, a genus of ornamental evergreen plants belonging to the natural order Crassulaceae. About 30 species are known in gardens, some of which are hardy perennial herbs, and grow well in dry or rocky situations; the others are evergreen shrubs or undershrubs, fit only for cultivation in the greenhouse or conservatory. The genus Sempervivum is distinguished from the nearly allied Sedum by having more than five (about 12) petals, and by the glands at the base of the ovary being laciniated if present. The common houseleek, S. tectorum (Ger. Hauswurzel, Fr. joubarbe), is often met with in Britain on roofs of outhouses and wall-tops, but is not a native. Originally it was indigenous in the Alps, but it is now widely dispersed in Europe, and has been introduced into America. The leaves are thick, fleshy and succulent, and are arranged in the form of a rosette lying close to the soil. The plant propagates itself by offsets on all sides, so that it forms after a time a dense cushion or aggregation of rosettes. The flowering stem, which is of rather rare occurrence, is about 1 ft. high, reddish, cylindrical and succulent, and ends in a level-topped cyme, reflexed at the circumference, of reddish flowers, which bloom from June to September. The houseleek has been known variously as the houselick, homewort or great houseleek. Sedum acre (stone-crop) is styled the little houseleek. In Germany it is sometimes called Donnerkraut, from being supposed to protect the house on which it grows from thunder. The leaves are said to contain malic acid in considerable quantity, and have been eaten as salad, like Portulaca. S. glutinosum and S. balsamiferum, natives respectively of Madeira and the Canary Islands, contain a very viscous substance in large quantity, and are used for the preparation of bird-lime; fishermen in Madeira, after dipping their nets in an alkaline solution, rub them with this substance, rendering them as tough as leather. S. montanum, indigenous in Central Europe, according to Gmelin, causes violent purging; S. arboreum, τὸ μἐγα ἀείζωον of Dioscorides, is employed in Cyprus, the East, and northern Africa as an external remedy for malignant ulcers, inflammations and burns, and internally for mucous discharges.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Housel

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​HOUSEL, the English name, until the time of the Reformation, for the Eucharist. The word in O. Eng. was húsel. Its proper meaning is “sacrifice,” and thus the word hunsl appears in Ulfilas’ Gothic version of Matt. ix. 13, “I will have mercy and not sacrifice.” The ultimate origin is doubtful. The New English Dictionary connects it with a Teutonic stem meaning “holy”; from which is derived the Lithuanian szweńtas, and Lettish swéts. Skeat refers it to a root meaning “to kill,” which may connect it with Gr. καίνειν.