OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Diocese of Banjaluka

From volume 2 of the work.
The Diocese of Banjaluka in Western Bosnia includes some of the most beautiful portions of the province. Banjaluka is the ancient Roman Ad Ladios. By the Bull "Ex hâc augustâ", 5 July, 1881, restoring the Catholic hierarchy in Bosnia, Leo XIII created one archiepiscopal and three episcopal sees, Banjaluka being the first in precedence among the Latter. It includes 4 deaneries, 32 parishes, and more than 80,000 faithful. Its first bishop, Marian Markovic, O. S. F., was consecrated 4 May, 1884, but only as Apostolic administrator. His first cathedral was a half-ruined shed, but he afterwards acquired a little church near his residence. At present (1907) most of the parishes are held by Franciscans. In the year 1869 was founded at Mariastern an abbey of Trappists which has already sent out two monastic colonies, to Josephsburg and to Marienburg in Bosnia, and another to Zara in Dalmatia. There are hospitals and schools conducted by Sisters of Charity and Sisters of the Precious Blood. In 1900 Banjaluka and Bihatch also became a diocese for the so-called Orthodox population, the Metropolitan residing at Banjaluka.
Leonis XIII Acta (Rome, 1882), 288-312; Missiones Catholicœ (Rome, 1897), 92-103; Missiones Catholicœ (Propaganda, Rome, 1907), 109.
L. Petit.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Diocese of Avila

From volume 2 of the work.
(ABULA)
Diocese; suffragan of Valladolid in Spain. Its episcopal succession dates at least from the fourth century and claims an Apostolic origin. Suppressed in the course of the ninth, it was re-established early in the twelfth, century, after the expulsion of the Moors, and was a suffragan of Mérida until 1120; then of Compostella until 1857. The Catholic population is 189,926. There are 360 priests, 339 parishes, and about 500 churches and chapels. Avila is historically one of the most important cities in the medieval and modern history of Spain. In the fourth century the arch-heretic Priscillian was Bishop of Avila, and in later times many saints had Avila as their home, among them St. Teresa and John of Avila, the "Apostle of Andalusia". It was once one of the most flourishing cities of Spain, but its population has dwindled to 7,000. Its Moorish castle and ancient eleventh-century cathedral are monumental relics of the past.
BATTANDIER, Ann. Pont. Cath. (Paris, 1905); 216; PICATOSTE, Tradiciones de Avila (Madrid, 1880); GAMS, Kirchengeschichte Spaniens, I, 150, sqq; FLOREZ, Espana Sagrada, XIV, 1-36; MUNOZ, Bibl. Hist. Espana (1858) 42-4.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Genesareth

From volume 6 of the work.
(Gennesaret.)
This is the name given to the Lake of Tiberias in Luke 5:1; called Gennesar in I Machabees 11:67. (See LAKE OF TIBERIAS.)
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Generation

From volume 6 of the work.
(Lat. Vulgate, generatio).
This word, of very varied meaning, corresponds to the two Hebrew terms: dôr, tôledôth. As a rendering of the later, the Vulgate plural form, generationes, is treated in the article GENEALOGY. As a rendering of the former, the word generation is used in the following principal senses.
GESENIUS, Thesaurus (Leipzig, 1829); FURST, Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon (Leipzig, 1867); BROWN, DRIVER AND BRIGGS, Hebrew and English Lexicon (New York, 1906).
FRANCIS E. GIGOT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Genesis

From volume 6 of the work.
Genesis, the name of the first book of the Pentateuch (q.v.).
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/General Chapter

From volume 6 of the work.
(Lat. capitulum, a chapter).
The daily assembling of a community for purposes of discipline and administration of monastic affairs has always included the reading of a chapter of the rule, and thus the assembly itself came to be called the chapter and the place of meeting the chapter-house. The qualifying word conventual, provinical, or general, explains the nature of the meeting, and a general chapter, therefore, is one composed of representatives of a whole order or congregation or other group of monasteries. Historically, general chapters, or the germ from which they developed, can be traced back to St. Benedict of Aniane in the beginning of the ninth century. Although his scheme of confederation did not outlive its originator, the idea was revived a century later at Cluny. The example of Cluny produced imitators, and abbeys like Fleury, Dijon, Marmoutier, St-Denis, Cluse, Fulda, and Hirsau (or Hirschau), became centres of groups of monasteries in which a more or less embryonic system of general chapters was introduced. Later on, Citeaux, Camaldoli, Monte Vergine, Savigny, and other reforms, elaborated the idea, which resulted eventually in the congregational system inaugurated by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, and since that date it has been the almost invariable custom of every order or congregation. The constitution, times of meeting, and powers of a general chapter, however, vary so much in the different religious orders that it is impossible to generalize on these points. At Citeaux, for instance, the chapter met at the mother-house every year, and was, in theory, attended by all the abbots of the order. In other orders the meeting of chapters was held every three or four years, and this has remained the more general usage till the present day. In those that are divided into provinces, the provincial superiors, and sometimes some other officials as well, presided over by the general, if there be one, form the chapter; in others, the superiors of all the houses. Amongst Benedictines, each congregation has its own separate chapter, which is composed usually of the abbot and an elected delegate from each monastery, with the president of the congregation at their head. A general chapter usually elects the general or president of the order or congregation, sometimes appoints the various superiors and other officials, settles matters of business and discipline, hears appeals from its subjects, and in some cases also has the right to draw up or sanction changes in its constitutions. Subject of course to the Holy See, it represents the highest authority in its own particular order or federation. For more detailed descriptions as to the composition and powers of general chapters, the separate articles on the various religious orders must be consulted.
G. CYPRIAN ALSTON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Moroni

From volume 10 of the work.
A painter, b. at Bondo, near Albino, in the territory of Bergamo, between 1520 and 1525; d. at Bergamo, in 1578. He was the pupil of Alessandro Bonvicino, called Moretto da Brescia (about 1498-1555), and one of the best imitators of his style. Moroni's work was done chiefly at Bergamo and in the vicinity. He was remarkable as a portrait painter, and as such was not inferior to his master. He has the same sincerity and nobility, but more originality. His portraits are among the most vigorous of the Renaissance; of these we may mention a "Scholar with an open book before him" and a "Man in Black" at the Uffizi (Florence); at the Gallery of Bergamo a "Young Man" and a "Woman", of excellent workmanship; at the Brera (Milan) the portrait of Antonio Navigiero, podesta of Bergamo; at the Ambrosiana Library in Milan, a "Man of sickly appearance"; at the National Gallery (London), portrait of a member of the Fenaroli family, "The Tailor", and Canon Londovico Terzi of Bergamo; at the Louvre "An Old man seated holding a book", "of large, firm workmanship, somewhat heavy as in some of Tintoretto's portraits" (E. Muntz); in the Dublin Museum, "A Gentleman and his two children" in the Dresden Gallery, portrait of a man; in the Gallery of Vienna, two portraits of men. In religious pictures, on the other hand, Moroni is inferior to Moretto, especially in drawing and inventiveness, but his colouring, of a clear grayish tone, is not disagreeable. "It is only in his last works that the grey tone becomes monotoneous and soft, together with a rather hard reddish colouring" (J. Buckhardt and and Bode). Worthy of note are the "Coronation of the Virgin", painted for the church of the Trinity at Bergamo; the "Last Judgement" for the parish church of Gorlago, near Bergamo; '"Virgin and Saints" and "St. Jerome" at the Carraga Academy of Bergamo; the "Assumption of the Virgin", the "Virgin surrounded by Saints" (two pictures) at the Brera of Milan; "The Jesuit" (portrait of Ercole Tasso), at Stafford House, the London residence of the Duke of Sutherland.
BLANC, Hist. des peintres de toutes les ecoles (Paris, 1865-77); Ecole venitienne; LUBKE, Gesch. der italienischen Malerei, II (Stuttgart, 1878), 621; DENISON, CHAMPLIN AND PENRKINS, Cyclop. of Painters and Paintings, III (London and New York, 1888); BURCKHARDT AND BONE, Le Cicerone, II, 753; French tr. GERARD (Paris, 1892); MUNTZ, Hist. de l'art pendant la Renaissance, III (London, 1904), s.v.
GASTON SORTAIS
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Rinuccini

From volume 13 of the work.
Born at Rome, 1592; d. at Fermo, 1653, was the son of a Florentine patrician, his mother being a sister of Cardinal Ottavo. Educated at Rome and at the Universities of Bologna, Perugia and Pisa, in due course he was ordained priest, having at the age of twenty-two obtained his doctor's degree from the University of Pisa. Returning to Rome he won distinction as an advocate in the ecclesiastical courts, and in 1625 became Archbishop of Fermo. For the twenty years following, his life was the uneventful one of a hard-working chief pastor, and then, in 1645, he was sent as papal nuncio to Ireland. Maddened by oppression, the Irish Catholics had taken up arms, had set up a legislative assembly with an executive government, and had bound themselves by oath not to cease fighting until they had secured undisturbed possession of their lands and religious liberty. But the difficulties were great. The Anglo-Irish and old Irish disagreed, their generals were incompetent or quarrelled with each other, supplies were hard to get, and the Marquis of Ormond managed to sow dissension among the members of the Supreme Council at Kilkenny. In these circumstances the Catholics sought for foreign aid from Spain and the pope; and the latter sent them Rinuccini with a good supply of arms, ammunition, and money. He arrived in Ireland, in the end of 1645, after having narrowly escaped capture at sea by an English vessel. Acting on his instructions from the pope, he encouraged the Irish Catholics not to strive for national independence, but rather to aid the king against the revolted Puritans, provided there was a repeal of the penal laws in existence. Finding, however, that Ormond, acting for the king, would grant no toleration to the Catholics, Rinuccini wished to fight both the Royalists and the Puritans. The Anglo-Irish, satisfied with even the barest toleration, desired negotiations with Ormond and peace at any price, while the Old Irish were for continuing the war until the Plantation of Ulster was undone, and complete toleration secured. Failing to effect a union between such discordant elements, Rinuccini lost courage; and when Ormond surrendered Dublin to the Puritans, and the Catholics became utterly helpless from dissension, he left Ireland, in 1649, and retired to his diocese, where he died.
Rinuccini, The Embassy to Ireland (tr. Hutton, Dublin, 1873); Gilbert, History of Irish Affairs (1641-52, 1880); Meehan, Confederation of Kilkenny (Dublin, 1846); D'Alton, History of Ireland (London, 1910).
E. A. D'Alton.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Scaramelli

From volume 13 of the work.
Ascetical writer, b. at Rome, 24 Nov., 1687; d. at Macerata, 11 Jan., 1752. He entered the Society of Jesus 21 Sept., 1706. He devoted himself to preaching for fifteen years, and long fulfilled the duties of the sacred ministry. He wrote the following works:
HENRY OLLION
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Viotti

From volume 15 of the work.
Founder of the modern school of violinist, b. at Fontanetto, Piedmont, 23 May, 173; d. 3 March, 1824. He studied under Giovannini, and at Turin under Pugnani, with whom he went on a tour n 1780. He showed not only an extraordinary virtuosity, but wrote several concertos for the violin, and his playing in Germany, Russia, and France attracted considerable attention. For a time he was attached to the Court of Marie Antoinette, and he lived with Cherubini in 1785 and 1786. Owing to the Revolution, he quitted Paris, and arrived in London in July, 1792. He succeeded Cramer as leader at the King's Theatre, and was in the highest esteem as a teacher, but owing to base intrigue he had to leave England in 1798. Returning to London in 1801 he resumed his violin classes, but had a disastrous experience as a wine merchant. Again devoting himself to the violin, he returned to Paris in 1814 and was Director of the French Opera from 1819 to 1822. Unfortunately, his directorate was not a financial success and he came back to London in the spring of the year 1824. As a composer, he enriched violin music by his numerous concertos and sonatas, and by a few dainty songs. However, it is as a virtuoso and as the founder of modern violin playing that Viotti will be remembered. Among his pupils were Pixis, Rode, Alday, Vacher, Labarne, and others.
GROVE, Dict. of Music and Musicians, new ed., V (London, 1909); DUNSTAN, Cyclopedia of Music (London, 1909); Contemporary French and English papers.
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Pergolesi

From volume 11 of the work.
Born at Naples, 3 Jan., 1710; d. 16 March, 1736, at Pozzuoli, near Naples. This young man of delicate and poetic musical gifts might have done great things for music of the Church had he not lived when composers were trying to serve two masters. Of frail constitution, he shortened his career by irregular conduct. At an early age he entered the Conservatory " dei poveri de Gesù Christo" in his native city, studied the violin under Domenico Matteis and afterwards enjoyed the guidance in composition of Gaetano Greco, Francesco Durante, and Francesco Feo. As a student he attracted attention by his sacred drama "San Guglielmo d'Aquitania" but, following the trend of his time, he devoted the next few years to the theatre, producing with more or less success "La Sallustia", "Amor fa l'uomo cieco", and "Recimero". He was not satisfied with these latter achievements, and when Naples was visited by an earthquake, Pergolesi was commissioned to write a mass for the solemn services of thanksgiving in the church of Santa Maria della Stella. Through this work for two five-part choirs and two orchestras, he became known as one of the most resourceful composers of the Neapolitan school. Shortly after he produced another mass for two choirs and later a third and fourth. Then the young master once more yielded to the allurements of the theatre. The intermezzo, "Serva padrona", survived his more pretentious works of this period. Although requiring for performance but two singers and a quartette of stringed instruments, it had instantaneous and lasting success. The last two years of his live Pergolesi devoted almost entirely to the interpretation of liturgical texts (masses, a "Salve Regina", etc.), almost all of them for chorus and orchestra. The work, by which he is most remembered, is the "Stabat mater" for two-part choir and stringed orchestra and organ, which he wrote shortly before his death for the Minorite monastery of San Luigi in Naples. Requiring great flexibility of execution on the part of the vocalists, it especially displays the author's chief characteristic, namely, delicacy and tenderness of feeling and exquisite workmanship. Though of lasting artistic value, Pergolesi's compositions are not available for liturgical purposes because for the most part they partake of the nature and form of contemporaneous operatic productions. They are better suited for performance as sacred concerts. The latest arrangement of Pergolesi's "Stabat mater", for chorus and modern orchestra, is by Alexis Lwow.
Boyer, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Giovanni Battista Pergolesi in Mercure de France (Paris, 1772); Blasis, Biografia di Pergolesi (Naples, 1817); Faustini-Fasini, Giovanni Battista di Pergolesi attraverso I suoi biografi (Naples, 1900); Villarosa, Littera biografica (Naples, 1831); Idem, Memorie di compositori di musica del regno di Napoli (Naples, 1840).
JOSEPH OTTEN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Riccioli

From volume 13 of the work.
Italian astronomer, b. at Ferrara 17 April, 1598; d. at Bologna 25 June, 1671. He entered the Society of Jesus 6 Oct., 1614. After teaching philosophy and theology for a number of years, chiefly at Parma and Bologna, he devoted himself, at the request of his superiors, entirely to the study of astronomy, which at that time, owing to the discoveries of Kepler and the new theories of Copernicus, was a subject of much discussion. Realizing the many defects of the traditional astronomy inherited from the ancients, he conceived the bold idea of undertaking a reconstruction of the science with a view to bringing it into harmony with contemporary progress. This led to his "Almagestum novum, astronomiam veterem novamque complectens" (2 vols., Bologna, 1651), considered by many the most important literary work of the Jesuits during the seventeenth century. The author in common with many scholars of the time, notably in Italy, rejected the Copernican theory, and in this work, admittedly of great erudition, gives an elaborate refutation in justification of the Roman Decrees of 1616 and 1633. He praises, however, the genius of Copernicus and readily admits the value of his system as a simple hypothesis. His sincerity in this connexion has been called into question by some, e.g. Wolf, but a study of the work shows beyond doubt that he wrote from conviction and with the desire of making known the truth. Riccioli's project also included a comparison of the unit of length of various nations and a more exact determination of the dimensions of the earth. His topographical measurements occupied him at intervals between 1644 and 1656, but defects of method have rendered his results of but little value. His most important contribution to astronomy was perhaps his detailed telescopic study of the moon, made in collaboration with P. Grimaldi. The latter's excellent lunar map was inserted in the "Almagestum novum", and the lunar nomenclature they adopted is still in use. He also made observations on Saturn's rings, though it was reserved for Huyghens to determine the true ring-structure. He was an ardent defender of the new Gregorian calendar. Though of delicate health, Riccioli was an indefatigable worker and, in spite of his opposition to the Copernican theory, rendered valuable services to astronomy and also to geography and chronology. His chief works are: "Geographiæ et hydrographiæ reformatæ libri XII" (Bologna, 1661); "Astronomia reformata" (2 vols., Bologna, 1665); "Chronologia reformata" (1669); "Tabula latitudinum et longitudinum" (Vienna, 1689).
SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la C. de J., VI (Paris, 1895), 1795; DELAMBRE, Hist. de l'Astronomie Moderne, II (Paris, 1821), 274; WOLF, Gesch. d. Astronomie (Munich, 1877), 434; WALSH, Catholic Churchmen in Science (2nd series, Philadelphia, 1909); LINSMEIER, Natur. u. Offenbarung, XLVII, 65 sqq.
H. M. BROCK
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista de Luca

From volume 9 of the work.
A Cardinal and Italian canonist of the seventeenth century, b. at Venusia, Southern Italy, in 1614; d. at Rome, on 5 February, 1683. Born of humble parentage, he studied at Naples, but owing to ill-health he had to return to his native place. In 1645 he went to Rome, where he soon won a high reputation for his legal ability, thereby stirring up much enmity and jealousy. At an advanced age he became a priest and enjoyed the patronage of Innocent XI, who made him successively referendary Utriusque Signaturae, auditor of the Sacred Palace and finally in 1681 raised him to the cardinalate. His writings, which are eminently practical in character, are most important for proper understanding of the jurisprudence of the Roman Court and especially of the Rota in his time. We may mention his "Relatio Curiae Romanae" (Cologne, 1683), "Sacrae Rotae decisiones" (Lyons, 1700); "Annotationes praticae ad S. Conciluim Tridentinum" (Cologne, 1684). His complete works were published under the title "Theatrum veritatis et justitiae (19 vols., 1669-77; 12 vols., Cologne, 1689-99).
SHERER in Kirchenlex., s.v.; SCHULTE. Die Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des canonischen Rechts, III (Stuttgart, 1875-80), 487; WERNZ, Jus Decretalium, 1 (Rome, 1898), 415; HURTER, Nomenclator litterarius, II, 364.
A. VAN HOVE
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Salvi da Sassoferrato

From volume 13 of the work.
Born at Sassoferrato in the March of Ancona, 1609; died at Rome, 1689, where he had passed the greater part of his life. His father, Tarquinio Salvi was his first master. At Naples, he studied under Dominichino and through him was a pupil of the Carracci. Several of his pictures are direct imitations of Perugino, Raphael, and Titian. His Madonnas, especially, are inspired by Raphael, and in their quiet sweetness rival those of Carlo Dolci. In the seventeenth century the Blessed Virgin was too frequently portrayed with a cold dignity, and reserve so austere towards the Child Jesus that it is difficult to realize her motherhood. "Consequently, men grew more fond of Sassoferrato whose Madonnas, tender, lovely, carefully painted, all reveal the mother's heart, as men more readily forgive certain errors when they are lofty, and certain weaknesses when they are picturesque" (Burckhardt). Sassoferrato gave to his compositions a pleasing air of intimacy, and a certain naivete, in happy contrast to the melancholy expression too frequently found in the paintings of his time. Among others the "Adoration of the Shepherds," and the "Workshop of the Carpenter Joseph with the Infant Jesus Sweeping the Shavings" (Museum of Naples) present this charming character of intimacy. His masterpiece, however, is to be found in Rome, in the Church of St. Sabina on the Aventine: "Our Lady of the Rosary with St. Dominic and St. Catherine." This was painted at the request of the Princess de Rossano, and finished in 1643, the artist receiving the sum of one hundred écus (crowns) in payment. "The Virgin in a blue cloak and purple dress is seated in the centre with the Infant Jesus on her left knee; kneeling at the right is St. Dominic to whom she presents the rosary, whilst the Divine Child with one hand extending the rosary to St. Catherine, who kneels at the left, with the other places upon her head reverently bent, the crown of thorns. Circling the head of the Virgin is a crown of five small angels of ravishing grace and devotion" (Berthier). Besides these, there is at the Louvre, the "Assumption of the Blessed Virgin"; at the Muscé des Offices, the "Infant Jesus asleep on His Mother's knees" (this last subject is also found in the Museums of Dresden and Madrid); his Portrait; "The Virgin of Sorrows"; at the Vatican there is the "Madonna with Angels"; at Turin, the "Madonna of the Rose"; at Berlin, the "Holy Family"; at Frankfurt-on-the-Main, Galerie Städel, the "Virgin praying." Madonnas of Sassoferrato are likewise to be found in the Museums at London, St. Petersburg, Brussels, Vienna.
LANZI, History of Painting in Italy, tr. from the Italian by ROSCOE, I (London, 1847), 469; BLANC, Histoire des peintres de toutes les Ecoles; Ecole ombrienne (Paris, 1869-77); BERCKHARDT AND BODE, Le Cicerone, tr. GERARD, II (Paris, 1892), 810-11; BRYAN, Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, V (London, 1905); BERTHIER, L'Eglise de sainte Sabine a Rome (Rome, 1910), 313-16.
GASTON SORTAIS