OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minturnae

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​MINTURNAE, an ancient city of the Aurunci, in Italy, situated on the N.W. bank of the Liris with a suburb on the opposite bank 11/2 m. from its mouth, at the point where the Via Appia crossed it by the Pons Tiretius. It was one of the three towns of the Aurunci which made war against Rome in 314 B.C., the other two being Ausona (see Sessa Aurunca) and Vescia; and the Via Appia was made two years later. It became a colony in 295 B.C. In 88 B.C. Marius in his flight from Sulla hid himself in the marshes of Minturnae. The ruins consist of an amphitheatre (now almost entirely demolished, but better preserved in the 18th century), a theatre, and a very fine aqueduct in opus reticulatum, the quoins of which are of various colours arranged in patterns to produce a decorative effect. Close to the mouth of the river was the sacred grove of the Italic goddess Marica. It is still mentioned in the 6th century, but was probably destroyed by the Saracens, and its low site, which had become unhealthy, was abandoned in favour of that of the modern town of Minturno (known as Traetto until the 19th century), 459 ft. above sea-level. A tower at the mouth of the river, erected between 961 and 981, commemorates a victory gained by Pope John X. and his allies over the Saracens in 915. It is built of Roman materials from Minturnae, including several inscriptions and sculptures.
See T. Ashby in Mélanges de l’École française de Rome (1903), 413; R. Laurent-Vibert and A. Piganol, ibid. (1907), p. 495; G. Q. Giglioli, Notizie degli Scavi (1908) p. 396. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minuet

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​MINUET (adapted, under the influence of the Italian minuetto, from Fr. menuet, small, pretty, delicate, a diminutive of menu, from Lat. minutus; the word refers probably to the short steps, pas menus, taken in the dance), a dance for two persons, in 3/4 time. At the period when it was most fashionable it was slow, ceremonious, and graceful (see Dance). The name is also given to a musical composition written in the same time and rhythm, but when not accompanying an actual dance the pace was quicker. An example of the true form of the minuet is to be found in Don Giovanni. The minuet is frequently found as one of the movements in the Suites of Handel and Bach. Haydn introduced it into the symphony, with little trace of the slow grace and ceremony of the dance. In the hands of Beethoven it becomes the scherzo.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Frentani

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​FRENTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed an independent community on the east coast of Italy. They entered the Roman alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C. (Livy ix. 16. 45). This town either changed its name or perished some time after the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins of its own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged to the same people (Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii. 103), became latinized before 200 B.C., as its coins of that epoch bear a legend—LARINOR(VM)—which cannot reasonably be treated as anything but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions survive from the neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. Histonium), which was in the Frentane area.
On the forms of the name, and for further details see R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No. 195-196.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/French, Nicholas

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​FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604–1678), bishop of Ferns, was an Irish political pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He was educated at Louvain, and returning to Ireland became a priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was appointed bishop of Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturbances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave Ireland in 1651, and the remainder of his life was passed on the continent of Europe. He acted as coadjutor to the archbishops of Santiago de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop of Ghent, and died at Ghent on the 23rd of August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack on James Butler, marquess of Ormonde, entitled “The Unkinde Desertor of Loyall Men and True Frinds,” and shortly afterwards “The Bleeding Iphigenia.” The most important of his other pamphlets is the “Narrative of the Earl of Clarendon’s Settlement and Sale of Ireland” (Louvain, 1668).
The Historical Works of Bishop French, comprising the three pamphlets already mentioned and some letters, were published by S. H. Bindon at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, Irish Writers of the 17th Century (Dublin, 1846); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641–1652 (Dublin, 1879–1880); and T. Carte, Life of James, Duke of Ormond (new ed., Oxford, 1851).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/French Polish

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​FRENCH POLISH, a liquid for polishing wood, made by dissolving shellac in methylated spirit. There are four different tints, brown, white, garnet and red, but the first named is that most extensively used. All the tints are made in the same manner, with the exception of the red, which is a mixture of the brown polish and methylated spirit with either Saunders wood or Bismarck brown, according to the strength of colour required. Some woods, and especially mahogany, need to be stained before they are polished. To stain mahogany mix some bichromate of potash in hot water according to the depth of colour required. After staining the wood the most approved method of filling the grain is to rub in fine plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before it “sets.” After this is dry it should be oiled with linseed oil and thoroughly wiped off. The wood is then ready for the polish, which is put on with a rubber made of wadding covered with linen rag and well wetted with polish. The polishing process has to be repeated gradually, and after the work has hardened, the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few drops of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently smooth. After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer when it is getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Funnel

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​FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. founil, found in Breton, from Lat. infundibulum, that through which anything is poured, from fundere, to pour), a vessel shaped like a cone having a small tube at the apex through which powder, liquid, &c., may be easily passed into another vessel with a small opening. The term is used in metal-casting of the hole through which the metal is poured into a mould, and in anatomy and zoology of an infundibulum or funnel-shaped organ. The word is thus used generally of any shaft or passage to convey light, air or smoke, as of the chimney of an engine or a steam-boat, or the flue of an ordinary chimney. It is also used of a shaft or channel in rocks, and in the decoying of wild-fowl is applied to the cone-shaped passage leading from a pond and covered with a net, a “funnel-net,” into which the birds are decoyed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Fundy, Bay of

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​FUNDY, BAY OF, an inlet of the North Atlantic, separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia. It is 145 m. long and 48 m. wide at the mouth, but gradually narrows towards the head, where it divides into Chignecto Bay to the north, which subdivides into Shepody Bay and Cumberland Basin (the French Beaubassin), and Minas Channel, leading into Minas Basin, to the east and south. Off its western shore opens Passamaquoddy Bay, a magnificent sheet of deep water with good anchorage, receiving the waters of the St Croix river and forming part of the boundary between New Brunswick and the state of Maine. The Bay of Fundy is remarkable for the great rise and fall of the tide, which at the head of the bay has been known to reach 62 ft. In Passamaquoddy Bay the rise and fall is about 25 ft., which gradually increases toward the narrow upper reaches. At spring tides the water in the Bay of Fundy is 19 ft. higher than it is in Bay Verte, in Northumberland Strait, only 15 m. distant. Though the bay is deep, navigation is rendered dangerous by the violence and rapidity of the tide, and in summer by frequent fogs. At low tide, at such points as Moncton or Amherst, only an expanse of red mud can be seen, and the tide rushes in a bore or crest from 3 to 6 ft. in height. Large areas of fertile marshes are situated at the head of the bay, and the remains of a submerged forest show that the land has subsided in the latest geological period at least 40 ft. The bay receives the waters of the St Croix and St John rivers, and has numerous harbours, of which the chief are St Andrews (on Passamaquoddy Bay) and St John in New Brunswick, and Digby and Annapolis (on an inlet known as Annapolis Basin) in Nova Scotia. It was first explored by the Sieur de Monts (d. c. 1628) in 1604 and named by him La Baye Française.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Furazanes

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​FURAZANES (furo—a.a′—diazoles), organic compounds obtained by heating the glyoximes (dioximes of ortho-diketones) with alkalis or ammonia. Dimethylfurazane is prepared by heating dimethylglyoxime with excess of ammonia for six hours at 165° C. (L. Wolff, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 70). It is a liquid (at ordinary temperature) which boils at 156° C. (744 mm.). Potassium permanganate oxidizes it first to methylfurazane-carboxylic acid and then to furazanedicarboxylic acid. Methyl-ethylfurazane and diphenylfurazane are also known. By warming oxyfurazane acetic acid with excess of potassium permanganate to 100° C. oxyfurazanecarboxylic acid is obtained (A. Hantzsch and J. Urbahn, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 764). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 175° C. Furazanecarboxylic acid is prepared by the action of a large excess of potassium permanganate on a hot solution of furazanepropionic acid. It melts at 107° C, and dissolves in caustic soda, with a deep yellow colour and formation of nitrosocyanacetic acid (L. Wolff and P. F. Ganz, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1167). Furoxane is an oxide of furazane, considered by H. Wieland to be identical with glyoxime peroxide; Kekulés dibromnitroacetonitrile is dibromfuroxane.
The formulae of the compounds above mentioned are:
| HC:N | O | CH$_3$⋅C:N | O | HC:N | O | HC—CH | O. |
| HC. :N | O | CH$_3$⋅C. :N | O | HO$_2$CC. :N | O | N..·O·N. | O. |
| Furazane. | Furazane. | Dimethyl-  furazane | Dimethyl-  furazane | Furazane- carboxylic acid. | Furazane- carboxylic acid. | Furoxane. | Furoxane. |
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Funchal

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​FUNCHAL, the capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the Madeiras; on the south coast of Madeira, in 32° 37′ N. and 16° 54′ W. Pop. (1900) 20,850. Funchal is the see of a bishop, in the archiepiscopal province of Lisbon; it is also the administrative centre of the archipelago, and the residence of the governor and foreign consuls. The city has an attractive appearance from the sea. Its whitewashed houses, in their gardens full of tropical plants, are built along the curving shore of Funchal Bay, and on the lower slopes of an amphitheatre of mountains, which form a background 4000 ft. high. Numerous country houses (quintas), with terraced gardens, vineyards and sugar-cane plantations occupy the surrounding heights. Three mountain streams traverse the city through deep channels, which in summer are dry, owing to the diversion of the water for irrigation. A small fort, on an isolated rock off shore, guards the entrance to the bay, and a larger and more powerfully armed fort crowns an eminence inland. The chief buildings include the cathedral, Anglican and Presbyterian churches, hospitals, opera-house, museum and casino. There are small public gardens and a meteorological observatory. In the steep and narrow streets, which are lighted by electricity, wheeled traffic is impossible; sledges drawn by oxen, and other primitive conveyances are used instead (see Madeira). In winter the fine climate and scenery attract numerous invalids and other visitors, for whose accommodation there are good hotels; many foreigners engaged in the coal and wine trades also reside here permanently. The majority of these belong to the British community, which was first established here in the 18th century. Funchal is the headquarters of Madeiran industry and commerce (see Madeira). It has no docks and no facilities for landing passengers or goods; vessels are obliged to anchor in the roadstead, which, however, is sheltered from every wind except the south. Funchal is connected by cable with Carcavellos (for Lisbon), Porthcurnow (for Falmouth, England) and St Vincent in the Cape Verde Islands (for Pernambuco, Brazil).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Funj

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​FUNJ (Funniyeh, Fung, Fungha), a very mixed negroid race, occupying parts of Sennar and the hilly country to the south between the White and Blue Niles. They traditionally come from west of the White Nile and are affiliated by some to the Kordofan Nubas, by others, more justifiably, to the negro Shilluks. These Funj, who became the dominant race in Sennar in the 15th century, almost everywhere assimilated the speech, religion and habits of the Arabs settled in that region. Until the 19th century they were one of the most powerful of African peoples in the eastern Sudan. About the end of the 15th century they overthrew the kingdom of Aloa, between the two Niles, and conquered the neighbouring peoples of the Sudan, Nubia and even Kordofan. The Funj had mixed much with the Arabs before their conquests, and had been converted to Islam. But they were still in many ways savages, for James Bruce (who traversed the district in 1772) says that their most famous king, Malek-el-Gahman, preferred human liver to any other food, and the Belgian traveller E. Pruyssenaere (1826–1864) found them still performing pagan rites on their sacred Mount Gula. Ernst Marno declared that as late as 1870 the most southern branch of the race, the Boruns, a non-Arabic speaking tribe, were cannibals. The Funj kings were content with levying tribute on their neighbours, and in this loose way Shendi, Berber and Dongola were once tributary. The Arab viziers gradually absorbed all power, the Funj sovereignty becoming nominal; and in 1821 the Egyptians easily destroyed the Funj domination. To-day the Funj are few, and represent no real type. They are a bright, hospitable folk. Many of them are skilful surgeons and go far afield in their work. The fellahin, indeed, call surgeons “Senaari” (men of Sennar). See further Sennar and Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Funkia

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​FUNKIA, in botany, a genus of rather handsome, hardy, herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order Liliaceae, and natives of China and Japan. They are tuberous, with broadly ovate or heart-shaped leaves and racemes of white or pale lilac, drooping, funnel-shaped flowers. They are useful for the borders of a shrubbery, the lawn or rock-work, or may be grown in pots for the greenhouse. The plants are propagated by dividing the crowns in autumn or when growth begins in spring.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantin

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​PANTIN, a town of northern France in the department, of Seine, on the Canal d’Ourcq, adjoining the fortifications of Paris on the north-east. Pop. (1906), 32,604. The manufacture of boilers, railway wagons, machinery, oil, glass, chemicals, polish and perfumery, and the operations of dye-works, foundries and distilleries, represent some of the varied branches of its industrial activity. There is also a state-manufactory of tobacco.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantaloon

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​PANTALOON (Ital. pantalone), a character in the old Italian popular comedy, said to represent a Venetian, from the favourite Venetian saint San Pantaleone, and transferred from it to pantomime (q.v.). The Italian Pantaloon was always a silly old man with spectacles and wearing slippers, and his character was maintained in pantomime and has also made his name a synonym for a tottering dotard, as in Shakespeare’s As You Like It (11. vii. 158). From the Venetian usage the word “Pantaloon” (whence “pants”) has also been given to certain forms of garment for the legs, the exact meaning varying at different times.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Panther

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​PANTHER, another name for the leopard (q.v), also used in America as the name of the puma (q.v.). The word is an adaptation of Lat. panthera; Gr. πάνθηρ the supposed derivation, of which from πᾶς, all and θήρ, animal, gave rise to tales and fables in medieval bestiaries and later scientific works. The panther was supposed to be a distinct animal from the pardus, pard, the leopard, to which also many legends were attached. In modern times a distinction had been unscientifically drawn between a larger type of leopard to which the name panther was given, and a smaller and more graceful specimen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantheon

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​PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. πάνθειον all-holy, from πᾶς, all, and θεός god), the name of two buildings in Rome and Paris respectively; more generally, the name of any building in which as a mark of honour the bodies of the nation's famous men are buried, or “memorials” or monuments to them are placed. Thus Westminster Abbey is sometimes styled the British “Pantheon,” and the rotunda in the Escorial where the kings of Spain are buried also bears the name. Near Regensburg (q.v.) is the pantheon of German worthies, known as the Valhalla. The first building to which the name was given was that built in Rome in 27 B.C. by Agrippa; it was burned later and the existing building was erected in the reign of Hadrian; since A.D. 600 it has been a Christian church, S Maria Rotunda. It was the Paris building that gave rise to the generic use of the term for a building where a nation's illustrious dead rest. The Pantheon in Paris was the church built in the classical style by Soufflot; it was begun in 1764 and consecrated to the patroness of the city, Sainte Geneviève. At the Revolution it was secularized under the name of Le Panthéon, and dedicated to the great men of the nation; It was reconsecrated in 1828 for worship, was again secularized in 1830, was once more a place of worship from 1851 to 1870, and was then a third time secularized. On the entablature is inscribed the words Aux Grandes Hommes La Patrie Reconnaissante. The decree of 1885 finally established the building for the purpose for which the name now stands.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantaenus

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​PANTAENUS, head of the catechetical school at Alexandria, c. A.D. 180–200, known chiefly as having been the master of Clement, who succeeded him, and of Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem. Clement speaks of him as the “Sicilian bee,” but of his birth and death nothing is known. Eusebius and Jerome speak of him as having been, originally at least, a Stoic, and as having been sent, on account of his zeal and learning, as a missionary to “India.” There is some reason to think that this means the Malabar coast. There was a considerable intercourse between south India and the east Mediterranean at the time, and Christian thought possibly did something to mould the great system of Tamil philosophy known as the Saiva Siddhanta. Pantaenus “expounded the treasures of divine doctrine both orally and in writing,” but only a few brief reminiscences of his teaching are extant (see Routh, Rel. sac. i. 375–383). Lightfoot suggests that the conclusion of the well-known Epistle to Diognetus, chs. 11, 12, may be the work of Pantaenus. Clement thought highly of his abilities, and Origen appeals to his authority in connexion with the inclusion of philosophy in the theological course.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pantechnicon

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​PANTECHNICON, an invented word, from Gr. πᾶν, all, and τεχνικός, of or belonging to the arts (τέχναι), originally used as the name of a bazaar in which all kinds of artistic work was sold; it was established in Motcomb Street, Belgrave Square, London, early in the 19th century, but failed and was turned into a furniture depository, in which sense the word has now passed into general usage. The large vans used for removing furniture are hence known as pantechnicon vans or pantechnicons simply.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Page, William

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​PAGE, WILLIAM (1811–1885), American artist, was born at Albany, New York, on the 3rd of January 1811. He studied for the ministry at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1828–1830 and in later life became a Swedenborgian. He received his training in art from S. F. B. Morse and in the schools of the National Academy of Design, and in 1836 became a National Academician. From 1849 to 1860, he lived in Rome, where he painted portraits of his friends Robert and Elizabeth Browning. The first collection of Lowell’s Poems (1843) was dedicated to Page, who was also a friend of W. W. Story. In 1871–1873 he was president of the National Academy of Design. He died at Tottenville, Staten Island, New York, on the 1st of October 1885. Besides numerous portraits he painted “Farragut at the Battle of Mobile,” belonging to the Tsar of Russia; a “Holy Family,” in the Boston Athenaeum; and “The Young Merchants,” at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia. He modelled and painted several portraits of Shakespeare, based on the Becker “death mask.” He wrote A New Geometrical Method of Measuring the Human Figure (1860).