OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob

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​PAULUS, HEINRICH EBERHARD GOTTLOB (1761–1851), German rationalistic theologian, was born at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, on the 1st of September 1761. His father, a Lutheran clergyman at Leonberg, dabbled in spiritualism, and was deprived of his living in 1771. Paulus was educated in the seminary at Tübingen, was three years master in a German school, and then spent two years in travelling through England, Germany, Holland and France. In 1789 he was chosen professor ordinarius of Oriental languages at Jena. Here he lived in close intercourse with Schiller, Goethe, Herder and the most distinguished literary men of the time. In 1793 he succeeded Johann Christoph Döderlein (1745–1792) as professor of exegetical theology. His special work was the exposition of the Old and New Testaments in the light of his great Oriental learning ​and according to his characteristic principle of “natural explanation.” In his explanation of the Gospel narratives Paulus sought to remove what other interpreters regarded as miracles from the Bible by distinguishing between the fact related and the author’s opinion of it, by seeking a naturalistic exegesis of a narrative, e.g. that ἐπὶ τῆς θαλάσσης (Matt. xiv. 25) means by the shore and not on the sea, by supplying circumstances omitted by the author, by remembering that the author produces as miracles occurrences which can now be explained otherwise, e.g. exorcisms. His Life of Jesus (1828) is a synoptical translation of the Gospels, prefaced by an account of the preparation for the Christ and a brief summary of His history, and accompanied by very short explanations interwoven in the translation. The form of the work was fatal to its success, and the subsequent Exegetisches Handbuch rendered it quite superfluous. In this Handbuch Paulus really contributed much to a true interpretation of the Gospel narratives. In 1803 he became professor of theology and Consistorialrat at Würzburg. After this he filled various posts in south Germany—school director at Bamberg (1807), Nuremberg (1808), Ansbach (1810)—until he became professor of exegesis and church history at Heidelberg (1811–1844). He died on the 10th of August 1851.
His chief exegetical works are his Philologisch-kritischer und historischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament (4 vols., 1800–1804); Philologischer Clavis über die Psalmen (1791); and Philologischer Clavis über Jesaias (1793); and particularly his Exegetisches Handbuch über die drei ersten Evangelien (3 vols., 1830–1833; 2nd ed., 1841–1842). He also edited a collected small edition of Baruch Spinoza’s works (1802–1803), a collection of the most noted Eastern travels (1792–1803), F. W. J. Schelling’s Vorlesungen über die Offenbarung (1843), and published Skizzen aus meiner Bildungsund Lebensgeschichte (1839). See Karl Reichlin-Meldegg, H. E. G. Paulus und seine Zeit (1853), and article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie; of. F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 21–24.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulus, Lucius Aemilius

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​PAULUS (older form Paullus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS, surnamed Macedonicus (c. 229–160 B.C.), Roman general, a member of a patrician family of the Aemilian gens, son of the consul of the same name who fell at Cannae. As consul for the second time (168) he was entrusted with the command in the Macedonian War, which the incapacity of previous generals had allowed to drag on for three years. He brought the war to a speedy termination by the battle of Pydna, fought on the 22nd of June (Julian calendar) 168. Macedonia was henceforward a Roman province, and Paulus, having made a tour through Greece, with the assistance of ten Roman commissioners arranged the affairs of the country. He enjoyed a magnificent triumph, which lasted three days and was graced by the presence of the captive king Perseus and his three children. He lost his two sons by his second wife, and was thus left without a son to bear his name, his two sons by his first wife having been adopted into the Fabian and Cornelian gentes. Paulus was censor in 164, and died in 160 after a long illness. At the funeral games exhibited in his honour the Hecyra of Terence was acted for the second and the Adelphi for the first time. An aristocrat to the backbone, he was yet beloved by the people. Of the vast sums brought by him into the Roman treasury from Spain and Macedonia he kept nothing to himself, and at his death his property scarcely sufficed to pay his wife’s dowry. As a general he was a strict disciplinarian; as an augur he discharged his duties with care and exactness. He was greatly in sympathy with Greek learning and art, and was a friend of the historian Polybius.
See Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus; Livy xliv. 17–xlvi. 41; Polybius xxix.–xxxii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yonge, Charlotte Mary

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​YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY (1823–1901), English novelist and writer on religious and educational subjects, daughter of William ​Crawley Yonge, 52nd Regiment, and Frances Mary Bargus, was born on the 11th of August 1823 at Otterbourne, Hants. She was educated by her parents, and from them inherited much of the religious feeling and High Church sympathy which coloured her work. She resided at Otterbourne all her life, and was one of the most prolific writers of the Victorian era. In 1841 she published five works of fiction, including The Clever Woman of the Family, Dynevor Terrace and The Trial; and after that she was the author of about 120 volumes, including novels, tales, school manuals and biographies. Her first conspicuous success was attained with The Heir of Redclyffe (1853), which enjoyed an enormous vogue. The Daisy Chain (1856) continued the success; and among her other popular books may be mentioned Heartsease (1854), The Young Stepmother (1861) and The Dove in the Eagle’s Nest (1866). In more serious fields of literature she published Landmarks of History (three series, 1852–57), History of Christian Names (1863), Cameos of English History (1868), Life of Bishop Patteson (1874), English Church History for Use in Schools (1883) and many others. She also edited various educational works, and was for more than thirty years editor of the Monthly Packet. She died at Otterbourne on 23rd March 1901. Her books err on the side of didacticism, but exercised a wide and wholesome influence. The money realized by the early sales of The Daisy Chain was given to the building of a missionary college at Auckland, N.Z., while a large portion of the proceeds of The Heir of Redclyffe was devoted to the missionary schooner “The Southern Cross.”
See Charlotte Mary Yonge: an Appreciation, by Ethel Romanes (1908).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yonge, Sir William

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​YONGE, SIR WILLIAM, Bart (c. 1693–1753), English politician, was the son of Sir Walter Yonge of Colyton, Devonshire, and great-great-grandson of Walter Yonge of Colyton (?1581–1649), whose diaries (1604–45), more especially four volumes now in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 18777–18780), are valuable material for history. In 1722 he was elected to parliament as member for Honiton; and he succeeded his father, the third baronet, in 1731. In the House of Commons he attached himself to the Whigs, and making himself useful to Sir Robert Walpole; was rewarded with a commissionership of the treasury in 1724. George II., who conceived a strong antipathy to Sir William, spoke of him as “Stinking Yonge”; but Yonge conducted himself so obsequiously that he obtained a commissionership of the admiralty in 1728, was restored to the treasury in 1730, and in 1735 became secretary of state for war. He especially distinguished himself in his defence of the government against a hostile motion by Pulteney in 1742. Making friends with the Pelhams, he was appointed vice-treasurer of Ireland in 1746; and, acting on the committee of management for the impeachment of Lord Lovat in 1747, he won the applause of Horace Walpole by moving that prisoners impeached for high treason should be allowed the assistance of counsel. In 1748 he was elected F.R.S. He died at Escott, near Honiton, on the 10th of August 1755. By his second wife, Anne, daughter and coheiress of Thomas, Lord Howard of Effingham, he had two sons and six daughters. He enjoyed some reputation as a versifier, some of his lines being even mistaken for the work of Pope, greatly to the disgust of the latter; and he wrote the lyrics incorporated in a comic opera, adapted from Richard Brome’s The Jovial Crew, which was produced at Drury Lane in 1730 and had a considerable vogue.
His eldest son, Sir George Yonge (1731–1812), was member of parliament for Honiton continuously from 1754 to 1794, and held a number of different government appointments, becoming a lord of the admiralty (1766–70), vice-treasurer for Ireland (1782), secretary of state for war (1782–94, with an interval from April to December 1783), master of the mint (1794–99). In 1799 he was appointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope. Serious charges being brought against his administration, which was marked by great lack of judgment, he was recalled in 1801. He died on the 25th of September 1812. The baronetcy became extinct at his death.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Yonge, John

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​YONGE, JOHN (1467–1516), English ecclesiastic and diplomatist, was born at Heyford, Oxfordshire, and educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he became a fellow in 1485. He was ordained in 1500 and held several livings before receiving his first diplomatic mission to arrange a commercial treaty with the archduke of Austria in 1504, and in the Low Countries in 1506 in connexion with the projected marriage between Henry VII. and Margaret of Savoy. In 1507 he was made Master of the Rolls and in the following year was employed in various diplomatic missions. He was one of the ambassadors who arranged the Holy League in 1513, and accompanied Henry VIII. during the ensuing campaign. In 1514 he was made dean of York in succession to Wolsey, and in 1515 he was one of the commissioners for renewing the peace with Francis I. He died in London on the 25th of April 1516. Yonge was on terms of intimate friendship with Dean Colet, and was a correspondent of Erasmus.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Iola

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​IOLA, a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the Neosho river, about 100 m. S. by W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 1706; (1900) 5791, of whom 237 were foreign-born and 207 were negroes; (1905) 10,287; (1910) 9032. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. It is pleasantly situated in a level valley where there is a great abundance of natural gas and some fine building stone. The city has large zinc smelters and zinc rolling-mills, a foundry, machine shops, and manufactories of cement, sulphuric acid and brick. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks, gas plant and electric-lighting plant. Iola was founded in 1859 by a company whose members were dissatisfied with the location of the county-seat at Humboldt. It became the county-seat in 1865, was chartered as a city of the third class in 1870 and became a city of the second class in 1898. The rapid growth of the city dates from the discovery of natural gas here, on Christmas Day 1893.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ionia (Michigan)

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​IONIA, a city and the county-seat of Ionia county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Grand river, about 34 m. E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1904) 5222; (1910) 5030. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways. The greater part of the city is built on the bottom-lands of the valley within an area 2 m. in length and 1 m. in width, but some of the finest residences stand on the hills, which form an irregular semicircle behind the city, and command extensive views of the valley. Much of the building material is a brown sandstone obtained from quarries only 3 m. distant; white clay, also, is found in the vicinity. The city is a trade centre for a rich farming district, has car-shops (of the Père Marquette railway) and iron foundries, and manufactures wagons, pottery, furniture and clothing. The waterworks are owned and operated by the municipality. Ionia was settled in 1833 by immigrants from German Flats, near Herkimer, New York. It was incorporated as a village in 1857, but the charter was allowed to lapse; it was again incorporated as a village in 1865, and was chartered as a city in 1873.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Iolite

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​IOLITE, a mineral occasionally cut as a gem-stone, and named from the violet colour which it sometimes presents (ἴον, “violet”; λίθος, “stone”). It is generally called by petrographers cordierite, a name given by R. J. Haüy in honour of the French mineralogist, P. L. Cordier, who discovered its remarkable dichroism, and suggested for it the name dichroite, still sometimes used. The difference of colour which it shows in different directions is so marked as to be well seen without the dichroscope. The typical colours are deep blue, pale blue and yellowish grey. While the crystal as a whole shows these three colours, each face is dichroic.
Iolite is a hydrous magnesium and aluminium silicate, with ferrous iron partially replacing magnesium. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. In hardness and specific gravity it much resembles quartz. The transparent blue or violet variety used as a gem occurs as pebbles in the gravels of Ceylon, and bears in many cases a resemblance to sapphire. The paler kinds are often called water-sapphire (saphir d’eau of French jewellers) and the darker kinds lynx-sapphire; the shade of colour varying with the direction in which the stone is cut. From sapphire the iolite is readily distinguished by its stronger pleochroism, its lower density (about 2.6) and its inferior hardness (about 7).
Iolite occurs in granite and in true eruptive rocks, but is most characteristically developed as a product of contact metamorphism in gneiss and altered slates. A variety occurring at the contact of clay-slate and granite on the border of the provinces of Shimotsuké and Ködzuké in Japan has been called cerasite. It readily suffers chemical change, and gives rise to a number of alteration-products, of which pinite is a characteristic example.
Although iolite, or cordierite, is rather widely distributed as a constituent of certain rocks, fine crystals of the mineral are of very limited occurrence. One of the best-known localities is Bodenmais, in Bavaria, where it occurs with pyrrhotite in a granite matrix. It is found also in Norway, Sweden and Finland, in Saxony and in Switzerland. Large crystals are developed in veins of granite running through gneiss at Haddam, Connecticut; and it is known at many other localities in the United States.  (F. W. R.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ion

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​ION, of Chios, Greek poet, lived in the age of Pericles. At an early age he went to Athens, where he made the acquaintance of Aeschylus. He was a great admirer of Cimon and an opponent of Pericles. He subsequently met Sophocles in his native island at the time of the Samian war. From Aristophanes (Peace, 830 ff.) it is concluded that he died before the production of that play (421). His first tragedy was produced between 452–449 B.C.; and he was third to Euripides and Iophon in the tragic contest of 429. In a subsequent year he gained both the tragic and dithyrambic prizes, and in honour of his victory gave a jar of Chian wine to every Athenian citizen (Athenaeus p. 3). He is further credited by the scholiast on Aristophanes (loc. cit.) with having composed comedies, dithyrambs, epigrams, paeans, hymns, scolia, encomia and elegies; and he is the reputed author of a philosophical treatise on the mystic number three. His historical or biographical works were five in number, and included an account of the antiquities of Chios and of ἐπιδημίαι, recollections of visitors to the island.
See C. Nieberding, De Ionis Chii vita (1836, containing the fragments); F. Allègre, De Ione Chio (1890), an exhaustive monograph; and Bentley, Epistola ad Millium.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Iodoform

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​IODOFORM, CHI$_3$, a valuable antiseptic discovered by G. S. Sérullas in 1822; in 1834 J. B. Dumas showed that it contained hydrogen. It is formed by the action of iodine and aqueous potash on ethyl alcohol, acetone, acetaldehyde and from most compounds containing the grouping CH$_3$·CO·C−. Its formation from alcohol may be represented thus: C$_2$H$_5$OH + 4I$_2$ + 6KHO = CHI$_3$ + KHCO$_2$ + 5KI + 5H$_2$O. It crystallizes in yellow hexagonal plates, melting at 119–120° C., and is readily soluble in alcohol and ether, but is insoluble in water. It has a characteristic odour and is volatile in steam. On reduction with hydriodic acid, it yields methylene iodide, CH$_2$I$_2$.
More recently, iodoform has been prepared by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium iodide in the presence of alcohol or acetone, the electrolytic cell being fitted with a diaphragm, in order to prevent the hydrogen which is formed at the same time from reducing the iodoform, or from combining with the iodine to form hydriodic acid. K. Elbs uses a solution of potassium iodide and sodium carbonate in water, which with the necessary alcohol is contained in a porous cell fitted with a lead anode, whilst the cathode compartment contains a solution of caustic soda and a nickel electrode. The electrolysis is carried out at a temperature of 70° C., and a current density of one ampère per square decimetre is used. At the end of three hours a yield of 70% of the theoretical quantity is obtained.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tagliacozzi, Gasparo

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​TAGLIACOZZI, GASPARO (1546–1599), Italian surgeon, was born at Bologna in 1546, and studied at that university under Cardan, taking his degree in philosophy and medicine at the age of twenty-four. He was appointed professor of surgery and afterwards of anatomy, and achieved notoriety at least, and the fame of a wonder-worker. He died at Bologna on the 7th of November 1599.
His principal work is entitled De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem Libri Duo (Venice, 1597; fol.,); it was reprinted in the following year under the title of Chirurgia Nova de Narium, Aurium, Labiorumque Defectu per Insitionem Cutis ex Humero, arte hactenus omnibus ignota, sarciendo (Frankfort, 1598, 8vo).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tafilált

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​TAFILÁLT, or Tafilet (i.e. “The Country of the Filáli,” as its inhabitants are called, because descended from the Arabian tribe of Hilál, settled here in the 11th century), the most important oasis of the Moroccan Sahara, ten days’ journey south of Fez, across the Atlas. It is celebrated for its large and luscious dates, to the successful cultivation of which, soon after the arrival of an ancestor of the reigning dynasty of Morocco (hence called the Filáli Sharifs, i.e. descendants of Mahomet) circ. A.D. 1250, this dynasty owes its rise to power. Since 1648 it has been the custom of Moorish sultans to despatch superfluous sons and daughters to Tafilált, and as the males are all sharifs, the fanaticism against Europeans is comprehensible. Instead of living in towns its bellicose inhabitants occupy isolated fortified buildings, and are constantly at war. In Ifli, the central portion, formerly existed the town of Sagilmasa, founded by Miknása Berbers in 757 B.C. It was on the direct caravan route from the Niger to Tangier, and attained a considerable degree of prosperity. It was destroyed at the end of the 11th century, but its ruins still extend five miles along the river bank.
The first European to visit Tafilált was Rene Caillie (1828), the next Gerhard Rohlfs (1864). A later visit to the oasis by W. B. Harris is described in his book Tafilet (London, 1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taganrog

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​TAGANROG, a seaport of southern Russia, on the N. shore of the Sea of Azov, in the Don Cossacks territory, some 170 m. S.E. of the town of Ekaterinoslav. It is built principally of wood, stands on a low cape, and has the aspect of an important commercial city. The imperial palace, where Alexander I. died in 1825, and the Greek monastery (under the patriarch of Jerusalem) are worthy of notice. Statues of Alexander I. (1830) and Peter the Great (1903) adorn the town. In the 13th century Pisan merchants founded there a colony, Portus Pisanus, which, however, soon disappeared during the migrations of the Mongols and Turks. An attempt to obtain possession of the promontory was made by Peter the Great, but it was not definitely annexed by the Russians until seventy years afterwards (1769). The commercial importance of the town dates from the second half of the 19th century; in 1870 its population had risen to 38,000, and after it was brought into railway connexion with Kharkov and Voronezh, and thus with the fertile provinces of south and south-east Russia, the increase was still more rapid, the number reaching 56,047 in 1885, and 58,928 in 1900—Greeks, Jews, Armenians and West-Europeans being important elements. The town was bombarded and in part destroyed by an Anglo-French fleet in May 1855. Taganrog is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has tanneries, tallow works and tobacco manufactures. The road stead is very shallow, and exposed to winds which cause great variations in the height of the water; it is, moreover, rapidly silting up. At the quay the depth of water is only 8 to 9 feet, and large ships have to lie 5 to 13 miles from the town. Moreover, the port is closed by ice three to four months in the year. Notwithstanding the disadvantages of its open road stead, the foreign trade has rapidly expanded, the annual value of the exports having increased from 61/2 millions sterling in 1899 to over 10 millions sterling in 1904. The chief article of export being corn, the trade of the city is subject to great fluctuations. Linseed and other oil-bearing grains are also important articles ​of commerce, as well as wool and butter. The imports, which consist chiefly of machinery, fruits (dried and fresh), wine, oil and textiles, do not much exceed half a million sterling annually.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Taft, Lorado

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​TAFT, LORADO (1860–), American sculptor, was born at Elmwood, Illinois, on the 29th of April 1860. He graduated from the University of Illinois in 1879, and from 1880 to 1883 studied in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. In 1886 he became instructor at the Art Institute, Chicago, lecturing there, at the Chicago University, and elsewhere in the United States. He is the author of an exhaustive and authoritative work, The History of American Sculpture (1903). Among his works, in addition to much portraiture, are: “Sleep of the Flowers” and “Awakening of the Flowers,” both made for the Columbian Exposition; “Despair” (1898); “Solitude of the Soul” (1900), and “Fountain of the Lakes” (1903).