OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Riva

See also Riva on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RIVA, a fortified district town of Tirol, Austria, near the Italian frontier. Pop. (1900) 7550. It is a lake port and steamship station at the northern extremity of the Lago di Garda. There are two forts on the Monte Brione a little over a mile north-east of the town, and the old castle of La Rocca was reconstructed and extended in accordance with modern requirements in 1850. The Minorite Church (1603), with altar pictures by Guido Reni and other Italian painters, is much frequented as a place of pilgrimage. In addition to its transit trade and the entertainment of visitors, the principal resources of the town are the manufacture of paper, iron wares and pottery, the cultivation of the silk-worm and the olive tree, and a considerable commerce in timber, planks and coal. Riva is connected with the Ledro valley by a picturesque road which passes in a series of tunnels and galleries along the rocky and precipitous west shore of the lake.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rive-de-Gier

See also Rive-de-Gier on Wikipedia; Rive de Gier in the 9th edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RIVE-DE-GIER, a town of east-central France, in the department of Loire, 14. m. E.N.E. of St Etienne, on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 15,338.
Situated on the Gier and the Canal de Givors, it is principally dependent on the coal industry, giving its name to a coal basin which is a continuation of that of St Etienne. It has glass works, the products of which are celebrated on account of the fmeness and purity of the sand found on the banks of ​the Rhone and the Saône. There are also iron and steel works where iron goods and ironmongery of all kinds are manufactured.
Rive-de-Gier is a place of some antiquity, as appears from remains of Gallo-Roman buildings, and mosaics and coins found at various times. In the time of Henry IV. the working of the mines had already given to the locality a measure of importance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Ritter, Heinrich

See also Heinrich Ritter on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869), German philosopher, was born at Zerbst on the 21st of November 1791, and died at Göttingen on the 3rd of February 1869. He studied philosophy and theology at Göttingen and Berlin until 1815. In 1824 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Berlin, whence he was transferred to Kiel, where he occupied the chair of philosophy from 1833 to 1837. He then accepted a similar position at the university of Göttingen, where he remained till his death. His chief work was a history of philosophy (Geschichte der Philosophie) published in twelve volumes at Hamburg from 1829 to 1853. This book is the product of a wide and thorough knowledge of the subject aided by an impartial critical faculty, and its value is demonstrated by the ​fact that it has been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. He wrote also accounts of ancient schools of philosophy, the Ionians, the Pythagoreans and the Megarians. Beside these important historical works, he published a large number of treatises of which the following may be mentioned: Versuch zur Verständigung über die neueste deutsche Philosophie zeit Kant (1853); Die christliche Philosophie bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (2 vols., 1858-59), a work which supplemented the Geschichte; Abriss der philosophischen Logik (1824); Ueber das Verhältnis der Philosophie zum Leben (1835); Historia philosophiae Graeco-Romanae (in collaboration with Preller, 1838; 7th ed., 1888); Kleine philosophische Schriften (1839-40); System der Logik und Metaphysik (1856); Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1862-64); Ernest Renan, uber die Naturwissenschaften und die Geschichte (1865); Ueber das Böse und seine Folgen (1869). Of these latter, the one best known in England is the History of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which, by reason of the excellence of its arrangement and its judicious quotations and notes, is almost indispensable to the student of ancient philosophy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rival

See also Rival on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RIVAL, one who competes with another, one who strives to out-do or excel another or to gain an object or end before or in preference to another. The Latin rivalis, which was in classical Latin used of a competitor in love, meant by derivation one who used the same brook or stream (rivus) as another, hence a neighbour; thus in the Digest, xliii. 20, i. 26, “si inter rivales, id est qui per eundem rivum aquam ducunt, sit contentio de aquae usu.” The term naturally applied more particularly to those who lived on opposite sides of a stream which would be a frequent subject of dispute as to rights.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rivarol, Antoine de

See also Antoine de Rivarol on Wikipedia; Antoine de Rivarol in the 9th edition; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​RIVAROL, ANTOINE DE (1753–1801), French Writer and epigrammatist, was born at Bagnols in Languedoc on the 26th of June, 1753, and died at Berlin on the 11th of April 1801. It seems that his father was an innkeeper but a man of cultivated tastes. The son assumed the title of comte de Rivarol, and asserted his connexion with a noble Italian family, but his enemies said that the name was really Riverot, and that the family was not noble. After various vicissitudes he appeared in Paris in 1777. After winning some academic prizes, Rivarol distinguished himself in the, year 1784, by a treatise Sur l’universalité de la langue française, and by a translation of the Inferno. The year before the Revolution broke out he, with some assistance from a man of similar but lesser talent, Champcenetz, compiled a lampoon, entitled Petit Almanach de nos grands hommes pour 1788, in which some writers of actual or future talent and a great many nobodies were ridiculed in the most pitiless manner. When the Revolution developed the importance of the press, Rivarol at once took up arms on the Royalist side, and wrote in the Journal politique of Antoine Sabatier de Castres (1742–1817) and the Actes des Apôtres of Jean Gabriel Peltier (1770–1825). But he emigrated in 1792, and established himself at Brussels, whence he removed successively to London, Hamburg and Berlin. Rivarol has had no rival in France except Piron in sharp conversational sayings. These were mostly ill-natured; and mostly have a merely local application. Their brilliancy, however, can escape no one. His brother, Claude Francois (1762–1848), was also an author. His works include Isman, ou le fatalisme (1795), a novel; Le Véridique (1827), comedy; Essai sur les causes de la revolution française (1827).
The works of Antoine de Rivarol were published in live volumes (Paris, 1805); selections (Paris, 1858) with introductory matter by Sainte-Beuve and others, and that edited in 1862 (2nd ed., 1880) by M. de Lescure, may be specified. See also M. de Lescure’s Rivarolet la société française pendant la révolution et l’émigration (1882), and Le Breton’s Rivarol, sa vie, ses idées (1895).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orizaba (volcano)

See also Pico de Orizaba on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORIZABA (Aztec, Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), an extinct or dormant volcano, on the boundary between the Mexican states of Puebla and Vera Cruz and very nearly on the 19th parallel. It rises from the south-eastern margin of the great Mexican plateau to an elevation of 18,314 ft., according to Scovell and Bunsen's measurements in 1891–1892, or 18,250 and 18,209 ft. according to other authorities, and 18,701 (5700 metres) by the Comisión Geográfica Exploradora. It is the highest peak in Mexico and the second highest in North America. Its upper timber line is about 13,500 ft. above sea-level, and Hans Gadow found patches of apparently permanent snow at an elevation of 14,400 ft. on its S.E. side in 1902. The first ascent of Orizaba was made by Reynolds and Maynard in 1848, since when other successful attempts have been made and many failures have been recorded. Its last eruptive period was 1545–1566, and the volcano is now considered to be extinct, although Humboldt records that smoke was seen issuing from its summit as late as the beginning of the 19th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orkhon Inscriptions

See also Orkhon inscriptions on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORKHON INSCRIPTIONS, ancient Turkish inscriptions of the 8th century A.D., discovered near the river Orkhon to the south of Lake Baikal in 1889. They are written in an alphabet derived from an Aramaic source and recount the history of the northern branch of the Turks or Tu-kiue of Chinese historians. See Turks.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orkney, Elizabeth Hamilton, Countess of

See also Elizabeth Hamilton, Countess of Orkney on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
ORKNEY, ELIZABETH HAMILTON, Countess of (c. 1657–1733), mistress of the English King William III., daughter of Colonel Sir Edward Villiers of Richmond, was born about 1657. Her mother, Frances Howard, daughter of the 2nd earl of Suffolk, was governess to the princesses Mary and Anne, and secured place and influence for her children in Mary’s household. Edward Villiers, afterward created 1st earl of Jersey (1656–1711), became master of the horse, while his sisters Anne and Elizabeth were among the maids of honour who accompanied Mary to the Hauge on her marriage. Elizabeth Villiers became William’s acknowledged mistress in 1680. After his accession to the English crown he settled on her a large share of the confiscated Irish estates of James II. This grant was revoked by parliament, however, in 1699. Mary’s distrust of Marlborough was fomented by Edward Villiers and the duchess of Marlborough perhaps helped to secure the duke’s disgrace with William. Shortly after Mary’s death, William, actuated, it is said, by his wife’s expressed wishes, broke with Elizabeth Villiers, who was married to her cousin, Lord George Hamilton, fifth son of the 3rd duke of Hamilton, in November 1695. The husband was gratified early in the next year with the titles of earl of Orkney, viscount of Kirkwall and Baron Dechmont. The countess of Orkney served her husband’s interests with great skill, and the marriage proved a happy one. She died in London on the 19th of April 1733.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orkney, George Hamilton, Earl of

See also George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
ORKNEY, GEORGE HAMILTON, Earl of (1666–1737), British soldier, was the fifth son of William, duke of Hamilton, and was trained for the military career by his uncle, Lord Dumbarton, in the 1st Foot. In 1689 he became lieutenant-colonel and a few months later brevet colonel. He served at the battles of the Boyne and of Aughrim, and, at the head of the Royal Fusiliers, at Steinkirk. As colonel of his old regiment, the 1st Foot, he took part in the battle of Landen or Neerwinden, and in the siege of Namur, serving also at Athlone and Limerick in the Irish war. At Namur Hamilton received a severe wound, and in recognition of his services was made a brigadier. In 1695 he married Elizabeth Villiers (see preceding article), who was “the wisest woman” Swift “ever knew.” The following year he was made earl of Orkney in the Scottish peerage. As a major-general he took the field with Marlborough in Flanders, and on January 1st, 1703–1704 he became lieutenant-general. At Blenheim it was Orkney’s command that carried the village, and in June 1705 he lead a flying column which marched from the Moselle to the rescue of Liége. At Ramillies he headed the pursuit of the defeated French, at Oudenard he played a distinguished part and in 1708 he captured the forts of St Amand and St Martin at Tournay. At the desperately fought battle of Malplaquet Lord Orkney’s battalions led the assault on the French entrenchments, and suffered very heavy losses. He remained with the army in Flanders till the end of the war as ”general of the foot,” and at the peace he was made colonel-commandant of the 1st Foot as a reward for his services. He occupied various civil and military posts of importance, culminating with the appointment of “field marshal of all His Majesty’s forces” in 1736. This appointment is the first instance of field marshal’s rank (as now understood) in the British Service. A year later he died in London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orleans, Dukes of

See also Duke of Orléans on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORLEANS, DUKES OF. The title of duke of Orleans was first created by King Philip VI. in favour of his son Philip, who died without legitimate issue in 1375. The second duke of Orleans, created in 1392, was Louis, a younger son of Charles V., whose heir was his son, the poet Charles of Orleans. Charles’s son Louis, the succeeding duke, became king of France as Louis XII. in 1498, when the duchy of Orleans was united with the royal domain. In 1626 Louis XIII. created his brother, Jean Baptiste Gaston, duke of Orleans, and having become extinct on the death of this prince in 1660 the title was revived in the following year by Louis XIV. in favour of his brother Philip. Descendants of this duke have retained the title until the present day, one of them becoming king of France as Louis Philippe in 1830. Two distinguished families are descended from the first house of Orleans: the counts of Angouleme, who were descended from John, a son of Duke Louis I., and who furnished France with a king in the person of Francis I.; and the counts and dukes of Longueville, whose founder was John, count of Dunois, the bastard of Orleans, a natural son of the same duke. In addition to the dukes of Orleans the most important members of this family are: Anne Marie Louise, duchess of Montpensier; Francis, prince of Joinville; Louis Philippe Albert, count of Paris; and the traveller Prince Henry of Orleans. See the genealogical table to the article Bourbon.
See below for separate articles on the chief personages.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Orleans, Ferdinand Philip Louis Charles Henry, Duke of

See also Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orleans on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, Duke of (1810–1842), born at Palermo on the 3rd of September 1810, was the son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France, and Marie Amélie, princess of the Two Sicilies. Under the Restoration he bore the title of duke of Chartres, and studied classics in Paris at the Collège Henri IV. At the outbreak of the Revolution, which in 1830 set his father on the throne, he was colonel of a regiment of Hussars. He then assumed the title of duke of Orleans, and was sent by the king to Lyons to put down the formidable riots which had broken out there (1831), and then to the siege of Antwerp (1832). He was appointed lieutenant-general, and made several campaigns in Algeria (1835, 1839, 1840). On his return to France he organized the battalions of light infantry known as the chasseurs d’Orléans. He died as the result of a carriage accident at Neuilly, near Paris, on the 13th of July 1842.
The duke of Orleans had married (May 30, 1837) Helène Louise Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and had by her two sons, the count of Paris and the duke of Chartres. On the 24th of February 1848, after the abdication of Louis Philippe, the duchess of Orleans went to the Chamber of Deputies assembled in the Palais Bourbon in the hope of having her eldest son proclaimed and of obtaining the regency; but the threatening attitude of the populace forced her to flee. She took refuge in England, and died at Richmond on the 18th of May 1858.  (M. P.*)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plumbago

See also Plumbago on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUMBAGO (from Lat. plumbum, lead), a name frequently applied to graphite (q.v.), in allusion to its remote resemblance to lead, whence it is popularly called "black-lead." It was formerly held in repute in medicine, but is now regarded as having no medicinal properties of any value.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plunket, Oliver

See also Oliver Plunkett on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUNKET, OLIVER (1629-1681), Irish Roman Catholic divine, was born at Loughcrew, Co. Meath. He was educated privately and at Rome, whither he went with Father Scarampi in 1645. From 1657 to 1669 he was professor of theology at the College of the Propaganda, enjoyed the friendship of the historian, Pallavicini, and acted as representative of Irish ecclesiastical affairs at Rome. Pope Clement IX. appointed him to the archbishopric of Armagh and primacy of Ireland in July 1669, and in November he was consecrated at Ghent, reaching Ireland in March 1670. Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the viceroy, showed him much kindness and allowed him to establish a Jesuit school in Dublin. Plunket showed amazing diligence in furthering the cause of his Church. He was in very straitened circumstances, the revenue of his see being only £62 in good years. The repressive measures following on the Test Act bore hardly upon him, and in December 1678 he was imprisoned in Dublin Castle for six weeks. Accused of a share in the Irish branch of the “Popish Plot,” he was brought to London, and in June 1681 arraigned in the King's Bench, charged with conspiring to bring a French army to Carlingford. He made a good defence, but on the absurdest of evidence the jury convicted him of treason, and on the 1st of July he was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plumbing

See also Plumbing on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUMBING, properly working in lead (Lat. plumbum), now a term embracing all work not only in lead, but also in tin, zinc and other metals, connected with the installation, fitting, repairing, soldering, &c., of pipes for water, gas, drainage, on cisterns, roofs and the like in any building, i.e. the general work of a plumber. (See Building and Sewerage.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pluck

See also Pluck on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUCK, to pull or pick off something, as flowers from a plant, feathers from a bird. The word in O. Eng. is pluccian or ploccian and is represented by numerous forms in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. pflücken, Du. plukken, Dan. plakke, &c. In sense and form a plausible identification has been found with Ital. piluccare, to pick grapes, hair, feathers, cf. Fr. éplucher, pick. These romanic words are to be referred to Lat. pilus, hair, which has also given “peruke” or “periwig” and “plush.” Difficulties of phonology, history and chronology, however, seem to show that this close similarity is only a coincidence. “Pluck,” in the sense of courage, was originally a slang word of the prize-ring, and Sir W. Scott (Journal, Sept. 4, 1827) speaks of the “want of that article blackguardly called pluck.” In butcher's parlance the “pluck” of an animal is the heart, liver and lungs, probably so called from their being “plucked” or pulled out of the carcase immediately after slaughtering. The heart being the typical seat of courage, the transference is obvious. In university colloquial or slang use, “to pluck” is to refuse to pass a candidate on examination; the more usual colloquial word is now “to plough.” At the granting of degrees at Oxford objection to a candidate could be taken for other reasons than failure at examination, and the person thus challenging drew the attention of the proctor in congregation by “plucking” a piece of black silk attached to the back of his gown.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plumptre, Edward Hayes

See also Edward Plumptre on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES (1821–1891), English divine and scholar, was born in London on the 6th of August 1821. A scholar of University College, Oxford, he graduated with a double-first class in 1844, and in the same year he was elected fellow of Brasenose College. He was ordained in 1847, and shortly afterwards appointed chaplain, and then professor of pastoral theology, at King's College, London. In 1863 he was given a prebendal stall at St Paul's, and from 1869 to 1874 he was a member of the committee appointed by Convocation to revise the authorized version of the Old Testament. He was Boyle lecturer in 1866-1867 (“Christ and Christendom”), and Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford 1872–1874. After successively holding the livings of Pluckley and Brickley in Kent, he was installed in 1881 as dean of Wells. He died on the 1st of February 1891.
Plumptre was a man of great versatility and attained high reputation as a translator of the plays of Sophocles (1865) and Aeschylus (1868), and of the Divina commedia of Dante (1886). In verse his main achievements were Lazarus (1864), and Master and Scholar (1866). Among his many theological works may be mentioned An Exposition of the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia (1877), The Spirits in Prison (1884), “The Book of Proverbs” (which he annotated in the Speaker's Commentary), the “Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and II. Corinthians,” in Bishop Ellioott's New Testament Commentary, and Life of Bishop Ken (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Plunder

See also Plunder on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​PLUNDER, to rob, to pillage, especially in war. The word came into English usage directly from Ger. plundern (derived from a substantive Plunder meaning "household stuff," bedclothes, clothing, &c.), particularly with reference to the pillaging of the Thirty Years' War. Thomas May (History of the Long Parliament, 1647; quoted in the New English Dictionary) says: “Many Tounes and Villages he (Prince Rupert) plundered, which is to say robb'd, for at that time first was the word plunder used in England, being borne in Germany.” The New English Dictionary's earliest quotation is from the Swedish Intelligencer (1632).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sempill, Robert

See also Robert Sempill on Wikipedia; and our 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica disclaimer.
​SEMPILL, ROBERT [the elder] (c. 1530–1595), Scottish ballad-writer, was in all probability a cadet of illegitimate birth of the noble house of Sempill or Semple. Very little is known of his life. He appears to have spent some time in Paris. He was probably a soldier, and must have held some office at the Scottish court, as his name appears in the lord treasurer's books in February 1567–1568, and his writings show him to have had an intimate knowledge of court affairs. He was a bitter opponent of Queen Mary and of the Catholic Church. Sempill was present at the siege of Leith (1559–1560), was in Paris in 1572, but was driven away by the massacre of St Bartholomew. He was probably present at the siege of Edinburgh Castle (1573), serving with the army of James Douglas, earl of Morton. He died in 1595. His chief works are: “ The Ballat maid vpoun Margret Fleming call it the Flemyng bark ”; “ The defence of Crissell Sandelandis”; “ The Claith Merchant or Ballat of Jonet Reid, ane Violet and Ane Quhyt,” all three in the Bannatyne MS. They are characterized by extreme coarseness, and are probably among his earlier works. His chief political poems are “ The Regentis Tragedie,” a broadside of 1570; “ The Sege of the Castel of Edinburgh ” (1573), interesting from an historical point of view; “ Ane Complaint vpon fortoun . . . ” (1581), and “ The Legend of the Bischop of St Androis Lyfe callit Mr Patrik Adamsone ” (1583).
See Chronicle of Scottish Poetry (ed. James Sibbald, Edinburgh, 1802); and “ Essays on the Poets of Renfrewshire," by William Motherwell, in The Harp of Renfrewshire (Paisley, 1819; reprinted 1872). Modern editions of Sempill are: “ Sege of the Castel of Edinburgh," a facsimile reprint with introduction by David Constable (1813); The Sempill Ballates (T. G. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1872) containing all the poems; Satirical poems of the Reformation (ed. James Cranstoun, Scottish Text Soc., 2 vols., 1889–1893), with a memoir of Sempill and a bibliography of his poems.