OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Agricultural Schools and Colleges

See also Land-grant university on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Agricultural Schools and Colleges. As so large a part of our population is engaged in agriculture people have gradually come to see that a study of its underlying principles is just as important and necessary as the study of the older branches of science and philosophy. It was not till 1862, however, that the means for placing the desired instruction within reach of the agricultural community at large was realized through the establishment of state agricultural schools. In that year by act of Congress 30,000 acres of land for each congressman were set aside to ensure the permanent endowment of at least one college in each state and territory for the teaching of agriculture and mechanical arts. In 1890 a further grant was made to each state of the maximum annual value of $25,000.
The majority of the state agricultural colleges are connected with a university. The others, with the exception of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, are departments of technical schools.
Conditions of admission vary considerably in different parts of the country. In parts of the south and west pupils from the eighth and ninth grades of the public schools are usually admitted, while some of the universities have a standard of admission about as high as that for students entering upon literary courses.
As to courses of study, in general the agricultural schools connected with universities do more work along the line of scientific research, while in the schools not connected with universities more attention is given to the directly practical work. The universities wish to put the four years’ course in agriculture on a par with those in literature and philosophy. The aim is not to produce all-round agricultural experts, but to give students a general working knowledge of the things of fundamental importance to intelligent farmers, with opportunity of becoming a specialist in some one particular line. The courses usually include care of orchards, grafting, pruning, dairying, feeding and judging of stock, properties of soils, etc.
Some colleges have winter courses, lasting three months, especially adjusted to the needs of those students who cannot afford to be away from their home farms during the rest of the year. Such courses have proved so helpful that many students have returned for several successive winters.
Tuition in agricultural colleges is free, but a small fee is usually charged to cover cost of materials used in experiments. In some states allowance is made for work done by pupils towards the payment of their personal expenses of board and lodging, and in some places free lodging is provided by the institution.
The Agricultural Department of Cornell University has given courses by correspondence which have proved to be highly successful. Too much encouragement and ​
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aguilar, Grace

See also Grace Aguilar on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Aguilar (ä-ge-lar′), Grace, a story-writer for girls, of some popularity, was the daughter of a Jewish merchant in London. Her books are numerous, among them: Home Influence, Women of Israel and Days of Bruce.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aguinaldo, Emilio

See also Emilio Aguinaldo on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* AGUINALDO
Aguinaldo (ä-gē-näl′do), Emilio, late leader of the Filipino insurgents, of mixed European and Mestizo or native half-breed descent, was born in 1872 near Cavité, Luzon Island, one of the Philippine group. He was educated by a Jesuit priest, and at Manila he took a course in medicine. In 1896 he was mayor of Cavité, and later became leader in the anti-Spanish revolt. The insurgents becoming discouraged, Aguinaldo and other chief leaders accepted terms offered by Spain, which involved, however, their expatriation to Hong Kong. Here, when the Spanish-American war broke out, Admiral Dewey found him, and agreeing with him that he would once more take up arms against Spain in the Philippines, he, with his comrades, was given passage thither on the dispatch boat McCullock, and landing in Luzon they renewed the insurrection, beseiged Manila, and captured some 5,000 Spanish, including the wife and children of the Spanish captain-general. This achievement, added to Aguinaldo’s ambition, appears to have incited him and his compatriots to wrest the islands from both Spanish and American rule; for in June, 1898, the insurgents set up a provisional government with Aguinaldo as president, and when peace between the United States and Spain was proclaimed, Aguinaldo refused to recognize the treaty and assumed active hostilities against the United States. After attacking the American lines on February 4–5, 1899, he declared war by proclamation against the United States, and for over two years maintained desultory fighting against its forces in various parts of the Tagal provinces. Aguinaldo and his immediate following were entrapped on March 23, 1901, at Palanan, and Aguinaldo was made a prisoner by General Fred. Funston and brought to Manila. Here the insurgent president took the oath of allegiance to the United States, and issued a manifesto to the Filipinos acknowledging and accepting the sovereignty of the United States.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Agricola

See also Gnaeus Julius Agricola on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Agric′ola (born 37, died 93 A. D.), a Roman general, born in the south of France. He was made governor of Aquitania by the Emperor Vespasian, then elected consul, and later given the province of Britain to govern. He spent seven years there, completing the conquest of the island. He built a chain of forts as a defense against the northern tribes, and was the first Roman to send his fleet around Britain, proving it to be an island. He introduced Roman customs and the Roman language. He was recalled by the Emperor Domitian, who was jealous of his popularity. His life has been written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Agricultural Experiment Stations

See also Agricultural experiment station on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Agricultural Experiment Stations in America have been modeled after those of Europe. Their aim is to advance agriculture as a science with special reference to local needs. The federal Department of Agriculture, founded by President Cleveland in 1889, includes an Office of Experiment Stations, which controls the funds that are expended on these stations in the United States, and administers the stations in Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico. This department issues a monthly journal called the Experiment Station Record. To such states and territories as support an agricultural college, the federal government makes annual grants in aid; many of the states also make special grants. The federal office co-operates with the Experiment Stations to make such investigations as Congress may from time to time desire. Joint researches have even been made in co-operation with foreign agricultural stations.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aikins, Hon. James C.

See also James Albert Manning Aikins on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Aikins, Hon. James C., born in Ontario in 1823. Educated at Upper Canada College. Elected to the Legislature for the County of Peel (his native county) in 1854, and remained in the Assembly until 1861. From 1869 to 1873 he was Secretary of State and a member of the Administration of Sir John A. Macdonald, and was a second time Secretary of State in 1878. Resigned in 1882 and was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. At the expiration of his term of office he returned to Toronto and was again appointed to the Senate of Canada.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Aino

See also Ainu people on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Aino (ī′nō) or Ainu, an aboriginal Japanese race of Caucasian stock inhabiting Yezo (Hokkaido), the Kuriles, the southern part of Saghalien and other northern islands of Japan. They are in appearance short in stature, stoutly built, and in general rather hairy; their chief occupations are hunting and fishing. Their present number is less than 20,000. In early times they lived in the heart of the Japanese archipelago and exercised considerable influence upon the Japanese, though these treated them as half-barbarians and drove them to their present retreat in the northern sections of the country. Their religion is a primitive nature worship, though of late many of them have become Buddhist, while a few have been made converts to Christianity. An Aino grammar and dictionary has been published by the Rev. John Batchelor, a missionary who translated the New Testament into the native tongue. Of recent years the Ainos have been blending with the Japanese, the latter having parted with their former low opinion of the mental inferiority of the race and their backward civilization. See Batchelor’s The Ainu of Japan (London, 1892), Chamberlaine’s Things Japanese (London, 1899), and Savage Landor's Alone with the Hairy Ainu (London, 1893).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Air

See also Air on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Air is the atmosphere in which we live. It is invisible, and has neither taste nor smell, but we know that it is all around us, for we take it into our lungs with every breath and it becomes our most important food. It has weight, which we do not feel because of the air and other gases within us that exert an equal outward pressure. Upon every square inch of the earth’s surface there rests a weight of about fifteen pounds of air, so that upon the body of a medium-sized man the air presses with a force equal to thirty thousand pounds. Air may be compressed or packed closely into smaller space than it usually fills. Thus, if a tumbler is pushed down, bottom upward, under water, the water will rise up inside the tumbler and press the air into smaller space. But as the tumbler is brought back to the surface the air again ​ becomes as rare as the surrounding atmosphere, showing that it is elastic. The weight of the atmosphere makes the lower air so much denser than the upper air that one-half of the whole atmosphere is squeezed into a belt around the earth about three and one-half miles in thickness, while the upper half extends more than forty miles. Air is made up of about 78 parts by volume of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen and one of argon, in 100 parts, and with it is always mixed a variable quantity of water-vapor, which amounts to about one per cent by volume on the average. It contains also about 1/8000 of carbon dioxide and minute quantities of several other gases, including helium, neon, krypton and xenon, which are inactive elements resembling argon. Oxygen is the element that is necessary to animal life, while carbon dioxide is required by plants. On the other hand, animals produce carbon dioxide while plants give off oxygen, so that each supplies the other, and the composition of the air is kept nearly constant. There is air also dissolved in water, and by the same double process fishes and sea-plants keep the air pure. In the cities the air is less pure than in the country, as there are more people to breathe it and fewer plants to supply oxygen. The gases of combustion and decay, which produce much carbon dioxide, also tend to contaminate the air. In a room the breathing of a number of persons will soon make the air unwholesome if the ventilation is not good. The gas, carbon dioxide, which is commonly called carbonic acid, is often called a poison; but it is not poisonous, although the presence of a large quantity of it interferes with breathing, and if enough is present it may cause suffocation. Carbon monoxide, the gas that burns with a pale-blue flame at the top of coal fires and is present in illuminating gas, on the other hand is a deadly poison. If this escapes unburned into the air of a room, the results may be very serious.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Richet - Maudi et le calcul mental

The investigation of Maudi, the French 'lightning calculator,' seems to show that he is more remarkable for memory than for the rapidity or ​depth of his calculations. Thus he took ten minutes to perform the following five operations: 1st, addition of 22,423, 379,999, 823,111, 79,437; 2d, square of 940, and square of 953; 3d, division of 482,765 by 4760; 4th, cube root of 121,287,375; 5th, fifth root of 847,288,609,493. Of the ten minutes taken to perform the above, about five were devoted to repeating the numbers as they were given out. Good professional calculators could work out on paper and in about the same time all that Maudi did mentally; in fact, he simply used his extraordinary memory for figures where the common calculators used pen and paper. Whether his memory was auditory, neural, or motor was not determined: Maudi himself called it 'auditory,' but did not clearly understand what the term meant.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Ritchie - Contributions to the History of the Social Contract Theory

The social contract theory did not originate with the philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It had its roots in the popular consciousness of mediæval society, and had been anticipated by the Greek Sophists. In the popular consciousness of the middle ages, and among writers on the ecclesiastical side, there grew up that particular form of the contract theory which has fixed itself most prominently in the minds of ordinary men — the idea of a contract between government and people. Locke published his Treatise of Civil Government in defence of the principles of the revolution of 1688, and it is commonly believed that he maintained this theory of a contract between king and people; but the original compact on which he bases civil government is, just as with Hobbes and with Rousseau, a compact between individual and individual, not between government (of whatever sort) and people. If the person or persons entrusted with the government fail to give satisfaction, they may be dismissed and others put in their place. This is identical with what is most essential in Rousseau's theory. The latter says explicitly that the institution of government is not a contract: the social contract by which the sovereign people is constituted excludes every other. Rousseau has this advantage over Locke that he does not attempt to make out an historical justification for the social contract. The philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who held this theory, did not borrow it directly from the Greeks. Hooker implicitly united the two distinct theories that political society is based upon contract and that the people is sovereign — the theories held later by Locke and Rousseau. Locke purposely based his political thinking upon Hooker, because Hooker was an authority acceptable to the Anglican Tories with whom he had to argue. But historical events were making the idea of compact ​between individual and individual familiar to many in the early seventeenth century. Such were the Scottish Covenant and the covenant made by the emigrants on board the Mayflower when they found themselves off "the northern parts of Virginia," where there was no existing government under whose authority they would come. For the purposes of political philosophy, the history of the social contract theory ends with Rousseau. Kant and Fichte only repeat the theory in Rousseau's form, with a rather more complete consciousness of what it implies. History does not refute a theory which is unhistorical, but the growth of the historical spirit makes such a theory less and less attractive. The idea of organic growth has become a commonplace. But a merely historical account of what has been in the past is no sufficient philosophical explanation of a political society. Fouillée has endeavored to express the truth of both ways of regarding society by saying that the highest form of it must be an "organisme contractuel" The time has come when we can be just to Montesquieu and Burke without being unjust to Locke and Rousseau.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Platter - The Right of Private Property in Land

Int. J. E. = International Journal of Ethics
The question, Is the holding of private property in land warranted? is but a phase of the larger question, Is the law of civilized nations by which it is allowed justifiable? and this again is a phase of the more general inquiry, Is history justifiable? But in this last form it becomes simply absurd. For the fundamental institutions of races create the standard by reference to which individual action is judged to be right or wrong; and, therefore, are not themselves subject to that standard. History does not follow law or moral principles. The contents of the abstract conception of right vary according to times and circumstances, and to ask whether any past institution was justifiable can mean only whether it would conform to the present contents of that conception. It was introduced in the struggle to survive, and, in comparison, the influence of individuals' moral ideas may be neglected. Property was originally a brutal fact like manslaughter, but afterwards like other useful things it came to be defended by bayonets and religion. Before ​private property existed all free members of the tribes were equal and armed. When a part of the tribe had settled on the common land long enough to lay aside their weapons, the other part subjugated them, seized the land, and enslaved the workers. That subjugation of the many to the few, as in slavery and property, must end some day and the fruits reaped be distributed. Then the instrument of education, productive property, would disappear.
Criticism of a social institution on moral grounds is a sign of its approaching change or dissolution. In reference to property, when there is enough power to establish new institutions, the real right will be born. The struggle for the possession of the fruits secured to society by competition has begun, and new institutions must arise to express the interests of the victors. They will not be the party of Henry George and the German land-nationalizers, for it shows no trace of a new conception of society and does not see that all property in the means of production has the same tendency and results.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Praechter - Dion Chrysostomos als Quelle Julians

Ar. f. G. Ph. = Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie
P. attempts to show that the Emperor Julian, especially in his second speech, had Dion Chrysostomos before him. The Sophists and poets praise external show and mere success in arms (Jul. Or. 2. 76, b); Sokrates, on the contrary, says that it is not the rulers able to cut through Athos and bridge the sea, who are happy; only the virtuous are happy (p. 79, af). The parallel to this, with mention of Athos and bridging the sea, occurs in Dion, Or. 3. 44. 12 ff. A throne brings no happiness to the wicked; he only experiences the fate of Phaethon (83, cf seqq.}. Dion (Or. 1. 10. 19 ff.) employs the Phaethon myth in the same way. Jul. Or. 2. 85 c, shows plainly the use of Dion, Or. 4. 82. Further, Julian's second speech, 86 a—92 d, contains a description of the character of the true king. Dion, Or. 1. 4 and Or. 3. 43, gives a description which furnishes a model for Julian. The true ruler is, according to Jul. Or. 2. 86 d, φιλόπολις καὶ φιλοστρατιώτης; according to Dion, Or. 1. 6. 29, he is φιλοπολίτης καὶ φιλοστρατιώτης. Julian demands (89, c f) that the king shall have nothing to do with the punishment of offences to which a death penalty attaches. His sword shall not be wielded to the destruction of a citizen, just as amongst the bees the queen has no sting. The bee-queen is employed similarly by Dion, Or. 4. 75. 14 f.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Ribot - Enquete sur les idées generales

Rev. Ph. = Revue Philosophique
When one thinks, reads, or hears a general term, what arises in consciousness immediately and without reflection, above the sign? R. said to many men and women of diverse characters and occupations: "I am going to pronounce several words; I want you to tell me immediately and without reflection, if the word calls up nothing in your mind, or if it calls up something, and what." An answer which took more than five or six seconds was considered nil or doubtful. Words used were fourteen, in increasing degrees of abstractness: dog, animal, color, form, justice, goodness, virtue, law, number, force, time, connexion, cause, infinite. Some answered to all or some of these; others to a few; 900 answers were written out. These were of three types, the concrete type, consisting in the immediate and spontaneous substitution of a particular case (fact or individual) for the general term; the typographical type, the linking of the concept to a clear vision of a printed word, without anything more; the auditory type or auditory image (here was R.'s most noteworthy case, a literary physician who found every word "sounding in his ears"; he talked aloud in writing his books). R. tried the words in the simplest possible prepositional form (such as to suggest nothing), and got the same results: the psychological and the logical unit have the same effect. But 53 per 100 of the answers were "nothing"; e.g. to cause the answer was, "I can think of nothing." ​R., through consideration of the theories of unconscious cerebration or thinking and symbolic, thinking, concludes that one learns to understand a concept as one learns to march, dance, or fence, i.e. by habit or organic memory. General terms cover an organized knowledge (un savoir organisé); general ideas are the habits in the intellectual order; conception has varying forms, but only one essential character, the role of the word. These results are only intended for those who can judge about carrying on the work.
# The Philosophical Review/Volume 1/Summary: Rashdall - The Theory of Punishment

Int. J. E. = International Journal of Ethics
The writer discusses the retributive and the utilitarian theories of punishment, the former making it an end in itself, and the latter making it a means of prevention or reformation. The retributive theory is perhaps a survival of the primitive notion that blood demands blood. Resentment at the sight of wrong-doing and desire that the doer be punished are attributable to the fact that punishment leads to amendment. Consider it apart from its effects, and there is no moral justification for the infliction of pain. If punishment were an end, its amount should be determined by the crime. But moral guilt and physical pain are incommensurable; the amount of pain appropriate for any crime is incapable of estimate.
An intermediate view, viz. that punishment exists as an end and yet that its amount and nature may be determined by utilitarian considerations, reduces the retributive theory to very modest limits. Such a position, however, includes three elements of truth neglected by thorough-going utilitarians. 1. It is true to the historical origin of state punishment in private vengeance, and accounts for many existing distinctions in the law; such as that between attempted and executed crime. 2. It admits that punishment is reformatory, while many advocates of punishing to reform at bottom disbelieve that punishment, i.e. pain, exerts a reforming influence. Pain, bodily or mental, and even the dread of it, keep the lower self under, and thus punishment on its reformatory side is an artificial creation of conditions favorable to moral improvement. ​3. It sees that the state has a spiritual end, and so is entitled to repress immorality. Criminal law should express and thus strengthen the moral sense of the community, and as that sense grows keener, the sphere of criminal law should enlarge.