# The Phenomena and Diosemeia of Aratus/On the Celestial Sphere

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ON THE
CELESTIAL SPHERE.
In endeavouring to ascertain the nation to which we are indebted for the celestial sphere, and the date of its introduction, we have very little historical information to rely upon. The earliest writer we are acquainted with, who mentions the heavenly constellations, is Homer. The following passage occurs in the description of Vulcan's shield:
This description evidently shews that the celestial sphere of Homer was the same as that of Eudoxus and Aratus; and that at the time when the Iliad was written the Greeks were in possession of this sphere. Herodotus states that they borrowed the names of their twelve gods, their religious ceremonies, and their geometry from Egypt; and from the same people they are said to have obtained the celestial sphere. At the same time it is not probable that the Egyptians were the inventors of it. There is nothing of an Egyptian character in the figures depicted upon it; nor can this people establish any claim to the invention, being never celebrated for their astronomical discoveries. Their talents and skill were directed to Geometry and Architecture, in which two sciences they greatly excelled. But there are two nations whose claim to the introduction of the celestial sphere rests upon such strong presumptive evidence that it is difficult to refuse to either the credit of the invention. These are the Assyrians and the Phenicians. And there is on the face of the sphere, as we now have it, and as it came to the Greeks, evidence almost amounting to proof that it was composed from two other distinct spheres, on one of which the signs or constellations were ​animals, and on the other human figures with some emblematical signs". The following is the way in which the constitution and present condition of the celestial sphere, exhibiting a strange mixture of human figures and animals, may be explained.
At an early period after the deluge that family of the human race which constituted the great Assyrian empire spread themselves over the central plain of Asia, founded large cities, among others Babylon, where they carried all the arts and sciences of civilized life to high perfection. We know that they excelled in the knowledge of astronomy; much of which they might derive from the antediluvian patriarchs through Noah and his immediate descendants. Cicero says: "Principio Assyrii, ut ab ultimis auctoritatem repetam, propter planitiem, magnitudinemque regionum, quas incolebant, cum cœlum ex omni parte patens, atque apertum intuerentur, trajectiones, motusque stellarum observaverunt: quibus notatis quid cuique significaretur, memoriæ prodiderunt."—(Cic. de Divin.) They would construct a celestial sphere. And we can imagine that, agreeably to the notions entertained by those early nations, of respect and veneration for their departed ancestors, they would honour their memories by pourtraying their figures on the celestial sphere. From the early history of the human race, as recorded in the ​first ten chapters of Genesis, and the continued records of their own empire, they would form a picture-history, commencing with Adam and reaching to their own times. Such I conceive to have been the Assyrian or Babylonian sphere; and that from it are derived the human figures on our celestial globe.
The other sphere, of which the signs or constellations were the figures of animals, was of Phenician origin. This people at an early period having migrated to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean became the first of maritime nations:
Their country extended along the coast of Syria, their inland territory being very limited, the ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus forming their utmost barrier to the east, and separating them from other nations. They soon became a populous and powerful people, and were most celebrated for their maritime skill and boldness, and for the advancement they made in arithmetic and astronomy. Their mariners would carefully observe the positions and motions of the heavenly bodies, and would figure them upon a celestial sphere. And in so doing, what plan would they more probably adopt than that of taking for ​the signs or constellations the images which distinguished and gave a name to their celebrated ships? The learned Bochart has clearly shewn that the word Pegasus is of Phenician origin: פג Pag or פגא Pega, “a bridle,” and סוס Sus, “a horse,” forming the word פגסוס “Pegasus,” “the bridled horse,” no doubt the figure at the head, and the name of a ship. The body of this animal and of several others on the globe are cut in half, exactly representing the figure as it would appear on the head of a ship. Cetus, a whale, or great fish: a Dolphin: a Hydra, or sea-snake: a Swan: a Ram: a Bull, are all such signs as ships would bear.
The next question is: How and where did the amalgamation of the Babylonian and Phenician spheres take place? This, I imagine, was the work of the Egyptians. By the traffic, which they carried on to the south through the red sea, and along the coast of the Arabian gulf, they would become acquainted with and adopt the former; and at the same time the northern inhabitants of the country by their commercial intercourse with the nations on the coasts of the Mediterranean, especially ​the Phenicians, would receive and adopt the latter; and the necessary result would be, that the Egyptian astronomers would form one sphere from the two, adopting from each those constellations which according to their judgment rendered the celestial map most clear and complete. And this accounts for so many constellations bearing two distinct names, and for the union of totally dissimilar objects in one sign. On the Phenician sphere the two nothern constellations were “Arctoi,” “Bears:” on the Babylonian, “Amaxai,” “Chariots.” On the Babylonian the human figure now called Auriga corresponded with one on the Phenician called “the Goat and her kids,” and hence Auriga is represented as bearing a Goat and her kids.
Had we now the Babylonian sphere unmutilated, it would be a picture history from Adam to the time of its invention. Commencing at the north: The two chariots revolving round the pole, turning each way, one to the east and one to the west, and never setting, with Draco the great serpent between them, were emblems of המתהפכת החרב להט ואת הכרכיםאת־, τα χερουβὶμ καὶ τὴν φλογίνην ῥομφαίαν τὴν στρεφομένην, “the cherubim and flaming sword turning every way.” The first figure, of which Aratus and the early astronomers give a description from the tradition they ​had received, is: "That of a labouring man, a man doomed to labour: his name is unknown: the cause of his task is unknown, he is in an attitude of supplication, kneeling on his right knee, hence his title Engonasin, [ἐν γόνασιν] Geniculator: his left foot treads on the dragon's head: he is naked, and bears on one arm the skin of a beast." That this figure represents our first parent, as described in the third chapter of Genesis, no one can doubt. How his name was lost is very evident: אדם, "Adam," in the original language is not only specially the name of our first parent, but signifies generally "a man." Hence in another language it might be rendered, "a man;" and "Adam doomed to labour," would become, "a man doomed to labour," or "a labouring man," The name of the next figure, translated from that which he bore on the Babylonian sphere into Greek, is, "᾿Οφιοῦχος," Ophiuchus," Serpentarius;" "qui tenet serpentem," "the man who holds or restrains the serpent." Here then follows close upon Adam the promised seed, that is, Seth, who in the early period of the human race was considered to be the promised seed. In like manner the traces of other antediluvians may be found north of the equator. South of it we have Argo, the hinder part of the Ark, as it might be seen at that time on mount Ararat: the raven resting on the Hydra, ​the water-snake. The Centaur (Noah) bearing (θηρίον) a victim, an offering, or as some say (οἴνου ἀσκὸν) a flask of wine. And not far distant, Orion, (Nimrod) ציד הגבור, "the Giant." "the mighty hunter."
After that the celestial sphere had fallen into the hands of the Greeks, they applied to the several figures of men and animals, which they found depicted upon it, the stories of their own mythology, and changed several of their names accordingly; in the same manner as we know that after the time of Aratus, they substituted Hercules for Engonasin; putting a club in his hand: describing the animal's skin on his arm as that of the Nemean Lion, and the Dragon on whose head he treads as the guardian of the golden apples of the Hesperides.
THE CONSTELLATIONS ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE OF ARATUS WERE AS FOLLOW.
NORTH OF THE EQUATOR.
1. Ursa Major. The Greater Bear. Helice. The Greater Northern Wain. In this constellation is one star of the first magnitude, Duhbe, in the square on the back.
2. Ursa Minor. The Lesser Bear. Cynosyra. The Lesser Northern Wain. In this constellation Cynosyra or Ruccabah at the extremity of the tail is the Pole star.
3. Draco. The Dragon.
These three constellations were always above the horizon in the latitude for which the sphere of Aratus was constructed.
4. Engonasin [Ὁ ἐν γόνασιν] Geniculator. The Labouring Man. This constellation after the time of Aratus was changed into that of Hercules.
5. Corona Borealis. The Northern Crown.
6. Ophiuchus, Serpentarius. The man who holds the Serpent. A naked figure of a man folded round by a serpent, of which he grasps the neck in his left hand, and the tail in his right.
7. Bootes. Arctophylax. A naked figure with a belt (Ζώνη) round the waist: bearing in one hand a sickle, and in the other a goad or spear. In this ​constellation is the bright star Arcturus. The constellation itself is frequently designated by the name of the star.
8. Auriga. Erecthonius. A naked figure. He bears a goat on his left shoulder, and reins in his right hand. On or near the goat is the star Capella, and below it two small stars, Hædi, the Kids, which were considered inauspicious stars to sailors.
9. Cepheus. A naked figure wearing a crown, and a belt (Ζώνη) round his loins.
10. Cassiopeia. A naked female figure sitting on a throne or in a chair; with arms extended in the attitude of beating her breast.
11. Andromeda. A female figure with a wreath on her head, and with robes (Ζώματα), a chain on her wrists passing round her back. On her head Alpherat: on her loins Mirach: on her foot Almack.
12. Pegasus. The forepart of a winged horse.
13. Deltoton. An isosceles triangle.
14. Perseus. A naked winged warrior, bearing in his right hand a drawn sword, and in his left hand a human head.
​15. Pleiades. Seven small stars. These seven stars are now in the constellation of the Bull; but on the sphere of Eudoxus they formed a small constellation of themselves, near the left knee: according to Hipparchus, near the left foot of Perseus.
16. Lyra, or Vultur cadens. The Lyre. This constellation contains the splendid star Vega.
17. Cygnus. The Swan. A bird with expanded wings, and outstretched neck.
18. Sagitta. An Arrow or Dart.
19. Aquila, or Vultur volans. An Eagle. In this constellation is the bright star Atair.
20. Delphinus. The Dolphin. This constellation was called by the ancients the musical sign. The reason given for this title was, that it contained nine stars, the number of the Muses. The cause of the name may be the Dolphin's supposed fondness of music. (Pl. Nat. Hist. ix. 8.)
ON THE ZODIAC OR ECLIPTIC.
1. Aries. The Ram. A constellation containing no bright stars. His head is reversed, looking back to the east.
2. Taurus. The Bull. The forepart of a Bull, facing to the east. In the left eye is the bright star Aldebaran.
​3. Gemini. The Twins, Castor and Pollux. Two naked infants; the arm of one around the loins of the other. In rising their feet first appear above the horizon. The star in the head of Pollux is of the first magnitude. These stars were considered. propitious to sailors.
4. Cancer. The Crab. The head of the Crab is turned to the east. In this constellation there is a small bright nebula called by the ancients Φάτνη, Præsepe, the manger; and on each side of this nebula to the north and south a small star. These two stars were called Ὄνοι, Aselli, the Asses. The Phatne consists of five small stars, and the Onoi are scarely perceptible to the naked eye, but they were considered by the ancients of great importance in their prognostications of the weather.
5. Leo. The Lion. The conspicuous star Regulus lies in the heart of Leo, and Denebola at the extremity of his tail.
6. Virgo. Erygone. The Virgin. An angelic figure with wings, bearing in her left hand a spike of corn. On which is the bright star Spica. A cluster of small stars, which were originally in Virgo, according to some in Leo, now forms another constellation, Coma Berenices.
7. Chelæ, The Claws. The foreclaws of Scorpio.
8. Scorpio, The Scorpion. On the sphere of Eudoxus the foreclaws of the Scorpion constitute the seventh sign of the Zodiac, and the remaining portion of Scorpio the eighth. Hence Aratus desig​nates Scorpio, "Μεγαθήριον" "Megatherion," "The great beast." (Phænom. 82.) And Ovid says:
His length extended through two-twelfths or one-sixth of the whole zodiac circle. After the time of Aratus, Libra, the Scales, was substituted for Chelæ, the Claws, on the celestial sphere. Virgil suggested this constellation as the proper one for the star of Augustus, when after his death he should be inscribed among the gods, as the 23rd of September was his birth-day, at which time the Sun enters this constellation:
The Poet implies that in honour of Augustus the Scorpion had contracted his claws to make room for Libra, about to be honoured by the Julium Sidus. Manilius also:
​There is a splendid star Antar, or Cor Scorpionis, on the breast of Scorpio.
9. Sagittarius. The Archer. A centaur or man on horseback bearing a bow.
10. Capricornus. The horned Goat. A goat with the hinder extremities of a fish.
11. Aquarius. The man who holds the watering Urn. Aquarius bears on his right arm an urn, from which water is flowing, and in his left hand probably some ears of corn, emblems of the primitive offering to the Deity before the introduction of wine and animal sacrifices. When the Sun was in Aquarius the Romans commenced their year: the ninth of February was "Veris initium."
12. Pisces. The Fishes. One is called the northern and the other the southern. Their tails are united by a band.
SOUTH OF THE EQUATOR.
1. Orion. The Giant Hunter. Orion was a giant figure in the attitude of ascending. He wore a belt and sword. In one hand he bore a club, in the other probably a hunter's bag. His head was bent backward between his shoulders, so as to exhibit his face. It may here be remarked, that all the human figures on the ancient sphere were pourtrayed with their backs to the spectator, and their faces turned more or less to view. The most northern star on the belt of Orion lies on the equator. This constellation has two stars of the first magnitude: RIGEL on the left foot, and Betalgeux on the right shoulder; and three of second magnitude. Three small stars on the head of Orion are called Jugulæ, and hence the constellation itself sometimes bears the name of Jugula. These stars were of great importance with the astronomers of Babylon, rising in their latitude with the Sun on the summer solstice.
2. Canis Major. The Great Dog. In this constellation is the star Sirius. The ancients imagined that the heat of the Sun when in Cancer and Leo was greatly augmented by the additional influence of Sirius and other large stars that lie in or near these constellations:
3. Lepus. The Hare.
4. Argo. The hinder part of a ship.
5. Cetus. The Whale. The Great Fish. It looks to the east.
6. Eridanus. The River. Canopus, a star of the first magnitude, lies between this constellation and that of Argo.
7. Piscis Austrinus. The Southern Fish. In this constellation is the bright star Fomalhaut.
8. Corona Australis. The Southern Crown.
9. Ara. The Altar. This constellation contains no star of greater magnitude than the fourth, and lies so far to the south, that it is in no wise conspicuous in our northern latitudes; but it was considered of the greatest importance by the ancients as portending changes of the weather.
10. Centaurus. The Centaur. A man on horseback, bearing an animal on a pole or spear.
11. Hydra. The Sea Serpent. Upon it an empty Goblet, and a Raven or Crow.
​12. Canis Minor. Canicula. The Lesser Dog. This constellation is also called Procyon from the bright star on the Dog's shoulder. Προκύων, Procyon, signifies, "rising before the Dog," i. e. before the greater Dog, Sirius.
This star, as well as Sirius, was considered by the ancients as contributing to the heat of the Dog-days:
These are all the constellations of the old celestial sphere. Twenty northern, twelve southern, and twelve on the Zodiac, making the total of forty-four.
NOTE. Page 13.
In the book of Job, עש, בסיל, בימה, מזרת, Ash, Kesil, Kimah, Mazzaroth, are by most commentators considered to be the names of constellations or stars. It would have been far better under this impression for the translators of our bible to have retained the Hebrew names, Ash, Kesil, and Kimah, as well as Mazzaroth. The Septuagint translators of the book of Job, in Ch. ix. 9, render עש, בסיל, בימה, Ash, Kesil, Kimah, Πλειάς, Pleias, Ἕσπερος, Hesperus, Ἀρκτοῦρος, Arcturus; and in Ch. xxxviii. 31, 32, the same words are rendered Ἕσπερος, Hesperus, Ὡρίων, Orion, Πλειάς, Pleias. In Amos v. 8, ובסיל כימה עשה ("who made Kimah and Kesil"), is rendered "ὁ ποιῶν πάντα καὶ μετασκευζάσων," "who made and fashioned all things." In like manner the Vulgate, in Job ix. 9, renders these three words, Arcturus, Orion, Hyades; and in xxxviii. 31, 32, Vesperus, Arcturus, Pleiades. The interpretations of the rabbinical and other commentators upon these words are various. Ramban says: they are the names of superior stars, that is, stars of great influence and power. R. Salomo and Ralbag, that Kesil and Kimah are constellations. R. Aben Esra, that Ash is a constellation of seven stars not far from the north pole, and that Kesil and Kimah are stars of first magnitude in the Zodiac. R. Perizolides and others, that Ash is one of the stars in the tail of the Ram, Kesil and Kimah the stars that occasion cold and heat: Kesil, the cold; and Kimah, the heat. Mercer, with others, renders the three words, Arcturus, Orion, Pleiades. Cocceius maintains that Ash is Ursa minor: Kesil, Cor Scorpionis: Kimah, Oculus Tauri. Parkhurst rejects the notion of these words being the names of stars, and renders עש, Ash, Blight: בסיל, Kesil, Cold: כימה, Kimah, Heat. There is the same diversity of opinion respecting מזרת, Mazzaroth. R. Levy conjectures that it was a star which seldom appeared in the land of Uz, and hence the words: "Num educes Mazzaroth tempore suo?" Others consider this word a title for the twelve signs of the Zodiac: others again, that Ash, Kesil, Kimah and Mazzaroth are the four cardinal points. Schmidt remarks on Job ix. 9: "Insuperabilem, ut existimo, versus habet difficultatem, dum continet astrorum ejusmodi nomina de quibus nihil nisi conjectura nobis relicta est. Nos nihil audemus definire: sed cum Rambane in hoc potius acquiescimus, quod insignia astra sint, a quibus ad reliqua omnia valeat collectio." Bochart (Hierozoic. Vol. ii. p. 113, 114) gives an explanation of Job xxxviii. 32, בניהעל־ עיש, "Aish cum filiis ​suis:" "Aish with her sons." He shews, that with some of the Arabian astrologers the name of the greater and lesser Bear was, "Feretrum majus et feretrum minus," "the greater and the lesser Bier, or Sarcophagus," on which a dead body is carried; and that the three stars in the tail of the Bear were called "the sons of," that is, the attendants or followers of the Bier, which was itself constituted of the other four conspicuous stars in the constellation. Hence Job says, "An feretrum deduces cum filiis suis?" Schmidt on this verse ventures a conjecture, namely, that by "Aish cum filiis suis" is meant Jupiter and his four satellites: the arguments by which he supports this conjecture may be seen in his note upon the passage.
That these four words have any allusion to the stars is merely conjecture. We do not find these names or any similar to them used by the Arabian astronomers, which we probably should do, had they been the names of constellations or stars on the celestial sphere in the days of Job. May not the words עש, בסיל, בימה, Ash, Kesil, Kimah, signify vapour, ice or snow, and rain, the three natural conditions of water; and the passages in which they occur be thus rendered?
Job ix. 8. Which alone spreadeth out the heavens, and treadeth on the wave of the sea.
9. Which maketh the vapour, the snow, and the rain.
Job xxxviii. 30. The waters are hid as with a stone, and the face of the deep is frozen.
31. Canst thou congeal the soft showers of rain, or loosen the bands of ice?
32. Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season? Canst thou produce the vapour with the dew-drops?
Amos v. 8. Seek him that maketh the snow and the rain, and turneth the shadow of darkness into morning, and maketh the day dark with night; that calleth for the waters of the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth.
ΓΡΑΜΜΑ ΤΟΔ ΑΡΗΤΟΙΟ ΔΑΗΜΟΝΟΣ ΟΣ ΠΟΤΕ ΛΕΠΤΗ ΦΡΟΝΤΙΔΙ ΔΗΝΑΙΟΥΣ ΑΣΤΕΡΑΣ ΕΦΡΑΣΑΤΟ ΑΠΛΑΝΕΑΣ Τ ΑΜΦΩ ΚΑΙ ΑΛΗΜΟΝΑΣ ΟΙΣΙΝ ΕΝΑΡΓΗΣ ΙΛΛΟΜΕΝΟΣ ΚΥΚΛΟΙΣ ΟΥΡΑΝΟΣ ΕΝΔΕΔΕΤΑΙ ΑΙΝΕΣΘΩ ΔΕ ΚΑΜΩΝ ΕΡΓΟΝ ΜΕΓΑ ΚΑΙ ΔΙΟΣ ΕΙΝΑΙ ΔΕΥΤΕΡΟΣ ΟΣΤΙΣ ΕΘΗΚ ΑΣΤΡΑ ΦΑΕΙΝΟΤΕΡΑ
* ↑ See note at the end.
* ↑ These might originally have been borne by some figure, which has been omitted and the emblem retained: as the crown, the lyre, the triangle, &c. In the constellation Aquarius with his urn we may have the figure and the emblem.
* ↑ It is far from improbable, that the whole of these Phenician signs were taken from the interior of one of their temples. It was customary to make an offering in token of any special deliverance, or successful voyage, by suspending the emblem of the ship in gold or some less costly material along the walls of their temples. Homer mentions among the contents of a temple, “The yellow [golden] heads of horses.” Κτητοὶ δὲ τρίποδές τɛ, καὶ ἵππων ξανθὰ κάρηνα, (Il. ix. 406.)
* ↑ Dubhe, the name of the bright star in this constellation, gives us the Phenician name of the constellation itself: רוב, Dub, a Bear, Hyginus states that Thales, a Phenician, discovered the Little Bear, and gave it the name; and that also it was called Phenice.
* ↑ Vid. Gen. iv. 25. "She bare a son, and called his name Seth: For God, said she, hath appointed me another seed instead of Abel, whom Cain slew."
* ↑ All the fables respecting this bird relate to his having been sent by Apollo to fetch water, not returning in proper time, and then with an empty vessel, evidently in allusion to the Raven sent from the Ark. Gen. viii. 7.
* ↑ Hyginus states that Eratosthenes first called this constellation by the name of Hercules.
* ↑ The north side of a figure is called the right, and the south the left. Thus Apollo directs Phaeton:"Neu te dexterior tortum declinet in anguem, Neve sinisterior pressum rota ducat ad aram," It must be remembered, that the right side of a figure depicted on a convex globe becomes the left, when seen from the center; and vice versa.
* ↑ It is impossible to determine the article, which was borne in the left hand of Aquarius and of Orion.
* ↑ בסלר, Kislen, was the name of the ninth month, a very cold month, as we know from Jer. xxxvi. 22; whence probably its name, "the icy month."
* ↑ Probably the name of a periodical pestilential wind.