OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/William Balfour Baikie

See also William Balfour Baikie on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
BAIKIE, William Balfour, M.D., eldest son of Captain John Baikie, R.N., was born at Kirkwall, Orkney, on the 21st August 1824. He studied at Edinburgh, and, on obtaining his degree, joined the royal navy. He early attracted the notice of Sir Roderick Murchison, through whom he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to the Niger Expedition of 1854. The death of the senior officer occurring at Fernando Po, Dr Baikie succeeded to the command. The results of the voyage are given in his own and other narratives. Ascending the river about 250 miles beyond the point reached by former explorers, the little steamer Pleiad returned and reached the mouth after a voyage of 118 days without the loss of a single man. The second expedition started in March 1857. After two years passed in exploring, the navigating vessel was wrecked in passing through some of the rapids of the river, and Dr Baikie was unable longer to keep his party together. All returned home but himself; no way daunted, he determined single-handed to carry out the purposes of the expedition. Landing from a small boat with one or two native followers at the confluence of the Quorra and Benue, he here chose the old model farm ground as the base of his future opera tions a spot memorable from the disasters of the explor ing party of 1841. After purchasing the site, and con cluding a treaty with the native chief, he proceeded to clear the ground, build houses, form enclosures, and pave the way for a future city. Numbers flocked to him from all parts round, and in his settlement were representatives of almost all the tribes of Central Africa. To the motley commonwealth thus formed he acted not merely as ruler, but also as physician, teacher, and priest. Before five years he had opened up the navigation of the Niger, made roads, and established a market, to which the native produce was brought for sale and barter. He had also collected vocabularies of nearly fifty African dialects, and translated portions of the Bible and prayer-book into Housa. Once only during his residence had he to employ armed force against the surrounding tribes. He died on his way home, at Sierra Leone, in November 1863, aged thirty-nine years. An appropriate monument has been erected to his memory within the nave of the ancient cathedral of St Magnus.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/St Leonards

See also St Leonards (disambiguation) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, St Paul may refer to:
* The town of St Leonards, England; or
* Lord St Leonards, lord chancellor of England.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/St Louis (1.)

See also Saint-Louis, Senegal on Wikipedia; Saint-Louis and Langue de Barbarie on Wikipedia; St Louis in the 11th Edition; and the disclaimer.
$\scriptstyle {\frac {1}{2}}$
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/St Gregory VII.

See also Pope Gregory VII on Wikipedia; works by Gregory VII, Pope Gregory VII on Wikipedia, Gregory VII. in the 11th edition, Pope St. Gregory VII in the Catholic Encyclopedia; and the disclaimer.
The lifework of Hildebrand may be thus summed up in the words of Sir James Stephen:—“He found the papacy dependent on the empire; he sustained her by alliances almost commensurate with the Italian peninsula. He found the papacy electoral by the Roman people and clergy; he left it electoral by a college of papal nomination. He found the emperor the virtual patron of the holy see; he wrested that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy the allies and dependants of the secular power; he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries of his own. He found the higher ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns; he delivered them from that yoke to subjugate them to the Roman tiara. He found the patronage of the church the mere desecrated spoil and merchandize of princes; he reduced it within the dominion of the supreme pontiff. He is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and profane abuses of his age; he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which have succeeded him.“
Unlike Gregory the Great, Hildebrand was no author; his literary remains are all comprised in eleven books or “Registers” of letters, which have often been printed. The XXVII dictatus often attributed to him are not now regarded as genuine. Among the numerous earlier biographies may be mentioned those of Paul of Bernriet, Pandulf of Pisa, Nicolas of Aragon, and Cardinal Bruno; among later monographs the most important are those of Voigt (Hildebrand als Gregor VII. u. sein Zeitalter, 1815; 2d ed. 1846; French translation, with introduction and notes, by Jager, 1834; 4th ed. 1854), Bowden (The Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII., 1840), Söltl (Gregor VII., 1847), Helfenstein (Gregor's VII. Bestrebungen nach den Streitschriften seiner Zeit, 1856), Gfrörer (Papst Gregor VII. u. sein Zeitalter, 7 vols., 1859-61), Villemain (Histoire de Gregoire VII., 1873; English translation by Brockley, 1874), Langeron (Gregoire VII. et les origines de la politique ultramontane, 1874), and Meltzer (Gregor VII. u. die Bischofswahlen,1876). The events of the period are also very fully treated by W. Giesebrecht in his Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, and in other works. For the epistles, see S. Gregorii VII. epistolæ et diplomatica pontificia, acc. vita ejusdem pontificis et appendices amplissimæ veterum et recentiorum monumenta perplurima Gregorii VII. apologetica complectentes (1877).
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/St Leonards (1.)

See also St Leonards-on-Sea on Wikipedia; St Leonards-on-Sea on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
ST LEONARDS is the name given to the western and more modern part of Hastings (q.v.), a watering-place on the coast of Sussex, England. St Leonards proper, which formed only a small part of the district now included under that name, was at one time a separate township. The population of St Leonards in 1881 was 7165.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/St Helena

See also St Helena on Wikipedia
In the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, St Helena may refer to:
* St Helena, empress, wife of Constantius Chlorus and mother of Constantine the Great; or
* St Helena, island, South Atlantic.

## See also

* Saint
* Helena (disambiguation)
* St Helen’s, town, England.
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 70

Of the woods best suited for the carpenter's various purposes.
The wood of the silver-fir may be called the strongest of all. But for the carpenter's purposes fir best takes glue because of its open texture and the straightness of its pores; for they say that it never by any chance comes apart when it is glued. Alaternus is the easiest wood for turning, and its whiteness is like that of the holly. Of the rest lime is the easiest, the whole tree, as was said, being easy to work because of the softness of the wood. In general those woods which are tough are easy to bend. The mulberry and the wild fig seem to be specially so; wherefore they make of these theatre-seats, the hoops of garlands, and, in general, things for ornament.
Woods which have a fair amount of moisture in them are easier to saw or split than those which ​are altogether dry: for the latter give, while the former resist. Wood which is too green closes up again when sawn, and the sawdust catches in the saw's teeth and clogs them; wherefore the teeth of the saw are set alternate ways, to get rid of the sawdust. Wood which is too green is also harder to bore holes in; for the auger's dust is only brought up slowly, because it is heavy; while, if the wood is dry, the air gets warmed by the boring and brings it up readily and at once. On the other hand, wood which is over dry is hard to saw because of its hardness: for it is like sawing through earthenware; wherefore they wet the auger when using it.
However green wood is easier to work with the axe the chisel or the plane; for the chisel gets a better hold and does not slip off. Again softer woods are easier for the axe and for smoothing, and also a better polished surface is obtained. The cornelian cherry is also a very strong wood, and among the rest elm-wood is the strongest; wherefore, as was said, they make the 'hinges' for doors of elm-wood. Manna-ash and beech have very moist wood, for of these they make elastic bedsteads.
* ↑ Plin. 16. 225.
* ↑ cf. C.P. 5. 17. 3. εὐθυποράτατα: εὐθυπορίαν.
* ↑ cf. 5. 7. 7.
* ↑ Rendering doubtful. ἴκρια has probably here some unknown meaning, on which the sense of κόσμον depends.
* ↑ Plin. 16. 227.
* ↑ παύονται can hardly be right: Plin. l.c. seems to have had a fuller text.
* ↑ ἐμπλάττει: cf. de Sens. 66.
* ↑ τὰ λίαν ξηρὰ conj. St.; λεῖα καὶ ξηρὰ Ald. H.
* ↑ Sc. with the carpenter's axe.
* ↑ 5. 3. 5.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 72

Of the woods used in house-building.
For house-building a much greater variety is used, silver-fir fir and prickly cedar; also cypress oak and Phoenician cedar. In fact, to speak generally, any wood is here of service, unless it is altogether weak: for there are various purposes for which different woods are serviceable, just as there are in ship-building. While other woods are serviceable for special articles belonging to various crafts, such as furniture tools and the like, the wood of silver-fir is of use for almost more purposes than any other wood; for it is even used for painters' tablets. For carpentry the oldest wood is the best, provided that it has not decayed; for it is convenient for almost anyone to use. But for ship-building, where bending is necessary, one must use wood which contains more moisture (though, where glue is to be used, drier wood is convenient). For timber-work for ships is set to stand when it is newly made: then, when it has become firmly united, it is dragged down to the water, and then it closes up and becomes watertight,—unless all the moisture has been dried out of it, in which case it will not take the glue, or will not take it so well.
* ↑ ἐλάτη … ἄρκευθος conj. W.; ἐλάτη τε καὶ πεύκη καὶ κέδρος ἔτι κυπάριττος δρῦς πεύκη καὶ κέδρος ἄρκευθος U; ἐλάτη τε καὶ πεύκη καὶ κέδρος καὶ ἄρκευθος Ald. H.; so also MV, omitting καὶ before ἀρκ.
* ↑ ὡς δ᾿ ἁπλῶς conj. Sch.; ἁπλῶς δ᾿ ὡς Ald.
* ↑ καινὰ conj. Sch.; καὶ νῦν Ald.
* ↑ συμπαγῇ conj. W., which he renders 'when it has been glued together'; συμπίῃ Ald. G's reading was evidently different.
* ↑ πλὴν ἐὰν μὴ conj. W.; π. ἐὰν τε M; π. ἐὰν γε Ald.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 69

Which woods can best support weight.
VI.For bearing weight silver-fir and fir are strong woods, when set slantwise: for they do not give like ​oak and other woods which contain mineral matter, but make good resistance. A proof of this is that they never split like olive and oak, but decay first or fail in some other way. Palm-wood is also strong, for it bends the opposite way to other woods: they bend downwards, palm-wood upwards. It is said that fir and silver-fir also have an upward thrust. As to the sweet chestnut, which grows tall and is used for roofing, it is said that when it is about to split, it makes a noise, so that men are forewarned: this occurred once at Antandros at the baths, and all those present rushed out. Fig-wood is also strong, but only when set upright.
* ↑ Plin. 16. 222–224.
* ↑ e.g. as a strut. πλάγιαι conj. Sch. from Plin. l.c.; ἁπαλαὶ Ald. H.
* ↑ i.e. the strut becomes concave or convex respectively. cf. Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 11.
* ↑ i.e. it cannot be used as a strut, or it would 'buckle,' though it will stand a vertical strain.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 7

Differences as to qualities and properties.
These then would seem to be the differences in the parts which make up the plant. Those which belong to the qualities and properties are such as hardness or softness, toughness or brittleness, closeness or openness of texture, lightness or heaviness, and the like. For willow-wood is light from the first, even when it is green, and so is that of the cork-oak; but box and ebony are not light even when dried. Some woods again can be split, such ​as that of the silver-fir, while others are rather breakable, such as the wood of the olive. Again some are without knots, as the stems of elder, others have knots, as those of fir and silver-fir.
Now such differences also must be ascribed to the essential character of the plant: for the reason why the wood of silver-fir is easily split is that the grain is straight, while the reason why olive-wood is easily broken is that it is crooked and hard. Lime wood and some other woods on the other hand are easily bent because their sap is viscid. Boxwood and ebony are heavy because the grain is close, and oak because it contains mineral matter. In like manner the other peculiarities too can in some way be referred to the essential character.
* ↑ πάθη, cf. 1.1.1 n.
* ↑ σχίζεται conj. W.; σχίσθέντα UMVAld.; σχιστά H.; fissiles G.
* ↑ i.e. break across the grain. εὒραυστα mP; ἂθραυστα UPAld. fragilis G. cf. 5.5, Plin. 16, 186.
* ↑ ἂοζα conj. Palm, from G; λοζά UPAld.
* ↑ i.e. across the grain.
* ↑ cf. 5.6.2.
* ↑ cf. 5.1.4.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 71

Of the woods used in ship-building.
VII. Next we must endeavour to say in a general way, distinguishing the several uses, for which purposes each kind of timber is serviceable, which is of use for ship-building, which for house-building: for these uses extend far and are important.
Now silver-fir, fir and Syrian cedar are, generally ​speaking, useful for ship-building; for triremes and long ships are made of silver-fir, because of its lightness, and merchant ships of fir, because it does not decay; while some make triremes of it also because they are ill provided with silver-fir. The people of Syria and Phoenicia use Syrian cedar, since they cannot obtain much fir either; while the people of Cyprus use Aleppo pine, since their island provides this and it seems to be superior to their fir. Most parts are made of these woods; but the keel for a trireme is made of oak, that it may stand the hauling; and for merchantmen it is made of fir. However they put an oaken keel under this when they are hauling, or for smaller vessels a keel of beech; and the sheathing is made entirely of this wood.
(However oak-wood does not join well with glue on to fir or silver-fir; for the one is of close, the other of open grain, the one is uniform, the other not so; whereas things which are to be made into one piece should be of similar character, and not of opposite character, like wood and stone.)
The work of bentwood for vessels is made of mulberry manna-ash elm or plane; for it must be tough and strong. That made of plane-wood is the worst, since it soon decays. For triremes some make such parts of Aleppo pine because of its lightness. The cutwater, to which the sheathing is attached, and the catheads are made of manna-ash mulberry ​and elm; for these parts must be strong. Such then is the timber used in ship-building.
* ↑ See Index.
* ↑ τριήρει conj. W.; τριήρη U; τριήρης MV; τριήρεσι Ald.
* ↑ ταῖς δ᾿ ἐλάττοσιν ὀξυίνην conj. W. (τοῖς Sch.); τοῖς μὲν ἐλάττοσιν ὀξύη Ald. cf. Plin. 16. 226.
* ↑ χέλυσμα, a temporary covering for the bottom: so Poll. and Hesych. explain.
* ↑ This sentence is out of place; its right place is perhaps at the end of § 4.
* ↑ τορνεία; but the word is perhaps corrupt: one would expect the name of some part of the vessel.
* ↑ στερέωμα: apparently the fore part of the keel; = στεῖρα
* ↑ πρὸρ ᾧ τὸ χέλυσμα conj. W. after Scal,; πρόσω· τὸ σχέλυσμα Ald. (σχέλομα M, χέλυσμα U) πρόσω· τὸ δὲ χέλυσμα m Bas.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 73

Of the uses of the wood of particular trees.
But we must consider for what purposes each several wood is serviceable. Silver-fir and fir, as has been said, are suitable both for ship-building ​house-building and also for other kinds of work, but silver-fir is of use for more purposes than fir. Aleppo pine is used for both kinds of building, but especially for ship-building, yet it soon rots. Oak is used for house-building, for ship-building, and also for underground work; lime for the deck-planks of long ships, for boxes, and for the manufacture of measures; its bark is also useful for ropes and writing-cases, for these are sometimes made of it.
Maple and zygia are used for making beds and the yokes of beasts of burden: yew for the ornamental work attached to chests and footstools and the like: kermes-oak for the axles of wheelbarrows and the cross-bars of lyres and psalteries: beech for making waggons and cheap carts: elm for making doors and weasel-traps, and to some extent it is also used for waggon work; pedos for waggon-axles and the stocks of ploughs: andrachne is used for women for parts of the loom: Phoenician cedar for carpenters' work and for work which is either to be exposed to the air or buried underground, because it does not decay. Similarly the sweet chestnut is used, and it is even less likely to decay if it is used for underground work. Box is used for some purposes; however that which grows on Mount Olympus is useless, because only short pieces can be obtained and the wood is full of knots. Terebinth is not used, except the fruit and the resin. ​Alaternus is only useful for feeding sheep; for it is always leafy. Hybrid arbutus is used for making stakes and for burning: holly and Judas-tree for walking-sticks; some also use bay for these; for of this they make light sticks and sticks for old men. Willow is used for shields hampers baskets and the like. We might in like manner add the several uses of the other woods.
Distinction is also made between woods according as they are serviceable for one or other of the carpenter's tools: thus hammers and gimlets are best made of wild olive, but box elm and manna-ash are also used, while large mallets are made of Aleppo pine. In like manner there is a regular practice about each of the other tools. Such are the differences as to the uses of various woods.
* ↑ i.e. apart from ship-building and house-building, in which several woods are used.
* ↑ κίστας: cf. 3. 13. 1; perhaps 'hampers,' cf. 5. 7. 7.
* ↑ ραπακολλήματα: lit. 'things glued on.'
* ↑ Plin. 16. 229.
* ↑ ταῖς μονοστρόφοις ἁμάξαις: or, perhaps, 'the wheels of carts with solid wheels.' ταῖς conj. Sch.; τε καὶ UMV; τε καὶ μονοστρόφους ἁμάξας Ald.
* ↑ πηδος (with varying accent) MSS.: probably=πάδος, 4. 1. 3; πύοξς Ald., but see sec. 7.
* ↑ τεκτονίας can hardly be right.
* ↑ cf. 3. 15. 5.
* ↑ cf. 1. 8. 2, of box in general; Plin. 16. 71.
* ↑ Inconsistent with 5. 3. 2.
* ↑ Inconsistent with 5. 6. 2. φιλυρέα conj. Sch.
* ↑ καὶ σημύδα conj. Sch.; καὶ μυῖα U; καὶ μύα Ald. cf. 3. 14. 4.
* ↑ ταύτης conj. H.; ταύτας UMV Ald.
* ↑ Plin. 16. 230.
Layout 2
# Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 8

Further 'special' differences.
VI. Again there are differences in the 'core': in the first place according as plants have any or have none, as some say is the case with elder among other things; and in the second place there are differences between those which have it, since in different plants it is respectively fleshy, woody, or membranous; fleshy, as in vine fig apple pomegranate elder ferula; woody, as in Aleppo pine silver-fir fir; in the last-named especially so, because it is resinous. Harder again and closer than these is the core of dog-wood kermes-oak oak laburnum mulberry ebony nettle-tree.
The cores in themselves also differ in colour; for that of ebony and oak is black, and in fact in the oak it is called 'oak-black'; and in all these the core is harder and more brittle than the ordinary ​wood; and for this reason the core of these trees can not be bent. Again the core differs in closeness of texture A membranous core is not common in trees, if indeed it is found at all; but it is found in shrubby plants and woody plants generally, as in reed ferula and the like. Again in some the core is large and conspicuous, as in kermes-oak oak and the other trees mentioned above; while in others it is less conspicuous, as in olive and box. For in these trees one cannot find it isolated, but, as some say, it is not found in the middle of the stem, being diffused throughout, so that it has no separate place; and for this reason some trees might be thought to have no core at all; in fact in the date-palm the wood is alike throughout.
* ↑ T. appears not to agree as to elder: see below.
* ↑ αὓτη conj. Sch.; αὐτὴ UAld.; αὐτῆ MV; αὐτῆς P$_2$.
* ↑ μανότεραι. . .οὒ; text can hardly be sound, but sense is clear.
* ↑ i.e. homogeneous.
Layout 2
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tantalum

See also Tantalum on Wikipedia; Tantalum in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
TANTALUM. A rare element closely allied to Niobium. See vol. xvii. p. 513.
# Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Tangiers

See also Tangier at Wikipedia, Tangier in the 11th edition; and the disclaimer.
TANGIERS, or Tangier (Ṭanja), a seaport of Morocco and capital of a pashalik, on the Strait of Gibraltar, about 14 miles to the east of Cape Spartel, stands on two eminences at the north-west extremity of a spacious bay. The town has a fine appearance from the sea, rising gradually in the form of an amphitheatre, and defended by walls and a castle. The streets, which are unpaved, are very narrow and crooked, and the houses, except those occupied by foreign ambassadors or consuls and a few others, are mean. The main thoroughfare is that which leads from the Bab-al-Marsa (Gate of the Port) to the Bab-al-Sok (Gate of the Market Place); the sok presents a lively spectacle, especially on Sundays and Thursdays. The manufactures of Tangiers are of little importance, consisting chiefly of coarse woollen cloth, mats, and pottery; tanning is also carried on, but the leather, though much esteemed in Europe, is inferior to that made in other parts of Morocco. The harbour is a mere roadstead, but it is the best Morocco possesses, and affords good anchorage and shelter to the largest vessels, except during the prevalence of strong winds from the north-west or east. Tangiers has a large trade with Gibraltar. The climate is temperate and healthy, but the inhabitants often suffer much in summer from deficiency of water-supply. Tangiers, which is the residence of all the foreign ministers and consuls to the court of Morocco, has a population estimated at about 20,000, of whom some 400 are Europeans.
The Roman Tingis, which stood in the immediate vicinity of the site of Tangiers, boasted of great antiquity; under Augustus it became a free city, and Claudius made it a Roman colony and capital of Tingitana. It was held successively by Vandals, Byzantines, and Arabs, and fell into the hands of the Portuguese towards the end of the 15th century. In 1662 it was made part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage with Charles II. of England; the English defended it in 1680, but, on account of its expense, dismantled it in 1684 and abandoned it to the Moors, who fortified it anew. It was bombarded by a Spanish fleet in 1790 and by the French in 1844.