OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pavane

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PAVANE, Pavan or Pavin, the name of a slow stately dance of the 16th and 17th centuries.The word has been variously derived: (1) from Lat. pavo (peacock); the dancers as they wheel and turn, spread out their long cloaks, which they retained in this dance, like the tail of a bird; (2) from Padovana, i.e. of Padua, in Italy; the dance, however, is usually taken to have come from Spain. As an instrumental composition, common in the 16th and 17th centuries, the "pavane" was usually followed by the quick and lively "galliard," as the "gigue" followed the saraband in the latter suite (see Dance).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pavia y Albuquerque, Manuel

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​PAVIA Y ALBUQUERQUE, MANUEL (1828–1895), Spanish general, was born at Cadiz on the 2nd of August 1828. He was the son of Admiral Pavia, a naval officer of some note in the early part of the 19th century. He entered the Royal Artillery College at Segovia in 1841; became a lieutenant in 1846, a captain in 1855 and major in 1862. Three years later he joined the staff of Marshal Prim, and took part in the two unsuccessful revolutionary movements concerted by Prim in 1866, and, after two years of exile, in the successful revolution of 1868. Pavia showed much vigour against the republican risings in the southern provinces; the governments of King Amadeus of Savoy, from 1871 to 1873, also showed him much favour. After the abdication of that prince. General Pavia put down the Carlists and the cantonal insurrections of the chief towns of the south. On three occasions during the eventful year 1873, as captain-general of Madrid, he offered his services to put an end to the anarchy that was raging in the provinces and to the disorganization prevalent in the Cortes. To all he used the same arguments, namely, that they had to choose between an Alphonsist restoration or a dictatorial, military and political republic, which would rally round its standard all the most conservative groups that had made the revolution of 1868. This he hoped to realize with Castelar, but the plan was interrupted by the military pronunciamiento for the purpose of dissolving the Cortes of 1873. As soon as the federal Cortes had defeated Castelar, Pavia made his coup d’état of the 3rd of January 1874, and after the pronunciamiento was absolute master of the situation, but having no personal ambition, he sent for Marshal Serrano to form a government with Sagasta, Martos, Ulloa and other Conservatives and Radicals of the revolution. Pavia sat in the Cortes of the Restoration several times, and once defended himself skilfully against Emilio Castelar, who upbraided him for the part he had played on the 3rd of January 1874. He died suddenly on the 4th of January 1895.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pauncefote, Julian Pauncefote, 1st Baron

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​PAUNCEFOTE, JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE, 1st Baron (1828–1902), English diplomatist, third son of Robert Pauncefote of Preston Court, Gloucestershire, was born on the 13th of September 1828. He was educated at Marlborough, Paris and Geneva, and called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1852. He was for a short time secretary to Sir William Molesworth, secretary for the colonies, and in 1862 went out to Hong-Kong, where he was made attorney-general (1865) and then chief justice of the supreme court. He was appointed chief justice of the Leeward Islands in 1873, and, returning to England in the next year, became one of the legal advisers to the colonial office. Two years later he received a similar appointment in the foreign office, and in 1882 was made permanent under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1885 he was one of the delegates to the Suez Canal international commission, and received the G.C.M.G. and the K.C.B. Lord Salisbury departed from precedent in choosing him to succeed Sir Lionel Sackville-West as British minister at Washington in 1889, but the event showed that his knowledge of international law made up for any lack of the ordinary diplomatic training. He did much during his term of office to maintain friendly relations between the two countries, especially during the Venezuelan crisis. The Bering Sea fishery dispute (1890–1892) was successfully negotiated by him; he arranged a draft treaty for Anglo-American arbitration, which was, however, quashed by the Senate; and carried through ​the revision of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty on the subject of the Panama Canal. In 1893 the British minister at Washington was raised to the rank of ambassador, and Sir Julian Pauncefote became the doyen of the diplomatic corps. He died on the 26th of May 1902 at Washington. He had been made Baron Pauncefote of Preston in 1899 in recognition of his services at the Peace Conference at the Hague, and he was a member of the Court of Arbitration which resulted from the conference.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pausanias (Spartan commander)

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​PAUSANIAS (5th century B.C.), Spartan regent and commander, of the Agiad family, son of Cleombrotus and nephew of Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. Upon the death of the latter in 480 B.C. his son Pleistarchus became king, but as he was still a minor the regency devolved first on Leonidas’s brother Cleombrotus, and after his death in 479 on Pausanias. He first distinguished himself as commander of the combined Greek forces in the victory of Plataea. In 478 he was appointed admiral of the Greek fleet, and succeeded in reducing the greater part of Cyprus, the strategic key of the Levant, and in capturing Byzantium from the Persians, thus securing the command of the Bosporus, and of the route by which Darius had invaded Europe. But he entered into treacherous negotiations with the Persian king, and his adoption of Oriental dress and customs, and his haughty behaviour to the Greeks under his command, roused their resentment and suspicion (see Delian League). Pausanias was recalled by the ephors and, though acquitted on the main charge of Medism, was not again sent out in any official position. He returned to Byzantium, nevertheless, in a ship of Hermione and seized that town and, apparently, Sestos also. He was dislodged from both by the Athenians, to whom the allies had transferred from Sparta the naval hegemony. For some time he lived at Cleonae in the Troad, carrying on negotiations with Xerxes, but was again recalled to Sparta, where he incited the helots to revolt. When his schemes were almost matured, the evidence of a confidential slave led to the discovery of his plot by the ephors. He fled to the sanctuary of Athena Chalcioecus on the Spartan Acropolis: there he was immured, and when starvation and exposure had all but done their work he was dragged out to die. This crime against religion the state subsequently expiated by the burial of his body at the spot where he died and the dedication of two bronze statues. To commemorate Leonidas and Pausanias a yearly festival was held, at which speeches were made extolling their victories; this was still celebrated when the geographer Pausanias visited Sparta more than six centuries later (Paus, iii. 14). The date of the regent’s death probably falls in 471 or 470, though some assign it to a later date on a very doubtful statement of Justin (ix. 1) that Pausanias held Byzantium for seven years.
See Herodotus v. 32, ix. 10–88; Thucydides i. 94–96, 128–134, ii. 71, 72, iii. 58; Diodorus Siculus xi. 30–47, 54; Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias; Justin ii. 15, ix. I, 3; Pausanias iii. 4, 14, 17; Polyaenus viii. 51; Aristodemus ii., iv., vi.-viii.; Athenaeus xii. 535E, 536A; Plutarch, Cimon 6, Themistocles 23, Aristides 11–20, 23; N. Hanske, Ueber den Königsregenten Pausanias (Leipzig, 1873).  (M. N. T.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tharros

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​THARROS, an ancient town of Sardinia, situated on the west coast, on the narrow sandy isthmus of a peninsula at the north extremity of the Gulf of Oristano, now marked by the tower of S. Giovanni di Sinis. It was 12 m. W. of Othoca (Oristano) by the coast road, which went on northward to Cornus (a milestone of it is given in Corp. Instr. Lat. x. 8009), and thence to Turris Libisonis. It was of Phoenician origin, but continued to exist in Roman times, as the inscriptions show, though they give but little information (Mommsen in Corp. Instr. Lat. x. 822). It was destroyed by the Saracens in the 11th century. Scanty traces of Roman buildings may be seen, and an ancient road paved with large blocks of stone. A part of the site of the town is now invaded by the sea. The church of S. Giovanni di Sinis is a heavy building of the 8th (?) century A.D. originally cruciform, with a dome over the crossing; the transept sand dome are still preserved, but the nave with its two aisles is later. It is naturally built of materials from the old town. Close to it is a watch-tower and a spring of fresh water. The importance of Tharros may be inferred from the extent of its necropolis, which lies on the basaltic peninsula of S. Marco to the S.; on the summit of it are the remains of a nuraghe. Casual excavations are mentioned under the Spanish viceroys, but regular exploration only began in 1838, when the Roman tombs were examined. In 1850 Spano excavated many Phoenician tombs; they are rectangular or square chambers cut in the rock, measuring from 6 to 9 ft. each way, in which inhumation was the rule. The objects found—pottery, scarabs, jewelry, amulets, &c.—were of considerable interest. In 1851 Lord Vernon opened fourteen tombs, and after /that the whole countryside ransacked the necropolis, without any proper records or notes being taken, and with great damage to the objects found. Some of these objects are in the museum at Cagliari, others in private collections, and many scarabs are in the British Museum, all of which by the coins found with them are dated later than the Roman occupation (Catalogue of Gems, London, 1888, pp. 13 sqq.). In 1885–86 regular excavations were made, the results of which may be seen in the museum at Cagliari. One tomb contained some fine gold ornaments, with Roman coins of the 1st to 3rd century A.D. (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli Scavi, 1886, 27; 1887, 46, 124). The objects, like those found at Sulcis, show considerable traces of Egyptian influence, but are probably all of Phoenician importation—the theory of the existence of Egyptian colonies in Sardinia being quite inadmissible. Some 3 m. to the N. is the church of S. Salvatore, with underground rock-cut chambers below it, used as a baptistery (?) by the early Christians, though the walls are decorated with paintings of a decidedly pagan nature. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thaïs

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​THAÏS, a Greek courtesan, who lived during the time of Alexander the Great. She accompanied him on his Asiatic campaign, and is chiefly known from the story which represents her as having persuaded the conqueror to set fire to the city of Persepolis. This anecdote forms the subject of Dryden's Ode to Saint Cecilia's Day. But its authenticity is doubtful, since it is based upon the authority of Cleitarchus, one of the least trustworthy of the historians of Alexander. Thaïs subsequently became the wife of Ptolemy Lagus, king of Egypt. Numerous anecdotes and witticisms attributed to her will be found in Athenaeus.
See Diod. Sic. xvii. 72; Plutarch, Alexander, 38; Athenaeus xiii. 576, 585; Quintus Curtius v. 7.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thaxter, Celia

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​THAXTER, CELIA (1836–1894), American poet, was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 29th of June 1836. Her father, Thomas B. Laighton, became offended with some of his associates in state politics, and retired about 1841 to the barren and isolated Isles of Shoals, ten miles off Portsmouth, where for about ten years he was keeper of the White Island lighthouse; and his daughter’s girlhood was therefore spent in marine surroundings, which coloured the best of the verse she afterwards wrote. Her poems, mainly in lyrical form, deal with the beacon-light, the sea-storm, the glint of sails, the sandpiper, the flower among the rocks, &c., in characteristic and sympathetic fidelity. She also wrote prose sketches of life and scenery, Among the Isles of Shoals (1873); stories and poems for children, and letters; besides a book about floriculture, An Island Garden (1894). In 1896 appeared a complete edition of her poems, edited by Sarah Orne Jewett. She married in 1851 Levi L. Thaxter (d. 1884), a devoted student of Robert Browning’s poetry, and spent most of her life on Appledore, one of the Isles of Shoals, where she died on the 26th of August 1894. Her son Roland Thaxter (b. 1858), a well-known cryptogamic botanist, became professor of botany at Harvard in 1891.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thayer, Abbott Handerson

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​THAYER, ABBOTT HANDERSON (1849– ), American artist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of August 1849. He was a pupil of J. L. Gérôme at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, and became a member of the Society of American Artists (1879), of the National Academy of Design (1901), and of the Royal Academy of San Luca, Rome. As a painter of portraits, landscapes, animals and the ideal figure, he won high rank among American artists. Among his best-known pictures are, “Virgin Enthroned,” “Caritas,” “In Memoriam, Robert Louis Stevenson,” and “Portrait of a Young Woman”; and he did some decorative work for the Walker Art Building, Bowdoin College, Maine. Thayer is also well known as a naturalist. He developed a theory of “protective coloration” in animals (see Colours of Animals), which has attracted considerable attention among naturalists. According to this theory, “animals are painted by nature darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky’s light, and vice versa”; and the earth-brown of the upper parts bathed in sky-light, equals the skylight colour of the belly, bathed in earth-yellow and shadow.
See his article, “The Law which underlies Protective Coloration,” in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1897 (Washington, 1898); and Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom (New York, 1910), a summary of his discoveries, by his son, Gerald H. Thayer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thayer, James Bradley

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​THAYER, JAMES BRADLEY (1831–1902), American legal writer and educationist, was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, on the 15th of January 1831. He graduated at Harvard College in 1852, and at the Harvard Law School in 1856, in which year he was admitted to the bar of Suffolk county and began to practise in Boston. In 1873–83 he was Royall professor of law at Harvard; in 1883 he was transferred to the professorship which after 1893 was known as the Weld professorship and which he held until his death on the 14th of February 1902. He took an especial interest in the historical evolution of law.
He wrote: The Origin and Scope of the American Doctrine of Constitutional Law (1893); Cases on Evidence (1892); Cases on Constitutional Law (1895); The Development of Trial by Jury (1896); A Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law (1898), and a short life of John Marshall (1901); and edited the twelfth edition of Kent’s Commentaries and the Letters of Chauncey Wright (1877), and A Westward Journey with Mr Emerson (1884).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thatôn

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​THATÔN, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated below a hill range, 10 m. from the sea. It was formerly the capital of the Talaing kingdom and a sea-port. Pop. (1901) 14,342. The district has an area of 5079 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 343,510, showing an increase of 29 per cent. in the decade. It was formerly a subdivision of Amherst district, but was formed in 1895 out of part of that and of Shwegyin district, which has now ceased to exist. The staple crop is rice, but a good deal of tobacco also is grown. The railway from Pegu to Martaban, recently opened, passes through this district and is calculated to increase its prosperity and population.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thayer, Joseph Henry

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​THAYER, JOSEPH HENRY (1828–1901), American biblical scholar, was born at Boston on the 7th of November 1828. He studied at the Boston Latin School, and graduated at Harvard in 1850. Subsequently he studied theology at the Harvard Divinity School, and graduated at Andover Theological Seminary in 1857. He preached in Quincy, and in 1859–64 in Salem, Massachusetts, and in 1862–63 was chaplain of the 40th Massachusetts Volunteers. He was professor of sacred literature in Andover Seminary in 1864–82, and in 1884 succeeded Ezra Abbot as Bussey professor of New Testament criticism in the Harvard Divinity School. He died on the 26th of November 1901, soon after his resignation from the Bussey professorship. He was a member of the American Bible Revision Committee and recording secretary of the New Testament company. His chief works were his translation of Grimm’s Clovis Novi Testamenti (1887, revised 1889) as A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, and his New Testament bibliography (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thayetmyo

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​THAYETMYO, a town and district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma. The town is situated on the right bank of the Irrawaddy, opposite Allanmyo. Pop. (1901) 15,824. The cantonment contains the wing of a British battalion and a native regiment. It enjoys a high reputation for healthiness. There is a special industry of silver work.
The district has an area of 4750 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 239,706, showing a decrease of 4 per cent, in the decade. The total rainfall in 1905 was 41.30 in. On the west is the Arakan Yoma range, and on the east the Pegu Yomas; and the face of the country, where it does not rise into mountains, is everywhere broken by low ranges of hills, many of which are barren and destitute of all vegetation. The greater part of the district is wooded, and the Yomas east and west are covered with forests, now mostly preserved. The chief river is the Irrawaddy, which traverses Thayetmyo from north to south. The drainage finds its way to the Irrawaddy by three main streams (the Pwon, Ma-htún and Ma-de) on the west, and by two (the Kye-ni and Hput) on the east. Several salt and hot springs occur in many localities; petroleum is also found, and extensive lime quarries exist a few miles south of Thayetmyo. The principal wild animals are elephants, rhinoceros, tigers, leopards, black bears and wild hog. Silver pheasants and partridges are found in large numbers, especially in the mountains. The chief products are ricej cotton, oil-seeds and tobacco; cutch is also very abundant, and the manufacture of the dye-stuff is carried on extensively. Coal has been found in the district, and earth ​oil-wells exist, but neither coal nor oil has yet been extracted in any quantity. There arc 403 sq.'m. of reserved forest. Three oil-wells were sunk in 1883 at Pedaukpin, but tbey were found unprofitable and abandoned.
On the annexation of Pegu by the British in 1852-53, Thayetmyo was formed into a subdivision of Prome district; and in 1870 it was erected into a separate jurisdiction and placed under a deputy-commissioner. It was formerly in the Irrawaddy division of Lower Burma, but was transferred to Upper Burma for administrative purposes in 1896.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Thatch

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​THATCH (O.E. thaee; the word is common to many Teutonic languages in the sense of “roof,” “cover”; cf. Du. dak, Ger. Dach; from Du. dekken comes “deck”; the Indo-European root is stag, whence Gr. στέγος, roof, Lat. tegere, to cover; the French equivalent is chaume), the material employed sometimes for roofs in the place of tiles or slates; it consists of wheat straw, of which several layers are required, to the depth of from 12 to 14 in., or even extending to 18 in. Unthreshed straw is said to last from twenty-five to thirty years, and is easily repaired. In Norfolk the reeds of marshland are employed, and they constitute a durable thatch lasting from thirty to forty years or more. Thatched roofs are not now allowed in London or other towns and their vicinity, but if saturated with a solution of lime the thatch is said to be incombustible. It forms an extremely good roof, warm in winter and cool in summer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pavis

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​PAVIS, or Pavise, a large convex shield, some 4 to 5 ft. high and sufficiently broad to cover the entire body, used in medieval warfare, as a protection against arrows and other missiles. The word appears in innumerable forms in Old French, Italian and Medieval Latin, and is probably to be referred to Pavia, in Italy, where such shields were made. The term “pavisade” or “pavesade” was used of a portable screen of ​hurdles behind which archers might find protection, or of a similar defensive screen formed by linking together “pavises,” especially on board a ship of war extending along the bulwarks, and hence in later times of a canvas screen similarly placed to conceal the rowers in a galley or the sailors on other types of ships.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pawnee

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PAWNEE (perhaps from the native word for "horn," in allusion to their scalping lock, which was "dressed" so as to stand straight up), a tribe of North-American Indians of Caddoan stock. They formerly lived on the Platte river in Nebraska. They call themselves Skihiksihiks ("men of men"). They were a brave, war-loving tribe, whose history was one of continual strife with their neighbours. IN 1823 their village was burned by the Delawares, and in 1838 the tribe suffered severely from small-pox, the death-roll being, it is said, 2000. By treaty in 1833 they had ceded their territory south of the Platte, and in 1858 they surrendered all their remaining land except a strip on the Loup River. Here they lived till 1874, when they moved to a reservation in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), where they now are.