OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century/Pothinus, bp. of Lyons, martyr

Pothinus (Photinus, Greg. Tur. Fotinus), martyr, first bp. of Lyons in the 2nd cent. Who consecrated him, and in what year, is unknown, though a desire to find an apostolic foundation has suggested to different writers the names of SS. Peter, John, and Polycarp His name suggests that he was a Greek. Of his episcopate we have no record beyond the account of his martyrdom by pagans, with 47 others, contained in the letter of the Christians of Lyons and Vienne to the churches of Asia and Phrygia, which Eusebius preserves. Oppressed with infirmities and more than go years old, he was dragged by soldiers before the tribunal, where he comported himself with dignity. To the question of the president what the Christians' God might be, he replied, "If thou wert worthy, thou shouldst know." The blows and ill-usage of the crowd as he was carried back to prison caused his death two days later. His successor was St. Irenaeus. Eus. H. E. v. x; Greg. Tur. Hist. Franc. i. 27; Mirac. lib. i.; de Glor. Mart. 49, 50 sqq.; Gall. Christ. iv. 4.
[S.A.B.]
# Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century/Potimiaena, a martyr at Alexandria

Potimiaena (June 28), one of the most celebrated martyrs at Alexandria in the persecution of Severus, being a virgin distinguished alike for her beauty, chastity, and courage. Eusebius (H. E. vi. 5) relates how she was cruelly tortured, and death finally inflicted by burning pitch poured slowly about her from feet to head. Her story is also given by Palladius (Hist. Laus. 3).
[G.T.S.]
# Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century/Posthumianus, of Aquitania

Posthumianus (2), a friend of Sulpicius Severus of Gaul and Paulinus of Nola, was a native of Aquitania, and made at least two journeys to the East. After the first, when he made the acquaintance of Jerome at Bethlehem, he appears to have visited Campania to see Paulinus (S. Paulini, Epp. 16 in Migne. Patr. Lat. lxi. 227). He sailed from Narbonne in 401 or 402 on his second voyage, of which a full and interesting account is in bk. i. of the Dialogues of Sulpicius Severus (Patr. Lat. xx. 183), in which Posthumianus with Severus and Gallus are the speakers. In five days he reached Carthage, where he visited the tomb of St. Cyprian. Detained between Africa and Cyrene by bad weather, he landed to explore the country, which was inhabited by a very primitive tribe, who, however, were Christians, and was hospitably entertained by a priest. Alexandria was then convulsed by the quarrel between the patriarch Theophilus and the monks about the writings of Origen, and Posthumianus went on by land to Bethlehem, where he spent six months with Jerome, whom he praises highly both for virtue and learning. Posthumianus then returned to Alexandria, and thence went to the Thebaid, spending a year and seven months visiting its monasteries and hermitages. He penetrated into the Sinaitic peninsula, saw the Red Sea, and ascended Mount Sinai. After three years' absence he returned, taking 30 days from Alexandria to Marseilles. He may have been the priest of that name who was present at the death of Paulinus (Uranius, Ep. in Patr. Lat. liii. 861).
[F.D.]
# Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century/Primasius, bp. of Adrumetum

Primasius, bp. of Adrumetum or Justinianopolis, in the Byzacene province of N. Africa. He flourished in the middle of 6th cent., and exercised considerable influence on the literary activity of the celebrated theological lawyer JUNILIUS, who dedicated to him his Institutes, which spread the views of Theodore of Mopsuestia in the West. Primasius first comes before us in a synod of his province in 541, the decrees of which are known only through Justinian's decrees confirming them, as given in Baronius, Ann. 541, n. 10–12. He was sent to Constantinople in connexion with the controversy on the Three Chapters c. 551. He assisted in the synod which pope Vigilius held against Theodore Ascidas and was still in Constantinople during the session of the fifth general council, but took no part in it, notwithstanding repeated solicitations (Mansi, ix. 199 seq.). He was one of 16 bishops who signed the Constitutum of pope Vigilius, May 14, 553. When, however, Vigilius accepted the decrees of the fifth council, Primasius signed them also. According to Victor Tunun. (Migne's Patr. Lat. t. lxviii. col. 959), other motives conspired to bring about this change. He was at first exiled to a convent, and then the death of Boethius primate of the Byzacene aroused his ambition to be his successor. He gained his point, but, returning home, his suffragans denounced him as guilty of sacrilege and robbery. He died soon afterwards. His writings (ib. pp. 407–936) embrace commentaries on St. Paul's Epp. and the Apocalypse; likewise a treatise (now lost), de Haeresibus, touching on some points which Augustine did not live to treat with sufficient fullness (Isid. HispaI.Vir. lll. xxii. in ib. lxxxiii. 1095; Cave, i. 525; Tillem. xiii. 927, xvi. 21). Our Primasius is sometimes confounded with bp. Primasius of Carthage. The best account of Primasius of Adrumetum is in Kihn's Theodor von Mopsuestia, pp. 248–254, where a critical estimate is formed "of the sources of his exegetical works. [CHILIASTS.] Cf. also Zahn, Forschungen, iv. 1–224 (1891).
[G.T.S.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iban

​IBAN (Ἴβαν, Cedren. vol. ii. p. 774), a city which Cedrenus (l. c.) describes as the metropolis of Vasbouragan (μητρόπολις δὲ αὕτη τοῦ Βασπαρακάν).
The name survives in the modern Ván. St. Martin, the historian of Armenia (Mém. sur l'Armenie, vol. i. p. 117), says that, according to native traditions, Ván is a very ancient city, the foundation of which was attributed to Serairamis. Ruined in course of time, it was rebuilt by a king called Van, who lived a short time before the expedition of Alexander the Great, and who gave it his name; but, having again fallen into decay, it was restored by Vagh-Arshag (Valarsases), brother to Arsases, and first king of Armenia of the race of the Arsasidae. In the middle of the 4th century after Christ it was captured by Sapor II. (Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. ix. pp. 787, 981; London Geog. Journal, vol. viii. p. 66.) [Artemita Buana.] [ E. B. J. ]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iber

​IBER. [Iberus.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Ibera

​IBE′RA, a city of Hispania Citerior, mentioned only by Livy, who gives no explicit account of its site, further than that it was near the Iberus (Ebro), whence it took its name; but, from the connection of the narrative, we may safely infer that it was not far from the sea. At the time referred to, namely, in the Second Punic War, it was the wealthiest city in those parts. (Liv. xxiii. 28.) The manner in which Livy mentions it seems also to warrant the conclusion that it was still well known under Augustus.
Two coins are extant, one with the epigraph MUN. HIBERA JULIA on the one side, and ILERCAVONIA on the other; and the other with the head of Tiberius on the obverse, and on the reverse the epigraph M. H. J. ILERCAVONIA; whence it appears to have been made a municipium by Julius, or by Augustus in his honour, and to have been situated in the territory of the Ilercaones. The addition DERT. on the latter of these coins led Harduin to identify the place with Dertosa, the site of which, however, on the left bank of the river, does not agree with the probable position of Ibera. Florez supposes the allusion to be to a treaty between Ibera and Dertosa. The ships with spread sails, on both coins, indicate its maritime site, which modern geographers seek on the S. side of the delta of the Ebro, at S. Carlos de la Rapita, near Amposta. Its decay is easily accounted for by its lying out of the great high road, amidst the malaria of the river-delta, and in a position where its port would be choked by the alluvial deposits of the Ebro. It seems probable that the port is now represented by the Salinas, or lagoon, called Puerto de los Alfaques, which signifies Port of the Jaws, i. e. of the river. (Plin. iii. 3. s. 4; Harduin, ad loc.; Marca, Hisp. ii. 8; Florez, Med. de Esp. vol. ii. p. 453; Sestini, ​
p. 160; Rasche, Lex. Num. s. v.; Eckhel, vol. i. pp. 50, 51; Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1. pp. 416, 417; Ford, Handbook of Spain, p. 210.) [[ P. S. ]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iberia Indiae

​IBE'RIA INDIAE (Ἰβηρία, Peripl. M. E. p. 24, ed. Hudson), a district placed by the author of the Periplus between Larica and the Scythians. It was doubtless peopled by some of the Scythian tribes, who grailually made their descent to the S. and SE. part of Scinde, and founded the Indo-Scythic empire, on the overthrow of the Greek kings of Bactria, about B. C. 136. The name would seem to imply that the population who occupied this district had come from the Caucasus. [ V. ]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iberus

​IBE'RUS (Ἴβηρ, gen. -ηρος, and Ἴβηρος; in MSS. often Hiberus: Ebro), one of the chief rivers of Spain, the basin of which includes the NE. portion of the peninsula, between the great mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Idubeda. [Hispania.] It rises in the mountains of the Cantabri, not far from the middle of the chain, near the city of Juliobriga (the source lies 12 miles W. of Reyñosa), and, flowing with a nearly uniform direction to the SE., after a course of 450 M. P. (340 miles), falls into the Mediterranean, in 40° 42' N. lat., and 0° 50' E. long., forming a considerable delta at its month. It was navigable for 260 M. P. from the town of Varia (Varea, in Burgos). Its chief tributaries were:—on the left, the Sicoris (Segre) and the Gallicus (Gallego), and on the right the Salo (Xalon). It was long the boundary of the two Spains [Hispania], whence perhaps arose the error of Appian (Hisp. 6), who makes it divide the peninsula into two equal parts. There are some other errors not worthy of notice. The origin of the name is disputed. Dismissing derivations from the Phoenician, the question seems to depend very much on whether the Iberians derived their name from the river, as was the belief of the ancient writers, or whether the river took its name from the people, as W. von Humboldt contends. If the former was the case, and if Niebuhr's view is correct, that the population of NE. Spain was originally Celtic [Hispania], a natural etymology is at once found in the Celtic aber, i. e. water, (Polyb. ii. 13, iii. 34, 40, et alib.; Scyl. p. 1; Strab. iii. pp. 156, et seq.; Steph. B. s. v.; Mela, ii. 6. § 5; Caes. B. C. i. 60; Liv. xxi..5, 19, 22, &c.; Plin. iii. 3. s. 4, iv. 20. s. 34; Lucan. iv. 23; Cato, Orig. VII. ap. Nonius, s. v.Pisculentus.) [ P. S. ]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iberes

​IBE'RES, IBE'RI, IBE'RIA. [Hispania.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Ibericum Mare

​IBE'RICUM MARE. [Hispanum Mare.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Iberingae

​IBERINGAE (Ἰβερίγγαι, Ptol. vii. 2. § 18), a people placed by Ptolemy between the Bepyrrhus Mons (Naraka Mts.?) and the Montes Damassi, in India extra Gangem, near the Brahmaputra. [ V. ]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography/Ibes

​IBES, a town in the SE. of Hispania Citerior, mentioned by Livy (xxviii. 21, where the MSS. vary in the reading), is perhaps the modern Ibi, NE. of Valencia. (Coins, ap. Sestini, p. 156: Laborde, Itin. vol. i. p. 293.) [ P. S. ]
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Eccles, Henry

​ECCLES, HENRY (fl. 1720), violinist, was the second son of Solomon Eccles [q. v.] He was a member of the king's band of music from 1694 to 1710. By 1716 his name is no longer on the list (the volumes of Chamberlayne's ‘Notitia’ for the intervening years are not in the British Museum). It is certain, therefore, that between 1710 and 1716 he went to France, having received, it is said, less encouragement than he thought his due in his native land. He became a member of the French king's band, and in 1720 he published in Paris ‘Twelve Excellent Solos for the Violin,’ written in the style of Corelli. The work is praised by Hawkins. He was living in Paris in 1735. In that year the youngest of the brothers, Thomas Eccles, also a violinist, but an exceedingly dissipated character, who was at that time an itinerant performer, said that he had a brother who was at that time in the service of the king of France, and that this brother had taught him to play. Mendel (Convers. Lex. iii. 315) asserts that Henry Eccles died in 1742, and, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, the statement even of so untrustworthy an authority may be taken as possibly true.
J. A. F. M.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Eccles, Ambrose

​ECCLES, AMBROSE (d. 1809), Shakespearean scholar, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards travelled in France and Italy, but returned home through illness. He was an eminent dramatic critic, and published editions of several of Shakespeare's plays, in which he transposed such scenes as appeared to him wrongly placed. These plays are, ‘Cymbeline,’ 1793; ‘King Lear,’ 1793; and ‘Merchant of Venice,’ 1805. They contained notes and illustrations, besides critical and historical essays. Eccles died in 1809, at an advanced age, at his seat at Cronroe, co. Wicklow, Ireland.
N. D. F. P.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Eccardt, John Giles

​ECCARDT or ECKHARDT, JOHN GILES (Johannes Ægidius) (d. 1779), portrait-painter, was a native of Germany, and came to England about 1740, as pupil and assistant to Jean Baptiste Vanloo, one of the portrait-painters then most in vogue. He subsequently succeeded to Vanloo's practice and his house in Covent Garden. He was patronised by Horace Walpole, who employed him to paint or copy portraits of the friends who formed the Strawberry Hill circle, including Walpole himself. Some of them, such as Bentley, Gray, and Montagu, Eccardt painted to please his patron in attitudes taken from the ‘Centum Icones’ of Vandyck. Seven of these were engraved by W. Greatbatch for P. Cunningham's edition of ‘Walpole's Correspondence’ (9 vols. 1880). They were dispersed at the sale of the Strawberry Hill collection. In July 1746 Walpole addressed a short poem to Eccardt entitled ‘The Beauties,’ and founded on Addison's epistle to Kneller; this was published in September 1746, though Walpole asserts that he was hurt at the lines getting into print. Among other portraits painted by Eccardt were those of Dr. Conyers Middleton [q. v.], purchased in 1881 for the National Portrait Gallery, which was engraved by Ravenet, as a frontispiece to Middleton's works by Vertue, and also in mezzotint by Faber; Captain Barnard, at Wilton House; two of Mrs. Woffington, one engraved in mezzotint by Faber, another in line by Pearson; and Mr. Charles Leviez, a dancing-master, engraved in mezzotint by McArdell. A portrait of Lady Maria Churchill by Eccardt was sold at Christie's in the Hanbury-Williams sale in March 1888. His portraits are carefully executed, in a manner studied and copied from Vanloo, but do not show any originality. Eccardt married the daughter of Mr. Duhamel, a watchmaker in Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, with whom he at one ​time lodged. On retiring from business he removed to Paradise Row, Chelsea, where he died in October 1779, leaving a son, a clerk in the custom house. He contributed a portrait of himself to the exhibition of the Society of Artists in 1761, and in 1768 his name appears among the honorary exhibitors at the same. His collection was sold by auction in 1770.
L. C.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Eborius

​EBORIUS or EBURIUS (fl. 314), bishop of Eboracum or York, is only mentioned in history as among the three bishops from the Roman province of Britain attending the important council of Arles in 314. That council was convoked by Constantine the Great with the special object of deciding the question of Cæcilianus and the Donatists. Among the bishops from ‘the Gauls’ present at the council was ‘Eborius episcopus de civitate Eboracensi, provincia Britanniæ.’ His British colleagues who are mentioned after him were ‘Restitutus, episcopus de civitate Londinensi’ and ‘Adelfius episcopus de civitate colonia Londinensium,’ the latter name being conjecturally emended into ‘Legionensium,’ i.e. Caerleon-on-Usk. ‘Sacerdos presbyter’ and ‘Arminius diaconus’ also attended the council with the three bishops. The mention of their names is the most definite piece of evidence of the existence of an organised christian church in the Roman province of Britain, and of its close dependence on the church of Gaul. It is worth noting that among the canons they subscribed was one fixing a single day for the celebration of Easter throughout the world. So that the different custom of the British church on that question had not yet arisen. The above facts are in Labbe's ‘Concilia’ (ii. 476, ed. Florence, 1759) from a Corvey MS., and Isidorus Mercator's list substantially agrees in including ‘Eburius,’ though it describes him only as ‘ex provincia Britanniæ’ (Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianæ, ed. Hinschius, p. 322). The passage is wrongly punctuated in Migne's edition (Patrol. Lat. cxxx. 379); but in Crabbe (Conc. Omnia, i. 175, ed. 1538) the reading is ‘ex provincia Bizacena, civitate Tubernicensi, Eburius episcopus.’ Tillemont conjecturally identifies Eborius with the Hibernius who joins in a synodal letter to Pope Sylvester I (Labbe, ii. 469), but this seems quite arbitrary. The similarity of name, ‘Eborius’ and ‘Eboracum,’ is perhaps a trifle suspicious; but Ivor, easily latinised into ‘Eborius,’ was a common Welsh name (Annales Cambriæ in an. 501, ‘Episcopus Ebur pausat in Christo, anno CCCL, ætatis suæ.’ MS. B. reads ‘Ywor’ for ‘Ebur’).
T. F. T.
# Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900/Ebsworth, Mary Emma

​EBSWORTH, MARY EMMA (1794–1881), dramatist, daughter of Robert Fairbrother, member of the Glovers' Company, and in later years a pantomimist and fencing-master, was born in London on 2 Sept. 1794. The father was an affectionate friend of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and though he had lost several thousand pounds by him would never permit one word to be spoken in his disparagement. He was also the schoolmate and lifelong friend of Mrs. Jordan; great efforts were made to induce him to surrender her letters, many from the Duke of Clarence; but he indignantly refused any bribe, and himself destroyed all his papers, lest his descendants might be tempted. Under the avowed signature of ‘Sheridonicus’ he wrote some papers in ‘Thalia's Tablet, or Melpomene's Memorandum Book,’ of which No. 1 was published on Saturday, 8 Dec. 1821. Fairbrother married Mary Bailey, who had been brought up in a nunnery at St. Omer. One of their sons, Samuel Glover Fairbrother, became a well-known theatrical publisher; another son, Benjamin Smith Fairbrother, who died 28 Aug. 1878, aged 76, was prompter, stage-manager, and treasurer in succession at the chief theatres in London.
French was so habitually spoken and read by Mrs. Fairbrother in the early days of her married life that her daughter, Mary Emma, turned to translating books for the publishers, one of these being a romance of ‘Masaniello.’ On 22 June 1817 she was married to Joseph Ebsworth [q. v.], and lived at 3 Gray's Walk, Lambeth, where five of their ten children were born, the eldest being Emilie Marguerite, born in 1818, afterwards wife of Samuel H. Cowell, comedian [q. v.] Before December 1826 she went to Edinburgh. She was closely associated in dramatic composition and translations with her husband; but several of her independent works were published in John Cumberland's acting drama: ‘Payable at Sight; or the Chaste Salute,’ acted at the Surrey Theatre, &c.; ‘The Two Brothers of Pisa,’ with music by T. Hughes, at the Royal Coburg, printed 1828; ‘Ass's Skin;’ and, among many others, perhaps her best work, often acted, ‘The Sculptor of Florence.’ She was of a most retiring and unselfish nature, loving a private life with the constant care of her children and of her parents, who joined her in Edinburgh. Mrs. Ebsworth survived her husband thirteen years: all but three of her children died before her. She returned to London in 1879, and died at Walworth 13 Oct. 1881; she was buried on the 19th at Norwood cemetery.
J. W. E.
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleanthes 3.

CLEANTHES, an ancient painter of Corinth, mentioned among the inventors of that art by Pliny (H. N. xxxv. 5) and Athenagoras (Legat. pro Christ. c. 17). A picture by him representing the birth of Minerva was seen in the temple of Diana near the Alpheus. (Strab. viii. p. 343, b.; Athen. viii. p. 346, c.) This work was not, as Gerhard (Auserles. Vasenbilder, i. p. 12) says, confounding our artist with Ctesilochus (Plin. xxxv. 40), in a ludicrous style, but rather in the severe style of ancient art. [L. U.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleitagora

CLEITA'GORA（Κλειταγόρα), a lyric poetess, mentioned by Aristophanes in his Wasps (5.1245), and in his lost play, the Danaids. She is variously represented as a Lacedaemonian, a Thessalian, and a Lesbian. (Schol. in Aristoph. Vesp. 1239, 1245, Lysistr. 1237; Suid. Hesych. s. v.) [P. S.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleander 7.

CLEANDER, an architect, who constructed some baths at Rome for the emperor Commodus. (Lamprid. Comm. c. 17; Osann, Kunstblatt, 1830, N. 83) [L. U.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Clearchus 5.

CLEARCHUS, a sculptor in bronze at Rhegium, is important as the teacher of the celebrated Pythagoras, who flourished at the time of Myron and Polycletus. Clearchus was the pupil of the Corinthian Eucheir, and belongs probably to the 72nd and following Olympiads. The whole pedigree of the school to which he is to be ascribed is given by Pausanias. (vi. 4. § 2. Comp. Heyne, Opusc. Acad. v. p. 371.) [L. U.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleombrotus 1.

CLEO′MBROTUS（Κλεόμβροτος), son of Anaxandrides, king of Sparta, brother of Dorieus and Leonidas, and half-brother of Cleomenes. (Herod. v. 41.) He became regent after the battle of Thermopylae, B. C. 480, for Pleistarchus, infant son of Leonidas, and in this capacity was at the head of the Peloponnesian troops who at the time of the battle of Salamis were engaged in fortifying the isthmus (Herod. viii. 71.) The work was renewed in the following spring, till deserted for the commencement of the campaign of Plataea. Whether Cleombrotus was this second time engaged in it cannot be gathered with certainty from the expression of Herodotus (Herod. ix. 10), "that he died shortly after leading home his forces from the Isthmus in consequence of an eclipse of the sun." Yet the date of that eclipse, Oct. 2nd, seems to fix his death to the end of B. C. 480 (thus Müller, Prolegom. p. 409), nor is the language of Herodotus very favourable to Thirlwall's hypothesis, according to which, with Clinton (F. H. ii. p. 209), he places it early in 479. (Hist. of Greece, ii. p. 328.) He left two sons,-the noted Pausanias, who succeeded him as regent, and Nicomedes. (Thuc. i. 107.) [A. H. C.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleaenetus 1.

CLEAE'NETUS (Κλεαίνετος). Father of Cleon, the Athenian demagogue. (Thuc. iii. 36, iv. 21.) It is doubtful whether his is the same person as the Cleaenetus who is medioned by Aristophanes (Eq. 572), and of whom the Scholiast on the passage speaks as the author of a decree for withholding the σίτησις ἐν Πρυτανείῳ from the generals of the state. [E. E.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleaenetus 2.

CLEAE'NETUS (Κλεαίνετος). A tragic poet, of whom we find nothing recorded except the interesting fact of his being so fond of lupines, that we would eat them, husks and all. (Com. incert. ap. Athen. ii. p. 55, c.; comp. Casaub. ad loc.) [E. E.]
# Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology/Cleanthes 2.

CLEANTHES (Κλεάνθης), the name of a freedman of Cato the Younger, who was also his physician and attended him at the time of his death, B. C. 46. (Plut. Cat. ad fin.) [W. A. G.]