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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jung Bahadur, Sir, Maharajah

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​JUNG BAHADUR, SIR, Maharajah (1816–1877), prime minister of Nepal, was a grand-nephew of Bhim sena Thapa (Bhim sen Thappa), the famous military minister of Nepal, who from 1804 to 1839 was de facto ruler of the state under the rani Tripuri and her successor. Bhimsena’s supremacy was threatened by the Kala Pandry, and many of his relations, including Jung Bahadur, went into exile in 1838, thus escaping the cruel fate which overtook Bhimsena in the following year. The Pandry leaders, who then reverted to power, were in turn assassinated in 1843, and Matabar Singh, uncle of Jung Bahadur, was created prime minister. He appointed his nephew general and chief judge, but shortly afterwards he was himself put to death. Fateh Jung thereon formed a ministry, of which Jung Bahadur was made military member. In the following year, 1846, a quarrel was fomented, in which Fateh Jung and thirty-two other chiefs were assassinated, and the rani appointed Jung Bahadur sole minister. The rani quickly changed her mind, and planned the death of her new minister, who at once appealed to the maharaja. But the plot failed. The raja and the rani wisely sought safety in India, and Jung Bahadur firmly established his own position by the removal of all dangerous rivals. He succeeded so well that in January 1850 he was able to leave for a visit to England, from which he did not return to Nepal until the 6th of February 1851. On his return, and frequently on subsequent dates, he frustrated conspiracies for his assassination. The reform of the penal code, and a desultory war with Tibet, occupied his attention until news of the Indian Mutiny reached Nepal. Jung Bahadur resisted all overtures from the rebels, and sent a column to Gorakpur in July 1857. In December he furnished a force of 8000 Gurkhas, which reached Lucknow on the 11th of March 1858, and took part in the siege. The moral support of the Nepalese was more valuable even than the military services rendered by them. Jung Bahadur was made a G.C.B., and a tract of country annexed in 1815 was restored to Nepal. Various frontier disputes were settled, and in 1875 Sir Jung Bahadur was on his way to England when he had a fall from his horse in Bombay and returned home. He received a visit from the Prince of Wales in 1876. On the 25th of February 1877 he died, having reached the age of sixty-one. Three of his widows immolated themselves on his funeral pyre.  (W. L.-W.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jungle

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​JUNGLE (Sans. jangala), an Anglo-Indian term for a forest, a thicket, a tangled wilderness. The Hindustani word means strictly waste, uncultivated ground; then such ground covered with trees or long grass; and thence again the Anglo-Indian application is to forest or other wild growth, rather than to the fact that it is not cultivated.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jung, Johann Heinrich

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​JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740–1817), best known by his assumed name of Heinrich Stilling, German author, was born in the village of Grund near Hilchenbach in Westphalia on ​the 12th of September 1740. His father, Wilhelm Jung, schoolmaster and tailor, was the son of Eberhard Jung, charcoal-burner, and his mother was Dortchen Moritz, daughter of a poor clergyman. Jung became, by his father’s desire, schoolmaster and tailor, but found both pursuits equally wearisome. After various teaching appointments he went in 1768 with “half a French dollar” to study medicine at the university of Strassburg. There he met Goethe, who introduced him to Herder. The acquaintance with Goethe ripened into friendship; and it was by his influence that Jung’s first and best work, Heinrich Stillings Jugend was written. In 1772 he settled at Elberfeld as physician and oculist, and soon became celebrated for operations in cases of cataract. Surgery, however, was not much more to his taste than tailoring or teaching; and in 1778 he was glad to accept the appointment of lecturer on “agriculture, technology, commerce and the veterinary art” in the newly established Kameralschule at Kaiserslautern, a post which he continued to hold when the school was absorbed in the university of Heidelberg. In 1787 he was appointed professor of economical, financial and statistical science in the university of Marburg. In 1803 he resigned his professorship and returned to Heidelberg, where he remained until 1806, when he received a pension from the grand-duke Charles Frederick of Baden, and removed to Karlsruhe, where he remained until his death on the 2nd of April 1817. He was married three times, and left a numerous family. Of his works his autobiography Heinrich Stillings Leben, from which he came to be known as Stilling, is the only one now of any interest, and is the chief authority for his life. His early novels reflect the piety of his early surroundings.
A complete edition of his numerous works, in 14 vols. 8vo, was published at Stuttgart in 1835–1838. There are English translations by Sam. Jackson of the Leben (1835) and of the Theorie der Geisterkunde (London, 1834, and New York, 1851); and of Theobald, or the Fanatic, a religious romance, by the Rev. Sam. Schaeffer (1846). See biographies by F. W. Bodemann (1868), J. v. Ewald (1817), Peterson (1890).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Jung-Bunzlau

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​JUNG-BUNZLAU (Czech, Mladá Boleslav), a town of Bohemia, 44 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,479, mostly Czech. The town contains several old buildings of historical interest, notably the castle, built towards the end of the 10th century, and now used as barracks. There are several old churches. In that of St Maria the celebrated bishop of the Bohemian brethren, Johann August, was buried in 1595; but his tomb was destroyed in 1621. The church of St Bonaventura with the convent, originally belonging to the friars minor and later to the Bohemian brethren, is now a Piaristic college. The church of St Wenceslaus, once a convent of the brotherhood, is now used for military stores. Jung-Bunzlau was built in 995, under Boleslaus II., as the seat of a gaugraf or royal count. Early in the 13th century it was given the privileges of a town and pledged to the lords of Michalovic. In the Hussite wars Jung-Bunzlau adhered to the Taborites and became later the metropolis of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1595 Bohuslav of Lobkovic sold his rights as over-lord to the town, which was made a royal city by Rudolf II. During the Thirty Years’ War it was twice burned, in 1631 by the imperialists, and in 1640 by the Swedes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Junin

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​JUNIN, an interior department of central Peru, bounded N. by Huanuco, E. by Loreto and Cuzco, S. by Huancavelica, and W. by Lima and Ancachs. Pop. (1906 estimate), 305,700. It lies wholly within the Andean zone and has an area of 23,353 sq. m. It is rich in minerals, including silver, copper, mercury, bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Huallaga and Mantaro rivers have their sources in this department, the latter in Lake Junin, or Chanchaycocha, 13,230 ft. above sea-level. The capital of Junin is Cerro de Pasco, and its two principal towns are Jauja and Tarma (pop., 1906, about 12,000 and 5000 respectively).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mulde

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​MULDE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of the Elbe. It is formed by the confluence, just below Kolditz, of the Zwickauer Mulde, which rising in the Vogtland of Saxony passes Zwickau, Glauchau and Rochlitz, and the Freiberger Mulde, which, rising in the Bohemian Erzgebirge, touches Freiberg, Döbeln and Leisnig. The united river flows north to Grimma and thence past Wurzen, Eilenburg and Bitterfeld to Dessau, where it joins the Elbe. The total length of the united river is 75 m.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mulji, Kursendas

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​MULJI, KURSENDAS (1832–1875), Indian journalist and social reformer, was born on the 25th of July 1832, of a family belonging to the Bhatia or trading caste of western India. Being repudiated by his family on account of his views on widow remarriage, he became a vernacular schoolmaster, and started a weekly paper in Gujarati called The Satya Prakash. In this he attacked the immoralities of the Maharajas or hereditary high priests of the Vallabhacharya sect of Vaishnavism to which the Bhatias belong. In a suit for libel brought against him in the High Court at Bombay in 1862, he won a victory on the main issue. After a visit to England on business in connexion with the cotton trade, which was not successful and brought on him excommunication from his caste, he was appointed in 1874 to administer a native state in Kathiawar during the minority of the chief; and there he died in August 1875.
See History of the Sect of Maharajas or Wallabhacharyas of Western India (1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mull (fabric)

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​MULL. (1) A soft plain muslin exported largely from England to India, &c., and used also in some qualities for summer dresses in the home trade. The name is an abbreviation of the Hindu mulmul. (2) A word, derived from the same root as seen in “meal” and “mill,” meaning that which is ground or reduced in other ways to powder or small particles. Thus a snuff-box is in Scotland called a “mull,” from the early machines in which the tobacco was ground. Large snuff-mulls, which remained stationary on a table, as opposed to the small portable boxes, often took the form of a ram’s head ornamented in silver. Possibly from the ground or grated spices with which ale or wine is flavoured when heated, comes the expression “mulled,” as applied to such a beverage. The colloquial expression “to make a mull,” i.e. to muddle or make a failure of something, also perhaps connected with “to mull,” to reduce to powder. (3) The Scots word “mull,” meaning a promontory or headland, as the Mull of Galloway, the Mull of Kintyre, represents the Gaelic maol, cf. Icelandic mūli in the same sense; this may be the same as mūli, snout, cf. Ger. Maul.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mukden

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​MUKDEN (Chinese Shêngking), the capital of Manchuria, on the Hun-ho, 110 m. N.E. of Niuchwang, in 41° 51′ N., 123° 38′ E., with a population of 250,000. It is a centre for trade and also for missionary enterprise. It was formerly the headquarters of the Manchu dynasty, and their tombs lie within its confines. Mukden is a fine town, with splendid walls, about a mile long each way. The suburbs extend a considerable distance from the city and are surrounded by mud walls. In the centre of the town stands a small palace surrounded by an inner wall and roofed with yellow tiles. The boots and pack of Nurhachu, the founder of the present Chinese dynasty, who was a pedlar, are preserved there. Nurhachu's son, the emperor T’ien-tsung (1627–1636), built temples to heaven and earth in the neighbourhood of the city in imitation of those at Peking. These are much dilapidated. Four or five miles to the east of the town stands the Fu-ling or “happy tomb,” where the remains of Nurhachu rest, the outer gates of which are adorned with a green majolica representation of an imperial dragon. The Emperor K'ien lung (1726–1796) wrote a poem on Mukden, which was translated into French by Pere Amiot and attracted the attention of Voltaire. During the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 some of the heaviest fighting took place before Mukden, what is known as the “battle of Mukden” covering operations from the 19th of February till the Japanese occupied Mukden on the 10th of March and the Russians retreated northward on the 12th.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mulatto

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​MULATTO (Span, and Port, mulato, diminutive of mulo, Lat. mulus, a mule, used as denoting a hybrid origin), a person one of whose parents is of a white race and the other a negro. In Latin America such half-breeds are sometimes called mestizos.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mula

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​MULA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia; on the left bank of the Mula, a small right-hand tributary of the Segura, periodically liable to destructive floods. Pop. (1900), 12,731. The Sierra Espuña rises on the south to a height of nearly 5200 ft. Mula has a small trade in agricultural produce, wine and olive oil. About 4 m. east are two groups of houses known as the Baños de Mula, with warm sulphurous springs of considerable local repute.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mulgrave, Earldom of

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​MULGRAVE, EARLDOM OF, a title dating from 1626, when Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Baron Sheffield of Butterwicke, was created earl of Mulgrave. He was succeeded by his grandson Edmund, the 2nd earl, who was one of the nine true peers who sat in Oliver Cromwell’s House of Lords. Edmund’s son John, 3rd earl, was created marquess of Normanby in 1694, and duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703; but on the death of his son, the 2nd duke, without heirs in 1735, the titles became extinct. The 2nd duke devised the estates of the Sheffield family to his mother Catherine, a natural daughter of James II., who had married as her first husband the 3rd earl of Annesley, by whom she had a daughter Catherine, who married William Phipps and had a son Constantine Phipps. The latter succeeded to the estate of Mulgrave in Yorkshire in 1743 on the death of his grandmother, and in 1767 he was created Baron Mulgrave of New Ross in the peerage of Ireland. His son was created a peer of Great Britain in 1790 with the title of Baron Mulgrave of Mulgrave; and the latter’s brother Henry, the next in succession, who was secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1805 and held other high government offices, was created Viscount Normanby and earl of Mulgrave in 1812. The 2nd earl of this creation, who like his father held several high cabinet offices, was advanced in the peerage at the coronation of Queen Victoria, being created marquess of Normanby in 1838.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mukdishu

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​MUKDISHU (Magodoxo), a seaport of Italian Somaliland, East Africa, in 2° 1′ N., 45° 24′ E. It is built on the sandy coast which separates the Webi Shebeli from the sea. The harbour is open. Mukdishu, formerly extensive, is largely in ruins; it consists of two villages, Hamarhwin to the south and Shingani to the north. There are some houses in the Moorish style and a mosque among the ruins bears date 636 A.H. (i.e. A.D. 1238). Between the two settlements is the governor's palace and north of the town is a massive square tower built by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The population, about 5000, is mainly composed of descendants of negro slaves known as Abesh. There are also Somali, Arab and Hindu settlers. Mukdishu is mentioned by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an “immense” city. This was in the early part of the 14th century. It was a flourishing port and had many fine mosques when captured by the Portuguese (about 1510). Under Portugal the place fell into decay. It passed in the 17th century into the possession of the imams of Muscat, but in the 18th century became practically independent. It was reconquered by Seyyid Said c. 1830, and on the division of his dominions fell to Zanzibar. In 1892 it was transferred to Italy (see Somaliland, Italian). The name of the town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's description of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minucius, Felix Marcus

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​MINUCIUS, FELIX MARCUS, one of the earliest if not the earliest, of the Latin apologists for Christianity. Of his personal history nothing is known, and even the date at which he wrote can be only approximately ascertained. Jerome (De vir. ill 58) speaks of him as “Romae insignis causidicus,” but in this he is probably only improving on the expression of Lactantius (Inst. div. v. 1) who speaks of him as “non ignobilis inter causidicos loci.” He is now exclusively known by his Octavius, a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis and the Christian Octavius Januarius, a provincial lawyer, the friend and fellow-student of the author. The scene is pleasantly and graphically laid on the beach at Ostia on a holiday afternoon, and the discussion is represented as arising out of the homage paid by Caecilius, in passing, to the image of Serapis. His arguments for paganism (possibly modelled on those of Celsus) are taken up seriatim by Octavius, with the result that the assailant is convinced. Minucius himself plays the part of umpire. The form of the dialogue is modelled on the De natura deorum and De divinatione of Cicero and its style is both vigorous and elegant if at times not exempt from something of the affectation of the age. Its latinity is not of the specifically Christian type. If the doctrines of the Divine unity, the resurrection, and future rewards and punishments be left out of account, the work has less the character of an exposition of Christianity than of a philosophical and ethical polemic against the absurdities of polytheism. While it thus has much in common with the Greek Apologies it is full of the strong common sense that marks the Latin mind. Its ultimate appeal is to the fruits of faith.
The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian’s Quod idola dii non sint, which borrows from it; how much earlier can be determined only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian’s Apologeticum. Since A. Ebert’s exhaustive argument in 1868, repeated in 1889, the priority of Minucius has been generally admitted; the objections are stated in the Dict. Chr. Biog. article by G. Salmon. Editions: F. Sabaeus-Brixianus, as Bk. viii. of Arnobius (Rome, 1543); F. Balduinus, first separate edition (Heidelberg, 1560); Migne, Patrol. Lat. iii. 239; Halm in Corp. Scr. Eccl. Lat. (Vienna, 1867); H. A. Holden. Translations: R. E. Wallis, in Ante-Nic. Fathers, vol. iv.; A. A. Brodribb’s Pagan and Puritan. Literature: In addition to that already cited see H. Boenig’s art. in Hauck-Herzog’s Realencyk. vol. 13, and the various histories of early Christian Literature by A. Harnack, G. Krüger, A. Ehrhard and O. Bardenhewer.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minusinsk

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​MINUSINSK, a town of Russia, in East Siberia, and the government of Yeniseisk, 180 m. S.S.W. of Krasnoyarsk railway station, and 5 m. from the right bank of the Yenisei, in a fertile prairie region. Pop. (1897), 10,255. It is a centre for trade with the native populations of the Sayan Mountains and north-western Mongolia. It has an excellent natural history, ethnographical and archaeological museum (1877), with a library and a meteorological station. Coal and iron abound in the vicinity.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minute

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​MINUTE (Lat. minutus, small; minuere, to make less), an adjective meaning of very small size, petty or trifling; also extremely precise. In this sense the word is pronounced mī-nūte. As a substantive and pronounced minnit the word (usually in the plural) is applied to a written summary of the transactions of a meeting of a public or other body, or to a memorandum of instructions, &c. A Treasury minute in the United Kingdom is an official memorandum authorizing certain procedure. “To minute” is to draw up such a summary or memorandum. More particularly, “minute” is used of the sixtieth part of any unit); in time, of an hour; and in astronomy, geometry, geography, &c., of a degree in the measurement of a circle. The sexagesimal system of division was originally used by the ancient Babylonian astronomers, was adopted by Ptolemy; and the sixtieth part of a degree, and its further subdivision into sixty parts, was called in Latin pars minutae primae, and pars minutae secundae respectively, hence the English “minute” and “second.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minute Men

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​MINUTE MEN: in the American War of Independence, militiamen who had undertaken to turn out for service at a minute’s notice. In Massachusetts the minute men were enrolled by an act of the provincial congress of the 23rd of November 1774, and in Boston alone they numbered 16,000 prior to the outbreak of the war. The Americans who fought in the opening action of Lexington were “minute men.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Minto, William

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​MINTO, WILLIAM (1845–1893), Scottish man of letters, was born at Auchintoul, Aberdeenshire, on the 10th of October 1845. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and spent a year at Merton College, Oxford. He was assistant professor under Alexander Bain at Aberdeen for some years; from 1874 to 1878 he edited the Examiner, and in 1880 he was made full professor of logic and English at Aberdeen. In 1872 he published a Manual of English Prose Literature, which was distinguished by sound judgment and sympathetic appreciation; and his Characteristics of English Poets from Chaucer to Shirley (1874) showed the same high qualities. His other works include: The Literature of the Georgian Era (1894) edited with a biographical introduction by W. Knight a monograph on Defoe in the English Men of Letters series (1879); three novels of small importance, and numerous articles on literary subjects in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died on the 1st of March 1893.