OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gyroscope

See also Gyroscope on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* MAXWELL'S DYNAMICAL TOP
Gyroscope (jī′rō-skōp), an instrument used to illustrate many of the phenomena which occur in the dynamics of rotation. It consists of a flywheel with a heavy rim, supported in such a way that it may rotate freely about any one of three axes, each at right angles to the other two. The instrument was designed by Bohnenberger (1817) and perfected largely by Foucault (1852) for the purpose of illustrating the various motions of the earth, especially the stability of the axis of rotation, the rate of rotation and the precession of the equinoxes.
The theory of the gyroscope is too intricate for our limited space. For an attractive elementary presentation of this subject, see Worthington's Dynamics of Rotation or Perry's Spinning Tops.
The accompanying figure shows what is perhaps the simplest and most beautiful of gyroscopes, namely, Maxwell's dynamical top. This instrument is supported at its center of gravity, and the three axes about which it may rotate all intersect at this point of support. An ordinary top is merely a gyroscope which is supported below the center of gravity and on a plane.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gypsum

See also Gypsum on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gyp′sum. Gypsum is a mineral composed of lime sulphate in combination with water. Translucent varieties are known as selenite, and very fine grades of the material, of white color and special luster, are known as alabaster. When heated, the water of the gypsum escapes and the mineral becomes a white powder. If moistened, this powder "sets." This material is known as plaster of pans, the name being due to the fact that gypsum was early used near Paris for the making of plaster or cement. Plaster is also used as a fertilizer on land. Gypsum occurs in various states of the Union, notably Iowa. Kansas, Michigan, New York, Ohio and Texas. It is also worked to some extent in Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Virginia and Wyoming. The workable beds of gypsum are deposited in salt lakes. As the salt water becomes more and more concentrated, the gypsum is precipitated before the salt. Gypsum is therefore often associated with salt-deposits, but since it is often deposited from water which is not saturated with salt, it is sometimes precipitated from lakes which never deposit salt. Gypsum occurs in many sedimentary rocks in the form of single crystals or in groups of crystals. In some parts of the west, as in parts of New Mexico, the gypsum occurs at the surface, and its fine particles are blown about like sand, making dunes.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gérôme, Leon

See also Jean-Léon Gérôme on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Gérôme (zhā́′ rōm′), Leon, a French painter, was born at Vesoul, May 11, 1824. After studying at Paris and traveling in the east, he was appointed professor of painting in the school of Fine Arts at Paris. His reputation was raised to the highest pitch by his Roman Gladiators in the Amphitheatre. Among the best known of his works are Phryne before Her Judges, Cleopatra and Cæsar and Lioness meeting a Jaguar. Many of his works have become widely known by photographic copies. See Stranahan’s History of French Painting. He died on Jan. 10, 1904.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Haakon VII

See also Haakon VII of Norway on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Haakon VII, king of Norway, was born at Copenhagen on Aug. 3, 1872, and HAAKON VII. became king on Nov. 20, 1905. He is a grandson of the late King Christian IX of Denmark and the second son of King Frederick VII. He was educated in the Danish public schools and at the naval academy. He served as a lieutenant in the national navy, and on July 22, 1896, married Princess Maud Alexandra, the youngest daughter of Edward VII of England. In 1905 he was asked to become a candidate for the Norse throne, accepted through his grandfather and on November 12 and 13th was elected by the people's vote, those who opposed him being in favor of establishing a republic. The national legislature ratified the election on Nov. 18, and the new king landed on the 25th. He has a son, Crown-Prince Olaf, who was born on July 2, 1903.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Guyot, Arnold

See also Arnold Henry Guyot on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Guyot (gḗ yṓ′), Arnold, a geographer, was born in Switzerland in 1807, "took his degree in Berlin in 1835, was the colleague of Agassiz at Neuchâtel during 1839-48, and in that year came to America with him. A course of lectures delivered by Guyot at Lowell Institute, Boston, was translated and published under the title of Earth and Man in 1853. He was appointed professor of physical geography and geology at Princeton in 1854, and manager of the meteorological department of Smithsonian Institute, where he delivered courses of lectures, publishing in connection therewith Meteorological and Physical Tables and a Treatise on Physical Geography. From 1874 to 1877 he was joint-editor of Johnson's Cyclopedia. Guyot died at Princeton, N. J., Feb. 8, 1884.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gwalior

See also Gwalior on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Gwalior (gwä′lĕ-ôr), the capital of a state of the same name in central India, is built on a rock 300 yards wide by one and a half miles long and 340 feet in height, forming a citadel that is almost impregnable. At the base lies the old city, containing little but a beautiful old white mausoleum or vault for the dead. To the southwest the new town of Lashkor extends, and four miles to the northeast is Morar, the British cantonment. Gwalior has two beautiful Hindu temples and one of the most interesting specimens of palace-building in India. Population 118,000. Gwalior, the state, one of the central native states in British India, has an area of 25,041 square miles, with a population of 3,090,798.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Gutta-Percha

See also the disclaimer.
​Gut′ta-Per′cha. See India-Rubber.
# The Poetical Works of Elijah Fenton/A Tale, devised in the pleasaunt manere of gentil Maister Jeoffrey Chaucer

A TALE,
DEVISED IN THE PLEASAUNT MANERE OF
GENTIL MAISTER JEOFFREY CHAUCER.
# The Poetical Works of Elijah Fenton

This work contains a number of translations from Greek and Latin poets. In the case of the Latin poems, these are printed with the original on the verso and the translation on the recto. Both the Latin and English versions have been transcribed, and transcluded in the order given in the Table of Contents.
Printed for John Bell near Exeter Exchange Strand London Dec. 29. 1779
THE
POETICAL WORKS
OF
ELIJAH FENTON.
WITH THE LIFE OF THE AUTHOR.
EDINBURG:
AT THE Apollo Press, BY THE MARTINS.
Anno 1779.
THE
POETICAL WORKS
OF
ELIJAH FENTON.
CONTAINING HIS
| MISCELLANIES, | TALES, |
| EPISTLES, | TRANSLATIONS, |
| ODES, | IMITATIONS, |
&c. &c. &c.
EDINBURG:
At the Apollo Press, by the Martins.
Anno 1779.
CONTENTS.
From the APOLLO PRESS, by the MARTINS, Sept. 16. 1779.
THE END.
This work is a translation and has a separate copyright status to the applicable copyright protections of the original content.
# The Poetical Works of Elijah Fenton/A-la-mode

A-LA-MODE.
# The Poetical Works of Elijah Fenton/A Letter to the Knight of the Sable Shield

A LETTER
TO THE KNIGHT OF THE SABLE SHIELD.
———Habet Bibliopola Tryphon.MART. Lib. iv.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/Preface

PREFACE
The Student’s Reference Work has long been known and valued as supplying just that reference material which is needed by teachers and pupils in elementary and secondary schools. While partial revisions have been made from year to year, yet in order to keep fully abreast of the times a radical revision and the introduction of much new material have become necessary.
Accordingly we now present The New Student’s Reference Work, which practically is a new work. New material has added more than one third to its volume, while the articles which appeared in the former work have been largely rewritten and entirely reset. In its preparation we were able to secure the coöperation of specialists and educators whose standing will be recognized upon inspection of our list of editors and contributors. Advantage has been taken of suggestions which have come to us from many teachers during years of experience in the use of the former work, and it is believed that the present work will be found adequate and satisfactory.
C. B. B.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I

scan index
| Front Matter Title page verso Editors of Departments Partial List of Contributors Revisions by Eminent Men and Women Editors and Contributors Preface Key to Pronunciation Special Articles The Balkans and the Peace of Europe How Honey Comb Cells are Made Articles A — Ætna Afghanistan — Algebra Algeciras — Andalusia Andersen, Hans Christian — Apricot April — Asa | Front Matter Title page verso Editors of Departments Partial List of Contributors Revisions by Eminent Men and Women Editors and Contributors Preface Key to Pronunciation Special Articles The Balkans and the Peace of Europe How Honey Comb Cells are Made Articles A — Ætna Afghanistan — Algebra Algeciras — Andalusia Andersen, Hans Christian — Apricot April — Asa | Articles … (cont.) Asaph — Austin, Minn. Austin — Aztecs B — Barneveldt Barney — Beethoven Beetle — Bill of Rights Bimetallism — Boiler Boiling Point — Brainerd Brake — Brussels Brutus — Byzantine Empire C — Cape Hatteras Cape Horn — Caste Castelar — Champlain Champs-Elysees — Chipmunk Chippewa Falls — Clinton, De Witt Clinton, George — Composition Compressed Air — Cortes Cortex — Cryptogams Cuba — Czerny | Articles … (cont.) Asaph — Austin, Minn. Austin — Aztecs B — Barneveldt Barney — Beethoven Beetle — Bill of Rights Bimetallism — Boiler Boiling Point — Brainerd Brake — Brussels Brutus — Byzantine Empire C — Cape Hatteras Cape Horn — Caste Castelar — Champlain Champs-Elysees — Chipmunk Chippewa Falls — Clinton, De Witt Clinton, George — Composition Compressed Air — Cortes Cortex — Cryptogams Cuba — Czerny |
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/Title Page

THE NEW
STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK
FOR
TEACHERS, STUDENTS AND FAMILIES
EDITED BY CHANDLER B. BEACH, A.M.
ASSOCIATE EDITOR FRANK MORTON McMURRY, Ph.D.
VOLUME I
CHICAGO F. E. COMPTON AND COMPANY 1914
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/Editors and Contributors

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS, THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK
John M. Coulter, Ph.D., LL.D. :
| H. E. Bard, A.M. | Chandler B. Beach, A.M. | E. N. Henderson, Ph.D. |
| Rollin D. Salisbury, A.M. | B. R. Simpson, Ph.D. | Hon. F. D. Coburn |
Jas. H. Fuqua, Sr., LL.D. :
| C. H. Robison, A.M. | Frank Morton McMurry, Ph.D. | Hon. W. W. Stetson |
| James E. Clark, M.Pd. | Charles H. Albert, A.B. | Frederic P. Noble, Ph.D. |
Alber P. Carman, Sc.D. :
| J. C. Bennett | William A. Locy, Ph.D., Sc.D. | E. E. Giltner, A.M. |
| Percival R. Cole, Ph.D. | Frank Evans | T. D. Wood, A.M., M.D. |
Charles H. Parnswort :
| Katherine L. Craig | Henry Crew, Ph.D. | Eleanor Atkinson |
| Horace Lemuel Wells, A.M. | C. A. McMurry, Ph.D. | Percy Hughes, Ph.D. |
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/Editors of Departments

EDITORS OF DEPARTMENTS
Botany JOHN MERLE COULTER, Ph.D., LL.D., Head Professor of Botany, University of Chicago
Physics and Astronomy HENRY CREW, Ph.D., Professor of Physics, Northwestern University.
Geology ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M., Professor of Geology, University of Chicago
Zoology WILLIAM ALBERT LOCY, Ph.D., Sc.D., Professor of Zoology, Northwestern University.
Chemistry HORACE LEMUEL WELLS, A.M., Professor Analytical Chemistry and Metallurgy Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University.
Electrical Engineering ALBERT PRUDEN CARMAN, Sc.D., Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Illinois.
Canadian Department HON. RICHARD HARCOURT, D.C.L. LL.D., M. P. and Ex-Minister of Education, Ontario.
British Colonies in Africa and Australia GRAEME MERCER ADAM, Founder of the Canadian Educational Monthly.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/verso

Copyright, 1893, by C. B. Beach
Copyright, 1901, by C. B. Beach
Copyright, 1909, by C. B. Beach Copyright, 1911, by C. B. Beach Copyright, 1912, by C. B. Beach
Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1913, by F. E. Compton and Company Copyright, 1914, by F. E. Compton and Company
# The New Student's Reference Work/Voice

See also Human voice on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Voice is the sound produced by the movements or vibrations of the vocal cords in the larynx. The larynx is in the neck, between the trachea or windpipe and the pharynx, that part of the throat directly behind and below the mouth. The vocal cords are two elastic bands fastened across the larynx between which the air from the lungs passes out. The arrangement resembles two strips of india-rubber stretched across the mouth of a glass-tube, into which air is forced by a bellows, which would cause the edges of the rubber strips to vibrate with sufficient rapidity to produce a sound, the pitch depending upon the number of vibrations in a second. The first thing necessary to produce a sound is the expulsion or driving out of the air through the glottis or opening between the vocal cords; and the second necessary condition is that the cords should be close enough together and tight enough to vibrate rapidly. All the variations between high and low notes are produced by changes in the width of the opening and in the tension or tightness of the cords. If the cords are more than one tenth of an inch apart, there will be no sound. The pitch of the voice, depending upon the number of vibrations in a second, is determined by the length, size and tension of the cords. The pitch of the male voice is lower than that of the female voice, because the cords are longer. A boy's voice breaks and falls about an octave at the period of life when the cords lengthen; and in old age the voice changes, because the muscles which move the cords lose their elasticity. Hoarseness is caused by roughness or swelling of the cords. The ordinary range of the voice is two octaves, while the ear can perceive musical tones for 11 octaves. The quality of the voice depends upon the strength and elasticity of the vocal cords and also upon the shape of the passages of the ear, throat and mouth through which the sound passes, a slight difference in these respects causing the same varieties of tone etc. in the human voice as in a musical instrument. Voice differs from speech, which is the production of sounds to express ideas. Animals have voice without speech. In speech the tones produced by the voice are changed by the action of the organs of the throat and mouth, as the tongue, lips, teeth palate etc., into a large number of simple sounds, which, put together, form words. These vocal sounds are divided into vowels and consonants, the different combinations of which produce the hundreds of thousands of words which form the languages. See Human Physiology by Carpenter and Voice, Song, and Speech by Browne and Behnke.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Vol I/Key to Pronunciation

See also the disclaimer. Other marks: ṅ as in French Jean (zhŏṅ; for example, Detaille, Jean Baptiste Edouard); ″ (for example, Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riquette, Count de); ṉ (for example, Mongols). o͝o is sometimes written as ŏŏ (for example, Erfurt).
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
| ā | āle |
| ā̇ | sen′ā̇te |
| â | câre |
| ă | ăm |
| ä | ärm |
| ȧ | ȧsk |
| a | fi′nal |
| a̤ | a̤ll |
| ē | ēve |
| ē̇ | ē̇vent |
| ĕ | ĕnd |
| ẽ | fẽrn |
| e | re′cent |
| ī | īce |
| ī̇ | ī̇de′a |
| ĭ | ĭll |
| ō | ōld |
| ō̇ | ō̇bey′ |
| ô | ôrb |
| ŏ | ŏdd |
| ū | ūse |
| ū̇ | ū̇nite′ |
| ṳ | rṳde |
| ụ | fụll |
| ŭ | ŭp |
| û | ûrn |
| y̆ | pit′y̆ |
| o͞o | fo͞od |
| o͝o | fo͝ot |
| ou | out |
| oi | oil |
Foreign Consonants are represented by the nearest English equivalents.
The Principal Accent is indicated by a heavy mark ′, the secondary accent by a lighter mark ′, at the end of the syllable.
Syllabic Division is indicated by a light hyphen.
Compound Words have their members joined by a heavy hyphen.
(Q. V.) is Latin for quod vide or quæ vide. In articles, after names, it means see this, that is, the subject named.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Charles Augustus

See also Charles Augustus Young on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young, Charles Augustus, a distinguished American astronomer, was born at Hanover N. H., Dec. 15, 1834. He was educated at Dartmouth College, where he graduated in 1853. After teaching classics for three years at Phillips Andover Academy, he went to Western Reserve College in Ohio, where he taught astronomy, natural philosophy and mathematics. For three months during the Civil War he served in the 85th Ohio Volunteers. At the close of the war he was appointed to the chair of physics and astronomy at Dartmouth, a position which his father had held some years earlier. During the following 12 years Professor Young made a brilliant series of discoveries in solar physics, among which may be mentioned the “reversing layer” of the solar atmosphere, observed at the Spanish eclipse of 1870, the rotation period of the sun measured on Döppler’s principle, the bright line spectrum of the chromosphere (1872) and the motion and forms of solar prominences. In 1877 he was called to the chair of astronomy at Princeton University. He was the highest living authority on the sun, and in 1906 was awarded a Carnegie old-age pension for his brilliant services to science. It is needless to say that he received many honors, as election to the National Academy of Sciences, degrees and honorary memberships. His published works include The Sun, General Astronomy, Lessons in Astronomy etc. He died January 4, 1908.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young's Modulus

See also Young's modulus on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young's Mod'ulus. See Elasticity.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Mrs. Ella Flagg

See also Ella Flagg Young (no article exists yet) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young, Mrs. Ella Flagg, city superintendent of Chicago schools (1901- ) and one of the most distinguished of living educators, was born in Buffalo (1845). Mrs. Young, then Miss Flagg, graduated from the Chicago High and Chicago Normal Schools, received her Ph. D. from Chicago University and LL. D. from the University of Illinois. In 1868 she married William Young. She became successively assistant superintendent of district schools, professor of education in the University of Chicago, principal of the Chicago Normal School and finally city superintendent. She was elected president of the National Educational Association (1910-11). Mrs. Young is a member of the Political Equality League and the Illinois Equal Suffrage Association. Her works on education are among the most profound as well as practical contributions to the science. They include: Isolation in the School, Ethics in the School, Some Types of Modern Educational Theory.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young Women's Christian Association

See also YWCA on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young Women’s Christian Association is an organization which seeks to help young women by providing for their physical, social, mental and spiritual wants. The means used are Bible training-classes, evangelical meetings, personal religious work, libraries and reading-rooms, classes in various studies, musical and literary entertainments, socials and receptions in homelike rooms, helpful companionships and holiday excursions. There is a special department for young women of colleges. In 1891 there were 1,000 associations in Great Britain; 50 on the continent of Europe; 20 in India; 25 in Australia; 225 in America; and in other places, including China and Japan, 175. The total in the world was 1,500. In 1901 America had 74 city and 409 student associations, with a membership of 49,175. There now are associations affiliated with the American committee in 552 colleges and 104 cities, with 24 state organizations. Each state holds an annual convention. The membership of local associations connected with the American committee is 100,252. The international association was formed in 1886. The work is controlled by an international committee of 46 members. Twenty-four states had organized state associations in 1909. The state associations hold conventions yearly, and the international convention meets every two years. The Evangel is a monthly organ of the associations, published at Chicago.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Brigham

See also Brigham Young on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young, Brigham, the noted head of the Mormon church, was born at Whittingham, Vt., June 1, 1801. In 1832, having become a convert to Mormonism, he was made an elder of the church, and began to preach at the Mormon settlement at Kirtland, O. Three years later he was sent as a missionary to New England, where he made quite a number of converts. After the death of Joseph Smith at Nauvoo, Ill., in 1844, Young was chosen president in his place. In 1847 he led his followers to Utah, (q. v.) and founded Salt Lake City. Here, under his able leadership, the community prospered, other settlements were established, and the foundations of the present state were laid. He died on August 29, 1877, leaving a fortune estimated at $2,000,000, See Mormons.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Edward

See also Edward Young on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young, Edward, English poet, was born on July 3, 1683, at Upharn, Hampshire, where his father was rector. He was educated at Winchester School and afterwards at Oxford. He published several poems and tragedies, but the work by which alone he is remembered is Night Thoughts, which has passed through a great many editions, and is more or less familiar to the general reader. A number of his sententious lines have passed into common use and in a manner become proverbial. He died on April 12, 1765.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Yoshihito, Emperor of Japan

See also Emperor Taishō on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Yoshihito (yō shē hē tō), Emperor of Japan, came to the throne on the death of his father Mutsuhito (q.v.) July 30, 1912.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Youmans, Edward L.

See also Edward Youmans on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Youmans (yōō'manz), Edward L., a distinguished American scientist, was born at Coeymans, N. Y., June 3, 1821; and, although suffering for some years from almost total blindness, he pursued his studies in physics and chemistry with marked zeal and proficiency, his sister conducting experiments for him. Among the works for which he is distinguished are Class-Book of Chemistry Correlation and Conservatism of Forces, Alcohol and the Constitution of Man, Handbook of Household Science and The Culture Demanded by Modern Life. He died at New York, Jan. 18, 1887.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Thomas

See also Thomas Young (scientist) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Young, Thomas, an eminent man of science, was born at Milverton, England, in 1773. In 1801 he was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution. It was during his two years' occupancy of this chair that he published Outlines and Experiments Respecting Sound and Light, his most important memoir. In it he shows that two rays of light may be added together to produce darkness — the phenomenon of interference. Sir John Herschel asserted that, even if Young had made no other discovery, this alone would have made him immortal as a scientist. He died at London on May 10, 1829. Dr. Peacock has published an interesting Life of Young, and has edited his Miscellaneous Works. But all of Young's more important contributions are reprinted in his Lectures on Natural Philosophy, which exerted a powerful influence on physical science during half a century.