# Oregon Historical Quarterly/Volume 21/History of Oregon Normal Schools

HISTORY OF OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS
By John C. Almack
ANALYSIS OF CONDITIONS
A comparison of statistics of significance in normal school education reveals some interesting differences between Oregon and her sister states : namely, Washington, Idaho, and California. What these facts are is indicated in the following tables:
| 1915 | Oregon | Idaho | Washington | California |
| Number of Normal schools | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 |
| Teachers | 19 | 52 | 70 | 253 |
| Enrollment | 787 | 497 | 2130 | 4733 |
| Graduates | 132 | 81 | 300 | 1834 |
| Enrollment in training schools | 135 | 400 | 580 | 3162 |
| Value of equipment | $205,000 | $480,000 | $925,000 | $2,500,000 |
| Support | 38,000 | 105,000 | 195,000 | 491,300 |
| Number of normal schools | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 |
| Teachers | 19 | 52 | 104 | 293 |
| Enrollment | 434 | 489 | 2412 | 5052 |
| Graduates | 146 | 73 | 595 | 1960 |
| Enrollment in training schools | 131 | 432 | 902 | 3417 |
| Value of equipment | $232,000 | $490,000 | $1,224,000 | $2,500,000 |
| Support | 37,000 | 103,000 | 386,000 | 647,000 |
| Population | 1,000,000 | 500,000 | 1,750,000 | 3,000,000 |
An analysis of the data here given shows that Idaho with a population less than half that of Oregon spends three times as much for normal school education and employs over twice as many teachers in these schools. The value of her normal school equipment is approximately twice as great as, that of ​
96 JOHN C. ALMACK
Oregon's. Washington, a much younger state, supports three normals, has an enrollment nearly six times as great, employs six times as many teachers, and devotes ten times as much to the maintenance of the teacher training schools. Yet the population of the northern state is only one and three-fourths times that of Oregon. So far as California is concerned it excels Oregon in normal school education to such an extent that there is really but little value in the comparison. The population of the former state is about two and one-half times that of Oregon; but its normal school enrollment is twelve times as great, it expends twenty times as much, and has ten times as much equipment. In 1916 Oregon had 146 graduates from its normal school ; California had 1960. These statistics show that the three western states considered lead Oregon in the preparation of teachers, though the development of the states themselves (in the case of Washington and Idaho) has been more recent than that of Oregon. 2
What are the reasons for these differences? Does Oregon have an adequate supply of well-trained teachers? Is the experience of Oregon in relation to normal schools an unique one, or has it parallels in the history of other states? What light does the history of normal school education in the state throw upon the problems of education that must be solved in the present? These are some of the practical questions in- volved in a study of normal school history and present con- ditions.
Regarding the qualifications of teachers and the number required, the facts are these : 3
Grade of certificate Male Female Total
Life 359 1269 6173
Five year 187 726 913
One year 525 2692 3217
Special Ill 140 251
County and City 4 5 9
Temporary 47 128 175**
2 Report of state superintendent 1917.
3 Report of state superintendent 1917.
vailing teacher shortage. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 97
The census returns show the population of the four states mentioned to be as follows :
Oregon Idaho Washington California
1870 90,923 14,999 23,955 560,247
1880 174,768 32,610 75,116 864,694
1890 311,704 88,548 357,232 1,213,398
1900 413,536 161,772 518,103 1,485,053
1910 672,765 325,594 1,141,990 2,377,549
PREPARATION OF TEACHERS
Completed eighth grade only 180
One year high school 123
Two years high school 282
Four years high school . . f 1 122
Three years high school , . 213
One year college or university 176
Two years college or university 181
Three years college or university 118
Four years college or university 564
One year normal 340
Two years normal 737
The total number of teachers required for the schools of the state in 1916 was 6,503. The same year the enrollment in the teacher training classes in high school was 478. Of the 150,000 4 pupils enrolled in the public schools, about 20% had teachers who had three years' high school training or less, 30% had teachers who were high school graduates, 30% had teach- ers with one to two years of normal training, and 20% had teachers with from one to four years' of college or university education. On account of a shortage of teachers, 133 schools are closed, and a greater number of temporary certificates has been issued than usual. Moreover, the general requirements have been lowered since the beginning of the war until it is estimated that over half of the pupils in the public schools have teachers who are below accepted standards in prepara-
4 The total number of census children in the state in 1918 was 205,684 (ages 4-20), and the enrollment was: male, 72,547; female, 73,344; total, 145,891. In 1917 there were 19,181 students enrolled in the high schools. (Report of the state superintendent.) ​
98 JOHN C. ALMACK
tion. At the same time there has been a falling off in the normal school enrollment (Monmouth reported 240 students, with 22 graduates the first quarter of 1919), and in the num- ber of students taking teacher training courses in high schools.
EARLY SCHOOL CONDITIONS IN OREGON AND THE DEMAND FOR NORMALS 1870-1882
There is no more interesting chapter in the history of edu- cation in Oregon than that which centers around the normal schools. For nearly forty years they have furnished subjects for discussion and controversy; they have occupied the atten- tion of legislators, governors, and educators. They have risen and fallen at the whim of politicians, or at the word of the sovereign people ; they have had brief periods of opportunity and longer periods of despair. The normal school problem has been one of the most perplexing ones the state has been called upon to deal with, and it is still unsolved. Yet Oregon's experience is not unique ; it parallels very closely that of New York and like New York's much of it is valuable chiefly as a warning.
A wonderful development industrial, political, and educa- tional has characterized the state since the origin of the normal school question two score years and more ago. The population was less than 175,000; Portland was but little larger than Astoria is now ; in 1890 there were only eight cities in the state with a population above 2,500: namely Albany, Astoria, Baker, La Grande, Oregon City, Pendleton, Portland, and The Dalles. By far the larger part of the population was con- centrated in the Willamette Valley. Means of transportation were decidedly meager; the state boasted but two lines of railroad ; the automobile with its accompaniment of good roads had not been dreamed of; electric railroads belonged to the remote future. Travel was, except on the railway lines, mainly by horseback, wagon, steamboat, and stage. A county super- intendent reported that he had during the year traveled two ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 99
thousand miles "on the hurricane deck of a cayuse" visiting schools. Eastern Oregon is still called by the facetious "the country of magnificent distances." In those days this remark might truly have been made of the entire state.
Property values were low, and in few places, relatively considered, was property concentrated so as to furnish op- portunity for taxation for local school purposes. Neither county or state levies for school purposes were available, and district rates were invariably low; in some instances directors refused altogether to lay a school tax. Multnomah County now has an assessed valuation about eleven times as great as the entire state in 1870. Something of the growth of the state is shown by the table of assessed valuations herewith given :
1870 $ 29,587,846
1880 48,483,174
1890 114,077,788
1900 117,804,874
1910 844,887,708
1918 987,533,896
Economic conditions furnish a good index to school con- ditions. School buildings were for the most part poor struc- tures. The first state superintendent remarked that many were utterly unfit for use. More specific are some of the state- ments made by county superintendents in their reports to state superintendent Sylvester C. Simpson in 1874. In Josephine County it was stated: "The present condition of the school- houses is bad. Some of them were originally built of logs; others are 'box' houses. All are furnished with seats, from the strong and durable slab, with four stout two-inch legs, to the genuine sugar-pine bench with the slivers planed off." On the same subject the Marion County superintendent said: "The district clerks' reports are not full enough to enable me to state the exact condition of the school houses. Many of them are bad ; others are worse ; and many of them are a dis- grace to Marion County and an insult to nineteenth century civilization." ​
100 JOHN C. ALMACK
Similar reports from other counties provoked Superinten- dent Sylvester C. Simpson to make this summary in his an- nual report to the legislature in 1874 :
'The school-houses are inferior in construction and in pro- visions for the comfort of their inmates to the barns of some of the farmers who live near them, and it is no uncommon thing to find the school-house built upon the most barren and un- sightly spot in the neighborhood. Some of our school-houses are so dilapidated and befouled with obscene pictures and words that they are hardly fit for decent people to enter."
However, if the architectural type of the school buildings was not such as meets with popular approval today, at least there were fewer of them. In 1878 there were only 750 5 organized school districts in the state, and there were but 26,000 pupils enrolled in the public schools. Indeed it was gravely questioned whether education should be fostered at public expense. Free high schools would not have been tol- erated, and college preparatory work devolved upon the acad- emies, of which there were 28. The university, established at Eugene in 1876, and the agricultural college at Corvallis both did work of a preparatory grade. About four thousand students were attending the academies at this time.
The reports of the state superintendents from 1873 to 1916 give the following statistics of school conditions:
Months
Dis- of Salaries School School
tricts School Male Female Fund Property
1873 642 4.5 $37.54 $43.70 $ 184,010 $ 322,440
1880 1007 4.5 44.19 33.38 339,080 567,863
1885 1336 4.7 48.22 36.96 578,340 1,160,433
1893 1915 5.3 51.11 41.74 1,449,614 2,649,081
1909 2243 6.4 69.25 51.97 3,392,162 7,696,444
1916 2519 7.5 87.14 63.61 9,313,502 10,258,313
5 In 1874 there were only 680 districts; the census showed 21,519 males and 19,379 females between the ages of four and twenty, with an enrollment of 11,138 males and 9,542 females. The average attendance was only 15,169, and there were 10,711 children not in school. The same year 579 county certificates were issued: 190 first grade, 355 second, and 34 third. The state fund contributed $33,367.28. Contrasted with this are the figures from 1918-19, with 205,684 census children, an enrollment of 145,891, aj state fund of 388,873, and a total amount of approxi- mately $8,000,000 spent for school purposes. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 101
That most of the schools were small is borne out by the fact that only 1314 teachers were reported actually in service. However, as schools were in session for little more than a third of the year on the average, and summer schools were required in some sections, many teachers taught more than one school each year. Over ten thousand pupils were reported as at- tending no schools, and it was a common remark of county superintendents in their reports that attendance was very irregular.
The qualifications for teachers were not high, nor was there too rigid insistence at all times upon the observance of the re- quirements specified by law. County certificates were granted by county superintendents, and even after the issuance of more than one county certificate to a teacher was prohibited "migratory" pedagogues evaded the law by going to another county where a certificate of the same grade would be given them. The public school system offered no facilities for the education of teachers above the common school. As in New York in 1826, the people of Oregon seemed to believe "our great reliance for nurseries of teachers must be placed in our colleges and academies." These institutions were unprepared to fill the demand for teachers for the public schools, and other states proved the chief sources of supply, drawn hither more by the prospect of taking lands than by the munificent salaries offered in the schools. These teachers were part of the new immigration seeking the west following the war.
Oregon had suffered somewhat as had other states from the panic of 1873, but with the general revival of industry in the late seventies economic conditions began to improve. The population more than doubled during this decade. New cities sprang up, old ones grew, land increased in value, lumbering, fishing, mining and agriculture were greatly stimulated. The era of railroad construction began. Eastern capital made its appearance, and a new spirit of progress seized upon the people.
This new spirit was reflected in the demand for better schools. It was evident that the old system was inadequate and un- satisfactory. School improvement was quite general in the ​
102 JOHN C. ALMACK
country. The volume of school business had grown to im- mense proportions, necessitating the separation of the office of superintendent of schools from that of the governor, who had formerly attended to the duties of both offices. The nor- mal school movement had gained great headway in other states. Leading educators pointed out that the way to better schools was through better teachers. These called for normal schools for their training.
The first expression of the need came from the county super- intendent of Yamhill, J. D. Robb, in his recommendations to the state superintendent, Sylvester C. Simpson, in 1874. Mr. Robb said :
"There is a want of thoroughly qualified and competent teachers. I deem it of vital importance that the state should establish a normal school and sustain it liberally ; that it should not be connected with any college but purely distinctive as a normal school."
Here was the wisdom of Horace Mann speaking, but he was not heard.
This statement indicated the tendency. Later on 6 Rev. Geo. H. Atkinson, in his abstract of the history of education in Oregon, said:
"A state normal school should be established. This is one of the most pressing needs of our school system in order to render it properly effective."
Superintendent Rowland two years later again called the attention of the legislature to the need of normals :
"No want, it is confidently believed, is more keenly felt by the real friends of thorough, practical education than that of a state normal school."
The state university made an attempt to meet the demand for normal courses by the introduction of subjects attractive to teachers. Thomas Condon, writing in the report of the state superintendent 1877-79 says :
"One of the three courses of study (at the university) is
6 Report of State Superintendent L. L. Rowland, 1875-76. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 103
styled 'normal course,' and is especially designed to aid as rapidly as possible teachers who may be unable to take a full college course. This course aims to cover the ground ordi- narily occupied by state normal schools, and might easily and economically be made to do this normal work for our state." This is perhaps the first public pronouncement of one of the most consistent objections to normal schools, not only in Oregon but in other states, namely, that existing institutions, public and private, were prepared to train all the teachers necessary in the state. What the course "designed to aid teachers as rapidly as possible" was may be seen below :
NORMAL COURSE FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR THIRD YEAR
I Term I Term I Term Arithmetic Elementary Algebra Chemistry English Grammar Modern History Psychology Mental Arithmetic Elementary Rhetoric Botany
II Term II Term Natural Philosophy English Grammar Geometry II Term Elementary Algebra Mineralogy Astronomy Physical Features Bookkeeping Natural Philosophy Physiology III Term Pedagogics Zoology Trigonometry III Term
III Term Ancient History Botany
English Grammar Bookkeeping English Literature
Elementary Algebra Constitution
Zoology
That opinion favorable to state normals was being created among the teachers is shown by a resolution passed by the western division of the state teachers' association, and pub- lished in the Oregonian September 1, 1879. Here three nor- mals were advocated instead of one as recommended by the state superintendent:
'Teachers trained by our sister states are coming among us ; and it is not doing justice to our sons and daughters in com- peting with these to give them no opportunities for qualify- ing themselves equally with those from abroad. All will agree that we have first class talent; but trained teachers, will, in ​
104 JOHN C. ALMACK
all our best schools take precedence over those not especially trained for that work. As early as possible, then, we ask that three normal schools be established at convenient centers in our state."
In 1879, Superintendent Rowland was superseded by L. J. Powell. Mr. Powell evidently had misgivings as to the ad- visability of building normals for in his first report to the legis- lature he suggests an alternative in the normal institute :
"The necessity for the special training of teachers is a mat- ter too self-evident to call for elaborate argument. ... I recommend that there be appropriated $2,000 or $3,000 for normal institutes. These would be far better for the state for many years to come than a normal school, principally from the fact that but a comparatively few of our teachers, even if tuition were given free, would ever be likely to attend a nor- mal school."
The agitation for normals continued into the years 1881 and 1882. Mr. Powell again called the notice of the legis- lature to the need of thoroughly trained and well qualified teachers, and said:
"If too much of a burden to establish normals, then let pro- visions be made for normal institutes."
In the recommendations made to the state office, two county superintendents 7 and 8 took occasion to suggest that normal schools be created. At the meeting of the state association in Portland 1881, Superintendent Frank Rigler of Polk County read a paper on "The Necessity for Better Teachers and How to Secure Them," and put foremost as a means normal schools supported by the state. Normal institutes also met with his approval. The same year, Christian College, Monmouth, fol- lowing the example of the state university or with some de- sign for future use, announced that a normal department had been added. r ^^-11Pf
Outside of educational circles, there was no apparent interest in regard to teacher training schools. The public was, so far as evidence is available, indifferent ; the newspapers were silent
7 I. Allen Macrum, Multnomah County: "An efficient normal school is the great need of the public schools of Oregon."
8 L. H. Baker, Yamhill: "A state normal should be established so better methods in teaching may be secured." ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 105
on the question. Certainly their establishment was far from being a political issue. The Educational Monthly, published in Salem by W. P. Keady, in 1876 contained a brief editorial asking that normal institutes similar to those in eastern states be made compulsory in Oregon. Notwithstanding the popular apathy, the subject was introduced into state affairs in 1882, when a bill was brought into the state legislature designating Christian College at Monmouth, and Ashland Collegiate and Normal Institute at Ashland as state normals. Without ma- terial objection the bill became a law.
THE FIRST STATE NORMALS PERIOD OF PRIVATE SUPPORT 1882-1893
The plans for a Christian college in Oregon Territory were formulated in 1849 at the home of Tyrus Himes 9 in Lafay- ette, Stark County, Illinois. The occasion was a protracted meeting of the Disciples in Christ, and several members of the church from Monmouth, 111., were present. A map of the new country beyond the mountains was produced, and an approxi- mate location of the settlement and school indicated. In 1850, several who were present at the meeting in the Himes house crossed the plains and took up land near the present site of the town of Monmouth, 10 Oregon. A portion of the lands 11 filed upon were set aside as the nucleus of an endowment for a college, 12 and the first school was opened in 1855. Among those who helped organize the institution were Thomas H. Lucas, Elijah Davidson, Albert W. Lucas, Squire Whitman, Ira F. M. Butler, and James H. Roundtree. J. W. Cowls of McMinn- ville was the first teacher.
Meanwhile a rival institution, Bethel Collegiate Institute, had been started at Bethel, Polk County. The date of its
9 A meeting to discuss the same topic was also held at the home of Ira F. M. Butler, in Monmouth, Illinois.
10 One of the founders wrote: "Our surroundings are new and cruel here. We must control them: not let them control us."
The aim of the founders was to establish an institution of learning "where men and women alike may become schooled in the science of living, and in the fundamental principles of religion."
11 The town of Monmouth was surveyed in 1855 by T. H. Hutchinson. Two names were proposed for the town: Dover and Monmouth. The vote resulted in a tie, and Ira F. M. Butler, chairman of the committee, cast the deciding vote for Monmouth, he having come from Monmouth, Illinois.
12 There was 500 acres in the tract given to found the school, and it was donated by T. H. Lucas, S. S. Whitman, Elijah Davidson, Ira F. M. Butler, T. B. Smith, and John Harris. ​
106 JOHN C. ALMACK
establishment was 1852, so it antedated the Monmouth school by nearly three years. It was soon discovered that there was not sufficient field to justify two schools in the same locality, and in 1865 Christian College was chartered, thereby merging Bethel Collegiate Institute and Monmouth University.. L. L. Rowland of Bethany College, Virginia, was the first president. Mr. Rowland was afterward elected state superin- tendent of schools and recommended the establishment of a state normal school. Christian College was controlled and sup- ported by the Christian Brotherhood of Oregon. Authority was granted to confer the degrees of A. B., B. S., and M. A. 13 The buildings and grounds were appraised at $20,000, and an endowment of $25,000 was promised.
The college was quite successful 14 even in those pioneer days. Sylvester Simpson, who was superintendent of schools in 1873, said the school had an enrollment of 300 students with a school term of ten months. Receipts for the year were given as $4,500, with expenses of only $3,500. However, there were lean years, 15 and the presidents 16 were alert to discover opportunities to advance the interests of the school. President Stanley is said to have conceived the idea of having Christian College made a state normal, and J. D. Lee of Dallas intro- duced a bill to this effect in the legislature of 1882.
But Christian College was not the only candidate for such advantages. The Methodists had founded the Collegiate and Normal Institute at Ashland in 1879, and it soon became a flourishing institution. By 1880 there were 54 students en- rolled in the academic department, and 33 in the primary. The first president was Rev. L. L. Rogers, who for the first year was paid the munificent salary of $1,500 much more than
13 The catalogue of Christian College 1872 said: "Any bachelor of arts may receive the degree of A. M. on paying a fee of ten dollars to the library fund, provided he shall have shown himself competent and worthy of such distinction. This degree may be conferred on eminent persons for distinguished merit."
14 In 1874 when_the question of the location of 'the state university was under consideration, Christian College was offered to the state. The committee ap- pointed by the legislature to decide on the site voted on Eugene and Monmouth. The latter lost by one vote, R. S. Crystal of Dallas voting against his own county.
15 In 1879 the attendance had fallen to 13 in the academic department, and the tuition brought in only $600.
16 President Campbell traveled about the country collecting donations for the support of the school, and at one time raised $15,000. Women raised money by doing washings, and by labor of other kinds to enable them to contribute to the cause of education. Mortgages were not uncommon, and many gifts made to Christian were the product of strict self-denial. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 107
was drawn by any other educator in the state. The building was valued at $5,000, and the five acres in the grounds were modestly held at $2,000. When it became known that Chris- tian College was asking the legislature to designate it as a state normal school, the Methodists put forward the same request for the Collegiate Institute.
There are two reasons why these schools were ambitious to become state normals : ( 1 ) they would thus be empowered to issue diplomas to their graduates entitling them to teach in the schools of the state without the formality of passing an examination, and (2) there was a certain amount of prestige and advertising value in securing state recognition which would attract students. Normal school opponents held that the pro- moters of the scheme were only waiting for a favorable op- portunity to apply for state aid, and were taking this first step of putting the state under obligation for their support. In- deed, it was not long until plans were made for securing ap- propriations. It seems quite certain that friends of the two schools promised they would never ask for state aid.
The act creating state normals at Monmouth and Ashland was passed by the legislature without serious opposition in 1882, being approved by the governor on October 26. No dis- tinction was made in the privileges accorded the schools. The law was as follows:
"The Christian College at Monmouth, Polk County, and the Ashland College and Normal School, Ashland, Jackson County, are hereby declared to be state normal schools of the state of Oregon. . . . Model training schools for professional prac- tice shall be maintained. . . . Control shall be vested in the present boards of trustees."
Mr. D. T. Stanley remained as president of Monmouth Normal, and Mr. M. G. Royal was the first president of the new normal at Ashland. In the spring of 1883, Monmouth graduated its first normal school class, Miss May Hawley re- ceiving a diploma. In 1884, nine students were graduated from Monmouth, among the number being Mr. J. B. V. Butler, now head of the history department of the Monmouth Normal, ​
108 JOHN C. ALMACK
and Miss Armilda Doughty, for several years a teacher in the same school. There were nine teachers in the faculty; two hundred sixteen students were enrolled ; and four students were doing work of college rank. The buildings that year were rea- sonably appraised at $14,000, while Ashland with four teach- ers and forty-two students claimed a building worth $8,000. The tuition in both schools was set at five dollars a term of twenty weeks. Two terms constituted the school year.
The entrance requirements could not be called excessively high. On this point, early catalogues contained this state- ment:
"All persons of good morals and sufficient scholarship 17 are invited to enter the normal at any time."
The decision on both these points was left to the administra- tive authorities of the schools, no standards of uniformity being set. Conditions were not widely different in other states in this respect. There was a great variation among the several schools. In 1884, the National Council of Education reported:
"A uniform standard for admission to normal schools is impracticable."
Conditions in Oregon should be judged, not by the stand- ards of today, but by the standards of their own times.
The courses of study were prepared by the president of each school and his board of trustees. Ashland's course of study adopted in 1882 is given.
COURSE OF STUDY
Junior Year Intermediate Year Senior Year
(Orthography Orthography English Literature
Language (English Grammar English Grammar American Literature
Composition Rhetoric ( Word Analysis
(Mental Arithmetic Arithmetic Higher Algebra
Mathematics (Written Arithmetic Elementary Algebra Geometry
(Bookkeeping
(Geography Natural Philosophy Chemistry
(Map Drawing Zoology Geology
Science (Physiology Botany Map Drawing
(Physical Geography
17 Annual catalogue. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 109
(Reading (Penmanship (Drawing (Vocal Music
American Ideas U. S. History Ancient History School Law
Review Elocution Political Economy
Constitution of the
I iuQ
r
U. S.
Reading
c
i Vocal Music
ffilflifflOi j: . .;
Vocal Music Constitution of
Methods of Teaching
Oregon Map Drawing
Practice Teaching Mental Philosophy
Drawing
Miscellaneous
Professional
This work was carried on with only four teachers. Mon- mouth offered the same subjects, and in addition taught His- tory of Education, Trigonometry, Astronomy, Objective Teach- ing, School Organization, and School Hygiene. The work at Monmouth was divided into an elementary course of one year, and a regular course of two years above this.
There is not a great deal of difference between this course of study and the first normal school curriculum (Lexington, Massachusetts, 1839) in the United States. This, which was copied from the state teacher training schools of Germany, contained 18 these subjects.
( 1 ) Orthography, reading, grammar, composition, rhetoric. (2) Arithmetic (mental and written), algebra, geometry,
bookkeeping, navigation, surveying. ( 3 ) Writing, drawing.
( 4 ) Geography with chronology, statistics and general his- tory.
( 5 ) Physiology. ( 6 ) Mental philosophy. ( 7 ) Music.
( 8 ) State constitution and history of the U. S. ( 9 ) Astronomy.
(10) Natural history.
(11) The principles of piety and morality.
(12) The science and art of teaching with reference to all these subjects.
In 1887 19 two years of Latin and one of Greek were of-
18 Dexter, History of Education in the U. S., page 376.
19 Catalogue, Drain Normal, 1887, 1891. ​
110 JOHN C. ALMACK
fered, and in 1891 Drain listed telegraphy, violin, art, elocu- tion, and shorthand, with eight courses: Elementary, normal, post graduate, higher post graduate, business, academic, music and painting, and kindergarten.
The law of 1882 which created state normals contained this clause :
"Model training schools for professional practice shall be maintained."
Pursuant to this requirement, training departments were early organized in each school. The catalogue of Ashland Normal in 1887 contained this statement :
"This department (training) is incidental to all first class normal schools, and has been one of the leading features of this school during the past year. Our student teachers are required to work in this department, teaching classes and criti- cising others. Students to graduate from normal school must show a fair amount of ability to teach and to govern."
Monmouth advertised the same year :
"By an arrangement with the board of directors of the Mon- mouth public school, the privilege of teaching in the school under the supervision of critic teachers is granted to members of the senior class. Each member of the senior class is re- quired to teach twenty weeks, three hours each day. Thor- ough preparation in both general and special method will occupy the twenty weeks preparatory to teaching. The plan is the one pursued by the best normals of this country and Europe. Especial attention is called to the opportunity of securing training in the work of the ninth grade, or first year of the state high school course."
The use of the public school as a training school depart- ment did away with the possibility of rivalry between the normal and the public school a condition too often found in cities maintaining the two separate systems. This scheme was not adopted without objection, as many held that the educational opportunities offered in the training school, with ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 111
inexperienced teachers, was inferior to that of the public school. Discipline was as a rule considered more lax in the training department. On the other hand, some parents desired that their children attend the training school, and stoutly upheld the opinion that the quality of instruction there given was second to none. The Ashland Normal, being located two miles from the city, (after the construction of the new building) operated with considerably less relationship to the city schools than in the other schools. Ashland was confronted with the necessity, however, of finding pupils for its practice school, and that all was not harmony seems evident from the follow- ing quotation from the first catalogue announcing the estab- lishment of the training department:
"The pupils of this department are of the best element of the city. Pupils who use bad language and those who are apt to disregard the best rules of discipline are not given admis- sion. This is a select school where parents may feel perfectly safe in sending their children. Here is avoided the contami- nation of those vulgar influences which are so often tolerated in the public school/'
This idea of exclusiveness must have had an especially strong appeal to the ambitious parent.
By the close of the year 1885 the two normals at Monmouth and Ashland were in running order. That year State Super- intendent E. B. McElroy reported to the legislature :
"The requirements of the law in prescribing a course of study to be pursued by the students in the normal schools, as well as the rules and regulations for their government, have been complied with."
Looking upon this as so much accomplished, he turned his attention to a demand for a normal school which had arisen in Eastern Oregon. In the same report, Mr. McElroy said there were 300 teachers required for the districts east of the Cascades, that the population was rapidly increasing, and there- fore there would soon be many more needed. Private acad​
112 JOHN C. ALMACK
emies, he said, were unable to give the kind of instruction desirable and necessary for teachers, and the cost of travel was so great it was impossible for them to attend the schools in the western part of the state. He further advocated the creation of normal institute districts identical with the judicial districts. Summer schools were to be held annually therein for from four to six weeks, and the teachers should be com- pelled to attend. "We find," he said, "that there is a large number of teachers who cannot afford to attend normals and colleges." The normal institute has thus from the first been a rival of the normal school, and finally secured recognition in the law permitting county superintendents to conduct sum- mer schools in lieu of county institutes. Clackamas and Josephine have been about the only counties to take advantage of the act.
Legislators pushed the claim of Eastern Oregon for a school, and in 1885 the academy at Weston was made a state normal. This was done by adopting an amendment to the original normal school measure. No other change was made in this law. Control was continued under the same boards, and the right to grant degrees remained. The same session designated a new state normal at Drain, 20 a small village in Douglas County. This had been the Drain Academy, founded by the Methodists. A separate law was passed for this school, but it differed in no essential particulars from the first. Authority was granted to issue a diploma good in any school in the state. This diploma might become a state life certificate after six years' experience. This was in no way a lowering of the standard as state certificates might be easily secured by exam- ination. These were quite numerous in Oregon, as one gov- ernor remarked in his inaugural address : "Thick as the autumn leaves that strow the brook of Vallambrosa." For many years there was no age requirement to gain a county or state certifi- cate : the normals could not graduate males until they were 21 years old ; females must be 18 at least.
20 Enemies of the normals charged that Drain was established in return for a vote given to John H. Mitchell, who was elected United States Senator. This was the basis of the assertion of Jay Bowerman that "the normals were conceived in iniquity." ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 113
With the addition of one more institution, the normal school constellation is complete. The fifth and last was the Wasco Independent Academy, established in 1889. W. C. Ingalls was the president. Previous to becoming a normal the academy had offered a normal course leading to the degree of Licentiate of Instruction. There was also a short course for which a certifi- cate to teach was granted. The catalogue for 1899 had this announcement :
"We give four years' daily instruction in Latin, and thereby give students a strong mental grasp on all subjects. It has this great advantage over those normal schools which have no Latin in their courses."
Probably this argument influenced the legislature to estab- lish the school in the first place. There seemed to be no other reason. The Dalles Normal was not prosperous ; its existence was brief indeed. One graduate only, Frances Ettie Rowe, was reported. This was in 1892. In 1895 the report of the state superintendent, Mr. G. M. Irwin, contains one sentence in relation to The Dalles school. Like Grey's line, "The short and simple annals of the poor," it suggests volumes: "The Dalles Normal School has ceased to exist."
Tuition was very reasonable, being about $20 a year, or $5 a term. This brought in an income entirely insufficient for the needs of the schools. Indeed, increased enrollment merely served to aggravate financial difficulties, as it made necessary increased expenditures for teachers and equipment. The schools were reported as prosperous, when the term applied mainly to their prospects. Monmouth maintained an average enroll- ment of approximately 200 for the first nine years of its exist- ence, then experienced a decided growth. This was in part due to the fact that in 1893 state aid was granted Monmouth and Weston.
The sentiment for state assistance in a financial way had been growing for several years. It was said to have been in the minds of the supporters of Monmouth and Ashland at the ​
114 JOHN C. ALMACK
time of their establishment as state schools. However, the first evidence of this desire for financial aid from the public came from the expression of county and state superintendents ; though these were doubtless inspired by normal school officials and friends. In 1885 County Superintendent E. A. Milner of Benton County wrote to the state superintendent :
"Establishing a normal school at Monmouth is a great aid to the public schools. Although established less than two years, Benton County is already receiving benefit from it. From President Stanley I learn that it is the intention of the board of trustees to deed the entire school property to the state, and to allow the state to appoint the board of regents, upon con- dition that the state make appropriation to meet the running expenses."
Certainly if the supporters of the normal school at Mon- mouth had promised in 1883 that they would never ask for state aid that promise was soon forgotten.
Other county superintendents were happily struck with the desirability of the state lending aid to the normals. Frank Rigler of Polk County (in which Monmouth Normal is lo- cated) advised the state superintendent:
"Some provision should be made for the support of the state normal schools."
And L. H. Baker in the adjoining county of Yamhill be- lieved :
"We need a normal school supported by the state, and then require the teachers to attend."
The legislature of 1885, busily engaged in creating other normals, did not heed the suggestions here given. Two years later Superintendent Milner of Benton repeated his endorse- ment of Monmouth :
"I visited the school at Monmouth in February, and found over 200 young men and women in attendance. A more en- ergetic body of teachers and professors cannot be found. The teaching is thorough and practical as normal school work ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 115
should be. This institution should receive financial aid from the state." 21
These recommendations were not without effect. Two years after being authorized to grant diplomas, the Monmouth and Ashland schools went before the legislature and asked for appropriations. The legislature did not lend a willing ear, however. Lacking organization, and probably doubting the wisdom of pushing their claims, the normal exponents with- drew without causing more than a ripple on the financial sur- face. In 1887 another request was put forward for state aid. The normal institute here crops up in opposition, County Su- perintendent T. T. Vincent of Washington County saying :
"As there are no training schools for the cause of education within reach of a majority of our teachers, it would be better if the legislature instead of appropriating $20,000 or $30,000 for a state normal or the university would appropriate said amounts to the various counties for the purpose of having in- stitutes for from two to four weeks duration each year.
Monmouth Normal insisted on bringing the matter to an issue. In the annual catalogue of 1887 a comparison between Oregon and other states in regard to support was drawn :
"The large and increasing appropriations of money made for the support of normal schools in those states where they have had a thorough trial show the estimation in which they are held on their merits."
But Oregon normals were to get no help from the session of 1887. In the committee on ways and means to which the appropriation bills were referred it was brought out that to give state money to a denominational school was contrary to the constitution, and that Monmouth and Ashland were in fact denominational schools, as their properties were held by church organizations. As a consequence no appropriation was made, and the normal school authorities turned their efforts to the discovery of means by which the obstacle to state support could be rendered inapplicable. There seemed to be but one solution of the question: namely, that mentioned by Super-
21 "The enrollment at Monnmuth for seven years beginning in 1883 was, in order, 104, 216, 202 (this was during the hard times when the rust took the wheat crop), 227, 261, 197, 216. ​
116 JOHN C. ALMACK
intendent Milner in 1885. Article I, section 5, of the Bill of Rights is explicit :
"No money shall be drawn from the Treasury for the benefit of any religious or theological institution ; nor shall any money be appropriated for the payment of any religious services in either house of the Legislative Assembly."
Therefore, the schools proposed to become state institutions in fact. A formal offer of the property of the schools was made to the legislature, and accepted without debate. In fact, the legislators felt the state had the better of the bargain, and regarded the acquisition of the buildings, grounds and equip- ment of the schools as so much gain.
The acceptance of the property did not pledge the legis- lature to grant aid, but the obligation to do this was expressed by others. State Superintendent G. M. Irwin in his biennial report to the assembly in 1889 said :
"It is not good policy to authorize normal schools which the state does not control, and whose support it does not guar- antee. It should be seen to that they are de facto what they are in name. All that come away should show that they are 'apt to teach.' Much criticism on just this point may be found in various quarters, but the ground for such criticism should be removed. Laws governing the institutions should be made harmonious."
The criticism referred to was that other courses besides those needed for teachers were being given, and that the students did not become teachers. These criticisms were often repeated. Governor Sylvester Pennoyer also expressed himself on the question of normal schools. In his message to the legislature in 1893 he said :
"By accepting the gift of college property (at Monmouth) the state became morally and legally bound to extend aid to that institution."
Ashland, though an early applicant for an appropriation, was not to receive one. Weston had supplanted her in the favor of the law-makers. On February 21, 1893, a bill was passed authorizing the governor to appoint a board of nine members which with the state board of education should con​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 117
stitute the board of regents of the Monmouth Normal. "The board of regents," read the law, "shall receive a deed to the premises now used and held by the state normal at Monmouth, and shall have the same duly recorded." In return an appro- priation of $23,382.76 22 was given the Polk County institution. Seven regents were given to Weston, and an appropriation of $24,000 "conditioned on the conveyance of the property of the school to the board, to be held for the state."
The same year, Portland University, which was then raising high hopes in the hearts of the educational promoters of the Northwest, made a proposition to Ashland to endow the normal school with $20,000 if the people of the city would furnish a suitable building and grounds. The offer was accepted, and a building commenced. It soon became evident that the Port- land institution would not be able to keep its part of the agree- ment, and work on the new building was temporarily sus- pended. In spite of the disappointment over the loss of the prospective endowment, it was agreed that the building should be finished. W. T. VanScoy, who had been president of the Drain Normal and a teacher in Portland University, was called to Ashland. Through his efforts the old normal school prop- erty was sold, and funds made available for the construction of the new building, which was rushed to completion. The year following, Drain dedicated a new building. These institu- tions were then ready to make an offer of their property in return for state support.
THE NORMALS AND THE LEGISLATURE 1893-1909
There seemed to be no doubt in the minds of the politicians that the policy of granting assistance to the schools engaged in training teachers should not be discontinued. In 1895, Governor Lord in his inaugural address said:
"To obtain expert teachers it is necessary to have schools for their education. Upon this basis of need and strictest economy in management, I recommend whatever appropriation may be necessary for their support."
22 In 1891 the trustees of Monmouth had been forced to borrow $4,200 on a note. On receiving this appropriation the note was paid. ​
118 JOHN C. ALMACK
Upon this recommendation, Monmouth and Weston were granted their second appropriations.
Two years later Ashland and Drain 23 pushed their claims for support. The latter school was particularly fortunate in having a supporter in the senate in the person of Senator Reed. The founder of the village was also a man of considerable political influence. The original appropriation bill gave Ash- land $12,500 and excluded Drain. Through the influence of Senator Reed 24 a special committee of the house and the senate was appointed to visit the normals and report on their con- ditions and needs. A favorable report was rendered on all. On the final passage of the Ashland appropriation measure, an amendment was added giving Drain $5,000 and Ashland $7,500. In rather a whimsical manner, President Anderson, of Drain, put the needs of his school before the legislature :
"If the state expects the child of its own creation to be strong and healthy, it should supply it with the same kind and quantity of nourishment it has given to other offspring of like nature. We cannot keep pace with the others with- out state aid."
Separate boards of regents of nine members each were pro- vided, and the schools transferred the title to their holdings to the state. Oregon then had four state normals, drawing state aid.
The course of the normal schools was not even then a smooth one. Opposition and criticisms were springing to
23 Senator Reed of Drain introduced the bill giving Drain normal an appro- priation, and steered it through the senate. During the same time, E. V. Carter of Ashland had put the Ashland bill through the house. When the Ashland normal school bill appeared in the senate, Reed asked to have it referred to the com- mittee on fisheries, of which he was chairman. His colleagues jocosely concurred, thinking 1 the senator from Drain wanted to kill the measure. With the Ashland bill in his pocket, Reed called upon Carter and said: "This bill will never see the light again unless you get the Drain normal school bill through the house." An agreement was thereupon concluded and both schools given aid.
24 The state superintendent in his report, 1898, makes the following recom- mendation: "The (normals) at Weston and Monmouth are organized under special legislation, the governor being authorized to appoint the boards of regents, and to these school appropriations have been made. The other two (Drain and Ashland) are simply permitted to prosecute their work under tuitional and private support, and to their graduates the state board of education is to issue diplomas of the same degree as those granted to graduates of normals controlled and owned by the state.
. It is therefore a fact that the normal schools without state aid must necessarily be crippled in their work. To maintain existence even they are com- pelled to resort to various means to increase attendance, and there is great tempta- tion to present a limited curriculum that the short and easy course may induce attendance, the main object of many being the obtaining of a state diploma, real merit and ability to teach being a secondary matter. This course cannot long continue without awakening criticism, and it is also detrimental to the teaching force. The logic of the situation is that there should be one taken under the care of the state." ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 119
life. In his message to the assembly in 1899, Governor Lord said:
"Our normals are a useful and indispensable adjunct to our common school system. Let them be held strictly to the true object of their work, and aloof from educating in other branches: there their success is assured, and their expense will probably be greatly reduced."
There were other signs of opposition. When the legisla- ture convened in special session in 1898, the authority of the schools to grant certificates to teach was abrogated, and the only privilege left the normals was that of issuing statements of attendance to graduates, these statements being accepted in lieu of thirty months' experience, admitting the holders to the state examinations for life diplomas. This was the celebrated Daly 25 bill.
The criticisms were various. It was said the admission re- quirements were too low, that they were not invariably fol- lowed, that commercial, college preparatory, and college courses were offered rather than normal courses; that the graduates did not teach ; that the schools were of local service only ; that they meddled in politics ; that buildings and equipment were inadequate ; that they did not have training school facilities ; that they were not in strategic geographical locations; there were occasional discussions in reference to the qualifications of instructors ; bad management ; extravagance ; and sectarian relationships ; Governor Theodore T. Geer in his inaugural address in 1889 hinted at some of these criticisms in a delight- fully indefinite way that would do credit to any one skilled in the art of successful politics :
"It is a source of much regret that so much turmoil exists in many of the institutions located away from the state capital, and governed by boards of trustees and regents. There are reasons for believing that much of this is caused by the preva- lent idea that the institution should be used as a means of
25 The Daly bill was passed to take away the certificating power from the denominational schools, but so strong were they that it was necessary to include the state institutions "in order that there should be no sign of favoritism," the plan being to return the privilege to the state schools in a few years. The students at Monmouth threatened to walk out in a body if the bill passed, but better counsel prevailed." In 1902, President P. L. Campbell of Monmouth recommends that the normal diploma constitute a legal license to teach. ​
120 JOHN C. ALMACK
permanently benefitting the town where it is situated. . . . In some instances, the interference of local interests cripples the institution, enters the social life of the town, and in some cases has been known to hamper the efficiency of the local public schools."
There is a slight allusion in the preceding paragraph to what later was often mentioned: namely, that state institutions located more than five miles from the state capital were thus located in defiance of the state constitution, and they therefore had no claim upon the state for support. Marion County, from which Governor Geer hailed, has oftenest voiced this sentiment, and the classical reply to the remark is for politicians to threaten to remove the capital to Portland or some other section of the state.
Though the demands for public education were growing in favor the normals were apparently losing the confidence of the people. About three thousand students were enrolled in the high schools, of which there were 16 doing four years' work, 12 three years, 38 two years, and 44 one year in 1903. Three years before there were but four year high schools of first rank in the state. In 1901 district and county high schools were authorized, and there seemed less reason for giving state support to schools doing work of high school grade. There was also competition in normal work from sectarian schools. The state board of education in 1898 adopted a rule to the effect that all persons who completed a required course of study and received a literary degree in any institutions of learning of college or university rank should, upon passing a satisfactory examination, be entitled to a state diploma, and after six years of teaching receive a state life diploma. Re- ferring to the state laws on certifications the state superinten- dent said :
"The law provides that colleges and universities chartered as such with authority to grant degrees, and candidates com- pleting a course in said institutions, may receive from the state board a state diploma. This law is so indefinite that possibly its spirit and purpose have not been fully regarded. Courses of study called normal have been adopted, and the require​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 121
ments have been so limited 26 that persons have found this an easy road to receiving state diplomas. It is certainly very practical experience in teaching and school government. But evident that no persons should have a diploma who has had no it is a notorious fact that persons are sent forth from some institutions who have no practical knowledge of the science of teaching, and are equipped with nothing but knowledge of a certain limited course of study."
The schools referred to are unknown, but an examination of the report of the state superintendent for the year 1898 shows that the following private schools gave normal courses : Philo- math offered a normal course of three years leading to a degree; LaFayette Seminary; Mineral Springs College, at Sodaville, Linn County; Mt. Angel Academy and College; Portland University; Santiam Academy; Radical College of Philomath; St. Francis' Academy and College of Baker City; Pacific University. In 1891 Philomath, Pacific, and Willam- ette had taken advantage of the provision of the school law empowering private colleges to grant certificates of teaching, but the number of students they registered was small.
The appropriations given by the state were entirely inade- quate, and the normals had a fearful struggle for bare exist- ence. At last in 1901, the normals asked for greatly increased appropriations, the total being $116,229.53. This was granted, Monmouth receiving $30,800, Ashland $15,000, Weston $59,429.53, and Drain $11,000. Of Weston's allowance, $35,000 was for a new building. George E. Chamberlain, who was opposed to four normals, became governor, and in 1903 in his message to the legislature recommended :
"The number of normal schools be reduced to two on account of expense and inefficiency of management so situated geographically as to best accommodate the entire state."
Far from heeding the recommendation of the chief execu- tive, the legislature made an effort to create another school, and the bill actually passed both houses but was vetoed by the governor. The normal school forces were strong and well organized, and succeeded in getting an appropriation of $88,000,
26 It was only necessary to read a book on education to meet the requirement. ​
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postponing thereby the real struggle which began two years later.
Governor Chamberlain continued his opposition to the nor- mals. In his second message he again advised the assembly to "abolish at least two normals." He favored requiring the schools to adopt a uniform course of study, and prohibiting them from teaching pupils in the common branches.
The normals evidently felt that their chances for getting an appropriation from the twenty-third legislature were in danger. Reports of the contest in the state legislature began to appear in the press. The Oregon Teachers' Monthly in February, 1905, in an editorial said the normal schools are in danger and "have implacable foes," and
"Friends of the normals in the legislature resort to log-roll- ing tactics. They tack their appropriation measures on general appropriation bills, where other interests will carry them through."
Later on in the session (March, 1905) the journal again says the normals will probably get no aid from the state be- cause "the people dislike the log-rolling process, and political wire-pulling by which the schools are maintained." The schools were forced to pool their interests, and the omnibus appropria- tion bill was the result. This bill appropriated money for the normals, the state penitentiary, the insane asylum, reform school, the school for the deaf, the school for the blind, the Oregon Agricultural College, and the State University. The bill passed the legislature, but with the referendum clause at- tached. The legislature had evaded its responsibility on the Normal School Issue, and shifted it to the people. The elec- tion was set for 1906.
The necessity of waiting for money until the decision on the referendum precipitated a crisis in normal school finances. While the proponents of the schools felt certain the outcome of the election would be favorable, there was a period of a year to be bridged over before the appropriation would be available. Relief was immediate. In ten hours' time the citizens of Ash- land pledged $11,000 to carry on the school pending the elec- tion. The people of Drain met and voted a seventy-five mill ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 123
tax upon their property for the year 1905-1906. The town of Monmouth aided by loyal friends of the school raised over $7,000. This amount was insufficient to maintain the Mon- mouth Normal for a year, so the Polk County Bank advanced the teachers money monthly to the amount of seventy-five per cent of their vouchers. Weston alone closed its doors. The vote at the election was close, the omnibus bill carrying by only 6,730 votes. In Southern Oregon the majority was strongly in favor of the measure. Twenty-four twenty-fifths of all the ballots cast in Ashland, seven-eighths of all the votes of Jackson County, and four-fifths of the votes of Curry, Coos, and Klamath Counties were for the bill. Marion, Linn, Yam- hill, Clackamas, Washington, were strongly against the appro- priation.
The fight over the normals grew in intensity. Representa- tive Vawter of Jackson came forward with the proposal that one board of regents be appointed to direct the affairs of the four schools. The bill carried, and the Weston Leader notes that this act marked the beginning of the downfall of the normal schools. The new board consisted of six members appointed by the governor, and the state board of education.
All the schools asked for appropriations. The totals were larger than ever before, Monmouth alone asking for $115,000. The committee on ways and means acted favorably on each measure excepting Drain 27 "to show the people what a big graft the normals were working." Finally one bill was drafted covering both Drain and Monmouth, hoping that the strong support belonging to the older school would carry both safely through. Ashland was accused of being a party to this bargain, but she stoutly denied the charge. The legislative struggle was bitter. In the end the bills carried, but Governor Chamberlain vetoed the joint bill making appropriations for Monmouth and Drain. His explanation 28 of the veto was given at length, charging bad faith on the part of C. N. McArthur, president of the House, recalling his recommendation that two normals be abolished, and maintaining that the joint appropriation bill
27 Oregon Teachers' Monthly, March, 1907.
28 "The legislature in this instance combined Monmouth and Drain in one ​
124 JOHN C. ALMACK
was illegal. The supporters of the two schools could not rally enough strength to pass the bill over his veto. Accordingly Drain closed her doors and never opened them again. Mon- mouth turned again to private support. The new board of regents administered the affairs of the Central Oregon Nor- mal at Drain, leasing the buildings and equipment to school district number 22. A few years later the district was given full title to the property. Drain Normal had also ceased to exist. 29
But the normal school issue was still very much alive. Mon- mouth had considerable prestige, a strong working alumni, many friends, a strategic location, and in all an ambition to continue to function as a state supported training school for teachers. It had already been suggested by educators that the question should be settled once and for all, and if the normals were needed they should be given adequate funds without the necessity of lobbying, or engaging in political deals. A millage tax bill was recommended, carrying per- manent support for the three schools. Before this could be brought to public notice the legislature met again, and the same bone of contention was before the assembly. Governors and school superintendents had by this time become discreetly silent on the normal school question.
The new board of regents 30 had some suggestions to offer A committee of three city superintendents was selected by the board to visit the normals and to render a report on conditions and needs. This committee was composed of J. A. Churchill, Baker City, J. M. Powers, Salem, and R. R. Turner, Grants Pass. The committee faithfully performed its duty. On the basis of the information -furnished and their own knowledge of the normals, the board of regents made two recommenda-
appropriation bill after a prolonged siege of trading votes on other measures, and after other performances which have been thoroughly discreditable to those who have taken part therein. There is no question in the minds of any that there is a public demand for reducing the number of normal schools to two. It was the duty of the legislature to select two and abolish two, but it failed by slight majorities to do its duty. What was the purpose of the omnibus appropriation? It may have been brought about by cowardice which I regret to say, a majority of this body have shown in reference to the whole normal school question."
29 Drain voters met and voted a four-year high school as soon as word of the defeat in the normal reached them.
30 The regents were E. Hofer, Salem, E. E. Bragg, La Grande, W. B. Ayer, Portland, Henry J. Maier, The Dalles, Stephen Jewell, Grants Pass, and C. E. Spence, Canby. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 125
tions : ( 1 ) that a board of regents of five members be created to have complete control of the normals, agricultural college and university; and (2) that appropriations sufficient for the needs of Monmouth, Ashland, and Weston be allowed, the total aggregating $318,000. On these propositions, the vote stood five to four, and a minority report was submitted.
W. B. Ayer of Portland presented the minority report. Mr. Ayer said that the normal school question had arisen because there were too many schools. The poor buildings, inferior equipment, and poor teachers were in his opinion a positive reflection on the intelligence of the people of the state. Dr. H. D. Sheldon's study of normal schools of the United States was quoted as saying that the small school gives better train- ing, 300 to 1,000 students being the proper limits. Professor E. D. Ressler president of the Monmouth Normal was also quoted as saying in his report to the board of regents that 300 students can be taught as easily as 100, yet the total attendance of the three normals was in 1909 only 285. The minority report favored two normals, on account of the great distances to be traveled; the locations to be determined by the board of regents, but one to be in the western part of the state and one in the eastern.
Endorsed by a majority of the board 31 of regents the nor- mals went before the legislature of 1909 asking for $318,000. Their adherents were fully aware of the difficulties before them. A favorable report from the house committee on ways and means 32 was secured, and the bill was safely steered through the house. Monmouth had an alumnus 33 from Clatsop County in the legislature on the house ways and means com- mittee and he did valiant service for the schools. But the bill made no progress when it reached the senate.
Jay Bowerman, an aspiring leader of Condon, Gilliam Coun- ty, was president of the senate. It was charged that Bower- man had an animus against the normal lobby that went back
31 Governor Chamberlain had modified his views on the normal question. In his message to the legislature, 1909, he said: "I hope the legislature will once and for all settle the normal school question, and probably the best way to do it is to act upon the recommendation of the board of regents and make provisions for main- taining three schools in fie state."
32 The normals had two avowed adherents on the ways and means committee in the house: John C. McCue of Clatsop and Mann of Umatilla.
33 John C. McCue. ​
126 JOHN C. ALMACK
to the days before the primary and direct election of United States senators existed. Others held that he wished to become governor, and opposed the normals as a means of gaining popularity. Whatever his motives, unquestionably he opposed the normal appropriations by every means in his power. Sen- ators Ben Selling and Nottingham, 34 of Portland, and J. N. Smith of Marion were also looked upon as "arch-enemies" of the schools. There were others : some honestly believing the schools had interfered too much in political affairs ; some hold- ing three were unnecessary; some acting in good faith from other motives ; and a few bent upon their destruction to foster political ambitions, or to balance old scores. The Ashland Tidings hinted that Senator Merryman of Klamath was either the victim of a frame-up, or was in the combine against the normals. In the issue of February 22, 1909, this publication also stated that the senate was organized to kill the normals, and each member of the ways and means committee was put to the test before being given a place thereon. Newspaper publicity, for which Bowerman was said to have been re- sponsible, was commenced on normal activities in the legis- lature. The Portland Oregonian was the most powerful enemy of the schools. Its action can in part be explained by the fact that Harvey W. Scott, 35 its brilliant editor, had consistently opposed public education above the elementary grades, believ- ing that "progress in education lies in the capacity of the learner, not in the teacher. Those desirous of learning can always secure an education, private opportunities being abundant."
The discussion in the press was bitter, not to say vitriolic. Accrimination and recrimination were hurled impartially from both sides. The language used was not always elegant and refined, and there is evidence that statements that would get results were more popular than those that attempted to get at the merits of the issue. On January 22, 1909, the Eugene Register, quoting from the Oregonian, said :
34 Oregonian, March 13, 1909.
35 Harvey W. Scott was the first graduate of Pacific University, a Congre- gational school at Forest Grove, Washington County. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 127
"Already the gaunt ghosts of Monmouth, Ashland, Weston and Drain are haunting the law-making body."
To this the Weston Leader, edited by Clark Wood, replied :
"The normals are not 'agitating' this year. They have no 'gaunt ghosts' at Salem as imagined by the esteemed Oreg- gonian. All the agitation, wire-pulling, and log-rolling are being done, if done at all, by their enemies and by enemies the Leader means the sectarian schools that have always been jealous of the normals, and have sought their undoing. They were back of the clause which makes a normal school diploma an honorary certificate only. . . . The same influence was responsible for the referendum movement against the appro- priation bill of 1906. It is also back of the Calkins bill of this session, which makes two years of high school work es- sential to entrance at any state school. . . . Superinten- dent Ackerman is doing some effective lobbying for the three schools."
In spite of the effective work of the state superintendent, the appropriations were making no progress. The Roseburg Review of February 4th evinced discouragement :
"It looks as if the legislature might kill all the normal schools and then perhaps resuscitate one 36 of them. Like the Portland papers, most of the law-makers can never grasp the idea of what the normal schools are for. If they reduce the schools to one, they will doubtless spend as much, or more, on one as they did before on three or four, thus making it a second state university."
The following day the daily Oregonian made this contribu- tion:
"The normal school nuisance has arisen again. Normal county law-makers are 'standing in' to continue their ancient raid on the state treasure, and are awaiting their chance for log-rolling."
On February 10th the Eugene Register reported that a big normal school fight was in prospect, and said the committee on
36 Roseburg Review, February 4, 1909: "Members of the legislature in both houses who have not been sent there from normal counties have grown weary of the continual struggle of the normal schools for increased recognition and exist- ence. The inclination is to settle the question once and for all by the abolition of all but one institution, which shall be conducted and built up in the same manner as the University of Oregon and the Agricultural College." ​
128 JOHN C. ALMACK
ways and means in the house had recommended one normal to be located at Monmouth, and had approved an appropriation for it of $110,000. Three days later the same paper gave its readers the statement that:
"In the house old time trades with normal school forces have been resumed with even more boldness than at preced- ing sessions. When the normal schools had to have votes to pass their three bills carrying $318,000 they got them from Eastern Oregon. So strong do the normal members think themselves, that they are threatening senate bills unless the senate shall provide for their schools."
C. N. McArthur, speaker of the house, was for the normals. In the fight in the house he defended the small enrollment in the normals by saying that the attendance would be much larger but for the fact of the "rotten policies this state has assumed towards these schools, which have been made political footballs without any consideration for their usefulness from an educational viewpoint." On this point the Eugene Register said on February 12th :
"There were only 285 students enrolled in the normals last year, so the taxpayers are the chief sufferers, while normal school education under such a scattering regime cannot reach the high state of efficiency necessary to place it on a high plane."
Introducing a remedy for the normal school issue, the Regis- ter on February 19th says:
"The normals plunge the state into extravagance, lower the standards of our state schools, cause them to fight for the meager appropriations they do get, and it will continue as long as our educational institutions stay in politics up to their eyes. ... A certain per cent of state tax ought to be set aside for each school."
New plans for bringing the deadlock between the house and the senate to an end began to appear. Representative Buchanan of Douglas introduced a bill dividing the state into five districts with a normal school in each. Portland under ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 129
this plan was to get a school, Corvallis was mentioned as the site of one normal, all others were to be abolished, and the agricultural college combined with the university at Eugene. This suggestion came from Eugene, and the friends of Cor- vallis retorted by offering to help move the university to their city, and to use the university buildings for a state normal. A' county normal system as in Wisconsin was also put for- ward. 37 Once it seemed that Monmouth 38 would get an ap- propriation, but Ashland and Weston withdrew their support and she went down to defeat. The legislature made short shift with Drain. The normal school there was formally abol- ished, and the property deeded to the public school district.
The one normal idea persisted. Probably in compliment to Salem, the Oregonian on February 19th said there should be but one normal, and it should be located at the state capital. Senator J. N. Smith of Marion introduced a bill establish- ing a normal at Portland. Normal defenders said this was done in order to retain the capital at Salem, the normal school politicians having threatened to remove it to Eugene, Cor- vallis, and Portland. In the last hours of the session the "one normal at Monmouth" bill was proposed by the house as a compromise. President Bowerman of the senate said after the legislature had adjourned that this bill was defeated be- cause "Monmouth was a very small town, and would require dormitories." Clark Wood of the Weston Leader had prophe- sied that "if the Eastern Oregon normal is abandoned it will be because it has been traded off for a branch asylum a plum for which Pendleton and Baker will later do battle." In a similar vein the Oregonian of February 18th goes on to say that:
"Eastern Oregon lawmakers have been consorting with the normal forces. Eastern Oregon wants an asylum, a scalp bounty, and a portage road appropriation. They have found the normals ready for their uses at every turn."
The Oregonian also gently stated that an asylum was what
37 Oregonian, March 16, 1909.
38 Ibid, February 11, 1909. ​
130 JOHN C. ALMACK
Eastern Oregon needed, not a normal school. To this charm- ing bit of humor the Weston Leader proposed to build a wall around and a roof over the whole of Marion County and de- vote the enclosure to asylum purposes for the benefit of the Willamette Valley. To leave these exchanges of journalistic pleasantries, it was generally reported that the one normal plan was defeated by the state board of education. The Ashland Tidings says in its issue of February llth:
"According to the Portland Telegram, which like the Ore- gonian, colors its news reports against the normals, both these men (Jones of Lincoln and Hawley of Polk) were safely in the one school column, and admit that their change of front is due to the pleas of Ackerman and other members of the state board of education."
On the same date, the Umpqua Valley News of Roseburg wrote : > ^
"With victory almost within their grasp, the proponents of one normal awoke this morning to find their forces scattered. The result is said to have been attained through the active lobbying of the state board of education, headed by State Super- intendent of Public Instruction J. H. Ackerman."
The vote in the house on the appropriation bills showed Monmouth to be the favored school. On final passage the negative ballots were as follows :
Monmouth : Brandon, Farrell, Hatteberg, Hines, Jackson, Jones (Clackamas), Jones (Douglas), Libby, Meek, Munkers,
Weston: Dimick, Farrell, Greer, Hatteberg, Hines, Jackson, Jones (Clackamas), Jones ( Douglas), Libby, Meek, Munkers, Orton, Smith. Total 13.
Ashland: Abbott, Brandon, Bryant, Clemens, Corregan, Couch, Dimick, Farrell, Greer, Hatteberg, Hines, Hawley, Hughes, Jackson, Jones (Clackamas), Jones (Douglas), Libby, Munkers, Orton, Reynolds, Smith. Total 21.
But the state senate stood firm, and rejected all efforts at compromise. On the last day, the normal leaders were offered ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 131
an appropriation of $8,000 to carry the schools through to the end of the school year. This they scornfully refused. At this, Senator F. J. Miller introduced a bill in the senate repealing all normal school legislation. Bowerman and Selling led the attack, the president of the senate taking the floor. Shortly before adjournment the bill passed, and Oregon was without normal schools : they were killed as effectively as it was pos- sible for the legislature to do it.
For their defeat, the normals blamed chiefly Jay Bowerman and the Oregonian. In respect to the former the Ashland Tidings said on February 22d :
"Jay Bowerman was the most intemperate and irrational opponent of the normal schools. Rumor has it that he has a gubernatorial bee buzzing in his bonnet, or some other politi- cal ambition, and played his game in the senate for popularity. What a vote he would get in this section of Southern Oregon !"
At the next election Bowerman was a candidate for governor, and though the state is normally Republican by a big majority, he was defeated by Oswald West, Democrat.
The Oregonian gave the following as the real reason for the destruction of the normals :
"The real reason why the normal schools have been aband- oned lies in the belief that there is no real reason to educate and graduate school teachers at the expense of the state. It is believed teachers, as others preparing for professions, should educate themselves. The state does not educate plumbers, nor boilermakers, nor sheepherders. Yet all these and many more are essential to the state.
"Besides, it is believed that there is too much literary edu- cation these days, and not work enough to furnish a supply of milk, eggs, and butter, pork and beans. Again, members of the legislature, moved by the crowd of normal advocates, were trying to trade and to log-roll everything to get what they wanted."
The legislature drew much criticism after adjournment for ​
132 JOHN C. ALMACK
extravagance, the appropriations totaling about $2,000,000. Of this amount $100,000 was given to build an automobile highway to Crater Lake, which was characterized by the South- ern Oregon papers as for "the gratification of the idle rich," and for the use of "bug-buzzing tourists." On the normal question itself the papers outside of the interested centers were silent. The Blue Mountain Eagle of Canyon City said :
"No state-wide legislation of any importance has been ac- complished. The time has been spent mostly in raising salaries, and debating ten-inch hat pins and nine-foot sheets."
The Corvallis Gazette on February 26th said this on the normal fight :
"In wiping out the normal schools, the senate has succeeded in accomplishing something no other legislature has ever been able to do. The breaking up of the normal school combination was chiefly the work of President Jay Bowerman. For several years the normals have played a most important part in the deliberations of the legislature. They have defeated and made laws, and they have defeated and made United States sen- ators. At least one of the normals was created because of votes given to a candidate for United States senator."
"This is the first time the normals have ever been downed, and they have taken their defeat hard. The senate refused absolutely to even make the small appropriation of $10.000 to pay salaries to the end of the school term. This appropriation was designed as funeral expenses, but the senate was in a mood where it would not even spend money for flowers."
The schools were cut off in the middle of the year without means of support. Students who had been in attendance for three and one-half years lost their hopes of graduation. Many of the faculty had come from the East at the beginning of the school year to take positions and several teachers were left practically penniless with two months' salary unpaid. The feeling against the senators in the schools was bitter. Ashland with a perseverance that did her credit at once raised $1,500 ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 133
by popular subscription. Before checking on it the secretary of the board of regents required that a statement be filed that the money was given voluntarily, and did not constitute a claim against the state. The statement was not forthcoming, and Ashland and Weston closed their doors. Monmouth con- tinued until the end of the term in June.
The legislature which refused the normal schools aid had given the state agricultural college a much larger appropria- tion than ever before: $370,000. Within a short time after it was known the normals had lost, a petition to refer the col- lege appropriation to the people was put in circulation in Ash- land. There seemed no difficulty in getting signers in the southern Oregon city. Various reasons were given for this action. The real reason is said to be that the college partisans deserted the normals in order to get their own appropriation, and the referendum was invoked in revenge. The Oregonian was inclined to put the blame on both parties. On March 15th it said:
"Ashland and its partisans have been willing enough to make any sort of combination with Corvallis, any kind of concession to the college, provided they were permitted to smell out their own particular from the general treasury."
Weston at first seemed responsive, but at last came to the decision that no help would be lent in the fight against the agricultural college. A special session of the legislature was called in the spring, and the normal lobbies were on hand. However, they were not accorded a hearing. It was then advocated that the people should be permitted to vote on the normal school question: should there be one normal school, three, or none in Oregon?
The movement first gained headway in Monmouth which proposed to go it alone. Ashland on hearing of the plan com- municated at once with Weston. After deliberating on the proposition it was decided that separate initiative petitions should be circulated, and each school should stand or fall on ​
134 JOHN C. ALMACK
its own merits. These were accordingly drawn up, sufficient signers secured, and the fate of Ashland, Monmouth and Wes- ton was submitted in the year 1910 to that sovereign power from which there is no appeal.
The stormy period in the legislature had aroused discussion and dissension among the people. Summarized, the charges and counter-charges were essentially as follows :
The buildings and equipment were inferior and inadequate.
The faculty as a whole were not sufficiently trained.
Too many courses were attempted.
The schools were merely local.
The schools were usurping functions belonging to the public schools and to the commercial colleges.
The admission requirements were too low.
High. standards of scholarship were not maintained.
The graduates and students did not become teachers, or else remained in the profession only a short time.
There were more schools than were needed.
They were not well located.
The schools were lacking in adequate training school facili- ties, particularly in pupils for practice teaching.
The costs of education were excessive.
One central normal school was preferable.
The normals interfered in politics and this interference re- sulted in vicious legislation and prevented desirable legislation.
The normal legislators traded votes, and formed combines to the injury of other interests.
To these accusations the friends of the normals replied that they did not engage in politics from choice, but that the system was responsible for the fact that the schools were not better, and for their lobbying appropriations. They stated that the sectarian schools were to blame for the agitation against the normals, and that most of their criticisms were without basis in fact. In order to evaluate the work of the normals, and judge of the merits of the controversy, as well as to present a ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 135
picture of the daily affairs of the schools, an inquiry into their organization, conditions, and life is necessary.
The presidents of the normal schools were also teachers. Pedagogy, ancient and modern languages, psychology, history, science, and mathematics represent some of the subjects taught. Generally the tenure of office was short Monmouth being a conspicuous exception. Many of the prominent men of Oregon have been in charge of the destinies of one of the state normals.
Monmouth has had but four presidents since 1882: D. T. Stanley, who was successful in having the normal established ; P. L. Campbell, who secured the first appropriation, now presi- dent of the state university; E. D. Ressler, president 1902- 1909 while the fight was on in the legislature, now dean of the school of education, Agricultural College; and J. H. Acker- man, incumbent, who held the office of state superintendent during the hottest part of the normal fight, and was elected president when the normal was reinstated in 1911. At Ash- land there were M. G. Royal, J. S. Sweet, W. M. Clayton, W. T. VanScoy, and B. F. Mulkey; at Drain, H. L. Benson, F. W. Benson, W. C. Hawley, W. T. VanScoy, Louis Barzee, E. H. Anderson, J H. Orcutt, W. H. Dempster, and A. L. Briggs; at Weston, C. A. Wooddy, F. J. Van Winkle, M. G. Royal, D. V. S. Reed, J. A. Beattie, J. M. Martindale, and Robert F. French. H. L. Benson is now a member of the state supreme court, and W. C. Hawley is United States Con- gressman from the first Oregon District.
College degrees were not required of the faculty members, though the board of regents finally went on record as being opposed to employing teachers unless they were at least grad- uates of a four-year normal school. 39 W. B. Ayer in the minor- ity report of the board of regents quoted the visiting commit- tee appointed to visit the schools in 1908 as reporting that: "Out of fifty-one teachers reported upon only sixteen were good; the balance were fair only, or absolutely poor." As an example of the typical faculty roll the following list is given
39 1898. ​
136 JOHN C. ALMACK
from the catalogue of the Weston school 1906-07:
Robert C. French, B. S., President Methods of Teaching, History of Education, Psychology
Charles P. Dennison, A. B.
History, English Literature, Latin
Anna Z. Crayne, Preceptress
English, Domestic Science
Clara Graves French, A. B.
Chemistry, Biology, Physics
Clara G. Hall
Mathematics
C. Paul Schmausser
Bookkeeping, Stenography, German
Winifred E. Welch
Music and Drawing
Frank W. Litchfield
Principal Training School, Manual Training
Charles A. Webster Critic Teacher Training School, Physical Training
Ella R. Hayes Kindergartner, Critic Teacher in Training School
C. Paul Schmausser Secretary of Faculty, Librarian
Something of the work 40 done by each teacher may be in- ferred from the above and from a program of the Drain school 1902-1903. Miss Easterday taught drawing to three normal school classes, music to one normal school class, and both drawing and music to all the grades. Miss Johnson taught civics, rhetoric, composition, Caesar, first year Latin, and first and second year law, and sociology, and was principal of the training school. Miss Crosno had daily recitations in sopho- more and junior English literature, American literature, Eng- lish history, grammar, and general history. At Weston, Mr. and Mrs. Wood taught all the subjects twenty-seven in the course and offered to organize classes in music, painting and
40 "In the past two years two teachers in succession who have had the work in music and drawing have broken down from overwork." Report of Monmouth Nor- mal 1902-1904, page 17. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 137
drawing. The faculty at Monmouth had from seven to nine- teen members ; Drain in its palmy days had twelve teachers ; the other two schools as a rule employed nine.
The salaries were low. State aid enabled the regents to increase salaries, but at the highest mark there could be no just criticism on the score of their being exorbitant. In 1901 Drain received an appropriation of $10,000, yet spent only $6,903.20. The positions were dignified by being called "chairs," and the salary schedule at Drain in 1901 was as follows :
President $1,500
Chair of Mathematics 800
Chair of History 750
Chair of Science 750
Chair of English 700
Principal of Training School 600
Assistant 400
Music Teacher (half time) 250
Janitor 200
Monmouth paid better salaries, as witness in 1898 : 41
President $1,800
H. B. Buckham 1,200
Sarah Tuthill 1,200
J. M. Powers 1,000
A. F. Campbell 1,000
B. F. Mulkey 1,000
W. A. Warm 1,000
Ellen J. Chamberlain 800
Mrs. R. C. French 700
Louis P. Freytag 650
William Fellows 375
J. B. V. Butler 500
The sessions were uniformly forty weeks in length, and the year was divided into four terms of ten weeks each. School usually began the first week in September, and closed the following June. The first summer school was held at Mon-
41 Report of Board of Regents, 1889. ​
138 JOHN C. ALMACK
mouth in 1899. As late as 1906, G. W. Bishop quoted Presi- dent E. D. Ressler as saying that he would be delighted if the summer school enrollment reached fifty. Ashland held its first summer school in 1907. No special appropriation was set aside for the summer, and the teachers were but illy repaid for their services.
The courses offered were complex and varied. Commercial courses were strongly emphasized. Weston widely adver- tised her kindergarten and manual training courses. Mon- mouth had the following nine courses as late as 1905 : Educa- tion, Art of Teaching, English, Mathematics, Science, History, Arts, Civil Government, and Physical Education.
Graduates of the normals were admitted to the state uni- versity without examination, and degrees were granted. Mon- mouth conferred degrees of B.S., B.A., and M.A., and in 1904 gave the degree of Bachelor of the Science of Didactics. The other schools also granted these degrees with the exception of The Dalles, which was forced to content itself with the degree of Licentiate of Instruction.
In 1897 the entrance requirements were increased to the extent that in theory only students from schools accredited by the university were accepted. Ten years later only students who had completed the ninth grade were admitted. The schools were severely criticized for having low entrance re- quirements. Governor George Chamberlain in his message to the legislature in the year 1901 said :
"Many are admitted who are not well grounded in the rudi- ments of the common school branches."
Again, in 1905, he said the normals should not teach pupils in the common school subjects.
After state control was an established fact the tuition rates were set at six dollars a term, or twenty-four dollars a year. Reasonable as these charges were, they were not always col- lected. In October, 1907, in a letter to President A. L. Briggs of Drain, C. L. Starr, secretary of the board of regents, calls ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 139
attention to the fact that 25 students had failed to pay their full tuition fees, and the records of the school do not show that the collections were made. On the recommendation of E. B. McElroy, state superintendent, a law was passed granting free scholarships to teachers with second grade certificates.
The costs of board and room were so low as to cause us to look backward with regret. The dining hall at Monmouth provided board at $1.50 a week if paid in advance, and at $1.75 a week if payments were deferred. A room might be had at from fifty cents to one dollar a week. In 1899, the estimated expenses for a year were from $110 to $200 a year.
The cost to the state of giving instruction in the normals is equally interesting. In a study 42 of the state normal school systems of the United States made in 1905 by Dr. H. D. Sheldon, dean of the school of education, University of Ore- gon, a comparison is made of the costs of education in the small normals with the costs in the large central schools. Oregon with a population of 437,302 is shown to appropriate $56,458 a year for its four normal schools, or an average of $14,114 each. The total enrollment is given at 409. There- fore the cost of educating a student in one of the Oregon normals was $129 a year for each thousand inhabitants. The annual cost of training a single student was placed at $138. Contrasted with expenditure in Oregon are the costs in the following states:
Cost per 1,000 Cost of Training
Inhabitants One Student
Oregon $129 $138
Colorado 272 248
Oklahoma 181 141
Rhode Island 140 294
Washington 225 189
California 121 118
South Dakota 75 65
The average cost of graduating trained teachers from the
42 State Normal School Systems of the U. S. f H. D. Sheldon, 1912. ​
140 JOHN C. ALMACK
schools of the United States was given at $419.28. In Oregon the average cost per graduate was in 1907-1908, $420. The average cost per student had fallen by that time to $84, this being more than the actual cost to the state, as the expenses of Monmouth were paid from private funds. That year (1907- 1908) the costs per student were in Rhode Island $294, Colo- rado $248, Massachusetts $150, Oklahoma $141, South Da- kota $192, Washington $189, Wisconsin $140. More mod- erate expenses were incurred by New York $106, Michigan $98, Minnesota $115, Pennsylvania $84, Illinois $75, and West Virginia $98.
The income per school was lower in Oregon than in any other state in the Union with the exception of Arkansas, Ver- mont, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, and Maine. The cost of instruction for each student was exceeded by only seven states. In 1904 the board of regents rendered a report on each school, putting the costs on the basis of graduates. On this basis the figures are :
Number of
Graduates Cost
Drain 2 $3,478
Ashland 29 383
Monmouth 51 385
Weston 14 714
Computed on the same basis, the cost at Monmouth was in 1918 $219.62.
As to number of schools, Dr. Sheldon's study showed that seven states had one school only, thirty-seven had from two to nineteen, and two states had none. Thirty states had either two, three, four or five. New York had nineteen, Pennsyl- vania had fifteen, and Massachusetts ten. The small normal schools (of from 300 to 1,000 students) were preferred to the large central schools.
Salary schedules were included in Dr. Sheldon's report. He showed that $25,000 a year was the minimum that would be ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 141
required to pay the expenses of conducting a small normal
school of 300 students. This was apportioned in the following
fashion :
Salaries :
President $3,000
Four men at $1,750 7,000
Four women at 1,200 4,800
Two women at 1,000 2,000
Four critic teachers at 800 3,200 $20,000
Supplies, Library, etc 5,000
Budget for year $25,000
A comparison of these figures with the expenditures of the Drain Normal should dispel the idea that the normals prac- ticed extravagance.
The attendance rose and fell as legislation, appropriations, and other circumstances of importance were favorable or un- favorable. When the Daly bill was passed taking the certifi- cating power away from the normals, there was a great fall- ing off in attendance, tuition decreased as a consequence, and a deficit was incurred at Monmouth. In 1889, there was such an influx of students at Monmouth that the practice school was discontinued in order to afford room for regular students. This condition was closely paralleled in 1901 when the attend- ance reached 399. In spite of higher entrance requirements, two years later the attendance was 419. Two years before the fate of the normals was submitted to the people there were 630 students enrolled at the four schools and 111 grad- uates.
There were fewer students as a rule at the other institutions, though occasionally the older school was excelled. Increased attendance at one school was usually accompanied by higher attendance at the others. A partial record of enrollment from 1891 to 1907 is given herewith: ​
142 JOHN C. ALMACK
Monmouth Ashland Drain Weston
1891 216 93
1893 376 332 141
1895 243 133 306 317
1899 202 203
1901 399 206 156 448
1903 419 283 247
1905 207
1907 311 379* 279 348
In 1905 the president of Drain said:
"The year has been a successful one, notwithstanding the financial troubles we have had. The public school of 180 pupils has been added as our training department."
In 1908 the board of regents made a report to the governor giving these statistics :
Monmouth Ashland Drain Weston
Receipts $13,996.27 $33,320.72 $4,159.06 $33,299.21
Expenditures 13,722.85 32,025.27 4,037.56 32,969.86 Donations . . . 7,000.00 100.00 2,950.00
Summer School 248 68
Graduates 48 28 14 22
Appropria- tions $100,000.00 $108,060.00 $107,600.00
Student government seems to have been reasonable and fair, and not a matter of great difficulty. Ashland announced :
"It is the aim of the teachers and of the government to lead the students to a willing co-operation in the right and the good. Students are urged to resist those impulses which oppose what reason teaches best. If students do not do well, a request will be made for their withdrawal."
That there were students who were not incapable of plan- ning mischief is shown by the minutes of the Zamzamian lit- erary society of Drain. The secretary recorded that members created a disturbance during a meeting, and the president in- structed the sergeant-at-arms to enforce the rules. Exemplify- ing the adage that prevention is better than a cure, Monmouth 43 published a formidable set of rules for the guidance of the young men and young women of the school:
43 The catalogue of 1870, Christian College, contained a long list of "laws" ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 143
"The principles and motives of self-government are faith- fully presented. Students are taught to be ladies and gentle- men. . . . Each student will be expected to subordinate every other interest to his regular school duties. Profanity, gambling, the use of intoxicating liquors, visiting saloons, at- tending public balls at any time, or private dancing parties except at the end of terms, carrying concealed weapons, smoking cigarettes . . . are prohibited . . . Students will be expected to be in their rooms early in the evening, and not lounge about the stores or on the streets. Students of the opposite sex must on no account visit each others' rooms. Any forgetfulness will call for immediate criticism and warning/'
Literary societies were popular at all schools. "Rhetoricals were compulsory, or as the catalogues put it:
"The faculty encourages literary work in every way possible. A student has the choice of performing his rhetoricals before the school or before the society. We prefer that it be done in the society."
The Zamzamian society was active during the history of the Drain normal. Monmouth had five literaries: two for men and three for women. The Hesperians and the Vespertines date back to Christian College days. Other societies were named the Websterians, Orios, Normals, Invincibles, and the Delphians. Faculty members often appeared on the programs : Professor Orcutt at the meeting of the Zamzamians, April 4, 1902, giving a "brilliant talk on recent revelations of the mysteries of the North Pole, and the future developments to take place in that region." Mrs. O. C. Brown gave a "talk" on "What the Legislature Has Done." Songs, readings, recita- tions, debates and "talks" made up the programs. 44
The students were usually given good grades. An analysis
among which were the following:
"That he be diligent in study, punctual in attendance at the calling of the morning roll, recitation, examination, and all other college exercises, and that he render a valid and satisfactory reason to the proper officers for any delinquency on his part.
"That he go not beyond the immediate precinct of the village without the permission of the president or faculty.
"That he neither keep in his possession nor use firearms, a dirk, a bowie knife, or any other kind of a deadly weapon.
"The bell shall be rung each evening at a stated hour, when all students will be required to retire to their respective rooms to study."
44 Two typical literary programs given by the Vespertines of Monmouth in 1911 follow. ​
144 JOHN C. ALMACK
of these would hardly serve as a basis for the origin of the Missouri grading system. Both percentages and letters were used. Failures were very few. One year the Drain records 45 show two failures only, these being in "orthography " In a class of sixty-three students in general history two were marked as failures. Both were freshmen.
Athletics, lecture courses, student publications, 46 plays and oratorical contests were slow about being admitted. Prior to the opening of the twentieth century, school activities were largely unorganized. There were games, of course, in which members of the faculty participated. W. C. Hawley and O. C. Brown, professors at Drain, often played marbles in front of the school building. Basket ball was introduced about 1902, and inter-scholastic contests in this sport, baseball, football, debate, and oratory were thereafter featured. In 1901, W, R. Rutherford, J. C. Pettyjohn, and Gertrude M. Vernon of Mon- mouth won the debate series against Albany, Pacific, and Mc- Minnville. Mr. Julien Hurley, now state senator from Mal- heur and Harney Counties, represented the school in the state oratorical contest at Newberg in 1905. The Y. W. C. A. and the Y. M. C. A. were represented in all schools. After 1900 "lecture courses, recitals, and musicals were given by the lead- ing speakers and artists of the state."
Various inducements were held out to draw students. The one reiterated most regularly in the catalogues was the need of teachers, the number being given as six hundred annually. Weston established an appointment bureau in 1901, saying that there were many demands for teachers at salaries ranging from $50 to $85 a month. In 1904 the catalogue of Mon- mouth says :
"There is a good demand for teachers to take positions pay- ing from $40 to $75 a month. Capable, well trained men are in demand as principals. The salaries range from $60 to $120 a month. Although in many instances women fill these posi-
45 Records Drain Normal 1902-1903.
46 The first normal school publication was the Pacific Christian Messenger designed for general circulation, founded by T. F. Campbell in 1870. The first student paper was issued at Monmouth in 1905. Miss Ruby E. Shearer was the first editor of the Courier, as the magazine was called. It was published quarterly until the close of the school in 1909. After the rejuvenation of Monmouth normal a new quarterly, "The Norm," was started, and this publication is still in existence. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 145
tions satisfactorily, the majority of school boards insist upon having men. Desirable positions in high schools, and super- intendencies, await those who will thoroughly prepare them- selves to occupy them. The salaries paid are from $800 to $2,000 a year."
The training departments are described as offering excel- lent opportunities for practice teaching. Weston made much of its kindergarten and manual training departments ; Ashland emphasized location, climate, and courses in agriculture and school gardening. Other things set forth to attract students are the high qualification of the faculties, social advantages, courses, accessibility, low living expenses, laboratories, gym- nasiums, modern buildings and equipment. Monmouth is described as
"a delightful little village of 500 people. It can be reached by the railway, or by boats plying the Willamette. One of its remarkable features is its healthfulness, fevers and agues being unknown. The sea breeze reaches it very gently, modi- fying the temperature, but producing no unfavorable effects. Saloons, gambling houses, and other dens of vice are strictly prohibited by town charter and ordinances."
On reading the flattering prospectus one is at a loss to under- stand the need for the prohibitory regulations mentioned on a preceding page.
Of Weston, the advertising matter circulated among pros- pective students said:
"Its elevation of 1800 feet above sea level, its proximity to the mountains, the pure water brought to the town from springs in the foothills, and its freedom from allurements and excitements of more populous cities, render this a most delightful, healthful, and desirable location for a school of this kind. . . . There has never been a single death at the East Oregon normal school but that of the late Presi- dent Martindale, and he came here a sick man. Students are seldom ill. No student has ever been hazed."
There are no complete reports showing the counties from ​
146 JOHN C. ALMACK
which the students came to the normals. In 1903 Monmouth made this statement:
Number of counties represented 22
Number enrolled from Polk County 63
Multnomah 20
Marion 17
Lane 16
Washington 14
Yamhill 12
Clackamas 18
Lake 8
Clatsop 7
Benton 6
All other counties 32
Other states 10
Total 213
Two hundred seventy-five students were enrolled in the Weston school during the biennium 1907-1908. Nineteen per cent of these were from Umatilla County, the remainder from seventeen other counties. Nineteen counties were represented at Ashland in 1903, with eleven students from California and Washington. The catalogue for 1905 contained this state- ment:
"A canvas of the enrollment of last year shows that eighty- five per cent of the students would not have attended any other institution of secondary learning had the normal at Ashland not existed, and that but fifty per cent of them would attend school elsewhere should this school cease to exist. The state normal at Ashland is not a local high school in any sense. . . . Some thirty students from Willamette Valley counties attended the school last year, but our chief reliance for patron- age is upon the southern counties of the state, and the teaching of the public schools of Southern Oregon is being largely done by graduates of this school."
Regarding the occupations taken up by her graduates, Mon​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 147
mouth submitted these statistics in 1904, dating from the year the school became a state normal :
Whole number of graduates 716
Number deceased 33
Number married ( females) 152
Number in educational work 445
Percentage for 22 years 65
Percentage for last five years 88.4
The general nature of the training school work has been described. The principal and critic teachers were instruc- tors in the training school and normal as well as supervisors. Lesson plans were worked out by the practice teachers and criticized by the critic teacher. After each practice recitation, the critic was required to go over the work with the student, correcting mistakes and offering suggestions and helps in the improvement of method. Weekly meetings were called by the principal, where instructions were given and where students and teachers engaged in a general discussion of school prob- lems. The training schools could usually accommodate no more than 16 teachers and comply with the law requiring three hours of practice teaching a day for each member of the senior class. The enrollment in the four schools for the year 1909 in the normal, training school, and senior class is given below : Monmouth Ashland Drain Weston
Training School 137 122 192 150
Normal 173 172 87 198
Senior Class 47 28 14 22
The legislative committee of three representatives and two senators appointed to investigate the training school condi- tions at Monmouth reported:
"Practice work facilities are decidedly limited. Only one city in Oregon is of sufficient size to warrant the state in en- deavoring to build up an ideal institution of this character. It is unwise for the state to spend further sums in the con- struction of buildings at the Monmouth Normal." ​
148 JOHN C. ALMACK
The buildings and equipment were generally inadequate. The board of regents of the Monmouth school stated that when the school was re-established in 1910 the main building was old and in immediate need of repairs. There was also an old gymnasium, which has since been removed from the campus. W. B. Ayer in his minority report to the legislature in 1909 said:
"The buildings and equipment are positively unfit. There is not one first class building at any of the schools, and many are a positive disgrace to the state."
Weston valued its plant at $75,000, while Ashland put a valuation of $60,000 on buildings and grounds. Descriptions of the buildings and apparatus at Monmouth in 1903 give these conditions :
"The normal building is a fine brick structure especially de- signed for the work of a normal school. It is well heated throughout. There are twenty-four good working rooms, and they are well equipped and convenient for school use. . . . Many new books and periodicals have been added to the library. . . . The school has a good supply of apparatus for illus- trating the physical and natural sciences."
Weston's description indicated a more pretentions plant:
"The buildings," said the catalogue, "are four in number, and include the school building, the boarding hall, the presi- dent's cottage, and a building containing the gymnasium, the young men's dormitory, sloyd rooms, and rooms for the de- partment of domestic science."
"The school building is a fine modern brick structure with sandstone trimmings. It has three stories and a basement. It is heated by steam. ... In the spacious parlors of the young ladies' hall are held many social functions participated in by the faculty, students, and people of the town. Good facilities for manual training have been provided, and full sets of tools for wood and cardboard sloyd have been secured. . . . Domestic science combines the practical and ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 149
theoretical, and the thought is kept constantly before the stu- dent teacher that the work of the school is to equip the child for complete living."
At Ashland there were four buildings, two for school pur- poses and two dormitories. There were twenty-three rooms in the school buildings. A gymnasium was built in 1902, and is described as good sized and well equipped. The three labo- ratory rooms were said to be provided with abundant apparatus of the very best quality. The library consisted of 1,500 vol- umes outside of departmental reports.
These descriptions are really better than conditions war- ranted from the view of an impartial outsider. President E. H. Anderson of Drain, who was known to speak very frankly, when asking for an appropriation in 1897 says :
"We have not received a cent from the state, but we cannot keep pace with the others without state aid unless some rich Klondiker shall soon die and leave his find to the school. The school needs recitation rooms, a library, laboratories, piano, gymnasium, heating plant, some apparatus, and a chapel organ."
Yet this was after the new building was constructed. The secretary of the Zamzamian says that a meeting of the society broke up early (the month was December) because the room was too cold. In 1905, Drain announces:
"We have repaired the building, two good laboratories for the sciences have been equipped, and the library has been improved. A new heating plant has been installed, and the school has a fine water supply, from a large spring of excel- lent water, piped into the building, thus making the building healthful and pleasant."
Data has been presented that will enable one to judge of the justice of many of the criticisms brought against the normals. An important thing to keep in mind is that they should be judged by the standards and possibilities of their own times, not by the standards of today. On the subject of vote-trading and log-rolling tactics in the legislature, Repre​
150 JOHN C. ALMACK
sentative W. I. Vawter of Jackson County, author of the one- board of regents bill, writes :
"It is unquestionably true that there was trading for votes during these several sessions. I think, in fact, that 90% of the measures calling for appropriations were combined with matters that members from somewhere else in the state were interested in. The general rule was if a member from Eastern Oregon would vote for some appropriation wanted in Western Oregon the member from the west would reciprocate."
On the same subject, B. F. Mulkey, president of the Ashland normal 1902-1907, and long prominent in state politics, states:
"This school (Ashland) had not been maintained by politics, but by public needs and public sentiment. Politics had been necessary as a means of getting done what the people of that great section wanted done. Politics was not invoked in the interest of normal schools, as has been maintained, but rather they triumphed for a decade in spite of it."
The report of the special committee appointed in 1909 to study the normals covered such matters as equipment, build- ings, fitness and qualifications of teachers, character of work being done. The report set forth that at only one institu- tion, namely Monmouth, was creditable work being done. At Drain and Ashland the chief purpose of the instruction seemed to be to prepare for teachers' examinations. The course of study offered at Weston was very little different from what one might find offered in any good high school in the state. This high school work was very well done, however. The report conveyed the impression that three of the schools were noth- ing more than local high schools maintained at the expense of the state. Reference has already been made to the use made by W. B. Ayer of the report of the committee, quoting the members as saying that out of fifty-one teachers visited only sixteen were good, some were fair, and some absolutely poor; and further that "the buildings and equipment were a dis- grace to the people of the state." ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 151
Many of the criticisms arose out of conditions over which the normals had no control. Buildings, equipment, qualifica- tions of faculty members, are dependent upon the amount of money furnished by the legislature. In view of the rules of the game then and now persisting in legislative bodies, the resources the assembly had available from which to draw appropriations, the growing demands from other quarters, the competition for funds among state institutions, and the objec- tion of the people to increased taxation, the projection of normal school affairs into politics was inevitable. The state institution that was not in politics could not long have con- tinued a state institution.
The management of the normals did not appeal to politics from choice : rather the schools were used by skillful politicians a valuable commodity in which exchanges could be made in accomplishing individual and local purposes. It was quite natural that those fighting for a common cause should com- bine. However, the forming of combinations, the practice of trading votes, legislative log-rolling, and the general type of dealing known to every one who knows politics, did not end when the normal schools were eliminated. New subjects have simply been substituted, though it is improbable that there will ever be found another that served so long and well as the normal schools. That was the heyday for sections holding the balance of power. The system was responsible for the normals being in politics ; they did not choose to be, nor was it for their benefit. The cause of education was hampered by the circumstances, and the experiences of the past should suggest a rational way of dealing with state institutions in the future.
The persistence and loyalty of the normal school supporters is conspicuous. This was due in no small part to the pride perhaps something of the feeling of sharing in the ownership of an institution felt by the people of the community, and this feeling would be acccentuated by having contributed direct​
152 JOHN C. ALMACK
ly to its financial support and by replying to charges against its efficiency. This feeling is likely to be deeper rooted when the institutions, as in Oregon, had their origin in denomina- tionalism. Some citizens at Monmouth, Drain, Ashland, and Weston undoubtedly prized the normals because they believed them to be of financial advantage; these, however, were few in number. More than money, they esteemed the educational opportunities, and the normals afforded what would otherwise have been available. The great need of secondary educational institutions is shown by the fact that the legislature subsidized the Lakeview high school by an appropriation of $5,000, and by the rapid rise of the high school after district and county high schools were authorized in 1901. With the growth of high schools, the demand for normals to perform so varied and complex a function disappeared, and they began to spe- cialize in the training of teachers the original design. Had high schools been as numerous as at present, it is doubtful if the normals would have given so much time to the teaching of high school subjects. Yet the normals and high schools have been in competition.
This condition was found identically the same in Pennsyl- vania. E. O. Holland writing on the Pennsylvania Normals 47 in 1912 makes statements of conditions that applied with some force to Oregon :
"The Pennsylvania state normal schools and the public high schools are in direct conflict. In the past it was undoubtedly true that the high schools of the state were so few and so inadequate that it was absolutely necessary for the state nor- mal schools to give work of a secondary grade."
On the question of whether the normals were responsible for vicious legislation, opinions differ. There is a distinct absence of unprejudiced evidence on either side. Specific examples of vicious legislation for which the normals were responsible are not on record. The men favoring the normals in the legislature compared very favorably with those who
47 Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public School Systems. E. O. Hol- land. Columbia University Contributions to Education, 1912, page 80. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 153
represented the opposition, and one is entitled to the conclu- sion that without the normal school issue ill-advised legisla- tion would have been adopted and meritorious measures killed.
It is equally difficult to formulate conclusions as to the extent of the activities and influence of the sectarian interests against the normals. The Ashland Tidings of March 18, 1909, refers to a statement on this subject by Colonel E. Hofer in the Salem Journal. Colonel Hofer was a member of the board of regents.
"Colonel E. Hofer published an apparently well authenti- cated story that the campaign to kill off the normal schools in Oregon was started by the various sectarian schools of the Willamette Valley. The schools were alleged to be organized for this purpose, the accomplishment of which was to be followed by an appeal to the legislature for the support of normal departments to be conducted in connection with these sectarian schools."
No appeal of this nature has ever been made, and should it be made there is the insurmountable obstacle in the way which was early encountered by Christian College: Article I, Section 5, of the Bill of Rights.
Following the destruction of the normals, the sectarian schools waged a campaign for students for their normal de- partments. Fletcher Homan, president of Willamette Uni- versity, wrote letters to the principals of the Oregon high schools dwelling at length upon the merits of his institution as a training school for teachers. In reply to one of these letters, Winfield S. Smith, principal of the public school, Brownsville, wrote:
"I believe and am creditably informed that the influence of the denominational schools helped to kill the normal schools in the last legislature."
The strongest opposition the normals encountered in the legislature came, generally speaking, from legislators repre- senting Marion, Yamhill, Clackamas, Linn and Washington ​
154 JOHN C. ALMACK
Counties. A survey of the vote cast on the normals in the initiative election of November 5, 1918, shows these results :
For Against Percentage
Normals Normals Against
Coos 1081 1937 64
Benton 671 1730 72
Lane 2318 3578 61
Lincoln 288 647 69
Multnomah 18125 19333 50
Polk ..: 688 2277 77
Marion 1329 5939 81
Yamhill 1010 2554 71
Clackamas 1976 3966 67
Linn 1069 4277 80
Washington 1013 2685 72
Eastern Oregon counties in the same election voted as fol- lows :
For Against Percentage
Normals Normals Against
Crook 237 519 69
Grant 312 476 60
Morrow 323 425 57
Sherman 377 403 52
Wallowa 381 673 64
In Lane, Benton and Polk Counties are found the state uni- versity, agricultural college, and Monmouth normal respective- ly ; in Marion, Linn, Yamhill and Washington are located Wil- lamette university, Albany college, McMinnville college, and Pacific university respectively. The average percentages against the normals ran higher in those counties in which there are private higher institutions, and (notably in the cases of Polk and Benton) in those in which there are the higher state institutions.
We are now ready to summarize the reasons why the nor​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 155
mals were voted out of existence in 1909. The following seem to be the most significant causes of their failure :
1. The normals were established without a strong public demand for them and an interest in their function.
2. They secured their appropriations from the legislature without the backing of popular approval.
3. The increasing needs of the schools called for increased appropriations, culminating the request for about one-third of a million dollars in 1909. This seemed a stupendous sum to the taxpayers, who were inclined to listen to charges of graft and extravagance. People are conservative when called upon to levy taxes for which they do not see a special need con- nected with their own individual interests.
4. The schools, with the possible exception of Ashland, 48 were not located in strategic positions. On account of poor means of communication, Ashland did not have the constitu- ency in Lake, Klamath, and Coos Counties that a casual exam- ination of the map would lead one to believe.
5. The equipment, buildings, and training school facilities were entirely inadequate to meet the higher normal school standards.
6. There was opposition from interests and individuals who were not in sympathy with higher education at public expense.
7. Those connected with the promotion of denominational schools were unfriendly to the normals.
8. There was jealousy and rivalry among towns and cities which hoped in the event of the destruction of the schools to be chosen as sites of new schools.
9. The appropriations granted were insufficient.
10. The growth of public high schools decreased the de- mand for secondary education in the normals.
11. Furthermore, a majority of the people did not accept the normal school idea. They believed that there was no reason for maintaining professional schools to prepare teachers. The experience of Oregon repeats that of Massachusetts, New York,
48 It would require all the children enrolled in the elementary grades in the Ashland public schools, together with all the children of kindergarten age in the district, to furnish enough pupils for a practice school in ai normal enrolling 300 seniors. . . ,_id,jd. -cLId! ​
156 JOHN C. ALMACK
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, and parallels that of Oklahoma. There is scarcely a state where the normal schools have not had to struggle against obstacles similar to those they encountered in Oregon.
12. The activities of the normal adherents in politics made them implacable foes who resolved upon their elimination. Combined with these were those who from principle were against permitting state institutions to participate in legislative affairs.
13. The one-normal plan was favored in some quarters.
14. The opinion was held that there were sufficient oppor- tunities afforded by the state university, agricultural college, and the private schools, for the training of all the teachers necessary. This grew into the idea that the university and college should train all the teachers.
15. Poor certification laws, making it easy to get certifi- cates, and refusing to give normal graduates the right to teach without passing examinations under the state board.
16. Failure to adopt uniform and higher standards for admission, graduation and management.
17. Lack of the support of a strong organ of publicity. These were all contributing factors in the downfall of the
Oregon normals. The feeling against them in political circles had been gradually growing until it reached its climax in the senate action of 1909. Thereafter the issue was squarely be- fore the people.
THE NORMALS AND THE PEOPLE 1909-1919 The initiative petitions were circulated during the year 1910 and there seemed no difficulty in getting signers. Weston found two who refused to sign the petitions : the local Baptist and Methodist ministers. Charges were made in the Weston paper 49 that part of this opposition had its inspiration in Mc- Minnville, but the charges were hotly denied. A sufficient number of petitioners were soon secured, and the election was set for November, 1910.
49 "One man. gave as reason for refusing to sign the normal school petition that each normal is asking for the same amount while one may need more than another. His real reason is of sectarian origin, however, and is inspired from MicMinnville." Weston Leader, May 13, 1910. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 157
Separate petitions were drawn up for each school. Each asked for a permanent levy of 1/25 of a mill, a rate that would bring in at that time about $25,000 a year. Estimates were made in the arguments for the schools filed with the secretary of state that the cost annually to the property owner paying taxes on $10,000 would be about forty cents for each school. Ashland in its arguments called attention to the obligation the state owed the students who had been forced to give up their school work before it was completed, and said the state was under moral obligation to complete the terms of its contract entered into when the students registered. It gave a history of the institution, enlarged upon the need of trained teachers, particularly in Southern Oregon, and listed an investment in the school plant at $60,000.
The claims of Monmouth were similar. The central loca- tion of the school was pointed out ; the need of trained teachers was dwelt upon. Monmouth was given as the proper place for their training because "it is free from the bad influences of a large city." The value of the plant was set at $100,000. Mon- mouth appointed a committee of her alumni, 50 and her friends went actively to work in her interests.
Weston enumerated material which had appeared from year to year in the catalogues : climate, healthful location, good buildings, and equipment. It was emphasized that more than one school was needed, and Eastern Oregon, on account of long distances to other institutions, should be given one. The buildings, grounds and equipment were valued at $75,000. No arguments were filed against the petitions, and normalites felt confident of success.
Not much publicity was given to the campaign. The Ore- gonian continued anti-normal. On July 8, 1910, it reiterated the argument that the normals were nothing but local high schools and business colleges, remarking: "Very few teachers have been trained in these imbecile institutions." There was considerable controversy among the voters, and it was not
50 William D. Fenton, Judge George H. Burnett, John C. McCue, J. B. V. Butler, Ira C. Powell, and A. C. Hampton constituted the promotion committee. ​
158 JOHN C. ALMACK
unusual for heated discussions of the normal school issue to be heard on the trains, in hotels, and on the streets. At their annual institute in September, 1910, the Lincoln County teach- ers passed this resolution :
"Whereas, it is the universal opinion of educators that a system of professional training is necessary for teachers in the public schools, therefore be it Resolved, That we urge upon the people the necessity of establishing normal training at once. Be it further Resolved, That we sympathize with the alumni and friends of the Monmouth Normal school in their efforts through the initiative to provide for the permanent support of that institution, thus removing the question of maintenance from politics."
Monmouth seemed to be the favorite in educational circles. This was borne out in the returns. When the votes were counted it was found that Monmouth had won by approxi- mately 10,000 votes. 51 Weston and Ashland were defeated. The thorough organization of the alumni of Monmouth was a strong factor in determining the success of the Polk County school. The voters of Polk County returned a majority against Weston and Ashland, while Jackson and Umatilla Counties voted strongly for Monmouth. Of the election, the Weston Leader on November 18 said:
"Wallowa County voted against the normals because she has a new county high school and is afraid some of her students would go to Weston. Salem and Marion were against the normals by a three to one vote as were Clackamas, Linn and old Yamhill. Portland gave a majority for Monmouth, had 93 votes to spare for Weston, and was against Ashland by a majority of 117."
Oregon was committed for the time being to the principle of one normal school.
On November 26, 1910, Monmouth celebrated her reopening. The doors had been closed since June, 1909, and the celebra- tion was in the nature of a grand occasion. The program of
51 The vote stood: For Monmouth 50,191, against 40,044; for Ashland 38 473 against 48,655; for Weston 40,898, against 46,201. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 159
feasting and speaking lasted two days. Breakfast was served by the ladies of Monmouth and there were over 500 present. Mayor Hawley of Monmouth, who was on the point of desert- ing the normal school combine in the session of 1909 for the one-normal plan, was introduced by J. B. V. Butler as "one of the oldest and greatest educators in the state," and the remark was loudly applauded. C. N. McArthur, speaker of the house in 1909, was called upon and repeated his endorse- ment of three normals. E. D. Ressler was loudly applauded when he appeared on the platform and complimented the alumni of Monmouth on their good work. J. H. Ackerman referred to the action of the board of education in 1909 in closing the schools :
"I believe the board exercised a good policy in completely closing the normal schools and boarding up their windows. It proved an object lesson to the people, and jarred them into voting right."
P. L. Campbell, at one time president of Monmouth, and son of T. F. Campbell who was president of Christian College in 1860, made the principal address of the day. After con- gratulating the people of Monmouth and the alumni on the victory at the polls, he said:
"The pioneers (who founded Monmouth University) believed strong, hoped large, and always fought fair. They instilled into the university the spiritual factors which have made it a success. Friends of the school have been compelled to fight against adversities from the first. Every appropriation has meant a battle. ... I would like to see three or four normals in this state, and when the demand comes, would like to see a strong six-year high school in every county, and in con- nection with these normal training preparatory to the higher training of the state normals." 52
Plans were made to reopen the school to students in the fall of 1911. J. H. Ackerman, who had been state superin- tendent of schools, during the fight in the legislature was
52 Oregon Teachers' Monthly. December, 1910. ​
160 JOHN C. ALMACK
chosen president. The legislature convened in the winter of 1911 and appropriated $50,000 for the construction of a girls' dormitory. Needed repairs were also provided for. In March, 1911, the Oregon Teachers' Monthly stated that the normal was scheduled to open on September 18 and that President Ackerman was already in charge of affairs and engaged in working out a normal school policy.
In the same issue of the Teachers' Monthly Dr. Joseph Schafer, head of the history department of the University of Oregon, published an article on the "Responsibility of the Normal School." Dr. Schafer took occasion to say :
"(Oregon) is about to reopen on what is reputed to be a thoroughly sound financial basis the normal school at Mon- mouth. This institution, whose career was for so many years so creditable to its management, and so advantageous to the educational interests of the state, particularly the town schools, was put out of existence two years ago by the legislature, and is now revived by the people under the initiative. It is vir- tually a new creation in all except the buildings."
As Dr. Schafer said the school which opened at Monmouth in 1911 was virtually a new creation. A millage tax had been voted for maintenance, and it was believed it would no longer be necessary to lobby for support. The legislature had also provided for the standardization of the school by prescribing the method, and defining the term. According to this law a standard normal is defined as follows :
"For entrance, four years' work above the eighth grade in the secondary schools.
"For graduation, two years' additional work, including a thorough review of the common branches and training in a practice school.
"The maintenance of a well equipped training school, the course of study covering work in the elementary grades.
"An attendance of 216 weeks above the eighth grade re- quired for graduation; provided, that any normal school may ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 161
accept satisfactory credits covering twenty weeks above the eighth grade."
A school accepted as standard by the United States Bureau of Education is accepted by the state board of education of Oregon. In the event that such a list is not prepared, a school wishing to be accredited may be passed upon by a committee comprising the presidents of the three higher public educa- tional institutions, the state superintendent, one person selected by the denominational colleges, the superintendent of the largest city in the state, and one person selected by the Cath- olic Educational Association.
The validation of certificates and diplomas issued by the normal was arranged for as well. Graduates are first given a certificate entitling them to teach in any grammar school or one, two, and three year high school in the state. After six months' successful experience a five-year certificate is issued, which at the end of thirty months' successful teaching may be exchanged for a life diploma. The holder of a normal school diploma may act as city superintendent in any city in the state.
The course of study was thoroughly revised and standard- ized. The year is divided into four terms, and the subjects are strictly prescribed. Greater emphasis is being placed on training teachers for rural schools, and three rural schools for practice teaching are operated. These are in the immediate vicinity of the normal.
The plan of providing for acquaintance with rural school methods and conditions resembles that in use in Rhode Island. A regular teacher, part of whose salary is paid by the state and part by the local district is appointed. Student teachers are sent to the school, first to observe, and second to teach While teaching, the students are required to live in the district, and their period of apprenticeship is about four weeks. This train- ing is supplemented by work in the practice school at Mon- mouth or Independence. ​
162 JOHN C. ALMACK
In 1917, a law was passed authorizing districts to use public schools for training school purposes. This measure was en- acted to make it possible for Monmouth to utilize the public school at Independence, two miles from the normal. About 180 pupils were added by this arrangement, making a total of about 400 pupils in the training school.
The report of a visiting committee of the legislature on the training school facilities at Monmouth has been referred to. Notwithstanding the adverse account, $50,000 was set aside for a new training school building. This building was con- structed in 1915. It is unique in that the designers had a specific purpose in mind: that of providing a model training school. It has valuable original features in arrangement of rooms and of equipment.
Two other improvements have been made in the way of buildings. One is a new assembly hall completed in 1917, capable of seating 1,000 people. The other is a new dormitory for women, built at a cost of $50,000. This accommodates 120 students, is beautifully and tastefully furnished, and well equipped. Adjacent to it has recently been built a small house known as the senior cottage. This building was paid for from surplus funds in the dormitory budget.
The year that the legislature made provision for the rejuve- enescence, of Monmouth, a law was approved that is of great significance to the development of normal schools. This was the elementary teachers' training act. By this law a normal training course may be given in any high school in the state, provided the enrollment in the class is not fewer than eight. On the completion of the two year course, a certificate good for two years entitling the holder to teach in any rural school or elementary grade in the state is issued. Nearly all the accredited or standard high schools of the state offer this course. The high school has thus become a competitor of the normal.
In 1913 Monmouth asked the legislature to make an appro​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 163
priation which could be drawn upon to pay the traveling ex- penses of students who came one hundred miles to attend the school, the motive clearly being" to answer some of the argu- ments in favor of restoring the schools at Weston and Ashland on account of the long distances to be covered between Eastern and Southern Oregon and Monmouth. The bill went through the legislature safely enough, but was vetoed by Governor Oswald West with the succinct comment : "I can see no good reason for signing it." The bill came up again in 1919, but met its Waterloo in the senate.
Having failed in the initiative, Ashland and Weston in 1913 tried a new tack. They persuaded the legislature to create the schools, on the understanding that the referendum clause would be attached. The scheme succeeded, and the proposi- tion was put to the test in 1914. A tax of 1/40 of a mill on the dollar was asked for values having increased considerably since 1909. 53
Ashland put up pretentious arguments: the small cost to each taxpayer ; the need, since Monmouth graduated only 100 students a year while 800 were required ; the desirable location and favorable environment; and the fact that she had ever lent her aid to the agricultural college and the university. She closed with an appeal for the children in Southern Oregon who were without teachers.
Weston's arguments were less specious. She referred to the great need of teachers in Eastern Orgon, illustrated the small cost in a concrete fashion, and again referred to the value of the unused plant. No arguments were filed against the nor- mals, and the campaign was a quiet one. But the apparent apathy was no index to the results: the normals lost by a decisive vote: Ashland by a majority of 25,602; Weston by 17,895. The Willamette Valley cast the big proportion of the negative votes. ^113
One would have thought the results of the elections of 1910 and 1914 would have discouraged similar appeals to the people.
53 The assessed valuation of all Oregon property was in 1909 only $694,727,631.90; in 1914 it had increased to $932,413,080. 1/40 of a mill tax would have brought in approximately the same revenue as 1 /25 of a mill in 1909. ​
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Not so. Two years after the failure of the referendum, the commercial club of Pendleton initiated a measure, shrewdly drawn, and backed up by excellent arguments and a strong organization. It asked for a levy of 1/25 of a mill for the support of each of two schools one at Pendleton, the other at Ashland and for a building appropriation of $125,000. But more interesting than these items were the clauses validating the locations of certain state institutions.
Under the state constitution, all state institutions shall be located within an area no more than five miles from the capital Salem in Marion County. The Pendleton Commercial Club claimed that the Monmouth Normal, the Agricultural College at Corvallis, and the State University at Eugene had been established in these places illegally. Technically speaking these were therefore not state institutions, and could not be given state aid. The initiative bill proposed to validate these locations by a vote of the people, make provisions for the Ash- land Normal, and for the new normal to be built on a suitable site donated by the city of Pendleton. The arguments said the institutions before mentioned had been established con- trary to the constitution, but admitted that the act of 1908 validated these by inference. The introduction of the refer- ence to other state institutions seems to have been for the purpose of drawing votes from people alarmed over the con- dition of invalidated and illegal institutions, particularly in places where these were located.
The arguments were well drawn and substantiated by facts and figures. In substance they were :
"A great need exists for trained teachers. Out of 6055 teaching in the state, only 791 are normal graduates. This is only 13% of the total ; therefore 87% are not properly trained.
"In 1903, 80% of the applicants for certificates had had no training above the eighth grade.
"1,000 new teachers are needed every year.
"Oregon students are now going to normals in Washington ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 165
and California. The majority of these do not return to teach in Oregon.
"Pendleton has many advantages as a site for a normal school :
Excellent training school facilities ;
An abundant supply of pure water; a healthful location;
Excellent railroads affording access from any part of the state ;
Sufficient housing capacity to take care of the students ;
A good city library, a new natatorium, and a stadium." Weston offered the negative arguments. Mention was made that the state already had an adequate plant at Weston, and from the point of view of economy it was better to make use of it than to spend $125,000 for a new one. The senate was blamed for the failure to support Weston in 1909, and the statement made that Pendleton had one state institution the Eastern Oregon branch of the asylum for the insane. As a clincher, Weston said the establishment of a normal at Pendle- ton would mean a return to the old log-rolling practices of other days, thus using with good effect arguments which had been her own undoing. At all events, the Pendleton normal school proposition was voted down, the vote standing for the normal 96,820, and against 109,523.
Again in 1918 Ashland came back with a new plan. It was a referendum measure giving permanent support to the Ash- land school by a tax of 1/25 of a mill, and further appropriated $125,000 for buildings for a new school to be located in Eastern Oregon, the site to be selected by the board of regents, grounds being donated by the fortunate city. A 1/25 mill tax was included for the proposed new institution. Weston considered making a third attempt, but felt it was hopeless. Hermiston had ambitions to become a normal school town, and offered a site of twelve acres, which Hermiston citizens said was worth $1,000 an acre. Hood River also deliberated on asking for a normal, but wisely withdrew. Something of the attitude of ​
166 JOHN C. ALMACK
Eastern Oregon cities towards Weston may be gathered from an editorial in the East Oregonian, published at Pendleton, and quoted in the Weston Leader February llth, 1919:
"Should the Weston school ask for support under the initia- tive, but fail to receive favorable action by the people, then the field will become open to all towns of Eastern Oregon. Where the school should be located in the event Weston's proposed initiative measure loses out is a matter for future considera- tion."
But Weston refrained, and Ashland's plan was tried. The arguments for the bill were the usual ones and were advanced by the board of normal school regents. The regents an- nounced that in the event of the vote being favorable, building operations would not be commenced until the end of the war. This qualification was unnecessary as the proposition lost by a big majority : 49,935 for, 66,070 against. Willamette Valley again voted solidly against the normals.
One feature that accompanied the last two election contests a feature that dates back to 1880 was the proposal strongly advocated in some quarters that the University and Agricul- tural College should train elementary teachers. In recent years Mrs. Herbert Armstrong of North Bend has been the most persistent exponent of the idea. In a circular distributed in 1918 by the supporters of the plan it is said that "all over the country colleges and universities are educating grade teachers, while not a dozen normal schools have been estab- lished in 20 years." In contradiction to the last part of the assertion are the figures given by the state superintendent in a circular on certification published in 1919 showing that the increase in the number of normal schools has been from 131 to 234 in twenty-five years, a growth equal to 80%. Attend- ance in the same period has reached 221% and the number of graduates 365%. This matter will be considered in the dis- cussion of methods of solving the normal school problem in later pages.
Ashland will unquestionably make application for financial assistance either to the legislature or to the people in the im​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 167
mediate future. 54 Plans are under way to open up the ques- tion, and the first appeal will be made beyond doubt to the as- sembly in 1921. Representatives of the Portland Chamber of Commerce made an excursion through Southern Oregon in October, 1919, and on the 16th stopped at Ashland. At a meeting with Ashland business men the matter of reviving the normal was brought up, and it was the unanimous pledge of the trade excursionists that the support of the Portland dele- gation would be given when next the school asks for support. The normal school issue is therefore still alive.
The educational outlook in Oregon is exceedingly promising. We stand on the threshold of a new era of economic develop- ment. The state has within its borders the fourth greatest city on the Pacific slope. Manufacturing and shipbuilding are rap- idly becoming great industries. Foreign trade has more than doubled in the last three years. The Columbia river and the great coast indentations and rivers are not only profitable fish- ing grounds, but afford unrivalled harbor facilities. The de- velopment of wagon roads, the use of motor vehicles, and the construction of electric railroads have removed the greatest obstacle to the growth of the state lack of means of trans- portation. Each year sees more and more of the abundant water power of the state utilized.
The timber resources are the greatest on the continent. Western and Southern Oregon are the leading forest sections of the state. There is over 60,000,000,000 feet of standing timber in Lane County alone a quantity that cannot be com- prehended. The lumbering industry is now the most pros- perous in the history of the state, and only the beginning has been made. Agriculture in the Willamette Valley and in Eastern Oregon is in its infancy. New lands are being put under cultivation, and irrigated areas extended. The most famous fruit growing lands in the world are within the state.
54 The Eugene Daily Guard of November 13, 1919, had this to say on the normal question in its editorial columns: "The state normal at Monmouth is about the only educational institution in the country which reports an abnormally small enrollment this year. The condition presented in Oregon should be a strong argu- ment against the founding of two more state normal schools, a proposition that will be on the ballot next fall. It would be better to add teacher training courses to the curriculum, of both the university and the agricultural college." ​
168 JOHN C. ALMACK 9
The mountains are rich in minerals, but these are almost wholly untouched. Within the vast areas of Oregon an area greater than Illinois and Indiana combined are valuable re- sources as yet practically undeveloped. The estimated popu- lation is one million over six times what it was when the first normals were established while there is over thirty times as much wealth.
The people are progressive, and thoroughly believe in public education. The broad valleys, the noble forests, the shining mountains, the rich resources are not Oregon, but, as Horace Mann said of Massachusetts, "her noble men, her pure and exalted women, the children in all her schools, whose daily lessons are the preludes and rehearsals of the great duties of life, and the prophecies of future eminence these are the State." The future destiny of the state and the nation rests with the public schools, which in turn depend upon the fidelity and efficiency of the teacher. To have good schools we must have trained and educated teachers, and for their training we must look to the normal schools. Oregon has the opportunity. Much has already been done. The great educational need of the state is properly qualified teachers. Certainly the people will provide agencies for their training. BIBLIOGRAPHY ORIGINAL SOURCES
1. Oregon School Laws, 1882, 1885, 1889, 1893, 1907, 1911, 1913-17.
2. Arguments on Initiative and Referendum Measures, 1905, 1909, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1919.
3. Reports of Boards of Regents, 1907-1918.
4. Reports of State Superintendent, 1872-1919.
5. Governors' Messages and Addresses, 1893, 1895, 1899, 1903, 1907.
6. Oregon Blue Book (statistics on elections, population and wealth) 1911-1919.
7. Catalogues, 1882-1919. ​
OREGON NORMAL SCHOOLS 169
8. Records of enrollment, grades, and income Drain Nor- mal, 1907-1909; Minutes of Zamzamian Literary Society, 1902- 1910.
9. Proceedings of State Teachers' Association, 1879, 1905- 1917.
10. Letters and Interviews.
SECONDARY MATERIAL
1. Oregon Teachers' Monthly, 1902, 1905, 1909, 1911, 1915.
2. The Educational Journal, 1870.
3. The Oregonian, 1870-1919. Especially January, Febru- ary and March, 1909.
4. The Oregon Journal, 1905-1919.
5. The Oregon Voter, 1914-1919.
6. The Eugene Register, 1909.
7. The Ashland Tidings, January, February, March, 1909.
8. The Blue Mountain Eagle, February 12, 1909.
9. Corvallis Gazette, February 26, 1909.
10. State Normal School Systems of the United States. H. D. Sheldon, 1905.
11. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea. J. P. Gordy, 1891.
12. The Oregon System. Allen Eaton, 1912.
13. History of Education in the United States. E. G. Dexter, 1904.
14. Pennsylvania State Normal Schools and Public School Systems. E. O. Holland, 1912.
15. The Weston Leader, January, February, 1909, May, 1910.
16. Roseburg Review, February, 1909.
17. The Umpqua Valley News, February, 1909.
18. The Portland Survey, page 184. Elwood P. Cubberley and others, 1913.
19. The Wisconsin Normal Schools, a Survey, A. N. Farmer, 1914.
20. An Educational Survey of Alabama. Federal Bureau of Education
* ↑ Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Oregon. (An abstract.)
* ↑ Report U. S. Commissioner of Education 1915-16.
* ↑ The Washington legislature established another at Centralia in 1919.
* ↑ Estimated.