OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New International Encyclopædia/Lützow, Therese von

Edition of 1905. See also Therese von Lützow on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
LÜTZOW, Therese von (1804-52). A German author. She was born at Stuttgart, subsequently removed to Hamburg, and finally to Saint Petersburg, where her father, H. von Struve, was ambassador. She accompanied her second husband, Colonel von Lützow, to Java, where she died. Her chief publication is the correspondence between Wilhelm von Humboldt and her friend Charlotte Diede, under the title Briefe an eine Freundin von Wilhelm von Humboldt (1847; 12th ed. 1891). Her other works include society novels, such as Lydia (1884) and Weltglück (1885), and several interesting volumes of travel.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mackerel Gull

Edition of 1905. See also Red-billed gull on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ MACKEREL GULL (so called because of feeding on mackerel). Any of several of the smaller gulls, as the laughing gull. In New Zealand, a small and numerous species locally called ‘tarpunga,’ which plunders oyster-catchers and other shore-birds of food.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mackerel Shark

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ MACKEREL SHARK. See Probeagle.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mackaye, James Steele

Edition of 1905. See also Steele MacKaye on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
MACKAYE, m’-kī′, James Steele (1842-94). An American dramatist, born in Buffalo. He studied dramatic expression in Paris under François Delsarte, and on his return to America lectured in New York City and Boston. His two plays, Monaldi and Marriage, written about this time, were produced at the Saint James Theatre in New York City. He afterwards toured in England as an actor, and played Hamlet in London, where he collaborated in several well-known plays. His other works include: The Twins (1876); Won at Last (1877); Through the Dark (1878, later called Money Mad); Hazel Kirke (1880); and Anarchy (1887, later called Paul Kauvar).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Mackerel Guide

Edition of 1905. See also the disclaimer.
​ MACKEREL GUIDE. A British name for a gar (q.v.).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fiske, Daniel Willard

Edition of 1905. See also Willard Fiske on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FISKE, Daniel Willard (1831-1904). An American scholar, born in Ellisburg, Jefferson County, N. Y. He was educated at Hamilton College, but left before graduating to go abroad and devote his time to a study of the Scandinavian language and literature. He spent the years 1849-52 at the University of Upsala, supporting himself by teaching English and lecturing on American literature. From 1852 to 1859 he was an assistant in the Astor Library, New York City, and devoted much of his attention to gathering its valuable Scandinavian collection. He edited the American Chess Monthly (1857-60), and published The Book of the American Chess Congress (1859). In 1861-62 he was an attaché of the American Legation at Vienna, under John Lothrop Motley. He was editor of the Syracuse (N. Y.) Daily Journal in 1864-66, and of the Hartford (Conn.) Courant in 1867-68. In the latter year he was elected professor of North European languages and librarian at Cornell University. In 1881 he resigned, and removed to Florence, Italy. He presented to Cornell a very valuable Dante collection, for the catalogue of which he wrote a noteworthy introduction.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fitchy

Edition of 1905. See also Cross on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FITCHY, or FITCHEE (from Fr. fiché, p.p. of ficher, to drive in. It. ficcare, to fix, from Lat. figere, to fix, to fasten). A term in heraldry signifying pointed, and usually applied to a cross the lower arm of which has been sharpened so that it may be fixed in the ground. This form is derived from the crosses carried by pilgrims as walking-sticks. See Heraldry.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fitger, Arthur Heinrich Wilhelm

Edition of 1905. See also Arthur Fitger on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FITGER, fĭt'gẽr, Arthur Heinrich Wilhelm (1840—). A German poet and historical painter, born at Delmenhorst (Oldenburg). He was a pupil of Cornelius and Genelli at the Munich Academy; later he studied at Antwerp, Paris, and Rome, and in 1869 established his studio in Bremen. As a painter he became known for his large decorative works, executed chiefly at Bremen. The motif of these is derived for the most part from the legendary or the purely fantastic, and elaborated with a wealth of coloring acquired from Rubens and the Venetians. They include a frieze (in monochrome), representing the development of German civilization, for the Rutenhof, Bremen; the frieze for the gallery of the Bourse in that city; fourteen pictures for the banquet hall of the ducal residence at Altenstein, Saxe Meiningen; “The Four Elements” for the Kunsthalle of Hamburg; the decorations for the salle-des-fêtes of the Bremen Künstlerhaus; and paintings for the Hamburg Town Hall. His publications include: Adalbert von Bremen, a tragedy (1873); Die Hexe (1875), a philosophical drama, marked by a considerable dignity of expression and skillful character drawing; Von Gottes Gnaden (1883), a political drama, stilted in expression and puppet-like in action; Fahrendes Volk (1875; 4th ed. 1894), and Winternachte (1881), volumes of poems. He also rendered into German (1886) Byron's Marino Faliero, and for the Denkmale der Geschichte und Kunst Bremens (1877) prepared a history of the local cathedral.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fitting, Hermann Heinrich

Edition of 1905. See also Hermann Heinrich Fitting on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FITTING, fĭt'ĭng, Hermann Heinrich (1831—). A German jurist. He was born at Mauchenheim, and studied at Würzburg, Heidelberg, and Erlangen. In 1857 he was appointed professor of Roman law at Basel, and in 1862 he was called in the same capacity to Halle. From 1864 to 1878 he was engaged in publishing the Archiv für die civilistische Praxis. He wrote Der Reichscivilprozess (7th ed. 1890) and Das Reichskonkursrecht und Konkursverfahren (2d ed. 1883).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fisk, Wilbur

Edition of 1905. See also Willbur Fisk on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FISK, Wilbur (1792-1839). An American educator and clergyman. He was born at Brattleboro, Vt.; graduated at Brown University, and afterwards studied law, but in 1818 entered the Methodist ministry. With others, he founded an academy at Wilbraham, Mass., of which, in 1825, he became the first principal. He also aided in the founding of Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Conn., and became its first president in 1831. He had previously refused the presidency of La Grange College (Alabama), and in 1836 declined an election as bishop in the Methodist Episcopal Church. Among his works are: Sermons and Lectures on Universalism; Reply to Pierpont on the Atonement; The Calvinistic Controversy (1837); and Travels in Europe (1838). For his biography, consult Holdich (New York, 1842) and Prentice (Boston, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Flad, Henry

Edition of 1905. See also Henry Flad on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FLAD, Henry (1823-98). An American civil engineer, born in Bavaria. Soon after his graduation at the University of Munich, in 1846, he came to the United States, where he was appointed engineer on the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad, then in course of construction. He was elected president of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1886, and became prominently associated with municipal construction in Saint Louis, where he was elected president of the Board of Public Improvements.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fisk, James, Jr.

Edition of 1905. See also James Fisk (financier) on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FISK, James, Jr. (1834-72). An American stock speculator. He was born in Bennington, Vt., the son of a peddler, and received scanty schooling. After trying various other occupations, he took up that of his father, and finally attracted the attention of Jordan & Marsh, the Boston merchants, of whom he bought his wares, and as a member of that firm enriched them and himself by shrewd bargaining with the Government and, it was said, by smuggling cotton through the lines during the Civil War. Four years later he opened a brokerage office in New York City. He picked up a precarious living for some time, until Daniel Drew set him up in business with a man named Belden, using them as his agents in his famous struggle with Cornelius Vanderbilt for the control of the Erie Railway. As a result of a compromise, the Drew-Fisk interest combined with the Eldridge-Gould interest, forced the Vanderbilt faction out of the directorate, installing Fisk and Jay Gould in their stead. This marked the beginning of the notorious association of Jay Gould and James Fisk, which terminated only with the death of Fisk. Gould became president of the Erie Railroad, and Fisk the vice-president and comptroller. From their headquarters a campaign of bribery and corruption was carried on that brought under the power of these men city, State, and Federal officials, judges and legislatures, reaching its climax in the gold conspiracy of 1869 and ‘Black Friday,’ when an attempt was made to control President Grant himself. A quarrel with one of his partners, E. S. Stokes, three years later, culminated in his death at the hands of the latter. Consult: Adams, Chapters of Erie, and Other Essays (New York, 1886); Black, Essays (New York, 1890).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fitchburg

Edition of 1905. See also Fitchburg, Massachusetts on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FITCH′BURG. A city (including the villages of West Fitchburg, South Fitchburg, Cleghorn, Crockerville, Rockville, and Traskville) and one of the county-seats of Worcester County, Mass., 25 miles north of Worcester and 50 miles northwest of Boston; on a branch of the Nashua River, and on the Fitchburg division of the Boston and Maine, and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroads (Map: Massachusetts, D 2). It is the seat of the Fitchburg State Normal School, and has a public library, Burbank Hospital, an old ladies' home, and a children's home. The industrial interests include granite quarries, and manufactures of cotton yarns and woolens, ginghams, zephyrs, worsteds, cars, firearms, bicycles, steam-engines, electrical appliances, saws, paper, machinery, tools, etc. Fitchburg was settled in 1719, but formed a part of Lunenburg until 1764, when it was incorporated. It was chartered as a city in 1872. The government is administered, under the
original city charter, by an annually elected mayor and a bicameral city council, of which the upper house is elected at large and the common council by wards. With the consent of the board of aldermen, the executive nominates the park commission, board of health, license commission, library trustees, and police department; all other municipal officials are elected by the council. The city owns and operates its water-works. Population, in 1890, 22,037; in 1900, 31,531. Consult Torrey, History of the Town of Fitchburg (Fitchburg, 1865).
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fittig, Rudolf

Edition of 1905. See also Wilhelm Rudolf Fittig on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FITTIG, fĭt'ĭK, Rudolf (1835—). A German chemist, born at Hamburg. He studied chemistry at Göttingen, and became assistant to Wöhler, the celebrated organic chemist, in 1858. From 1860 to 1870 he taught at Göttingen, in the latter year was appointed full professor of chemistry at Tübingen, and in 1876 was made professor at Strassburg. His literary activity consisted mainly in his reëditing Wöhler's work on organic chemistry. On the other hand, his name is connected with a number of original contributions, which have formed an integral part of the science of organic chemistry. He discovered the interesting class of substances termed lactones (anhydrides formed from compounds which are at once acids and alcohols, just as esters are formed by the action of acids on alcohols). Furthermore he effected the synthesis of a number of interesting ompounds of carbon and hydrogen,
and discovered phenanthrene and other important substances in coal-tar.
# The New International Encyclopædia/Fisk, Fidelia

Edition of 1905. See also Fidelia Fisk on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​ FISK, Fidelia (1816-64). An American missionary. She was born in Shelbourne, Mass.; graduated from Mount Holyoke, went to Persia as a missionary of the American Board among the Nestorians in 1843, and later became first principal of the seminary for women at Oroomiah. She wrote Recollections of Mary Lyon (1866). Consult D. T. Fiske, A Memoir of Fidelia Fisk; Faith Working by Love (Boston, 1869).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jute

See also Jute on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Jute is the fiber taken from the bark of two plants, both of the lime-tree order, with yellow flowers. The larger plant is from five to 14 feet high, and is grown in central and eastern Bengal; the other, slightly smaller, is grown around Calcutta. The fiber is separated from the stem by steeping in water, which takes from two days to three weeks. The best kinds are pale yellow or buff, with a silky luster, easily spun and strong. Jute is used in making ropes, gunny bags, carpets, curtains, table-covers and other fabrics. Jute can be raised and manufactured cheaply, but is not so strong or so lasting as flax. Fabrics made of jute are easily rotted by damp, and cannot be often washed and dried, like linen and cotton, without injuring them; but there is fraudulent mixing of jute with cotton, flax, silk and woolen fabrics. India is the great jute-producing country. The United States yearly import millions of dollars worth of jute and jute-goods. Jute thrives in our gulf states, but production here has not been successful.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jötuns

See also Jotun on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Jötuns (yẽ′ tuns), divinities in Scandinavian mythology, which personified various elements of evil. Their stature and strength were gigantic, but their intelligence was inferior to that of human beings.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jura

See also Jura mountains on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Ju'ra, a range of mountains extending from the angle formed by the Rhône and the Aar northeastward for over 450 miles. By Jura, however, is usually meant only the part along the frontiers of France and Switzerland. The highest peak is Reculet, 5,643 feet in height. The eastern slope is much steeper than the western one. The ranges are broken by many cross-gorges. Limestone caves are numerous, and abound in magnificent stalactites and in bones of extinct animals. Some good-sized rivers sink into the ground and reappear after some distance. The Jura Mountains are of a peculiar limestone formation, which geologists call Jurassic.
# The New Student's Reference Work/K

See also K on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
K (kay), the eleventh letter, is a nonvocal consonant. It is called a guttural, because made by the soft palate closing on the back of the tongue, as in ask, kill. In such words as cracked, k prevents c before e from being pronounced as s. Before n in the same syllable, k is silent, as in knot.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jury, Trial by

See also Jury trial on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Jury, Trial by, is a form of trial of very ancient origin, in which a body of sworn men, generally 12 in number, are called upon to judge of the truth of the facts of a civil or criminal case. In England, even under the Saxons, it was the custom for 12 thanes to be chosen to prosecute malefactors in the county court. But this was rather like a grand jury, such as still meets in England to judge whether a prosecution is justified. It would seem that trial by jury in criminal cases only gradually came to supplant the curious practice of trial by ordeal. A jury has nothing to do with the sentence conferred, but only with the judgment of the facts submitted in evidence and summed up for them by the judge.
A jury is summoned by a writ, the jurymen being taken by chance from among such citizens as are eligible for the office. The final selection of 12 is made by lot under the direction of the presiding officer. As the clerk of the court calls the names, the jurors take their seats, but it is permitted that the prosecutor and defendant or their counsel may challenge undesirable jurors, who then are excluded and their places filled. The prosecutor or plaintiff or his lawyer addresses the jury and brings forth his witnesses. These witnesses are cross-examined by the other side; which then presents its case and its witnesses. All this procedure and the final summing up by the judge are addressed chiefly to the jury, which is the sole judge of questions of fact. The chief objections to trial by jury are the difficulty in getting all the jurors to agree, without which result there can be no verdict, and the danger of prejudice on the part of some of the jurors. The latter defect may be disregarded, or perhaps it is less to be feared in case of a jury of 12 than of a single judge. The jury may be locked up until they agree, or until the judge decides that an agreement is not likely to be reached. In the case of a disagreement a new trial may be ordered. Probably trial by jury is much more suitable for criminal than for civil cases, in the latter of which one has to decide by probabilities rather than rely, as in criminal cases, upon proof positive.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Justinian I

See also Justinian I on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Justin'ian I, nephew of Emperor Justin, was born in Illyricum in 482 or 483 A. D. Although slave-born, he shared in his uncle's success, and was given a good education at Constantinople. He was made a consul in 521. In 527 Justin proclaimed him his partner in the empire, and died four months afterward. His reign of 38 years is the most brilliant in the history of the later empire. Under the direction of the famous generals whom he chose, the famous Narses, Belisarius and others, the Roman empire was widened to its old limits and east and west united. Justinian, however, is most famous as a lawgiver. As soon as he gained the throne, the constitutions or imperial statutes were gathered and reduced to a code. But these statutes were but a small part of the law. The bulk of it — what we would call the common law — was contained in the writings of the jurists or law commentators. Of these writings there were many hundred volumes; but, owing to want of agreement between the writers, the law was very uncertain. Hence the famous Tribonian, with four associates, was instructed to prepare a single treatise which should cover the whole ground. This great work was accomplished in four years, and was published in fifty volumes, known as the Digest. On the same day — Dec. 31, 534 — Tribonian brought out a law-treatise, which Justinian caused to be prepared as a textbook for students. It is known to all modern lawyers as Justinian's Institutes. Justinian also bettered the condition of the slaves, taking away from their masters the power of putting them to death. He was an able ruler, and his intentions in the main were just and upright. He died on Nov. 14, 565. See his Life by G. Body.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Jutland

See also Jutland on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Jutland, the only peninsula of any size in Europe which points directly north, has since early in the 10th century belonged to Denmark. It extends along the North Sea, northward to the Skager Rack, which separates it from Norway, and is flanked on the east by the Cattegat, which separates it from Sweden. It covers an area of 9,904 square miles. Here the Jutes lived in the fifth century, who took part in the Anglo-Saxon descents on the English coast. Population 1,124,694.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Juvenal

See also Juvenal on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Juvenal, Roman satirist, was born about 55 A. D. in the Volscian country where his father, a free Roman citizen, owned an estate. He was educated at Rome, and became the friend of Martial and Quintilian. Probably under Titus or early in Domitian's reign he served as tribune in the army, and in his native town of Aquinum he filled the office of censor and held other important posts. An inscription tells us that he was in Britain, and he is also known to have visited upper Egypt. All of his writings that are left are 16 satires; but these are of great value in themselves as literature and as pictures of Roman life under the empire. Perhaps the finest are the first five satires, written when the author was fresh from a living experience of Domitian's brutalizing government. The most popular now probably is the tenth, The Vanity of Human Wishes, which was imitated by Dr. Samuel Johnson. Juvenal used satire, not as a branch of comedy, which it was to Horace, the other great Roman satirist, but as an engine for attacking the tyranny, crimes and follies of his time. He died in 140 A. D.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Juvenile Courts

See also Juvenile court on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Juvenile Courts. These are the latest means by which we are trying to distinguish between the young offender against the law and the hardened criminal, and in general to fight the great increase of crime which seems to exist among the young, especially in the larger cities of the world. Although for centuries children under seven have not been counted responsible for any criminal act they might commit, children over that age were until comparatively recently tried in the same courts and on the same general principles as those applied to adults. It was felt that this tended to make criminals out of young people who at heart were not vicious. Therefore for many years there have been reformatories to which the younger prisoners were sent, instead of to jail. But it became clear that to send a boy to a reformatory put a brand on him for life. Merely to be tried in open court with adults and hardened prisoners was to put a blot on the life of the child. Hence it has been the custom for many years in New York and in other states and in most European countries to suspend sentence on the young offender and to hand him over, where possible, to some responsible person, who would try to keep him at school or send him to work, according to his age, and would report to the judge how the boy (or girl) was getting on. The well-known George Junior-Republic was and is peopled for the most part by such probationers. But the juvenile-court law of the state of Illinois, passed in 1899, elevated this custom into a law and further required that in the cities of that state the children (boys under 16, girls under 17) should be tried in a separate court and with the purpose rather to reform than to punish. In 1903 Colorado passed a juvenile-court law which causes all under 21 to be regarded as children and includes this most important provision — that those adults, parents or employers or others, who are responsible for the child's "delinquency," are liable to fine and imprisonment. In 1905 this provision was included in the law of Illinois. Since then New York and more than 20 other states, especially those that have large cities, have passed similar laws. In the trial of the children by the children's judge the state takes the position of a parent, not desiring to punish the child for what it has done but rather to help him get on his feet and lead a good and worthy life. Recently in Chicago, New York and other cities much good has been done by volunteer probation officers, men of means and of some leisure, who have each one adopted the position of "big brother" to some young boy brought before the court, and have tried to help him up, especially by finding him work, giving him a change of life now and then, and by showing sympathy and friendship.