OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odeum

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​ODEUM (Gr. Odeion), the name given to a concert hall in ancient Greece. In a general way its construction was similar to that of a theatre, but it was only a quarter of the size and was provided with a roof for acoustic purposes, a characteristic difference. The oldest known Odeum in Greece was the Skias at Sparta, so called from its resemblance to the top of a parasol, said to have been erected by Theodorus of Samos (600 B.C.); in Athens an Odeum near the spring Enneacrunus on the Ilissus was referred to the age of Peisistratus, and appears to have been rebuilt or restored by Lycurgus (c. 330 B.C.). This is probably the building which, according to Aristophanes (Wasps, 1109), was used for judicial purposes, for the distribution of corn, and even for the billeting of soldiers. The building which served as a model for later similar constructions was the Odeum of Pericles (completed c. 445) on the south-eastern slope of the rock of the Acropolis, whose conical roof, a supposed imitation of the tent of Xerxes, was made of the masts of captured Persian ships. It was destroyed by Aristion, the so-called tyrant of Athens, at the time of the rising against Sulla (87), and rebuilt by Ariobarzanes II., king of Cappadocia (Appian, Mithrid. 38). The most magnificent example of its kind, however, was the Odeum built on the south-west cliff of the Acropolis at Athens about A.D. 160 by the wealthy sophist and rhetorician Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife, considerable remains of which are still to be seen. It had accommodation for 8000 persons, and the ceiling was constructed of beautifully carved beams of cedar wood, probably with an open space in the centre to admit the light. It was also profusely decorated with pictures and other works of art. Similar buildings also existed in other parts of Greece; at Corinth, also the gift of Herodes Atticus; at Patrae, where there was a famous statue of Apollo; at Smyrna, Tralles, and other towns in Asia Minor. The first Odeum in Rome was built by Domitian, a second by Trajan.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odo, king of Aquitaine

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​ODO, or Eudes (d. c. 736), king, or duke, of Aquitaine, obtained this dignity about 715, and his territory included the south-western part of Gaul from the Loire to the Pyrenees. In 718 he appears as the ally of Chilperic II., king of Neustria, who was fighting against the Austrasian mayor of the palace, Charles Martel; but after the defeat of Chilperic at Soissons in 719 he probably made peace with Charles by surrendering to him the Neustrian king and his treasures. Odo was also obliged to fight the Saracens who invaded the southern part of his kingdom, and inflicted a severe defeat upon them at Toulouse in 721. When, however, he was again attacked by Charles Martel, the Saracens renewed their ravages, and Odo was defeated near Bordeaux; he was compelled to crave protection from Charles, who took up this struggle and gained his momentous victory at Poitiers in 732. In 735 the king abdicated, and was succeeded by his son Hunold.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odense

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​ODENSE, a city of Denmark, the chief town of the amt (county) of its name, which forms the northern part of the island of Fünen (Fyen). Pop. (1901) 40,138. The city lies 4 m. from Odense Fjord on the Odense Aa, the main portion on the north side of the stream, and the industrial Albani quarter on the south side. It has a station on the railway route between Copenhagen and Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein via Korsör. A canal, 151/2 to 21 ft. deep, gives access to the town from the fjord. St Canute’s cathedral, formerly connected with the great Benedictine monastery of the same name, is one of the largest and finest buildings of its kind in Denmark. It is constructed of brick in a pure Gothic style. Originally dating from 1081–1093, it was rebuilt in the 13th century. Under the altar lies Canute (Knud), the patron saint of Denmark, who intended to dispute with William of Normandy the possession of England, but was slain in an insurrection at Odense in 1086; Kings John and Christian II. are also buried within the walls. Our Lady’s church, built in the 13th century and restored in 1851–1852 and again in 1864, contains a carved altarpiece (16th century) by Claus Berg of Lübeck. Odense Castle was erected by Frederick IV., who died there in 1730. In Albani are tanneries, iron-foundries and machine-shops. Exports, mostly agricultural produce (butter, bacon, eggs); imports, iron, petroleum, coal, yarn and timber.
Odense, or Odinsey, originally Odinsoe, i.e. Odin’s island, is one of the oldest cities of Denmark. St Canute’s shrine was a great resort of pilgrims throughout the middle ages. In the 16th century the town was the meeting-place of several parliaments, and down to 1805 it was the seat of the provincial assembly of Fünen.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odilienberg

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​ODILIENBERG, or Ottilienberg (called Allitona in the 8th century), a peak of the Vosges Mountains in Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, immediately W. of the town of Barr. Its crest (2500 ft.) is surmounted by the ruins of the ancient Roman wall, the Heidenmauer, and by the convent and church of St Odilia, or Ottilia, the patron saint of Alsace, whose remains rest within. It is thus the object of frequent pilgrimages. The convent is said to have been founded by Duke Eticho I., in honour of his daughter St Odilia, about the end of the 7th century, and it is certain that it existed at the time of Charlemagne. Destroyed during the wars of the middle ages, it was rebuilt by the Premonstrants at the beginning of the 17th century, and was acquired later by the bishop of Strassburg, who restored the building and the adjoining church, in 1853. Since 1899 the convent has contained a museum of antiquities.
See Reinhard, Le Mont Ste Odile (Strassburg, 1888); Pfister, Le Duché mérovingien d’Alsace et la légende de Sainte Odile (Nancy, 1892); and R. Forrer, Der Odilienberg (Strassburg, 1899).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odin

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​ODIN, or Othin (O. Norse Óðinn), the chief god of the Northern pantheon. He is represented as an old man with one eye. Frigg is his wife, and several of the gods, including Thor and Balder, are his sons. He is also said to have been the father of several legendary kings, and more than one princely family claimed descent from him. His exploits and adventures form the theme of a number of the Eddaic poems, and also of several stories in the prose Edda. In all these stories his character is distinguished rather by wisdom and cunning than by martial prowess, and reference is very frequently made to his skill in poetry and magic. In Ynglinga Saga he is represented as reigning in Sweden, where he established laws for his people. In notices relating to religious observances Odin appears chiefly as the giver of victory or as the god of the dead. He is frequently introduced in legendary sagas, generally in disguise, imparting secret instructions to his favourites or presenting them with weapons by which victory is assured. In return he receives the souls of the slain who in his palace, Valhalla (q.v.), live a life of fighting and feasting, similar to that which has been their desire on earth. Human sacrifices were very frequently offered to Odin, especially prisoners taken in battle. The commonest method of sacrifice was by hanging the victim on a tree; and in the poem Hávamál the god himself is represented as sacrificed in this way. The worship of Odin seems to have prevailed chiefly, if not solely, in military circles, i.e. among princely families and the retinues of warriors attached to them. It is probable, however, that the worship of Odin was once common to most of the Teutonic peoples. To the Anglo-Saxons he was known as Woden (q.v.) and to the Germans as Wodan (Wuotan), which are the regular forms of the same name in those languages. It is largely owing to the peculiar character of this god and the prominent position which he occupies that the mythology of the north presents so striking a contrast to that of Greece.
See Teutonic Peoples, ad fin.; and Woden. (H. M. C.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odenwald

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​ODENWALD, a wooded mountainous region of Germany, almost entirely in the grand duchy of Hesse, with small portions in Bavaria and Baden. It stretches between the Neckar and the Main, and is some 50 m. long by 20 to 30 broad. Its highest points are the Katzenbuckel (2057 ft.), the Neunkircher Höhe (1985 ft.) and the Krähberg (1965 ft.). The wooded heights overlooking the Bergstrasse are studded with castles and medieval ruins, some of which are associated with some of the most memorable adventures of German tradition. Among them are Rodenstein, the reputed home of the wild huntsman, and near Grasellenbach, the spot where Siegfried of the Nibelungenlied is said to have been slain.
See F. Montanus, Der Odenwald (Mainz, 1884); T. Lorentzen, Der Odenwald in Wort und Bild (Stuttgart, 1904); G. Volk, Der Odenwald und seine Nachbargebiete (Stuttgart, 1900), and Windhaus, Führer durch den Odenwald (Darmstadt, 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Odescalchi-Erba

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​ODESCALCHI-ERBA, the name of a Roman princely family of great antiquity. They are supposed to be descended from Enrico Erba, imperial vicar in Milan in 1165. Alessandro Erba married Lucrezia Odescalchi, sister of Pope Innocent IX., in 1709, who is believed to have been descended from Giorgio Odescalchi (floruit at Como in 1290). The title of prince of the Holy Roman Empire was conferred on Alessandro in 1714, and that of duke of Syrmium in Hungary in 1714, with the qualification of “serene highness.” The head of the family now bears the titles of Fürst Odescalchi, duke of Syrmium, prince of Bassano, &c., and he is an hereditary magnate of Hungary and a grandee of Spain; the family, which is one of the most important in Italy, owns the Palazzo Odescalchi in Rome, the magnificent castle of Bracciano, besides large estates in Italy and Hungary.
See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868), and the Almanach de Gotha.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radowitz, Joseph Maria von

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​RADOWITZ, JOSEPH MARIA VON (1797–1853), Prussian general and statesman, was born at Blankenburg in the Harz Mountains, his family being of Hungarian origin. As a young lieutenant in the Westphalian artillery he was wounded and taken prisoner at the battle of Leipzig (1813), subsequently entered the Hanoverian service, and in 1823 that of Prussia. His promotion was rapid, and in 1830 he became chief of the general staff of the artillery. In 1836 he went as Prussian military plenipotentiary to the federal diet at Frankfort, and in 1842 was appointed envoy to the courts of Carlsruhe, Darmstadt and Nassau. He had early become an intimate friend of the crown prince (afterwards King Frederick William IV.), and the Prussian constitution of February 1847 was an attempt to realize the ideas put forward by him in his Gespräche aus der Gegenwart über Staat und Kirche, published under the pseudonym “Waldheim” in 1846. In November 1847 and March 1848 Radowitz was sent by King Frederick William to Vienna to attempt to arrange common action for the reconstruction of the German Confederation. In the Frankfort parliament he was leader of the extreme Right; and after its break-up he was zealous in promoting the Unionist policy of Prussia, which he defended both in the Prussian diet and in the Erfurt parliament. He was practically responsible for the foreign policy of Prussia from May 1848 onwards, and on the 27th of September 1850 ​he was appointed minister of foreign affairs. He resigned, however, on the 2nd of November, owing to the king’s refusal to settle the difficulties with Austria by an appeal to arms. In August 1852 he was appointed director of military education; but the rest of his life was devoted mainly to literary pursuits. He died on the 25th of December 1853.
Radowitz published, in addition to several political treatises, Ikonographie der Heiligen, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte (Berlin, 1834) and Devisen und Mottos des spätern Mittelalters (ib., 1850). His Gesammelte Schriften were published in 5 vols. at Berlin, 1852–53.
See Hassel, Joseph Maria von Radowitz (Berlin, 1905, &c.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rae, John

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​RAE, JOHN (1813–1893), Scottish Arctic explorer, was born on the 30th of September 1813, in the Orkney Islands, which he left at an early age to study medicine at Edinburgh University, qualifying as a surgeon in 1833. He made a voyage in a professional capacity in one of the ships of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and entering the service of the company was resident surgeon for ten years at their station at Moose Factory, at the head of James Bay. In 1846 he made a boat-voyage to Repulse Bay, and having wintered there, in the following spring surveyed 700 miles of new coast-line connecting the earlier surveys of Ross and Parry. An account of this expedition, A Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the Arctic Sea in 1846 and 1847, was published by him in 1850. During a visit to London in 1848 he joined the expedition which was then preparing to go out under Sir John Richardson in search of Franklin; and in 1851, at the request of the Government and with a very slender outfit, he travelled some 5300 miles, much of it on foot, and explored and mapped 700 miles of new coast on the south side of Wollaston and Victoria Lands. For this achievement he received the Founder’s gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1853 he commanded another boat-expedition which was fitted out by the Hudson’s Bay Company, which connected the surveys of Ross with that of Deane and Simpson, and proved King William’s Land to be an island. It was on this journey that he obtained the first authentic news regarding the fate of Franklin, thereby winning the reward of £10,000 promised by the admiralty. He subsequently travelled across Iceland, and in Greenland and the northern parts of America, surveying routes for telegraph lines. Dr Rae attributed much to his success in Arctic travel to his adoption of the methods of the Eskimo, a people whom he had studied very closely. He was a keen sportsman, an accurate and scientific observer. He died at his house in London and was buried in the Orkney Islands.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radom (town)

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​RADOM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 100 m. by rail S. from Warsaw. Pop. 28,749, half of whom were Jews. It is one of the best built provincial towns of Poland. The church of St Wlaclaw, contemporary with the foundation of the town, was transformed by the Austrians into a storehouse, and subsequently by the Russian government into a military prison. The old castle is in ruins, and the old Bernardine monastery is used as barracks. Radom has several iron and agricultural machinery works and tanneries. In 1216 it occupied the site of what is now Old Radom. New Radom was founded in 1340 by Casimir the Great, king of Poland. Here Jadwiga was elected queen of Poland in 1382, and here too in 1401 the first act relating to the union of Poland with Lithuania was signed; the seim or diet of 1505, where the organic law of Poland was sworn by the king, was also held at Radom. Several great fires, and still more the Swedish war of 1701–7, were the ruin of the old city. After the third partition of Poland in 1795 it fell under Austrian rule; it was in 1815 annexed to Russia, and became chief town of the province of Sandomir.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raffet, Denis Auguste Marie

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​RAFFET, DENIS AUGUSTE MARIE (1804–1860), French illustrator and lithographer, was born in Paris in 1804. At an early age he was apprenticed to a wood turner, but took up the study of art at evening classes. He became acquainted with Cabanel, who made him apply his skill to the decoration of china, and with Rudor, from whom he received instruction in lithography, in the practice of which he was to rise to fame. He then, entered the École des Beaux-Arts, but returned definitely to lithography in 1830, when he produced on stone his famous designs of “Lutzen,” “Waterloo,” “Le bal,” “La revue” and “Les adieux de la garnison,” by which his reputation became immediately established. Raffet’s chief works were his lithographs of the Napoleonic campaigns, from Egypt to Waterloo, vigorous designs that are inspired by ardent patriotic enthusiasm. As an illustrator his activity was prodigious, the list of works illustrated by his crayon amounting to about forty-five, among which are Béranger’s poems, the History of the Revolution by Thiers, the History of Napoleon by de Norvins, the great Walter Scott by Defauconpret, the French Plutarch and Frédéric Bérat’s Songs. He went to Rome in 1849, was present at the siege of Rome, which he made the subject of some lithographs, and followed the Italian campaign of 1859, of which he left a record in his Episodes de la campagne d’Italie de 1859. His portraits in pencil and water-colour are full of character. He died at Genoa in 1860. In 1893 a monument by Frémiet was unveiled in the Jardin de l’Infante at the Louvre, Paris.
See Raffet, by F. Lhomme (Paris, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Radomysl

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​RADOMYSL, formerly Mychek, a town of Russia, in the government of Kiev, 31 m. W. of the city of Kiev, on the Teterev river. Pop. 18,154. It is a very old town, being mentioned in 1150; from 1746 to 1795 it was the residence of the metropolitan of the United Greek Church. It has tanneries and flour-mills, and exports timber, corn and mushrooms.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rae Bareli

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​RAE BARELI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of the United Provinces. The town is on the river Sai, 48 m. S.E. of Lucknow, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901) 15,880. It possesses many architectural features, chief of which is a strong and spacious fort erected in 1403, and constructed of bricks 2 ft. long by 1 ft. thick and 1½ wide. Among other ancient buildings are the magnificent palace and tomb of nawab Jahan Khan, governor in the time of Shah Jahan, and four fine mosques. The town is an important centre of trade, and muslins and cotton cloth are woven.
The District of Rae Bareli has an area of 1748 sq. m. The general aspect of the district is slightly undulating, and the country is beautifully wooded. The soil is remarkably fertile, and the cultivation of a high class. The principal rivers of the district are the Ganges and the Sai: the former skirts it for 54 miles and is everywhere navigable for boats of 40 tons; the latter traverses it from N.W. to S.E. In 1901 the population was 1,033,761, showing a slight decrease during the decade. The principal crops are rice, pulse, wheat, barley, millet and poppy. Rae Bareli town is connected with Lucknow by a branch of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, which in 1898 was extended to Benares.
See Rae Bareli District Gazetteer, Allahabad, 1905.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raffaellino del Garbo

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​RAFFAELLINO DEL GARBO (1466, or perhaps 1476–1524), Florentine painter. His real name was Raffaello Capponi; Del Garbo was a nickname, bestowed upon him seemingly from the graceful nicety (garbo) of his earlier works. He has also been called Raffaello de Florentia, and Raffaello de Carolis. He was a pupil of Filippino Lippi, with whom he remained till 1490, if not later. He showed great facility in design, and excited hopes which the completed body of his works fell short of. He married and had a large family; embarrassments and a haphazard manner of work ensued; and finally he lapsed into a very dejected and penurious condition. Three of his best tempera pictures are in the Berlin Gallery; one of the Madonna standing with her Infant between two musician angels, is particularly attractive. We may also name the oil-painting of the “Resurrection” done for the church of Monte Oliveto, Florence, now in the academy of the same city, ordinarily reputed to be Raffaellino’s masterpiece; the ceiling of the Caraffa Chapel in the church of the Minerva, Rome; and a “Coronation of the Virgin” in the Louvre, which is a production of much merit, though with somewhat over-studied grace. Angelo Allori was his pupil.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/River

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​RIVER, any considerable stream of water flowing in a defined channel. The origin and subsequent formation of rivers and the valleys along which they flow are considered under Geography, § Principles of Geography, and Geology, § viii. The word "river" is an adaptation of the O. Fr. rivere (mod. rivière), which descends through Med. Lat. rivera, Low. Lat. riparia, in the sense of river-bank and river, from ripa, bank. The Latin for a stream or river is rivus, whence rivulas, a small stream, Eng. "rivulet," which is, therefore, distinct in origin from "river," though probably the sense of rivus influenced the Med. Lat. rivera. The etymology of rivus and ripa is disputed; some scholars refer both to the root ri-, to drop, flow; others take ripa to be from the root seen in Gr. ἐρείπειν, to tear, English "rive," the sense being a broken cliff or steep bank.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rittenhouse, David

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​RITTENHOUSE, DAVID (1732-1796), American astronomer, was born at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of April 1732. First a watchmaker and mechanician he afterwards became treasurer of Pennsylvania (1777-89), and from 1792 to 1795 director of the U.S. mint (Philadelphia). He was largely occupied in 1763 and in 1779-86 in settling the boundaries of several of the states. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the American Philosophical Society; and was elected president of the latter society in 1791. As an astronomer, Rittenhouse's principal merit is that he introduced in 1786 the use of spider lines in the focus of a transit instrument. His priority with regard to this useful invention was acknowledged by E. Troughton, who brought spider lines into universal use in astronomical instruments (see von Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, vol. ii. p. 215), but Felice Fontana (1730- 1805), professor of physics at the university of Pisa, and afterwards director of the museum at Florence, had already anticipated the invention in 1775, though no doubt this fact was unknown to Rittenhouse. His researches were published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1785-1799). He died at Philadelphia on the 26th of June 1796.
See Memoir (1813) by William Barton.