OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Giambelli, Federigo

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​GIAMBELLI (or Gianibelli), FEDERIGO, Italian military engineer, was born at Mantua about the middle of the 16th century. Having had some experience as a military engineer in Italy, he went to Spain to offer his services to Philip II. His proposals were, however, lukewarmly received, and as he could obtain from the king no immediate employment, he took up his residence at Antwerp, where he soon gained considerable reputation for his knowledge in various departments of science. He is said to have vowed to be revenged for his rebuff at the Spanish court; and when Antwerp was besieged by the duke of Parma in 1584, he put himself in communication with Queen Elizabeth, who, having satisfied herself of his abilities, engaged him to aid by his counsels in its defence. His plans for provisioning the town were rejected by the senate, but they agreed to a modification of his scheme for destroying the famous bridge which closed the entrance to the town from the side of the sea, by the conversion of two ships of 60 and 70 tons into infernal machines. One of these exploded, and, besides destroying more than 1000 soldiers, effected a breach in the structure of more than 200 ft. in width, by which, but for the hesitation of Admiral Jacobzoon, the town might at once have been relieved. After the surrender of Antwerp Giambelli went to England, where he was engaged for some time in fortifying the river Thames; and when the Spanish Armada was attacked by fireships in the Calais roads, the panic which ensued was very largely due to the conviction among the Spaniards that the fireships were infernal machines constructed by Giambelli. He is said to have died in London, but the year of his death is unknown.
See Motley’s History of the United Netherlands, vols. i. and ii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Giaour

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​GIAOUR (a Turkish adaptation of the Pers. gâwr or gōr, an infidel), a word used by the Turks to describe all who are not Mahommedans, with especial reference to Christians. The word, first employed as a term of contempt and reproach, has become so general that in most cases no insult is intended in its use; similarly, in parts of China, the term “foreign devil” has become void of offence. A strict analogy to giaour is found in the Arabic kaffir, or unbeliever, which is so commonly in use as to have become the proper name of peoples and countries.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Gib, Adam

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​GIB, ADAM (1714–1788), Scottish divine and leader of the Antiburgher section of the Scottish Secession Church, was born on the 14th of April 1714 in the parish of Muckhart, Perthshire, and, on the completion of his literary and theological studies at Edinburgh and Perth, was licensed as a preacher in 1740. His eldest brother being a prodigal he succeeded to the paternal estate, but threw the will into the fire on his brother’s promising to reform. In 1741 he was ordained minister of the large Secession congregation of Bristo Street, Edinburgh. In 1745 he was almost the only minister of Edinburgh who continued to preach against rebellion while the troops of Charles Edward were in occupation of the town. When in 1747 “the Associate Synod,” by a narrow majority, decided not to give full immediate effect to a judgment which had been passed in the previous year against the lawfulness of the “Burgess Oath,” Gib led the protesting minority, who separated from their brethren and formed the Antiburgher Synod (April 10th) in his own house in Edinburgh. It was chiefly under his influence that it was agreed by this ecclesiastical body at subsequent meetings to summon to the bar their “Burgher” brethren, and finally to depose and excommunicate them for contumacy. Gib’s action in forming the Antiburgher Synod led, after prolonged litigation, to his exclusion from the building in Bristo Street where his congregation had met. In 1765 he made a vigorous and able reply to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which had stigmatized the Secession as “threatening the peace of the country.” From 1753 till within a short period of his death, which took place on the 18th of June 1788, he preached regularly in Nicolson Street church, which was constantly filled with an audience of two thousand persons. His dogmatic and fearless attitude in controversy earned for him the nickname “Pope Gib.”
Principal publications: Tables for the Four Evangelists (1770, and with author’s name, 1800); The Present Truth, a Display of the Secession Testimony (2 vols., 1774); Vindiciae dominicae (Edin., 1780). See Chambers’s Eminent Scotsmen; also article United Presbyterian Church.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Giannutri

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​GIANNUTRI (Gr. Ἀρτεμίσιον, Lat. Dianium), an island of Italy, about 1 sq. m. in total area, 10 m. S.E. of Giglio and about 10 m. S. of the promontory of Monte Argentario (see Orbetello). The highest point is 305 ft. above sea-level. It contains the ruins of a large Roman villa, near the Cala Maestra on the E. coast of the island. The buildings may be divided into five groups: (1) a large cistern in five compartments, each measuring 39 by 17 ft.; (2) habitations both for the owners and for slaves, and ​store-rooms; (3) baths; (4) habitations for slaves; (5) belvedere. The brick-stamps found begin in the Flavian and end with the Hadrianic period. The villa may have belonged to the Domitii Ahenobarbi, who certainly under the republic had property in the island of Igilium (Giglio) and near Cosa.
See G. Pellegrini in Notizie degli scavi (1900), 609 seq.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palma (Canary Islands)

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​PALMA, or San Miguel de la Palma, a Spanish island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900), 41,994; area 280 sq. m. Palma is 26 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 16 m. It lies 67 m. W.N.W. of Teneriffe. It is traversed from north to south by a chain of mountains, the highest of which is 7900 ft. above sea-level. At the broadest part is a crater 9 m. in diameter, known as the Caldera (i.e. cauldron). The bottom of the crater has an elevation of 2300 ft., and it is overhung by peaks that rise more than 5000 ft. above it. Palma contains several mineral springs, but there is great want of fresh water. The only stream which is never dried up is that which issues from the Caldera. In 1677 an eruption, preceded by an earthquake, took place from a volcano at the southern extremity of the island, and much damage was done. Santa Cruz de la Palma (pop. 7024) on the eastern coast is the principal town. The anchorage is good.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palmer, Erastus Dow

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​PALMER, ERASTUS DOW (1817–1904), American sculptor, was born at Pompey, New York, on the 2nd of April 1817. In his leisure moments as a carpenter he started by carving portraits in cameo, and then began to model in clay with much success. Among his works are: “The White Captive” (1858) in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; “Peace in Bondage” (1863); “Angel at the Sepulchre” (1865), Albany, New York; a bronze statue of Chancellor Robert R. Livingston (1874), in Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington; and many portrait busts. He died in Albany on the 9th of March 1904. His son, Walter Launt Palmer (b. 1854), who studied art under Carolus-Duran in Paris, became a member of the National Academy of Design (1897), and is best known for his painting of snow scenes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palm-Civet

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​PALM-CIVET, or Paradoxure, the name of the members of the civet-like genus Paradoxurus, represented by several species mainly from south-east Asia. (See Carnivora.) Palm-civets are mostly about the size of the domestic cat, or rather larger, chiefly arboreal in habits, with dark uniform, spotted or striped fur. The common Indian palm-civet (P. niger) ranges throughout India, wherever there are trees, frequently taking up its abodes in roof-thatch. Its diet consists of small mammals and reptiles, birds and their eggs, fruit and vegetables. From four to six young are brought forth at a litter, and are easily tamed. Other species are the Ceylonese P. aureus, the brown P. jerdoni, the Himalayan P. grayi and the Malayan P. Hermaphroditus. The small-toothed palm-civets, from the Malay Archipelago, Sumatra and Java, have been separated from the typical group to form the genus Arctogale. In Africa the group is represented by two species of Nandinia, which show several primitive characters.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palma, Jacopo

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​PALMA, JACOPO (c. 1480–1528), Italian painter of the Venetian school, was born at Serinalta near Bergamo, towards 1480, and died at the age of forty-eight in July 1528. He is currently named Palma Vecchio (Old Palma) to distinguish him from Palma Giovane, his grand-nephew, a much inferior painter. His grandfather's name was Negretto. He is reputed to have been a companion and competitor of Lorenzo Lotto, and to some extent a pupil of Titian, after arriving in Venice early in the ​16th century; he may also have been the master of Bonifazio. His earlier works betray the influence of the Bellini; but modifying his style from the study of Giorgione and Titian, Palma took high rank among those painters of the distinctively Venetian type who remain a little below the leading masters. For richness of colour he is hardly to be surpassed; but neither in invention nor vigorous draughtsmanship does he often attain any peculiar excellence. A face frequently seen in his pictures is that of his (so-called) daughter Violante, of whom Titian was said to be enamoured. Two works by Palma are more particularly celebrated. The first is a composition of six paintings in the Venetian church of S. Maria Formosa, with St Barbara in the centre, under the dead Christ, and to right and left SS. Dominic, Sebastian, John Baptist and Anthony. The second work is in the Dresden Gallery, representing three sisters seated in the open air; it is frequently named “The Three Graces.” A third fine work, discovered in Venice in 1900, is a portrait supposed to represent Violante. Other leading examples are: the “Last Supper,” in S. Maria Mater Domini; a “Madonna,” in the church of S. Stefano in Vicenza; the “Epiphany,” in the Brera of Milan; the “Holy Family, with a young shepherd adoring,” in the Louvre; “St Stephen and other Saints,” “Christ and the Widow of Nain,” and the “Assumption of the Virgin,” in the Academy of Venice; and “Christ at Emmaus,” in the Pitti Gallery. The beautiful portrait of the National Gallery, London, with a background of foliage, originally described as “Ariosto” and as by Titian, and now reascribed to that master, was for some years assumed to be an unknown poet by Palma Vecchio. It is certainly much more like the work of Titian than of Palma. In 1907 the Staedel Institute in Frankfort acquired an important work by Palma Vecchio, identified by its director as an illustration of Ovid’s second Metamorphosis, and named “Jupiter and Calisto.”
Palma’s grand-nephew, Palma Giovane, was also named Jacopo (1544 to about 1626). His works belong to the decline of Venetian art. (W. M. R.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palmella

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​PALMELLA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon (formerly included in the province of Estremadura); at the north-eastern extremity of the Serra da Arrabida, and on the Lisbon-Setubal railway. Pop. (1900), inclusive of the neighbouring ​village of Marateca, 11,478. Palmella is an ancient and picturesque town, still surrounded by massive but ruined walls and dominated by a medieval castle. Viticulture, market-gardening and fruit-farming are important local industries. Palmella was taken from the Moors in 1147 by Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques), and entrusted in 1186 to the knights of Santiago. The title “duke of Palmella” dates from 1834, when it was conferred on the statesman Pedro de Sousa-Holstein, count of Palmella (1781–1850).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palmer

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​PALMER, a pilgrim who as a sign or token that he had made pilgrimage to Palestine carried a palm-branch attached to his staff, or more frequently a cross made of two strips of palm-leaf fastened to his hat. The word is frequently used as synonymous with “pilgrim” (see Pilgrimage). The name “palmer” or “palmer-worm” is often given to many kinds of hairy caterpillars, specifically to that of the destructive tineid moth, Ypsilophus pometella. The name is either due to the English use of “palm” for the blossom or catkin of the willow-tree, to which the caterpillars bear some resemblance, or to the wandering pilgrim-like habits of such caterpillars. Artificial flies used in angling, covered with bristling hairs, are known also as “palmers” or “hackles.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Palm Beach

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​PALM BEACH, a winter resort on the east coast of Florida, U.S.A., in Palm Beach county, about 264 m. S. of St Augustine; served by the Florida East Coast railway. It is situated on a peninsula (about 30 m. long and 1 m. wide) separated from the mainland by Lake Worth, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, and derives its name from the groves of coco-nut palms which fringe the lake. The coco-nut was introduced here by chance, through the wrecking, off the coast, in January 1879, of a coco-nut-laden Spanish vessel. The Gulf Stream is within about 1 m. of the shore, and the climate is mild and equable, the winter temperature normally ranging between 70° and 75° F. On the Atlantic is the Breakers, a large hotel, and facing Lake Worth is the Royal Poinciana, the largest hotel in the southern states. Palm Beach has few permanent residents and is not incorporated. On the mainland just across the lake is the city of West Palm Beach (pop. in 1905, state census, 1280), a pleasure resort and the county-seat of Palm Beach county (created in 1909).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saavedra, Angel de

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​SAAVEDRA, ANGEL DE, Duke of Rivas (1791-1865), Spanish poet and politician, was born at Cordova on the 19th of March 1791. He fought in the war of independence, was a prominent member of the advanced Liberal party from 1820 to 1823, and in the latter year was condemned to death. He escaped to London and lived successively in Italy, Malta and France, until the amnesty of 1834, when he returned to Spain, shortly afterwards succeeding his brother as duke of Rivas. In 1835 he became minister of the interior under Istúriz, and along with his chief had again to leave the country. Returning in 1837, he joined the moderate party, became prime minister, and was subsequently ambassador at Paris and Naples. He died on the 22nd of June 1865. In 1813 he published Ensayos poéticos, and between that date and his first exile several of his tragedies (the most notable being Alatar, 1814, and Lanuza, 1822) were put upon the stage. Traces of foreign influence are observable in El Moro Expósito (1833), a narrative poem dedicated to John Hookham Frere; these are still more marked in Don Alvaro ó La Fuerza del sino (first played on the 22nd of March 1835), a drama of historical importance inasmuch as it established the new French romanticism in Spain.
Bibliography.—Obras completas del Duque de Rivas (Madrid, 1894-1904); L. A. de Cueto, “ Discurso, " in Memorias de la academia española (Madrid, 1870); M. Cañete, Escritores españoles é hispanoamericanos (Madrid, 1884); J. Valera in El Ateneo (Madrid, December 1888-February 1889); E. Piñeyro, El Romanticismo en España (Paris, 1904).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saaz

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​SAAZ (Czech Žatec), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 64 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,168, mostly German. It lies on the Eger, which is spanned here by a suspension bridge, 210 ft. long, which is the oldest of its kind in Bohemia, having been constructed in 1826. It possesses several ancient churches, of which one is said to date from 1206, and a town hall built in 1559. Saaz is the centre of the extensive hop trade of the neighbourhood. In early times it was the seat of a royal count (Župan or gaugraf). A coat-of-arms was given to the inhabitants by Ladislaus for their courage during the storming of Milan; and the place is mentioned as a royal town under Ottokar II. From the outbreak of the Hussite Wars to the Thirty Years War Saaz was Hussite or Protestant, but after the battle of the White Mountain (1620) the greater part of the Bohemian inhabitants left the town, which became German and Roman Catholic.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sabadell

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​SABADELL, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona; on the river Ripoll and on the Barcelona-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1900) 23,294. The town has handsome modern public buildings, including the town hall, schools for primary and higher education, hospitals and theatres. Cloth, linen, paper, flour and brandy are manufactured, and there are iron foundries and saw-mills. About half the inhabitants are employed in the textile factories. Sabadell is said to be the Roman Sebendunum, but in Spanish annals it is not noticed until the 13th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sabas, St

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​SABAS, ST (439–531), a Palestinian monk, born near Caesarea of Cappadocia. Becoming a monk in his childhood, he went to Jerusalem and lived as a hermit. After a time he established the “Great Laura” monastery in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea, and later on the “New Laura,” under St Basil’s Rule. In the Lauras the young monks lived a cenobitical life, but the elders a semi-eremitical one, each in his own hut within the precincts of the Laura, attending only the solemn church services. Sabas was made exarch or superior of all the monasteries in Palestine, and composed a Typicon or Rule for their guidance. He took a prominent part, on the orthodox side, in the Monophysite and Origenistic controversies. His Laura long continued to be the most influential monastery in those parts, and produced several distinguished monks, among them St John of Damascus. It is now known as the monastery of Mar Saba. He is commemorated on the 5th of December.
Another saint of this name, surnamed “the Goth,” suffered martyrdom at the hands of Athanaric the Visigoth in the reign of Valentinian, and he is commemorated on the 12th of April in the Roman Martyrology, on varying days from 12th to 18th in the Greek Menologies.
Sabas’s Life was written by his disciple Cyril of Scythopolis. The chief modern authority is A. Ehrhard in Wetzer u. Welte’s Kirchenlexikon (ed. 2) and Römische Quartalschrift, vii.; see also Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1714), i. c. 16, and Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907). i, § 10. (E. C. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saargemünd

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​SAARGEMÜND (Fr. Sarreguemines), a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated at the confluence of the Blies and the Saar, 40 m. E. of Metz, 60 m. N.W. of Strassburg by rail, and at the junction of lines to Trier and Saarburg. Pop. (1905) 14,932. It carries on considerable manufactures of faience, plush, velvet, leather, porcelain and earthenware, and is a chief depot for the papier-maché boxes, mostly snuff-boxes, which are made in great quantities in the neighbourhood.
Saargemünd, originally a Roman settlement, obtained civic rights early in the 13th century. In 1297 it was ceded by the count of Saarbrücken to the duke of Lorraine, and passed with Lorraine in 1766 to France, being transferred to Germany in 1871.
See Thomire, Notes historiques sur Sarreguemines (Strassburg, 1887); and Box, Notice sur le pays de la Saare (Nancy, 1903).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saarlouis

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​SAARLOUIS, a town and former fortress of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, situated in a fertile district on the left bank of the Saar, and on the railway from Saarbrücken to Trier, 40 m. S. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8313. The town is well laid out and has spacious streets and a handsome market square. It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a town hall, the walls of the council chamber in which are hung with Gobelins, the gift of Louis XIV., a classical school and a hospital. There are coal-mines in the vicinity, and the town has considerable manufactures of porcelain, enamel wares and leather, as well as a brisk trade in cattle and grain.
Saarlouis was founded in 1681 by Louis XIV. of France, and was fortified by Vauban in 1680-1685. By the peace of Paris, in 1815, it was ceded to the allies and by them was made over to Prussia. The fortifications were dismantled in 1889. Marshal Ney was born here. »
See Niessen, Geschichte des Kreises Saarlouis (Saarlouis, 1893 and 1897); and Baltzer, Historische Notizen über die Stadt Saarlouis (Trier, 1865).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saavedra Fajardo, Diego de

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Collected editions of his works appeared at Antwerp in 1677-1678, and again at Madrid in 1789-1790; see also vol. xxv. of the Bibl. de aut. esp. (1853).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sabaki

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​SABAKI, a river of British East Africa which enters the Indian Ocean in 3° 12′ S., just north of Malinda. The Sabaki rises (as the Athi) in 1° 42′, S., and after flowing north-east 70 m. across the Kapote and Athi plains, turns south-south-east under the wooded slopes of the Yatta ridge, which shuts in its basin on the east. In 3°S. it turns east, and in its lower course (known as the Sabaki) traverses the sterile quartz-land of thee outer plateau.The valley is in parts low and flat, covered with forest and scrub,and containing small lakes and backwaters connected with the river in the rains. At this season the stream—which rises as much as 30 ft. in places—is deep and strong and of a turbid yellow colour; but navigation is interrupted by the Lugard falls, about 100 m. from its mouth. Its total length is about 400 m. Apart from the numerous small feeders of the upper river, almost the only tributary is the Tsavo, from the east side of Kilimanjaro, which enters in about 3° S.