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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumner, Edwin Vose

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​SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (1797–1863), American soldier, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, and entered the United States army in 1819. He served in the Black Hawk War and in various Indian campaigns. In 1838 he commanded the cavalry instructional establishment at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He took part in the Mexican War as a major, and for his bravery at Molino del Rey he received the brevet rank of colonel. In 1857 he commanded an expedition against the Cheyenne Indians. At the outbreak of the Civil War, four years later, Sumner had just been promoted brigadier-general U.S.A. and sent to replace Sidney Johnston in command on the Pacific coast. He thus took no part in the first campaign of the Civil War. But in the autumn he was brought back to the East to command a division, and soon afterwards, as a major-general U.S.V., a corps in the army that was being organized by McClellan. This corps, numbered II., retained its independent existence throughout the war, and under the command of Sumner, Couch, Hancock and Humphreys it had the deserved reputation of being the best in the Union army. Sumner, who was by far the oldest of the generals in the army of the Potomac, led his corps throughout the peninsular campaign, was wounded during the Seven Days’ Battle, and received the brevet of major-general U.S.A., and was again wounded in the battle of Antietam. When Burnside succeeded to the command of the army of the Potomac he grouped the corps in “grand divisions,” and appointed Sumner to command the right grand division. In this capacity the old cavalry soldier took part in the disastrous battle of Fredericksburg, in which the II. corps suffered most severely. Soon afterwards, on Hooker’s appointment to command the army, Sumner was relieved at his own request. He died suddenly, on the 21st of March 1863, while on his way to assume supreme command in Missouri.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachmann, Vladimir de

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​PACHMANN, VLADIMIR DE (1848–), Russian pianist, was born at Odessa, where his father was a professor at the university. He was educated in music at Vienna, and from 1869 to 1882 only rarely performed in public, being engaged in the meanwhile in assiduous study. He then obtained the greatest success, particularly as a player of Chopin, his brilliance of execution and rendering being no less remarkable than the playfulness of his platform manner.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachmarhi

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​PACHMARHI, a hill-station and sanatorium for British troops in the Central Provinces of India. Pop. (1901), 3020, rising to double that number in the season. It is situated at a height of 3500 ft. on a plateau of the Satpura hills in Hoshangabad district, 32 m. by road from Piparia station on the Great Indian Peninsula railway. Though not free from fever in the hot season, it affords the best available retreat for the Central Provinces.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachymeres, Georgius

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​PACHYMERES, GEORGIUS (1242-c. 1310), Byzantine historian and miscellaneous writer, was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, where his father had taken refuge after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204. On their expulsion by Michael Palaeologus in 1261 Pachymeres settled in Constantinople, studied law, entered the church, and subsequently became chief advocate of the church (πρωτέκδικος) and chief justice of the imperial court (δικαιοφύλαξ). His literary activity was considerable, his most important work being a Byzantine history in 13 books, in continuation of that of Georgius Acropolita from 1261 (or rather 1255) to 1308, containing the history of the reigns of Michael and Andronicus Palaeologi. He was also the author of rhetorical exercises on hackneyed sophistical themes; of a Quadrivium (Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, Astronomy), valuable for the history of music and astronomy in the middle ages; a general sketch of Aristotelian philosophy; a paraphrase of the speeches and letters of Dionysius Areopagita; poems, including an autobiography; and a description of the Augusteum, the column erected by Justinian in the church of St Sophia to commemorate his victories over the Persians.
The History has been edited by I. Bekker (1835) in the Corpus scriptorum hist. byzantinae, also in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca. cxliii., cxliv.; for editions of the minor works see C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachisi

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​PACHISI (Hindu pachis, twenty-five), the national table-game of India. In the palace of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri the court of the zenana is divided into red and white squares, representing a pachisi-board, and here Akbar played the game with his courtiers, employing sixteen young slaves from his harem as living pieces. This was also done by the emperors of Delhi in their palace of Agra. A pachisi-board, which is usually embroidered on cloth, is marked with a cross of squares, each limb consisting of three rows of 8 squares, placed around a centre square. The outer rows each have ornaments on the fourth square from the end and the middle rows one on the end square, these ornamented squares forming “castles,” in which pieces are safe from capture. The castles are so placed that from the centre square, or “home,” whence all pieces start going down the middle row and back on the outside and then to the end of the next limb, will be exactly 25 squares, whence the name. Four players, generally two on a side, take part. The pieces, of which each player has four, are coloured yellow, green, red and black, and are entered, one at a time, from the centre and move down the middle row, then round the entire board and up the middle row again to the home square. The moves are regulated by six cowrie shells, which are thrown by hand down a slight incline. The throws indicate the number of squares a piece may move, as well as whether the player shall have a “grace,” without which no piece, if taken, may be re-entered. A piece may be taken if another piece lands on the same square, unless the square be a castle. The object of each side is to ​get all eight pieces round and home before the opponents can do so.
See Games, Ancient and Oriental, by E. Falkner (London, 1892).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachuca

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​PACHUCA, a city of Mexico and capital of the state of Hidalgo, 55 m. direct and 68 m. by rail N.N.E. of the city of Mexico. Pop. (1900), 37,487. Pachuca’s railway connexions include the Mexican, the Hidalgo and the Mexican Oriental, besides which it has 5 m. of tramway line. The town stands in a valley of an inland range of the Sierra Madre Oriental, at an elevation over 8000 ft. above the sea, and in the midst of several very rich mineral districts—Atatonileo el Chico, Capula, Potosí, Real del Monte, Santa Rosa and Tepenené. It is said that some of these silver mines were known to the Indians before the discovery of America. Pachuca has some fine modern edifices, among which are the palace of justice, a scientific and literary institute, a school of mines and metallurgy, founded in 1877, a meteorological observatory and a public library. Mining is the chief occupation of its inhabitants, of whom about 7000 are employed underground. Electric power is derived from the Regla Falls, in the vicinity. The city’s industrial establishments include smelting works and a large number of reduction works, among which are some of the largest and most important in the republic. It was here that Bartolomé de Medina discovered the “patio” process of reducing silver ores with quicksilver in 1557, and his old hacienda de beneficio is still to be seen. Pachuca was founded in 1534, some time after the mines were discovered. Here Pedro Romero de Terreros made the fortune in 1739 that enabled him to present a man-of-war to Spain and gain the title of Count of Regla. Pachuca was sacked in 1812, and so keen was the desire to possess its sources of wealth, in common with other mining towns, that mining operations were partially suspended for a time and the mines were greatly damaged. In 1824 the Real del Monte mines were sold to an English company and became the centre of a remarkable mining speculation—the company ruining itself with lavish expenditures and discontinuing work in 1848. The mines in 1909 belonged to an American company.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pack

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PACK (apparently from the root pak-, paq-, seen in Lat. pangere, to fasten; cf. “compact”), primarily a bundle or parcel of goods securely wrapped and fastened for transport. The word, in this sense, is chiefly used of the bundles carried by pedlars. It was in early use, according to the New English Dictionary, in the wool trade, and may have been introduced from the Netherlands. As a measure of weight of quantity the term has been in use, chiefly locally, for various commodities, e.g. of wool, 240 lb, of gold-leaf 20 books of 25 leaves each. In a transferred sense, a “pack” is a collection or gathering of persons, animals or things; and the verb means generally to gather together in a compact body. “Pack-ice” is the floating ice which covers wide areas in the polar seas, broken into large pieces which are driven (packed) together by wind and current so as to form practically a continuous sheet. “Packet,” a small parcel, a diminutive of “pack,” was first confined in meaning to a parcel of despatches carried by a post, especially the state despatches or “mail”; and “packet” properly “packet-boat,” was the name given to the vessels which carried these state despatches.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pack, Otto von

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​PACK, OTTO VON (c. 1480–1537), German conspirator, studied at the university of Leipzig, and obtained a responsible position under George, duke of Saxony, which he lost owing to his dishonesty. In 1528 he revealed to Philip, landgrave of Hesse, the details of a scheme agreed upon in Breslau by the archduke Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., and other influential princes, to conquer Hungary for Ferdinand and then to attack the reformers in Germany. Pack was sent to Hungary to concert joint measures with John Zapolya, the opponent of Ferdinand in that country; but John, elector of Saxony, advised that the associates of Ferdinand should be asked to explain their conduct, and Pack’s revelations were discovered to be false, the copy of the treaty which he had shown to Philip proving to be a forgery. For some time Pack lived the life of a fugitive, finally reaching the Netherlands, where he was seized at the request of Duke George. Examined under torture he admitted the forgery, and the government of the Netherlands passed sentence of death, which was carried out on the 8th of February 1537. This affair has given rise to an acute controversy as to whether Philip of Hesse was himself deceived by Pack, or was his assistant in concocting the scheme.
See W. Schomburgk, Die Packschen Händel (Leipzig, 1882); H. Schwarz, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Händel (Leipzig, 1881); St Ehses, Geschichte der Packschen Händel (Freiburg, 1880 and Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und Otto von Pack (Freiburg, 1886); and L. von Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pachomius, St

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​PACHOMIUS, ST (292–346), Egyptian monk, the founder of Christian cenobitical life, was born, probably in 292, at Esna in Upper Egypt, of heathen parents. He served as a conscript in one of Constantine’s campaigns, and on his return became a Christian (314); he at once went to live an eremitical life near Dendera by the Nile, putting himself under the guidance of an aged hermit. After three or four years he was called (by an angel, says the legend) to establish a monastery of cenobites, or monks living in common (see Monasticism, § 4). Pachomius spent his life in organizing and directing the great order he had created, which at his death included nine monasteries with some three thousand monks and a nunnery. The order was called Tabennesiot, from Tabennisi, near Dendera, the site of the first monastery. The most vivid account of the life and primitive rule is that given by Palladius in the Lausiac History, as witnessed by him (c. 410). Difficulties arose between Pachomius and the neighbouring bishops, which had to be composed at a synod at Esna. But St Athanasius was his firm friend and visited his monastery c. 330 and at a later period. Pachomius died (probably) in 346.
The best modern work on Pachomius is by P. Ladeuze, Le Cénobitisme pakhomien (1898). There have been differences of opinion in regard to the dates; those given above are Ladeuze’s, now commonly accepted. The priority of the Greek Life of Pachomius over the Coptic may be said to be established; the historical character and value of this life are now fully recognized. A good analysis of all the literature is supplied in Herzog’s Realencyklopädie (ed. 3).  (E. C. B.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timon of Phlius

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​TIMON (c. 320–230), of Phlius, Greek sceptic philosopher and satirical poet, a pupil of Stilpo the Megarian and Pyrrho of Elis. Having made a fortune by teaching and lecturing in Chalcedon he spent the rest of his life chiefly at Athens, where he died. His writings (Diogenes Laertius, ix. ch. 12) were numerous both in prose and in verse: besides the Σίλλοι, he is said to have written epic poems, tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas. But he is best known as the author of the Σίλλοι, three books of sarcastic hexameter verses, written against the Greek philosophers.
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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timor Laut

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​TIMOR LAUT ("Seaweed Timor"; Dutch, Timor Laoet), Tenimber or Tentmbar, a group of islands in the Malay Archipelago, S.W. of the Aru Islands, between 6° 20' and 8° 30' S., and 130° 40' and 132° 5' E. By the Dutch, in whose residency of Amboyna they are included, they are politically divided into two districts; Larat, including the inhabited islands of Larat, Vordate, Molu, and Maro, together with many uninhabited islands; and Sera, including the Sera Islands, Selaru, and the southern part of Yamdena, all inhabited. 1 Only Yamdena and Selaru are by the natives called Timor Laut; all the others they call Tenimbar. The group is in the main, coralline. Vordate, Molu and south-eastern Yamdena have a maximum height of 820 ft.; the rest are low and flat, except Laibobar, apparently a volcanic islet on the west, which has an extinct crater 2000 ft. high. Yamdena, the largest island, has an area of about 1100 sq. m.; the rest together about 1000. Ritabel in Larat is the only safe roadstead during the east and west monsoons. The fauna includes buffaloes, a marsupial cuscus, some bats, the beautiful scarlet lory, rare varieties of the ground-thrush, honey-eater and oriole. The population is estimated at about 19,000. The aborigines are Papuans, but much mixed with Malayan and perhaps Polynesian elements. They are a fine race, often over 6 ft. tall, noted for their artistic sense. In other respects they are pagans in a low state of culture, mostly divided into hostile communities and addicted to piracy. The only means of subsistence is primitive agriculture ​on a poor soil, turtle and trepang fishery and cattle-rearing. The yearly export (trepang, turtle and kamuning wood) is valued at only £850 to £1650.
See H. O. Forbes, “Three Months' Explorations in the Tenimbar islands," in Proc. of Roy. Geog. Soc. (1884); J. G. Riedel, De sluilaen kroeshafige rassen tusschen Selebesen Papua (1886); W. R. van Hoevell, “Tanimbar en Timor Laoet-Eilanden," in Tijdschnft Batavian Genootschap (1889), vol. xxxiii.; J. D. Garson, “On Cranial Characters of the Natives of Timor-Laut," Journ. Anthrop. Instit. xiii. 386.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timotheus (sculptor)

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​TIMOTHEUS, an Athenian sculptor of the 4th century B.C., and one of the artists employed on the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. An inscription at Epidaurus shows that he was employed to furnish models for the pedimental sculptures of the temple of Aesculapius on that site, and to execute in marble the external decorations (acroteria) for one of the gables. Considerable remains of the acroteria and the pedimental figures have been discovered (sec Greek Art, fig. 44; and Epidaurus).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timocreon

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​TIMOCREON, of Ialysus in Rhodes, Greek lyric poet, flourished about 480 B.C. During the Persian wars he had been banished on suspicion of “medism.” Themistocles had promised to procure his recall, but was unable to resist the bribes of Timocreon's adversaries and allowed him to remain in exile. Timocreon thereupon attacked him most bitterly (see Plutarch, Themistocles, 21); and Simonides, the friend of Themistocles, retorted in an epigram (Anth. Pal. vii. 348). Timocreon was also known as a composer of scolia (drinking-songs) and, according to Suidas, wrote plays in the style of the old comedy. His gluttony and drunkenness were notorious, and he was an athlete of great prowess.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timomachus

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​TIMOMACHUS, a Greek painter of the 1st century B.C. He was noted especially for two pictures, one of which represented Ajax during his madness, the other Medea meditating the slaying of her children. Both of these works were remarkable for their power of expression, especially in the face, and so belong to the latest phase of Greek art. Of the Medea we may form some notion from paintings found at Pompeii, representing that heroine standing with a sheathed sword in her hand, and watching the children at play (Helbig, Wandgemälde Campaniens, Nos. 1262–1265).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timon of Athens

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​TIMON, of Athens, the noted misanthrope, celebrated in Shakespeare's play, lived during the Peloponnesian War. He is more than once alluded to by Aristophanes and other comedians. Plutarch introduces a short account of his life in his biography of Mark Antony (ch. 70), who built a retreat called Timonium (Strabo xvii. 794) at Alexandria. Timon also gave his name to one of Lucian’s dialogues. Shakespeare probably derived his knowledge of Timon mainly from Plutarch; but the Timon of Shakespeare so resembles the Timon of Lucian that Shakespeare (or whoever wrote the first sketch of the play) may have had access to the dialogue.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Timotheus (musician)

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​TIMOTHEUS, of Miletus (c. 446–357 B.C.), Greek musician and dithyrambic poet. He added one or more strings to the lyre, whereby he incurred the displeasure of the Spartans and Athenians (E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, bk. v. ch. 2). He composed musical works of a mythological and historical character.
Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci. A papyrus-fragment of his Persians (the oldest papyrus in existence), discovered at Abusir has been edited by U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (1903), with discussion of the nome, metre, the number of strings of the lyre, date of the poet and fragment. See V. Strazzulla, I. Persiani di Eschilo ed il nomo di Timoteo (1904); S. Sudhaus in Rhein. Mus., lviii. (1903), p. 481 ; and T. Reinach and M. Croiset in Revue des études grecques, xvi. (1903), pp. 62, 323.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pauperism

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​PAUPERISM (Lat. pauper, poor), a term meaning generally the state of being poor, poverty; but in English usage particularly the condition of being a “pauper,” i.e. in receipt of relief administered under the poor law. In this sense the word is to be distinguished from “poverty.” A person to be relieved under the poor law must be a destitute person, and the moment he has been relieved he becomes a pauper, and as such incurs certain civil disabilities. Statistics dealing with the state of pauperism in this sense convey not the amount of destitution actually prevalent, but the particulars of people in receipt of poor law relief.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pausias

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​PAUSIAS, a Greek painter of the 4th century, of the school of Sicyon. He introduced the custom of painting ceilings of houses. His great merit appears to have lain in the better rendering of foreshortening. The words in which Pliny (xxxv. 127) describes a bull painted by him should be quoted: “Wishing to display the length of the bull’s body, he painted it from the front, not in profile, and yet fully indicated its measure. Again, while others fill in with white the high lights, and paint in black what is less salient, he painted the whole bull of dark colour, and gave substance to the shadow out of the shadow itself, with great skill making his figures stand out from a flat background, and indicating their shape when foreshortened.” This passage well marks the state of painting at the time.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pavement

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​PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentum, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat), a term originally applied to the covering of a road or pathway with some durable material, and so used of the paved footway at the side of a street—the “sidewalk” as opposed to the roadway proper. The term is also extended to the interior floor of churches and public buildings. It is probable that the earliest pavements consisted only of rammed clay, as in the “beehive” tombs of Mycenae, or of cement or stucco decorated with lines in coloured marbles, such as those mentioned in the Book of Esther (vi. 1) in the palace at Susa. W. M. Flinders Petrie discovered at Tell el’ Amarna in the palace of Akhenaton the remains of a stucco pavement, decorated with foliage, flowers, birds, &c., and a complete naturalistic treatment. The threshold of the doors of the Assyrian palaces were of stone carved with patterns in imitation of those in a ​carpet. The pavements of Greek temples were either in stone or marble, and at Olympia the pronaos of the temple of Zeus was laid in mosaic representing tritons, and the floor of the naos was in coloured marbles. The Roman pavements were invariably in mosaic, sometimes of a very elaborate nature, as in the House of the Faun at Pompeii, where the mosaic represented the battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius III., a reproduction probably of some Greek painting of the period. In Rome the palaces on the Palatine Hill and the thermae were all paved with mosaic, and numerous pavements have been found in Carthage, many of which are in the British Museum, as are also examples from the Roman villas in England. Perhaps the richest Roman pavements outside Italy are those at Treves in Germany. The Roman tradition was continued by the Byzantine architects, who, throughout the East, paved their churches with mosaics, frequently of the same design and execution as those of the Romans, but with Christian symbols. The churches of the Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance periods were all paved in marble, but of a different character from those of the earlier period (see Mosaic).