OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Torque

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​TORQUE, or Torc (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar, torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particularly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics, the term “ torque ” is used of the turning-moment of a system force, as in a series dynamo.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royal Fern

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ROYAL FERN, in botany, the common name for the fern Osmunda regalis, a native of Britain, where it grows in bogs, marshy woods, &c. It is a handsome plant with bi-pinnate fronds 2 to 6 ft. long and 1 ft. or more broad; the tops of the fronds are fertile, the fertile pinnae being cylindrical and densely covered with the spore-cases, giving the appearance of a dense panicle of flowers, whence the plant is known as the flowering fern. There are various cultivated forms—cristata has the ends of the fronds and the pinnae finely crested, and corymbifera has curiously forked and crested fronds. Several other species, such as O. cinnamomea, O. Claytoniana, are known as handsome greenhouse ferns (see also Ferns).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roxbury

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​ROXBURY, formerly a city of Norfolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated between Boston and Dorchester, but since 1868 a part of Boston. It is primarily a residential district. Among its institutions are the Roxbury Latin School, established in 1645, the Fellowes Athenaeum (a part of the Roxbury branch of the Boston Public Library), with about 26,000 volumes in 1909, and the New England Hospital for Women and Children (1863), the New England Baptist Hospital (1893), the Woman's Charity Club Hospital (1890), the Roxbury Homoeopathic Dispensary (1886), the Roxbury Home for Children and Aged Women (1856), a Home for Aged Couples (1884) and the Massachusetts Home for Intemperate Women (1879). On Mount Bellevue, in West Roxbury (set apart from Roxbury in 1851 and annexed to Boston in 1873), there is an observatory (erected in 1869 by the city of Boston as a standpipe for the high service water supply). Among the manufactures of the district are cotton and woollen goods, cordage, carpets, shoes and foundry products. The town of Roxbury (at first usually spelled Rocksbury) was founded in 1630 by some of the Puritan immigrants who came with Governor John Winthrop; the settlers were led by William Pynchon, who in 1636 led a party from here and founded Springfield, Mass. At the home of Rev Thomas Welde (d. 1662), the first minister, Anne Hutchinson (q.v.) was held in custody during the winter of 1637–38. Associated as teacher with Welde and his successors, Samuel Danforth and Nehemiah Walter, was John Eliot, the apostle to the Indians, who removed to Roxbury in 1632 and died here in 1690. Roxbury was the home also of Thomas Dudley, of his son Joseph and of his grandson Paul; of Robert Calef (d. 1719), the leader of the opposition to the witchcraft craze; of General Joseph Warren, and of William Eustis (1753–1825), who was U.S. secretary of war (1809–12). minister to the Netherlands (1814–18), and governor of Massachusetts (1823–25), and from 1837 to 1845 Theodore Parker was the pastor of the Unitarian Church of West Roxbury. Of special interest in the old Roxbury burial-ground is the “ Ministers' Tomb,” containing the remains of John Eliot, and the tomb of the Dudleys. West Roxbury was the scene of the Brook Farm experiment (see Brook Farm). Roxbury was chartered as a city in 1846.
See F. S. Drake, The Town of Roxbury, its Memorable Persons and Places (Boston, 1878 and 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roy, William

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ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790), a famous British surveyor, military draughtsman, antiquary, &c. In 1746, when an assistant in the office of Colonel Watson, deputy quartermaster-general in North Britain, he began the survey of the mainland of Scotland, the results of which were embodied in what is known as the "duke of Cumberland's map." In 1755 he obtained his commission in the 4th King's Own Foot, and in 1759 gained his lieutenancy and went to serve in Germany in the Seven Years' War. In 1765 he appears as deputy quarter-master-general to the forces, surveyor-general of coasts and engineer-director of military surveys in Great Britain; in 1767 he became F.R.S., in 1781 major-general, in 1783 director of Royal Engineers. Besides his campaigns and observations in Germany, his visits to Ireland (1766) and to Gibraltar (1768) were important. In 1783-84 he conducted observations for determining the relative positions of the French and English royal observatories. His measurement of a base-line for that purpose on Hounslow Heath in 1784, the germ of all subsequent surveys of the United Kingdom, gained him in 1785 the Copley medal of the Royal Society. Roy's measurements (not fully utilized till 1787, when the Paris and Greenwich observatories were properly connected) form the basis of the topographical survey of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent and Sussex. He was finishing an account of this work for the Phil. Trans. when he died on the 1st of July 1790.
Roy's principal book-publication is the Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain (1793). See also notices of him and contributions from him in the records of the War Office and the Royal Engineers, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vols. lxvii., lxxv., lxxvii., lxxx., lxxxv., and in the Gentleman's Magazine, vols. lv., lx. He is whimsically denounced by Jonathan Oldbuck's of Monkbarns in Scott's Antiquary,
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royalty

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ROYALTY (O. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulté, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex), kingly state or personality, hence a royal person, or number of persons of royal birth collectively, a member of a royal family. More particularly “royalty” is used of the rights and attributes of a sovereign, and especially of dues paid to the crown, which belong to the sovereign jure coronae, such as dues from gold and silver mines, waifs, estrays, &c. The term is usually applied to the payment made by a publisher to an author on every copy of his book sold; to the payment made to a patentee on each article manufactured under his patent by a licensee (see Patents), and to the payment made to the owner of minerals for the right of working, paid on the ton or other weight raised.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royan

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ROYAN, a town of W. France in the department of Charente Inférieure, on the right bank of the Gironde, at its mouth 63 m. below and N.N.W. of Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) 7142. Royan is one of the most frequented bathing resorts on the Atlantic seaboard. The coast is divided into a number of small bays or “conches,” forming so many distinct beaches: to the E. of the town is the “Grand Conche” with the municipal casino; to the S. the “Conche de Foncillon,” separated from the first-named by a quay which forms a fine terraced esplanade; beyond the fort of Royan follow in succession the conches “du Chay” and “de Robinson,” and the most fashionable of all, that of Pontaillac. The port carries on sardine-fishing and an active coasting trade, but the harbour at high tide is accessible only to vessels drawing from 8 to 10 ft., and at low water is dry. Eugène Pelletan, the author, has a statue in the town, of which he was a benefactor. The lighthouse of Cordouan, 200 ft. in height, rebuilt on the site of an older tower by the architect Louis de Foix in 1584-1610 and added to about the end of the 18th century, stands on a rock 7½ m. W.S.W. of Royan.
Royan after passing through many hands came to the family of la Trémoille, in whose favour it was made first a marquisate and then a duchy. During the first half of the 15th century it was held by the English. During the wars of religion it was a centre of Calvinism and had to sustain in 1622 an eight days' siege by the troops of Louis XIII. As late as the end of the 18th century it was but a “bourg” of about one thousand inhabitants, noticeable only for its priory, where Brantôme wrote a portion of his Chronicles. The prosperity of the place dates from the Restoration, when steamboat communication was established with Bordeaux.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royston

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​ROYSTON, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, close to the border of Cambridgeshire, 48 m. N. of London by the Cambridge branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3517. The church of St John the Baptist is mainly Early English. There are a market house, and institute with library and museum. Beneath a street in the town is a curious example of a hermit’s cave, excavated in the chalk, and containing rude carvings of the crucifixion and other sacred subjects. It was discovered in 1742. The town lies on the Roman Ermine Street, at the point where it strikes from the hills across the plain, and its straight course is deflected slightly W. Roman relics have been found, and several barrows and earth-mounds occur on the neighbouring hills. A monastery of Augustinian canons was founded here towards the close of the 12th century, but there are no remains.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royat

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ROYAT, a watering-place of central France, in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, situated at a height of 1475 ft. on the Tiretain, 1½ m. S.W. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. (1906) 1451. The thermal springs, situated in the part of Royat known as St Mart, are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid and chloride of sodium and are used in cases of rheumatism, gout, bronchitis, asthma, anaemia, &c. They were known in Roman times, and ruins of ancient baths are still to be seen. The village of Royat proper, a little higher up the valley, has a church of the 11th and 12th centuries fortified with battlements.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Royle, John Forbes

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​ROYLE, JOHN FORBES (1799-1858), British botanist and teacher of materia medica, was born in Cawnpore in 1799. Entering the service of the East India Company as assistant surgeon, he devoted himself to studying botany and geology, and made large collections among the Himalaya Mountains. He also investigated the medical properties of the plants of ​Hindustan and the history of their uses among the native races. The results of these investigations appeared in an essay On the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine (1837). For nearly ten years he held the post of superintendent of the East India Company's botanic garden in the Himalayas at Saharanpur. In 1837 he was appointed to the professorship of materia medica in King's College, London, which he held till 1856. From 1838 onwards he conducted a special department of correspondence, relating to vegetable products, at the East India House, and at the time of his death he had just completed there an extensive and valuable museum of technical products from the East Indies. In 1851 he superintended the Indian department of the Great Exhibition. He died at Acton near London on the 2nd of January 1858.
The work on which his reputation chiefly rests is the Illustrations of the Botany and other branches of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains, and of the Flora of Cashmere, in 2 vols. 410, begun in 1839. In addition he wrote An Essay on the Productive Resources of India (1840), On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India and Elsewhere (1851) and The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage (1855), together with papers in scientific journals.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evans, Sir Arthur John

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​EVANS, SIR ARTHUR JOHN (1851-), English archaeologist, was born at Nash Mills, Herts., July 8 1851, the eldest son of Sir John Evans, K.C.B. (see 10.2). Educated at Harrow, Brasenose College, Oxford, and Göttingen, he was elected fellow of Brasenose and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, holding this post till 1908. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in 1873-4, and in 1875 made a special study of archaeology and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of the utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean (see 1.246, 7.421). A member of all the chief archaeological societies in Europe, he was given hon. degrees at Oxford, Edinburgh and Dublin, and was made a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1911 he was knighted. His chief publications are: Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script (1896); Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script (1898); The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901); Scripta Minoa (1909 et seq.); and reports on the excavations at Knossos. He also edited, with additions, Freeman's History of Sicily, vol. iv.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farnell, Lewis Richard

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FARNELL, LEWIS RICHARD (1856-), English classical scholar and archaeologist, was born at Salisbury Jan. 10 1856. Educated at the City of London school and Exeter College, Oxford, he was elected fellow of his college in 1880 and subsequently rector in 1913. In 1920 he became vice-chancellor of the university. After graduating he studied classical archaeology at the universities of Berlin and Munich, and travelled much in Greece and Asia Minor. In 1909 he was elected the first Wilde lecturer in comparative religion, and he was Hibbert lecturer in 1911. He published Cults of the Greek States (5 vols., 1896); The Evolution of Religion (1905); Greece and Babylon (1911); The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion (1912).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eucken, Rudolf Christoph

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EUCKEN, RUDOLF CHRISTOPH (1846-), German philosopher and religious teacher (see 9.878). During the World War Eucken, like many of his academic colleagues, took a strong line in favour of the causes with which his country had associated itself. After the war he became the chief leader of the new idealist movement in Germany, which obtained many adherents among politicians as well as among sections of the general public hitherto averse to the tendencies it represents. The representatives of the main current of this movement regarded Christianity as the culminating point of religious aspirations, but based no hopes upon the Christian churches ever deepening the religious consciousness. Other currents continued to identify themselves more or less with the churches, and a common ground was found in great assemblies of men and women of the younger generation,
generally in the open air, where plans were discussed for strengthening the moral fibre of the nation in view of the overwhelming problems arising out of Germany's political and military collapse.
After 1910 Eucken published the following works and pamphlets: — Grundlinien einer neuen Lebensanschauung (2nd ed. 1913); Können wir noch Christen sein? (1911); Erkennen und Leben (1912); Die Lebensanschauungen der grossen Denker (10th ed. 1912); Die Träger des deutschen Idealismus (1915); Mensch und Welt: eine Philosophie des Lebens (1918; 2nd ed. 1920); Deutsche Freiheit: ein Weckruf (1919); Einführung in die Hauptfragen der Philosophie (2nd ed. 1920).
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evans, Sir Samuel Thomas

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​EVANS, SIR SAMUEL THOMAS (1859-1918), British judge, was born at Skewen, near Neath, May 4 1859. He was educated at the local school and at London University, being afterwards admitted as a solicitor (1883). He practised for some years at Neath, but in 1891 was called to the bar, where he soon built up a large practice, his numerous Welsh connexions being of great value. In 1890 he was elected Liberal member for Mid-Glamorganshire, and held the seat until 1910. In 1901 he became a Q.C., in 1908 was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple, from 1906-8 was recorder of Swansea, and in 1908 was knighted and appointed solicitor-general by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. In 1910 he was raised to the bench, becoming president of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty division. On the outbreak of the World War the Prize court was reëstablished, and the work here done as president by Sir Samuel Evans was of the highest value, many of his judgments laying down principles of great importance. He was created G.C.B. in 1917, and died in London Sept. 13 1918.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farrand, Livingston

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FARRAND, LIVINGSTON (1867-), American educationist, was born at Newark, N.J., June 14 1867. After graduation from Princeton in 1888, he studied medicine at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, and received the degree of M.D. in 1891. During the next two years he studied at Cambridge (England) and at Berlin. From 1893 to 1903 he taught psychology at Columbia University as instructor, and, after 1901, adjunct professor; from 1903 to 1914 he was professor of anthropology. In 1897 he accompanied the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, which visited the Indians of British Columbia, and published two monographs as results of his own investigations. From 1905 to 1914 he was executive secretary of the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis; and from 1912 to 1914 was treasurer of the American Health Association, during the same period editing the American Journal of Public Health. From 1914 to 1919 he was president of the university of Colorado, but in 1917 was granted leave of absence, following his appointment by the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation to direct the work against tuberculosis in France. In 1919 he was made chairman of the Central Committee of the American Red Cross. In 1921 he was elected to succeed Jacob Gould Schurman as president of Cornell University. He was the author of Basis of American History (1904) and various articles on psychology and anthropology.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Eugene, Archduke

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EUGENE, ARCHDUKE (1863-), Austro-Hungarian field-marshal, was born May 21 1863 at Gross-Seelowitz in Moravia. In his military career he had become commander of the XIV. (Innsbruck) Corps and army inspector when, before the outbreak of the World War, considerations of health compelled his retirement. It was only after the retreat of the Austro-Hungarian troops from Serbia in Dec. 1914 that the Emperor handed over to him the command of the army holding the Danube-Save line. After the Italian declaration of war the Archduke took over the command on the south-western front. At the time of its greatest extension his constantly changing area of command stretched from the Ortler to the sea. The battles fought under his directions on the Isonzo and on the Tirol front formed a series of successes. As a staff commander the Archduke was associated with Gen. Alfred Krauss (born 1862 at Zara), who was also known as a writer on military subjects. Under the new regulations concerning army commands in Jan. 1918 the Archduke received no further active command. As Grand Master of the Teutonic Order he remained unmarried. His unaffected character made him very popular.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Evert, Alexei

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​EVERT, ALEXEI (1857-1917), Russian general, was born in 1857 and entered the army in 1876 after finishing his course at the infantry military school in Moscow and receiving a commission in the Volinsky Guard Regiment. He passed through the academy of the general staff, and was appointed on the general staff. Later, after commanding an infantry regiment, he was in 1900 promoted to the rank of general. In the war with Japan 1904-5, he served on the commander-in-chief's “quartermaster” (i.e. general) staff and later as the chief of the staff of the I. Army. In 1906 he became chief of the general staff, but very soon afterwards he was appointed commander of the XIII. Corps. In 1912 he was commander of the troops of the Irkutsk military district. In Aug. 1914, while commanding the IV. Army, he participated in the victory of the Russians in the Galician battle, for which he was awarded the cross of St. George of the 4th degree. In Oct. his army was thrown on the W. bank of the river Vistula, where under his leadership it fought in the fierce battles of the winter of 1914-5 and the summer of 1915. In Aug. 1915 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the north-western group of armies, and he extricated the armies under his charge from a very critical position during the Vilna-Molodechno operations. In 1916, in order to relieve pressure on the western front, several attempts to break through the German line were made on his front, causing great losses of men and ending unsuccessfully. In March 1917, at the beginning of the Revolution, he was relieved of his duties, and he was later reported to have been killed by the Bolsheviki.
# 1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Farwell, Sir George

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FARWELL, SIR GEORGE (1845-1915), English judge, was born at Codsall, Staffs., Dec. 22 1845. He was educated at Rugby and Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1866. He was called to the bar in 1871. In 1891 he became a Q.C. and in 1895 a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, while in 1899 he was raised to the bench. In 1900 he came into prominence over the case known as the Taff Vale judgment (see 27.142), since his decision, though reversed by the court of appeal, was upheld in 1901 by the House of Lords, and ultimately led to the passing of the Trade Disputes Act (1906). In 1906 Farwell was made a lord of appeal, but resigned this position in 1913. He died at Dunster, Som., Dec. 30 1915. He published Concise Treatise on the Law of Powers (1874).