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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sabatier, Louis Auguste

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​SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1839–1901), French Protestant theologian, was born at Vallon (Ardèche), in the Cévennes, on the 22nd of October 1839, and was educated at the Protestant theological faculty of Montauban and the universities of Tübingen and Heidelberg. After holding the pastorate at Aubenas in the Ardéche from 1864 to 1868 he was appointed professor of reformed dogmatics in the theological faculty of Strassburg. His markedly French sympathies during the war of 1870 led to his expulsion from Strassburg in 1872. After five years’ effort he succeeded in establishing a Protestant theological faculty in Paris, and became professor and then dean. In 1886 he became a teacher in the newly founded religious science department of the École des Hautes Études of the Sorbonne. Among his chief works were The Apostle Paul (3rd ed., 1896); Mémoire sur la notion hébraïque de l’Esprit (1879); Les Origines littéraires de l’Apocalypse (1888); The Vitality of Christian Dogmas and their Power of Evolution (1890); Religion and Modern Culture (1897); Historical Evolution of the Doctrine of the Atonement (1903); Outlines of a Philosophy of Religion (1897); and his posthumous Religions of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit (1904), to which his colleague Jean Réville prefixed a short memoir. These works show Sabatier as “at once an accomplished dialectician and a mystic in the best sense of the word.” He died on the 12th of April 1901.
On his theology see E. Ménégoz in Expository Times, xv. 30, and G. B. Stevens in Hibbert Journal (April 1903).
His brother, Paul Sabatier, was born at St Michel de Chabrillanoux in the Cévennes on the 3rd of August 1858, and was educated at the faculty of theology in Paris. In 1885 he became vicar of St Nicolas, Strassburg, and in 1889, declining an offer of preferment which, was conditional on his becoming a German subject, he was expelled. For four years he was pastor of St Cierge in the Cévennes and then devoted himself entirely to historical research. He had already produced an edition of the Didachē, and in November 1893 published his important Life of St Francis d’Assisi. This book gave a great stimulus to the study of medieval literary and religious documents, especially of such as are connected with the history of the Franciscan Order. In 1908 he delivered the Jowett Lectures on, Modernism at the Passmore Edwards Settlement, London.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guanidine

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​GUANIDINE, CN$_3$H$_5$ or HN:C(NH$_2$)$_2$, the amidine of amidocarbonic acid. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared in 1861 by A. Strecker, who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. It may be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on cyanamide, CN·NH$_2$ + NH$_4$I = CN$_3$H$_5$·HI·; by heating ortho-carbonic esters with ammonia to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate to 180°–190° C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine thiocyanate, 2CS(NH$_2$)$_2$ = HN:C(NH$_2$)$_2$·HCNS + H$_2$S. It is a colourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. It has strong basic properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and forms well-defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to urea. By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine, NH$_2$·(HN):C·NH·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H, whilst with methyl glycocoll (sarcosine) it forms creatine, NH$_2$·(NH):C·N(CH$_3$)·CH$_2$·CO$_2$H.
Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (Ann., 1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645). By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH$_2$)·NH·NO$_2$ (a substance possessing acid properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction with zinc dust, amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH$_2$)·NH·NH$_2$, is formed. This amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of semicarbazide, NH$_2$·CO·NH·NH$_2$, which, in its turn, breaks down into carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine is a body of hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a benzylidine derivative. On oxidation with potassium permanganate, it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH$_2$·(HN):C·N:N·C:(NH)·NH$_2$·2HNO$_3$, which, when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen, is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine, NH$_2$·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH$_2$. By the action of nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine nitrate, NH$_2$·(HN):C·NH·N$_2$·NO$_3$, is obtained. This diazo compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid, CH$_4$N$_5$·NO$_3$ = N$_3$H + CN·NH$_2$ + HNO$_3$, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetrazotic acid, Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with amines, and by the further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive derivative, diazotetrazol, CN$_6$. By fusing guanidine with urea, dicyandiamidine H$_2$N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH$_2$, is formed.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guantánamo

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​GUANTÁNAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. coast of Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of Santiago. Pop. (1907) 14,559. It is situated by the Guazo (or Guaso) river, on a little open plain between the mountains. The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. long from N. to S. and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2·5 fathoms depth of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of Guantánamo, 13 m. N., there is a railway, and the city has railway connexion with Santiago. Guantánamo is one of the two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval station. It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district. In 1741 an English force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General Thomas Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They named the harbour Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications were begun. The history of the region practically dates, however, from the end of the 18th century, when it gained prosperity from the settlement of French refugees from Santo Domingo; the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old families are of French descent, and French was the language locally most used as late as the last third of the 19th century. In recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of 1898, the region has greatly changed socially and economically. Guantánamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy Cubans.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guanajay

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​GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, about 36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. Guanajay is served by the W. branch of the United railways of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. The town lies among hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial times was (like Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh from Spain; it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the 18th century.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guanta

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​GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez, Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is connected by rail. It dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond Barcelona, and was created for the shipment of coal. The harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, 1998 ft. wide, protected by an island less than 1 m. off the shore. The entrance is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf. These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar, coffee, cacáo, tobacco and fruit.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guanaco

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* Head of Guanaco.
GUANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two wild representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the other being the vicugña. The guanaco (Lama huanacus), which stands nearly 4 ft. at the shoulder, is an elegant creature, with gracefully curved neck and long slender legs, the hind-pair of the latter bearing two naked patches or callosities. The head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and almost pure white beneath. Guanaco are found throughout the southern half of South America, from Peru in the north to Cape Horn in the south, but occur in greatest abundance in Patagonia. They live in herds usually of from six to thirty, although these occasionally contain several hundreds, while solitary individuals are sometimes met. They are exceedingly timid, and therefore wary and difficult of approach; like many other ruminants, however, their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity, so as to bring them within range of the hunter’s rifle. Their cry is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the guanaco are the Patagonian Indians and the puma, as it forms the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief clothing material of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never defend themselves, and if approached from different points, according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the water, and have been observed swimming from one island to another, while they have been seen drinking salt-water. They have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive days on the same spot—a habit appreciated by the Peruvian Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great heaps of their bones found in particular spots.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guanajuato (city)

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​GUANAJUATO, or Santa Fé de Guanajuato, a city of Mexico and capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the Federal capital, on a small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39,404; (1900) 41,486. The city is built in the Cañada de Marfil at the junction of three ravines about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides. Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages; but in addition there is the central city with its crowded winding streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial life. Enclosing the city are the steep, barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-tropical and is considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the government palace, a mint dating from 1812, a national college, the fine Teatro Juárez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery, with catacombs below. The Alhóndiga de Granaditas, originally a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of Independence, and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in that long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints, soaps, chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the principal interest and occupation of the population. The silver mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in Mexico, the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being described as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city consists of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins the trunk line at Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It attained the dignity of a city in 1741. It was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the Spanish conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guarana

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​GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American tribe), the plant Paullinia Cupana (or P. sorbilis) of the natural order Sapindaceae, indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It has a smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, composed of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape, and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana, guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds as follows. In October and November, at which time they become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a small quantity of water, or by exposure to the dews, is then made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls, but usually into rolls not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and 12 to 16 oz. in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus prepared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed in S. America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the Mauhés Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil.
The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical with caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to exist in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the glucoside saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and an acrid green fixed oil (Fournier, Journ. de Pharm. vol. xxxix., 1861, p. 291).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Guano

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​GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung), the excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern ocean and off the west coast of Africa. The large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer. Bat’s guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in composition to Peruvian guano. (See Manures and Manuring.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulinus, Gaius Suetonius

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​PAULINUS, GAIUS SUETONIUS (1st century A.D.), Roman general. In 42, during the reign of Claudius, he put down a revolt in Mauretania, and was the first of the Romans to cross the Atlas range. He subsequently wrote an account of his experiences. From 59–62 he commanded in Britain, and, after a severe defeat, finally crushed the Iceni under Boadicea (Boudicca). A complaint having been made to the emperor that he was needlessly protracting hostilities, he was recalled, but he was consul (for the second time) in 66. During the civil war he fought on the side of Otho against Vitellius, and obtained a considerable success against Aulus Caecina Alienus (one of the Vitellian generals) near Cremona, but did not follow it up. When Caecina had been joined by Fabius Valens, Paulinus advised his colleagues not to risk a decisive battle, but his advice was disregarded, and Otho (q.v.) was utterly defeated at Bedriacum. After Vitellius had been proclaimed emperor, Paulinus asserted that it was in consequence of his own treachery that Otho’s army had been defeated. Vitellius pretended to believe this, and eventually pardoned Paulinus, after which nothing further is heard of him.
See Dio Cassius lxii. 7–12; Tacitus, Annals, xiv. 30–39, Histories, i. 87, 90, ii. 23–41, 44, 60; Pliny, Nat. Hist. v. I; Plutarch, Otho. 7, 8.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulsen, Friedrich

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​PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH (1846–1908), German philosopher and educationalist, was born at Langenhorn (Schleswig) and educated at Erlangen, Bonn and Berlin, where he became extraordinary professor of philosophy and pedagogy in 1878. In 1896 he succeeded Eduard Zeller as professor of moral philosophy at Berlin. He died on the 14th of August 1908. He was the greatest of the pupils of G. T. Fechner, to whose doctrine of panpsychism he gave great prominence by his Einleitung in die Philosophie (1892; 7th ed., 1900; Eng. trans., 1895). He went, however, considerably beyond Fechner in attempting to give an epistemological account of our knowledge of the psychophysical. Admitting Kant’s hypothesis that by inner sense we are conscious of mental states only, he holds that this consciousness constitutes a knowledge of the “thing-in-itself”—which Kant denies. Soul is, therefore, a practical reality which Paulsen, with Schopenhauer, regards as known by the act of “will.” But this “will” is neither rational desire, unconscious irrational will, nor conscious intelligent will, but an instinct, a “will to live” (Zielstrebigkeit), often subconscious, pursuing ends, indeed, but without reasoning as to means. This conception of will, though consistent and convenient to the main thesis, must be rigidly distinguished from the ordinary significance of will, i.e. rational desire. Paulsen is almost better known for his educational writings than as a pure philosopher. His German Education, Past and Present (Eng. trans., by I. Lorenz, 1907) is a work of great value.
Among his other works are: Versuch einer Entwickelunggeschichte d. Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie (Leipzig, 1875); Im. Kant (1898, 1899); “Gründung Organization und Lebensordnungen der deutschen Universitäten im Mittelalter” (in Sybel’s Histor. Zeitschr. vol. xlv. 1881); Gesch. d. gelehrten Unterrichts auf d. deutschen Schulen und Universitäten (1885, 1896); System der Ethik (1889, 1899; Eng. trans. [partial] 1899); Das Realgymnasium u. d. humanist. Bildung (1889); Kant d. Philos. d. Protestantismus (1899); Schopenhauer, Hamlet u. Mephistopheles (1900); Philosophia militans (1900, 1901); Parteipolitik u. Moral (1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulus

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​PAULUS, surnamed Silentiarius (“the silentiary,” one of the ushers appointed to maintain silence within the imperial palace), Greek poet, contemporary and friend of Agathias, during the reign of Justinian. In addition to some 80 epigrams, chiefly erotic and panegyric in character, preserved in the Greek Anthology, there is extant by him a description (ἔκφρασις) of the church of St Sophia, and of its pulpit (ἄμβων), in all some 1300 hexameters after the style of Nonnus, with short iambic dedications to Justinian. The poem was recited at the second dedication of the church (A.D. 562), in the episcopal hall of the patriarchate. The poems are of importance for the history of Byzantine art in the 6th century. Another poem, (also preserved in the Anthology) on the warm baths of Pythia in Bithynia, written in the Anacreontic rhythm, has sometimes been attributed to him.
Bibliography.—Ed. of the poems on St Sophia, by I. Bekker in the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum hist. byz. (1837), including the descriptions of the church by Du Cange and Banduri, and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, lxxxvi.; metrical translations, with commentary, by C. W. Kortüm (1854), and J. J. Kreutzer (1875); poem on the Baths in G. E. Lessing, Zur Geschichte und Literatur, i. 5 (1773); see also Merian-Genast, De Paulo Silentiario (Leipzig, 1889J.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pauli, Reinhold

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​PAULI, REINHOLD (1823–1882), German historian, was born in Berlin on the 25th of May 1823. He was educated at the universities of Bonn and Berlin, went to England in 1847, and became private secretary to Baron von Bunsen, the Prussian ambassador in London. Returning to Germany in 1855 he was professor history successively at the universities of Rostock, Tübingen (which he left in 1866 because of his political views), Marburg and Göttingen. He retained his chair at Göttingen until his death at Bremen on the 3rd of June 1882. He was a careful and industrious student of the English records, and his writings are almost wholly devoted to English history.
His first work, König Aelfred und seine Stellung in der Geschichte Englands (Berlin, 1851), was followed by monographs on Bischof Grosseteste und Adam von Marsh (Tübingen, 1864), and on Simon von Montfort (Tübingen, 1867). He continued J. M. Lappenberg’s Geschichte von England from 1154 to 1509 (Gotha, 1853–1858), and himself wrote a Geschichte Englands (Leipzig, 1864–1875), dealing with the period between 1814 and 1852. Two volumes of historical essays, Bilder aus Alt-England (Gotha, 1860 and 1876), and Aufsätze zur englischen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1869 and 1883), and numerous historical articles in German periodicals came from his pen; and he edited several of the English chroniclers for the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
See R. Pauli, Lebenserinnerungen, edited by E. Pauli (Halle, 1895); and the sketch of his life prefixed to O. Hartwig’s edition of his Aufsätze (Leipzig, 1883).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Paulinus

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​PAULINUS (d. 644), first bishop of the Northumbrians and archbishop of York, was sent to England by Pope Gregory I. in 601 to assist Augustine in his mission. He was consecrated by Justus of Canterbury in 625 and escorted Æthelberg, daughter of Æthelberht, to the Northumbrian king Edwin (q.v.). In 627 Edwin was baptized and assigned York to Paulinus as his see. It was at Lincoln that he consecrated Honorius as archbishop of Canterbury. In 633 Edwin was slain at Hatfield Chase and Paulinus retired to Kent, where he became bishop of Rochester. The pallium was not sent him until 634, when he had withdrawn from his province. He died in 644.
See Bede, Historia ecclesiastica (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896).