OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Circumcision

Edition of 1879. See also Circumcision on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circumcisio, a cutting around), a practice of eastern nations, consisting in cutting off the prepuce or foreskin in males and the internal labia in females. Among the Jews it is a strictly religious rite, and is used only on males. In ancient times it was not only obligatory on all males born of Jewish parents, but also on all proselytes, and on all the slaves of Jewish masters. The rite originated, according to the book of Genesis, in the command of God to Abraham, and was nationalized by Moses. It was thenceforth practised by the Jews, except during the journey through the wilderness. Circumcision among the Jews is performed on the eighth day after birth. From the fact that this rite was required by religious ordinance, the term “uncircumcised” became a term of national reproach, and is analogous to the word "heathen" as used by Christian writers. The Egyptians, according to Herodotus, practised circumcision. It is certain that at a later period in Egyptian history, under Persian and Greek influence, circumcision was confined to the priests and sages, but Herodotus makes no limitation in his statement. On the other hand, he states that the tonsure was confined to the priests. He also says that the Colchians (an Egyptian colony, as he believed) practised circumcision. The same authority tells us that the Ethiopians practised it; and to this day the Coptic and Abyssinian Christian churches observe the custom. The Abyssinian church imposes the rite on both sexes. The Epistle of Barnabas testifies to the fact of Egyptian circumcision, and declares also that the
ceremony was observed by the Arabians and Syrians. Jerome says that in his day the majority of Egyptians, Idumæans, Ammonites, Moabites, and Ishmaelites were circumcised. The Mohammedans also practise it; and although the Koran does not enjoin it, it has extended itself wherever the Mohammedan religion has been adopted. In Arabia the rite is performed on both sexes. The Arabians have a tradition that Mohammed said that circumcision was honorable in women. Pythagoras is said to have submitted to circumcision in order to ob- tain instruction from the Egyptian priests in their sacred doctrines. A portion of the Phœnician nations practised the rite, but the Philistines did not. The aboriginal Mexicans were found to observe this custom. The Friendly Islanders, the inhabitants of the Indian archipelago, those on the west coast of Africa, those of Madagascar and the Philippine islands, and even the Hottentots, have a custom regarded as a remnant of the same observance.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Codeia

Edition of 1879. See also Codeia on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​CODEIA (Gr. Kbdeta, head of poppy), an alkaloid found in opium, in which it exists combined, like morphia, with meconic acid. It has the formula C 36 H 2 oN0 6 . It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but is insoluble in alkaline solutions. It combines with acids to form crystallizable salts. (See Opium.)
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fesca

Edition of 1879. See also Friedrich Ernst Fesca and Alexander Fesca on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FESCA. I. Friedrich Ernst, a German composer and musician, born in Magdeburg, Feb. 15, 1789, died May 24, 1826. His father held a minor municipal office in Magdeburg, and devoted much of his time to the practice of the violoncello and piano, and his mother had been a professional vocalist in early life. When he was but four years of age he could perform pieces of moderate difficulty upon the piano, and began the violin. He studied harmony and counterpoint under the instruction of Müller at Leipsic. In 1805 he made his first public appearance as a violinist, playing a concerto of his own in E minor. He soon after became attached to the chapel royal at Cassel, where he remained till 1813. After the dissolution of the kingdom of Westphalia he went to Vienna, and thence to Carlsruhe, where he became attached to the court of the grand duke of Baden. Here he remained 11 years and composed the majority of his works, including quartets and quintets for stringed instruments, overtures, symphonies, two operas, and settings of several of the psalms for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. He was a man of noble disposition, kindly heart, and much devotional feeling. His works, formed on the best models, display a refined and elevated taste and a delicate fancy. II. Alexander Ernst, a German composer and musician, son of the preceding, born in Carlsruhe, May 22, 1820, died in Brunswick, Feb. 22, 1849. He studied the piano under Taubert and composition under Rungenhagen and Wilhelm Bach. At the age of 18 he brought out at Carlsruhe a comic opera entitled Mariette. His compositions evinced a fine original and progressive talent, especially his chamber music and songs, many of which have been republished in this country.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fingal's Cave

Edition of 1879. See also Fingal's Cave on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
Fingal's Cave.
FINGAL'S CAVE, a grotto on the S. W. coast of the islet of Staffa, Argyleshire, Scotland, 7 m. off the W. coast of Mull, probably called after Fingal, the legendary hero of Gaelic poetry. It is formed by lofty basaltic pillars, and extends back from its mouth 227 ft; its breadth at the entrance is 42 ft.; at the inner end, 22 ft. The sea is the floor of the cavern, and is about 20 ft. deep at low water. The main arch has been compared to the aisle of a great Gothic church; the columnar side walls are of stupendous size, and there are stalactites of a great variety of tints between the pillars. It is easily accessible, except at extreme high tide, by small boats. The height ​from the top of the cliff to the summit of the arch is about 30 ft., and from the latter to the water at mean tide about 60 ft. Broken columns form the causeway on the E. side, and conceal the lower parts of the front columns, so that these seem to be only 18 ft. high, while the W. pillars are twice as high. The length is more than 200 ft. The sides are columnar like the front, and nearly perpendicular, but the irregular grouping and the fragmentary condition of the columns impair the symmetry of their appearance. There are several other remarkable caves in the island of Staffa.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fink, Friedrich August von

Edition of 1879. See also Friedrich August von Finck on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​FINK, or Finck, Friedrich August von, a Prussian soldier, born at Strelitz in 1718, died in Copenhagen, Feb. 24, 1766. He had gained experience in the Austrian and Russian service previous to entering the Prussian army as major in 1743. He was advanced by Frederick the Great to the rank of lieutenant general, and was employed in 1759 to coöperate with the king's brother in Saxony, the chief command being subsequently intrusted to him. After the capitulation of Dresden to the Austrians (Sept. 4), Fink was ordered by the king to Maxen to cut off the enemy's retreat, but was surrounded and overwhelmed by vastly superior forces, and obliged to surrender (Nov. 20). On his return from Austrian captivity he was court-martialled, and, though he had anticipated the Maxen disaster by representing to the king the inadequacy of his resources, was sentenced to a year's imprisonment in the fortress of Spandau. After his release he begged to be dismissed from the Prussian service, and in 1764 became general of infantry in the Danish army. But he felt wronged by the Prussian king's inexorable rigor, and died broken-hearted.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fannière, François Auguste

Edition of 1879. See also the disclaimer.
FANNIÈRE, François Auguste and François Joseph, French engravers and carvers, brothers, the former born at Longwy in 1818, and the latter in 1822. Adopting the profession of their father, they received with the assistance of their grandfather, M. Fauconnier, an excellent training, and reached by their joint labors a greater eminence in carving and embossing on metals than any artist since Benvenuto Cellini. They were rewarded with prizes at the exposition of 1849, and the elder brother, who produced large works in gold with bass reliefs at that of 1855, was made chevalier of the legion of honor. Their subsequent joint masterpieces are two shields representing incidents from Orlando furioso, executed for the duke de Luynes.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Finistère

Edition of 1879. See also Finistère on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
​FINISTÈRE, or Finisterre (Lat. finis terræ, land's end), the extreme W. department of France, in Brittany, surrounded on three sides by the ocean and the English channel, and bounded E. by the departments of Côtes-du-Nord and Morbihan; area, 2,595 sq. in.; pop. in 1872, 642,693. The coasts, generally steep and deeply indented, are about 400 m. in length, and present many excellent bays and harbors. The most important ports are Brest, Morlaix, Landerneau, Quimper, and Douarnenez. Of numerous rivers only the Aulne, the Elorn, and the Odet are navigable. Two hill chains, that of Arès in the north and that of the Black mountains in the south, run through this department E. and W. The climate is mild, but humid; fogs are common; W. winds are most prevalent, and violent storms often occur. The soil of some parts is good, and the pasturage is excellent; but heath or waste land covers no less than a third of the area, and agriculture is in a backward state. The wealth of the department consists especially in its mines of argentiferous lead; those of Poullaouen and Huelgoat are perhaps the largest in France. Iron, zinc, coal, and bitumen are also mined. The fisheries are very important. There are manufactories of linen and woollen fabrics, paper mills, rope yards, and sailcloth and earthenware factories. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Quimper, Brest, Morlaix, Châteaulin, and Quimperlé. Capital, Quimper.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fedchenko, Alexei

Edition of 1879. See also Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FEDCHENKO, Alexei, a Russian naturalist, born about 1830, died near the summit of the Col du Géant, Switzerland, Aug. 14, 1873. He resided at Moscow, and was a high authority on the geography of central Asia. He went to Switzerland to compare the glaciers of Mont Blanc and the Col du Géant with those which he had discovered in the mountains of Khokan. He left Montreux on foot for Chamouni Aug. 12, and on the 14th proceeded to the Col du Géant with two guides. He had gone within about two hours' walk of the summit when a violent storm and avalanches of snow forced him to retrace his steps, and he fell from exhaustion and perished. He left unfinished an important work, which his wife, who
accompanied him in all his journeys, though not in this ascent, designs publishing.
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Fannin, James W.

Edition of 1879. See also James Fannin on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
FANNIN, James W., an officer of the Texan revolution, born in North Carolina, killed at Goliad, Texas, March 27, 1836. He was a captain in the Texan service in 1835, and on Oct. 28, at the head of 90 men, with Capt. Bowie, defeated a superior Mexican force near, Bexar. Gen. Houston soon afterward made him colonel of artillery and inspector general. In January, 1836, he set out to reënforce Dr. James Grant, commanding an unauthorized expedition to Matamoros. At Refugio he learned the destruction of Grant's party and fell back to Goliad, which he put in a state of defence. But by Houston's order he marched toward Victoria, and on March 19 was attacked at the Coleta river by a Mexican force under Gen. Urrea. Throwing up a breastwork of wagons, baggage, and earth, the Texans defended themselves with spirit until night interrupted the fighting, Col. Fannin being among the wounded. The battle was renewed on the 20th, but the Mexicans having received a reënforcement of 500 men, with artillery, a capitulation was signed, by which it was agreed that the Texans should be treated as prisoners of war, and as soon as possible sent to the United States. Having surrendered their arms, they were taken to Goliad, where on the 26th an order was received from Santa Anna requiring them to be shot. At daybreak the next morning the prisoners, 357 in number (the four physicians and their four assistants being spared), were marched out under various pretexts, and fired upon in divisions. Fannin was killed last. Many attempted to escape, and were cut down by the cavalry, but 27 are believed to have eluded pursuit.
# Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica/Arran

​ARRAN. See Arran in the Encyclopædia, and Buteshire in this Supplement.
# Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica/Asia

​ASIA. Under this head in the Encyclopædia, there is a general survey of Asia and its Divisions, and of the prevailing manners, religions, and institutions of its chief Communities. We have, in this volume, already treated in a general way of those grand Divisions of our Globe, Africa and America, and notwithstanding the extent of the space devoted to Asia in the body of the work, the recent acquisitions to our knowledge of that Continent might also, without impropriety, have been made the subject of a supplemental article in this place; but as these additions are more susceptible, than in the case either of Africa or America, of being separately introduced under the names of particular Countries and Islands, we shall, in order to save room for other matters, adopt that course in regard to the recent improvements in Asiatic geography.
it is proper to mention, that the best of the later Geographers have separated a vast number of Islands formerly described as Asiatic Islands, from that Continent, and arranged them with a multitude of other Countries and Islands to the south of Asia, and in the Pacific Ocean, under the two new divisions of Australasia and Polynesia. The grounds of this arrangement, which was first suggested by the learned President des Brosses, are stated with sufficient clearness by Mr Pinkerton, in his introductory observations on the Asiatic Islands; and the reader of this work will also find them explained under our articles on Australasia and Polynesia.
We may here observe generally, that a great deal yet remains to be done in order to complete the geography of Asia. Its central mountains, perhaps the most stupendous masses on the Globe, present a wholly unexplored field of inquiry; the origin, the course, and progressive increase of some of its greatest rivers, remain still to be ascertained; and scarce any of its internal seas, except the Caspian, has been the subject of actual survey. The interior regions of Siberia require much illustration. The same may be said, and perhaps in a still stronger degree, of the central parts of Tartary, of the northern parts of China, and of those of India. As to the probable population of this Continent, it is enough to say, that differences of a hundred millions exist in regard to that of China alone. From all this it appears how very defective our knowledge is of this important Division of the Globe, and what a vast and varied field it still presents to incite the inquiries, and reward the enterprise of future Explorers.
# Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica/Arcy (Patrick D’)

​ARCY (Patrick D’), Member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, a general officer in the French army, Chevalier of the order of St Louis, &c. was born in Ireland in 1725. His parents, in consequence of their attachment to the House of Stuart, left Ireland, and settled in France. He studied Mathematics with distinguished success under Clairaut the elder, and had tor his fellow-student the celebrated Clairaut the son. He obtained a commission in the French army; and, in 1746, was embarked in the expedition which was intended to make a descent in Scotland. He was made prisoner, and was treated like other prisoners of war, no notice being taken of his having been born a British subject. He continued attached to the House of Stuart during the whole of his life.
In 1760, he published his Essay on Artillery. To estimate the force of the explosion of gun-powder, he employed a cannon suspended, so that the arc of vibration described by it on its being fired, was a measure of the force of explosion. To measure the initial velocity of a projectile, he used Robins’s machine. Robins showed, that when the velocity of a projectile is great, the resistance opposed by the air is not in proportion to the square of the velocity, as is the case when the velocity is small. D’Arcy made experiments with a view of ascertaining this law, but without success. His work contains an account of experiments made by him to determine the most advantageous length of cannon. He published a paper on hydraulic machines in 1754, where he treats of the maximum of effect of water-wheels. He also published a paper concerning the duration of the impression of light on the retina. He found that the revolution of a luminous point must be rapid, so as to be performed in 8/60 of a second at the least, in order to produce the appearance of a continued luminous circle.
He was of a handsome figure, and passed much of his time in the gay world. A short time before his death he married a young lady his niece, and took the title of Count. Although attached to the House of Stuart, and therefore inimical to the English Government, yet he admired the national character of the English, and was attentive to English travellers. He died in 1779, and was succeeded at the Academy by the Abbé Bossut. (Y.)
# Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica/Army

​ARMY. See the Encyclopædia under that head, and Tactics in this Supplement.
# Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica/Arnaud De Ronsil (George)

​ARNAUD de RONSIL (George), son of an eminent surgeon, at Paris, and some time Professor of surgery in the College of St Côsme. On account of an accident that occurred while he was practising midwifery, he removed from Paris to London, where he acquired great repute by his operations, and his writings on surgical subjects. Before his time, the treatment of hernia had been but imperfectly understood; and the surgeons of this country are indebted to the observations of Arnaud for many of those improvements which have since rendered their practice so successful in this branch of the art. The following is a list of his principal works: 1. Traité des Hernies ou Descentes, 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1749. 2. Observations on Aneurysms. London, 1750. 3. Instructions on the Diseases of the Bladder and Urethra. London; 1763. 4. A Dissertation on Hermaphrodites. London, 1750. These were afterwards collected, and published, with additions, under the title of Mémoires de Chirurgie, avec quelques Rémarques sur l’etat de la Medicine, et de la Chirurgie en France, et en Angleterre, 2 vols. 4to. London, 1768. 5. Remarks on the Use of the Extract of Lead of Goulard. London, 1776. Arnaud died in 1774. (E.)
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Woodruff

Edition of 1879. See also Woodruff on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WOODRUFF (Ang. Sax. wude-rofe), sometimes written woodroof, and by the old writers wooddorowffe, a low perennial herb (asperula odorata) of the madder family (rubiaceæ), native of Europe and Russian Asia, often cultivated
in gardens. Its square stems, erect from a slender creeping rootstock, are 6 to 12 in. high; the oblong-lanceolate leaves usually eight in a
whorl; the flowers, in terminal clusters, are white, the tube with a four-parted limb; calyx united with the ovary, which ripens into a small, globular, very hairy fruit. The flowers are fragrant, and the leaves, odorless when fresh, give off when wilted or dry the scent of new-mown hay, which is retained by the dried herbage for several years; it belongs to the same class of odors as that of the sweet vernal grass, melilot, Tonqua bean, and vanilla. The plant spreads by its underground stems, and forms dense mats or clumps, a habit of growth which makes it useful for edging to borders; it likes the shade, and may be used to carpet the ground beneath shrubs. It is much esteemed by the Germans, who call it Waldmeister and use it to flavor wine; their favorite Maiwein, or Maitrank, is made by infusing the leaves in Rhine wine; the Germans in this country often use instead the sweet-scentted bedstraw (galium triflorum), a related plant of similar appearance, which gives off in drying an odor much like that of woodruff. The plant is readily increased by division, or may be raised from seeds.
Woodruff (Asperula odorata).
# The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Worcester (counties)

Edition of 1879. See also Worcester County, Massachusetts and Worcester County, Maryland on Wikipedia; and the disclaimer.
WORCESTER. I. A central county of Massachusetts, bounded N. by New Hampshire and S. by Rhode Island and Connecticut, and drained by Blackstone, Chicopee, Nashua, Ware, and other rivers; area, 1,500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 192,716; in 1875, 210,242. It is the largest county in the state. The surface is generally undulating, and the soil fertile and under a high state of cultivation. It is traversed by numerous railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 9,946 bushels of wheat, 20,612 of rye, 284,886 of Indian corn, 173,349 of oats, 47,134 of barley, 639,305 of potatoes, 1,275,897 lbs. of butter, 605,561 of cheese, 16,001 of wool, and 130,185 tons of hay. There were on farms 7,583 horses, 28,514 milch cows, 24,127 other cattle, 4,904 sheep, and 7,900 swine. The whole number of manufactories was 1,863, having an aggregate capital of $33,835,118; value of products, $74,579,759. The most important were 8 of agricultural implements, 13 of boot and shoe findings, 136 of boots and shoes, 14 of bricks, 1 of carpets, 45 of carriages and wagons, 44 of clothing, 14 of combs, 57 of cotton goods, 5 of cutlery, 2 of edge tools and axes, 3 of firearms, 2 of flax and linen goods, 91 of furniture, 32 of hardware, 6 of hats and caps, 2 of hosiery, 21 of iron castings, 90 of machinery, 13 of musical instruments, 10 of paper, 11 of shoddy, 19 of soap and candles, 1 of cast steel, 13 of straw goods, 4 of wire, 7 of wire fabrics, 63 of woollens, 3 of worsted goods, 16 tanneries, 24 currying establishments, 49 flour mills, 11 planing mills, and 95 saw mills. Capitals, Worcester and Fitchburg. II. A S. E. county of Maryland, bordering on Delaware and the Atlantic ocean, and bounded W. by the Pokomoke river; area, about 550 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 16,419, of whom 5,869 were colored. It forms part of the peninsula between Chesapeake and Delaware bays. Along the coast are low sandy beaches, separated from the mainland by an inlet. The Wicomico and Pokomoke and Worcester railroads traverse it. The chief productions in 1870 were 20,674 bushels of wheat, 606,944 of Indian corn, 157,706 of oats, 60,845 of Irish and 44,836 of sweet potatoes, 39,460 lbs. of butter, and 19,924 of wool. There were 2,096 horses, 2,921 milch cows, 6,844 other cattle, 8,094 sheep, and 11,077 swine; 1 manufactory of charcoal, and 12 saw mills. Capital, Snow Hill.