OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Embargo-Acts

See also Embargo Act of 1807 on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Embar′go-Acts are orders to restrain the ships either of a foreign nation with whom war has been declared or of the home nation from leaving port. An embargo-act was passed in the United States in 1794. This act was the answer to the British orders-in-council of 1793. France and England had each tried to cripple the other by declaring in turn that neutral vessels carrying to either were the lawful ​prize of the other. The United States had too weak a fleet to declare war, and, therefore, tried to bring the two powers to terms by preventing her own vessels from trade. The southern party, chiefly agricultural, was in power, and their action crippled New England, which was so hard hit by its loss of trade that it threatened to secede. A stricter embargo-act was passed in 1807. Exports fell from $110,084,207 in 1807 to $22,430,960 in 1808. The American carrying-trade has never since fully recovered. England, the chief offender in seizing American ships and pressing American sailors (for France did not command the sea), alone profited by the American embargoes. In 1809 the embargo was removed, but in its stead a non-intercourse act was passed against trade with France or England. War broke out with England in 1812. A new embargo was levied until 1814. In spite of the opinion of Jefferson, it seems clear that the embargoes injured the home country more than her enemies, and thus were unsound.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Embryo

See also Sporophyte on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Em′bryo (in plants), a plant in the earliest stages of its development. In Spermatophytes Embryo of capsella, showing superior (below) and embryo (above) in various stages of development. the name is restricted to the development within the seed. Taking the bean embryo as an illustration, it consists of a small stem, once called the caulicle, but now known as the hypocotyl, from the lower end of which the root develops, and at the upper end two large and fleshy leaves appear (the halves of the bean), called the cotyledons. Between the cotyledons a little bud is apparent, called the plumule, in which the subsequent leaves are more or less formed, and which is to develop into the shoot when the embryo escapes from the seed. Such an embryo represents the common form among the dicotyledons. Among the monocotyledons, as in corn, the same parts appear, but the single large cotyledon is terminal on the hypocotyl, and the stem tip comes out at one side. Among the conifers, as in pines, a rosette of cotyledons may appear, in the center of which is the plumule. In the development of the embryos of seed-plants a temporary organ, called the suspensor, usually appears. It generally is a more or less elongated filament of cells, which at its tip bears the cell which is to form the real embryo, and by its growth places this cell in a better position in reference to the food-supply which is forming in the seed.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Embryo-Sac

See also Ovule on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Em′bryo-Sac (in plants). In the ovule of angiosperms there is developed what appears to be a large cavity, but is really a single large spore which is not discharged (see Megaspore). This spore germinates and develops within itself a very simple gametophyte consisting of seven cells (see Gametophyte). This spore containing its gametophyte, before it was known to be a spore, SECTION OF OVULE was called the embryo-sac, because the embryo was observed to develop within it. At one end of the sac three of the seven cells are grouped together, the group being called the egg-apparatus, since the central cell is the egg, which is to produce the embryo, and the other two aid it in the process of fertilization. At the opposite end of the sac is another group of three cells known as the antipodal cells. Usually they disappear very soon after they are formed. In the central region of the sac a very large cell appears, called the definitive nucleus or endosperm nucleus. It is this cell which produces the endosperm or food-cells for the use of the embryo. In many seeds, as corn and wheat, it is the endosperm which supplies the food-material used by man.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Addison, Joseph

See also Joseph Addison on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ad′dison, Joseph, a great English essayist, was born in 1672, graduated at Oxford, and held for some years a fellowship at the University. Here some of his early writings brought him into notice and secured him a pension of $1,500 a year. Gaining this, he traveled on the continent, observing, studying and writing. In the winter of 1701, amid the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across Mt. Cenis, he composed his Letter from Italy, which contains many fine touches of description and is by far the best of his poems. At the death of King William his pension was stopped, and having no means of his own his prospects were gloomy indeed, till a lucky chance put him on his feet again. The ministry desired a poem written in praise of Marlborough, who had just won the battle of Blenheim. Addison wrote the poem, The Campaign, and was rewarded with the office of excise commissioner. He held other public offices, which kept him from writing much for the next six years. In 1710 he began to bring out his famous essays. These he contributed to the Tattler, next to the Spectator and afterwards to the Guardian, which he published in conjunction with his friend Richard Steele. The most successful of these periodicals was the Spectator. It was a daily paper, but without any news. It took the fancy of Londoners at the time, and though it only ran a few months has been renowned ever since. Addision died in 1719. See Courthope’s Addison, in English Men of Letters Series.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ade, George

See also George Ade on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ade, George, humorous writer and playwright, was born at Kentland, Indiana, in 1866. He was educated at Purdue University and did newspaper work in Chicago, where his Stories of the Streets of the Town brought him into notice. His Fables in Slang, two volumes appearing in 1901–02, gave him wide reputation for pungent and satirical wit. His musical comedies, The Sultan of Sulu and Peggy from Paris, appeared in 1903. Later works are The County Chairman, The College Widow and others.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adelaide

See also Adelaide on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Adelaide (ad′e-lād), situated about six miles from St. Vincent’s Gulf, is the capital of South Australia. The Torrens River divides it into North and South Adelaide. It is surrounded by hills, has large manufactories, and exports especially copper and gold. It is the seat of the university of Adelaide, incorporated in 1874, and authorized to grant degrees in arts, law, music, medicine and science. Port Adelaide, at the mouth of the river, is the principal port of South Australia. Population, with suburbs, 184,393.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adams, Maude

See also the disclaimer.
​Adams, Maude, an American actress (real name Kiskadden), was born Nov. 11, 1872, in Salt Lake City, Utah. Her mother was the leading woman in a stock company and while going to school Miss Adams often appeared on the stage in child’s parts. At sixteen she joined E. H. Sothern’s Company in New York in the “Midnight Bell.” She ​has been connected with Charles Frohman’s stock company and has supported John Drew. Her most pronounced success has been in J. M. Barrie’s plays, and especially in “The Little Minister.” During the winter of 1906-07 she made a great success in New York in the play “Peter Pan.”
# The New Student's Reference Work/Address, Forms of

See also Style (manner of address) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Address, Forms of, the titles or ceremonious terms to be used in addressing written communications to people of high or official position. Usage in this country has sanctioned the employment of the following modes of address: His Excellency, The President of the United States. Custom has also made proper the use of the prefix His Excellency when addressing governors of states and ambassadors or ministers of the United States abroad. In conversation, or in formal oral address, the term Mr. President is used by all to the head of the nation, save by the President’s personal or intimate friends. The Vice-president is addressed by letter as The Honorable, The Vice-president of the United States, or The Hon. ——— ———, Vice-president of the United States. When the latter is acting as ex-officio presiding officer of the Senate he is addressed by the senators as Mr. President. Cabinet officers, senators and representatives of the United States, judges of state and federal courts and consuls are all entitled to the prefix Honorable, as The Hon. Senator A. B. Clark; The Hon. Mr. Justice, or The Hon. Judge Jones. Custom also permits the use of Honorable to mayors of cities, as The Hon. Mayor Smith, or The Hon. Lionel Smith, Mayor of the city of ————.
​For church dignitaries the terms of address vary somewhat with the denomination. In the Protestant Episcopal church the bishop is addressed The Right Rev. ———; in the Methodist Church as The Rev. Bishop ———. Clergymen take the title The Rev. or simply Rev., adding any collegiate degrees to which they may be entitled, such as M.A., D.D., LL.D., etc., or in the case of a clergyman who has a doctorate degree he may be addressed simply: The Rev. Dr. ———. It is bad form, it may be added, to speak or write of a clergyman as Rev. Jones, Rev. Smith, etc. If his Christian name is not known, use invariably the prefix Mr. (Mister), as the Rev. Mr. Jones, etc. Archbishops are addressed: The Most Rev. ——— ———, D.D. (or whatever degree possessed of); while cardinals are addressed His Eminence ——— ———. Physicians and surgeons are addressed: Dr. ———, or Thomas Jones, Esq., M.D. Lawyers or private gentlemen may be addressed either ——— ———, Esq., or plain Mr. ———.
Where husband and wife are both addressed, it is proper to give the title of the former, followed by the word Mrs., using the given name or initials of the husband; thus: His Excellency, the President, and Mrs. McKinley; Governor and Mrs. Jonas Smith; or The Hon. and Mrs. J. L. Jones. In the case of scholastic titles or those conferred by universities they usually precede the name, thus: Prof. Harry Jones; Dr. Walker Brown, or may follow the name, thus: Goldwin Smith, Esq., D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law), or ——— ——— Esq., LL.D. (Doctor of Laws).
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adams, Samuel

See also Samuel Adams on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ad′ams, Samuel, was born at Boston, Sept. 22, 1722. He was prominent in Massachusetts in the revolutionary period, and helped very much to mould public opinion and to strengthen his fellow-citizens in their determination staunchly to uphold their rights. He got up town meetings, wrote the protest which Boston made against the Stamp Act, was a leader in debate, and so formidable an opponent that attempts were made by the English party to buy his support. He was a member of the Continental Congress, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and, after the war, governor of Massachusetts. He died at Boston, Oct. 2, 1803. See Hosmer’s Life, in American Statesmen Series.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adder

See also the disclaimer.
​Adder. See Viper.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adams, Wm. Taylor

See also William Taylor Adams on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Adams, Wm. Taylor, better known as “Oliver Optic” (1822–1897), was a native of Massachusetts, a school teacher in Boston, and a popular writer of tales for the young. Among the best known of his works, of which he is said to have written over 100, are the Starry Flag Series, and Young America Abroad.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Addams (Miss) Jane

See also Jane Addams on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Addams (Miss) Jane, a philanthropist and social settlement worker, born in Cedarville, Ill., Sept. 6, 1860. She graduated from Rockford College in 1881, studied two years in Europe, 1883–85, and later studied in Philadelphia. In 1889 she opened Hull House, a social settlement institution in Chicago, and is still the head of that institution. She has written and lectured extensively on social and political reform. She is the author of Democracy and Social Ethics.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Adder's-Tongue

See also Erythronium on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Adder’s-Tongue, or dog-tooth violet, is a wild flower fond of brookside and moist wood. It belongs to the lily family, is called by many a child the “yellow lily.” The plant has two lance-shaped spotted leaves, bears but a single blossom. The flower will turn on its stalk to follow the sun. Its name is not considered appropriate; change to fawn lily has been suggested, also to trout lily. It is one of the earliest spring flowers. From Nova Scotia to Florida it is found, and west to the Mississippi. The white adder’s-tongue is more common in the west than in the east.
# The Origins of the Islamic State/Part 2

CONTENTS
page
PART II—SYRIA
# The Origins of the Islamic State/Part 10

CONTENTS
page
PART X—MEDIA [AL-JIBÂL]
# The Origins of the Islamic State/Part 10/Chapter 1

PART X
MEDIA [AL-JIBÂL]
CHAPTER I
Ḥulwân
Ḥulwân capitulates. After the decisive battle of Jalûlâʾ had been won by the Moslems, Hâshim ibn-ʿUtbah ibn-abi-Waḳḳâṣ added to the forces of Jarîr ibn-ʿAbdallâh al-Bajali a heavy detachment of cavalry and stationed him at Jalûlâʾ between the Moslems and their enemy [the Persians].
Later on, Saʿd sent Jarîr about 3,000 Moslems and ordered him to advance with them and his forces to Ḥulwân. No sooner had Jarîr approached Ḥulwân than Yazdajird fled away in the direction of Iṣbahân. Ḥulwân capitulated; and Jarîr promised to spare the people and guarantee their lives and possessions without interfering with those who preferred to flee the land.
Ḳarmâsîn. Leaving in Ḥulwân a part of his forces [?] with ʿAzrah ibn-Ḳais ibn-Ghazîyah-l-Bajali, Jarîr pushed towards ad-Dînawar, which he failed to reduce. He, however, reduced Ḳarmâsîn on the same terms as Ḥulwân. He then returned to Ḥulwân and held its governorship until the arrival of ʿAmmâr ibn-Yâsir in al-Kûfah. ʿAmmâr wrote to Jarîr that ʿUmar ibn-al-Khaṭṭâb wanted him to reinforce abu-Mûsa-l-Ashʿari [in Tustar]. Accordingly, Jarîr left ʿAzrah ibn-Ḳais over Ḥulwân, and in the year 19 made his way to join abu-Mûsa.
Muḥammad ibn-Saʿd from ʿÂʾishah, daughter of Saʿd ibn-​abi-Waḳḳâṣ:—The latter said, "When Muʿâwiyah put Ḥujr ibn-ʿAdi-l-Kindi to death, my father made the following remark, 'If Muʿâwiyah had seen the part Ḥujr had taken in the reduction of Ḥulwân, he would have realized of what great value he was to Islâm'."
According to al-Wâḳidi, certain sons of Jarîr ibn-Abdallâh settled in Ḥulwân, where their descendants are still living.
* ↑ Rustah, pp. 164–165.
* ↑ Yâḳût, vol. iv, p. 68.
* ↑ Aghâni, vol. xvi, pp. 3–4; Athîr, vol. iii, pp. 392 seq.; Masʿûdi, vol. v, pp. 15 seq.
* ↑ Text not clear. Cf. Ḥajar, vol. i, p. 645.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emergence

See also Trichome on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Emer′gence (in plants), outgrowths from the surface of a plant, such as warts, prickles, etc., which involve in their origin ​the cortex as well as the epidermis. For example, the stem-prickles of the rose are emergences. A contrasting term is trichome, which is applied to structures derived entirely from the epidermis, as ordinary hairs.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emerald

See also Emerald on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Emerald, a mineral differing in nothing but color from beryl. The emerald is highly esteemed as a gem. It owes its value mainly to its very beautiful velvety-green color. It is found in very few places. The finest have long been brought from Colombia, where they are got from veins in slate and granite. Valuable stones also come from the upper Orinoco in Venezuela. Poor stones are found in Europe, in Salzburg and the Ural Mountains, and some old mines in Egypt yield them. The gem was known and highly prized in early times. Ptolemy offered a famous poet, who visited his court, an emerald set in gold, with his portrait engraved on it. Nero, who was near-sighted, looked at the combats of gladiators through an eyeglass of emerald. An emerald is rarely without a flaw, and its value depends on its color. A very perfect emerald of six carats has been sold for $5,000. The name of oriental emerald is often given to a very rare, beautiful and precious green sapphire.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emerson, Ralph Waldo

See also Ralph Waldo Emerson on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
* RALPH W. EMERSON
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, a great American essayist, was born at Boston, on May 25, 1803 and graduated at Harvard College in 1821. He studied theology under the direction of Channing, and became pastor of the Second Unitarian Church of Boston. A difference of religious views between Emerson and his congregation brought about a friendly separation, and the remainder of his life was spent as a lecturer and writer. In 1833 he made a first visit to Europe, of which he has given an account in his English Traits. The next year he moved to Concord, and lived first in the house afterward occupied by Hawthorne and celebrated in one of his stories as the Old Manse. It was also in this year (1834) that he began to correspond with Carlyle, whom he had sought out and talked with when in England. This correspondence, lasting from 1834 to 1872, has been published, and shows the two men with all their differences, yet with many deep sympathies. In 1836 appeared Nature, a poetical rhapsody in prose, and though much admired by a small circle of readers, it took twelve years to sell 500 copies. But his oration on The American Scholar, delivered at Harvard, attracted the widest attention, as did also his oration delivered at Harvard Divinity School in 1838. Of these writings Oliver Wendell Holmes remarks: "Whosoever has read carefully and lovingly these three essays, Nature, The American Scholar and the Divinity School Address, can almost say of Emerson what he makes the sphinx say of herself:
Who telleth me of my meanings Is master of all I am.
Representative Men, The Conduct of Life and Society and Solitude are others of his best known books. Emerson died at Concord, Mass., April 27, 1882. Matthew Arnold declared that if Emerson had only had the power of sustaining himself at the sublime heights he sometimes reached, he would have ranked among the world's great poets. He is the friend of all who would live in the spirit. See Ralph Waldo Emerson, by Holmes, in the series of the American Men of Letters.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Embryology

See also the disclaimer.
​Embryology. See Development.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emigration

See also Emigration on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Emigra′tion means going out of one country into another, and generally to a faraway part of the world. In the country which people leave they are generally called emigrants or wanderers out; in that in which they settle they are usually styled immigrants. Jacob and his family were immigrants into Egypt, and their descendants became emigrants from that country when they went to inherit the promised land. Among the main causes which have led to emigration at different times are the pursuit of wealth, the pressure of over-population at home and discontent, political, social or religious. The Spaniards came to America to get gold. Many of the Greeks in old times emigrated because of over-population. Political and social discontent accounts in great measure for the large numbers of Irish emigrants. Forced service in the army is one great cause of German emigration. Religious persecution led to the emigration of the Huguenots from France to England and of the Puritans from England to North America. At the end of the 15th century the opening of the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama and the discovery of America by Columbus at once brought to the eyes of Europeans new lands, and then modern emigration began. The Spaniards left their motherland to go to the West Indies and to Central and South America; the Portuguese to Brazil, the East Indies, India and Ceylon; the Dutch to the East and West Indies, Guiana, New York and the Cape of Good Hope; the French to Mauritius and Bourbon, the West Indies, Louisiana, India and Canada; the English to the West Indies, North America and, later, to India, Australia and ​South Africa. European emigration has been, greatest in the 19th century, because the population has increased so enormously. Europeans are naturally attracted to counties of like climate, which have not already an over-large population and in which the chances of gaining wealth are good. For these reasons the greatest emigration has been to the United States, Australia, South Africa and the temperate parts of South America, for example, the Argentine Republic.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emmet, Robert

See also Robert Emmet on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Em'met, Robert, an ill-fated Irish patriot, was born at Dublin in 1778. At fifteen he entered Trinity College, where Moore, the poet, was his fellow-student, but soon left to join the United Irishmen. He next traveled in Europe, talked with Napoleon and Talleyrand in 1802 on behalf of the Irish cause, and came back the next year to expend $15,000 of his own fortune for muskets and pikes. With a small band he designed a plot to seize Dublin Castle and make a prisoner of the viceroy. The rising utterly failed, and Emmet, who had clothed himself for the occasion in a green coat, white breeches and cocked hat, saw nothing result from the enterprise but a few ruffianly murders. He escaped, but coming back for a last leave-taking from his sweetheart, Sarah Curran, the daughter of the great Irish orator, he was arrested, put on trial Sept. 20, 1803, condemned to death, and hanged on the following day. Just before receiving sentence he made a speech which still thrills the reader by its noble and pathetic eloquence. See Madden's Lives of the United Irishmen.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Emporia

See also Emporia, Kansas on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Empo'ria, county-seat of Lyon County, Kan., on Neosho River, 60 miles southwest of Topeka. It is the trade-center of the surrounding section, which is engaged in farming, dairying and fattening cattle for the eastern market. The city has carriage and canning-factories, flour and grist-mills, woolen mills and iron and marble-works. Emporia has several fine churches, good schools and school-buildings, a business college and railroad and public libraries. Besides, there are the State Normal School, the College of Emporia (Pres.) and the Western Conservatory of Music. The town was founded in 1856 and incorporated in 1870. Population, 9,058.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Ems

See also Bad Ems on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Ems or Bad-Ems, a bathing resort known to the Romans and famous in Germany as early as the 14th century. It is on the River Lahn, ten miles from Coblenz. Its warm mineral springs contain soda. The temperature of the different springs varies from 80° to 135° F. Population, about 7,500.