OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Waitz, Theodor

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​WAITZ, THEODOR (1821-1864), German psychologist and anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the 17th of March 1821. Educated at Leipzig and Jena, he made philosophy, philology and mathematics his chief studies, and in 1848 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the university of Marburg. He was a severe critic of the philosophy of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, and considered psychology to be the basis of all philosophy. His researches brought him into touch with anthropology, and he will be best remembered by his monumental work in six volumes, Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker. He died on the 21st of May 1864 at Marburg.
In addition to his Anthropologie, the first four volumes of which appeared at Leipzig, 1859-1864, the last two posthumously, he published Grundlegung der Psychologie (1846); Lehrbuch der Psychologie als Naturwissenschaft (1849); Allgemeine Pädagogik (1852); and a critical edition of the Organon of Aristotle (1844).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wake, William

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​WAKE, WILLIAM (1657-1737), English archbishop, was born at Blandford, Dorset, on the 26th of January 1657, and educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, and in 1682 went to Paris as chaplain to the ambassador Richard Graham, Viscount Preston (1648-1695). Here he became acquainted with many of ​the savants of the capital, and was much interested in French clerical affairs. He also collated some Paris manuscripts of the Greek Testament for John Fell, bishop of Oxford. He returned to England in 1685; in 1688 he became preacher at Gray's Inn, and in 1689 he received a canonry of Christ Church, Oxford. In 1693 he was appointed rector of St James's, Westminster. Ten years later he became dean of Exeter, and in 1705 he was consecrated bishop of Lincoln. He was translated to the see of Canterbury in 1716 on the death of Thomas Tenison. During 1718 he negotiated with leading French churchmen about a projected union of the Gallican and English churches to resist the claims of Rome (see J. H. Lupton, Archbishop Wake and the Project of Union, 1896). In dealing with nonconformity he was tolerant, and even advocated a revision of the Prayer Book if that would allay the scruples of dissenters. His writings are numerous, the chief being his State of the Church and Clergy of England … historically deduced (London, 1703). He died at Lambeth on the 24th of January 1736/7.
Sir Isaac Wake (c. 1580-1632), the diplomatist, was a kinsman of the archbishop. He commenced his diplomatic career in Venice, and then he represented his county for sixteen years at Turin; he was knighted in 1619, and after being sent on various special missions by James I. he was British ambassador in Paris from 1630 until his death in June 1632. Among Sir Isaac's writings is Rex plalonicus, a description of the entertainment of James I. at Oxford in 1605; this was published in 1607 and has often been reprinted.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Wakefield (Massachusetts)

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​Wakefield, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 10 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 6982; (1900) 9290, of whom 2347 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,404. Wakefield is served by three branches of the Boston & Maine railway and by electric interurban railway to neighbouring towns and cities. It contains the outlying villages of Greenwood, Montrose and Boyntonville; and, larger than these, Wakefield, near the centre of the township. In this village is the town hall, the gift of Cyrus Wakefield (1811–1873), and the Beebe Town Library, founded in 1836 as the Public Library of South Reading, and later renamed in honour of Lucius Beebe, a generous patron. The town park (about 25 acres), shaded by some fine old elms, extends to the S. shore of Lake Quannapowitt and contains a soldiers’ monument; and in the S. part of the township are Crystal Lake and Hart’s Hill (30 acres), a public park. In the township is the Wakefield Home for Aged Women, and a Y.M.C.A. building. Manufacturing is the principal industry; and among the manufactures are rattan goods, hosiery, stoves and furnaces, boots and shoes, and pianos. The value of the factory products increased from $2,647,130 in 1900 to $4,807,728 in 1905, or 81.6%. The township owns and operates the electric lighting and gas plants and the water-works.
Within the present limits of Wakefield the first settlement was made, in 1639, in that part of the old township of Lynn which in 1644 was incorporated as Reading. In 1812 the southern or “Old Parish” of Reading, which was strongly Democratic-Republican while the other two parishes were strongly Federalist, was set apart and incorporated as the town of South Reading. In 1868 the present name was adopted in honour of Cyrus Wakefield, who established the rattan works here. A portion of Stoneham was annexed to Wakefield in 1889.
See C. W Eaton, “Wakefield,” in S. A. Drake’s History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voghera

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​VOGHERA (anc. Iria), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Pavia, and 19 m. by rail S.S.W. of that city, 305 ft. above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the Po). Pop. (1901) 14,453 (town); 20,442 (commune). The fortifications erected by the Visconti in the middle ages have given place to shady promenades. The large church of San Lorenzo dates from the 11th century, but was remodelled in the baroque style about the beginning of the 17th. The suppressed church of S. Ilario (Chiesa Rossa), so called from the red colour of the brick of which it is built, dates from the 10th century. The neighbourhood produces much silk, in which, as well as in corn and wine, an active trade is carried on. The ancient Iria took its name from the river on which it was situated. It was on the road from Placentia to Dertona, and was made a colony by Augustus (colonia Forum Iulium Iriensium).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vogel, Eduard

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​VOGEL, EDUARD (1820-1856), German traveller in Central Africa, was born at Krefeld on the 7th of March 1829. He studied mathematics and astronomy at Leipzig and Berlin, and in 1851 engaged in astronomical work in London. In 1853 he was chosen by the British government to take supplies to Heinrich Barth, then in the western Sudan; and Vogel met Barth at Kuka in Bornu (1854). During 1854 and 1855 he explored the countries round Lake Chad and the upper course of the Benue. On the 1st of December 1855 he left Kuka for the Nile Valley, and nothing further was heard of him. Several search expeditions were organized to ascertain his fate and to recover his papers; it was not until 1873 that Gustav Nachtigal on reaching Wadai learnt that Vogel had been murdered in that country in February 1856.
See Erinnerungen an einen Verschollenen (Leipzig, 1863), by Vogel's sister, E. Polko, and Der Afrikaforscher Eduard Vogel (Hamburg, 1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vogt, Karl Christoph

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​VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817–1895), German naturalist and geologist, was born at Giessen on the 5th of July 1817. In 1847 he became professor of zoology at Giessen, and in 1852 professor of geology and afterwards also of zoology at Geneva, where he died on the 5th of May 1895. His earlier publications were on zoology; he dealt with the Amphibia (1839), Reptiles (1840), with Mollusca and Crustacea (1845) and more generally with the invertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean (1854).
His separate works include Im Gebirg und auf den Gletschern (1843); Physiologische Briefe (1845-46); Grundriss der Geologie (1860); and Lehrbuch der Geologie und Petrefactenkunde (2 vols., 1846-47; ed. 4, 1879). An English version of his Lectures on Man: his Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth was published by the Anthropological Society of London in 1864.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vodeyshankar, Gowrishankar

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​VODEYSHANKAR, GOWRISHANKAR (1805–1892), native minister of the state of Bhaunagar in Kathiawar, Bombay, was born on the 21st of August 1805, of a family of Nagar Brahmins. He rose from being a revenue officer to be state minister in 1847. His success in this capacity was such that on the death of the reigning chief, in 1870, he was appointed joint administrator in concert with a British official. The experiment was in every respect successful. Under the simple and economical forms used in native states, improvements suggested by British experience were introduced. The land revenue was based on a cash system, the fiscal and customs systems were remodelled and tree planting was encouraged. The town of Bhaunagar received the great boon of the Gowrishankar Waterworks, on which six lakhs of rupees were spent. The Bhaunagar state also warmly pressed for railway communication with the continent of India, and thus began a movement which has spread a network of railway lines over the peninsula of Kathiawar. The British government rewarded these many services of Gowrishankar with the distinction of C.S.I. in 1877; He helped to establish the Rajkumar College at Rajkot, for the education of native princes, and also the Rajasthanik Court, which, after settling innumerable disputes between the land-owning classes and the chiefs, has since been abolished. In 1879 Gowrishankar resigned office, and devoted himself to the study of the higher literature of that Vedanta philosophy which through his whole life had been to him a solace and a guide. In 1884 he wrote a work called Svarupanusandhan, on the union of the soul with Deity, which led to a letter of warm congratulation from Max Müller, who also published a short biography of him. In 1887 he put on the robe of the Sanyasi or ascetic, the fourth stage, according to the Hindu Shastras, in the life of the twice-born man, and in this manner passed the remainder of his life, giving above ten hours each day to Vedantic studies and holy contemplation. He died, revered by all classes, in December 1892.
See Javerital U. Yajnik, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay, 1889).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vogtland

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​VOGTLAND, or Voigtland, a district of Germany, forming the S.W. corner of the kingdom of Saxony, and also embracing parts of the principality of Reuss and of the duchies of Saxe-Altenburg and Saxe-Weimar. It is bounded on the N. by the principalities of Reuss, in the S.E. by Bohemia, and on the S.W. and W. by Bavaria. Its character is generally mountainous, and geologically it belongs to the Erzgebirge range. It is extremely rich in mineral ores—silver, copper, lead and bismuth. The name denoted the country governed for the emperor by a Vogt (bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle ages, known as terra advocatorum. The Vögte are first met with in the country in the 10th century, and the office shortly afterwards appears to have become hereditary in the princely line of Reuss. But this house was not in undivided possession, rival claims being raised from time to time; and after being during the middle ages a bone of contention between Bohemia, the burgraves of Nuremberg and the Saxon house of Wettin, it passed gradually to the Wettins, falling by the division of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the family. The elector Augustus I. made it one of the circles of his dominions.
See Limmer, Geschichte des Vogtlandes (Gera, 1825-28, 4 vols.); Simon, Das Vogtland (Meissen, 1904); C. F. Collmann, Das Vogtland im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892); and Metzner, Vogtländische Wanderungen (Annaberg, 1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vogüé, Eugène Melchior, Comte de

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​VOGÜÉ, EUGÈNE MELCHIOR, Comte de (1848–), French author, was born at Nice on the 25th of February 1848. He served in the campaign of 1870, and on the conclusion of the war entered the diplomatic service, being appointed successively attaché to the legations at Constantinople and Cairo and secretary at St Petersburg. He resigned in 1882, and from 1893 to 1898 was deputy for Ardèche. His connexion with the Revue des deux mondes began in 1873 with his Voyage en Syrie et en Palestine, and subsequently he was a frequent contributor. He did much to awaken French interest in the intellectual life of other countries, especially of Russia, his sympathy with which was strengthened by his marriage in 1878 with a Russian lady, the sister of General Annenkov De Vogüé was practically the first to draw French attention to Dostoievski and his successors. He became a member of the French Academy in 1888.
His works include: Histoires orientales (1879); Portraits du siècle (1883); Le Fils de Pierre le Grand (1884); Histoires d’hiver (1885); Le Roman russe (1886); Regards historiques et litteraires (1892); Cœurs russes (1894); Devant le siècle (1896); Jean d’Agrève (1898); Le Rappel des ombres (1900); Le Maître de la mer (1903); Maxime Gorky (1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Vodka

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​VODKA, Vodki or Wodky, the Russian national spirituous beverage. Originally vodka was made almost entirely from rye, barley malt to the extent of 15 to 20% being used to effect saccharification (see Spirits), but at the present day potatoes and maize are the staple raw materials from which this spirit is manufactured, and, as a rule, green rye malt is now used instead of barley. The distillation is conducted by means of live steam in a double still of the “patent” type. Vodka as manufactured contains from 90 to 96% of alcohol, but it is diluted, previous to retailing, to a strength of 60 to 40%. It is illegal to sell it with less than 40% of alcohol.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Voetius, Gysbertus

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​VOETIUS (Voet), GYSBERTUS (1588–1676), Dutch theologian, was born at Heusden, Holland. He studied at Leiden, and in 1611 became pastor of Blymen, whence in 1617 he returned to Heusden. In 1619 he played an influential part in the Synod of Dort, and in 1634 was made professor of theology and Oriental science at Utrecht. Three years later he became pastor of the Utrecht congregation. He was an advocate of the extremest form of Calvinism against the Arminians; but his personal influence was good, and the city of Utrecht perpetuated his memory by giving his name to the street in which he had lived.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Genevieve

GENEVIEVE, a Patron Saint at Paris, born at Nantes about 419,
Is said to have succoured the inhabitants of Paris during a terrible famine, by procuring many large vessels full of wheat, which she distributed among them. At that time nuns were not confined to monasteries, but lived in their own families—Genevieve was one of these. Miracles were attributed to her after her death.
F.C.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Gaillarde, (Jane)

G.
GAILLARDE (JANE) a Poetess of Lyons in the 16th century.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Galli, (Maria Oriana)

GALLI (MARIA ORIANA), a Female Painter of repute.
Daughter and disciple of Gio. Maria Galli, commonly called Bibiena.
Abecedario Pittorica.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Genebria

GENEBRIA, a Woman of Verona, lived in the time of Pius II.
Composed many elegant epistles, "polished both with high conceits and judgment: she pronounced with a sharp and loud voice, a becoming gesture, and a fecundous suavity."
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Galeria

GALERIA, Wife of Vitellius, Emperor of Rome,
Distinguished herself in a vicious age by exemplary wisdom and modesty. After the tragical death of her husband, she passed her days in mourning and retirement.
F.C.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Galligai, (Leonora)

That princess loving her tenderly, took her into France in 1606, when she went thither to be married to Henry IV. she was made her bedchamber-woman, and governed her just as she pleased. Extremely ugly, but possessed of a great deal of wit and artifice, she married Concino Concini, afterwards marshal d'Ancre, who was also a native of Florence, and came into France with Mary de Medicis. He was at first only gentleman in ordinary to that princess, but afterwards, by means of his wife, raised himself to great honours. They agreed in fomenting the discord between the king and queen, and their artifices were the causes of the domestic jars which embittered the life of Henry. After the death of that prince, they found it still more easy to govern their mistress; and were so puffed up with pride, that Leonora would not allow the princes, princesses, and greatest lords of the kingdom, to come into their chamber, or suffer any one to look at her, saying, "that people frightened her when they stared upon her, and that they might bewitch her by looking in her face." Soon after the death of Henry IV. their power and arrogance grew more and more excessive, till Lewis XIII. ​commissioned a captain of the guards to dispatch Concini in 1517. The day after his burial, his body was torn out of his grave by the mob, who used it in the most ignominious manner.
Leonora received the news of her husband's catastrophe in a manner which shewed them to be more united by interest than affection. She did not shed a tear, and her first care was to secure her jewels; for which purpose she put them into the netting of her bed, and causing herself to be undressed, got in it; but the provost's men, who went into her chamber to search for them, made her get up, and found them. After which, she said to those who guarded her, "Well, they have killed my husband, does not that satisfy them? Let me be permitted to leave the kingdom." When she was told they had hung up his body, she seemed somewhat moved, but without weeping; and, presently after, said, that he was a very presumptuous insolent man, and that to get rid of him, she had determined to retire into Italy that spring, and had prepared every thing for her journey; behaving with great confidence, as if she apprehended no danger. But she was carried to the Bastile, and afterwards committed to the Conciergerie, or prison of the parliament, by which court she was tried, and condemned to be beheaded and burnt to ashes, which sentence she underwent with great constancy.
It was pretended, that both she and her husband had not only judaized, but likewise practised magic arts, which at that time, as well as astrology, were mightily in vogue in France. But on her being questioned by counsellor Courtin concerning the kind of sorcery she had used, to influence the will of Mary de Medicis, she ​answered, that "she had used that power only which great minds always have over weak ones."
Female Worthies.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Fulvia

After the victory gained at Philippi by Octavius and Antony, the latter went into Asia to settle the affairs of the east, and Octavius returned to Rome, where, happening to quarrel with Fulvia, she took arms against him; and was not satisfied with retiring to Præneste, and drawing thither the knights and senators of her party, but armed herself in person, gave the word to the soldiers, and harangued them.
"She was a woman," says Plutarch, "not born for spinning or housewifry, nor one that could be content with the power of ruling a private husband; but a lady capable of advising a magistrate, and of ruling the general of an army, so that Cleopatra had great obligations to her, for having taught Antony to be obedient." Antony, however, upbraided her so bitterly for entering into this war, that she went into Greece, where she contracted a disease through the violence of her anger, of which she died. During the massacres committed by the triumvirate on the great and leading men of the city, in which her husband was a principal actor, Fulvia assisted him to the utmost of her power. She put ​several persons to death of her own accord, to gratify either her avarice or revenge. Antony caused the heads of the principal to be set on a table before him, that he might feast his eyes with the sight. Amongst them was that of Cicero, which he ordered to be fixed on the rostrum, where that great orator had often so gloriously defended his country; but first, Fulvia took the head, spat upon it, and placing it on her lap, drew out the tongue, which she pierced several times with her bodkin, uttering all the while the most opprobrious and reviling language. "Behold," says Mr. Bayle, "a woman of a strange species. There are some villains whom we are almost forced to admire, because they shew a certain greatness of soul in their crimes; here is nothing to be seen but brutality, baseness, and cowardice, and one cannot help conceiving an indignation full of contempt."
Female Worthies.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Gazzoni, (Johanna)

GAZZONI (JOHANNA), a famous Italian Painter.
There are, particularly at Rome, many of her works, which are held in high estimation.
Abec. Pitt.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Genmei and Gensioo

GENMEI and GENSIOO, Empresses of Japan,
Famous for their wisdom and prudence. The former came to the empire in 708, reigned seven years, and ​gave names to the provinces, cities, and villages, which were marked down in the public registers. The latter came to the throne in 715, and reigned nine years, when she resigned the crown to her nephew, and lived in a private station for twenty-five years, when she died, aged 48.
# A Biographical Dictionary of the Celebrated Women of Every Age and Country/Gentileschi, (Artemisia)

She excelled her father in the latter, and was but little inferior to him in historical pictures. She lived for the most part at Naples in great splendor, and was as famous all over Europe for her gallantry, as for her talents.
Fresnoy's Art of Painting,