OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adam of Usk

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adam of Usk, an English priest, canonist, and chronicler, born at Usk, in Monmouthshire, between 1360 and 1365; date of death unknown. He studied at Oxford, where he obtained his doctorate and became extraordinarius in canon law. He practised in the archiepiscopal court of Canterbury, 1390–97, and in 1399 accompanied the Archbishop and Bolingbroke's army on the march to Chester. After Richard's surrender Adam was rewarded with the living of Kemsing and Seal in Kent, and later with a prebend in the church of Bangor. However, he forfeited the King's favour by the boldness of his criticisms, and was banished to Rome in 1402, where in 1404 and later he was successively nominated to the sees of Hereford and St. David's, but was unable to obtain possession of either. He left a Latin chronicle of English history from 1377 to 1404, edited by Edward Maunde Thompson for the Royal Society of Literature, as "Chronicon Adæ de Usk" (London, 1876).
Thompson, in Dict. Nat. Biog., s.v.; Hurter, Nomenclator, s.v. ; Balzani, La storia di Roma nella Cronaca di Adamo da Usk, in Archiv soc. Rom. stor. patr. (1880), III, 473–488; Gairdner, in Academy (1877), XI, 4–5; Gross, Sources and Lit. of Eng. History (New York, 1900), s.v.
Thomas Walsh.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Alger of Liége

From volume 1 of the work.
​Alger of Liége, a learned French priest, b. at Liége, about 1055; d. at Cluny, 1132. He studied at Liége and was appointed Deacon of St. Bartholomew's. About 1100, he was made Canon of the cathedral of St. Lambert, where he remained for twenty years. In 1121, he retired to the Monastery at Cluny, and died there. He was well known as an ecclesiastical writer. A treatise directed against the heresy of Berengarius, "De sacramento corporis et sanguinis Domini" was highly esteemed by Peter of Cluny and Erasmus. He also wrote "De misericordia et justitia", extracts from the Fathers with brief commentaries on them; a work on Free Will, and one on the "Sacrifice of the Mass". This is contained in the "Collectio Scriptorum Veterum" of Angelo Mai.
De sacramentis corporis et sanguine Domini (Louvain, 1847; Innsbrück, 1878); De misericordia et justitia, in Martène's Thesaurus Anecdotorum (Paris, 1717), also in the collections of the brothers Pez, and also in Mabillon, P.L., 166; 1339.
John J. a Becket.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/All Saints

From volume 1 of the work.
​All Saints, a feast of the highest rank, celebrated on the first of November, having a vigil and an octave, and giving place to no other feast. It is instituted to honour all the saints, known and unknown, and, according to Urban IV, to supply any deficiencies in the faithful's celebration of saints' feasts during the year. In the early days the Christians were accustomed to solemnize the anniversary of a martyr's death for Christ at the place of martyrdom. In the fourth century, neighbouring dioceses began to interchange feasts, to transfer relics, to divide them, and to join in a common feast; as is shown by the invitation of St. Basil of Cæsarea (397) to the bishops of the province of Pontus. Frequently groups of martyrs suffered on the same day, which naturally led to a joint commemoration. In the persecution of Diocletian the number of martyrs became so great that a separate day could not be assigned to each. But the Church, feeling that every martyr should be venerated, appointed a common day for all. The first trace of this we find in Antioch on the Sunday after Pentecost. We also find mention of a common day in a sermon of St. Ephrem the Syrian (373), and in the 74th homily of St. John Chrysostom (407). At first only martyrs and St. John the Baptist were honoured by a special day. Other saints were added gradually, and increased in number when a regular process of canonization was established; still, as early as 411 there is in the Chaldean Calendar a "Commemoratio Confessorum" for the Friday after Easter. In the West, Boniface IV, 13 May, 609, or 610, consecrated the Pantheon in Rome to the Blessed Virgin and all the martyrs, ordering an anniversary. Gregory III (731–741) consecrated a chapel in the Basilica of St. Peter to all the saints and fixed the anniversary for 1 November. A basilica of the Apostles already existed in Rome, and its dedication was annually remembered on 1 May. Gregory IV (827–844) extended the celebration on 1 November to the entire Church. The vigil seems to have been held as early as the feast itself. The octave was added by Sixtus IV (1471–84).
Butler, Lives of the Saints; Lingard, The History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church; Baring-Gould, Lives of the Saints; Binder, Allgemeine Realencyklopædie; Binterim, Denkwürdigkeiten; Probst in Kirchenlex., Kellner, Heortologie; Nilles, Kalendarium Manuale untriusque Ecclesiæ.
Francis Mershman.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Alfred Rethel

From volume 12 of the work.
Born at Aachen, 1816; died at Düsseldorf, 1859. He combined in a brilliant and forcible manner the idealism of the Romantics and Italians, the realism of Dürer, a sense of the monumental and strict adherence to nature. He might have been the greatest of German painters, but ill health crippled his energy. Recommended to Schadow by his teacher Bastine, his first oil-painting was exhibited at Düsseldorf in 1832; it represents St. Boniface, as do two other large canvasses and several sketches, which recall the realistic, powerful style of Lessing. The sketches of the "Battle of Sempach" and the "Death of Arnold von Winkelried" betray the influence of Cornelius. The development of his sense of colour and expressive dramatic spirit belong to his period of attachment to Veit (1836). The "Reconciliation of Emperor Otto I with his brother Henry" and "The Monk at the Coffin of Henry IV" are important works. In the "Nemesis pursuing a Murderer" is already crystallized the darker mood, which clouded the later life of the painter. For the Kaisersaal in Frankfort he painted four characteristic pictures of monarchs. With great admiration he studied the glowing colouring of Titian in strong contrast to the pale art of the Nazarene. After this many-sided training follow his ripest works: "Hannibal's March" powerfully depicts in six pictures the crossing of the Alps; in the "Frescoes from the Life of Charlemagne", in the Rathaus at Aachen (see illustration in CHARLEMAGNE), the composition and colouring are both restrained and effective; his assistant Kehren completed the series with four greatly inferior pictures; the "Death Dance" depicts the horror of the Revolution of 1848. His superhuman strivings after the ideal were little appreciated by his townsmen and contemporaries. A softening of the brain afflicted him during his last years.
VEIT, Alfred Rethel, eine charakteristik (Weimar, 1892); SCHMID, Rethel (Bielefeld, 1898).
G. GIETMANN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adonai

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adonai (אדני), lord, ruler, is a name bestowed upon God in the Old Testament. It is retained in the Vulgate and its dependent versions, Exod., vi, 3; Judith, xvi, 16. No other name applied to God is more definite and more easily understood than this. Etymologically it is the plural of Adon, with the suffix of the possessive pronoun, first person, singular number. This plural has been subjected to various explanations. It may be looked upon as a plurale abstractum, and as such it would indicate the fullness of divine sway and point to God as the Lord of lords. This explanation has the endorsement of Hebrew grammarians, who distinguish a plurale virium, or virtutum. Others prefer to designate this form as plurale excellentiæ, magnitudinis, or plurale majestatis. To look upon it as a form of politeness such as the German Sie for du, or French volts for to is certainly not warranted by Hebrew usage. The possessive pronoun has no more significance in this word than it has in Rabbi (my master), Monsieur, or Madonna. Adonai is also the perpetual substitute for the ineffable Name Yahve, to which it lends its vowel signs. Whenever therefore, the word Yahve occurs in the text, the Jew will read Adonai.
Kautzsch-Gesenius, Hebræische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1896); Dalman, Der Gottesname and seine Geschichte (Berlin 1889); Stade, Biblische Theologie des Alten Testaments (Tübingen, 1905).
E. Heinlein.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adolphe-Napoleon Didron

From volume 4 of the work.
Also called Didron aîné; archaeologist; together with Viollet-le-Duc and Caumont, one of the principal revivers of Christian art in France; b. 13 March, 1806, at Hautvillers, near Reims, where his father was a collector of taxes, d. at Paris, 13 November, 1867.
After completing his early studies at the preparatory seminaries of Meaux and Reims, he went to Paris in 1826, became there a professor of history, and devoted his leisure hours to following courses of law, medicine, etc. The reading of Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris" gave him a taste for the study of the antiquities of the Middle Ages. Having been admitted to the circle of the poet in 1829, he there formed the plan of a tour in Normandy, a province noted above all others for its historical buildings. His reading of the legends of the saints, his knowledge of Scripture, and certain abstract notions of theology directed the young amateur to the study of iconography. In 1835 Guizot named him secretary to the committee entrusted with the publication of the unedited documents concerning the history of France. Didron published, entirely unaided, the first four volumes of the reports of the committee. In 1839 the portion concerning the iconography of the monumental monographs of the cathedral of Chartres was reserved for him. This work did not appear in complete form. In 1838 he opened a course of iconography at the Royal Library. He published (under the title of "Manuel d'Iconographie") a French version of the famous "Painters' Book of Mount Athos", discovered there by him, and wrote the "Histoire de Dieu", the first part of a more general work. His greatest work is the review known as "Annales archéologiques", in which are to be found accounts of his travels and numerous studies in iconography. For many years Didron published in the "Univers" letters on archaeology. He also founded a library of archaeological literature, and finally, in 1849, constructed a glass-manufactory, which produced some remarkable pieces of work and continued to exist after his death. He also produced some good examples of work from the goldsmiths' workshop which he had established in 1858, but which was short-lived.
His principal works are: "Bulletin arehéologique du comité des arts et monuments" (4 vols., Paris, 1840-1847); "Histoire de Dieu, iconographie des personnel divines" (Paris, 1843); "Manuel d'iconographie chrétienne, grecque et latine" (Paris, 1845); "Annales archéologiques" (Paris, 1844-81). See also "Ann. arch." (1881), XXVIII, 184.
GUILHERMY, Didron in Ann. arch. (1868), XXV, 377-395.
R. Maere.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adolphus von Dalberg

From volume 4 of the work.
Prince-Abbot of Fulda and founder of the university in the same city, born 29 May, 1678; died 3 November, 1737, at Hammelburg on the river Saale in Lower Franconia. After holding the office of provost at Zelle in Hanover for some years he was elected Prince-Abbot of the Benedictine monastery of Fulda in 1724. Though he was not a bishop, Dalberg had quasi-episcopal jurisdiction over the territory belonging to the abbey and held a diocesan synod in 1729. This privilege of quasi-episcopal jurisdiction was granted to the abbots of Fulda by Pope Zachary in 1751. Dalberg spared no pains to improve the Catholic educational facilities of Fulda. Its once famous school, which had suffered severely during the religious upheaval of the sixteenth century, had regained some of its ancient prestige by the united efforts of the Jesuits and Benedictines. Dalberg hoped to restore in all its spendour the ancient seat of learning which had made Fulda world-renowned during the Middle Ages. With this end in view he founded a university at Fulda which came to be known after his own name as the Alma Adolphina. The faculties of philosophy and theology he formed by united the two existing schools of the Jesuits and the Benedictines; for the new faculties of jurisprudence and medicine he engaged other professors. Pope Clement XII granted the charter of foundation on 1 July, 1732, and Emperor Charles VI, the charter of confirmation on 12 March, 1733. The solemn inauguration of the university took place on 19 September, 1733. The Adolphina was, however, not destined to be of long duration. After the suppression of the Jesuit Order by Pope Clement XIV in 1773 the university came entirely into the hands of the Benedictines, who were finally obliged to discontinue it in 1805, in consequence of the secularization of the Benedictine monastery in 1802.
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adolphe Perraud

From volume 11 of the work.
Cardinal and academician; b. at Lyons, France, 7 Feb., 1828; d. 18 Feb., 1906. He had a brilliant career at the lycées Henri IV and St. Louis, and entered the Ecole normale, where he was strongly influenced by Gratry. In 1850 he secured the fellowship of history and for two years he taught at the lycée of Angers. In 1852 he abandoned teaching to embrace the sacerdotal state. He returned to Paris where he joined the Oratory which was then being reorganized by Gratry and Abbé Pététot, curé of St. Roch. On his ordination in 1855 after a sojourn at Rome he was appointed professor of history and prefect of religion at the petit seminaire of St. Lô which had just been confided to the Oratory. At the same time he devoted himself to preaching, for which purpose he was recalled to Paris. In 1860 he visited Ireland, after which he wrote "Contemporary Ireland" (1862). In 1865 he defended a theological thesis at the Sorbonne, where in 1866 he became professor of ecclesiastical history and dealt brilliantly with the history of Protestantism. He was appointed (1870) by E. Ollivier a member of the Committee of Higher Education. In 1870 he was a chaplain in MacMahon's army, and after the war preached at St. Philippe du Roub and at St. Augustine. Made Bishop of Autun in 1874 despite his liberal tendencies, he interested himself especially in working-men. After the catastrophe of Montceau les mines, in which twenty-two miners perished, he preached the funeral sermon; he gave several Lenten courses in his cathedral and preached the funerals sermons of Cardinal Guibert, Cardinal Lavigerie, and MacMahon. He was actively concerned in the improvement of clerical studies in which connection his sermon (1879) on "the Church and light" caused a great sensation; after the Congress of Brussels (1894) he was named honorary president of the Society for the Encouragement of Higher Studies among the Clergy. Elected to the French Academy in 1882 to replace Barbier, in 1885 he welcomed Duruy and in 1889 delivered the discourse on the prizes of virtue. Having been superior-general of the Oratory from 1884, he resigned in 1901 in order not to sign the request for authorization of his congregation. He was created cardinal in petto, 16 Jan., 1893, the creation being published at the Consistory of 1895. At the conclave of 1903 he energetically opposed the movement of exclusion directed against Rampolla by Puczina, Archbishop of Cracow, in the name of the Austrian Government. His works consist of the "Etudes sur l'Irelande contemporaine" (Paris, 1862); "L'Oratoire de France au XVIIe siècle" (1865); "Paroles de l'heure présente" (1872); "Le Cardinal de Richelieu" (1872); also oratorical works.
BAUDRILLART, Le Cardinal Perraud in Le Correspondant (25 Feb., 1906); MATHIEU, Discours de reception a l'Academie Francaise (5 Feb., 1907); CHAUVIN, L'Oratoire.
J. Lataste.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Admont

From volume 1 of the work.
​Admont, a Benedictine abbey in Styria, Austro-Hungary, on the river Enns, about fifty miles south of Linz. St. Hemma, Countess of Friesach and Zeltschach, is regarded as its foundress, for upon entering the convent at Gurk she left her lands for the building of a monastery near the salt works of Hall. The foundation, however, was not begun until 1072, more than a quarter of a century after the Saint's death, and two years later the abbey church was consecrated by Gebhard von Helfenstein, Archbishop of Salzburg, in honour of St. Blasius. This prelate also brought twelve Benedictines from Salzburg as a nucleus for the new community. During the first century of its existence, Admont rose into prominence particularly under the Abbots Wolfhold and Gottfried of Venningen; the former founded a convent for the education of girls of noble families while under the latter thirteen of its monks were chosen abbots of other monasteries. A period of decline followed after the middle of the thirteenth century, when war and rapine did much injury. A new era opened under Abbot Henry VII (1275–97), and the work of restoration was completed by Engelbert (1297–1331). The abbey suffered again in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries from the inroads of the Turks and the prevailing social disturbances, and the Reformation made itself felt within the cloister. The Abbot Valentine was even forced to resign on account of his leaning towards the new doctrines. With the return of more peaceful times the educational work of the abbey extended and a faculty of philosophy and theology was added to the gymnasium, of which the cloister school had been the germ. The gymnasium, however, was afterwards transferred to Leoden and later to Judenburg, when it became independent of Adrnont. In 1865 the abbey and church were burnt, but were soon rebuilt. The first abbot was Isingrin. Not a few of his successors were men of great learning and zeal, and under their guidance Admont became an important factor in the history of Styria. The second abbot, Giselbert, introduced the reform of Cluny. Engelbert was the author of a number of works, chiefly theological. Albert von Muchar, who taught at the University of Graz and is known for his historical works, may also be mentioned.
Wichner, Geschichte d. Benedictinerstiftes Admont (Graz, 1874–80); Wolfsgruber, in Kirchenlex., I, 235–237; Chevalier, Topo-bibl. (Paris, 1894–99) s. v.
H. M. Brock.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adolf Pfister

From volume 11 of the work.
An educationist, born at Hechingen in Hohenzollern, 26 Sept., 1810; died at Ober-Dischingen in Würtemberg, 29 April, 1878. He was educated at the Latin school at Hechingen, at the Lyceum of Rastatt, and later at Sasbach. He then studied theology at the Grand Seminary of Strasburg, and was ordained to the priesthood, 25 May, 1833, at Freiburg. After serving for five months as curate at Sasbach, and for a year as assistant at the cathedral of Freiburg, he returned to Hohensollern, and, from 1835 to 1838, was curate at Steinhofen near Hechingen. In 1838 he obtained civic rights in Würtemberg, and as a priest of the Diocese of Rottenburg, he was pastor first in Dotternhausen; 31 Jan., 1839, at Rosawangen; 11 May, 1841, at Risstissen; from 1851 also school inspector in Ehingen. On 12 Aug., 1867, the Catholic theological faculty of Tübingen granted him the degree of Doctor of Theology. In May, 1877, he withdrew to Ober-Dischingen. In 1857 he founded the "Rottenburger Kirchenblatt", which he published for three years. From 1860 he edited the "Katholisches Schulwochenblatt" Spaichingen), which, together with Hermann Rolfus, he continued as "Süddeutsches katholisches Schulwochenblatt" (1861-67), and with J. Haug and Fr. J. Knecht as "Magazin für Pädagogik" (1868-72). But his most valuable work was the editing with Rolfus of the "Real-Encyclopädie des Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen Principien" (4 vols., Mainz, 1863-66; 2nd ed., 1872-1874; a 5th vol., "Ergänzungsband", was published by Rolfus alone in 1884 after Pfister's death). Among Pfister's other writings may be mentioned: "Unterricht uber das Werk der Glaubensverbreitung" (Freiburg, 1850); a German translation of Thomas à Kempis, "Vier Bücher von der Nachfolge Christi" (Freiburg, 1860; 4th ed., 1873) and "Kinderlegende" (Freiburg, 1863); he also compiled several prayer-books.
ROLFUS AND PFISTER, Real-Encyclopädie des Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens, Ergänzungsband (Mainz, 1884), 265-7; KEHREIN, Biographisch-literarisches Lexicon der katholischen deutschen Dichter, Volks-und Jugendschriftseller im 19. Jahrhundert, II (würzburg, 1871), 9; NEHER, Personal-Katalog der Geistlichen des Bisthums Rottenburg (3rd ed., Schwäbisch Gmünd, 1894), 54.
FRIEDERICH LAUCHERT.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aulne Abbey

From volume 16 of the work.
(Alna).
A former Cistercian monastery near Landelies on the Sambre in the Diocese of Liège. Originally it was a Benedictine monastery, founded by Saint Landelinus about 656. Before 974 the Benedictines were replaced by secular clerics leading a common life, who, however, embraced the Rule of St. Augustine in 1144. At the instance of Bishop Hnery de Leyen of Liège it came into the hands of Cistercian monks from Clairvaux in 1147 with Franco de Morvaux as its first Cistercian abbot. Henceforth it flourished as a Cistercian monastery until the French burned it at the end of the eighteenth century, only a short time after it had been rebuilt in larger dimensions. The library, which contained 40,000 books and 5000 manuscripts, was also destroyed.
BOULMONT, L'abbaye d'Aulne, ou origines, splendeurs, epreuves, et ruines de la perle monastique d'Entre-Sambre-et Meuse (Namur, 1898); CLOQUET, L'abbeye d'Aulne (Mons, 1904); LEBROCQUY, Histoire de l'abbaye d'Aulne (Paris, 1862).
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aureliopolis

From volume 2 of the work.
A titular see of Lydia in Asia Minor, whose episcopal list (325-787) is given in Gams (p. 447).
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Aurelius

From volume 2 of the work.
Archbishop of Carthage from 388 to 423. From the title of St. Cyprian, Carthage was one of the foremost sees in Christendom. Its bishop though not formally bearing the title of Primate, confirmed the episcopal nominations in all the plenary councils, which were held almost yearly and signed the synodal letters in the name of all the participants. Such a post Aurelius occupied with destination at a time when Africa held the intellectual leadership in the Church. His episcopate coincided with the last great effort made by the Donatists to uphold a losing cause, and with the first apperance of Pelagianism. Both these crises Aurelius met with equal decision and wisdom. A man of conciliating disposition, and a great lover of peace, his tendency to an indulgent treatment of repentant Donatists was conspicuous in the synodal acts of his own church, and in the plenary councils over which he presided he consistently upheld the same moderate policy. But when the Donatists resorted to rebellion and wholesale murder, he joined his colleagues in appealing to the secular power. He was the first to unmask and denounce Pelagianism. In 412 he excommunicated, and drove from Carthage Caelestinus, the disciple of Pelagius. In 416 he condemned them both, in a synod of sixty-eight bishops of the Proconsulate, and induced Innocent I to brand their two principal errors by defining the necessity of grace and of infant baptism. When Pope Zosimus allowed himself to be deceived by Pelagius's lying professions, he held (4l7) a plenary council of his Africa brethren, and in their names warned the Pontiff who in turn (418) condemned the heresiarchs. Aurelius is mentioned in the African martyrology on 20 July.
A.J.B. VUIBERT