OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Party Wall

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​PARTY WALL, a building term which, in England, apart from special statutory definitions, may be used in four different legal senses (Watson v. Gray, 1880, 14 Ch. D. 192). It may mean (1) a wall of which the adjoining owners are tenants in common; (2) a wall divided longitudinally into two strips, one belonging to each of the neighbouring owners; (3) a wall which belongs entirely to one of the adjoining owners, but is subject to an easement or right in the other to have it maintained as a dividing wall between the two tenements; (4) a wall divided longitudinally into two moieties, each moiety being subject to a cross easement, in favour of the owner of the other moiety. Outside London the rights and liabilities of adjoining owners of party walls are subject to the rules of common law. In London they are governed by the London Building Act 1894. A tenant in common of a party wall is entitled to have a partition vertically and longitudinally, so as to hold separately (Mayfair Property Co. v. Johnston, 1894, 1 Ch. 508); each owner can then use only his own part of the wall. By the London Building Act 1894, § 5 (16) the expression “party wall” means—(a) a wall forming part of a building and used or constructed to be used for separation of adjoining buildings belonging to different owners, or occupied or constructed or adapted to be occupied by different persons; or (b) a wall forming part of a building, and standing to a greater extent than the projection of the footings on lands of different owners. Section 87 regulates the rights of owners of adjoining lands to erect party walls on the line of junction. Sections 88–90 determine the rights of building owners to deal with party walls by underpinning, repairing or rebuilding. The act also contains provisions for settling disputes (§§ 91–92), and for bearing and recovering expenses (§§ 95–102). Part VI. of the act regulates the structure and thickness, height, &c., of party walls.
See A. R. Rudall, Party Walls (1907).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Partonopeus de Blois

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​PARTONOPEUS DE BLOIS, hero of romance. The French romance of Partonopeus de Blois dates from the 13th century, and has been assigned, on the strength of an ambiguous passage in the prologue to his Vie seint Edmund le rei to Denis Piramus. The tale is, in its essence a variation of the legend of Cupid and Psyche. Partonopeus is represented as having lived in the days of Clovis, king of France. He was seized while hunting in the Ardennes, and carried off to a mysterious castle, the inhabitants of which were invisible. Melior, empress of Constantinople, came to him at night, stipulating that he must not attempt to see her for two years and a half. After successful fighting against the “Saracens,” led by Sornegur, king of Denmark, he returned to the castle, armed with an enchanted lantern which broke the spell. The consequent misfortunes have a happy termination. The tale had a continuation giving the adventures of Fursin or Anselet, the nephew of Sornegur. The name of Partonopeus or Partonopex is generally assumed to be a corruption of Parthenopaeus, one of the seven against Thebes. It has been suggested that the word might be derived, from Partenay, a supposition coloured by the points of similarity between this story and the legend of Melusine (see Jean d’Arras) attached to the house of Lusignan, as the lords of these two places were connected.
Bibliography.—The French romance was edited by G. A. Crapelet, with an introduction by A. C. M. Robert, as Partonopeus de Blois (2 vols., 1834); an English Partonope of Blois, by W. E. Buckley for the Roxburghe Club (London, 1862), and another fragment for the same learned society in 1873; the German Partonopier und Melior of Konrad von Würzburg by K. Bartsch (Vienna, 1871); the Icelandic Partalópa saga by O. Klockhoff in Upsala Universitets Arsskrift for 1887. See also H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances, (i. 689, &c.); E. Kölbing, Die verschiedenen Gestaltungen der Partonopeus-Sage, in German. Stud. (vol. ii., Vienna, 1875), in which the Icelandic version is compared with the Danish poem Persenober and the Spanish prose Historia del conde Partinobles; E. Pfeiffer, “Über die HSS des Part. de Blois” in Stengel’s Ausg. in Abh. vom phil. (No. 25, Marburg, 1885).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parton, James

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​PARTON, JAMES (1822–1891), American biographer, was born in Canterbury, England, on the 9th of February 1822. He was taken to the United States when he was five years old, studied in New York City and White Plains, New York, and was a schoolmaster in Philadelphia and then in New York. He removed (1875) to Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he died on the 17th of October 1891. Parton was the most popular biographer of his day in America. His most important books are Life of Horace Greeley (1855), Life and Times of Aaron Burr (1857), Life of Andrew Jackson (1859–1860), Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (1864), Life of Thomas Jefferson (1874), and Life of Voltaire (1881). Among his other publications are General Butler in New Orleans (1863), Famous Americans of Recent Times (1867), The People’s Book of Biography (1868); Noted Women of Europe and America (1883), and Captains of Industry (two series, 1884 and 1891), for young people. His first wife, Sara (1811–1872), sister of N. P. Willis, and widow of Charles H. Eldredge (d. 1846), attained considerable popularity as a writer under the pen-name “Fanny Fern.” (See James Parton’s Fanny Fern: a Memorial Volume, 1873). They were married in 1856. Her works include the novels, Ruth Hall (1854), reminiscent of her own life, and Rose Clark (1857); and several volumes of sketches and stories. In 1876 Parton married Ethel Eldredge, his first wife’s daughter by her first husband.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Partick

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​PARTICK (formerly Perdyc or Perthick), a municipal and police burgh of the parish of Govan, Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 36,538; (1901), 54,298. It lies on the north bank of the Clyde, and is continuous with Glasgow, from which it is separated by the Kelvin, and of which it is a large and wealthy residential suburb. Shipbuilding yards are situated in the burgh, which has also industries of paper-staining, flour-milling, hydraulic-machine making, weighing-machine making, brass-founding and galvanizing. The tradition is that the flour-mills and granaries—the Bunhouse Mills—as they are called locally, were given by the Regent Moray to the bakers of Glasgow for their public spirit in supplying his army with bread at the battle of Langside in 1568. Victoria Park contains a grove of fossil trees which were discovered in a quarry. The town forms the greater part of the Partick division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to Parliament. Though it remained a village till the middle of the 19th century, it is an ancient place. Morken, the Pictish king who persecuted St Kentigern, is believed to have dwelt here and, in 1136, David I. gave the lands of Partick to the see of Glasgow. The bishop's palace stood by the side of the Kelvin, and was occupied—or a mansion erected for him on its site—by George Hutcheson (1580–1639), founder of the Hutcheson Hospital in the city.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Partisan

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​PARTISAN, or Partizan. (1) A thoroughgoing “party” man or adherent, usually in a depreciatory sense of one who puts his party before principles; (2) an irregular combatant or guerrilla soldier; (3) a weapon with a long shaft and a broad bladed head, of a type intermediate between the spear and the halberd (q.v.). In senses (1) and (2) the word is derived through the Fr. from Ital. partigiano, from parteggiare, to share, take part in, Lat. pars, part. The name for the weapon has also been attributed to the same origin, as being that used by “partisans,” but there is no historical evidence for this. The form which the word now takes in French, pertuisane, has given rise to a connexion with pertuis, hole; Lat. pertusus, pertundere, to strike through. But the most probable derivation is from the Teutonic parta, barta, axe, which forms the last part of “halberd.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Partridge, John Bernard

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​PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861–), British artist, was born in London, son of Professor Richard Partridge, F.R.S., president of the Royal College of Surgeons, and nephew of John Partridge (1790–1872), portrait-painter extraordinary to Queen Victoria. He was educated at Stonyhurst College, and after matriculating at London University entered the office of Dunn & Hansom, architects. He then joined for a couple of years a firm of stained-glass designers (Lavers, Barraud & Westlake), learning drapery and ornament; and then studied and executed church ornament under Philip Westlake, 1880–1884. He began illustration for the press and practised water-colour painting, but his chief success was derived from book illustration. In 1892 he joined the staff of Punch. He was elected a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-colours and of the Pastel Society. For some years he was well known as an actor under the name of “Bernard Gould.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Partridge, William Ordway

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​PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861–), American sculptor, was born in Paris, France, on the 11th of April 1861. He received his training as a sculptor in Florence (under Galli), in Rome (under Welonski), and in Paris. He became a lecturer and writer, chiefly on art subjects, and from 1894 to 1897 was professor in fine arts in Columbian University (now the George Washington University), Washington, D.C. Among his publications are: Art for America (1894), The Song Life of a Sculptor (1894), The Technique of Sculpture (1895), The Angel of Clay (1900), a novel, and Nathan Hale, the Ideal Patriot (1902). His sculptural works consist largely of portraiture.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schleicher, August

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​SCHLEICHER, AUGUST (1821–1868), German philologist, was born at Meiningen on the 19th of February 1821, the son of a medical practitioner. He attended (1835–1840) the gymnasium at Coburg. In the autumn of 1840 he entered the university of Leipzig as a student of theology, but exchanged Leipzig in the spring of 1841 for Tübingen. Here he remained two years, and under the influence of the famous orientalist Ewald, relinquished the study of theology for that of languages. Proceeding to the university of Bonn in 1843, he took his doctor's degree in 1846 and established himself as Privatdozent for comparative philology. In 1850 he was appointed extraordinary professor of classical philology at the university of Prague, and in 1853 was advanced as ordinary professor to the chair of German and comparative philology and Sanskrit. While at Prague he commenced the study of Slavonic languages, and with the assistance of the Vienna academy of sciences undertook in 1852 a journey of scientific research into Prussian Lithuania, the fruits of which were the first scientific examination and description of the character of the Lithuanian language. In 1857 he became professor of philology at Jena, where he lived and worked until his death on the 6th of December 1868. Next to Franz Bopp (q.v.), the founder on the science of language, no German savant left a more enduring stamp of his personality upon this science than did Schleicher.
His first scientific work, Zur vergleichenden Sprachgeschichte (1848), was followed by Die Sprachen Europas (1850); but the book by which he is best known is Kompendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (2 pts., 1861, 1864; 4th ed., 1876), and a supplementary volume, Indogermanische Chrestomathie (1869). Among his minor writings are “ Zur Morphologie der Sprache ” (in the Mémoires de l'académie de St. Petersbourg, 1859); Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft (1863, new ed. 1873), Über die Bedeutung der Sprache für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen (1865); while in the department of Slavonic and Lithuanian languages the following may be mentioned: Formenlehre der kirchen-slavischen Sprache (1852); Handbuch der litauischen Sprache (with grammar, reader and glossary, 1856–1857). Besides Lithuanian legends he published an edition of Christian Donaleitis' Litauische Dichtungen (1865).
See S. Lefmann, August Schleicher (1870) and Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung, vol. xviii.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schleswig

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​SCHLESWIG (Dan. Slesvig), a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It is situated at the west end of the long narrow arm of the sea called the Schlei, 30 m. to the N.W. of Kiel on the railway from Hamburg to Vamdrup, on the Danish frontier. Pop. (1905) 19,032. The town consists mainly of a single street, 3½ m. long, forming a semicircle round the Schlei, and is divided into the old town (Altstadt), Holm, Lollfuss, and Friedrichsberg. The church of St Peter, erected about 1100 and renewed in the Gothic style in the 15th century, has a lofty steeple (365 ft.) and contains a very fine carved oak reredos by Hans Brüggemann, which is regarded as the most valuable work of art in Schleswig-Holstein. Between Friedrichsberg and Lollfuss on an island between the Schlei and Burg See is the old château of Gottorp, now used as barracks. The former commercial importance of the town has disappeared, and the Schlei now affords access to small vessels only. Fishing, tanning, flour-milling and brewing are the chief industries.
Schleswig (ancient forms Sliesthorp, Sliaswic, i.e. the town or bay of the Slia or Schlei) is a town of very remote origin, and seems to have been a trading place of considerable importance as early as the 9th century. It served as a medium of commercial intercourse between the North Sea and the Baltic, and was known to the Arabian geographers. The first Christian church in this district was built here by Ansgarius (d. 865), and it became the seat of a bishop about a century later. The town, which obtained civic rights in 1200, also became the seat of the dukes of Schleswig, but its commerce gradually dwindled owing to the rivalry of Lübeck, the numerous wars in which the district was involved, and the silting up of the Schlei. At the partition of 1544 the old chateau of Gottorp, originally built in 1160 for the bishop, became the residence of the Gottorp line of the Schleswig-Holstein family, which remained here till expelled by the Danish king Frederick IV. in 1713. From 1731 to 1846 it was the seat of the Danish governor of the duchies. In the wars of 1848 and 1864 Schleswig was an important strategical point on account of its proximity to the Dannewerk (q.v.) and was occupied by the different contending parties in turn. It has been the capital of Schleswig-Holstein since its incorporation by Prussia in 1864.
See Sach, Geschichte der Stadt Schleswig (Schleswig, 1875); and Jensen, Schleswig und Umgebung (Schleswig, 1905).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schlettstadt

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​ SCHLETTSTADT, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Ill; 26 m. S. of Strassburg by the railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 9700. It possesses two fine Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant church, numerous remains of its old walls and some quaint houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. It has a theatre, a municipal library, a gymnasium, and other educational establishments. The Roman Catholic churches are the cathedral church of St George, a fine Gothic building founded in the 13th century, and the church of St Fides, dating from the 11th century. Its industries comprise wire-drawing, tanning and saw-milling, and there is a considerable trade in wine, fruit and other agricultural produce.
Schlettstadt is a place of very early origin. It was a royal residence in Carolingian times and became a free town of the Empire in the 13th century. In the 15th century it was the seat of a celebrated academy, founded by the humanist Rodolphus Agricola, which contributed not a little to the revival of learning in this part of Germany; Erasmus of Rotterdam was one of its students. In 1634 the town came into the possession of France, and it was afterwards fortified by Vauban. It offered little resistance, however, to the Germans in 1870, and the fortifications have since been razed. The Hoh-Königsburg, a great castle standing at an elevation of 2475 ft., was presented to the emperor William II. by the town of Schlettstadt in 1899, and was completely restored in 1908. The site is first mentioned as bearing a castle in the 8th century.
See Naumann, Die Eroberung von Schlettstadt (Berlin, 1876); and J. Gény, Die Reichstadt Schlettstadt 1490-1536 (Freiburg i. B. 1900).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schleiz

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​SCHLEIZ, a town of Germany, second capital of the principality of Reuss, Younger Line, situated in a fertile district on the river Wiesenthal, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Plauen. Pop. (1905) 5577. It has a palace, with a chapel and a library, three churches, one of them containing the burial vaults of the princes, several educational establishments, and various small industries such as the manufacture of hosiery, toys, sweetmeats and lamps. It has a market for cattle and pigs.
Schleiz was originally a Slav settlement, but received civic privileges in 1359. There was a settlement of the Teutonic Order here, and for some years previous to 1848 the town was the capital of the small principality of Reuss-Schleiz. In the vicinity a battle was fought, on the 9th of October 1806, between the French and the Prussians.
See Alberti, Aus vergangenen Tagen des Reussenlandes und der Stadt Schleiz (Schleiz, 1896).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Schleiden, Matthias Jakob

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​SCHLEIDEN, MATTHIAS JAKOB (1804–1881), German botanist, was born at Hamburg on the 5th of April 1804. He studied law at Heidelberg and practised as an advocate in Hamburg till 1831, but not succeeding he studied botany and medicine at Göttingen and Berlin, and in 1839 graduated at Jena, where he was appointed extraordinary professor of botany, becoming honorary professor in 1846 and ordinary professor in 1850. In 1863 he was called to Dorpat, but resigned the following year and returned to Germany, where he lived as a private teacher. He died at Frankfort-on-Main on the 23rd of June 1881. His title to remembrance is twofold. Uniting the labours of two centuries of workers in vegetable histology, he proved that a nucleated cell is the only original constituent of the plant embryo, and that the development of all vegetable tissues must be referred to such cells, thus preparing the way for the epoch-making cell theory of Theodor Schwann (q.v.); and his Principles of Scientific Botany (1842–1843), which went through several editions, did much to shake the tyranny of the purely systematic Linnean school, whose accumulations he was accustomed irreverently to describe as “ hay.” Despite a certain inability to criticize and verify his own hypotheses, he gave, both by his speculative activity and by the introduction of improved technical methods, so vivid an impulse to the younger botanists of his time as to have earned from Anton de Bary the title of reformer of, scientific botany. His botanical labours practically ceased after 1850, when he entered on various phi1osophical and historical studies.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Requests, Court of

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​REQUESTS, COURT OF, a minor court of the king's council in England, under the presidency of the lord keeper of the privy seal. Its possible origin has been assigned to an order in council of 1390 directing the lords of the council to form a committee to examine the petitions of the humble people. Its jurisdiction was chiefly equitable, and owing to the small expenses of procedure it grew in popularity, especially for, cases not of sufficient importance to bring into the court of chancery itself. Under Wolsey the court was fixed permanently at Whitehall. The judges of the court were styled masters of requests. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there were two masters ordinary and two masters extraordinary. In James I.'s reign there were four masters ordinary. In Henry VIII.'s reign the judges of the court had ceased to be privy councillors, and towards the end of Elizabeth's reign the court incurred the hostility of the common law courts, as having neither a statutory nor prescriptive title to jurisdiction. Notwithstanding a decision in 1598 as to the illegality of its jurisdiction, and subsequent decisions to the same effect in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., it continued to flourish until the suppression of the Star Chamber in 1640 virtually put an end to it. Although it sat until 1642, and masters of requests were appointed even after the Restoration, it ceased to exercise judicial functions. There were also courts of requests or, as they were sometimes called, courts of conscience, established in London in the reign of Henry VIII. with jurisdiction in matters of debt under forty shillings. These courts were extended in the reigns of George I. and George II. to various places in England, but they were abolished by an act of 1846 (County Courts Act), which established in their place the tribunal of the county court (q. v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Requesens, Luis de Zuniga y

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​REQUESENS, LUIS DE ZUNIGA Y (?–1576), Spanish governor of the Netherlands, had the misfortune to succeed the duke of Alva (q.v.) and to govern amid hopeless difficulties under the direction of Philip II. His early career was that of a government official and diplomatist. In 1563 he gained the king's confidence as his representative at Rome. In 1568 he was appointed lieutenant-general to Don John of Austria during the suppression of the Morisco revolt in Granada, and he also accompanied Don John during the Lepanto campaign, his function being to Watch and control his nominal commander in-chief, whose excitable temperament was distrusted by the king. Philip must have been satisfied with Requesens, for he named him Viceroy in Milan, a post usually given to a great noble. Requesens was only “ a gentleman of cloak and sword ” (caballero de capa y espada), though by the king's favour he was “ grand commander ” of the military order of Santiago in Castile. He was credited with having shown moderation at Milan, but it is certain that he came into sharp collision with the archbishop, Saint Charles Borromeo, who took up the cause of his flock. His docility rather than his capacity marked him out to succeed Alva. The king wished to pursue a more conciliatory policy, without, however, yielding any one of the points in dispute between himself and the revolted Netherlanders. Requesens came to Brussels on the 17th of November 1573, and till his death on the 5th of March 1576 was plunged into insuperable difficulties. With an empty treasury and unpaid mutinous troops, no faculty could have helped Requesens to succeed; and he was only an honest official who was worn out in trying to do the impossible.
Authorities.—Documentos Inéditos para la historia de España (Madrid, 1892); and Nueva Coleccion de documentos, vols. iv. and v. (Madrid).