OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cienfuegos

See also Cienfuegos on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​ Cienfuegos (sē′ĕn-fwā′gṓs), a city of Cuba, is in Santa Clara province on the southern side of the island. Its harbor was discovered by Columbus in 1492, and is one of the finest harbors in the West Indies. The port's commercial advance in recent years has been so rapid that Cienfuegos has become the second seaport in Cuba. To-day it is the center of the sugar-trade on the Caribbean coast. The city has well-shaded, attractive streets, its residences are substantially built, and it is lighted by gas and electricity. The climate in summer is oppressive, but the winter climate agreeable. Railroads connect Cienfuegos with Havana and Sagua la Grande on the northern coast and with Santa Clara, the western terminus of the Santiago railway. Steamers give communication with New York. The population is 70,416. During the Spanish-American war the port was long blockaded by the American fleet.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cincinnati, Society of the

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​ Cincinnati, Society of the, a society of officers of the Revolutionary army, organized at the close of the war to keep up friendships and especially to raise a fund for widows and orphans of their comrades who had lost their lives in the war. It was named from the old Roman hero, Cincinnatus, as many of the members had similarly left their farms at the call to arms. As membership was made to descend from father to son, an outcry was made against the society by Franklin and others, who saw in it the germ of a future aristocracy. This caused some of the branches to disband. But there still are several state societies in active existence.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cinnamon

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​ Cinnamon. See Spices.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cuyp, Albert

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​Cuyp (koip), Albert, Dutch painter, was born at Dordrecht, Holland, in 1605. His pictures represent grazing cattle, moonlight, winter-landscapes, horse-markets, hunts, camps and cavalry-fights; in his paintings the effect of golden sunlight has never been surpassed. While he lived, and long after, his paintings were little thought of, but now they rank high. He died in 1691. His father, known as Old Cuyp, and his nephew, Benjamin, also were well-known painters.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Curtis, George Ticknor

See also George Ticknor Curtis on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Curtis, George Ticknor, American writer on legal topics, was born at Watertown, Mass., Nov. 28, 1812; and died at New York, March 28, 1894. Graduating at Harvard in 1832, he studied law and was admitted to the bar, practicing first at Boston and later at New York. He served for some years in the Massachusetts legislature, but at length devoted himself to the writing of legal text-books and the compilation of decisions in the courts of common law and admiralty in the United States. One of his most notable works is his History of the Origin, Formation and Adoption of the Constitution. Another useful work is his Constitutional History of the United States from 1792—1864. He also wrote lives of Daniel Webster and James Buchanan.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Curtis, George William

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​Cur'tis, George William, American author, was born in Providence, R. I., Feb. 24, 1824. As a boy he spent a year in New York as a clerk, and worked for some time as a farm-hand in Massachusetts. His first book, Nile Notes of a Howadji, was written after traveling in Egypt and Syria. He was one of the first editors of Putnam's Monthly, founded in 1852. He also was a partner in the undertaking, though having nothing to do with the business management. When, in 1859, the enterprise failed, Mr. Curtis sank all his fortune in the endeavor to save the creditors from loss, which he accomplished after six years' struggle. He wrote many essays, sketches and novels, and was successful as a lecturer. He is best known as the editor of Harper's Weekly and editor of the Easy Chair in Harper's Magazine. Mr. Curtis was prominent in politics, acting with the Republican party till 1884, but afterward supporting the bemocrats. He died on Staten Island, N. Y., Aug. 31, 1892.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Curwen, John

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​Curwen, John (1816-1880). Originator of the Tonic Sol-fa method of teaching singing. He was educated for the ministry at University College, London, but became author of Grammar of Vocal Music; A Tonic Sol-fa Primer; Musical Theory; Musical Statics; and other useful works.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Curtius, Ernst

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​Curtius (ko͝or'tē-o͝os), Ernst, was born Sept. 2, 1814, at Lübeck, Germany. He studied at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin Universities. He made careful journeys in Greece, held several university professorships, and soon became noted as a writer on Greek history and geography. His great work, The History of Greece, is in the front rank of histories. Dr. Curtius was, late in life, professor at the University of Berlin. He died on July 12, 1896.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cuvier, Georges, Baron

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​Cuvier (kū′vyā̇), Georges, Baron, was born Aug. 23, 1769, at Montbéliard, France. At 18 he became tutor in a family at Caen, Normandy, and while all France was in the throes of the reign of terror he peaceably spent his leisure eagerly studying the fossils and fishes of the neighboring coast. He became professor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plants, in Paris. Cuvier was the first to compare the structure of fossils with that of animals, which we now find. He also founded the science of comparative anatomy. In this field his work and success were great, and he was recognized in France as the greatest of living naturalists. He also held office under Napoleon and Louis XVIII, and became a peer of France. He died at Paris, May 13, 1832.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cyanide-Process, The

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​Cyanide-Process, The. The cyanide-process is one of two ways in which gold is extracted from low-grade ores, which contain only from 2 to 10 dollars per ton of gold. The ore is first crushed in stamp-mills, until it is quite fine; it is then treated with a solution of potassic cyanide, which dissolves the gold. This liquid is then treated with zinc, by which the gold is released and precipitated. This method is chiefly employed in the Transvaal goldmines and, to a less extent, in the low-grade mines of Dakota, Wyoming and other western states.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Curzon, George Nathaniel, Lord

See also George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
​Cur'zon, George Nathaniel, Lord, ex-viceroy and governor-general of British India, was born at Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire, England, on Jan. 11, 1859, and educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford. He entered Parliament in the Conservative interest in 1886, and was subsequently under-secretary of state for India and under-secretary for foreign affairs. Lord Curzon has traveled considerably and published a number of thoughtful books. In 1895 he married the eldest daughter of Mr. L. Z. Leiter, a Chicago millionaire. In 1898 he was appointed by the Marquis of Salisbury, Viceroy of India, a post which he has filled with high ability. His writings include Russia in Central Asia; Persia and the Persian Question; and Problems of the Far East. In 1898 he was created Baron Curzon of Kedleston. His term of office as Indian Viceroy was extended. In June, 1905, difficulties over the new military scheme in India led to his resigning. The resignation was withdrawn upon solicitation of home-authorities, but in August controversy again reached an acute stage, and Lord Curzon finally relinquished office. He remained in India to receive the Prince and Princess of Wales. The London Times spoke of his work as “among the most brilliant and strenuous accomplished for the empire in our times,” and of his having infused into Indian civil administration a new spirit born of his own indomitable belief in reform and his own unshaken determination to carry it into practice. His speeches as Viceroy have been reprinted. Since his return to England he has been returned from an Irish constituency to the House of Lords, of which body, as a peer, he is already officially a member.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cuttlefish

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​Cuttlefish, one of the mollusks, with a head surrounded by eight or ten arms, provided with cup-like suckers. Two of these arms are longer than the others, are enlarged on the ends and are called antennæ. They are related to the chambered nautilus, squid, etc. They have no shell externally, but underneath the skin of the back is found a limy structure called cuttlefish bone. It is often seen in bird-cages. The eyes are large and prominent, and there is a pair of horny jaws in the midst of the cluster of arms. The body is elliptical in outline, and has fins running along each side. It is surrounded by a mantle that also incloses a cavity for the gills, which are two in number. There is a funnel-like tube opening into the mantle-cavity, and the animal can, by contracting muscles, cause the mantle-cavity to close and then throw water out through the funnel or siphon in jets. It can swim forward by the use of the fins, and backward by throwing jets of water through the siphon. These animals also possess a bag of inky fluid, some of which can be thrown into the water when they become alarmed, and thus conceal their position while they swim away. Sepia and India ink were manufactured from this ink of the cuttlefish. They are carnivorous and seize their prey by means of their arms. The common squid of the Atlantic coast is closely related. It is commonly used for bait by the fishermen. The octopus or devilfish also is a near relative. See Octopus.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Cutworm

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​Cutworm, caterpillar of various species of owlet moths, a worm very destructive to vegetation. Both moth and worm are nocturnal. In the latter part of summer the female moth lays her eggs on plants near the ground. The larvæ feed on tender roots of grasses and various plants, and by spring are ready to attack early vegetation. During the day they hide under the surface, and coming forth at night cut off plants close to or just under the surface. They are enemies of garden vegetables, wheat, Indian corn, oats and cereals generally. Lacking other vegetation, almost all the numerous species adopt the climbing habit, ascend grape-vines, rose and berry-bushes and trees, devouring leaf-buds and eating of the early fruit. Hodge recommends, as protection against cutworms, folding a piece of stiff paper around a plant-stem in such a manner that the paper reaches an inch into the ground and two or three inches above the surface. To save their corn-fields, the Indians used to pick the cutworms off by hand, a method still in use. Toads and robins are effective helpers in keeping down the grievous pest.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newport News, Va.

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​Newport News, Va., a rapidly growing town and port of entry on James River, Hampton Roads, southeastern Virginia. It is the capital of Warwick County, is connected by electric railway with Hampton and Old Point Comfort, and is 14 miles north of Norfolk and 70 southeast of Richmond. Possessing a magnificent harbor, it has extensive ship-building plants, dry docks, grain elevators and capacious warehouses on its piers. It has a large foreign commerce, chiefly of grain. It has a large trade in peanuts. Its manufacturing interests are woodworking mills, lumber-mills, iron-works, shirt and shoe factories. Newport News although a young town, has an improved system of waterworks and electric light and gas plants. Population 20,205.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Nibelungenlied

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Nibelungenlied (nē′ bĕ-lo͝ong′ ĕn-lēt), a German epic, ranking as one of the greatest poems of the world. The oldest elements of the work must have been long current in the form of popular songs; but the incidents of the story seem to have been fused into one narrative before the 12th century, though by whom it was done is unknown. The story of the poem is as follows: Siegfried, the son of the king of the Netherlands, becomes possessor of the fabled wealth of the Nibelungs, which carries with it evil to its possessor. He marries Kriemhild, sister of Gunther, king of Worms, and helps Gunther to win Brunhilde of Iceland. Then there is a dispute as to whether Siegfried or Gunther be the greater, and Brunhilde induces Hagen to murder Siegfried. Kriemhild after some years marries Etzel (Attila), king of the Huns. After Kriemhild became possessor of the Niebelungen wealth, Hagen took it from her and sank it in the Rhine. After several years Kriemhild, still mourning for Siegfried and desiring to be revenged for his death, asked her brother to visit her at her court. This he did, with 11,000 armed Burgundians, and the remainder of the poem is devoted to the wars and sufferings of the Burgundians. See English translations by Lettsom, Foster, Barham and Birch. See also Carlyle’s Miscellanies, Vol. III.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newport, R. I.

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​Newport, R. I., a city, is a port of entry and was one of the capitals till 1900. It is the most noted fashionable resort in America, and has magnificent private estates and villas. Its capacious and beautiful harbor is a great yacht rendezvous, and the city has many parks, fountains and monuments of great beauty. It has unexcelled public schools, and is the seat of St. George's and Cloyne House Schools and St. Mary's Academy. On Coaster Harbor are the U. S. war-college and naval training-school and a naval hospital. Newport possesses many points of historical interest, among them the state-house, built in 1742, now used as the county court-house; the Jewish synagogue (1762); Trinity Church (1725); Redwood Library (1748); and the “Old Stone Mill” pointed out as an alleged relic of the days of the Norsemen, but a subject of controversy. The town was settled in 1639 by Roger Williams and eight followers. Population 27,149.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newt

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​Newt, a common salamander, represented by several distinct species, abundant in quiet ​waters of the United States and Europe. It is also called eft and triton. The common newt of the eastern United States (Diemictylus) is about three and one half inches long and is shaped like a slender lizard. It varies in color, but is commonly pale greenish above and pale yellowish below with small black specks. A variety of the common water-newt is reddish with red spots, and is found in damp places in the woods. The newts feed on insects, larvæ, snails and the like. One in California reaches a length of six inches. See Gage's Life History of the Vermillion-Spotted Newt, in the Amer. Naturalist, December, 1891.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newton, Mass.

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​New′ton, Mass., a city about seven miles from Boston and almost surrounded by Charles River. It is the suburban residence of many Boston people and manufactures cloth, silk, shoddy and glue. Population 39,806.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newport, Ky.

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​New′port, Ky., is the county-seat of Campbell County, opposite Cincinnati, on the Ohio at the mouth of Licking River. The city has large rolling mills, foundry, bolt works, steam mills, tile works, screen and window and door sash factories and also one of the largest lithographing houses in this country. Population 30,309. Fort Thomas, a U. S. military post, is located just above this city.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newspaper

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​News′paper, a sheet of paper printed and distributed from time to time for the purpose of conveying news. The number of newspapers now in the world is estimated at 60,000. The bulk is issued as follows: United States 22,806; Germany 8,049; France, 6,681; Great Britain and Ireland, 9,500 besides 2,290 magazines and reviews; Austria-Hungary, 2,958; Italy, 2,757; Spain, 1,000; Russia, 1,000; Switzerland, 1,005; Belgium 956 and Holland 980; and Japan 1,000. Of the languages in which they are published, over 30,000 are printed in English; 7,500 in German; 6,800 in French; 1,800 in Spanish; and 1,500 in Italian. Newspapers first came into existence centuries before the Christian era when the reports of the Roman army were transmitted by the senate to the generals in all parts of the country, but for the actual newspaper we are indebted to Germany. In Augsburg, Vienna, Ratisbon and Nuremberg it was the practice, early in the 15th century, to issue news-sheets in the form of letters. Yet the first newspaper that at all covered the same idea as those of the present day was issued in Venice, by order of the Venetian government in 1566, and called the Notizie Scritte. At first they were not printed, but written out and hung up in various public places, where the people could read them on payment of a small coin. The first actual English newspaper was the Weekly News of 1622, edited and published by Nathaniel Butler. The London Weekly Courant came out in the same year. The first daily paper was the Daily Courant, which appeared, printed on one side only, in 1702. The daily circulation of newspapers in the United Kingdom is about 10,000,000. The regular system of advertising, which supports the newspaper and benefits the advertiser, did not begin until 1673, when the columns of a few papers were opened to regular classified advertisements. Some of the principal and largest newspapers of to-day are: In England the (daily) Times, Daily Mail, Telegraph, Standard, Chronicle, Star, Echo, Evening News and Post; in France the Temps, Figaro, Siècle, Petit Parisien and Petit Journal.
There are now published in the United States over 22,800 newspapers, of which about 2,472 appear daily. The first newspaper published in America was Publick Occurrences (1690), followed in 1704 by the Boston News-Letter and the Boston Gazette. At the present time a newspaper is not only a sheet for disseminating news, but apparently a leader in politics and a commentator on politics, religion, research, science, amusement, sport and social and political economy. See Baker's The Newspaper World.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newcastle, Pa.

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​ Newcastle, Pa., a manufacturing city located on Shenango River, 50 miles northwest of Pittsburg. The production of steel is the principal industry. Large blast furnaces, rolling mills, tin plate, wire and nail mills furnish employment for thousands of workmen. Glass, brick and paper are also manufactured. Population 36,280.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Newton, John

See also John Newton (engineer) on Wikipedia, and the disclaimer.
Newton, John, American engineer and soldier, was born at Norfolk, Va., Aug. 24, 1823, and graduated at West Point in 1842. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was engaged in the construction of fortifications along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Having served throughout the Peninsular campaign as brigadier, at Fredericksburg he commanded a division and rose to the rank of major-general. He rendered conspicuous services at Chancellorsville and further distinguished himself at Gettysburg. At the close of the war he returned to the engineer corps of the regular army. His greatest work of engineering was the removal of the obstruction called Hell Gate (q. v.) in East River, New York. See Blasting and New York City. After this he was given the position of chief of the engineering department with the rank of brigadier in the regular army. He retired from the service in August, 1886, and was elected president of the Panama Railroad Company in 1888. He died at New York, May 1, 1895.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge

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Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge, better known by his pseudonym of Lewis Carroll, an English clergyman, mathematical lecturer and writer, was born in Cheshire in 1832, and died in Surrey on Jan. 14, 1898. He wrote a number of mathematical works of considerable repute, but to English and American popular readers he is best known by his delightful Lewis Carroll books—Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland; Through the Looking Glass; and The Hunting of the Snark. These works, with their amusing illustrations, are likely, as they deserve, to be of undying memory to little folks.
See the works of this author.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dodge, Mary Mapes

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Dodge, Mary Mapes, an American writer for young people, was born at New York city in 1838. Her story of Hans Brinker or the Silver Skates, was very popular and gave her quite a reputation as a writer of stories. It was afterward published in England and France. She also wrote many magazine-articles and a book called Rhymes and Jingles. Two others of her books are Donald and Dorothy and Along the Way, the latter a collection of poems. For some time she was one of the editors of Hearth and Home, but became editor of St. Nicholas when it was founded, a position which she held until her death on Aug. 21, 1905.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dodge, William E., Jr.

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Dodge, William E., Jr., born 1832, is the son of the late William Earl Dodge. Mr. Dodge is director of the U. S. Steel Corporation, and is interested also in mining. He has wide and deep scientific interests; and takes a leading part in many benevolent enterprises. Mr. Dodge is president of the Evangelical Alliance and chairman of the International Committee on Arbitration. He is a member of the executive committee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art and of the New York Botanic Garden. He is also a member of the New York Academy of Sciences, the Linnsean Society of New York and the American Historical Association; and is vice-president of the American Museum of Natural History. Mr. Dodge is the donor of Earl Hall, the admirable social and religious center of student-life at Columbia, to Columbia University.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Dodge, William Earl

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Dodge, William Earl, an American philanthropist, was born at Hartford, Conn., in 1805. At 21 years of age he went into business in New York and became a successful importer and manufacturer. He was a member of many benevolent and religious societies; and was elected a Republican member of Congress in 1866–67. The Protestant college at Beirut, Syria, was founded largely through his help; and he always was very prominent in charitable work of different kinds. He died at New York in 1883.
# The New Student's Reference Work/Doddridge, Philip

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Dodd′ridge, Philip, an English clergyman, was born at London in 1702. He studied theology at the Academy of Kibworth, and several years later took charge of the academy himself, moving it to Northampton, where he also was pastor. At this academy most of the Protestant ministers who dissented from the Church of England during the middle of the 18th century were educated. After managing the institution for 20 years, Dr. Doddridge sailed to Lisbon for the sake of his health; but died there soon after, in 1751. He wrote several works, especially Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul, which were popular in his lifetime. See his Correspondence and Diary.