OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maynard, François de

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​MAYNARD, FRANÇOIS DE (1582–1646), French poet, was born at Toulouse in 1582. His father was conseiller in the parlement of the town, and François was also trained for the law, becoming eventually president of Aurillac. He became secretary to Margaret of Valois, wife of Henry IV., for whom his early poems are written. He was a disciple of Malherbe, who said that in the workmanship of his lines he excelled Racan, but lacked his rival’s energy. In 1634 he accompanied the Cardinal de Noailles to Rome and spent about two years in Italy. On his return to France he made many unsuccessful efforts to obtain the favour of Richelieu, but was obliged to retire to Toulouse. He never ceased to lament his exile from Paris and his inability to be present at the meetings of the Academy, of which he was one of the earliest members. The best of his poems is in imitation of Horace, “Alcippe, reviens dans nos bois.” He died at Toulouse on the 23rd of December 1646.
His works consist of odes, epigrams, songs and letters, and were published in 1646 by Marin le Roy de Gomberville.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Maynooth

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​MAYNOOTH, a small town of county Kildare, Ireland, on the Midland Great Western railway and the Royal Canal, 15 m. W. by N. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 948. The Royal Catholic College of Maynooth, founded by an Act of the Irish parliament in 1795, is the chief seminary for the education of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland. The building is a fine Gothic structure by A. W. Pugin, erected by a parliamentary grant obtained in 1846. The chapel, with fine oak choir-stalls, mosaic pavements, marble altars and stained glass, and with adjoining cloisters, was dedicated in 1890. The average number of students is about 500—the number specified under the act of 1845—and the full course of instruction is eight years. Near the college stand the ruins of Maynooth Castle, probably built in 1176, but subsequently extended, and formerly the residence of the Fitzgerald family. It was besieged in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and during the Cromwellian Wars, when it was demolished. The beautiful mansion of Carton is about a mile from the town.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of

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​MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, 6th Earl of (1822–1872), British statesman, son of Robert Bourke, the 5th earl (1797–1867), was born in Dublin on the 21st of February, 1822, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. After travelling in Russia he entered parliament, and sat successively for Kildare, Coleraine and Cockermouth. He was chief secretary for Ireland in three administrations, in 1852, 1858 and 1866, and was appointed viceroy of India in January 1869. He consolidated the frontiers of India and met Shere Ali, amir of Afghanistan, in durbar at Umballa in March 1869. His reorganization of the finances of the country put India on a paying basis; and he did much to promote irrigation, railways, forests and other useful public works. Visiting the convict settlement at Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, for the purpose of inspection, the viceroy was assassinated by a convict on the 8th of February 1872. His successor was his son, Dermot Robert Wyndham Bourke (b. 1851) who became 7th earl of Mayo.
See Sir W. W. Hunter, Life of the Earl of Mayo, (1876), and The Earl of Mayo in the Rulers of India Series (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Mayor, John Eyton Bickersteth

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​MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825–), English classical scholar, was born at Baddegama, Ceylon, on the 28th of January 1825, and educated in England at Shrewsbury School and St John’s College, Cambridge. From 1863 to 1867 he was librarian of the university, and in 1872 succeeded H. A. J. Munro in the professorship of Latin. His best-known work, an edition of thirteen satires of Juvenal, is marked by an extraordinary wealth of illustrative quotations. His Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature (1873), based on E. Hübner’s Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die römische Litteraturgeschichte is a valuable aid to the student, and his edition of Cicero’s Second Philippic is widely used. He also edited the English works of J. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, i. (1876); Thomas Baker’s History of St John’s College, Cambridge (1869); Richard of Cirencester’s Speculum historiale de gestis regum Angliae 447–1066 (1863–1869); Roger Ascham’s Schoolmaster (new ed., 1883); the Latin Heptateuch (1889); and the Journal of Philology.
His brother, Joseph Bickersteth Mayor (1828–), classical scholar and theologian, was educated at Rugby and St John’s College, Cambridge, and from 1870 to 1879 was professor of classics at King’s College, London. His most important classical works are an edition of Cicero’s De natura deorum (3 vols., 1880–1885) and Guide to the Choice of Classical Books (3rd ed., 1885, with supplement, 1896). He also devoted attention to theological literature and edited the epistles of St James (2nd ed., 1892), St Jude and St Peter (1907), and the Miscellanies of Clement of Alexandria (with F. J. A. Hort, 1902). From 1887 to 1893 he was editor of the Classical Review. His Chapters on English Metre (1886) reached a second edition in 1901.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nomad

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​NOMAD (Gr. νομάς, νομάδες, wandering), a wanderer. The word is particularly used of tribes who shift continually from place to place in search of pasture (Gr. νέμειν). The νομάδες of ancient Greek writers meant particularly the pastoral tribes of North Africa; hence the Latin name of the Numidians (see Numidia).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nominalism

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​NOMINALISM (from Lat. nomen, name), the name of one of the two main tendencies of medieval philosophy, the other being Realism. The controversy between nominalists and realists arose from a passage in Boéthius’ translation of Porphyry’s Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle, which propounded the problem of genera and species, (1) as to whether they subsist in themselves or only in the mind; (2) whether, if subsistent, they are corporeal or incorporeal; and (3) whether separated from sensible things or placed in them. The Realists held that universals alone have substantial reality, existing ante res; the Nominalists that universals are mere names invented to express the qualities of particular things and existing post res; while the Conceptualists, mediating between the two extremes, held that universals are concepts which exist in our minds and express real similarities in things themselves. Though a strong realist tendency is evident in the system of Erigena (9th century), the controversy was not definitely started till the 11th century: it lasted till the middle of the 12th, when the first period of scholastic philosophy ends. Under an appearance of much vain subtlety the controversy about universals involved issues of the greatest speculative and practical importance: realism represented a spiritual, nominalism an anti-spiritual, view of the world; while realism was evidently favourable, and nominalism unfavourable, to the teaching of the Church on the dogmas of the Trinity and the Eucharist. Nominalism was a doctrine of sceptics and suspected heretics, such as Berengar of Tours and Roscellinus. Even Abelard’s mediating doctrine of conceptualism (q.v.) was sufficiently near to obnoxious ideas to involve him in lifelong persecution. The principles of the great orthodox philosophers of the later scholastic period which begins in the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, were those of moderate realism. When nominalism was revived in the 14th century by the English Franciscan, William of Occam, it gave evidence of a new tendency in thought, a distrust of abstractions and an impulse towards direct observation and inductive research, a tendency which had its fulfilment in the scientific movement of the Renaissance. Occam’s dictum “Entia non multiplicanda sunt praeter necessitatem” was inspired by a spirit similar to that of Bacon. Though nominalism is properly a medieval theory, the tendency has passed over into modern philosophy: the term “nominalist” is often applied to thinkers of the empirical, sensationalist school, of whom J. S. Mill may be taken as the chief representative. (H. St.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nollet, Jean Antoine

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​NOLLET, JEAN ANTOINE (1700–1770), French physicist, of peasant origin, was born near Noyon (Oise) on the 19th of November 1700. He entered holy orders and ultimately attained the rank of abbé; but his tastes all lay in the direction of experimental research, especially on the subject of electricity. In 1734 he was admitted a member of the London Royal Society, four years later he entered the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and in 1753 he was appointed to the newly-instituted chair of experimental physics in the Collège de Navarre. In addition to many memoirs he wrote Leçons de physique expérimentale (1743), Essai sur l’électricité des corps (1747), Recherches sur les causes particulières des phénomènes électriques (1749 and 1754), Recueil de lettres sur l’électricité (1753), L’Art de faire les chapeaux (1764) and L’Art des expériences (1770). He died at Paris on the 24th of April 1770.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nome

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​NOME, a mining town about 12 m. W. of Cape Nome, on the S. shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, in 1900 the largest settlement in the district. Pop. (1900) 12,448; (1910) 2600. Gulch gold was found near Nome on Anvil Creek in September 1898, and diggings in the ocean beach were first worked in July 1899. The rush to Nome in 1900 was one of the most remarkable stampedes in American mining history; the town soon had hotels, banks, stores, several newspapers and weekly mails from the States, and for part of the year there were, it was estimated, 20,000 inhabitants. This rapidity of growth and the isolation of the settlement raised prices to extraordinary heights, and in other respects created economic conditions remarkable even among Alaskan mining camps. By 1903 the population had greatly decreased, and in subsequent years the winter population averaged about 3500, the summer population from 7000 to 8000. In 1905 the gold output of the Nome region amounted to about $2,500,000 nearly all from placers, though some quartz mining was done. A municipal government and local police force were early organized after the fashion of American mining communities, and United States soldiers from the St Michael reservation aided in the preservation of order. The greatest drawback to the town’s prosperity is the lack of any good harbour nearer than Point Clarence, 80 m. W. The winter ice-floes, sometimes 30 ft. high on the beach, render harbour improvements at Nome almost impossible. There is connexion with Seattle by steamer (since 1904) in about 81/2 days. In 1901 the town was incorporated under the laws of the United States. It is the north-western terminus of the United States military telegraph. It was first called Anvil City; the name “Nome” is derived from Cape Nome, first so called on a chart dated 1849, and said to have been a draughtsman’s mistake for the query “? Name” on the original chart.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nomentum

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​NOMENTUM (mod. Mentana), an ancient town of Italy, 14 m. N.E. of Rome by the Via Nomentana. It was a Latin town, but was by some considered to be Sabine, and, like Fidenae and Ficulea, was excluded from the first region by Augustus, who made the Anio its northern boundary. Nomentum received the civitas sine suffragio after the last war of the Latins against Rome (338 B.C.); in its municipal constitution the chief magistrate even in imperial times bore the title of dictator. Pliny and Martial often praise the fertility of its neighbourhood. The site of the town is well protected by ravines except on the east; no ancient remains exist in situ, but inscriptions and other relics have been found.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 68 sqq.  (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nolle Prosequi

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​NOLLE PROSEQUI (sometimes shortened into nol. pros.), a technical term of English law, the meaning of which varies as it is used with reference to civil or criminal cases. In civil cases it applied only to actions in the king’s bench division, and there signified a formal undertaking by the plaintiff that he intended to proceed no further with the action (se ulterius nolle prosequi). The more modern practice in such cases is to proceed by way of discontinuance. In proceedings either by indictment or by information, a nolle prosequi or stay of proceedings may be entered by the attorney-general. The nolle prosequi is a matter purely for his discretion, and will not be granted unless very good ground be shown for his interference. The object of it generally is to obtain a stay of proceedings against an accomplice in order to procure his evidence. This object is, however, more usually effected by the prosecution offering no evidence and the judge directing an acquittal.
In the United States the term bears the same meaning as in England, with one exception. The attorney-general has not the same discretion with which English law invests him. Although in some states the prosecuting officer may enter a nolle prosequi at his discretion, in others the leave of the court must be obtained.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nollekens, Joseph

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​NOLLEKENS, JOSEPH (1737–1823) British sculptor, was born on the 11th of August 1737 in Dean Street, Soho, London, where his father, a native of Antwerp, the “old Nollekens” of Horace Walpole, was a painter of some repute. In his thirteenth year he entered the studio of the sculptor Peter Scheemakers, and practised drawing and modelling with great assiduity, ultimately gaining various prizes offered by the Society of Arts. In 1760 he went to Rome, and he executed a marble bas-relief, “Timoclea before Alexander,” which obtained a prize of fifty guineas from that society in 1762. Garrick and Sterne were among the first English visitors who sat to him for busts; among his larger pieces belonging to this early period perhaps the most important is the “Mercury and Venus chiding Cupid.” Having returned to England in 1770, he was admitted an associate of the Royal Academy in 1771, and elected a member in 1772, the year in which he married Mary, the second daughter of Saunders Welch. By this time he had become known to George III., whose bust he shortly afterwards executed, and henceforward, until about 1816, he was the most fashionable portrait sculptor of his day. He himself thought highly of his early portrait of Sterne. Among many others may be specially named those of Pitt, Fox, the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), Canning, Perceval, Benjamin West and Lords Castlereagh, Aberdeen, Erskine, Egremont and Liverpool. He elaborated a number of marble groups and statues, amongst which may be mentioned those of “Bacchus,” “Venus taking off her Sandal,” “Hope leaning on an Urn,” “Juno,” “Paetus and Arria,” “Cupid and Psyche” and (his own favourite performance) “Venus anointing Herself”; all, however, although remarkable for delicacy of workmanship, are deficient in vigour and originality, and the drapery is peculiarly weak. The most prominent personal characteristic of Nollekens seems to have been his frugality, which ultimately developed into absolute miserliness. Mrs Nollekens died in 1817, and the sculptor himself died in London on the 23rd of April 1823, leaving a large fortune.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nomentana, Via

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​NOMENTANA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading N.E. from Rome to Nomentum (q.v.), a distance of 14 m. It originally bore the name Via Ficulensis, from the old Latin village of Ficulea, about 8 m. from Rome. It was subsequently prolonged to Nomentum, but never became an important highroad, and merged in the Via Salaria (see Salaria, Via) a few miles beyond Nomentum. It is followed as far as Nomentum by the modern highroad, but some traces of its pavement still exist.
See T. Ashby in Papers of Brit. School at Rome, iii. 38 sqq. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nomenoë

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​NOMENOË, or Nominoë (d. 851), duke of Brittany. The date of his birth is not known, and his origin is obscure; all that is known is that he was of Breton race. In the hope of pacifying Brittany, Louis the Debonair named him count of Vannes in 819 and governor or duke of Brittany in 826. Throughout the reign of Louis, Nomenoë’s fidelity to the emperor never flagged; he put down several attempted insurrections, and maintained peace in Brittany for fifteen years. But in 841 he resolved to make himself independent of Charles the Bald. In 843 Charles made a vain attempt to subdue Brittany. In 844 Nomenoë invaded Maine, and in 845 the emperor was completely defeated at Ballon near Bain-de-Bretagne. In the following year Charles recognized the independence of Brittany. Having resolved to detach the duchy from the ecclesiastical province of Tours, Nomenoé accused the Frankish bishops of Vannes, Quimper, Dol and Léon of simony at the council of Coëtlouh in 848, replaced them by Bretons, and erected Dol into a metropolitan see. In 849 Nomenoë attacked the Frankish county of Anjou. Charles retaliated by establishing a garrison at Rennes; but Nomenoé seized Rennes, Nantes and, finally, the whole of Upper Brittany, and ravaged Maine. In 851 he seized Anjou and invaded Beauce; but he died suddenly, leaving as his successor his son Erispoë.
See A. de la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. ii. (1898); R. Merlet, “Guerres d’indépendance de la Bretagne,” in the Revue de Bretagne, de Vendée et d’Anjou (1891).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nonconformist

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​NONCONFORMIST, a term denoting historically (a) those persons who at the beginning of the 17th century refused to conform to certain practices, e.g. the wearing of the surplice, kneeling at the reception of the Sacrament, &c., of the Church of England; (b) those who, after the passing of the Act of Uniformity 1662, refused to conform to that act and ceased to be members of the church. In current usage the term “nonconformist” is applied in Great Britain to any member of a church not conforming to the ceremonies, worship and doctrines (“forms”) of the Church of England, but is generally used of a member of the so-called Free Churches, or Protestant Dissenters, and is not usually applied to Roman Catholics. The name can also be applied, in other countries, to those who do not belong to the established religion. Strictly a “dissenter” is one who dissents from the church as an “established” body, or who ​dissents from the establishment of a state church, while conforming or not to its forms, ceremonies or practice.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Potato Race

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​Potato race, a running contest, where the winner is the first who collects in a basket or other receptacle a number of potatoes, usually eight, placed, as a rule two yards apart, along a straight line, and then crosses a finish line five or ten yards farther on.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Postil

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​POSTIL, or Apostil, properly a gloss on a scriptural text, particularly on a gospel text, hence any explanatory note on other writings. The word is also applied to a general commentary, and also to a homily or discourse on the gospel or epistle appointed for the day. The word in Medieval Latin was postilla, and this has been taken to represent post illa sc. verba textus, i.e. “after these words of the text” (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. postillae), but the form “apostil” may point to the Latin appositum, placed near or next to.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Potashes

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​POTASHES, the crude potassium carbonate obtained by lixiviating wood ashes and evaporating the solution to dryness, an operation at one time carried out in iron pots—hence the name from “pot” and “ashes.” The term potash or caustic potash is frequently used for potassium hydroxide, whilst such a phrase as sulphate of potash is now appropriately replaced by potassium sulphate. (See Potassium.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Postumia, Via

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​POSTUMIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of northern Italy, constructed in 148 B.C. by the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus. It ran from the coast at Genua through the mountains to Dertona, Placentia (the termination of the Via Aemilia Lepidi) and Cremona, just east of the point where it crossed the Po. From Cremona the road ran eastward to Bedriacum, where it forked, one branch running to the left to Verona and thence to the Brenner, the other to the right to Mantua, Altinum and Aquileia. The military occupation of Liguria depended upon this road, and several of the more important towns owed their origin largely to it. Cremona was its central point, the distances being reckoned from it both eastwards and westward. (T. As.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Posy

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​POSY (a shortened form of poesy, Fr. poésie, poetry), a verse of poetry or a motto, either with a moral or religious sentiment or message of love, often inscribed in a ring or sent with a present, such as a bouquet of flowers, which may be the origin of the common use of the word for a nosegay or bouquet. It has been suggested that this use is due to the custom of the symbolic use of flowers. Skeat quotes the title of a tract (Heber’s MSS. No. 1442), “A new yeare’s guifte, or a posie made upon certen flowers,” &c. “Posy rings,” plain or engraved gold rings with a “posy” inscribed on the inside of the hoops, were very frequently in use as betrothal rings from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Common “posies” were such lines as “In thee my choice I do rejoice,” “As God decreed so we agreed,” and the like. There are several rings of this kind in the British Museum.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Postiche

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​POSTICHE, a French term for a pretentious imitation, a counterfeit, particularly used of an inartistic addition to an otherwise perfect work of art. The French word was adapted from the Italian posticcio, from Latin positus, placed, added.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Postilion

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​POSTILION (through the Fr. from the Ital. postiglione), a postboy, rider of a post-horse, hence any swift messenger, but more particularly the rider of the near horse of a vehicle drawn by two or more horses where there is no driver. The swift travelling post chaises of the 18th and early 19th, centuries were usually driven by postilions.