OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Smiles, Samuel

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​SMILES, SAMUEL (1812–1904), British author, was born at Haddington, Scotland, on the 23rd of December 1812. He was the eldest of eleven children left, on their father's death, to be supported by their mother on slender means. To her spirit and example must be attributed some of the enthusiasm for self-reliance and self-education, that was later embodied in Dr Smiles's writings and led to their popularity and influence. Educated at the Haddington Grammar School and at Edinburgh University, where he studied medicine and graduated in 1832, Smiles tried, unsuccessfully, to practise in his native village among 3000 healthy Scotsmen and in competition with seven ​other doctors. He added to his income by lecturing on chemistry and by writing for the press, and, finally abandoning the medical profession, he confined himself to journalism, and from 1838 till 1844 edited the weekly Leeds Times. Though he gave up regular journalism in 1844, he continued to be a frequent contributor to periodicals. From 1845 till 1854 he was secretary of the Leeds and Thirsk railway, and from 1854 till 1866 of the South Eastern railway. During his residence in Leeds he had opportunities of studying the characters of the remarkable men whose biographies he afterwards wrote. Here he came in contact with George Stephenson, whose Life by him, published in 1857, passed through five editions in its first year and was the precursor of a series of biographies of leaders in the world of industry, such as Lives of the Engineers (3 vols., 1861–1862), Industrial Biography (1863), James Brindley and the Early Engineers (1864), Lives of Boulton and Watt (1865), Life of Thomas Telford (1867), The Life of a Scotch Naturalist (Thomas Edward) (1876), Robert Dick (1878), George Moore (1878), Men of Invention and Industry (1884), Life and Labour (1887), A Publisher and his Friends (a history of the house of John Murray) (1801), Jasmin (1891), Josiah Wedgwood (1894). In 1859 had appeared his most successful book, Self -Help, a volume of popular ethics; 20,000 copies were sold the first year, and by 1889 the sales had reached 150,000 copies, while the book had been translated into 17 languages. Its success suggested others of similar purpose, like Character (1871), Thrift (1875), Duty (1880). Smiles also published two works dealing with the history of the Huguenots and a History of Ireland. His works are not only admirable for their simple and yet forcible style, but for the many useful and practical lessons which they enforce. Wholesome and stimulating, their whole tendency is to inculcate sound principles of life and the building up of manly and upright character. Dr Smiles was made hon. LL.D. of Edinburgh University in 1878, and in 1897 received from the king of Servia the Cross of Knight Commander of the Order of St Sava, He died in Kensington in his ninety-second year, on the 16th of April 1904.
His Autobiography was edited (1905) by T. Mackay.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Smedley, William Thomas

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​SMEDLEY, WILLIAM THOMAS (1858–), American artist, was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, of a Quaker family, on the 26th of March 1858. He worked on a newspaper, then studied engraving and art in Philadelphia, in the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and—after making a tour of the South Seas—in Paris under Jean Paul Laurens. He settled in New York City in 1880; in 1882 went with the Marquis of Lome through Canada, preparing sketches for Picturesque Canada; and in 1905 became a member of the National Academy of Design. Most of his work was magazine and book illustration for stories of modern life, but he painted portraits and water colours, and received the Evans Prize of the American Water Color Society in 1 890, and a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition of 1900.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Smetana, Friedrich

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​SMETANA, FRIEDRICH (1824–1884), Bohemian composer and pianist, was born at Leitomischl in Bohemia on the 2nd of March 1824. He made such rapid progress in his studies under Ikavec, at Neuhaus, that at the age of six he appeared in public as pianist so successfully that his father's opposition to a musician's career was overcome. He then went to Proksch, at Prague, until he left for Leipzig to make the acquaintance of Schumann and Mendelssohn. Limited means prevented him from studying with the latter, and he returned to Prague, where he at once became Konzert-meister to the Emperor Ferdinand. In 1848 he married Katharina Kolar, pianist, and with her founded a music school at Prague. At the same time he met Liszt, who subsequently influenced him greatly, and with whom he afterwards stayed at Weimar. In 1856 Smetana accepted Alexander Dreyschock's suggestion to go as conductor of the Philharmonic Society at Gothenburg. There he remained five years, when, owing to his wife's ill-health, he returned to Prague after a successful concert tour. The death of his wife at Dresden on their return caused Smetana to change his mind, and he went back to Sweden. But the opening of the Interims Theater in 1866, and the offer of its conductorship, induced his return. In Sweden he had already written Hakon Jarl, Richard III., and Wallenstein's Lager, and had completed his opera Die Brandenburger in Bohmen (5th January 1866). Five months later it was followed by his best-known opera, Die verkaufte Braut, and in 1868 Dalibor was given. Between 1874 and 1882 he produced Zwei Witwen, Hubicka (Der Kuss), Tajewstvi (Das Geheimnis), Certova Stena, and Die Teufelsmauer, as well as the "grand prize" opera Libuse, written for the opening of the National Theatre at Prague, 11th June 1881. In Die Teufelsmauer were clear signs of decay in Smetana's powers, he having already in 1874 lost his sense of hearing. To celebrate his sixtieth birthday a fête was arranged by the combined Bohemian musical societies; but on that day Smetana lost his reason and was removed to a lunatic asylum, where he died on the 12th of May 1884. A great deal of his pianoforte music is interesting, the Stammbuchblätter, for example; while his series of symphonic poems, entitled Mein Vaterland (Vlast), and his beautiful string-quartet, Aus meinem Leben, have made the tour of the civilized world. He was an admirable pianist, and in many ways justified his countrymen's title of the “Czechisch Beethoven.”
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tulsa

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​TULSA, a city (and co-extensive township) and the county seat of Tulsa county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river, about 110 m. N.E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 1390; (1907), 7298 (638 negroes); (1910) 18,182. Tulsa is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Midland Valley, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Arkansas Valley & Western railways. The city is situated on the old boundary line between Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory, where the boundaries of the Cherokee, Creek and Osage nations intersected. It is on an elevation from the rolling prairie, which commands a fine view over the valley of the Arkansas. Tulsa is the seat of Henry Kendall College (Presbyterian, 1894), removed hither from Muskogee in 1907; it was named in honour of Henry Kendall (1815–1892), who from 1861 until his death was secretary of the board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. The city is a trading centre for a rich oil, gas and coal region and a grain, cotton and live-stock country. Natural gas is used for manufacturing purposes; among the manufactures are glass and cotton-seed oil products. Tulsa was founded in 1887, was first chartered as a city in 1902, and in 1908 adopted a commission form of government.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tullamore

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​TULLAMORE, a market town and the county town of King's County, Ireland, on the Grand Canal and a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which it is 58 m. W. by S. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 4639. The town is the seat of the county assizes, has a court house and other county buildings, and is governed by an urban district council. There is considerable trade in agricultural produce, and brewing and distilling are carried on. Charleville park is a fine demesne, and there are several small ruined castles in the neighbourhood, notably Shragh Castle, dating from 1588.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tull, Jethro

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​TULL, JETHRO (1674–1741), English agricultural writer and farmer, was born at Basildon, Berkshire, in 1674, probably in March. He entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1691, and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1699 but never practised. In that year he married and began farming on his father's land at Howberry, near Wallingford, and here about 1701 he invented and perfected his machine drill and began experiments in his new system of sowing in drills or rows sufficiently wide apart to allow for tillage by plough and hoe during almost the whole period of growth. In 1709 he moved to a farm near Hungerford and from 1711 to 1714 travelled in France and Italy, making careful observations of the methods of agriculture in those countries which aided and confirmed his theories as to the true use of manure and the importance of “pulverizing” the soil. He did not publish any account of his agricultural experiments or theories until 1731, when his Horse-hoeing Husbandry appeared. This was followed by The Horse-hoeing Husbandry, or an Essay on the Principles of Tillage and Vegetation, by J. T., in 1733. He was attacked in the agricultural periodical The Practical Husbandman and Farmer and accused of plagiarizing from such earlier writers as Sir A. Fitzherbert, Sir Hugh Plat (1552–1611?), Gabriel Plattes (fl. 1638) and John Worlidge (fl. 1669–1698). Tull answered in various smaller works forming additions to his main work. He died on the 21st of February 1741.
Many editions of his Horse-hoeing Husbandry were published subsequently, and in 1822 William Cobbett edited it. It was translated into French, notably by H. L. Duhamel Dumonceau (1700–1782), the naturalist and agriculturalist, in 1753–1757 (see Agriculture).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tulle (town)

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​TULLE, a town of central France, capital of the department of Corrèze, 58 m. S.S.E. of Limoges by rail. Pop. (1906), of the town, 11,741; of the commune, 17,245. The town extends along the narrow valley of the Corrèze, its streets here and there ascending the hill-slopes on either side by means of stairways. Tulle is the seat of a bishop. Of its 12th-century cathedral, once attached to an abbey, only the porch and nave remain, the choir and transept having been destroyed in 1793, but there is a tower of the 13th century with a fine stone steeple of the 14th century. The neighbouring cloister (12th and 13th century) has been restored. The abbot's house (15th century) has a carved doorway and well-preserved windows. Other curious old houses are to be seen in the vicinity of the cathedral. The prefecture of Tulle is a sumptuous building of 1869 surrounded by gardens. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a lycée for boys, training colleges for both sexes, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its principal industry is the manufacture of small-arms, established in 1690, and now carried on by the state under the direction of the artillery authorities. At its busiest times the factory has employed 3000 hands. The well-known cascades of Gimel formed by the Montane are near Tulle.
Tulle (Tutela) owed its importance in the middle ages to the abbey of St Martin, founded in the 7th or 8th century. The ​abbacy was raised to the rank of bishopric in 1317. The town was taken by the English in 1346 and was subsequently ravaged by the Black Death. It was again conquered by the English in 1369; but, when the inhabitants succeeded in freeing themselves, they were exempted from all imposts by Charles V. The Protestants tried in vain to seize Tulle in 1577, but were successful in 1585.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tulloch, John

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​TULLOCH, JOHN (1823–1886), Scottish theologian, was born at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, in 1823, and received his university education at St Andrews and Edinburgh. In 1845 he became minister of St Paul’s, Dundee, and in 1849 of Kettins in Strathmore, where he remained for six years. In 1854 he was appointed principal of St Mary’s College, St Andrews. The appointment was immediately followed by the appearance of his Burnet prize essay on Theism. At St Andrews, where he held also the post of professor of systematic theology and apologetics, his work as a teacher was distinguished by several features which at that time were new. He lectured on comparative religion and treated doctrine historically, as being not a fixed product but a growth. From the first he secured the attachment and admiration of his students. In 1862 he was appointed one of the clerks of the General Assembly, and from that time forward he took a leading part in the councils of the Church of Scotland. In 1878 he was chosen moderator of the Assembly. He did much to widen the national church. Two positions on which he repeatedly insisted have taken a firm hold—first, that it is of the essence of a church to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies, and that a national church especially should seek to represent all the elements of the life of the nation; secondly, that subscription to a creed can bind no one to all its details, but only to the sum and substance, or the spirit, of the symbol. For three years before his death he was convener of the church interests committee of the Church of Scotland, which had to deal with a great agitation for disestablishment. He was also deeply interested in the reorganization of education in Scotland, both in school and university, and acted as one of the temporary board which settled the primary school system under the Education Act of 1872. He died at Torquay on the 13th of February 1886.
Tulloch’s best-known works are collections of biographical sketches of the leaders of great movements in church history, such as the Reformation and Puritanism. His most important book, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy (1872), is one in which the Cambridge Platonists and other leaders of dispassionate thought in the 17th century are similarly treated. He delivered the second series of the Croall lectures, on the Doctrine of Sin, which were afterwards published. He also published a small work, The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of History, in which the views of Renan on the gospel history were dealt with; a monograph on Pascal for Blackwood’s Foreign Classics series; and a little work, Beginning Life, addressed to young men, written at an earlier period.
See the Life by Mrs Oliphant.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tulip-tree

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​TULIP-TREE, Liriodendron tulipifera (Nat. Ord. Magnoliaceae), a North American tree of great beauty, with peculiarly four-lobed, truncate leaves and solitary tulip-like sweet-scented flowers, variegated with green, yellow and orange. It is hardy in England, but while young it requires protection from cold, cutting winds. In habit it resembles a somewhat stiff-growing plane tree, and becomes fully as large. It does not flourish in the atmosphere of towns. It thrives best in deep sandy loam, and is propagated by seeds.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tulle (fabric)

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​TULLE, a term restricted in England to a fine bobbin-net of silk, used for veils, scarves, millinery purposes, and trimmings of ladies’ dresses, &c. The French used the word to mean all machine-made lace the basis of which is the inter twisted network made on the bobbin-net machine. The word is derived from the town of Tulle in France.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tullus Hostilius

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​TULLUS HOSTILIUS, third legendary king of Rome (672–640 B.C.). His successful wars with Alba, Fidenae and Veii shadow forth the earlier conquests of Latian territory and the first extension of the Roman domain beyond the walls of Rome. It was during his reign that the combat between the Horatii and Curiatii, the representatives of Rome and Alba, took place. He is said to have been struck dead by lightning as the punishment of his pride.
Tullus Hostilius is simply the duplicate of Romulus. Both are brought up among shepherds, carry on war against Fidenae and Veii, double the number of citizens, organize the army, and disappear from earth in a storm. As Romulus and Numa represent the Ramnes and Tities, so, in order to complete the list of the four traditional elements of the nation, Tullus was made the representative of the Luceres, and Ancus the founder of the Plebs. The distinctive event of this reign is the destruction of Alba, which may be regarded as an historical fact. But when and by whom it was destroyed is uncertain—probably at a later date, by the Latins, and not by the Romans, who would have regarded as impious the destruction of their traditional mother-country.
See Livy i. 22–31; Dion. Halic. iii. 1–35; Cicero, de Republica, ii. 17. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Römische Geschichte, bk. xii.; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ch. 11; W. Ihne, Hist. of Rome, vol. i.; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, vol, i. (1898) ; O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum, ii. (1885); G. F. Schomann, “De Tullo Hostilio rege romano” in his Opuscula, i. 18-49; also Rome: Ancient History.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Silures

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​SILURES, a powerful and warlike tribe in ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, Brecon and Glamorgan. They made a fierce resistance to the Roman conquest about a.d. 48, but a legionary fortress (Isca Silurum, Cærleon) was planted in their midst and by a.d. 78 they were overcome. Their town Venta Silurum (Cærwent, 6 m. W. of Chepstow) became a Romanized town, not unlike Silchester, but smaller. Its massive Roman walls still survive, and recent excavations have revealed a town hall and market square, a temple, baths, amphitheatre, and many comfortable houses with mosaics, &c. An inscription shows that under the Roman Empire it was the chef-lieu of the Silures, whose ordo or county council provided for the local government of the district. (F. J. H.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Silly

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​SILLY, weakly foolish, stupid. This is the current sense of a word which has much changed its meaning. The O.E. scelig (usually gesdlig) meant prosperous, happy, and was formed from sal, time, season, hence happiness, cf. Icel. scela, bliss; Ger. selig, blessed, happy, &c, probably also allied to Lat. salvus, whole, safe. The development of meaning is happy, blessed, innocent or simple, thence helpless, weak, and so foolish. The old provincial and Scottish word for a caul (q.v.) was " silly- how," i.e. " lucky cap." The development of meaning of " simple," literally " onefold " (Lat. simplex), plain, artless, hence unlearned, foolish, is somewhat parallel. A special meaning of " simple," in the sense of medicinal herbs, is due to the supposition that each herb had its own particular or simple medicinal value.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sillimanite

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​SILLIMANITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of aluminium silicate, Al$_2$SiO$_5$. It has the same percentage chemical composition as cyanite (q.v.) and andalusite (q.v.), but differs from these in crystalline form and physical characters. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and has the form of long, slender needles without terminal planes, which are often aggregated together to form fibrous and compact masses; hence the name fibrolite, which is often employed for this species. The name sillimanite is after Benjamin Silliman the elder. There is a perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles. The colour is greyish-white or brownish, and the lustre vitreous. The hardness is 6½ and the specific gravity 3.23. Sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of gneisses and crystalline schists, and it is sometimes a product of contact-metamorphism. It has been observed at many localities; e.g. in Bohemia (the Faserkiesel of Lindacker, 1792), with corundum in the Carnatic (fibrolite of comte de Bournon, 1802), Chester in Connecticut (sillimanite of G. T. Bowen, 1824), Monroe in New York (" monrolite "), Bamle near Brevik in Norway (" bamlite "). Prehistoric implements made of compact sillimanite are found in western Europe, and have a certain resemblance to jade implements. (L. J. S.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Silverfish

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​SILVERFISH, a small active insect, so-called from the silvery glitter of the scales covering the body. It is less than half an inch long and is found in damp corners or amongst books and papers in houses. Although accredited with destroying paper and linen, it probably feeds only on farinaceous or saccharine substances. Scientifically it is known as Lepisma saccharina and belongs to the sub-order Thysanura of the order Aptera.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Silvanus

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​SILVANUS (Lat. silva, wood), a deity or spirit of Italian woodland; not, however, of the wholly wild woodland, but of that which borders the clearings in a country not entirely reclaimed. Thus he is partly wild and partly civilized, and reflects the experience of the earliest settlers in Italy, whose descendants took him with them to the farthest limits of the empire, even to Britain, where we have many votive inscriptions to him, always as the friendly deity dwelling outside the new clearing, benevolent towards the settler in a strange land. This leading characteristic of Silvanus is shown clearly in Roman literature: Horace writes of the “horridi dumeta Silvani” (Odes, iii. 29) but he also calls him “tutor finium” (Epod. ii. 22) while for Virgil he is “arvorum pecorisque deus” (Aen. viii. 600). A writer on land measurement (Script. gromatici, i. 302) tells us that each holding had three Silvan—domesticus (of the holding itself), agrestis (of the wilder pasture-land) and orientalis (of the boundaries). It is plain that in him the Italians had a very useful deity, and in all these capacities he became extremely popular, as the extraordinary number of his inscriptions shows. Unlike Mars, from whom he was probably in origin an offshoot (cf. the Mars Silvanus of Cato, De re rustica, 141; see Mars), he never made his way into the towns, but is almost the only Roman deity who from first to last retained the same perfectly intelligible rustic character. His double nature as deity of woodland and cultivated land is seen well in the artistic representations of him; he carries a young tree in one hand, a pruning-hook in the other.
See Wissowa, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1904, p. 78 foll.).  (W. W. F.*)