OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Olaus Magnus

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​OLAUS MAGNUS, or Magni (Magnus, i.e. Stora, great, being the family name, and not a personal epithet), Swedish ecclesiastic and author, was born at Linköping in 1490 and died at Rome in 1558. Like his elder brother, Johannes Magnus, he obtained several ecclesiastical preferment’s (a canonry at Upsala and at Linköping, and the archdeaconry of Strengnes), and was employed on various diplomatic services (such as a mission to Rome, from Gustavus I., to procure the appointment of Johannes Magnus as archbishop of Upsala); but on the success of the reformation in Sweden his attachment to the old church led him to accompany his brother into exile. Settling at Rome, from 1527, he acted as his brother’s secretary, and ultimately became his successor in the (now titular) archbishopric of Upsala. Pope Paul III., in 1546, sent him to the council of Trent; later, he became canon of St Lambert in Liége; King Sigismund I. of Poland also offered him a canonry at Posen; but most of his life, after his brother’s death, seems to have been spent in the monastery of St Brigitta in Rome, where he subsisted on a pension assigned him by the pope. He is best remembered as the author of the famous Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus (Rome, 1555), a work which long remained for the rest of Europe the chief authority on Swedish matters and is still a valuable repertory of much curious information in regard to Scandinavian customs and folk-lore.
The Historia was translated into Italian (Venice, 1565), German (Strassburg, 1567), English (London, 1658) and Dutch (Amsterdam, 1665); abridgments of the work appeared also at Antwerp (1558 and 1562), Paris (a French abridged version, 1561), Amsterdam (1586), Frankfort (1618) and Leiden (1652). Olaus also wrote a Tabula terrarum septentrionalium . . . (Venice, 1539).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retford

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​RETFORD (officially East Retford), a market town and municipal borough in the Bassetlaw parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, 138$^1$⁄$_2$ m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern railway, the station being a junction with the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 12,340. The church of St Swithin dates from the 13th century, but was rebuilt in 1658 by a brief granted by Richard Cromwell. Modern buildings are the town hall, the corn exchange, the court house, and the covered markets. There is a large trade in corn and cheese, and the town possesses iron foundries, paper and corn mills, and india-rubber works. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Area, 4656 acres.
The situation of Retford (Redforde, Ratford), near one of the Roman roads and on the river Idle, where there was possibly a ford, may account for its origin. In 1086 the archbishop of York owned a mill at Retford, and Roger de Busli had rights here. Retford was a borough by prescription, and was in the hands of the crown when, in 1276, Edward I. granted it to the burgesses in fee-farm with the right of electing bailiffs. This charter was confirmed by Edward III., Henry VI. and Elizabeth. In 1607 James I. granted a charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses, under which the town was governed until 1835, when it was reincorporated under a mayor. East Retford returned two members to parliament in 1315, and again from 1572 till 1885, when it was disfranchised. Henry III. granted the burgesses an eight-days' fair at Holy Trinity, altered by Edward II. to St Gregory. Edward III. granted a six-days' fair at St Margaret, and Henry VI. a four-days' fair at St Matthew. Fairs are now held in March, June, July and December. The market held on Saturdays by prescription was sanctioned by Edward III. and still exists.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retort

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​RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back), a word used in two distinct meanings: (1) a sharp reply, answer to an argument, statement or charge; (2) a vessel used in chemistry and manufacture. The chemical retort is a flask-shaped or bulbous vessel made of glass, earthenware or metal, with a neck, bent downwards, which leads to a receiver; such vessels are particularly used for distillation (q.v.). The name is also given to the apparatus, varying in size and shape, used in the distinctive distillation of various substances, such as coal, in the manufacture of gas (q.v.).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retrenchment

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​RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchement, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short), an act of cutting down or reduction, particularly of expenditure; the word is familiar in this, its most general sense, from the motto of the Gladstonian Liberal party in British politics, “Peace, Retrenchment and Reform.” A special technical use of the term is in fortification, where it is applied to a work or series of works constructed in rear of existing defences in order to bar the further progress of the enemy should he succeed in breaching or storming these. A modern example may be found in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904. When early in the siege Fort Panlung fell into the hands of the Japanese, the Russians connected up the two adjacent first-line forts to a fort in the rear by means of new works, the whole forming a rough semicircle facing the lost fort. This retrenchment prevented the Japanese from advancing, and remained in the hands of the defenders up to the fall of the whole line of forts.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rethel, Alfred

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​RETHEL, ALFRED (1816–1859), German historical painter, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He very early showed an interest in art, and at the age of thirteen he executed a drawing which procured his admission to the academy of Düsseldorf. Here he studied for several years, and produced, among other works, a figure of St Boniface which attracted much attention. At the age of twenty he removed to Frankfort, and was selected to decorate the walls of the imperial hall in the Römer with figures of famous men. At the same period he produced a series of designs illustrative of Old Testament history. Four years later he was the successful competitor for the work of ornamenting the restored council house of his native city with frescoes depicting prominent events in the career of Charlemagne, but the execution of this work was delayed for some six years. Meanwhile Rethel occupied himself with the production of easel pictures and of drawings; and in 1842 he began a striking series of designs dealing with the “Crossing of the Alps by Hannibal,” in which the weird power which animates his later art becomes first apparent. In 1844 Rethel visited Rome, executing, along with other subjects, an altar-piece for one of the churches of his native land. In 1846 he returned to Aix, and commenced his Charlemagne frescoes. But mental derangement, remotely attributable, it is believed, to an accident from which he suffered in childhood, began to manifest itself. While he hovered between madness and sanity, Rethel produced some of the most striking, individual and impressive of his works. Strange legends are told of the effect produced by some of his weird subjects. He painted “Nemesis pursuing a Murderer”—a flat stretch of landscape, with a slaughtered body, while in front is the assassin speeding away into the darkness, and above an angel of vengeance. The picture, so the story goes, was won in a lottery at Frankfort by a personage of high rank, who had been guilty of an undiscovered crime, and the contemplation of his prize drove him mad. Another design which Rethel executed was “Death the Avenger,” a skeleton appearing at a masked ball, scraping daintily, like a violinist, upon two human bones. The drawing haunted the memory of his artist friends and disturbed their dreams; and, in expiation, he produced his pathetic design of “Death the Friend.” Rethel also executed a powerful series of drawings—“The Dance of Death”—suggested by the Belgian insurrections of 1848. It is by such designs as these, executed in a technique founded upon that of Dürer, and animated by an imagination akin to that of the elder master, that Rethel is most widely known. He died at Düsseldorf on the 1st of December 1859.
His picture of “Peter and John at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple,” is preserved in the Leipzig Museum, and his “St Boniface” and several of his cartoons for the frescoes at Aix in the Berlin National Gallery. His Life, by Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter, was published in 1861. See also Art Journal, November 1865.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retinite

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​RETINITE (Gr., ῥητίνη, resin), a general name applied to various resins, particularly those from beds of brown coal, which are near amber in appearance, but contain little or no succinic acid. It may conveniently serve as a generic name, since no two independent occurrences prove to be alike, and the indefinite multiplication of names, no one of them properly specific, is not to be desired.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retreat

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​RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back), a withdrawal, especially of a body of troops after a defeat or in face of a superior enemy. In military usage “retreat” is also the term for a signal, given by bugle and drum at or about sunset. It is the last general signal before “tattoo.” In religious usage, a “retreat” is a period and place set apart for prayer, self-examination and other spiritual exercises. Such “retreats” conducted by a director have long been the practice in the Roman Church. They were introduced into the English Church by Pusey. The word is also used of an institution or home where insane persons or habitual inebriates may be treated. For the law relating to “licensed retreats” for inebriates, see Inebriety, Law of.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retene

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​RETENE (methyl isopropyl phenanthrene), C$_{18}$H$_{18}$, a hydrocarbon present in the coal-tar fraction, boiling above 360° C.; it also occurs in the tars obtained by the distillation of resinous woods. It crystallizes in large plates, which melt at 98.5° C. and boil at 390° C. It is readily soluble in warm ether and in hot glacial acetic acid. Sodium and boiling amyl alcohol reduce it to a tetrahydroretene, whilst if it be heated with phosphorus and hydriodic acid to 260° C. a dodecahydride is formed. Chromic acid oxidizes it to retene quinone, phthalic acid and acetic acid. It forms a picrate which melts at 123–124° C.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rethel

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​RETHEL, a town of N. France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ardennes, on the right bank of the Aisne and the Ardennes canal, 31 m. S.W. of Mézières by rail. Pop. (1906) 5254. The church of St Nicholas was formed by the amalgamation of two churches, the oldest of which dates from the 13th century. Rethel has a sub prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a school of agriculture, and carries on ​wool-spinning, the weaving of light woollen fabrics, and the manufacture of millboard and farm implements.
Rethel (Castrum Retectum), of Roman origin, was from the end of the 10th century the seat of a countship which passed successively to the families of Flanders, Burgundy, Cleves, Foix and Gonzaga. In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in favour of the latter. In 1663 it was sold by Charles VI. de Gonzaga to Mazarin, whose family held it till the Revolution.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retaliation

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​RETALIATION, repayment of like with like, especially the return of hostile action, injuries or wrongs by similar action or injury, as in the primitive theory of punishment, an “eye for an eye,” “tooth for a tooth.” The Late Lat. retaliare was formed from talis, such as, of the same quality as; and this source also gave talio, talionis, the name of this type of punishment. (See Punishment, Theory of, and Roman Law, § The Twelve Tables.) A special form of retaliation is familiar in the imposition of differential import duties against the goods of a particular country (see Tariffs and Protection).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Retinue

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​RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain), a body of persons “retained” in the service of a noble or royal personage, a suite of “retainers.” Such retainers were not in the domestic service of their lord, but were his “livery” and claimed his protection. They were a source of trouble and abuse in the 15th and early 16th century (see Livery and Maintenance).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parry

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​PARRY (from Fr. parer, to ward off), to turn aside a blow from a weapon. The term is used especially of a defensive movement of the sword or foil in fencing, hence, by transference, to ward off any attack, to turn aside an objectionable question. (See Fencing, &c.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parsimony, Law of

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​PARSIMONY, LAW OF (Lat. parsimonia, from parcere, to save), the name given to William of Occam’s principle “Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem,” i.e. that it is scientifically unsound to set up more than one hypothesis at once to explain a phenomenon. This principle is known as “Occam’s razor” (see Occam, William of).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parsley

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​PARSLEY, a hardy biennial herb known botanically as Petroselinum sativum (natural order Umbelliferae), the leaves of which are much used for garnishing and flavouring. It occurs as a garden escape in waste places in Britain and it is doubtful if it is known anywhere as a truly wild plant; A. de Candolle, however (Origin of Cultivated Plants) considers it to be wild in the Mediterranean region. It grows best in a partially shaded position, in good soil of considerable depth and not too light; a thick dressing of manure should be given before sowing. For a continuous supply three sowings should be made, as early in February as the weather permits, in April or early in May and in July—the last for the winter supply in a sheltered position with southern exposure. Sow thinly in drills from 12 to 15 in. apart and about 1 in. deep; thin out to 3 in. and finally to 6 in. each. In winter the plants should be protected by frames or hand-glasses. The curled and mossy-leaved varieties are preferable. The Hamburg or turnip-rooted variety is grown for the root, which is cut up and used for flavouring.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parsnip

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​PARSNIP, botanically known as Pastinaca sativa (or Peucedanum sativum), a member of the natural order Umbelliferae, found wild in roadsides and waste places in England and throughout Europe and temperate Asia, and as an introduced plant in North America. It has been cultivated since the time of the Romans for the sake of its long fleshy whitish root, which has a peculiar but agreeable flavour. It succeeds best on a free sandy loam, which should be trenched and manured in the previous autumn, the manure being well buried. The seed should be sown thinly in March, in rows 15 to 18 in. apart, and finally thinned out to 1 ft. apart. The leaves will decay in October or November, when a portion of the roots may be taken up and stored in dryish sand for immediate use, the rest being left in the ground, to be taken up as required, but the whole should be removed by February to a dry cool place, or they will begin to grow. The best sorts are the Hollow-crowned, the Maltese and the Student. Dusting the ground with soot when sowing the seed and again when the leaves appear will keep the plants free from pests.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parrot-Fishes

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​PARROT-FISHES, more correctly called Parrot-Wrasses, marine fishes of the family Scaridae closely allied to the wrasses or Labridae. The family contains eight genera of which the principal are Scarus, Pseudoscarus, Odan and Sparisama. They are easily recognized by their large scales, of which there are from twenty-one to twenty-five in the lateral line, by having invariably nine spines and ten rays in the dorsal fin and two spines with eight rays in the anal, and especially by their singular ​dentition, of jaws as well as pharynx. The teeth of the jaws are soldered together, and form a sharp-edged beak similar to that of a parrot, but without a middle projecting point, and the upper and lower beak are divided into two lateral halves by a median suture. In a few species the single teeth can be still distinguished, but in the majority (Pseudoscarus) they are united into a homogeneous substance with polished surface. By this sharp and hard beak parrot-fishes are enabled to bite or scrape off those parts of coral-stocks which contain the polypes or to cut off branches of tough fucus, which in some of the species forms the principal portion of their diet. The process of triturating the food is performed by the pharyngeal teeth, which likewise are united, and form plates with broad masticatory surfaces, not unlike the grinding surface of the molars of the elephant. Of these plates there is one pair above, opposed to and fitting into the single one which is coalesced to the lower pharyngeal bone. The contents of the alimentary canal, which are always found to be finely divided and reduced to a pulp, prove the efficiency of this triturating apparatus; in fact, ever since the time of Aristotle it has been maintained that the Scarus ruminates. Nearly one hundred species of parrot-fishes are known from the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; like other coral-feeding fishes, they are absent on the Pacific coasts of tropical America and on the coast of tropical West Africa. The most celebrated is the Scarus of the Mediterranean. Beautiful colours prevail in this group of wrasses, but are subject to great changes and variations in the same species; almost all are evanescent and cannot be preserved after death. The majority of parrot-fishes are eatable, some even esteemed; but they (especially the carnivorous kinds) not unfrequently acquire poisonous properties after they have fed on corals or medusae containing an acrid poison. Many attain to a considerable size, upwards of 3 ft. in length.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Parson

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​PARSON, a technical term in English law for the clergyman of the parish. It is a corruption of persona, the parson being, as it were, the persona ecclesiae, or representative of the Church in the parish. Parson imparsonee (persona impersonata) is he that as rector is in possession of a church parochial, and of whom the church is full, whether it be presentative or impropriate (Coke upon Littleton, 300 b). The word parson is properly used only of a rector. A parson must be in holy orders; hence a lay rector could not be called a parson. There are four requisites to the appointment of a parson, viz. holy orders, presentation, institution and induction. The parson is tenant for life of the parsonage house, the glebe, the tithes and other dues, so far as they are not appropriated.
See also Rector; Vicar; Benefice; and Tithes.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kvass

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​KVASS, or Kwass (a Russian word for “leaven”), one of the national alcoholic drinks of Russia, and popular also in eastern Europe. It is made, by a simultaneous acid and alcoholic fermentation, of wheat, rye, barley and buckwheat meal or of rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or fruit. It has been a universal drink in Russia since the 16th century. Though in the large towns it is made commercially, elsewhere it is frequently an article of domestic production. Kvass is of very low alcoholic content (0.7 to 2.2%). There are, beside the ordinary kind, superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry kvass.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Kwangchow Bay

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​KWANGCHOW BAY (Kwangchow Wan), a coaling station on the south coast of China, acquired, along with other concessions, by the French government in April 1898. It is situated on the east side of the peninsula of Lienchow, in the province of Kwang-tung, and directly north of the island of Hainan. It is held on lease for 99 years on similar terms to those by which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan and Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes the islands lying in the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m. long by 6 m. wide, with admirable natural defences and a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. The bay forms the estuary of the Ma-Ts‘e river, navigable by the largest men-of-war for 12 m. from the coast. The limits of the concession inland were fixed in November 1899. On the left bank of the Ma-Ts’e France gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory 11 m. by 6 m., and on the right bank a strip 15 m. by 11 m. from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well populated; the capital and chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries with it full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the lease. In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month appointed a civil administrator over the country, which was divided into three districts. The population of the territory is about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has been instituted, but the local organization is maintained for purposes of administration. In addition to the territory acquired, the right has been given to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in consequence of difficulties which were offered by the provincial government on the occasion of taking possession, and which compelled the French to have recourse to arms, the latter demanded and obtained exclusive mining rights in the three adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French steamships call at the bay. By reason of the great strategical importance of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French to the acquirement of Kwangchow Wan.