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# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rabban Bar Sauma

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​RABBAN BAR SAUMA (fl. 1280–1288), Nestorian traveller and diplomatist, was born at Peking about the middle of the 13th century, of Uigur stock. While still young he started on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and travelling by way of Tangut, Khotan, Kashgar, Talas in the Syr Daria valley, Khorasan, Maragha and Mosul, arrived at Ani in Armenia. Warnings of the danger of the routes to southern Syria turned him from his purpose; and his friend and fellow-pilgrim, Rabban Marcos, becoming Nestorian patriarch (as Mar Yaballaha III.) in 1281, suggested Bar Sauma’s name to Arghun Khan, sovereign of the Ilkhanate or Mongol-Persian realm, for a European embassy, then contemplated. The purpose of this was to conclude an anti-Moslem alliance, especially against the Mameluke power, with the chief states of Christendom. On this embassy Bar Sauma started in 1287, with Arghun’s letters to the Byzantine emperor, the pope and the kings of France and England. In Constantinople he had audience of Andronicus II.; he gives an enthusiastic description of St Sophia. He next travelled to Rome, where he visited St Peter’s, and had prolonged negotiations with the cardinals. The papacy being then vacant, a definite reply to his proposals was postponed, and Bar Sauma passed on to Paris, where he had audience of the king of France (Philip the Fair). In Gascony he apparently met the king of England (Edward I.) at a place which seems to be Bordeaux, but of which he speaks as the capital of Alanguitar (i.e. Angleterre). On returning to Rome, he was cordially received by the newly elected pontiff Nicolas IV., who gave him communion on Palm Sunday, 1288, allowed him to celebrate his own Eucharist in the capital of Latin Christendom, commissioned him to visit the Christians of the East, and entrusted to him the tiara which he presented to Mar Yaballaha. His narrative is of unique interest as giving a picture of medieval Europe at the close of the Crusading period, painted by a keenly intelligent, broad-minded and statesmanlike observer.
See J. B. Chabot’s translation and edition of the Histoire du Patriarche Mar Jabalaha III. el du maine Rabban Cauma. (from the Syriac) in Revue de l’Orient latin, 1893, pp. 566–610; 1894, pp. 73–143, 235–300; O. Raynaldus, Annales Ecclesiastici (continuation of Baronius), A.D. 1288, §§ xxxv.–xxxvi.;1289, § lxi.; L.Wadding, Annales Minorum, v. 169, 196, 170–173; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 15, 352; iii. 12, 189–190, 539–541.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rabbi

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​RABBI, a Hebrew word meaning “my master,” “my teacher.” It is derived from the adjective rab (in Aramaic, and frequently also in Hebrew, “great”), which acquired in modern Hebrew the signification of “lord,” in relation to servants or slaves, and of “teacher,” “master,” in relation to the disciple. The master was addressed by his pupils with the word rabbi (“my teacher”), or rabbenu (“our teacher”). It became customary to speak of Moses as Moshe rabbenu (“our teacher Moses”). Jesus makes it a reproach against the scribes that they cause themselves to be entitled by the people rabbi (ῥαββί, Matt. xxiii. 7): and He Himself is saluted by the disciples of John as rabbi (John i. 38, where the word is explained as equivalent to διδάσκαλε). As an honorary title of the scribes, with whose name it was constantly linked, “Rabbi” only came into use during the last decades of the second Temple. Hillel and Shammai, the contemporaries of Herod, were mentioned without any title. Gamaliel I., the grandson of Hillel, was the first to whose name the appellation Rabban (the same as rabbon, and also pronounced as ribbon, cf. ῥαββουνί, Mark x. 51; John xx. 16) was prefixed. This title, a higher distinction than that of rabbi, is in tradition borne only by the descendants of Gamaliel I., the last being Gamaliel III., the son of Jehuda I. (Aboth ii. 2), and by Joḥanan b. Zaccai, the founder of the school of Jamnia (Jabneh). Otherwise all Tannaites (see Tanna), the scholars of the Mishnah period, were distinguished by the title of “rabbi.” The Jehuda I. mentioned above, the redactor of the Mishnah, was honoured as the “Rabbi” κατ’ ἐξοχήν (“par excellence”), and in the tradition of the houses of learning, if it was necessary to speak of him or to cite his opinions and utterances, he was simply referred to as “Rabbi,” without the mention of any name. Scholars who were not definitely ordained—and among these were men of high distinction-were simply mentioned by their names without the Rabbi-title. In the post-Talmudic age the Qaraites, who rejected the tradition of the Talmud, designated the Jews who adhered to that tradition as Rabbanites. Similarly the term Rabbins, or Rabbis, is applied to modern Jewish clergy. The plural rabbanim was employed to describe the later Jewish scholars (so, for example, in the historian Abraham Ibn Daud, 12th century). By “rabbinical literature” is understood the post-Talmudic Jewish literature; in particular, so far as its subject is the literature of the tradition and its contents.
Rab became a proper name as the standing nomenclature of the celebrated amora, Abba Arika (q.v.).  (W. Ba.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Rabaut Saint-Étienne, Jean Paul

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​RABAUT SAINT-ÉTIENNE, JEAN PAUL (1743–1793), French revolutionist, was born at Nimes, the son of Paul Rabaut (q.v.), the additional surname of Saint-Etienne being assumed from a small property near Nimes. Like his father, he became a pastor, and distinguished himself by his zeal for his co-religionists, working energetically to obtain the recognition of the civil rights which had been granted to them by Louis XVI. in 1788. Having gained a great reputation by his Histoire primitive de la Grèce, he was elected deputy to the States General in 1789 by the third estate of the bailliage of Nimes. In the Constituent Assembly he worked on the framing of the constitution, spoke against the establishment of the republic, which he considered ridiculous, and voted for the suspensive veto, as likely to strengthen the position of the crown. In the Convention he sat among the Girondists, opposed the trial of Louis XVI., was a member of the commission of twelve, and was proscribed with his party. He remained in hiding for some time, but was ultimately discovered and guillotined on the 5th of December 1793.
See J. A. Dartique, Rabaut St-Etienne d l’Assemblée Constituante (Paris, 1903); and A. Lods, “Correspondance de Rabaut St-Etienne” in La Révolution française (1898), “L’arrestation de Rabaut St Etienne” in La Révolution française for 1903 (cf. the same review for 1901), and “Les débuts de Rabaut St-Etienne aux États Généraux et à la Convention” in the Bulletin historique de la Société de l’histoire du protestantism français (1901), also an Essai sur la vie de Rabaut Saint-Etienne (1893) separately published. An edition of the Œuvres de Rabaut Saint-Etienne (2 vols., 1826) contains a notice by Collin de Plancy.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sterne, Richard

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​STERNE, RICHARD (c. 1500–1683), English divine, archbishop of York, was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, and was educated at the free-school in that town and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was elected fellow of Corpus Christi College in 1620; in 1633 he became chaplain to Archbishop Laud and in 1634 master of Jesus College, Cambridge, and rector of Yelverton, Somerset. For his zeal in helping the royalist cause with college plate he suffered imprisonment at the order of parliament and lost his appointments. He attended Laud at his execution, and during the Commonwealth kept a school at Stevenage, Hertfordshire. At the Restoration he was reinstated as master of Jesus College and soon after was made bishop of Carlisle. With George Griffith, bishop of St Asaph, and Brian Walton, bishop of Chester, he was appointed by Convocation to revise the Prayer Book. In 1664 he was raised to the arch- bishopric of York. He had impoverished Carlisle, and in his new see, according to Burnet (who calls him " a sour ill-tempered man "), " minded chiefly the enriching of his family." For his regard to the duke of York's interests he was suspected of leaning towards Roman Catholicism. He died on the 20th of June 1683. He helped Brian Walton with the Polyglot Bible and wrote a book on logic, Summa logicae (London, 1685).
He has also been credited with The Whole Duty of Man, which must, however, be assigned to the royalist divine Richard Allestree (1619–1681), provost of Eton College, whose original was considerably altered by his literary executor, John Fell (1625–1686), bishop of Oxford.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steuart, Sir James Denham

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​STEUART, SIR JAMES DENHAM, Bart. (1712–1780), English economist, was the only son of Sir James Steuart, solicitor-general for Scotland under Queen Anne and George I., and was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of October 1712. After passing through the university of Edinburgh he was admitted to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-four. He then spent some years on the Continent, and while in Rome entered into relations with the Pretender. He was in Edinburgh in 1745, and so compromised himself that, after the battle of Culloden, he found it necessary to return to the Continent where he remained until 1763. It was not indeed until 1771 he was fully pardoned for any complicity he may have had in the rebellion. He died at his family seat, Coltness, in Lanarkshire, on the 26th of November 1780. In 1767 was published Steuart's Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy. It was the most complete and systematic survey of the science from the point of view of moderate mercantilism which had appeared in England. But the time for the mercantile doctrines was past. Nine years later the Wealth of Nations was given to the world. Adam Smith never quotes or mentions Steuart's book; being acquainted with Steuart, whose conversation he said was better than his book, he probably wished to keep clear of controversy with him. German economists have examined Steuart's treatise more carefully than English writers; and they have recognized its high merits, especially in relation to the theory of value and the subject of population. They have also pointed out that, in the spirit of the best modern research, he has dwelt on the special characters which distinguish the economies proper to different nations and different grades in social progress.
The Works, Political, Metaphysical and Chronological, of the late Sir James Steuart of Coltness, Bart., now first collected, with Anecdotes of the Author, by his Son, General Sir James Denham Steuart, were published in 6 vols. 8vo in 1805. Besides the Inquiry they include—A Dissertation upon the Doctrine and Principles of Money applied to the German Coin (1758), Apologie du sentiment de M. le Chevalier Newton sur l’ancienne chronologie des Grecs (4to, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1757), The Principles of Money applied to the Present State of Bengal, published at the request of the East India Company (4to, 1772), A Dissertation on the Policy of Grain (1783), Plan for Introducing Uniformity in Weights and Measures within the Limits of the British Empire (1790), Observations on Beattie’s Essay on Truth, A Dissertation concerning the Motive of Obedience to the Law of God, and other treatises.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stesichorus

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​STESICHORUS (c. 640–555 B.C.), Greek lyric poet, a native of Himera in Sicily, or of Mataurus a Locrian colony in the south of Italy. According to Suïdas, his name was originally Tisias, but was changed to Stesichorus (" organizer of choruses "). His future eminence as a poet was foretold when a nightingale perched upon his lips and sang (Pliny, Nat. Hist.,x. 43). We are told that he warned his fellow-citizens against Phalaris, whom they had chosen as their general, by relating to them the well-known fable of the horse, which, in its eagerness to punish the stag for intruding upon its pastures, became the slave of man (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). But his warnings had no effect; he himself was obliged to flee to Catana, where he died and was buried before the gate called after him the Stesichorean. The story that he was struck blind for slandering Helen in a poem and afterwards recovered his sight when, in consequence of a dream, he had composed a palinode or recantation (in which he declared that only Helen's phantom had been carried off to Troy), is told by Plato (Phaedrus 243 A.), Pausanias (iii. 19, 13), and others. We possess about thirty fragments of his poems, none of them longer than six lines. They are written in the Doric dialect, with epic licences; the metre is dactylico-trochaic. Brief as they are, they show us what Longinus meant by calling Stesichorus " most like Homer "; they are full of epic grandeur, and have a stately sublimity that reminds us of Pindar. Stesichorus indeed made a new departure by using lyric poetry to celebrate gods and heroes rather than human feelings and passions; this is what Quintilian (Instit., x. 1, 62) means by saying that he " sustained the burden of epic poetry with the lyre." Several of his poems sung of the adventures of Heracles; one dealt with the siege of Thebes, another with the sack of Troy. The last is interesting as being the first poem containing that form of the story of Aeneas's flight to which Virgil afterwards gave currency in his Aeneid. The popular legends of Sicily also inspired his muse; he was the first to introduce the shepherd Daphnis who came to a miserable end after he had proved faithless to the nymph who loved him. Stesichorus completed the form of the choral ode by adding the epode to the strophe and antistrophe; and " you do not even know Stesichorus's three " passed into a proverbial expression for unpardonable ignorance (unless the words simply mean, " you do not even know three lines, or poems, of Stesichorus "). He was famed in antiquity for the richness and splendour of his imagination and his style, although Quintilian censures his redundancy and Hermogenes remarks on the excessive sweetness that results from his abundant use of epithets.
Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, iii.; see also S. Bernage, De Stesichoro lyrico (1880); O. Crusius, "Stesichorus und die epodische Composition in der griechischen Lyrik," in Commentationes Philologicae, dedicated to O. Ribbeck (1888).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steuben, Frederick William Augustus Henry Ferdinand, Baron von

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​STEUBEN, FREDERICK WILLIAM AUGUSTUS HENRY FERDINAND, Baron von (1730–1794), German soldier, was born at Magdeburg, Prussia, on the 15th of November 1730, the son of William Augustine Steuben (1699–1783), also a soldier. At fourteen he served as a volunteer in a campaign of the Austrian Succession War. He became a lieutenant in 1753, fought in the Seven Years' War, was made adjutant-general of the free corps in 1754 but re-entered the regular army in 1761, and became an aide to Frederick the Great in 1762. Leaving the army after the war, he was made canon of the cathedral of Havelberg, and subsequently was grand-marshal to the prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen. In 1777 his friend, the count St Germain, then the French minister of war, persuaded him to go to the assistance of the American colonists, who needed discipline and instruction in military tactics. Steuben arrived at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 1st of December 1777, and offered his services to Congress as a volunteer. In March 1778 he began drilling the inexperienced soldiers at Valley Forge; and by May, when he was made inspector-general, with the rank of major-general, he had established a thorough system of discipline and economy. ​Results of his work were shown in the next campaign, particularly at Monmouth, where he rallied the disordered, retreating troops of General Charles Lee. His Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States (1779) was of great value to the army. He was a member of the court-martial which tried Major John André in 1780, and after General Horatio Gates's defeat at Camden was placed in command of the district of Virginia, with special instructions “to collect, organize, discipline and expedite the recruits for the Southern army.” In April 1781 he was superseded in command of Virginia by La Fayette and later took part in the siege of Yorktown. Retiring from the service after the war, he passed the last years of his life at Steubenville, New York, where he died on the 28th of November 1794. New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania and New Jersey gave him grants of land for his services, and Congress passed a vote of thanks and gave him a gold-hilted sword in 1784 and later granted him a pension of $2400.
See Frederick Kapp, The Life of Frederick William von Steuben (New York, 1859); and George W. Greene, The German Element in the War of American Independence (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1876).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sterling (money)

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​STERLING, a term used to denote money of standard weight or quality, especially applied to the English gold sovereign, and hence with the general meaning of recognized worth or authority, genuine, of approved excellence. The word has been generally derived from the name of " Easterlings " given to the North German merchants who came to England in the reign of Edward I. and formed a hansa or gild in London, modelled on the earlier one of the merchants of Cologne. Their coins were of uniform weight and excellence (cf. Matthew Paris, ann. 1247, moneta esterlingorum, propter sui materiem desiderabilem, &c), and thus it is supposed gave the name of the moneyers to a coinage of recognized fineness. This theory is based on the statement of Walter de Pinchbeck, a monk of the time of Edward I., " sed moneta Angliae fertur dicta fuisse a nominibus opificum, ut Floreni a nominibus Florentiorum, ita Sterlingi a nominibus Esterlingorum nomina sua contraxerunt, qui hujusmodi monetam in Anglia primitus componebant " (quoted in Wedgwood, Dict. of Eng. Etym.). The word, however, occurs much earlier. The Roman de Rou (1180) has " Pour ses estellins recevoir," and " in Anglia unus Sterlingus per solvetur " occurs in an ordinance of Philip of France and Henry II. of England of 1184, both quoted in Du Cange (Gloss. s.v. Esterlingus). The " sterling " was a coin, the silver penny, 240 of which went to the " pound sterling " of silver of 5760 grains, 925 fine, and described in a statute of Edward I., quoted in Du Cange, as " Denarius Angliae qui vocatur Sterlingus." The word was borrowed by all European languages and applied to the English coin and to coins in general of a standard quality; thus we find not only O. Fr. estorlin or estellin but M. H. G. sterlinc or staerlinc, Ital. sterlino, &c. It would seem therefore that the term was applied to a coin of recognized quality before the North German merchants were established in London and that its origin should be found in a native English word. Two suggestions have been made; one that it represents an O. Eng. steorling, i.e. little star, from a device on an early coin, such as is found on some of William II., or O. Eng. staerling, starling, from the birds, which however may be doves, on the coins of Edward the Confessor. (See Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Esterlingus; and Skeat, Etym. Dict. 1910, s.v. Sterling.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sternberg

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​STERNBERG, a town of Austria, in Moravia, 73 m. N.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,195, almost exclusively German. It is the chief seat of the Moravian cotton industry, and it also carries on the manufacture of linen, stockings, liqueurs, sugar and bricks. Fruit, especially cherries, and tobacco are grown in the neighbourhood. Sternberg is said to have grown up under the shelter of a castle founded by Yaroslav of Sternberg on the site of his victory over the Mongols in 1241.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Steubenville

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​STEUBENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Ohio river, about 40 m. W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1880), 12,093; (1890), 13,394; (1900), 14,349, of whom 1815 were foreign-born and 736 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 22,391. It is served by the Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash system), the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), and the Pennsylvania railways, and by inter-urban electric railways. A suspension bridge crosses the Ohio river here. Steubenville is on a high plain (the second terrace of the river), surrounded by hills 300–500 ft. high, in a good farming country, rich in bituminous coal, natural gas, building-stone, petroleum and clay. The city has a Carnegie library, Gill hospital, a Y.M.C.A. building and Stanton and Altamont parks. The value of its factory products increased from $4,547,049 in 1900 to $12,369,677 in 1905, or 172 %—the greatest increase during this period for any city, with a population of 8000 or over in 1900, in the state; during the same period the capital invested in manufacturing industries increased from $2,302,563 to $12,627,048 or 448.4 %. Among manufactures are iron and steel, tin and terne plate, glass, paper and wood pulp, and pottery. Near the city limits are building-stone quarries and coal-mines. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Steubenville was platted as a town in 1797, immediately after the erection of Jefferson county, and was built on the site of Fort Steuben, erected in 1786–1787, and named in honour of Baron Frederick William von Steuben; it received a city charter in 1851, and its city limits were much enlarged in 1871.
See W. H. Hunter, " The Pathfinders of Jefferson County," and " The Centennial of Jefferson County," in Ohio Archaeological and Historical Review, vol. vi. Nos. 2, 3 (Columbus, 1898).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Stethoscope

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​STETHOSCOPE (Gr. στῆθος, chest, and σκοπεῑν, to look, examine), a medical instrument used in auscultation (q.v.). The single stethoscope is a straight wooden or metal tube with a flattened bell, the surface of which is usually covered with ivory or bone at the end which is placed against the body of the patient, and a small cup at the other to fit the ear of the observer. In the " binaural " stethoscope, which has the advantage of flexibility, the tube is divided above the bell into two flexible tubes which lead to both ears.