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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Auxerre

From volume 15 of the work.
A thirteenth-century theologian and professor at the University of Paris. William's name occurs in many of the pontifical documents relating to the University of Paris dating from the first decades of the thirteenth century. From these we learn that he was a magister at the university, that he was archdeacon of Beauvais, and that he was one of the three theologians appointed in 1231 by Gregory IX to prepare an amended edition of the physical and metaphysical works of Aristotle which had been placed under a ban by the Council of 1210 because of the errors which were contained both in the inaccurate translation and in the Arabian commentaries accompanying them. Apparently this work of correction was done in Rome; a letter of Gregory IX to King Louis, dated 6 May, 1231, recommends William of Auxerre to the French King and says that the Parisian teacher has laboured "at the Apostolic See, for the reformation of study". William is the author of a work entitled "Summa Aurea", which is not, as it is sometimes described, a mere compendium of the "Books of Sentences" by Peter the Lombard. Both in method and in content it shows a considerable amount of originality, although, like all the Summae of the early thirteenth century, it is influenced by the manner and method of the Lombard. The teacher by whom William was most profoundly influenced was Praepositinus, or Prevostin, of Cremona, Chancellor of the University of Paris from 1206 to 1209. The names of teacher and pupil are mentioned in the same sentence by St. Thomas: Haec est opinio Praepositini et Autissiodorensis (in I Sent., XV, q. 11). William was, in turn, the teacher of the Dominican, John of Treviso, one of the first theologians of the Order of Preachers. The importance of the "Summa Aurea" is enhanced by the fact that it was one of the first Summae composed after the introduction of the metaphysical and physical treatises of Aristotle. The work was published at Paris in 1500. Another edition, without date, by Regnault, is mentioned by Grabmann.
DENIFLE, Chartul. Univ. Paris, I (Paris, 1889); GRABMANN, Gesch. der schol. Methode, II (Freiburg, 1911).
WILLIAM TURNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Champeaux

From volume 15 of the work.
A twelfth-century Scholastic, philosopher, and theologian, b. at Champeaux, near Melun, in the neighbourhood of Paris, about the year 1070; d. at Châlons-sur-Marne, 1121. After having been a pupil of Anselm of Laon, he began in 1103 his career as teacher at the cathedral school of Paris. In 1108, owing chiefly to Abelard's successful attempts to criticize his realistic doctrine of universals, he retired to the Abbey of St. Victor and there continued to give lessons which, no doubt, influenced the mystic school known as that of St. Victor. In 1114 he was made Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne. Portions of his work "De origine animae" and of a "Liber sententiarum", as well as a dialogue entitled "Dialogus seu altercatio cujusdam Christiani et Judaei", have come down to us. On the problem of universals William held successively a variety of opinions. All of these, however, are on the side exaggerated Realism and opposed both to the Nominalism of Roscelin and to the modified Nominalism of Abelard. In his treatise on the origin of the soul he definitely rejects the theory known as Traducianism and maintains that each and every human soul originates from the creative act of God. Among his contemporaries he enjoyed a very great reputation for learning and sanctity. Among his contemporaries he enjoyed a very great reputation for learning and sanctity. He was, moreover, looked upon by the conservative thinkers of that age as the ablest champion of orthodoxy. His creationist doctrine is his chief title to distinction as a Scholastic philosopher.
LEFEVRE, Les variations de Guillaume de Champeaux, etc. (Lille, 1898); MICHAUD, G. de Champeaux et les ecoles de Paris au XII Siecle (Paris, 1867); GRABMAN, Gesch. der schol. Methode (Freiburg, 911), 136 sq.; DE WULF, Hist of Medieval Phil., tr. COFFEY (New York, 1909), 179; TURNER, Hist. of Philosophy (Boston, 1903), 279 sq.
WILLIAM TURNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William Smits

From volume 16 of the work.
Orientalist and exegete, b. at Kevelaer in the Duchy of Geldern, 1704; d. 1 Dec., 1770. He entered the Order of Friars Minor, in the Belgian province, at the age of eighteen. As a religious he applied himself with remarkable success to the study of Biblical languages and Sacred Scripture and was appointed lector. From 1732 to 1744 he published, at Antwerp, several Biblical theses dealing with questions of textual criticism and chronology. In one of these, "Isagoge Romano-Catholica ad textum hebraeum. . .", he shows that the Latin Vulgate is substantially a faithful translation of the original Hebrew; and in another, "Isagoge Romano-Catholica ad textum graecum vulgo LXX. . .", he states the reasons why the LXX is preferable to the actual Hebrew text. Yielding to the entreaties of Cardinal Thomas Philip of Alsace, then Archbishop of Mechlin Smits undertook the translation of the entire Bible into Flemish. But far from merely rendering the Vulgate into his native tongue, he has left us a voluminous and learned work of monumental importance. The title is: "Biblia Sacra Vulgatae editionis, versione belgica, notis grammaticalibus, literalibus, criticis,. . .elucidata per FF. Minores Recollectes musae philologico-sacri antwerpiensis." Of this series he lived to finish only thirteen Sacred books, which were published, in seventeen volumes, from 1744 to 1767. The work was continued by his collaborator and former pupil, Peter van Hove. In 1765 Smits was appointed the first prefect of the "Musaeum philologico-sacrum", a Franciscan biblical institute at Antwerp which, though shortlived, has a glorious history.
DIRKS, Histoire litteraire et bibliographique des Freres Mineurs (Antwerp, 1885), 318 sqq.; SCHOUTENS, Geschiedenis van het voormatlig Minderbroederklaster van Antwerpen (Antwerp, 1908), 169-99; HOLZAPFEL, Handbuch der Geschichte des Franziskanerordens (Freiburg, 1909), 565, 595.
Thomas Plassmann.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Auvergne

From volume 15 of the work.
Bishop of Paris, medieval philosopher and theologian. Born at Aurillac in Auvergne towards the end of the twelfth century; died in Paris, 1249. The date of his birth and the circumstances of his early education are unknown. In the first decades of the thirteenth century he went to Paris to study, and became successively teacher in the faculty of arts and in that of theology (about 1220). In 1228 he became Bishop of Paris, continuing, as his official decrees show, to take an active interest in the institution in which he had studied and taught.
His works include several treatises on practical theology, for example, "De virtutibus", "De moribus", "De sacramentis", a dogmatic treatise "De trinitate" (in which there is much that pertains to philosophy as well as to theology), and philosophical works "De universo", "De anima", "De immortalitate animae", the last being merely a rescript of a work bearing the same title by Dominic Gundisalvi. These were collected and published at Nuremberg, 1496, and republished at Venice, in 1591, and at Orléans, 1674. William of Auvergne represents the first stage of the movement which ended in the adoption and adaptation of Aristotle's philosophy as the basis of a systematic exposition of Christian dogma. It was difficult for him to break all at once with the Augustinian method and doctrine which had prevailed in the schools up to this time. Besides, the only text of Aristotle then available was full of errors of translation and of perversions on the part of Arabian commentators. Still he set about the task of rescuing Aristotle from the Arabians, and although he often failed to find a consistent basis of reconciliation between the Augustinian and the Aristotelian elements, he did important work in preparing the way for his more fortunate and more successful followers, Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, and St. Thomas. He did not cover the whole ground of theology as they did; his "De universo" is neither a "Summa theologica", nor a "Book of Sentences"; it is more specifically an attempt to found a science of reality on principles opposed to those of the Arabian School. In his theological works he devotes special attention to the Manichean heresy, which in his time had been renewed by the Cathari (q.v.). He devoted attention also to refuting the Arabian doctrine of the eternity of the world. In his interpretation of the Platonic theory of ideas he identifies the intelligible world (Kosous nontos) with the Son of God.
UEBERWEG, Hist. of Phil., tr. Morris, II (New York, 1892), 434; TURNER, Hist. of Phil. (Boston, 103), 325, 326. The best French and German works are : VALOIS, Guillaume d'Auvergne (Paris, 1880); BAUMGARTNER, Die Erkenntnisslehre d. Wilh. v. Auvergne (Munster, 1893); GUTTMANN, Die Scholastik des 13 Jahrh. in irhen Beziehungen zum Judentum (Breslau, 1902), 13-32.
WILLIAM TURNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Chytri

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Cyprus. The Greek see of similar title was suppressed in 1222 by Cardinal Pelagius, papal legate. It was beautifully located in the centre of the island, in the territory of Chytraea, west of Messaria. The flourishing modern village Kyrka (pronounced tsirka), in Greek officially Kythraia, Turkish Deirmennik has preserved the ancient name. There has been found here a pre-Phoenician necropolis. In the time of Assurbanipal, Pilagura was King of Kitrusi, one of the ten kingdoms in the island. Numerous inscriptions have been found in the Cypriot dialect, some in ordinary Greek. Chytri was noted for the worship of Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite Paphia. Later forms of the name are Cythraia, Cythereia, Cythroi, Chytrides; according to the late Greek work of Sakellarios (Kypriaka, 2nd ed., 202-205) Kyrka should be Cythera or Cythereia; he identifies Chytri with Palo-Kythro, a village with ruins two hours south of Kyrka. The historical texts, however, mention only one town. Chytri was at an early date an episcopal see. Lequien's list of the bishops of the see (II, 1069) is very incomplete, only eight being recorded: the first is St. Pappus, who suffered martyrdom under Licinius, Maximinus, or Constantius; the most famous is St. Demetrian, 885-912 (?).
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cibyra

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Caria, in Asia Minor. Kibyra, later Kibyrrha, had been founded by the Lycian district inhabited by the Solymi. It was the leading city of Kabalis, having two votes in the Kabalian tetrapolis; it could arm 30,000 foot and 2000 horse; in 190 B.C. it was ruled by its own kings. In 130 the Romans allowed it to remain independent with its territory. But in 84 it was incorporated with the province of Asia by L. Licinius Murena, a lieutenant of Sulla, and became the capital of the Cibyratic conventus. It was renowned for its ironwork, but, being situated away from the great lines of Roman commerce did not maintain its ancient prosperity. Tiberius restored it after an earthquake. It struck coins, and had its own era reckoned from A.D. 25. It was annexed by Justinian to Caria, and as early as the eighth century became the chief town of the theme (department) of the Cibyriotes. From the seventh to the twelfth or thirteenth century it figures in the "Synecdemus" of Hierocles, and in many "Notitiae episcopatuum" as a suffragan of Stauropolis, the metropolis of Caria. Six bishops are mentioned by Lequien (I, 963), the first being Letodorus (not Leontius) at Nicaea in 325; and the last Stephen, a partisan of Photius, who retracted at the Eighth Ecumenical Council in 869. The ruins of Cibyra are near Horzoum, a village in the vilayet of Koniah, where the ancient theatre, odeon, stadium etc., are still to be seen.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Ciriaco d'Ancona

From volume 1 of the work.
An Italian antiquary whose family name was Pizzicolli, born at Ancona about 1391; died about 1455 at Cremona. During voyages of commerce throughout the Orient he collected a great store of inscriptions, manuscripts, and other antiquities, returning in 1426 after having visited Rhodes, Beirut, Damascus, Cyrus, Mitylene, Thessalonica, and other places. He enjoyed the patronage of Eugenius IV, Cosmo de' Medici, and the Visconti of Milan. In 1443 he visitsed Morea in Greece, where he copied inscriptions mentioned in the correspondance of Filelfo, Traversari, Leonardo Aretino, and others. He is accounted the best equipped, most learned, and accurate worker in the province of epigraphy during the period of the Renaissance. His accuracy in copying ancient inscriptions is said by De Rossi (Inscriptiones Christ. Urbis Romae, VII saec antiquiores, II, 377) to be "the chief credit and undying glory of Ciriaco ". Most of his manuscripts have been lost; those published after his death are "Itinerarium" (Florence, 1742); "Epigrammata reperta per Illyricum a Kyriaco Anconitano" (Rome, 1664), the latter very rare. Mazzuchelli mentions other works in his "Scrittori d'Italia" (s.v.).
THOMAS WALSH
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cidyessus

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Asia Minor. It was a city of some importance, west of Ammonia in West-Central Phrygia, in the territory of the Setchanli Ova, Mouse Plain; this large and fertile valley projects far into Phrygia Salutaris, but the city belonged to Phrygia Pacatiana. Its site has been determined by an inscription found at the little village of Ghieuktché Euyuk, west of Afium Kara Hissar, in the vilayet of Brusa. The old native name may have been Kydessos, though it is Kidyessos on coins. Lequien (I, 801) mentions only three bishops: Heraclius in 451, Andreas in 787, and Thomas in 879. The see is still mentioned in later "Notitiæ episcopatuum" until the twelfth or thirteenth centuries as a suffragan of Laodicea.
RADET, En Phrygie (Paris, 1895), 113; RAMSAY, Hist. Geogr. of Asia Minor (London, 1890), 139, 151, 168.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cinites

From volume 3 of the work.
(A.V. Kenites).
A tribe or family often mentioned in the Old Testament, personified as Qayin from which the nomen gentilicium Qeni is derived. In spite of several attempts at a solution, the origin both of the name and of the tribe is still obscure. Hobab the relative (brother-in-law?) of Moses was a Cinite (Judges, i, 16, iv, 11; as Hobab is also called a Madianite (Num., x, 29), it follows that the Cinites belonged to that nation. Judging from appearances, the Cinites were true worshippers of Yahweh. Some scholars, on the strength of Ex., xviii, go even so far as to assert that it was from them that the Israelites received a great portion of their monotheistic theology; the passage, however, deals directly and only with social organization. At any rate, the Rechabites, a clan of the Cinites [I Par. (A. V. I Chron.) ii, 55] were even ascetics and insisted on retaining the nomadic habits of the followers of Yahweh (Jer., xxxv), Though calamities were foretold for the Cinites by Balaam (Num, xxiv, 21 sqq.), they are always represented as being on friendly terms with the Israelites. Owing probably to their alliance with Moses and also to the bonds of a common religion, they befriended the Israelites during their wanderings in the desert [Num., x, 29-32, 1 K. (A.V. I Sam.) xv, 6] and joined them in their march on Chanaan (Judges, 1, 16). There is no intimation that there ever was any enmity between the two nations (cf. I K., xxvii, 10, xxx, 29). The Cinites dwelt south of Palestine with the Amalecites, as is evident from Num., xxiv, 21 sqq., I K., xv, 6, and probably from Judges, i, 16 if, instead of the Massoretic version, we use an alternate Hebrew reading -- a reading which is supported by several Greek manuscripts and by the Sahidic Coptic Version (cf. Ciasca, Fragm. Copto-Sahidica). One clan of the Cinites left the tribe and settled in the north under Haber, at the time of Barac and Debbera (Judges, iv, 11); Jahel, who slew Sisara, was the wife of Haber the Cinite (ibid., iv, 17 sqq., v, 24 sqq.). From the facts that we find the Cinites south and north, and that in Aramaic the root from which Qayin is derived implies the idea of a smith, Sayce (in Hastings, Dict. Bib., s.v. Kenites) draws the conclusion that the Cinites were a wandering guild of smiths. This view has against it the obvious meaning of the texts (see especially Gen., xv, 19). Apparently the Cinites shared in the Babylonian Exile and in the Restoration, but they do not appear any more as a distinct tribe and very likely were assimilated with the Jews.
R. BUTIN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Circesium

From volume 3 of the work.
(KERKESION, KERKISION, KIRKISIA, CERCUSIUM, CIRCESSUS).
A titular see of Osrhoene. Founded under Diocletian and restored by Justinian, it is now identified with the village Abu Serai, on the left bank of the Euphrates, at the confluence of the Khabur, where the river was commonly crossed. The ancient city, however, had replaced a still older one, called Sirhi in Assyrian texts. Benjamin of Tudela and many after him identified it wrongly with Kharkamis (Carchamish), one of the capitals of the Hittites, situated at Jirbas, or Jerablus, the present name of Europos, or Oropos. Circesium was a bishopric in Osrhoene, suffragan of Edessa, it figures only in Parthey's "Notitiæ episcopatuum" (c. 840). Lequien (II, 977) mentions five bishops: Jonas, who was present at Nicæa, and had suffered mutilation during the preceding persecution; Abramius, present at Chalcedon; Nonnus, a Severian (518 and 532); Davides, present at Constantinople (536); Thomas (553). There are also records of fourteen Jacobite bishops, from 793 to 1042.
RAWLINSON, The Five Great Monarchies (4th ed., London, 1879), II, 67; MASPERO, De Charchemis oppidi situ et historiâ antiquissimâ, 14 sq.; NÖLDEKE, Götting. Nachricht. (Jan., 1876), nn. 11, 13, 15; CHABOT in Revue de l'Orient chrétien, VI, 194.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cinna

From volume 3 of the work.
A titular see of Asia Minor. According to the order of the "Synecdemus" of Hirerocles (p. 696) Kinna was probably in the north-western part of the rich corn-growing district called Haimane, west of Angora, though its exact position cannot be determined. It must have been close to Balyk Koyounji (vilayet of Angora) or even nearer to the River Sangarius. Kinna was a suffragan of Ancya, in Galatia Prima. Lequien (I,483) mentions ten bishops: the first Gorgonius, was present at Nicaea, in 325; the tenth, Angonius, was a partisan of Photius in 879, and another, Sabas, was probably an adherent of St. Ignatius. The see figures in later "Notitiae episcopatuum".
Ramsay, Hist. Geogr. Of Asia Minor (London, 1890), 245, 247, 430.
S. Pétridès.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Cima da Conegliano

From volume 3 of the work.
A Venetian painter, born at Conegliano in the province of Treviso in 1459 or 1460; died in 1517 or 1518. His father, who died in 1484, was a cloth-shearer (cimator), hence the family surname. In 1488 the young painter was at work at Vicenza; in 1492 he established himself at Venice, but by the summer of 1516 he had returned to his native place. Cima married twice, his first wife, Corona, bearing him two sons, the older of whom took Holy orders at Padua. By Joanna, his second wife, he had six children, three being daughters.
His oldest painting inscribed with a date is the "Madonna of the Arbour", made in 1489, and now in the Museum of Vicenza. This picture is done in distemper and savours so much of the style of Bartolommeo Montagna, who lived at Vicenza from 1480, as to make it highly probable that Cima was his pupil. Even in this early production Cima gave evidence of the serious calm, and almost passionless spirit that so eminently characterized him. Later he fell under the spell of the great Giovanni Bellini and became one of his ablest successors, forming a happy, if not indispensable link between this master and Titian. At first his figures were somewhat crude, but they gradually lost their harshness and gained in grace while still preserving the dignity. In the background of his facile, harmonious compositions the mountains of his country are invested with new importance. Cima was one of the first to assign the landscape a definite place in modern painting, and to formulate the laws of atmosphere and of the distribution of light and shade. His "Baptism of Christ" in the church of S. Giovanni in Bragora (Venice, 1492), gives striking evidence of this. This colouring is rich and right with a certain silvery tone peculiar to Cima, but which in his later works merges into a delicate gold. His conceptions are usually calm and undramatic, and he has painted scarcely any scenes (having depicted religious ones almost exclusively) that are not suggestive of "sante conversazioni". His "Incredulity of St. Thomas" (National Gallery, London) and his beautiful "Nativity" (Venice, Santa Maria del Carmine, 1509) are hardly aught else. But most of his paintings represent Madonnas enthroned among the elect, and in these subjects he obserbes a gently animated symmetry. The groupings of these sainted figures, even though they may not have a definitely pious character, and the impression of unspeakable peace. Such are, among others, the magnificent "Madonna Montinini" (about 1507) in the Parma Museum; the "Madonna with Four Saints" (about 1511) in the Berlin Museum, and the smaller "Virgin and Child Enthroned with St. John the Baptist and the Magdalen" (about 1513) in the Louvre, which was Cima's last bequest as poet and landscape painter.
LOUIS GILLET
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Castello

From volume 3 of the work.
Italian painter, sculptor, and architect; b. at Gandino, in the Valle Seriana, in the territory of Bergamo, in 1509 (some writers state 1500 or 1506); d. at Madrid in 1579. He is commonly called Il Bergamasco, to distinguish him from Giovanni Battista Castello, a Genoese, who was a miniature-painter. When young, he was entrusted to the care of Qurelio Busso of Crema, a pupil of Polidoro da Caravaggio, by whom he was taught the first principles of art. That painter took him to Genoa, and after some time left him in that city, unprotected and without means, but considerably advanced in his studies. A Genoese nobleman, Tobia Pallavicino, took him under his protection and sent him to Rome to study the great masters there, where he became very proficient in painting, sculpture, and architecture. On his return to Genoa he decorated the palace of his protector and painted some frescoes in the church of San Marcellino. He made a great reputation by his painting of the martyrdom of St. Sebastion, in the monastery of San Sebastiano and, together with Luca Cambiasco, was employed by the Duke Grimaldi, in the Nunziata di Portoria in Genoa, Castello painting on the ceiling of the choir the Savior as judge of the World, and Luca painting the laterals with the fate of the Blessed and the Reprobate. On visiting his native country, desiring to leave there something worthy of his fame, he undertook his great work in the hall of the Lanzi Palace at Gorlago, where he has represented some of the most interesting subjects of the Iliad.
Towards the latter part of his life (1567) he was invited by Charles V to visit Spain and was employed by that monarch in the palace of the Pardo, which he ornamented with subjects from Ovid. He also executed some works in the Escorial and other palaces, and died holding the office of architect of the royal palace. As architect, he is supposed to have remodelled the church of San Matteo in Genoas and to have designed the imperial palace at Campetto. The paintings of Castello show correct design, with excellent colouring, more nearly allied, however, to the Venetian than to the Roman school.
Miliizia. Lives of Celebrated Architects, II, 65, 66; Pilkington, Dict. of Painters, 105; Bryan, Dict. of Painters and Engravers, I, 267, 268; Champlin and Perkins, Cycl. of Painters and Paintings, I, 145.
Thomas H. Poole.