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# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Franco

From volume 6 of the work.
(Frequently known as IL SEMOLIE)
Italian historical painter and etcher, b. at Udine in 1510; d. at Venice in 1580. He studied in Rome, giving special attention to the works of Michelangelo, and taking great interest in designing allegorical decorations on a large scale. He worked with Vasari in carrying out some decorative work in a palace for Ottaviano de' Medici, but is better known for his portraits of the Medici family, which were, however, to a great extent copies from the works of other men. His designs for majolica were of importance and were executed for the Duke of Urbino; but perhaps he is better remembered for his etchings, of which there are over a hundred, than for any other works. He is said to have been instructed in the art of etching by Marc' Antonio, and his plates are marked B.F.V.F. (Battista Franco Venetus Fecit). They are not particularly attractive, as their execution is somewhat mechanical, but there is a certain light and easy spirit about them by which they can be recognized. About half the number are original works, the others being derived from paintings by Raphael, Titian, and others.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Gaulli

From volume 6 of the work.
Gaulli, Giovanni Battista, called Baciccio, an Italian painter; b. at Genoa, 1639; d. at Rome, 1709. He first studied in Genoa under Borzone, who instructed him in design and coloring. Early in life he went to Rome and became a pupil of Bernini and Mario Nuzzi da Fiori, whose assistance and recommendation laid the foundation of his fortune and reputation. A considerable part of his life was given over to portrait painting. He is said to have executed paintings of seven pontiffs—from Alexandria VII to Clement XI and of all the cardinals of his time. His paintings of children show much grace and vivacity. His greatest merit, however, lies in his historical compositions, which show good arrangement, agreeable coloring, and a spirited touch. Sometimes his work was incorrect and heavy, and his draperies too stiff. He understood the art of foreshortening his figures in a marked degree, as shown by his work in the angles of the dome of S. Agnese, in the Palazzo Navona. His chief work is the painting of the "Assumption of St. Francis Xavier", in the vault of the church of the Gesu Rome. This picture is celebrated for the boldness and truth of the foreshortening, and the brilliancy of the coloring. Another celebrated work is the "Virgin and Child, surrounded by angels, with St. Anne kneeling in front"; it is in the church of S. Francesco a Ripa; and in the church of Sant' Andrea there is an altarpiece by Gaulli of the "Death of St. Francis Xavier". Gaulli's facility of composition, rapidity of hand, and clear bright style rendered his mural paintings very attractive to his contemporaries; but these works are now considered as belonging to an essentially superficial style of art. He is one of the painters called by his countrymen Macchinisti. His faults are less obtrusive in his easel pictures, and his manner more varied.
Thomas H. Poole.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Beccaria

From volume 16 of the work.
A physicist, born at Mondovi, 3 October, 1716; died at Turin, 27 May, 1781. At the age of sixteen he entered the Order of Clerks Regular of St. Joseph Calasanctius, and successively taught in the Scuole Pie of Palermo and Rome. His ability as instructor being soon recognized, he was appointed by royal authority professor of physics in the University of Turin (1748). Here be ardently devoted himself to researches on atmospheric electricity, in which he made liberal use of kites, rockets, and iron wire for the purpose of exploring the electrical conditions of the atmosphere. Henley's pith-ball electroscope was his recording instrument. In broken or stormy weather, positive and negative electrification were detected; whereas in calm, serene weather "the excessive or positive was always found". The sinuous or forked character of lightning was attributed to the resistance of the air; and the rupture of the shoes of a man struck by a flash, to the "moisture of the feet flying into vapour". Beccaria confirmed the observation of Andrew Gordon that water evaporates more rapidly when electrified; also the conclusion of Abbés Nollet and Menon that animals (cats, pigeons, chaffinches) lose weight when subjected to prolonged electrification, the loss being ascribed to increased "transpiration" under electrical stimulus. He was also among the first to recognize and clearly state that the electrical charge on a conductor is confined to the surface. An experimental demonstration of this law of electrostatics was devised by Cavendish in 1775 and independently by Coulomb in 1788 and popularized in 1816 by Biot, whose name it usually bears. Beccaria adopted the two-fluid theory of Franklin as well as the views of the American philosopher on the preventive and protective functions of lightning conductors.
In 1755 Beccaria was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1766 he contributed a paper to the "Philosophical Transactions", in which he describes (in Latin) five of the more important of his experimental researches. In 1770 he contributed a second paper (also in Latin) in which he expounds five theorems followed by fifteen corollaries in electrostatics. His principal work is his treatise "Dell' elettricismo artificiale e naturale" (1753), which was translated into English in 1778. Other works are "Lettere sull' elettricismo" (1758); "Experimenta atque observationes quibus electricitas vindex late constituitur" (1769); and "Dell' elettricita terrestre atmosferica a cielo sereno" (1775).
TANA, Elogio del P. Giov. Batta. Beccaria (1781); EANDI, Memorie storiche intorno agli studii del P. Beccaria (1783).
Brother Potamian.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Casali

From volume 3 of the work.
Musician, b. at Rome in 1715; d. there 1792. From 1759 until his death he held the position of choir-master in the church of St. John Lateran. Of his numerous compositions a mass in G major and several motets (Confitebor tibi, Ave Maria, Exaltabo, Improperium) have been reprinted in Lueck's "Collection" (Ratisbon, 1859). These compositions, while liturgical in spirit and form, show a considerable departure from the great period of the Roman School in a freer use of the dissonance, and they also bear witness to the influence of the opera in which form Casali also wrote. Most of his works are preserved in the library of Abbate Santini in Rome. Casali was one of the last of that period to write for voices a capella.
KORNMÜLLER, Kirchenmusikalisches Lexikon; MENDEL, Musikalisches Lexikon.
JOSEPH OTTEN
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Giraldi

From volume 6 of the work.
(Surnamed CINTIO)
Italian dramatist and novelist; b. at Ferrara, Italy, 1504; d. there, 1573. He studied philosophy and medicine in his native town. Under the patronage of the family ruling over his native region, he served for a while as secretary to the dukes of Ferrara, but wearying of his duties, he gave himself up to academic life as a professor in turn at the Universities of Mondovi, Turin, and Pavia. Among his minor works there is a disquisition on the methods to be observed in the composition of epic, romance, drama, etc. (Discorsi intorno al compor romanzi, commedie e tragedie, ecc.), which shows him to be one of the leading literary critics of the time. He essayed the pastoral drama with the "Egle", and the epic with the "Ercole". His dramatic labours extended further, to the production of one comedy, the "Eudemoni", and nine tragedies, among which are the "Didone", the "Cleopatra", the "Selene", and his best play, the "Orbecche". Even more than for the "Orbecche", a rather gory piece, Giraldi is remembered for his collection of tales, the "Ecatommiti" (Hecatommithi). In this he feigns, therein imitating the framework of Boccaccio's "Decameron", that a company of men and women, fleeing from the sack of Rome in 1527, take ship at Civitavecchia for Marseilles, and beguile the tedium of the journey by reciting a hundred tales, divided into ten decades. As a matter of fact there are 112 tales in the work. The style of the "Hecatommithi" has little to recommend it, being rather cold and colourless; and although the author announces his purpose of telling stories that shall stigmatize vice, and exalt virtue and religion, he does not wholly avoid the licentious and unbecoming. It is worthy of note that the seventh tale of the third decade tells the story of the Moor of Venice, later used in Shakespeare's "Othello".
Tragedie (ed. Venice, 1581-3); Ecatommiti (ed. Florence, 1834); BILANCINI, G. B. Giraldi e la tragedia italiana nel sec. XVI (Aquila, 1889); VECOLI, L'intento morale degli Ecatommiti (Camajore, 1890).
J.D.M. FORD
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Giovanni Battista Audiffredi

* related authors: Giovanni Battista Audiffredi.
* sister projects: Wikipedia article, Wikidata item.
From volume 2 of the work.
Audifreddi, Giovanni Battista, b. at Saorgio, near Nice, in 1734; d. at Rome, July, 1794. He entered the Dominican Order, and soon attracted attention by his taste for books and his talent for the exact sciences. After being occupied in various houses as professor and bibliographer, he was at length transferred to the Dominican house of studies (S. Maria sopra Minerva), and was placed in charge (1765) of the great Bibliotheca Casanatensis, founded in 1700 by Cardinal Girolamo Casanata. Audiffredi published a bibliographical work in four folio, volumes entitled "Catalogus bibliotheca Casanatensis librorum typis impressorum, 1761-1788". The work remains unfinished, not proceeding beyond the letter L, and contains a list of his own publications. Similar works were the "Catalogus historico-criticus Romanarum editionum saeculi XV" (Rome, 1785, quarto), and the more extensively planned "Catalogus historico-criticus editionum Italicarum saeculi XV" (ibid., 1794,), which was to give an account of books printed in twenty-six Italian cities. Audiffredi did not live to complete the work. The first part, extending to the letter G, contains a short biography of the author introduced by the publisher. Audiffredi's position enabled him to become an expert antiquarian, and he found time to cultivate his mathematical talent and to devote himself to astronomy. He built a small observatory, and at intervals busied himself with observation. The eighteenth century was much occupied with the problem of solar parallax. In 1761 and 1769 transits of Venus were observed, and Audiffredi contributed to the work in his publication, "Phaenomena coelestia observata-investigatio parallaxis solis. Exercitatio Dadei Ruffi" (anagram for Audiffredi). The predicted reappearance in the middle of the century of Halley's comet intensified scientific interest in cometic orbits. The epoch was favored with a number of brilliant objects of this kind, and that of 1769 distinguished itself by its great nucleus and by the tail which stretched over more than half the sky. Audiffredi took observations of the positions of the comet and published his results under the title, "Dimostrazione della stazione della cometa, 1769" (1770). A general taste and capacity for the natural sciences distinguished this learned Dominican, but, like that of many savants, Audiffredi's life was one of retirement and obscurity.
H. DE LAAK
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of St-Amour

From volume 15 of the work.
A thirteenth century theologian and controversialist, born in Burgundy in the first decades of the thirteenth century; died in Paris about 1273. About the year 1250 he became professor of theology at the University of Paris, and, a few years later, became a leader of the so-called "seculars" at the university in their controversy with the mendicants. In 1256 he published his attack on the mendicants, entitled "De periculis novissimorum temporum", which was followed ten years later by the "Liber de Antichristo". In both of these he went outside the merits of the question in dispute and with merciless wit poured ridicule on the ways and manners of the friars, while he attacked the principle of mendicancy as unchristian and savouring rather of Antichrist than of Christ. The first of these treatises was condemned to be burned, and the author was banished from France in a decision rendered at Anagni by Alexander VI in 1256. In 1263 William returned to Paris and resumed his work as a teacher. For an account of the dispute at the University of Paris between the "seculars" and the mendicants, in which William of St-Amour took a most prominent part, see MENDICANT FRIARS.
In the course of time the work "De periculis", on account of the vehemence of its attack on the very foundation of the mendicant institutions, became a hindrance rather than a help to the advocates of the university's rights, while on the other side the Franciscans especially were embarrassed by the work entitled "Introductio in evangelium aeternum", commonly supposed to have been written by John of Parma, General of the Franciscans. It was only long after the death of William of St-Amour that the dispute was ended, although at Paris a compromise had been reached between the university and the Franciscans and, somewhat later, between the university and the Dominicans.
DENIFLE, Chartularium Univ. Paris., I (Paris, 1889); FERET, La faculte de theologie de Paris, II (Paris, 1895), 46 sqq.; RASHDALL, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, I (Oxford, 1895).
WILLIAM TURNER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Shoreham

From volume 15 of the work.
(Or de Schorham.)
An English religious writer of the Anglo-Norman period, born at Shoreham, near Sevenoaks, in Kent, in the latter half of the twelfth century; died at an unknown date. In 1313 he became Vicar of Chart Sutton, in Kent. As this rector was then a benefice of Leeds priory, it is probable that William was one of the Austin canons at that priory. He is the author of various religious poems, and probably the earliest English version of the complete Psalter. The poems and the Psalter, both on the same manuscript and in the same handwriting, are preserved in the British Museum (Additional manuscripts, No. 17376). The poems were edited for the Percy Society by Thomas Wright (London, 1849). The appearance of William's name in the colophon to some of the poems is sufficient evidence for the authorship, but the fact that the Psalter is not in the Kentish but in the Mercian dialect has led some authorities to contest his authorship of the version of the Psalter. (See VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE.)
WRIGHT, The religious poems of William de Shoreham (London, 1849), preface; KONRATH, Beiträge zur Erklärung u. Textkritik des W. von Schorham (Berlin, 1878); BUELBRING, The earliest complete English Psalter together with eleven canticles (London, 1891).
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Turbeville

From volume 15 of the work.
(TURBE, TURBO, or DE TURBEVILLE).
Bishop of Norwich (1146-74), b. about 1095; d. at Norwich in January, 1174; educated in the Benedictine cathedral priory of Norwich, then recently founded by Bishop Herbert de Losinga of Norwich. Here he also made religious profession, became teacher and later prior. He was present at the Easter synod of 1144, at which a secular clergyman, named Godwin Sturt, told the exceedingly improbable story that his nephew William, a boy of about twelve years, had been murdered by the Norwich Jews during the preceding Holy Week. Though many denounced the story of the ritual murder as an imposture, William used all his influence to give credence to it. When Bishop Eborard resigned the See of Norwich to join the Cistercians, the monk-canons elected their prior William as his successor in 1146, despite the strong opposition of John de Caineto, sheriff of Norwich County and a friend of the Jews. William was consecrated by Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury in the same year. As bishop he left nothing undone to spread the cult of the "boy-martyr" William. On four different occasions he had the boy's remains transferred to more honourable places, and in 1168 even erected a chapel in his honor in Mousehold Wood, where the boy's body was said to have been found. It was also at his instance that Thomas of Monmouth, a monk of Norwich priory, wrote "The Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich", the only extant authority for this legend, which is now commonly discredited.
William was present at the consecration of Bishop Hilary of Chichester in 1147, of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Bishop of St. Asaph, in 1152, and of Archbishop Roger Pont l'Eveque of York, at Westminster Abbey, 10 Oct., 1154, and at the coronation of Henry II, 19 Dec., 1154. On 7 July, 1157, he assisted at the Council of Northampton, and on 3 June, 1162, he was present at the consecration of Archbishop Thomas Becket of Centerbury, whom he firmly supported later in the conflict with Henry II. Though he was prevailed upon to subscribe to the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), he soon gave unmistakable evidence of his loyalty to the Holy See, and solemnly published the papal excommunication of Earl Hugh of Norfolk in the cathedral of Norwich in 1166. After the murder of Archbishop Becket, 29 Dec., 1166, history makes little mention of William. He was a friend of John of Salisbury, five of whose letters to William are printed in P.L., CXCIX — nn. 33, 93, 128, 173, 266.
THOMAS OF MONMOUTH, Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich, ed. JESSOPP AND JAMES (Cambridge, 1896); GOULBURN AND SYMONDS, Life and Letters of Herbert de Losinga, II (London, 1878).
MICHAEL OTT
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Vercelli

From volume 15 of the work.
(Or WILLIAM OF MONTE VERGINE.)
The founder of the Hermits of Monte Vergine, or Williamites, born 1085; died 25 June, 1142. He was the son of noble parents, both of whom died when he was still a child, and his education was entrusted to one of his kinsmen. At the age of fifteen he made up his mind to renounce the world and lead a life of penance. With this end in view, he went on a pilgrimage to St. James of Compostella, and, not content with the ordinary hardships of such a pilgrimage, he encircled his body with iron bands to increase his suffering. After this journey he started on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but it was revealed to him that he would be of greater service to God if he remained in Italy. He built himself a hut on Monte Vergine, wishing to become a hermit and live in solitude, but it was not long before many people flocked to him to put themselves under his guidance, being attracted by the sanctity of his life and the many miracles which he performed. Soon a monastery was built, and by 1119 the Congregation of Monte Vergine (q.v.) was founded. St. William lived at Monte Vergine until the brethren began to murmur against him, saying that the life was too austere, that he gave too much in alms, and so on. He therefore decided to leave Monte Vergine and thus take away from the monks the cause of their grievances. Roger I of Naples took him under his patronage, and the saint founded many monasteries, both of men and of women, in that kingdom. So edified was the king with the saint's sanctity of life and the wisdom of his counsels that, in order to have him always near him, he built a monastery opposite his palace at Salerno. Knowing by special revelation that his end was at hand, William retired to his monastery of Gugieto, where he died, and was buried in the church.
Acta SS., V June, 112; VI June, 259; RENDA, Vita. . .S. Gulielmi (Naples, 1591).
Paul Brookfield.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Ware

From volume 15 of the work.
(William de Warre, Guard, Guaro, Varro or Varron.)
Born at Ware in Herts; the date of his birth and his death are unknown. He flourished 1270-1300. According to Woodford he entered the Order of St. Francis in his youth and Little thinks he may have been the "Frater G de Ver" who was at the London convent about 1250. He was S.T.P. of Paris, where most of his life was spent. Pitts calls him S. T. P. of Oxford, but his name does not occur in the list of Franciscan Masters at Oxford. That he studied there is not improbable, but there is no authority for the statement. He is said by Dugdale to have been a pupil of Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), and several authorities concur with Bartholomew of Pisa (1399) in calling him the teacher of Duns Scotus. Wadding tells us that on the tomb of Scotus in the old Franciscan church at Cologne was inscribed: "Magister Gulielmus Varro Præceptor Scoti". Scotus mentions William twice in his works (Quæst. super libros metaph. Aristotelis, lib. V, q. 10). He was renowned for his deep knowledge of both Aristotelean and Christian philosophy, and because of the solidity of his teaching he came to be styled "Doctor Fundatus" by Wilmot and later writers. William's "Commentary on the Sentences" may be found in many fourteenth-century manuscripts, e.g. at Oxford in Merton College, MS. 103-104; it has never been printed. Other works of his enumerated by Wadding are: "Lecturæ theologicæ" (1 vol.); "Quodlibeticæ quæstiones" (1 vol.); "Quæstiones ordinariæ" (1 vol.), and "Comment. in Aristot." (several volumes). William's teaching on the Immaculate Conception as found in his "Commentary on the Third Book of Sentences" has recently been published apart: "Fr. Gulielmi Guarræ…Quæstiones disputatæ de Immac. Concept. B.M.V." (Quaracchi, 1904).
WADDING, Annales ad an 1304, no. XXIV, vol. VI, p. 46; IDEM, Scriptores ord. min., (3d ed., 1906), 108; SBARALEA, Supplementum, Pt. I (3d ed., 1908), pp. 350-351; RASHDALL, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, II, pt. II (Oxford, 1895), 350; LITTLE, The Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford, 1892), 213.
PASCHAL ROBINSON
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/William of Sens

From volume 15 of the work.
A twelfth-century French architect, supposed to have been born at Sens. He is referred to in September, 1174, as having been the architect who undertook the task of rebuilding the choir of Canterbury cathedral, originally erected by Conrad, the prior of the monastery, and destroyed by fire in that year. A document written by one of the monks of the monastery, describing the fire, tell us that William of Sens was asked to rebuild the choir. In 1179 or 1178 the architect, in consequence of a fall, had to abandon the work, and returned to France, being succeeded by another architect known as "William the Englishman", who completed the eastern portion of the church, and finished it in 1184. Viollet-le-Duc believed, from the close analogy between the twelfth-century part of Canterbury cathedral and that portion of Sens cathedral constructed about the same time, that the tradition associating the name of William of Sens with Canterbury cathedral was well founded, but he was not able to add very much to our knowledge beyond a statement that his death occurred within a few years after his return to France. Various histories of Canterbury cathedral refer to him, and all the available information respecting him was reproduced by Viollet-le-Duc in his work on French architecture and in a monograph on the cathedral at Sens.
GEORGES CHARLES WILLIAMSON
# Chicago Railway Company v. Nye-Schneider-Fowler Company

* related portals: Supreme Court of the United States.
* sister projects: Wikidata item.
United States Supreme Court
260 U.S. 35
Chicago Railway Company v. Nye-Schneider-Fowler Company
Argued: and Submitted April 18, 1922. --- Decided: Nov 13, 1922
Messrs. Wymer Dressler, of Omaha, Neb., Thos. P. Littlepage, of Washington, D. C., and F. W. Sargent, of Chicago, Ill., for plaintiff in error.
Mr. Garrard Glenn, of New York City, for defendant in error.
Mr. Chief Justice taft delivered the opinion of the Court.

## Notes

This work is in the public domain in the United States because it is a work of the United States federal government (see 17 U.S.C. 105).
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