OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adamites

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adamites, an obscure sect, dating perhaps from the second century, which professed to have regained Adam's primeval innocence. St. Epiphanius and St. Augustine mention the Adamites by name, and describe their practices. They called their church Paradise; they condemned marriage as foreign to Eden, and they stripped themselves naked while engaged in common worship. They could not have been numerous. Various accounts are given of their origin. Some have thought them to have been an offshoot of the Carpocratian Gnostics, who professed a sensual mysticism and a complete emancipation from the moral law. Theodoret (Hær. Fab., I, 6) held this view of them, and identified them with the licentious sects whose practices are described by Clement of Alexandria. Others, on the contrary, consider them to have been misguided ascetics, who strove to extirpate carnal desires by a return to simpler manners, and by the abolition of marriage. Practices similar to those just described appeared in Europe several times in later ages. In the thirteenth century they were revived in the Netherlands by the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, and, in a grosser form, in the fourteenth by the Beghards (q.v.) in Germany. Everywhere they met with firm opposition. The Beghards became the Picards of Bohemia, who took possession of an island in the river Nezarka, and gave themselves up to a shameful communism. Ziska, the Hussite leader, nearly exterminated the sect in 1421 (cf. Höfler, Geschichtsquellen Böhmens, I, 414, 431); A brief revival of these doctrines took place in Bohemia after 1781, owing to the edict of toleration issued by Joseph II; these communistic Neo-Adamites were suppressed by force in 1849.
Clem. of Alex., Strom., III, iv; Epiph., Hær., lii; Augustine, De Haer., XXXI; Bossuet, Variations of Prot. Churches; Rudinger, De Eccles. Frat. in Bohemia; Svatek, Adamiten und Deisten in Böhmen in culturhist. Bilder aus Böhmen (Vienna, 1879), I, 97; Hergenröther, in Kirchenlex. I., 216–218.
Francis P. Havey.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adar

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adar.—(1) A frontier town in the South of Chanaan (Num., xxxiv, 4; Jos., xv, 3). It has not been identified. (2) King of Edom, Gen., xxxvi, 39, called Adad (R. V., Hadad), I Par., i, 50. (3) The twelfth month of the Jewish year, corresponding approximately to the latter half of February and the first half of March. (4) A Chaldean god. The name is found in the compound word Adramelech (Adar is Wing) in IV K., xvii, 31.
W. S. Reilly.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adeste Fideles

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adeste Fideles.—A hymn used at Benediction at Christmastide in France and England since the clo.se of the eighteenth century. It was sung at the Portuguese Legation in London as early as 1797. The most popular musical setting was ascribed by Vincent Novello, organist there, to John Reading, who was organist at Winchester Cathedral from 1675–81, and later at Winchester College. The hymn itself has been attributed to St. Bonaventure, but is not found among his works. It is probably of French or German authorship. It invites all the faithful to come to Bethlehem to worship the newborn Saviour.
Julian, Dict. of Hymnology s.v.
Joseph Otten.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adelard of Bath

From volume 16 of the work.
Adelard of Bath, a twelfth-century Scholastic philosopher, b. about 1100. Adelard was probably an Englishman by birth; he seems to have studied at Tours and Laon and probably taught at Laon and at Paris. He was one of the first medieval scholars to seek knowledge by travelling in Greece and Asia Minor. It was these journeys that, apparently, brought him into contact with the learning of the Arabians, which he utilized especially in the discussion of physical and physiological problems. He wrote a translation of Euclid's geometry from the Arabic, and composed two original treatises entitled "De eodem et diverso" and "Quaestiones naturales". The former was edited in 1903 and printed in Baumker's "Beitrage"; the latter exists in an edition dated 1477. Adelard was a pronounced Platonist in psychology and metaphysics, while he opposed the Platonic doctrine of realism in his theory of universals. His position in regard to the latter question was that of Walter of Montagne, and the other Indifferentists. His most noteworthy contribution to psychology is his attempt to localize mental functions, in which he shows the influence of Galen and the Arabians.
BAUMKER, Beitrage zur Gesch. der Phil. des Mittelalters, IV (Munster, 1903), 1; DE WULF, Hist. of Medieval Phil., tr. COFFEY (New York, 1909), 186; TURNER, History of Philosophy (Boston, 1903), 283 sqq.
William Turner
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adelophagi

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adelophagi (ἀδήλως = secretly, and φάγω = I eat), a sect mentioned by the anonymous author known as Prædestinatus (P.L., LIII, 612). They pretended that a Christian ought to conceal himself from other men to take his nourishment, imagining that thus he imitated the Prophets, and basing their view on certain passages of Scripture. The author of Prædestinatus said this was their only error, but Philastrius intimates that they also rejected the divinity of the Holy Ghost. They seem to have flourished in the latter part of the fourth century.
Hort in Dict. Christ. Biog., I, 43.
John J. a'Becket.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adele Amalie Gallitzin

From volume 6 of the work.
(Or GOLYZIN).
Princess; b. at Berlin, 28 Aug., 1748; d. at Angelmodde, near Münster, Westphalia, 17 April, 1806. She was the daughter of the Prussian General Count von Schmettau, and educated in the Catholic faith, though she soon became estranged from her religion. In 1768, she married the Russian Prince Dimitry Alexejewitsch Gallitzin, who was under Catherine II ambassador at Paris, Turin and The Hague. In each of these capitals, the princess, thanks to her beauty and her eminent qualities of mind and heart, played a brilliant role. At the age of twenty-four she forsook society suddenly and devoted herself to the education of her children. She applied herself assiduously to the study of mathematics, classical philology, and philosophy under the noted philosopher Franz Hemsterhuis, who kindled her enthusiasm for Socratic-Platonic idealism, and later under the name of "Diokles" dedicated to her the "Diotima", his famous "Lettres sur l'atheisme". The educational reform introduced by Franz v. Furstenberg, Vicar-General of Münster, induced her to take up her residence in the Westphalian capital. Here she soon became the centre of a set of intellectual men led by Furstenberg. This circle also included the gymnasial teachers, (whom she incited to the deeper study of Plato), Overberg, the reformer of popular school education, Clemens Augustus von Droste-Vischering, Count Leopold von Stolberg, the profound philosopher Hamann, who was interred in her garden. The poet Claudius of the "Wandsbecker Bote" was also a familiar visitor, and Goethe numbered the hours passed by him in this circle among his most pleasant recollections. The reading of Sacred Scripture, necessitated by the religious education of her children, and her constant intercourse with noble Catholic souls, led to her return to positive religious convictions. On 28 Aug., 1786, at the instance of Overberg, she approached the tribunal of penance for the first time in many years. Soon after she made this zealous priest her chaplain. Under his influence, she underwent a complete change which affected all her surroundings. Her religious life took on a larger growth, and produced the most admirable fruit. She became the centre of Catholic activity in Münster. In those revolutionary and godless times, she provided for the spread of religious writings, proved a support for the religious faith of many of her friends, and induced others, among them Count Stolberg, to make their peace with the Church. Her gentle charity assuaged the distress of many, and she readily and generously assisted poor and destitute priests. For extensive circles hers was a model of religious life, and her social activity was for many a providential blessing. Portions of her correspondence and diaries were published by Scheuter (Münster, 1874-76) in three parts. This admirable lady was the mother of the well-known American missionary Prince Demetrius Gallitzin.
PATRICIUS SCHLAGER
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adelmann

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adelmann, Bishop of Brescia in the eleventh century. Of unknown parentage and nationality, he was educated at the famous school of Chartres, in France, founded by Fulbert, and was considered one of his favourite scholars. Among his fellow students was Berengarius, to whom, at a later period, he addressed two letters. The second (incomplete) letter (P.L., CXLIII, 1289) is a valuable dogmatic exposition of the teaching of the Church on the Blessed Sacrament (Epist. de Eucharistiæ Sacramento); the Benedictine editors of the "Histoire littéraire de la France" call it "one of the finest literary documents of the period." It breathes a tender affection for Berengarius, the friend of the writer's youth. Calvin called him "barbarus, imperitus, et sophista." Adelmann seems to have become Bishop of Brescia in 1050, and to have taken an active share in the church-reform movement of the period, especially against the clerical abuses of simony and concubinage.
Brischar in Kirchenlex., I, 222; Ughelli, Italia Sacra, IV, 540; Hist. Litt. de la France, VIII, 542. The edition of Schmid (Brunswick, 1770) is fuller than the one reprinted in Migne from the Bibl. Lugd., XVIII, 438.
Francis W. Grey.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Adeodatus

From volume 1 of the work.
​Adeodatus, son of St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, b. 372; d. 388. St. Augustine was not converted to the Faith until he was thirty-two years of age. At seventeen he contracted an illicit relation with a young woman and Adeodatus was born of this union. Augustine, in his delight, named him "Adeodatus", i.e. the "gift of God". When Augustine went to Rome, and, later, to Milan, this young woman and the child went with him, and she and Augustine continued their guilty relations. The young Adeodatus was the pride and hope of his parents, and possessed of an extraordinary mental endowment. Bound by this natural enthralment, Augustine would not bring himself to break from it; and as the sinful union was an obstacle to his receiving the gift of faith, St. Monica, his mother, desired him to marry the mother of his child, feeling that then his mind would be enlightened by grace. Just as the name of the mother of Adeodatus has never been told, so also there has never been given the reason why she and Augustine did not marry at this juncture, though there was evidently some strong if not insurmountable one. Finally they separated. "She was stronger than I", wrote St. Augustine, "and made her sacrifice with a courage and a generosity which I was not strong enough to imitate." She returned to ​Carthage, whence she had come, and the grace which had led her to sacrifice the object of her affection further impelled her to bury herself in a monastery, where she might atone for the sin which had been the price so long paid for it. She left the brilliant young boy, Adeodatus, with his father. Seeing the wonderful intelligence of his son, Augustine felt a sort of awe. "The grandeur of his mind filled me with a kind of terror", he says himself (De beatâ vitâ, c. vi). Augustine received baptism at the age of thirty-two from the hands of St. Ambrose, the intimate friend of St. Monica and himself. To augment his joy, Adeodatus, Alypius, Augustine's life-long associate, and a number of his closest friends, all became Christians on the same occasion and received baptism together. Monica, Augustine, Adeodatus, who was now fifteen, and a son of Grace, if indeed "the child of my sin", as Augustine had styled him in the bitterness of self-reproach and contrition, together with the loyal Alypius, dwelt together in a villa at Cassiciacum, near Milan. The many conversations and investigations into holy questions and truths made it a Christian Academy, of more exalted philosophy than Plato's. Adeodatus had his full share in many of these learned discussions. He appears as interlocutor in his father's treatise "De beatâ vitâ" (puer ille minimus omnium, that boy, the youngest of them all), and contributed largely to the treatise "De Magistro", written two years later. He appears to have died soon after, in his sixteenth year. (See St. Augustine).
Moberly in Dict. of Christ. Biog., I, 43; Poujoulat, Hist. de St. Augustin, sa vie ses œuvres, etc., 7th ed., 1886; Wolfsgrüber, Augustinus (Paderborn, 1888); Desjardins, Essai sur les confessions de St. Augustin (Paris, 1855).
John J. a'Becket.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Addas

From volume 1 of the work.
​Addas, one of the three original disciples of Manes (q.v.), who according to the Acts of Archelaus introduced the heretical teachings of Manes into Scythia and later went on a similar mission to the East, being also commissioned to collect Christian books. He is called Baddas by Cyril of Jerusalem. Photius refers to a work of his (Biblioth. Cod. 85) entitled "Modion" (Mark, iv, 21) which was refuted by Diodorus of Tarsus. A work against Moses and the Prophets by Addas and Adimantus is also mentioned.
Cowell in Dict. of Christ. Biogr., I, 43.
Thomas Walsh.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abdenago

From volume 1 of the work.
​Abdenago. See Daniel.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abecedarians

From volume 1 of the work.
​Abecedarians, a sect of Anabaptists who affected an absolute disdain for all human knowledge, contending that God would enlighten His elect interiorly and give them knowledge of necessary truths by visions and ecstasies. They rejected every other means of instruction, and pretended that to be saved one must even be ignorant of the first letters of the alphabet; whence their name, A-B-C-darians. They also considered the study of theology as a species of idolatry, and regarded learned men who did any preaching as falsifiers of God's word.
At Wittenberg, in 1522, Nicholas Storch (Pelargus) and the Illumimati of Zwickau began to preach this doctrine, mixing it up with other errors. Carlstadt allowed himself to be drawn away by these singular views, and to put them thoroughly into practice he abandoned his title of Doctor and became a street porter. He preached the new doctrine for some time to the people and to the students of Wittenberg. (See Anabaptists.)
Leclercq, in Dict. de théol. cath., I, 28.
John J. a'Becket.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abecedaria

From volume 1 of the work.
​Abecedaria, complete or partial lists of letters of the alphabet, chiefly Greek and Latin, inscribed on ancient monuments, Pagan and Christian. At, or near, the beginning of the Christian era, the Latin alphabet had already undergone its principal changes, and had become a fixed and definite system. The Greek alphabet, moreover, with certain slight modifications, was becoming closely assimilated to the Latin. Towards the eighth century of Rome, the letters assumed their artistic forms and lost their older, narrower ones. Nor have the three letters added by the Emperor Claudius ever been found in use in Christian inscriptions. The letters themselves, it may be said, fell into disuse at the death of the Emperor in question. The alphabet, however, employed for monumental inscriptions differed so completely from the cursive as to make it wholly impossible to mistake the one for the other. The uncial, occurring very rarely on sculptured monuments, and reserved for writing, did not make its appearance before the fourth century. The number of Christian objects bearing the Abecedaria, with the exception of two vases found at Carthage, is extremely limited. On the other hand, those of heathen origin are more plentiful, and include certain tablets used by stone-cutters apprentices while learning their trade. Stones have also been found in the catacombs, bearing the symbols A, B, C, etc. These are arranged, sometimes, in combinations which have puzzled the sagacity of scholars. One such, found in the cemetery of St. Alexander, in the Via Nomentana, is inscribed as follows:
| AXBVCTESDR | . . . . | BCCEECHI |
| EQGPH . . . . M | | MNOPQ |
| | | RSTXYZ |
This represents, in all probability, a schoolboy's task, which may be compared with a denarius of L. Cassius Caecinianus, whereon the inscription runs thus:
AX, BV, CT, DS, ER, FQ, GP, HO, IN, KM
It is to St. Jerome that we owe an explanation of this curious trifle. He tells us that, in order to train the memory of young children, they were made to learn the alphabet in a double form, joining A to X, and so on with the other letters. A stone found at Rome in 1877, and dating from the sixth or seventh century, seems to have been used in a school, as a model for learning the alphabet, and, points, incidentally, to the long continuance of old methods of teaching. (See Christian Use of the Alphabet.)
H. Leclercq.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abel (2)

From volume 1 of the work.
Also see Abel-cheramim; Abel-meholah; Abel-mizraim; Abila
​Abel (meadow), name of several places distinguished by additional words: (1) Abel-Beth-Maacha (meadow of the house, or family, of Maacha). In Vulgate also "Abeldomus and Maacha," "Abeldomus Maacha", "Abela and Maacha"; identical with Abel-Maim (meadow of water), II Par., xvi, 4. It was a city in Upper Galilee, a little west of Dan.—II K., xx. 14–19; III K., xv, 20; IV K., xv, 29; II Par., xvi, 4. (2) Abel-Keramim (meadow of vineyards), a village of the Ammonites, about six miles from Philadelphia. Jud., xi, 33. (3) Abelmehula, Abelmeula (Abelmechola, "a meadow of the dance"), in the Jordan valley near Bethsan.—Jud., vii, 23; III K., iv, 12; xix, 16. (4) Abel-Mizraim (Vulg. "the mourning of Egypt"), according to St. Jerome identical with the "threshing floor of Atad." Gen., l, 10 sq. (5) Abelsatim, Settim, Setim, Hebr. 'ābhēl háshshittîm (meadow of acacias) is a place in the plains of Moab. Num., xxv, 1; xxxiii, 49; xxxiv–xxxvi; Jos., ii, 1; iii, 1; Mich, vi, 5. (6) The great Abel in I K., vi, 18, is a misreading for the great 'ebhen (stone).
Vigouroux, in Dict. de la Bible (Paris, 1895); Hagen, Ler. Bibl. (Paris. 1905); Holzammer, in Kirchenlex, (Freiburg, 1882); Conder, in Dict. of the Bible (New York, 1903).
A. J. Maas.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abdera

From volume 1 of the work.
​Abdera, a titular see in the province of Rhodope on the southern coast of Thrace, now called Bouloustra. It was founded about 656 b.c.
# Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Abdias of Babylon

From volume 1 of the work.
​Abdias of Babylon, an apocryphal writer, said to have been one of the seventy-two Disciples of Christ, and first Bishop of Babylon, consecrated by Sts. Simon and Jude. Very little is known about him. and the main reason for mentioning him is a work in ten books called "Historia Certaminis Apostolici" which is imputed to him. It tells of the labours and deaths of the Apostles. This compilation purports ​to have been translated from Hebrew into Greek by Eutropius, a disciple of Abdias, and, in the third century, from Greek into Latin by (Julius) Africanus, the friend of Origen. But it is really a Latin work, for in it are cited, with the Vulgate of St. Jerome, the "Ecclesiastical History" of Rufinus and his Latin translation of the "Recognitiones" of Clement. The interest of the work is due to what the author claims to have drawn from the ancient "Acta" of the Apostles, and to many ancient legends which have thus been brought down to us. The text of the pseudo-Abdias may be found in Fabricius, "Codex Apocryphus Novi Testimenti" (Hamburg, 1700), 402–742, though there are parallel texts of single books printed in the "Acta Sanctorum." According to R.A. Lipsius, the work was compiled during the latter half of the sixth century, in some Frankish monastery, for the purpose of satisfying the natural curiosity of Western Christians. At the same time he used much older pseudo-Apostolic materials that he abridged or excerpted to suit his purpose, and often revised or expurgated in the sense of Catholic teaching, for not a few of the writings that he used were originally Gnostic compositions, and abounded in speeches and prayers destined to spread that heresy.
Batiffol, in Dict. de la Bible, 24; Lipsius, Die Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten (Brunswick, 1883), 1, 177–178; Batiffol, in Dict. de théol. cath., I, 23; Lipsius, in Dict. of Christ. Biogr., I, 1–4.
John J. a'Becket.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rēla

​Rēla (fig. Ficus, sp.). — A gōtra of Mēdara.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rāvulo

​Rāvulo. — It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "there are three castes of temple servants among the Oriyas, the Rāvulos, the Mālis and the Mūnis. The Rāvulos blow conches (shells of Turbinella rapa) in the Saivite temples and at Brāhmans' weddings, sell flowers, and regard themselves as ​superior to the other two. The Māils do service in Saivite or Vaishnavite temples and sell flowers, but the Mūnis are employed only in the temples of the village goddesses. Among the Rāvulos, infant marriage is compulsory, but widow marriage is allowed, and also divorce in certain cases. A curious account is given of the punishment sometimes inflicted by the caste panchāyat (council) on a man who ill-treats and deserts his wife. He is made to sit under one of the bamboo coops with which fish are caught, and his wife sits on the top of it. Five pots of water are then poured over the pair of them in imitation of the caste custom of pouring five pots of water over a dead body before it is taken to the burning-ground, the ceremony taking place in the part of the house where a corpse would be washed. The wife then throws away a ladle, and breaks a cooking-pot just as she would have done had her husband really been dead, and further breaks her bangles and tears off her necklace, just as would have been done if she was really a widow. Having thus signified that her husband is dead to her, she goes straight off to her parents' house, and is free to marry again. Some Rāvulos wear the sacred thread. They employ Brāhmans as priests for religious and ceremonial purposes. They eat fish and meat, though not beef or fowls, but do not drink alcohol. Nowadays many of them are earth-workers, cart-drivers, bricklayers, carpenters and day labourers." It is further noted, in the Census Report, that Māli is "an Oriya caste of vegetable growers and sellers, and cultivators. Also a caste belonging to Bengal and Orissa, the people of which are garland makers and temple servants. The statistics confuse the two." In an account of the Rāvulos, as given to me, Ravulos, Mūnis, and Mālis are not three castes, but one caste. ​The Mūnis are said to worship, among others, Mūnis or Rishis, Sakti, Siva, and Ganēsa. A Mūni, named Sārala Doss, was the author of the most popular Oriya version of the Mahābhārata, and he is known as Sūdra Mūni, the Sūdra saint.
Rāvulo occurs further as a title of Kurumos who officiate as priests in Siva temples in Ganjam, and Mūni as a title of the Sipiti temple servants.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rāvutan

​Rāvutan.——Rāvutan, or Rowthan, is a title used by Labbai, Marakkāyar, and Jōnagan Muhammadans. The equivalent Rāvut or Raut has been recorded as a sub-caste of Balija, and a title of Kannadiyan.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rāya Rāuturu

​Rāya Rāuturu.—The name of certain chunam [lime] burners in Mysore.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rāti

​Rāti (stone). — A sub-division of Oddē.
# Castes and Tribes of Southern India/Rāvi Chettu

​Rāvi Chettu (pīpal tree: Ficus religiosa). — An exogamous sept of Kālingi. The pīpal or aswatha tree may be seen, in many South Indian villages, with a raised platform round it, before which Hindus remove their shoes, and bow down. On the platform, village council meetings are often held. It is believed that male offspring will be given to childless couples, if they celebrate a marriage of the pīpal with the nīm tree (Melia Azadirachta).