OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Talaing

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​TALAING, more accurately called Môn, the name given to the remnant of the Peguan race, which for long strove with the Burmans for the ascendancy in what is now Burma. In the middle of the 18th century the Peguans were masters of the country from the Gulf of Martaban to far to the north of Mandalay. Now, however, the Talaing population is practically cpnfined to the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Lower Burma, and even there it seems to be dying out. According to the census of rpor they numbered only 321,898 persons, of whom 154,480 spoke the Talaing language. The Talaings are, historically, the most important representatives in Burma of the Môn-Annam linguistic family, who have left tokens of their presence from the Khasia Hills in Assam to the Gulf of Siam. The origin of the name Talaing is disputed, but it is most commonly believed to be a term of reproach, meaning “downtrodden,” given by the conquering Burmans. The people call themselves Mons. They are lighter in complexion and more sturdily built than the Burmans and the face is rounder.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tairen

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​TAIREN, or Dairen (Russian Dalny), a free port created by the Russian government and opened to foreign trade in 1901, situated on the Central Manchurian railway, and thus one of the Pacific termini of the Trans-Siberian railway. It stands at the head of Talien-wan Bay, on the east side of Liao-tung peninsula, in Manchuria, about 20 m. N.E. of Port Arthur. The harbour is roomy, easy of entrance, and free from ice all the year round. The town is situated along the front of the harbour and occupies the slope leading up to the hills at the rear. It is designed to accommodate 30,000 inhabitants and is separated from the Chinese quarter by a large natural park. The climate is temperate and healthy. Tairen is provided with wharves to accommodate the largest ocean steamers, the wharves having a vertical face with 28 ft. depth at low water. The area of the port is 132 acres, and the inner harbour is protected by a stone and concrete breakwater 5950 ft. long. At an early period in the Russo-Japanese war (28th of May 1904), Dalny was occupied by the Japanese after slight resistance.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Takhtsingji

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​TAKHTSINGJI (1858–1896), Maharaja of Bhaunagar, a Rajput chief of the Gohel clan, and the ruler of a state in Kathiawar, was born on the 6th of January 1858, and succeeded to the throne of Bhaunagar on the death of his father, Jaswantsingji, in 1870. During his minority, which ended in 1878, he was educated at the Rajkot college and afterwards under an English officer, while the administration of the state was conducted jointly by Mr. E. H. Percival, a member of the Indian Civil Service, and Azam Gowrishankar Yodeyshankar, C.S.I., one of the foremost native statesmen of India, who had served the state in various capacities since 1822. At the age of twenty Takhtsingji found himself the ruler of a territory nearly 3000 square miles in extent. His first public act was to sanction a railway connecting his territory with one of the main trunk lines, which was the first enterprise of its kind on the part of a raja. in western, if not in all, India. The commerce and trade, and the economic and even social development of the state, which came in the wake of this railway, confirmed Takhtsingji in a policy of progressive administration, under which educational establishments, hospitals and dispensaries, trunk roads, bridges, handsome edifices and other public works grew apace. In 1886 he inaugurated a system of constitutional rule, by placing several departments in the hands of four members of a council of state under his own presidency. This innovation, which had the warm support of the governor of Bombay, Lord Reay, provoked a virulent attack upon the chief, who brought his defamers to trial in the High Court of Bombay. The punishment of the ringleaders broke up a system of blackmailing to which rajas used to be regularly exposed, and the public spirit of Takhtsingji in freeing his brother chiefs from this evil was widely acknowledged throughout India, as well as by the British authorities. In 1886 he was created G.C.S.I.; and five years later his hereditary title of thakore was raised to that of maharaja. In 1893 he took the occasion of the opening of the Imperial Institute by Queen Victoria to visit England in order to pay personal homage to the sovereign of the British Empire, on which occasion the University of Cambridge conferred on him the degree of LL.D. He died in 1896. (M.M.Bh.)
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Takin

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​TAKIN, the Mishmi name of a remarkable hollow-horned ruminant (Budorcas taxicoor), the typical representative of which inhabits the Mishmi Hills, in the south-east corner of Tibet, immediately north of the Assam Valley, while a second form is found further east, in the Moupin district. The takin, which may be compared in size to a Kerry cow, is a clumsily built brute with yellowish-brown hair and curiously curved horns, which recall those of the South African white-tailed gnu. Its nearest relatives appear to be the serows of the outer Himalaya and the Malay countries, which are are in many respects intermediate between goats and antelopes, but it is not improbably also related to the musk-ox (q.v.). As it lacks the thick woolly coat of the two Tibetan antelopes known as the chiru and the goa, there can be little doubt that it inhabits a country with a less severe climate than that of the Central Tibetan plateau, and it is probably a native of the more or less wooded districts of comparatively low elevation forming the outskirts of Tibet. It is remarkable for the shortness of th cannon-bones of the legs, in which it resembles the Rocky Mountain goat.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tait, Arthur Fitzwilliam

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​TAIT, ARTHUR FITZWILLIAM (1819–1905), American artist, was born pear Liverpool, England, on the 5th of August 1819. He emigrated to the United States in 1850, and was identified with the art life of New York until his death. In 1858 he was elected to full membership in the National Academy of Design, New York. He died at Yonkers, New York, on the 28th of April 1905. He painted barnyard fowls and wild birds as well as sheep and deer, with great dexterity, and reproductions of his minute panels of chickens had an enormous vogue.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tallemant, Gédéon, Sieur des Réaux

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​TALLEMANT, GEDEON, SIEUR DES REAUX (1619–1692), French author, was born at La Rochelle on the 7th of November 1619. He belonged to a wealthy middle-class family of Huguenot persuasion; the name des Reaux he derived from a small property purchased by him in 1650. When he was about eighteen years of age he was sent to Italy with his brother Francois, abbe Tallemant. On his return to Paris, Tallemant took his degrees in civil and canonical law, and his father secured for him the position of conseiller au parlement. The profession was distasteful to him, and he decided to ensure himself a competence hy marriage with his cousin Elisabeth de Rambouillet. His half-brother had married a d'Angennes, and this connexion secured for Tallemant an introduction to the Hôtel de Rambouillet. Madame de Rambouillet was no admirer of Louis XIII., and she gratified Tallemant’s curiosity with stories of the reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. of real historical value. But the society of the Hotel de Rambouillet itself opened a field for his acute and somewhat malicious observation. In the Historiettes he gives finished portraits of Voiture, Balzac, Malherbe, Chapelain, Valentin Conrart and many others; Blaise Pascal and Jean de la Fontaine appear in his pages; and he chronicles the scandals of which Ninon de l’Enclos and Angelique Paulet were centres. They are invaluable for the literary history of the time. It has been said that the malicious intention of his work may be partly attributed to his bourgeois extraction and that the consequent slights he received are avenged in his pages, but independent testimony has established the substantial correctness of his statements. In 1685 he was converted to Catholicism. It seems that the change was not entirely disinterested, for Tallemant, who had suffered con- siderable pecuniary losses, soon- after received a pension of 2000 livres. He died in Paris on the 6th of November 1692.
Des Réaux was a poet of some merit and contributed to the Guirlande de Julie, but it is by his Historiettes that he is remembered. The work remained in manuscript until it was edited in 1834–6 by MM. de Châteaugiron, Jules Taschereau and L. J. N. de Monmerqué, with a notice on Tallemant by Monmerqué. A third edition (6 vols. 1872) contains a notice by Paulin Paris. Tallemant had begun Mémoires pour la régence d’Anne d’Autriche, but the manuscript has not been found.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tallow

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​TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg; the connexion with O.E. laelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful), the solid oil or fat of ruminant animals, but commercially obtained almost exclusively from oxen and sheep. The various methods by which tallow and other animal fats are separated and purified are dealt with in the article Oils. Ox tallow occurs at ordinary temperatures as a solid hard fat having a yellowish white colour. The fat is insoluble in cold alcohol, but it dissolves in boiling alcohol, in chloroform, ether and the essential oils. The hardness of tallow and its melting-point are to some extent affected by the food, age, state of health, &c, of the animal yielding it, the firmest ox tallow being obtained in certain provinces of Russia, where for a great part of the year the oxen are fed on hay. New tallow melts at from 42-5° to 43 C, old tallow at 43-5°, and the melted fat remains liquid till its temperature falls to 33 or 34° C. Tallow consists of a mixture of two-thirds of the solid fats palmitin and stearin, with one-third of the liquid fat olein.
Mutton tallow differs in several respects from that obtained from oxen. It is whiter in colour and harder, and contains only about 30 per cent, of olein. Newly rendered it has little taste or smell, but on exposure it quickly becomes rancid. Sweet mutton tallow melts at 46 and solidifies at 36 C; when old it does not melt under 49°, and becomes solid on reaching 44 or 45° C. It is sparingly soluble in cold ether and in boiling alcohol.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Tallow Tree

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​TALLOW TREE, in botany, the popular name of a small tree, Stillingia sebifera, belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, a native of China, but cultivated in India and other warm countries. The seeds are thickly coated with a white greasy ​substance—so-called vegetable tallow—from which candles are made, and which is also used in soap-making and dressing cloth. The butter tree or tallow tree of Sierra Leone is Pentadesma butyracea, a member of the family Guttiferae. The fruit, which is 4 to 5 in. long and about 3 in. in diameter, has a thick fleshy rind abounding in a yellow greasy juice.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Talmage, Thomas de Witt

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​TALMAGE, THOMAS DE WITT (1832-1902), American Presbyterian preacher, born at Bound Brook, New Jersey, on the 7th of January 1832. He was educated at the University of the City of New York (now New York University) and at the Reformed Dutch Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, N.J., from which he was graduated in 1856. Immediately afterwards he became pastor of a Reformed church at Belleville, N.J. In 1859 he removed to Syracuse, N.Y.; in 1862 to Philadelphia, where he was pastor of the Second Reformed Dutch Church; and in 1869 to the Central Presbyterian Church in Brooklyn, where a large building known as the Tabernacle was erected for him in 1870. In 1872 this building was burned down. A larger one, holding 5000 persons, was built for him in 1873, but even this could not contain the crowds attracted by his eloquence and sensationalism. In 1889 this church also was burned to the ground, only to be succeeded by another and larger one, which in its turn was burned in 1894. Shortly afterwards he removed to Washington, where from 1895 to 1899 he was the associate pastor, with Dr Byron Sunderland (d. 1901), of the First Presbyterian Church. During the last years of his life Dr Talmage ceased to preach, and devoted himself to editing, writing and lecturing. At different periods he was editor of the Christian at Work (1873-76), New York; the Advance (1877-79), Chicago; Frank Leslie's Sunday Magazine (1870-89), New York; and the Christian Herald (1890-1902), New York. For years his sermons were published regularly in more than 3000 journals, reaching, it is said, 25,000,000 readers. His books also have had large circulations; among them are The Almond Tree in Blossom (1870); Every Day Religion (1875); The Brooklyn Tabernacle (1884); From Manger to Throne (1895); and The Pathway of Life (1895). His eloquence, while sensational, was real and striking, and his fluency and the picturesqueness of his language and imagery were remarkable. He died at Washington on the 12th of April 1902.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumpter

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​SUMPTER, a pack-horse or mule, a beast for carrying burdens, particularly for military purposes. There were two words once in use, which in sense, if not in form, have coalesced. These are “sommer” or “summer” and “sumpter.” The first comes through the Old French sommier, a pack-horse, the other through sommetier, a pack-horse driver. Both come ultimately from Late Lat. salma, from sagma, a pack, burden, Old French somme, saume; Greek σάγμα, burden, σάττειν, to load. “Sumpter” in the sense of a driver of a pack-horse is rare, and the word is always joined with another explanatory word.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumner, John Bird

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​SUMNER, JOHN BIRD (1780–1862), English Archbishop, elder brother of Bishop Charles Sumner, was born at Kenilworth, Warwickshire, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. In 1802 he became a master at Eton, and in the following year he took orders. He was elected a fellow of Eton in 1817, and in 1818 the college presented him to the living of Maple Durham, Oxfordshire. After holding a prebendaryship of Durham for some years, he was consecrated bishop of Chester in 1828. During his episcopate many churches and schools were built in the diocese. His numerous writings were much esteemed, especially by the evangelical party, to which he belonged; the best known are his Treatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral Attributes of the Creator (London, 1816) and The Evidence of Christianity derived from its Nature and Reception (London, 1821). In 1848 he was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, in which capacity he dealt impartially with the different church parties. In the well-known “Gorham case” he came into conflict with Bishop Henry Phillpotts of Exeter (1778–1869), who accused him of supporting heresy and refused to communicate with him. He supported the Divorce Bill in parliament, but opposed the Deceased Wife’s Sister Bill and the bill for removing Jewish disabilities.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumner, William Graham

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​SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840–1910), American economist, was born, of English parentage, in Paterson, New Jersey, on the 30th of October 1840. He was brought up in Hartford, Connecticut, graduated at Yale College in 1863, studied French and Hebrew in Geneva in 1863–1864 and divinity and history at Göttingen in 1864–1866, and in 1866–1869 was a tutor at Yale. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1869, was assistant rector of Calvary Church, New York City, and in 1870–1872 was rector of the Church of the Redeemer, Morristown, New Jersey. From 1872 to 1909, when he became professor emeritus, he was professor of political and social science at Yale. In 1909 he was president of the American Sociological Society. He died at Englewood, New Jersey, on the 12th of April 1910.
He was notable especially as an opponent of protectionism, and was a great teacher. He wrote: History of American Currency (1874); Lectures on the History of Protection in the United States (1875) Life of Andrew Jackson (1882), in the “American Statesmen Series”; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883); Collected Essays in Political and Social Sciences (1885); Protectionism (1885); Alexander Hamilton (1891), and Robert Morris (1891), in the “Makers of America Series”; The Financier and Finances of the American Revolution (2 vols., 1891); A History of Banking in the United States (1896); and Folkways: a Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores and Morals (1907), a valuable sociological summary.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumter

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​SUMTER, a city and the county-seat of Sumter county, South Carolina, U.S.A., 42 m. by rail E. by S. of Columbia. Pop. (1900) 5673 (3160 negroes); (1910) 8109. Sumter is served by several divisions of the Atlantic Coast line and by the Southern railways. It is the seat of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls. The region produces tobacco, vegetables and cotton, and there are various manufactories in the city. Sumter was founded in 1800 and was named in honour of General Thomas Sumter; it was first chartered as a city in 1887.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumter, Thomas

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​SUMTER, THOMAS (1736–1832), American soldier, was born in Hanover county, Virginia, on the 14th of July 1736. He served in the Virginia militia during the French and Indian War and was present at Braddock's defeat (1755). Some time after 1762 he removed to South Carolina. He is best known for his service during the War of Independence, but he saw little active service until after the fall of Charleston in May 1780. In July 1780 he became a brigadier-general of state troops. During the remainder of the war he carried on a partisan campaign, and earned the sobriquet of the " Gamecock." He failed in an attack upon Rocky Mount (Chester county) on the 1st of August 1780, but on the 6th defeated 500 Loyalists and regulars at Hanging Rock (Lancaster county), and on the 15th intercepted and defeated a convoy with stores between Charleston and Camden. His own regiment, however, was almost annihilated by Lieut.-Colonel Banastre Tarleton (1754–1833) at Fishing Creek (Chester county) on the 18th. A new force was soon recruited, with which he defeated Major James Wemys at Fishdam (Union county) on the night of the 8th–9th of November, and repulsed Tarleton's attack at Blackstock (Union county) on the 20th, when he was wounded. In January 1781 Congress formally thanked him for his services. He was a member of the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution for South Carolina in 1788, he himself opposing that instrument; of the national House of Representatives in 1780–1793 and again in 1797–1801, and of the United States Senate from 1801 to 1810. At the time of his death at South Mount, South Carolina, on the 1st of June 1832, he was the last surviving general officer of the War of Independence.
See Edward McCrady, The History of South Carolina in the Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1901–1902).
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Summum Bonum

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​SUMMUM BONUM (Lat. for “highest good”), in ethics, the ideal of human attainment. The significance of the term depends upon the character of the ethical system in which it occurs. It may be viewed as a perfect moral state: as pleasure or happiness (see Hedonism; Eudaemonism); as physical perfection; as wealth, and so forth. If, however, we abandon intuitional ethics, it is reasonable to argue that the term summum bonum ceases to have any real significance inasmuch as actions are not intrinsically good or bad, while the complete sceptic strives after no systematic ideal.
# 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Sumner, Charles Richard

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​SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874), English bishop, was born at Kenilworth on the 22nd of November 1790, and was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated B.A. in 1814, M.A. in 1817, and was ordained deacon ​and priest. In the two winters of 1814–1816 he ministered to the English congregation at Geneva, and from 1816 to 1821 was curate of Highclere, Hampshire. In 1820 George IV. wished to appoint him canon of Windsor, but the prime minister, Lord Liverpool, objected; Sumner received instead a royal chaplaincy and librarianship, and other preferments quickly followed, till in 1826 he was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and in 1827 bishop of Winchester. In his long administration of his latter diocese he was most energetic, tactful and munificent. Though evangelical in his views he by no means confined his patronage to that school. In 1869 he resigned his see, but continued to live at the official residence at Farnham until his death on the 15th of August 1874. He published a number of charges and sermons, and The Ministerial Character of Christ Practically Considered (London, 1824). He also edited and translated John Milton’s De doctrina christiana, which was found in the State Paper office in 1823, and formed the text of Macaulay’s famous essay on Milton.
See the Life, by his son, G. H. Sumner (1876).